Techniques August 2013 by Renaissance Publishing

contents Volume 7, Number 1 August 2013

A Letter from the President

REPORTS 4

Division I Track & Field Division I Cross Country

Division II Track & Field Division II Cross Country

Division III Track & Field Division III Cross Country

High School

FEATURES 8

Mental Toughness The Psychological Skills by Mark Coogan

Staying On Track Recognition of Overtraining Syndrome in Endurance Athletes by Ann Detmer

Teaching Speed Applying Force Quickly by Michael Coonen

The Javelin Basic Javelin Aerodynamics and Flight Characteristics (Part 1) By Andreas V. Maheras, Ph.D.

The Evolving Position Of Director of Track & Field Operations By Andrea Tepe

Updates From the NCAA Eligibility Center by Leigh Ann Kennedy

AWARDS 2013 USTFCCCA Regional Outdoor Coaches & Athletes of the Year

Cover photograph courtesy of Kirby Lee

august 2013

techniques

A Letter From the President Publisher Sam Seemes

t is with great excitement that I am writing my first letter to the USTFCCCA membership as its president. I am honored to be representing the USTFCCCA in this position and look forward to the next two years in office. I have served on the USTFCCCA Board of Directors for the past eight years and I have learned a lot about our organization, our sports, our leaders and our mission of NCAA Track and Field and Cross Country. It is my hope to help guide this organization and all of our divisions and sports to bigger and better opportunities and success. As I write this, it’s early July and I have been on the road recruiting, managing summer camps and trying, like the rest of you, to find a few days of vacation. It is my sincere hope that over the course of my presidency that we see continued growth and development for our sports of track and field and cross country. We need to continue to blend our strengths as coaches, leaders and divisions to make our profession the very best of collegiate sports. In these challenging times, collaboration is our best tool to utilize as we work to continue to move forward. Collaboration with our fellow USTFCCCA member coaches, the NCAA and other leaders within our sports is essential. We need to be willing to think outside the box, take calculated risks and become excited about what we can be. We should not stress over change, but embrace positive change to insure our long-term success. I believe in the leadership of the divisional presidents for our sports and I know their hard work will continue to be the foundation of our total success. I also believe in each member of the USTFCCCA and all that you can do to help grow our sports and become even more successful. Throughout the years, I have learned that our greatest strengths are within us and we need to find ways to continue to utilize our coaches and leaders in bigger and better ways while defining all that we want to be. We can be and should be among the most recognized sports in the collegiate ranks. Let’s work together to get there!! As we quickly approach the start of the school year and the return of our student athletes to campus, I hope you are all refreshed and ready to kick off another great year for you and your programs. I am looking forward to working with our member coaches to make the USTFCCCA the best it can be and more importantly making our sports the very best they can be!

Beth Alford-Sullivan President, USTFCCCA Director of Men’s and Women’s Track and Field and Cross Country at Penn State University bxa10@psu.edu

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Executive Editor Mike Corn Associate Editor Sylvia Kamp MEDIA MANAGER Tom Lewis Membership Services Dave Svoboda Photographer Kirby Lee Editorial Board Tommy Badon,

Boo Schexnayder, Dr. Ralph Vernacchia, Derek Yush, Gary Winckler

Published by Renaissance Publishing LLC 110 Veterans Memorial Blvd., Suite 123, Metairie, LA 70005 (504) 828-1380 www.myneworleans.com

USTFCCCA

National Office 1100 Poydras Street, Suite 1750 New Orleans, LA 70163 Phone: 504-599-8900 Fax: 504-599-8909

Techniques (ISSN 1939-3849) is published quarterly in February, May, August, and November by the U.S. Track & Field and Cross Country Coaches Association. Copyright 2013. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any manner, in whole or in part, without the permission of the publisher. techniques is not responsible for unsolicited manuscripts, photos and artwork even if accompanied by a self-addressed stamped envelope. The opinions expressed in techniques are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the view of the magazines’ managers or owners. Periodical Postage Paid at New Orleans La and Additional Entry Offices. POSTMASTER: Send address changes to: USTFCCCA, PO Box 55969, Metairie, LA 70055-5969. If you would like to advertise your business in techniques, please contact Mike Corn at (504) 599-8900 or mike@ustfccca.org.

NCAA Report

Division l Track & Field and Cross Country

dennis shaver

sean cleary

President, NCAA Division I Track and Field Coaches

President, NCAA Division I CROSS COUNTRY Coaches

ongratulations to all who competed in the exciting NCAA Outdoor Championships hosted by the University of Oregon. The city of Eugene and the fans in attendance witnessed a team race which saw the University of Kansas win the school’s first ever women’s NCAA team title, while Florida and Texas A&M battled through to the last event to share the men’s team title. Your executive committee would like to acknowledge the many coaches who have contributed so much to our sport and retired after the 2013 season. As I write this report, the retiree list includes: Julio Piazza - Lafayette College, Leon Johnson - Northwestern State University of Louisiana, Bubba Thornton - University of Texas at Austin, Ron Alice - University of Southern California, Ed Nuttycomb - University of Wisconsin, Gary Wilson - University of Minnesota, Ron Mann - University of Louisville, Fred LaPlante - University of Michigan, Lynne Anderson - University of Minnesota, Bill Schnier University of Cincinnati I would like to thank Ron Mann for the leadership and efforts he brought to our association as the past president of the NCAA Division I Track and Field Coaches. Now that the 2012-2013 year has come to a close, our focus turns towards the 2013-2014 year. The 2014 NCAA Indoor Championships horizontal and throwing events will be contested as one flight of sixteen competitors as recommended by the executive committee. Another change to the indoor season includes the Track and Field Qualifying Period: Beginning with the 2013-14 season, the NCAA Division I Track and Field Committee will no longer approve final qualifying meets. The window for submitting qualifying marks for the indoor national championships has been changed to midnight on the second Sunday prior to the national championships, with conferences having a submission deadline of one day later (5 p.m. Eastern on Monday). The beginning of the window remains the same. For the 2013-14 season, the qualifying window for indoor track and field is Sunday, Dec. 1, 2013 through Sunday, March 2, 2014 for regular season meets or Monday March 3, 2014 for conference championships only. This clearly states that conference championships may be held on the Monday, March 3, 2014. However, please note that the results submission deadline for a conference meet conducted on Monday, March 3 is 5 p.m. Eastern Time. This year welcomes proposals for changes to the 2014-15 competition rules. The deadline to submit a change is May 1, 2014. I recommend these, and all other proposals, be submitted to the USTFCCCA national office during the first part of September. This will give the Division I Executive Committee time to review and include as proposals for discussion at the annual USTFCCCA Convention. I wish each of you a great summer and look forward to the opportunity to serve the membership year! Dennis Shaver is the Head Men’s and Women’s Track and Field Coach at Louisiana State University. Dennis can be reached at shaver@lsu.edu.

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am reminded of the moment that changed the scope of my life forever. The year was 1984. We were but a few months from the opening ceremonies of the Olympic Games in Los Angeles. Sitting in the stands nearly 2,800 miles away in the Meadowlands Sports Complex, I became mesmerized with what was going on around me. The World Cross Country Championships were being conducted in America for the first time in the event’s history and I could not get enough of it. My coach’s opinion that this event was not all that it could have been, due to the fact that the spectators were not permitted on the infield with the athletes, did little to sway my belief that I was watching the world’s greatest sporting event. One day, one moment in time to determine who the very best of the best is. This is our sport. One gunshot, no politics, one final race to determine our champions. Like many of you, I feel very fortunate to go to work and serve this sport as a career. I am honored to take the reins from Barry Hartwick as the incoming Division I Cross Country President. I would like to thank Barry for his lifelong commitment to our sport and most recently, his leadership as our president. We saw some drastic changes under Barry’s time as president. The NCAA finals now being conducted on the Saturday morning prior to Thanksgiving, having been moved from its traditional Monday spot since 1938, is but one example of how our sport has undergone transformation. It is my intention to continue Barry’s vision to bring more publicity to a greater number of institutions through finalizing a 64 team ranking. Barry and I see eye to eye in that we need to find the best possible way to determine this ranking and will continue to work with the national office to see this come to fruition. Another idea that was seriously considered this year to bring attention to our sport in both a unique and grand fashion was to bring Division I, II and III together in 2014 for the national finals to celebrate the 75th anniversary of our championships. While this was not adopted it is a great example of the outward thinking required to promote our sport and we will continue to pursue this objective as well as other changes. We have some of the finest student athletes in college athletics and must continue to find ways to celebrate their great achievements. Working closely with our new Vice President, Dave Smith of Oklahoma State, I am determined to continue the integrity set forth by my predecessors and ensure that the needs of the entire coaching body are valued and respected.

Sean Cleary is the Head Women’s Track and Field and Cross Country coach at West Virginia University. Sean can be reached at Sean.Cleary@mail.wvu.edu.

NCAA Report

Division ll Track & Field and Cross Country

james reid

marlon brink

President, NCAA Division II TRACK & FIELD Coaches

President, NCAA Division II CROSS COUNTRY Coaches

his is the first of many reports I will be giving you over the next two years, as I begin in August as the President of the Executive Committee for Division II Track and Field. I want to thank you for electing me to this position, and I hope that together we can continue to be an influential voice for track and field in Division II, the NCAA, and the United States. I also want to take an opportunity to thank Steve Guymon for his guidance and direction of this body over the past two years as our president. I enjoy the NCAA Championship meet for many reasons, but one of my favorites, is the opportunity to get to see so many friends and colleagues as we work hard for three days to ensure our athletes have the best opportunity to finish their year on a high note. Once again I was not disappointed, as I had a great opportunity to get caught up on how many of your seasons had progressed, and what the expectations were for those three days in Pueblo. That being said, I would like to say thank you to all those involved in making the championships a big success at CSU-Pueblo. Congratulations to all the athletes and coaches that were named regional “Athlete of the Year” and “Coach of the Year.” A big congratulations goes out to Jermaine Johns-St. Augustine’s; Danielle Williams-Johnson C. Smith; J Patrick Smith-Chico; Sam Lockhart-Grand Valley for being named National Athletes of the Year and George Williams-St. Augustine’s and Lennox Graham-Johnson C. Smith for being named National Coaches of the Year. I can’t finish the wrap-up without congratulating George Williams and his St. Augustine’s Falcons for their Men’s Team Championship, and Charles Ryan and his Urban Knights for their Women’s Team Championship. Great job! As you are wrapping up the 2012-2013 year, and already working on 2013-2014, I want to encourage you to begin thinking about any subjects that the Executive Committee needs to address as proposals for the convention this December. The executive committee had its summer conference call and there were a few topics discussed that could potentially be proposals by the December convention. Among those were a couple that dealt with heating, seeding and advancement at the outdoor championships, and another was the possibility of a multiple year site for the indoor championships in the future. As a member of the USTFCCCA, if you have topics that you feel need to be discussed, then please contact your conference representative of the Executive Committee, or you may contact me directly. The Executive Committee for Track and Field will have several conference calls throughout the fall, and they will present a great opportunity for voices to be heard on topics prior to the convention in December. Best wishes to everyone as we head into another year.

James Reid is the Head Track and Field Coach and Assistant Athletic Director at Angelo State University. He can be reached at james.reid@angelo.edu.

reetings as you get ready to start your 2013 cross country season! The end of the summer and the start of the fall is always an exciting time of year with the anticipation of new athletes on our teams and the opportunity to improve on past performances. This is my final column as the USTFCCCA DII Cross Country President and also an exciting time for me. I am excited to pass the baton to my colleague Scott Lorek (Northwest Missouri State University) who is taking over my position. I have great confidence that he will lead our organization with great pride and vision as to what will help make us even better down the road. In addition, we will have Mark Misch (University of ColoradoColorado Springs) serving as 1st Vice President; Lisa Klingshirn (University of Findlay) serving as 2nd Vice President; and Jim Vahrenkamp (Queens University) serving as Secretary. I am certain that this group will work well together and be a strong voice for our organization. If you have not been involved with USTFCCCA before, I strongly encourage you to do so. Just speaking from my own experience, there is really no better way to meet new coaches that you otherwise might not come in contact with and also to get a real feel for what is going on in our sport. There are many ways to get involved – conference reps are always changing; cross country poll raters are always needed; and members to serve on committees are also in demand. If you volunteer, I can assure you there is some way you can get involved and help our organization! You should have received information regarding the 2013 DII Cross Country Preseason Polls. You should have the formal request and team outlook form sent to you by your regional poll rater. Please take the time to submit your information to your region rater with as much information as possible. I believe the increased field size at the national meet last year was very exciting. I am sure that as more teams get to the national meet and realize what an achievement it is and the caliber of the competition, we will see even greater enthusiasm and competition among our teams to get there. Our national meet will return to Spokane, Wash., Nov. 23, where it was held in 2011. Finally, it is not too early to start thinking about booking your room and flight to the 2013 USTFCCCA Convention Dec. 16 – 19 in Orlando, Fla. Information is posted on the USTFCCCA website. If you have a proposal that you would like to submit, you must do so by Nov. 1 to either Scott Lorek or Sylvia Kamp at the National Office. Good luck in the upcoming cross country season!

Marlon Brink is Head Men’s and Women’s Track and Field and Cross Country coach at Wayne State College. Marlon can be reached at mabrink1@wsc.edu.

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NCAA Report

Division llI Track & Field and Cross Country

kari kluckhohn

KATHY LANESE

President, NCAA Division III TRACK & FIELD Coaches

President, NCAA Division III cross country Coaches

Kari Kluckhohn is the Head Women’s Track and Field Coach at North Central College. She can be reached at kskluckhohn@noctrl.edu.

Kathy Lanese is the Head Men’s and Women’s Cross Country Coach at Case Western Reserve University. Kathy can be reached at krl3@case.edu.

nother track and field season is in the books! It ended on a high note at the National Championships with the University of Wisconsin-La Crosse hosting a top-notch event. The facilities were excellent, the competition outstanding. Congratulations to the UWL men’s team for pulling out the win in the final events and Wartburg College women for defending its title in a hotly-contested meet. The USTFCCCA has been keeping its nose to the grindstone this spring with several conference calls. The NCAA Division III Track and Field Committee accepted our formal proposal from the 2012 convention regarding indoor championship field expansion. As a reminder, we voted for the following: • Add the 200 meters and 3000 meters • Raise women’s individual event numbers to 17 • Raise men’s individual event numbers to 15 In addition, the NCAA Division III Track and Field Committee elected to add two relay teams per event in the DMR and 4 x 4. This would increase that field from 10 to 12. The NCAA Championship Committee approved the entire proposal this spring. This will all go into effect for the 2014 indoor season. This is a major step forward for our student athletes. The NCAA Division III TF Committee asked for our executive committee’s feedback regarding semifinals and finals in both relays. The following was our outcome: • DMR: The vote was unanimous for the DMR to continue to be contested as a one section final at the end of day one. • 4 x 400: After discussion on two conference calls, the vote was deadlocked regarding a Saturday final-only 4 x 4 or a Friday 4 x 4 semifinal. We did, however, have unanimous support that if a final only was contested for the 4 x 400, a three section timed final with four teams per section be contested on day two. Sam sent a formal letter to the NCAA with our position and encouraged the Track and Field Committee to make their expert decision for 2014. We opted to have more input and discussion from our coaching body at the USTFCCCA convention this December that would impact the 2015 Indoor Championships. Finally, please note as you finalize your competition schedules for the 2014 season, the NCAA Division III Indoor Championships will be hosted by Nebraska Wesleyan March 14-15, and the Outdoor Championships will be hosted by Ohio Wesleyan May 22-24. Summer is a time to recharge ourselves and refocus on what is important: our families. I remember listening to Steve Johnson from Wartburg on a panel at the USTFCCCA convention several years ago. He stated, “Never get too busy raising everyone else’s children that you forget to raise your own.” Hopefully you spent quality time with those important to you.

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t seems like yesterday I distributed summer cross country training plans to my teams and the national track and field championships came to a close. I suddenly became unconstrained by the day to day demands of the office flow and interruptions and continual team responsibilities during the course of the seasons but as I write this report, I realize that in a short stretch, my team will be reporting back to preseason camp and the cycle will continue to spin in a similar motion for the year. As I approach the new academic and competitive year I reflect on the past year and I have appreciation for this summer interval that allows me time to recharge, refocus and understand that this time is the basis of my foundation that allows me to balance multiple tasks and operate at full speed during the academic year. I establish and maintain professional relationships in full force throughout the academic year but unfortunately have difficulty squeezing in friends and extended family activities in a quality manner. Summer is my opportunity to focus on the importance of reconnecting with family and friends and realizing that they are my backbone that allows me to have success during the school year. It is a time when I realize that true medicine for recharging is laughter and forced relaxation; allowing myself to spend a weekend with “the girls,” enjoy a party or a picnic with siblings, grandmothers, aunts, uncles, cousins and beyond. It is my time to make friends with a good book outside of running and technical journals, walk in the woods without feeling the need to run through them or to sit by the shore instead of waving to it from a team bus and to give back or volunteer to a group of my choosing. Finally, summer is also a time to reevaluate my success and failures and make plans, changes and projections for the year ahead. I reflect on the hard working group of the USTFCCCA knowing that we will all be in full motion soon in our competitive seasons, convention will be facing us for another gathering and time of professional development and before we know it spring season will be before us. So, if you have not yet, find at least a little time to reflect on what is important to you outside of work and take the time to plan a summer recharge…’Tis the season!

HIGH SCHOOL REPORT Don helberg Head Boys Track Coach Wheaton North High School Wheaton, IL

opefully your outdoor season ended on a positive note and you’ve had some time to pause and reflect back on that season. Some questions that should be addressed include what parts of your training programs worked so well that you definitely want to keep for next year, and what parts need improvement through revision or even completely rewriting. Now is the time to make those changes while everything is fresh in your mind and you have a few moments to work on those programs before the new school year gets going. What makes our sport so great are the many opportunities for both novice and experienced coaches to get information about the techniques and best practices of others who have had success, such as the USTFCCCA Track and Field Academy. The Track and Field Academy is a series of certification granting courses that range from the more general Track and Field Technical Coaching (TFTC) course to the more specific Specialist Certification Courses in Sprints, Hurdles, Relays, Endurance, Jumps, Throws and Combined Events. While most of these courses of the TFA are taught “live and in person”, the TFTC course is now available online. Check the USTFCCCA website for Track and Field Academy course locations and dates as well as a complete catalog of the courses being offered. Track and field is always changing and evolving in terms of training cycles and techniques. I have been coaching for 29 years and my whole training program has dramatically changed since I started, mostly due to the information I have learned at the USTFCCCA annual convention, state clinic presentations, and talking with other experienced coaches. I encourage you to challenge yourself and your staff to TRY something different to LEARN something new. I heard a great quote and cannot remember the initial source: “If you want different results, you have to do something different.” Even veteran coaches can run into trouble when they think they know it all or know enough. As I get older (and get more experienced!), I realize how much I don’t know and how much I still need to learn. We are good demonstrators of inertia (resistance to change). I still remember the first time I changed my training program; I was very nervous about screwing up a good thing, but I trusted my resources, double checked the information received and went for it. That season was trying at times as I moved through uncharted territories and second guessed my decision to make changes. However, the results were better than I expected, so each year I continue to tweak my program. Good luck with the changes you decide to make to your programs.

Don Helberg is the chair of the National Senate of High School Track Coaches Associations and an at-large member of the USTFCCCA Board of Directors. Don can be reached at Donald. Helberg@cusd200.org

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Mental Toughness The Psychological Skills By mark coogan 8

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coach a college cross country and track team and I have noticed over the years that there are always a few individuals on the team that have the physical attributes that should make them All-American track athletes. They have all of the physical gifts needed to be a great runner. Many of these athletes never reach their athletic potential. If there is no physical reason why they are not reaching their potential, then their lack of success must be attributable to something else. I believe and research supports that their inability to achieve their athletic potential stems from their psychological side.

Purpose Psychological characteristics such as mental toughness, goal setting, imagery, realistic performance evaluation and commitment have been shown to be the difference between a medal winner in the Olympics and non-medal winners (Abbot and Collins, 2003). Psychology plays an essential role in the ability of individuals to fulfill their athletic potential. This article will focus on mental toughness. Mental toughness is a broad subject that can be researched in many different ways. I will focus on what I believe are the most important components of mental toughness: the attributes that make up the belief system of a mentally tough athlete and the most important psychological skills needed for mental toughness.

Definition of Mental Toughness Mental toughness is having the natural or developed psychological edge that enables you to normally cope better than your opponents with the many demands (competition, training, lifestyle) that sport places on a performer and, specifically, to be more consistent and better than your opponents in remaining determined, focused, confident and in control under pressure (Jones et al., 2002). Mentally tough competitors also have the unique ability to exert control over the varying demands placed upon them in training and their personal life.

Review of Research Literature Excelling at sport is difficult. The majority of individuals who participate in a sport never reach the elite level. Athletic talent is multidimensional as it combines a combination of anthropometric, physical and psychological factors. Athletes can compensate for disadvantages in one component of talent with strengths in another. Athletic talent moves beyond the physical and having strong psychological skills such as good attitude and mental preparation are extremely important in the conversion of potential to achievement (Abbot and Collins, 2004). The proper mindset, i.e., having the right mental attitude, is needed to excel at any sport. All top-level athletes have a mental toughness in them. According to Jones, Hanton and Connaughton (2007) there are four attributes that make up the belief system of mentally tough performers. The four beliefs are: (1) Having an unshakable self-belief to achieve goals; (2) Having an inner arrogance; (3) Having a belief that you can get over any obstacle; (4) Having a belief that your desire will ultimately result in fulfilling your potential.

Unshakable Self-Belief Mentally tough athletes have developed an unshakable

self-belief that they have qualities and abilities greater than opponents. The athlete has a total awareness and a total self-belief learned from years of deliberate practice. The athlete knows what it took to get to the elite level and knows how to perform at that level (Thelwell et al., 2005). Research states that it takes a long time for a real belief in an athlete to build. The more the athletes demonstrated their abilities to overcome specific challenges and reach certain targets, the more it raised their self-belief and confidence. The athletes learned that they could achieve their goals. This belief is built on a very solid foundation; it’s not about hoping and wishing, it’s about knowing as a result of what the athletes have done (Jones, Hanton and Connaughton, 2007). In Thelwell’s research on elite soccer players, having total self-belief at all times that they will achieve success was ranked as the most important attribute an athlete can have (Thelwell et al., 2005). When I lived in Boulder, Colo., and was training for the Olympic Games, I would come in contact with elite track and field coaches from across the globe. I remember one particular conversation with a South African Olympic coach named Bobby McGee about underperforming in races. The conversation drifted to how beliefs and expectations influence performance. We agreed that most people under-perform in races because of not having that needed unshakable belief in performance. Recently, I came across an article in a marathon journal that quoted McGee on the way runners perform. McGee again emphasized that most people under-perform in races and that he believes only 9 percent of athletes perform up to their potential. These underperforming runners haven’t completed the mental component of race training; they don’t believe they will perform well. McGee feels they are fearful of being too uncomfortable during the race and they’re fearful of falling short of their race goal. As a result, they psych themselves out of a good performance. “There’s a weight of expectation. People become attached to a certain outcome in a race. They run with a brick in their back pocket and end up putting too much stress on themselves. It’s like carrying around a piece of that wall with you, instead of leaving it “crumbled on the side of the road” (Farb, S., 2008). Over the course of McGee’s coaching career, he has seen a mental trend: People who have been ill or injured and miss training might get to a race maybe 85 to 90 percent prepared to perform up to their potential. They don’t expect to do well. McGee says that in most cases they do exceptionally well. Then they go away, train hard, have expectations for the next race, and don’t do well. McGee states it’s the weight of expectation without complementary training for the brain that undermines many athletes along the way (Farb, S., 2008). These runners lack the self-belief to be elite. I witness the same phenomenon in my collegiate coaching. Athletes can have the physical talent to perform well, to be an All-American, but they lack the unshakable belief that it takes to be a champion.

Inner Arrogance The mentally tough athlete will have an inner arrogance that helps contribute to the belief that success is achievable. These athletes can look at their talents and truly know that they have what it takes to achieve athletically at the highest levels. They believe that when they set their minds to something they will accomplish it. One elite athlete august 2013

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mental toughness describes it as, “… that inner arrogance, that bit of an attitude towards things that I set my mind to. It is never ever giving up and knowing that if I just persevere I know that I am going to be able to do it. I believe I will be able to do it” (Jones, Hanton and Connaughton, 2007). An example of a team that did not have that inner arrogance was the 1988 Olympic Wrestling Team, who did not have their best performances at the Olympics. The team was favored to win many medals but it had a lackluster performance at the games. In interviews after the Olympics the wrestlers felt that they experienced negative feelings and irrelevant and irregular patterns of thought which lead to disappointing results (Gould et al., 1999). They did not have the inner arrogance because of negative feelings to perform up to expectations.

Getting Over Obstacles

Belief That Desire Will Ultimately Result In Fulfilled Potential The fourth attribute describes how the belief in their desire (hunger) ultimately results in mentally tough performers’ fulfilling their potential. In Gould, Guinan, Greenleaf, et al. (1999), the authors looked at a team that won a gold medal in the 1996 Summer Olympics. The team embraced the Olympic pressure. The team had an attitude that that they were going to win it all. There was no way they were not going to win the gold medal. The athletes viewed this attribute as having the belief that one can actually be that good, that one can actually achieve their goal and this belief enabled them to truly know what they can realistically achieve. Other teams at the 1996 Olympics were not as successful because they did not ultimately believe they could win the gold medal. The reason the athletes gave for not getting a medal included ignoring mental preparation. There was too much emphasis placed on physical conditioning and the athletes were overtrained and could not have the desire to mentally prepare to win the competition (Gould, Guinan, Greenleaf, et al., 1999).

Section II – Psychological Skills of Mentally Tough Athletes In recent years an increasing number of studies have tried to investigate the effects of mental skills on athletic performance. Researchers have often focused on four mental skills: goal setting techniques, relaxation techniques, imagery techniques and self-talk. While mental toughness is a rare attribute in an athlete, it can be developed through practicing these four key psychological techniques, which are all interrelated and, in some cases, difficult to separate. Studies on mental skills have included endurance running, triathlons, soccer and cricket. Psychological characteristics such as goal setting, realistic performance evalu10

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The mentally tough athlete will be able to fight through any obstacle that may be put in his or her way. It does not matter what the obstacle is; the mentally tough athlete will invariably overcome such problems. It is knowing how you are going to punch through it and then learning from that experience. Thelwell, Weston and Greenlees (2005) stated in their study on defining and understanding mental toughness in soccer that players claimed that to be mentally tough you should always cope better than your opponents with the specific demands of the game rather than generally cope better. This is similar to the research of Jones et al. (2002) which also regarded self-belief, knowing you could get over any obstacle as being one of the most important psychological attributes an athlete should have. ation, imagery, relaxation and commitment have been identified as factors that differentiate medal winners from non-medal winners. According to Abbot and Collins, these psychological skills are highly amenable to specialized training as opposed to personality traits, which are, to a greater extent, inherited. Physical factors have been found to discriminate between athletes in different sports, only psychological factors are able to explain the performances of athletes who are looking to maintain their success. Psychological skills are not a genetic gift; they can be taught.

Goal Setting A goal can be described as the object, aim or endpoint of an action, or what an individual describes as an accomplishment being sought. Goal setting is a widely used and powerful motivational technique for the enhancement of performance and productivity in sport, business and personal life. Goal setting can improve long-term motivation by eliciting commitment, perseverance, dedication and effort. Goals provide focus and direction to one’s activities. There is a consensus in goal setting research that goals are the most effective performance enhancement technique available at this time. The motivation of athletes to perform to their potential or to sustain maximum effort in order to complete a task successfully has always been a source of frustration for coaches. Motivation comes from within the individual and cannot be observed directly. Since coaches will not be able to alter the athletes’ personality structures, a coach must use certain motivational strategies to encourage improvement and aid his or her athletes in reaching their optimum performance levels. Goal setting is an optimal motivational technique that can enhance

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research has suggested a functional equivalence between the two activities. Certain parts of the brain show a pattern of activity during imagery similar to that during performance. Cumming and Hall also state that there is evidence that respiratory indices such as heart rate, which anticipate muscular activity, are also increased during imagery. They found that a significant and positive relationship existed between the dimensions of relevance and concentration. The higher the level of success by an athlete the more use of imagery that takes place. A national class athlete will spend more time each week on mental imagery than a recreational athlete. A coach could explain the importance of imagery to less skilled athletes. Elite athletes tend to find imagery highly relevant to improving their performance, requiring a great deal of concentration and being enjoyable to perform. Imagery can lead to a more positive interpretation of an upcoming athletic situation. If an athlete is in a positive emotional state then they should perform better and have more positive outcomes. An example given by Jones (2003) is about a climber. After using imagery the climber, rather than feeling anxious prior to a difficult ascent, experiences excitement in that he now believes that he has the skill to climb well and he will indeed climb well. An example in running would be using imagery to run through a race in your head. When you go through your strategy a few times then there is a greater chance you will stick to your race plan once the going gets tough. Mentally tough athletes believe imagery is highly relevant for improving performance.

Relaxation

performance. According to Dension and Winslade (2006), goal setting as a motivational tool that allows the athlete to appreciate that achievement is a do-it-yourself process, that motivation is an event that transpires within the individual rather than in interaction with others; and that goal setting is the greatest motivational tool available to them. Goals tend to increase individual task performance by raising the individualâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s self efficacy, i.e., the belief that they can perform a certain task. Individuals with higher self efficacy set higher personal goals.

Imagery Athletes use imagery in both practice and in competition, though more frequently for competition then for training (Munroe et al., 2000). Athletes use imagery to help themselves improve performance of a particular skill, for psyching themselves up, and to stay focused on the task at hand. It is important for the imagery to be positive and not negative. Munroe talks about a dart throwing study in which participants in the positive imagery group were asked to imagine the dart landing near the center of the target and those in the negative imagery group to imagine a very poor performance with the dart hitting the edge of the board. Participants in the positive group improved their performances by 28 percent while the negative group deteriorated by an average of 3 percent. Positive imagery is necessary for an elite athlete do well. According to Cumming and Hall (2002), mental imagery should be treated similarly to physical practice given that 12

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When an athlete is learning a new task there is typically a high level of arousal. There is extensive cortical activity. The athlete usually tries too hard not to make a mistake. Once the athlete goes over their optimal level of arousal their performance will suffer (Sinclair and Sinclair, 1994). Sinclair uses the example of learning a lay-up shot in basketball. When first learning the skill, the ball is often thrown-up off the backboard and not laid-up softly. The ball is thrown because the athlete is too tense because this is a new situation. Another example that I have seen in distance running is learning the steeplechase. The 3000 meter steeplechase takes runners out of their optimal level of arousal when they are first learning the event. The runners have a very hard time staying relaxed when running over hurdles and a water jump. There is considerably more tension when they are faced with getting over a 36-inch barrier that will not move if they hit it. Once a runner learns to relax when hurdling they become more efficient and use less energy both mentally and physically. There is an optimal amount arousal needed to steeplechase and if they are too aroused they will perform sub-optimally. Patrick and Hrycaiko (1998) stated that relaxation involved learning a three-step approach. The first step required the participants to practice progressive muscle relaxation training. The second focused on centering while stretching before competition. The final step consisted of practicing techniques related to relaxing during competition. The participants monitored their tension levels before and after relaxation sessions (Patrick and Hrycaiko, 1998). Participants were at more of an optimal level to compete when they had learned the relaxation techniques.

mental toughness Self-Talk A way to maintain self-confidence, which is needed to be mentally tough, is through positive self-talk. Positive self-talk is nearly a universal practice among champions. Athletes who have the ability to focus on one’s strength rather than on opponents’ strengths can generate a sense of self-control. Self-talk can be broken down into three types; motivational (desire to achieve), mastery based (to enhance confidence), and instructional (reaffirming competition goals, using other mental skills). If a runner is doing intervals and getting tired, a good coach may ask the athlete what they are thinking on the rest period between intervals. If he or she gets a negative response from the athlete then coach will know that negative self-talk is occurring and that the athlete needs to learn positive self-talk to enhance confidence. Thelwell and Greenlees (2003) explained that using motivational self-talk helped endurance athletes maintain and increase their drive to do well. It helped them get psyched up and relaxed for a good performance. When an athlete had mastered self-talk there were high levels of focus, self-confidence and an ability to cope in difficult situations. They could focus on task-relevant factors not task-irrelevant factors. Positive self-talk will be found in all mentally tough athletes.

Section III – Summary and Conclusion High levels of motivation and unusual talent are the two influences that lead to high attainment. The level of an individual’s motivation will determine the frequency and persistence of their interactions with the relevant environment and thereby will influence their development (Ericison et al., 1993). This paper looked at what scientific research believes it takes to be a mentally tough athlete. It was found that to be mentally tough, athletes have four essential traits: (1) An unshakable self-belief to achieve goals; (2) An inner arrogance; (3) A belief that they can get over any obstacle; (4) A belief that their desire will ultimately result in fulfilling their potential. Without these beliefs it is difficult to reach full potential in a sport. The way to establish these beliefs is difficult but they can be attained by practicing key psychological skills which include goal setting, imagery, relaxation and self-talk. The mentally tough athlete will be persistent and will find the way to make most out of his or her physical and psychological talents. The mentally tough athlete will achieve successes on his or her respective athletic playing field.

References Abbott, A., & Collins, D. (2004). Eliminating the dichotomy between theory and practice in talent identification and development: considering the role of psychology. Journal of Sports Sciences, 22(5), 395-408. Retrieved from SPORTDiscus with Full Text database. Cumming, J., & Hall, C. (2002). Deliberate imagery practice: the development of imagery skills in competitive athletes. / Utilisation deliberee de la representation mentale: developpement de l ‘ imagerie chez des athletes de haut niveau. Journal of Sports Sciences, 20(2), 137-145. Retrieved from SPORTDiscus with Full Text database. Dension, J., & Winslade, J., (2006). Understanding Problematic Sporting Stories: Narrative Therapy and Applied sport Psychology. Sporting Stories-Junctures, 99-105. De Swardt, A. (2008). Top Elite Performance. Track Coach,

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(184), 5885-5887. Retrieved from SPORTDiscus with Full Text database. Ericsson, K.A., Krampe,R.T., & Tesch-Romer, C. (1993) The Role of deliberate practice in the acquisition of expert performance. Psychological Review, 100, 363-406. Farb, S. (2008). Endurance Training for the Mind. Marathon & Beyond, 12(2), 48-54. Retrieved from SPORTDiscus with Full Text database. Fox, A. (2008). FEAR OF FAILURE IN THE CONTEXT OF COMPETITIVE SPORT. Soccer Journal, 53(7), 24-28. Retrieved from SPORTDiscus with Full Text database. Gregg, M., Hall, C., & Hanton, S. (2007). Perceived Effectiveness of Heptathletes’ Mental Imagery. Journal of Sport Behavior, 30(4), 398-414. Retrieved from SPORTDiscus with Full Text database. Jones, G., Hanton, S., & Connaughton, D. (2002). What is this thing called mental toughness? An investigation of elite sport performers. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 14, 205-218. Partick, T., & Hrycaiko, D. (998). Effects of a mental training package on an endurance performance. / Effets d’un entrainement mental sur la performance en endurance. Sport Psychologist, 12(3), 283-299. Retrieved from SPORTDiscus with Full Text database. Thelwell, R., Weston, N., & Greenlees, I. (2005). Defining and Understanding Mental Toughness within Soccer. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 17(4), 326-332. Retrieved from SPORTDiscus with Full Text database. Thelwell, R., & Greenlees, I. (2003). Developing competitive endurance performance using mental skills training. Sport Psychologist, 17(3), 318-337. Retrieved from SPORTDiscus with Full Text database. Thelwell, R., Weston, N., Greenlees, I., & Hutchings, N. (2008). A Qualitative Exploration of Psychological-Skills Use in Coaches. Sport Psychologist, 22(1), 38-53. Retrieved from SPORTDiscus with Full Text database. Turner, S. (2007). How to use the Power of your Mind to Improve your Athletics. Modern Athlete & Coach, 45(1), 26. Retrieved from SPORTDiscus with Full Text database. Sinclair, G., & Sinclair, D. (1994). Developing Reflective Performers by Integrating Mental Management Skills With the Learning Process. Sport Psychologist, 8(1), 13-27. Retrieved from SPORTDiscus with Full Text database. Vaeyens, R., Lenoir, M., Williams, A., & Philippaerts, R. (2008). Talent Identification and Development Programmes in Sport: Current Models and Future Directions. Sports Medicine, 38(9), 703. Retrieved from SPORTDiscus with Full Text database. Vernacchia, R. (2007). Psychological Restoration: Assessing Under recovery And Underperforming In Track And Field Athletes. Track Coach, (179), 5705-5712. Retrieved from SPORTDiscus with Full Text database. Zourbanos, N., Hatzigeorgiadis, A., & Theodorakis, Y. (2007). A Preliminary Investigation of the Relationship Between Athletes’ Self-Talk and Coaches’ Behaviour and Statements. International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching, 2(1), 57-66. Retrieved from SPORTDiscus with Full Text database.

BIO Mark Coogan is the Head Women’s Cross Country coach and Distance coach at Dartmouth College. Coogan was a member of the U.S. Olympic team in 1996 competing in the marathon.

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Staying on Track Recognition of Overtraining Syndrome in Endurance Athletes by ann detmer 16

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or the endurance athlete,the management of training load and recovery is a concept that is not always optimized. In fact it is a paradox that for many athletes to be successful they need to â&#x20AC;&#x153;push the envelope.â&#x20AC;? When this idea is taken too far performance may suffer and produce a host of other physiological and psychological consequences. Overtraining Syndrome (OTS) has been well documented in scientific and sports research, however, the pathophysiology is inconclusive and the ability to diagnose athletes with OTS is unclear. What is clear is the severity of the condition: persistent fatigue and reduced aerobic capacity that may take weeks to months for an athlete to fully recover (in some unfortunate cases the athlete may never recover). However, there is much to be gained by understanding the training-adaptation process and knowing the signs and symptoms of OTS. The better-informed athlete and coach are able to recognize these signs and symptoms and prevent OTS.

Definitions A description of successful training is the introduction of a stimulus that causes a disturbance in the body’s homeostasis, followed by a period of regeneration and adaptation to that exercise. Therefore, it is not the stimulus that supplies the improvement in performance but the stimulus followed by a period for regeneration. Successful training must involve overload but also must avoid the combination of excessive overload with inadequate recovery (16). The phases of training are often viewed as a continuum and range from undertraining, the period between competitive seasons or during active rest to overtraining which results in various maladaptations, a decrease in work capacity, and performance (1,7,16). There is a lack of consistent terminology in the study of overtraining, and for this reason, it is important to clarify the vocabulary used throughout the rest of this article. This terminology is based from work by Halson and Jeukendrup and compiled by Meeusen et al. Overtraining (OT) is an accumulation of training and/or nontraining stress resulting in long-term decrement in performance capacity with or without related physiological and psychological signs and symptoms of maladaptation in which restoration of performance capacity may take several weeks or months (7,16). Overreaching (OR) is an accumulation of training and/or non-training stress resulting in short-term decrement in performance capacity with or without related physiological and psychological signs and symptoms of maladaptation in which restoration of performance capacity may take from several days to several weeks (7,16). It should be noted that OT and OR are considered the process (the “verbs”) and the following are definitions of the outcomes: Functional Overreaching (FOR) occurs when OR is employed by an athlete who intensifies training and undergoes a temporary performance decrement followed by improved performance. This is in contrast to Non-Functional Overreaching (NFOR), which leads to a stagnation or decrease in performance that will not resume for several weeks or months (16). Overtraining Syndrome (OTS) is the most extreme outcome produced by excessive training overload and/or non-training stresses. Two additional words are described to supplement the purpose of recognizing the early signs and symptoms of OTS in athletes respective to training programs and performance. Raglin and Morgan introduced the following terms in their extensive research on collegiate swimmers: Staleness is a state where an athlete is unable to train at customary levels and suffers a persistent decrement in performance. Distress is defined as an athlete experiencing one or more signs or symptoms of OT, which serves as an indicator for staleness if recovery remains inadequate (18,21).

Causes of Overtraining Syndrome There are many proposed hypotheses in the scientific literature on the causes of OTS. Kirwan and colleagues studied the effect of inadequate carbohydrate replacement following repeated days of intense exercise and observed decreased VO2max, decreased running economy, and increased ratings of perceived effort (12). This theory, deemed the glycogen hypothesis, suggests general fatigue and the feeling of “heavy legs” are due to reduced muscle glycogen (12,22). Several hypotheses suggest disruptions in the hypothalamic pituitary axis cause a cascade of hormonal responses associated with OTS (2,9,10,13,24). Additionally, the glutamine hypothesis describes immune-related responses linked with OTS to be caused by reduced levels of plasma glutamine, an essential amino acid in immune function (25). The pathophysiology of OTS is unknown, and these are only a few of the existing hypotheses. OTS remains an elusive topic because signs and symptoms vary

from one individual to the next and some “markers” of OTS have inconsistent results in various studies. Furthermore, OTS is difficult to diagnose concretely and not enough studies show how it affects performance directly. The following sections will address observable responses that may indicate OTS or the extent to which an athlete is OR. Physiological responses will also be discussed, however, these measures are more difficult to quantify without the necessary laboratory equipment or expertise in testing. If there is persistent occurrence of these signs and symptoms accompanied with an inability to train or perform at their baseline levels (distress) it is recommended that training load be reduced and/or recovery be enhanced to prevent staleness or the more serious OTS.

Observable Responses The most basic of observable symptoms of OR is a decline in performance despite an increase in training load. This will usually capture the eye of a coach, however, it needn’t be the first sign. Ideally, if these performance drops can be avoided, an athlete can experience less breaks in momentum and leave less to question about what is achievable on a consistent basis. In general, one of the first observable signs of OR is a change in mood (18,21,22). Although exercise promotes positive mental health on the whole, some types of training are known to have detrimental psychological effects (21). Periods of OT have been associated with worsened mood; furthermore there is a relationship between increasing training load and worsening mood, and when training was reduced, mood improved (18,21). Another observable sign is constant fatigue. The mechanism behind chronic fatigue in athletes is very similar to the mechanism behind mood disturbance. Lucille Smith suggests in her work that repeated tissue trauma results in elevated blood levels of proinflammatory cytokines that communicate with cells in the brain and induce a behavior change that is more appropriate for a sick or injured person in the body’s attempt to recover (22). This can explain an array of mood and behavioral changes seen in OTS such as: depression, changes in sleep patterns, reduced appetite, difficulty concentrating, easily distracted, and decreased self-esteem (22). Cytokines may also affect another area of the brain, the hippocampus, which could disrupt memory and learning. Besides impaired academic performance, other observable information processing skills can be affected including loss of coordination, difficulty concentrating, decreased ability to deal with large amounts of information, and reduced capacity to correct technical faults (22). One final observable sign of OTS that should be mentioned is injury. Intense exercise can lead to muscle fiber damage with indicators such as soreness, edema, and protein release into plasma (5). If damage continues a muscle injury may result from continued breakdown of tissue and inadequate means for repair. Excessive tissue damage can lead to overuse injuries, pain, loss of function, and changes in biomechanics affecting economy and VO2max. If that isn’t enough, since the immune system has to redirect its’ efforts to heal the injury, the injured athlete is more susceptible to illness, infections, allergies, headaches, and gastrointestinal disturbances (22).

Physiological Responses Heart Rate Variability (HRV) has been extensively researched in the area of OTS. The theory behind this response is that intensified training results in altered autonomic cardiovascular activity towards parasympathetic inhibition and sympathetic activation (3). It has been proposed that HRV monitoring is a suitable means to detect autonomic changes due to abrupt increases in training amount and be used as a marker to detect OTS (3). However, several studies august 2013

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staying on track have shown no change in HRV among overtrained athletes (4, 8), so HRV is not recommended as the sole marker for OT. Other studies have measured changes in peak oxygen uptake (VO2peak) and blood lactate concentrations. Snyder and Jeukendrup examined elite cyclists and reported a reduction in VO2peak and decreased blood lactate concentrations relative to ratings of perceived exertion in OR athletes (23). Consequently total maximal workload was also significantly decreased when the athlete was OR. As previously described, diminished muscle glycogen levels for several days can serve as an indicator of the OR or OT (12). However, muscle biopsies, which are the means of this measurement, are invasive and not realistic for real-life use. Perhaps being alert to persistent complaints of “heavy legs” is a reasonable enough substitute to assume the athlete may be experiencing the symptoms of reduced muscle glycogen. Other studies have questioned whether excessive exerciseinduced inflammation can cause symptoms of OTS. The body’s response to tissue damage is up-regulation of acute inflammation, and the production of new acute-phase proteins due to altered liver functioning (22). Examples of acute-phase proteins include plasma DNA, creatine kinase (CK), and C-reactive protein (CRP). Fatouros et al. studied athletes for 3 weeks while increasing intensity and found measured plasma DNA levels to markedly increase, CRP levels to increase 400 percent, and CK levels increase as well (5). Hormonal responses characterize yet another area in OTS. Hormones play a role in redistributing metabolic fuels, maintaining blood glucose, and enhancing the responsiveness of the cardiovascular system. Repeated exposure to stress may lead to altered responsiveness to sub-increased or decreased neurotransmitter response and receptor function (1). Uusitalo studied the hormonal responses in female endurance athletes and found decreased sympathoadrenal and/or adrenocortical activity (or exhaustion of the adrenal gland) with heavy training- induced stress (24). Meeusen et al. (2008) found increased concentrations of cortisol, ACTH, and prolactin in athletes with OTS. Furthermore, this study used a twobout exercise protocol and found ACTH and prolactin reactions in the second exercise bout were much higher in athletes considered to be NFOR compared with OTS (15). This is an intriguing finding because this protocol could be a useful tool in diagnosing NFOR and OTS. Additionally, researchers are also exploring the lesser-referenced hormone levels, such as leptin, adiponectin, and ghrelin in endurance athletes (10,16). Although hormonal responses appear to be strong in OTS, there are numerous problems with collecting hormonal data and controlling for various factors that may interfere with results (6,16).

Recommendations for Recognizing and Preventing OTS It is apparent that diagnosing OTS is a task even researchers are struggling with. There is an abundant search to find the magical “marker” for OTS, but testing has its limitations and may not reflect OTS in all cases (6). Why then, would we expect athletes or coaches to diagnose OTS or distinguish OR from OT? As athletes and coaches we should shift our attention away from trying to label the condition and focus on managing signs and symptoms of training stress with recovery to avoid NFOR and OTS. This can be aided by monitoring performance, keeping meticulous records of training and competition, increasing training load gradually, and being mindful of psychological stress which may be additive to the physical stress of training (22). Furthermore, understanding physiological responses in OTS is excellent knowledge to have if 18

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you are invested in the sport, but it is unrealistic, time costly, and expensive to test for these responses in every-day life.

Practical Solutions for Recognizing and Preventing OTS If there is still a yearning for more concrete information on the training status of an individual, there are a few inexpensive and non-invasive ways for that to be quantified. The Profile of Mood States (POMS), developed by Raglin and Morgan in an attempt to identify athletes at risk of training-induced distress, has become a popular reference and resource for OTS and the field of sports psychology (11). In their assessment, POMS resulted in a mean prediction rate for identifying distressed swimmers of 93.9 percent men and 100 percent for women; results were also similar among collegiate track and field athletes (21). Seven items within POMS were identified as predictor variables and had an average accuracy of 69.1 percent (37 percent above the chance rate of prediction). The findings from this paper supports suggestions that psychometric monitoring is a valuable means of preventing staleness (18,21). In conjunction with mood disturbances measured by POMS, increased salivary cortisol levels have been shown to be significantly correlated with depressed mood during overtraining, but not at baseline or taper (20). Salivary cortisol tests offer a non-invasive measure of hormonal responses and could be an excellent accompanying test to POMS. As previously mentioned, there are several symptoms of OTS associated with cognitive impairment. The affected central mechanisms are the basis for another exciting development in diagnosing OTS by testing psychomotor speed. Nederhof et al. tested athletes before and after training camp and two weeks after on reaction time. Athletes experiencing FOR had longer reaction times after camp compared to baseline levels and to the control group (19). Psychomotor speed in these studies is tested using a computer program that offers an objective and affordable measurement. Testing a similar concept, Lehman et al. examined neuromuscular excitability (NME) and found it to rapidly deteriorate in overtraining athletes (14). Psychomotor speed testing and NME could offer quick, inexpensive and practical markers for detecting early signs of OTS.

Final Remarks The purpose of this paper is to give athletes and coaches a better understanding of the components of successful training, how OT accumulates and escalates without proper recovery, and the observable and physiological signs and symptoms of OTS. Having a better sense for all of these consequences can prevent OTS and performance pitfalls. Further research is needed with OTS; information on how it affects performance is lacking and most researchers seem stuck on trying to find the one marker to diagnose OTS. As shown in this paper, there are almost infinite responses as a consequence of OTS and not all individuals experience the same symptoms. Meur et al. is one of the few studies to take a multidisciplinary approach to detecting OTS, understanding, that there are several variables involved in the process (17). It would be of interest to see more research like this done in future studies. Nevertheless, there are promising methods being developed to test for the training status of an individual. If these tests are unavailable to the athlete and coach, however, much can be gained from simply recognizing signs and symptoms of OTS.

References 1. Armstrong, L. E. and VanHeest J.L. “The Unknown

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Mechanism of the Overtraining Syndrome Clues from Depression and Psychoneuroimmunology,” Sports Med, 32 (3) 185-209, 2002. 2. Barron, J.L., Noakes, T.D., Levy, W., Smith, C., Millar, R.P. “Hypothalamic dysfunction in overtrained athletes,” J Clin Endocrinol Metab., 60(4):803-6, 1985. 3. Baumert, M., Brechtel, L., Lock, J., Hermsdorf, R.W., Baier, V., and Voss, A. “Heart Rate Variability, Blood Pressure Variability, and Baroreflex sensitivity in Overtrained Athletes,” Clinical J Sport Med., 16:412–417, 2006. 4. Bosquet, L., Papelier, Y., Leger, L., Legros, P. “Night heart rate variability in male endurance athletes,” J Sports Med Phys Fitness, 43:506-12, 2003. 5. Fatouros, I.G., Destouni, A., Margonis, K.,Jamurtas, A.Z.,Vrettou, C., Kouretas,D., Mastorakos, G. Mitrakou, A., Taxildaris, K., Kanavakis, E., and Papassotiriou, I. “Cell-Free Plasma DNA as a Novel Marker of Aseptic Inflammation Severity Related to Exercise Overtraining,” Clinical Chemistry, 52,(9) 1820-24, 2006. 6. Gastmann, U., Petersen, K.G., Böcker J., Lehmann, M. “Monitoring intensive endurance training at moderate energetic demands using resting laboratory markers failed to recognize an early overtraining stage,” J Sports Med Phys Fitness, 38(3):18893,1998. 7. Halson, S.L. and Jeukendrup, A.E. “Does Overtraining Exist? An Analysis of Overreaching and Overtraining Research,” Sports Med, 34 (14): 967-981, 2004. 8. Hedelin, R., Kenattá, G. Wiklund, U., Bjerle, P., HenrikssonLarsen, K. “Short-term overtraining: effects on performance, circulatory responses, and heart rate variability,” Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 32(8):1480-1484, 2000. 9. Hug, M., Mullis, P.E.,Vogt, M.,Ventura, N., Hoppeler, H. “Training modalities: over-reaching and over-training in athletes, including a study of the role of hormones,” Best Practice & Research Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, 17(2),191-209, 2003. 10. Ishigaki, T., Koyama, K., Tsujita, J., Tanaka, N., Hori, S., and Oku, Y. “Plasma Leptin Levels of Elite Endurance Runners after Heavy Endurance Training,” Journal of Physiological Anthropology and Applied Human Science, 24: 573–578, 2005. 11. Kellmann, M. “Preventing overtraining in athletes in high-intensity sports and stress/ recovery monitoring,” Scandinavian Journal of Medicine and Science in Sports, 20 (Suppl. 2): 95–102, 2010. 12. Kirwan, J.P., Costill, D.L., Mitchell, J.B., Houmard, J.A., Flynn, M.G., Fink, W.J., Beltz, J.D. “Carbohydrate balance in competitive runners during successive days of intense training,” J Appl Physiol., 20

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65:2601-2606, 1988. 13. Lehmann, M., Baumgartl, P., Wiesenack, C., Seidel, A., Baumann, H., Fischer, S., Spori, U., Gendrisch, G., Kaminski, R. and Keul, J. “Training-overtraining: influence of a defined increase in training volume vs training intensity on performance, catecholamines and some metabolic parameters in experienced middle- and long-distance runners,” European Journal of Applied Physiology, 64:169-177, 1992. 14. Lehmann, M., Baur, S., Netzer, N., and Gastmann, U. “Monitoring high-intensity endurance training using neuromuscular excitability to recognize overtraining,” European Journal of Applied Physiology, 76: 187±191, 1997. 15. Meeusen, R., Nederhof, E., Buyse, L., Roelands, B., Schutter, G., Piacentini, M.F., “Diagnosing overtraining in athletes using the twobout exercise protocol,” British J Sports Med., 44:642–648, 2008. 16. Meeusen, R., Duclos, M., Foster, C., Fry, A., Gleeson, M., Nieman, D., Raglin, J., Rietjens, G., Steinacker, J., Urhausen, A. “Prevention, Diagnosis, and Treatment of the Overtraining Syndrome: Joint Consensus Statement of the European College of Sport Science and the American College of Sports Medicine,” Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 186-205, 2012. 17. Meur, Y.L., Hausswirth, C., Natta, F., Couturier, A. Bignet, F. and Vidal, P.P. “A multidisciplinary approach to overreaching detection in endurance trained athletes,” J Appl Physiol., 114: 411–420, 2013. 18. Morgan, W.P., Brown, D.R., Raglin, J.S., O’Connor, P.J., Ellickson, K.A. “Psychological Monitoring of Overtraining and Staleness,” Brit. J. Sports Med., 21(3):107-114,1987. 19. Nederhof, E., Lemmink, K., Visscher, C., Meeusen, R., and Mulder, T. “Psychomotor Speed :Possibly a New Marker for Overtraining Syndrome,” Sports Med., 36 (10): 817-828, 2006. 20. O’Connor, P.J., Morgan, W.P., Raglin, J.S., Barksdale, C.M., Kalin, N.H. “Mood State and Salivary Cortisol Levels Following Overtraining in Female Swimmers,” Psychoneurology, 14(4):303310,1989. 21. Raglin, J.S., Morgan, W.P. “Development of a Scale for Use in Monitoring Training-Induced Distress in Athletes.” Int. J. Sports Med. (15)8488,1994. 22. Smith, L.L. “Tissue Trauma: The Underlying Cause of Overtraining Syndrome?” Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 18(1), 185–193, 2004. 23. Snyder, A.C., Jeukendrup, A.E., Hesselink, M.K., Kuipers, H., Foster C. “A physiological/psychological indicator of over-reaching during intensive training,” Int J Sports Med., 14(1):29-32,1993. 24. Uusitalo, A.L.T., Huttunen, P., Hanin, Y., Uusitalo, A.P., Rusko, H.K. “Hormonal responses to Endurance Training and Overtraining in Female Athletes,” Clinical J of Sports Med., 8:178-186, 1998. 25. Walsh, N.P., Blannin A.K., Robson P.J., Gleeson M. “Glutamine, exercise and immune function. Links and possible mechanisms,” Sports Med., 26(3):177-91, 1998.

BIO Ann Detmer is the Graduate Assistant at the University of Kentucky pursuing a degree in Exercise Physiology. Prior to her arrival in Kentucky, she served as assistant coach for three years at the University of California-Berkeley. She was a part of the track and field and cross country teams at the University of WisconsinMadison, where she graduated in 2008.

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teaching speed applying force quickly / By michael coonen

oaching and training philosophies vary among coaches. Many coaches believe that stride length plus turnover is the equation for speed. Current research indicates that these two variables are important factors when training a sprinter, but carry a secondary value when compared to their underlying causes. Research has shown that there are other variables that serve as the primary determinates of maximum speed sprinting. As a collegiate sprints coach I have incorporated training techniques that focus on improving these variables and as a result have seen outstanding development and improvement from my athletes. This article will explore current research on variables of maximal speed sprinting and how that knowledge can be applied to sprint training.

Leading Research A study performed by Weyand, Sternlight, Bellizzi and Wright at Harvard University in 2000 looked at what the determining factors were for a greater top speed in active men and women between the ages of 18 and 36. Participants were asked to perform a multitude of tests that measured their stride length, stride frequency, turnover speed, ground contact time, ground contact force and top speed. The study found that at top speed there was no significant difference in turnover time between the fastest of runners and the slowest of runners, making turnover a non-influential variable. It was shown, however, that stride length increased in all runners when they increased their running speed. It was also determined that the variables that had the greatest differ-

ence from slow runners to fast runners were ground contact time (GCT) and ground contact force (GCF). The ground contact force generated by the fastest runner was almost 1.26 times greater than that generated by the slowest runner. The slowest runners were discovered to spend almost twice as much time on the ground than the fastest runners. Weyand, Sternlight, Bellizzi and Wright showed that shorter ground contact time plus greater ground contact force was the new formula for speed. Yet another study by Chang and Kram completed in 2007 examined the reduced speeds of running on a curved track compared to a straight track and explored the limiting factors on the maximum speed of curved track running. Using a model created by Greene (1985), Chang and Kram explained that ground contact force on a curved track is a combination of vertical GCF and lateral GCF. This results in a decrease of vertical GCF leading to increased ground contact time. As discussed earlier; longer ground contact times cause a decrease in maximal speed. This study went on to find that when sprinting on a curved track the inside leg did not produce as much GCF as the outside leg, nor did it produce as much GCF compared to straight track running. The reduced GCF from the inside leg and resulting increase in ground contact time while sprinting on a curve led to lower maximum sprint speeds. In some cases, 200-meter sprinters were 0.4 seconds slower while running on a curved track compared to a straight track (Chang and Kram, 2007). The referenced studies indicate that increasing maximal sprinting speed is accomplished by increasing the amount of force applied to the ground and decreasing the amount of time each foot strike spends on the ground. Some may argue that there are other or more important factors that determine top speed sprinting. Turnover, stride length and knee drive are three that are often discussed (Murgia, 2008). As we know from the previous research, turnover remains a constant in all sprinters, thus eliminating it from the discussion (Weyand et al., 2000). I will further examine the concepts of stride length and knee drive and how they affect maximal speed sprinting. august 2013

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the potential Stride Length Stride length can be defined as the distance an athlete moves down the running surface between the toe-off of each foot strike. The further down the track a sprinter can relocate their body with every stride, the faster and more efficient that sprinter will be. Current 100-meter and 200-meter world record holder, Usain Bolt, only requires 40-41 strides to complete a 100-meter dash compared to the 45-46 strides it took U.S. greats Maurice Greene and Tyson Gay. That means Bolt’s stride is on average 0.22 meters greater than that of Greene and Gay (Shinabargar, Hellrich and Baker, 2010). But what causes an increase in stride length? Ground contact force. The more force a sprinter applies to the ground the further it will propel them down the track (Bushnell and Hunter, 2007). This increase in stride length (hip displacement) will elicit the stretchshortening response of the hip flexors allowing for a greater knee drive. Often times, in an attempt to increase stride length, sprinters will overstride to compensate for a lack of ground contact force. When an athlete overstrides, or reaches with their stride, it places unnecessary strain on that athlete’s hamstrings, creates breaking forces and reduces the plyometric effect of the gastrocnemius-soleus complex which is vital in maximum speed sprinting. An overextended stride length also creates horizontal breaking forces which results in a loss of speed (Nummela, Kerânen and Mikkelsson, 2007). Stride length should be limited by technique. Do not allow an athlete to reach in front of them with their foot. Rather place an emphasis on displacing their hips further down the running surface with every stride. This will ensure that their foot strike remains underneath the hips, where optimal forces can be generated by the lower extremity musculature and proper sprint mechanics are maintained (Bushnell and Hunter, 2007).

Knee Drive Knee drive is regulated by the stretch-shortening response of the hip flexors, or simply put; knee drive is a plyometric activity. During a stretch, the elastic fibers within the muscle tissue reach a point where they recoil and cause the crossed joint to displace their hips; a greater stretch will be put on the hip flexor. This stretch will elicit the stretch-shortening response of the hip flexor causing a fast and passive flexion of the hip joint. According the USA Track and Field Level 1 Coaching Curriculum (2006), knee drive has a direct relationship to the amount of force applied to the ground. A low knee drive is a result of weak ground contact force. The inability to produce adequate knee drive during the latter portions of a 200-meter or 400-meter race is a result of decreased ground contact forces during those last few meters. Greater knee drive and an increased stride length are byproducts caused by a greater force being applied to the running surface. By understanding that maximum speed is a product of greater ground contact forces and shorter ground contact times there are many ways you can introduce those concepts into your training. The following are just a few of numerous ways that these ideas can be effectively carried over and applied when training sprinters.

Sprint Drills Special attention should be paid to the execution of sprint drills during warm-ups and practice. There should always be an emphasis placed on proper sprint mechanics, i.e. dorsiflexion of the ankle, upright posture, neutral pelvic alignment, limiting upper body rotation, etc. (Thompson, Bezodis and Jones, 2009). In addition to correct sprint mechanics additional emphasis should be put on applying force to the ground during these drills. Instead of allowing an athlete to place their foot down while performing drills such as 24

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A-skips and A-runs, they should be taught to put their foot down with force. Athletes are often too focused on lifting their knees high. As previously discussed, we know knee lift is generated by the stretch of the hip flexors and the force applied to the ground, not the active recovery of the knee. The more force an athlete applies to the ground, the more the knee recovery will passively take place. With this in mind, more time should be spent placing an emphasis on the application of ground contact force. Cues that work well during the supervision of sprint drills are “Put your foot down. Meet the ground; don’t let the ground meet you. Attack the ground. Be aggressive.”

Complex Training Force application can also be worked in your strength and conditioning program. Complex training is yet another way to influence ground contact force. Complex training is the combination of a heavily resisted exercise performed at comparatively slower speeds paired with a lightly resisted exercise performed at comparatively faster speeds (Chiu et al., 2003; Hodgson, Docherty and Robbins, 2005). Typically you will find examples of complex training as performing a set of an Olympic lift (ex: power clean or hang snatch) superset with a set of a body weight exercise (ex: box jump or split jump). The importance of complex training is in the order of the lifts. It is crucial the heavily resisted lift is performed prior to the lightly resisted lift. By asking the body to move heavier weight it creates a level of excitement in the motor neurons of the muscle allowing for greater recruitment of those motor neurons in subsequent sets. This is called post-activation potentiation (Chiu et al., 2003; Hodgson et al., 2005). It is like lifting a large, empty box when you believe it is full and heavy. The box will fly through the air because you used greater force than what was needed for that activity. In your training, if you perform a heavy, yet explosive Olympic lift prior to a lightly resisted exercise, the body will recruit more motor neurons than what was required resulting in a much more explosive lift. Overtime adaptation will occur and the body should continue to recruit those motor neurons in lightly resisted exercises, i.e. box jumps, block starts or running (Hodgson et al., 2005). Attempt to incorporate complex training into your strength and conditioning plan at least two days a week. This theory can also be worked into your training on the track. By performing resisted explosive lifts prior to block starts or top speed work it will elicit the same response seen in the weight room.

Plyometrics Plyometric exercises are a great way to train athletes to minimize the amount of time spent on the ground. A plyometric exercise is defined as a rapid stretch and subsequent contraction of the employed muscle groups that requires limited time for force development (less than 0.2s).To begin; incorporate movements that require the athlete to perform the exercise quickly over a short obstacle. Limiting the obstacle to no more than 16 inches in height ensures that the primary force used to clear the obstacle is a true plyometric response rather than an active contraction (Markovic and Mikulic, 2010). The primary focus of any true plyometric exercise is to encourage the minimizing of the ground contact time. Taller obstacles require the athlete to spend more time on the ground generating the forces necessary to clear that obstacle. As time progresses and adaptations occur, obstacles can be increased in height, as long as ground contact time remains at a minimum (Ebben, Fauth, Garceau and Petushek, 2011). An example of a plyometric progression is beginning with simple line drills. Instruct the athlete to “jump” over a line

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Bounding Bounding is a branch off of plyometrics and an excellent way to incorporate the stretch-shortening cycle, force application and hip displacement in one training exercise. Bounding provides specificity in sprint training by focusing on both vertical and horizontal ground contact forces while limiting ground contact time. The objective of bounding exercises is to increase the amount of force an athlete applies to the ground and distance in which their hips are displaced down the running surface while decreasing the amount of time it takes to generate that force. Bounding has been shown to decrease ground contact time and improve sprint performance up to 40 meters (Rimmer and Sleivert, 2000). Begin bounding training with shorter, slower movements. Bounding from hash marks to hash mark on a football field from a standing start is a great place to begin. Slowly progress to bounding further distances and allow for a short run-up to increase speed. Proper bounding technique should be emphasized during training. Foot strike should remain directly underneath the hips just as in sprint technique. Foot strike should take place on the ball of foot rather than the toe or heel. The lead knee angle should remain acute eliminating any reaching or over striding action. This type of stride could result in a foot strike in front of the hips creating breaking forces and placing extra strain on the hamstring group as well as creating compressive forces on the ankle, knee, hip and back joints.

Conclusion Sprint drills, complex training, plyometrics and bounding are just four ways you can attempt to increase the forces your sprinters place on the track and limit the amount of time it takes them to do so. As a coach, you can be creative in your attempts to decrease ground contact time and increase ground contact force. Keep in mind that every exercise or drill performed should have a purpose and relate in some way to your ultimate goal, creating faster sprinters. Know the reasons behind performing every drill and make sure they are executed in a manner that benefits maximum speed development. 26

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References Ackland, T., Elliot, B., & Bloomfield, J. (Eds.). (2009). Applied Anatomy and Biomechanics in Sport. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Behm, D. & Sale, D. (1993). Intended rather than actual movement velocity determines velocity-specific training response. Journal of Applied Physiology.74, 359-368. Bushnell, T., & Hunter, I. (2007). Differences in Techniques between Sprinters and Distance Runners at Equal and Maximal Speeds. Sports Biomechanics, 6(3), 261-268. doi: 10.1080/14763140701489728 Chang, Y.H., & Kram, R. (2007). Limitations to maximum running speed on flat curves. The Journal of Experimental Biology. 210, 971-982. doi: 10.1242/jeb.02728 Chiu, L., Fry, A., Weiss, L., Schilling, B., Brown, L., & Smith, S. (2003). Postactivation potentiation response in athletic and recreationally trained individuals. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research. 17(4), 671-677. Ebben, W., Fauth, M., Garceau, L. & Petushek, E. (2011). Kinetic quantification of plyometric exercise intensity. Journal of Strength & Conditionsing Research. 25(12), 3288-3298. Greene, P.R. (1985). Running on flat turns: Experiments, theory and applications. J. Biomechanical Engineering. 107, 96-103. Hodgson, M., Docherty, D., & Robbins, D. (2005). Post-activation potentiation underlying physiology and implications for motor performance. Sports Medicine, 25(7), 385-395. Khlifa, R., Aouadi, R., Hermassi, S., Chelly, M., Jlid, M., Hbacha, H., & Castagna, C. (2010). Effects of a plyometric training program with and without added load on jumping ability it basketball players. Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research. 24, 2955-2961. Markovic, G. & Mikulic, P. (2010). Neuromusculoskeletal and performance adaptations to lower extremity plyometric training. Sports Medicine, 40(10), 859-895. Murgia, C. (2008). Separating Fact from Fiction: Increasing Running Speed. The Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 79(8), 17-19 Nummela, A. A., KerĂ˘nen, T. T., & Mikkelsson, L. O. (2007). Factors Related to Top Running Speed and Economy. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 28(8), 655-661. doi:10.1055/s-2007-964896 Thompson, A., Bezodis, I., & Jones, R. (2009). An In-depth Assessment of Expert Sprint Coachesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Technical Knowledge. Journal of Sport Sciences, 27(8), 855-861. doi: 10.1080/02640410902895476 Rimmer, E. & Sleivert, G. (2000). Effects of a plymetrics intervention program on sprint performance. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 14, 295-301. Shinabargar, A.J., Hellrich, M., & Baker, B. (2010) What makes Usain Bolt unique as a sprinter? The physics teacher. 48, 365. doi: 10.1119/1.3479707 USA Track & Field. (2006). Coaching education: Level 1 curriculum. The sprint events, 55-62. Weyand, P., Sternlight, D., Bellizzi, M., & Wright, S. (2000). Faster top running speeds are achieved with greater ground forces not more rapid leg movements. Journal of Applied Physiology, 89, 1991-1999. Eide Photography photo

on the floor in a forward-backward motion, while trying to spend as little time as possible. Once time for adaptation has been allowed, move to clearing shorter obstacles such as a 6-inch hurdle. In mature or elite athletes the overload principle may be applied by increasing the height of the object to be cleared. Strong evidence has been found that as long as the athlete performs the rep with the intent to be as explosive and as fast as possible, that velocity and power specific adaptations occur in the nervous system (Behm and Sale, 1993; Khlifa, Aouadi, Hermassi, Chelly, Jlid, Hbacha and Castagna, 2010). Overloading can be harmful to younger developing athletes, but in more mature competitors this can be a great way to increase power. Special attention should be paid to the amount of touches performed while completing plyometric exercises. The touches should be limited to ensure the athlete remains free of injury. Keep in mind that sprinting alone is classified as a plyometric activity, so a large increase in such activities can lead to an increase in the risk for injury.

BIO Michael Coonen is the Sprints, Hurdles and Relays coach at St. Cloud State University.

The Javelin

Basic Javelin Aerodynamics and Flight Characteristics

by andreas v. maheras, ph.d.

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Note: This is the first part of a two part article regarding javelin aerodynamics. Part 2 will appear in the November issue of Techniques.

he present rules for the design of the javelin make it a perpetually stable implement which simply means that at all angles of attack, its center of pressure is always behind its center of mass and thus it tends to land tip first. The javelin will fly less than optimum if released with just brute force. Because of that, there is a need for the demonstration of both power and finesse on the part of the thrower. An understanding of the interaction of the javelin with the air, i.e., its aerodynamics, is useful for the coach and the athlete in their effort to improve finesse in javelin throwing. Some variables that affect the implement’s aerodynamics are: the attack angle, the location of the center of pressure in relation to the center of mass, the distribution of the mass toward or away from the center of mass, the shape of the nosecone, the surface of the javelin and the spinning and oscillation properties of the javelin.

andreas v. maheras PHOTO

Center of mass (CM), Center of Pressure (CP), Pitching Moment (PM) There are only two forces that can act on the javelin once it has been released. The first one is gravity, which one can assume acts on a single point called the center of mass (figure 1). Its location is clearly defined by the rules of javelin construction. Gravity will tend to decrease the vertical velocity of the javelin until it reaches its apex. From then on it begins to fall and the javelin experiences negative vertical velocity until its landing. The other force is the aerodynamic force. It can also be assumed that it acts on a single point called the center of pressure. Unlike the gravitational force, the aerodynamic force is not constant and it highly depends on the speed and the shape of the implement being thrown. Generally, the faster a javelin is flying, the greater the aerodynamic force. The position of the center of pressure relative to the center of mass greatly determines the flight characteristics of the javelin in that it affects the pitching moment of the javelin. The pitching moment simply expresses the tendency of the javelin to go “nose up” (in this discussion, positive moment) or “nose down” (negative moment). As hinted earlier, the current javelins always exhibit a negative pitching moment, for all positive angles of attack, and this causes the javelin to tend to pitch nose down from release until landing unless it is released with a negative angle of attack or the angle becomes negative towards the end of the flight (Bartlett, 1989). The pitching moment profile indeed determines the release conditions and range of the javelin.

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Figure 1. Forces acting on the javelin while in the air.

Lift, Drag and L-D Ratio The aerodynamic force can be broken down into a parallel but opposite to the javelin’s horizontal velocity acting force called drag, and another force, called lift, acts parallel but along with the vertical velocity (figure 1). The javelin as an implement has good lift properties but it does not do any good unless the javelin flies with an angle of attack. Without an angle of attack there is no lift and the javelin with smaller lift values will fly just as well. A javelin with the maximum diameter and length will exhibit greater lift characteristics and in this fashion, the total planform area will determine the lift potential. The surface of the javelin area, that is, its exact shape and nature also affect its lift properties. Cord Grip. Terauds, (1985) mentioned that although the grip is a source of drag, it also produces lift. Generally, with attack angles over 17 degrees, the benefits from increased lift exceed the loss due to drag and there is a net gain to the javelin’s flight. When the grip is behind the CM (as in all current javelins), it becomes part of the tail of the javelin and brings the CP towards that section of the javelin. This way the positive pitching moment is increased. The greatest benefit however, is that the grip allows the thrower to impart the maximum velocity to the javelin and this is more important than its aerodynamic characteristics. Ericsson & Reding (1985) showed that a grip shaped struc-

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ture would indeed affect airflow. However, because of its proximity to the center of mass, the grip’s effect on the CP characteristics would be minimal. Drag during javelin flight increases as velocity and angle of attack increases. Similar to lift, drag on its own is not a great factor in influencing the distance thrown. Moreover, a javelin’s lift to drag ratio has nothing to do with how far a javelin will travel. More specifically, although the optimum lift-drag ratio occurs at angles of attack between 11 and 23 degrees, the javelins do not fly at those angles of attack indicating that the ratio is of little importance.

Center of Pressure and Behavior of Javelin in Flight As mentioned earlier, the center of pressure is the balance point of all the air forces acting on the javelin. According to Terauds (1985) the center of pressure (CP) does not remain in the same place and it changes along with the change of the angle of attack and the magnitude of the rotation of the javelin about its long axis (figure 2, pg 34). With a zero angle of attack the center of pressure is directly on the front tip of the javelin. At a 5-degree angle of attack, the CP is located approximately 10 centimeters behind the center of mass (CM), over 105 centimeters from the tip. From then on and up to a 20-degree angle of attack, the distance between the CP and the CM decreases but it never reaches the CM and is a little over 1 centimeter

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Figure 2. Center of pressure variability relative to the attack angle according to, a. Terauds (1985) and b. Best & Bartlett (1988a).

back from the CM. The distance increases again from a 20-degree angle of attack and it reaches a maximum of a little over 10 centimeters, at 50 degrees. According to Best and Bartlett (1988a) however, it is possible for the center of pressure to be at a constant position back from the center of mass, at least for the javelin they tested. That distance was at approximately 26 centimeters. Schneeberger (2009) reported that the CP was 14.3 and 12.6 centimeters behind the CM in the men’s and women’s javelins respectively. De Mestre (1990) described a movement for the center of pressure, which brings it ahead of the center of gravity. Quite certainly though, based on other comments made in his report, he was describing center of pressure properties for the old-rules javelin (before 1986) and not the current-rules javelin. The practitioner needs to understand that as the location of the CP moves towards or away from the CM, the changes in the javelin’s pitching moment will affect the trajectory of the javelin as follows (Terauds, 1985; also

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see figure 3, pg. 35): As soon as the javelin is released, gravity will force the javelin’s CM away from a straight path, towards the ground. At this point, the attitude angle will remain unchanged at approximately 30 degrees and it helps create a small positive angle of attack where lift can be generated (figure 3, item 1, pg 35). During this phase, the CP is behind the CM and results in a negative pitching moment, which makes the javelin go “nose down”, but that negative pitching moment is negated by the moment of inertia of the javelin itself. This results in a delay of the clockwise rotation of the javelin. At the same time, because gravitational influences on the javelin’s CM exceed those of the air, the long axis of the javelin moves further out of line with the path of the javelin’s CM, which increases its angle of attack (figure 3, item 2, pg 35). As the angle of attack increases, the CP moves closer to the CM and the negative pitching moment is reduced and, in relative terms, tends to rotate the javelin

Figure 3. A typical, long range, javelin trajectory. The approximate angle of attack of the javelin at each point in its trajectory can also be observed (see text for further explanation). counterclockwise around the short horizontal axis and make it go “nose up” (figure 3, item 3). However, the CP never moves ahead of the CM. Under those circumstances when the javelin’s velocity is relatively high and there is plenty of lift generated, the javelin flies with little loss of altitude. However, following, as the aerodynamic forces decrease the javelin’s velocity, lift itself decreases and the angle of descend increases (figure 3, item 4). At the same time, there is a quick change of the path of the javelin’s CM, which is coupled by a resistance of the jav-

elin to rotate clockwise (caused by the javelin’s moment of inertia). At this moment the long axis of the javelin cannot keep up with the gravitational force and the angle of attack increases further (figure 3, item 4). This places the CP away from the CM which results in an increased negative pitching moment and in turn causes the javelin to eventually and rather quickly go “nose down” until it lands (fig. 3, item 5 on).

Angle of Attack The angle of attack is one of the most common terminologies in javelin throwing. This is rightly so because if there is no angle of attack, there is no lift. In the absence

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Figure 4. Common angle terminology in javelin aerodynamics.

of wind, the angle of attack is the angle between the direction of the center of gravity of the javelin and the long axis of the javelin (figure 4). The fact that the javelin as an implement has great lift properties is of no value to the thrower unless the javelin has a pitching moment which enables it to fly at a given angle of attack which generates the all important lift. Although there is plenty of discussion among practitioners regarding the initial angle of attack, one should also consider the changes of this angle in the course of a javelin’s flight. In the previous paragraph there was a description of those changes, which are mainly a function of the gravitational and lift forces. Since those two forces act on different points on the javelin, lift (acting on the CP) will tend to cause rotation of the javelin along its short horizontal axis which will alter the angle of attack during flight. Obviously, the fluctuations in the angle of attack exert a major influence on the javelin flight itself. Assuming that the javelin is an elongated axisymmetric fuselage, the drag coefficient will be approximately proportional to the square of the angle of attack, the pitching moment will be linear in respect to the angle of attack and the aerodynamic lift coefficient will be exponentially related to the angle of attack (White, 2010). In general, initially as the angle of attack increases from zero to a positive number, lift increases. As the angle of attack increases further, the amount

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of lift reaches its optimum and a further increase in the attack angle will decrease lift until the point of the javelin actually stalling. According to Terauds (1985), the angle of attack the javelin prefers to fly, depends on the javelin’s pitching moment and not on the thrower. Although it could be argued that the thrower can influence the angle of attack by making changes during the release, this is probably something that cannot be easily done or routinely adjusted by most throwers. A thrower is advised to keep the release attack angle within the suggested values. Terauds (1985) further made the argument that the thrower’s influence on the javelin’s “flight” angle of attack decreases with increasing throwing distance and that quite low caliber throwers can indeed influence the “flight” attack angle but not high caliber throwers. Best et al. (1993) reported that a high javelin carry and a low javelin inclination angle (a.k.a attitude angle) during the transition of the thrower from the impulse step into the landing over the right foot in preparation for the last stride, are points that have been addressed over the years as being important for optimizing the preparation for the throw. Low values of the inclination angle during the mentioned instances are important because the javelin pull down that occurs during release always increases that angle before release. As the angle of inclination increases,

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Figure 5. The built in angle of attack just before javelin release. the initial angle of attack also increases which is not optimal in javelin throwing (Best et al., 1989). Morriss and Bartlett (1994) also found that a high javelin carry is beneficial because it results in a lower angle of attack and also in a “cleaner” release, assuming that release velocity and height are not negatively affected. During release at angles below 30 degrees, a zero to 6 degrees angle of attack will produce roughly similar horizontal distances. Angles of attack that exceed 6 degrees will result in a decreased horizontal distance. In most cases, the thrower should make an effort to release the javelin with a zero angle of attack, which implies that the force is directed along the long axis of the implement. This results in a smooth release with the oscillations kept at minimum. On the other hand, releasing the javelin at zero angle of attack is not easy. This is because the thrower-javelin system moves forward at a given velocity towards the final javelin pull and therefore an “automatic” angle of attack develops (Terauds, 1985). More specifically (figure 5), because of that forward movement, the javelin, at the time just before the final pull is initiated, already possesses a small given velocity. This is the velocity of the javelin in relation to the moving body. Immediately following the release of the javelin, the

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actual release velocity is created and the angle of attack is developed. For example, if right before release the attitude angle is 35 degrees, the angle of release in relation to the body’s center of mass will also be 35 degrees. Right after release, the actual angle of release will be 30 degrees with a 5-degree angle of attack. Another factor that makes it difficult to release the javelin at zero angle of attack is the fact that during the release of the javelin, there is always a pull down effect as the fingers separate from the grip. This also results in the generation of an angle of attack. Therefore the ultimate concern for the javelin thrower is to keep the angle of attack less than 6 degrees. This may imply a mental image of releasing the javelin with a slight negative angle of attack.

Initial Optimum Angle of Attack The optimum “javelin” angle of release for the current javelins is between 39 and 42 degrees. For most competent throwers, the optimum angle of release will be at 35 degrees. Terauds (1985) reported that generally, the initial angle of attack should be between zero and 6 degrees for release angles between 28 and 32 degrees. For each degree increase in the release angle above 32 degrees, the angle of attack should be decreased one degree. For each degree decrease in the angle of

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Figure 6. Examples of desirable angles of attack depending on two extreme angles of release.

release below 28 degrees, the angle of attack should be increased by 1 degree. This may imply the use of a negative angle of attack in high velocity high release angle throws. Indeed, Hubbard and Alaways (1987) suggested that for velocity of release values above 23 meter/second, as the velocity of release increases, there is a slight but consistent decrease in the initial angle of attack, reaching the value of -4 at a 35 meter/ second release velocity. The same authors also suggested the use of negative initial angles of attack for very low release velocities (i.e., 20-23 m/s). Those angles were in the order of -6 to -13 degrees. Best et al. (1991, 1993) predicted optimal angles of attack at release that were negative. In that study the top four throwers released at negative angles that fluctuated between -8 and -2.5 degrees. Their release velocities fluctuated between 29.8 and 30.4 meter/second and their angles of release, between 30 and 33.5 degrees. Best et al. (1995), proposed a model with two optimization peaks for maximum range. One peak with an angle of release just over 32 degrees and an attack angle around –4.2 degrees, and another peak with corresponding angle values of 33 and – 5.5 degrees. The range predicted was around 93 meters. Through simulation techniques, Best and Bartlett (1988) found that maximization of the lifting force can only be achieved

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via a negative angle of attack with the “global” optimum being at -2.8 degrees. Hubbard and Laporte (1997) clarified that negative initial optimum angles of attack are optimum for small release velocities, as the angle of attack becomes positive early in flight and produces positive lift. The authors though did not specify the magnitude of the “small” release velocities and they did not explicitly make an association between a negative initial attack angle and the range achieved. From an empirical point of view, Morriss et al. (1997) obtained initial angles of attack fluctuating between -9 and +1 degrees for a group of finalists in the world championships. Atwood (2006, 2012) has correctly speculated that for high caliber throwers, the angle of attack at release should be negative. He further explained that a “bumping” of the javelin, on the part of the thrower, at release may be necessary for this to be achieved since a negative angle of attack may require high release angles but not necessarily high attitude angles. He also mentioned that a few throwers have been able to employ this technique but it is something he would not routinely suggest, due to the high levels of finesse required. It remains to be seen whether any intervention by the thrower is indeed necessary to achieve a negative angle of release or, as it seems more likely

On windy days all the release angles and the pitch rate become crucial because the aerodynamic effect on the range increases. Control of the javelin also becomes more difficult but more important. Optimum values of all of the javelin angles at release decrease in a head wind and there is less margin for error when throwing in to it. On the other hand, when throwing into a tailwind, the importance of the release speed increases as the aerodynamic contribution to the distance thrown decreases. In the presence of wind the apparent angle of attack (observed in windless conditions) may not be equal to the actual angle of attack (observed in wind conditions). In wind conditions, the angle of attack is the angle between the long axis of the javelin and the air-flow past the javelin. Under those conditions, it is possible for the javelin to have a negative “apparent” angle of attack and a positive “actual” angle of attack. Obviously, what counts, in wind conditions, is the actual angle of attack (Hatton, 2007). With increased head wind the angle of attack will also tend to increase. The stronger the wind, the more the increase in the attack angle. Similarly, in tail wind the attack angle will be decreasing. Terauds (1985) mentioned that to correct for that effect, the thrower should adjust the attitude angle of the javelin, which should be decreased when throwing into a headwind and increased when throwing with a tailwind. For example, in the first case a thrower can decrease the attitude angle of the javelin by 3 degrees for a 6-meters/ hour headwind. A similar increase in the attitude angle is in order for a tailwind of similar velocity. Generally, throwing under either condition could benefit the javelin in terms of the range it can fly. However, tailwinds seem to be the most beneficial for javelin throwing (Best and Bartlett, 1987, 1988). Bartlett (1989) mentioned that throwers do prefer tailwinds. He explained that the reduced javelin speed relative to the air leads to a lower pitching moment in a tailwind at a given attack angle. This helps to offset the “nose down” effect, which is an important element in javelin throwing. Side winds acting on a javelin will generate Magnus forces. For a right hand thrower a left to right wind will generate positive lift, whereas a right to left wind will generate negative lift. The importance of those forces is yet to be determined.

International Symposium of Biomechanics in Sports. Best, R., & Bartlett, R. (1987). Ladies’ javelin: Aerodynamics, flight simulation and biomechanical considerations. International Symposium on Biomechanics in Sports. Best, R., & Bartlett, R. (1987). Computer flight simulation of the men’s new rules javelin. International Symposium on Biomechanics in Sports. Best, R., & Bartlett, R. (1988a). Aerodynamic characteristics of new-rules javelins. In Biomechanics in Sport, pp. 33-40. London, Institution of mechanical engineers. Best, R., Bartlett, R., & Morriss, C. (1993). A threedimensional analysis of javelin throwing technique. Journal of Sports Sciences, 11, 315-328. Best, R., Bartlett, R., & Sawyer, R. (1989). Computer predicted optimal release characteristics far varying ability javelin throwers. Proceedings of the twelfth International Congress of Biomechanics. Los Angeles. Best, R., Bartlett, R., & Sawyer, R. (1991). Javelin release: Applied optimal control. Thirteenth International Congress of Biomechanics. Perth, Western Australia. Best, R., & Bartlett, M. (1988). A critical appraisal of javelin high-speed cinematography results using a computer flight simulation program. Ergonomics, 31 (11), 1683-1692. De Mestre, N. (1990). The mathematics of projectiles in sport. Cambridge university press: New York, NY. Ericsson, L. E. and Reding, J. P. (1985). Dynamics of fore body flow separation and associated vortices. Journal of Aircraft, 22, 329-335. Hatton, L. (2007). Optimizing the javelin throw in the presence of prevailing winds. Obtained via public domain, at www.leshatton.org. Hubbard, M., & Alaways, W. (1987). Optimum release conditions for the new rules javelin. International Journal of Sport Biomechanics, 3, 207-221. Hubbard, M., & Laporte, S. (1997). Damping of Javelin vibrations in flight. Journal of Applied Biomechanics, 13, 269-286. Morriss, C., Bartlett, R., & Fowler, N. (1997). Biomechanical analysis of the men’s javelin throw at the 1995 World Championships in Athletics. New Studies in Athletics, 12, 31-41. Morriss, C., & Bartlett, R. (1994). The height of carry of the javelin and its relationship with throwing performance. Proceedings of the International Congress on Applied Research in Sports, Helsinki, Finland. Schneeberger, N. (2009) An introduction to the physics of javelin flight. Unpublished report. Terauds, J. (1985). Biomechanics of the Javelin Throw. Academic Publishers, Del Mar, California. White, C. (2010). Projectile dynamics in sport: Principles and applications. Routlege: New York, NY.

References

BIO

Atwood, D. (2006, 2012). Personal Communication. Bartlett, R. (1989). The aerodynamics of javelin flight-a-re-evaluation. Proceedings of the Fifth

Dr. Andreas Maheras is the throws coach at Fort Hays State University and is a frequent contributor to Techniques.

from the results of various analysis studies, such angles are simply the result of high level throwing. In figure 6, it seems that when a high angle of release is used, the initial attack angle tends to become negative while under a lower release angle the attack angle is mostly on the positive range.

Attack Angle in Head and Tail Wind, Wind Effects

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of Director of Track and Field Operations by andrea tepe

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Ernie Ar any osi PHOTO

the evolving position

new and rapidly growing position in the collegiate track and field world has materialized over the course of the past few years. Many of the larger programs now employ a Director of Operations on their staff to handle all of the managerial and organizational tasks that come with conducting a high level program. Having a Director of Operations on staff allows the coaches to specifically focus on coaching and recruiting. A Director of Operations may be a graduate assistant, part-time, or full-time position, and they may also have coaching responsibilities providing that the program is not at the NCAA limit on number of coaches. The specific responsibilities assigned to an individual in this position will vary based on the structure of the program, the skill set of the employee, and the support of the athletic department. Director of Operations may not seem like a glamorous position in the world of track and field but this individual serves as the main contact for the track and field program and should be philosophically aligned with that of the head coach. In a highly functioning program it is not a simple managerial position; the operations job is administrative in nature and is critical to the success of the program. Almost all combined programs are dealing with 80100 athletes, six full-time coaches, and six sports throughout the course of the academic year. It is not likely for a team to be successful if the coaches and athletes aren’t in the right place at the right time with the right equipment and it is the responsibility of the Director of Operations to take care of those crucial logistical matters. One can think of the operations positions as being similar to a decathlete. They must be proficient in numerous skills but may have a few main areas of strength where they really excel. In this article, we will examine skills that are helpful for operations professionals to possess as well as some common tasks for which the Director of Operations tends to be responsible.

Part I: The Skill Set of a Director of Operations People who are best suited for an operations position should be extremely organized, able to multi-task and work well under stress. A Director of Operations needs to be efficient in handling day-to-day tasks but also needs to be able to look long term and anticipate issues that may arise in the future. This person should be able to work well with different types of people since they will be working with athletes, coaches, athletics department staff members and administrators.

something to go in an unforeseen direction. While this can be stressful at times, an operations person needs to be able to deal with an unexpected situation in an appropriate and professional manner whenever it arises.

Organizational Skills Everyone solves problems differently and has their own way to organize information so that makes sense to them. The Director of Operations might not need to give anyone direct access to his or her records but if a question arises, he or she should be able to access the information quickly to be able to answer the question. If other members of the staff need to access the director’s records, it should be organized in such a way that the other individuals can view the information without making changes to those records. Having too many people involved in the same tasks is a recipe for disaster. If there is a problem, it should be discussed but only the responsible person should make changes in order to avoid any major mishaps. For example, keeping all of the information about travel in one file with different worksheets for each aspect of travel (flights, hotel, cash advances, rental vehicles, etc) and keeping the information organized in chronological order is a helpful way to keep it all easily accessible. This is most important when individuals in the business office or compliance office have immediate questions about a particular issue.

Efficiency A Director of Operations needs to be able to work effectively with a wide variety of people and personalities whether it be in a one-on-one setting or a large group. If the operations person is overseeing most of the day to day aspects of running the program, they will most likely become the main contact for the program for other departments. When it comes to considering the efficiency of a large group, the Director of Operations needs to consider the needs of the team over his or her own individual needs. For example, when traveling, it’s often very convenient to have boxed lunches delivered to the team bus. The Director of Operations should take orders from everyone on the team and place the order with the restaurant 24-48 hours in advance. While it might seem like a hassle to take individual orders, it will save the team a significant amount of time avoiding the need to stop for a meal on the road. Orders can be organized by last name making distribution easier. Finally, saving these orders in a spreadsheet may be useful for future trips.

Communication Multi-Tasking With the wide variety of responsibilities a Director of Operations oversees, it is important to be able to multitask. You may be in the middle of a project and a coach or athlete will stop by with a question. The operations person needs to be able to stop what they are doing and deal with the new situation, whether that is a quick answer, a five minute discussion or a major issue that needs immediate attention. Prioritizing projects is crucial to get things done in a timely manner and to take care of athletes’ and coaches’ needs. Always remember that no matter how much you plan and prepare, you always have to be prepared for

Communication can be a challenging area for the Director of Operations that doesn’t necessarily see the athletes every day. At the start of the year, the athletes should be told how communication is going to take place throughout the course of the year. These days, email seems to be the most common, but sometimes the athletes don’t check their messages regularly. Weekly team meetings are extremely beneficial for communicating with the team and should be scheduled at a time when most of the team can be there (we use 15 minutes at the end of our practice time each week since the athletes should not be scheduled for any classes during practice time). Social

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the evolving position media sites can work for relaying some information to the athletes; they may not check their email but they will check Twitter and Facebook. Making information accessible for the athletes is very important, but it shouldn’t be so frequent that the athletes ignore it.

Part II: Possible Responsibilities for Director of Operations Travel The Director of Operations could oversee the travel plans or be responsible for all of them, depending on how the program is structured. Ideally, all hotels and buses for the indoor and outdoor seasons should be booked during the summer. Rental vehicles, especially if specialty vehicles such as 15 passenger vans are necessary, should also be booked well in advance due to the limited inventory available. Airline tickets are best to be booked in groups of 10 or more, and should be booked about 3-4 months before a trip for the lowest fares. If your school does not use a travel agency, the operations person will need to research flights to find the lowest available rates and call the airline group travel department to get fares. Typically, fares for groups are different than what you find online but the luxury of being able to change names on the tickets is worth it when traveling with a large group. Another task that is important for travel is the itinerary. This is a resource for the coaches and athletes in the travel party but also for compliance, academics, sports information and facilities. All of these departments should receive a copy of the itinerary prior to each competition in order to do their jobs appropriately. Itineraries should be as detailed and accurate as possible in order to minimize confusion and increase responsibility on the athlete’s end.

Home Meets The responsibilities of the Director of Operations during home meets will depend on the types of meets the school hosts, as well as the skill set of the operations person. If this person is familiar with Hy-Tek, it is possible that the Director of Operations will take on a meet management role in maintaining the database of entries and drawing up heat and lane assignments. If this person has a background in Sports Information, then press releases, informational updates and photography may be where his or her focus should lie during home meets. Ideally, you want your Director of Operations to oversee the running of the entire meet, including working with marketing on promotional items, script writing, overseeing a video crew and communicating with the facilities staff, sports information, and ticket office. In addition, the operations person will probably assign all of the meet officials and oversee the registration of teams and packet pickup. During the meet, it is best for the operations person to refrain from being tied down to one specific task, rather, he or she should be free to move around and troubleshoot as necessary throughout the duration of the event. If the operations person is responsible for scheduling officials, it is important that he or she has an understanding of rules, official’s duties and can build relationships with the officials so they want to work meets. Do not underestimate the importance of taking care of the officials.

Budgeting While the head coach is usually the one who has to answer 44

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to the upper administration about the budget of the program, the Director of Operations might be the individual actually handling the expenses of the program. A large portion of the budget for the program will typically be spent on apparel, equipment and travel, which are likely to be handled by the Director of Operations. While planning the budget is an annual task, working within the budget must be considered constantly. It is important that the operations person understands how the budget is balanced and what the program is willing to compromise versus splurge on when it comes to spending money.

Equipment Most universities have an equipment staff that is responsible for inventory, distribution, washing and ordering apparel for the athletic department. It is important to develop a positive working relationship with this staff as track and field is a large team that requires a good deal of attention from the equipment staff. It should be determined who is responsible for sizing the athletes, ordering apparel and how it will be issued for practice and competition. A database of sizes for all the athletes should be kept, as should their locker assignments and combinations if team lockers are provided. If the equipment staff is going to be responsible for the ordering of the apparel for the program, they need to be aware of budget restrictions as well as any program restrictions that are enforced regarding who receives apparel and who doesn’t. Because of the wide variety of events and all of the shapes, sizes, and preferences of athletes, it should always be kept in mind that controlling the issuing and ordering of apparel can be a very complicated and time consuming task. Each event has specific needs, especially when it comes to specialty shoes, and the program policies need to be made clear to those involved in the process to avoid any issues.

Sports Information If the program’s sports information director is coming from the media relations area of the athletic department, the Director of Operations might be a good person to act as the point of contact for track and field and cross country. That person should be able to answer any questions the SID might have and help coordinate interviews and photo shoots with the coaches and the athletes based on their schedules. In addition to increasing the exposure of the program both on campus and in the community, there is also a high volume of record keeping of statistics in the world of track and field. These responsibilities might fall to the track staff or the SID, but that needs to be determined on an individual program basis. Record keeping is important to the history of each program but also to the history of our sport and it is not something that should be overlooked.

Compliance Anyone that works in collegiate athletics needs to have knowledge of NCAA rules and the Director of Operations is no exception. Depending on the number of countable coaches on the staff at the institution, the Director of Operations may be considered a non-coaching staff member. He or she should receive instructions from the compliance office regarding the specific things they are allowed and not allowed to do. Non-coaching staff members are not allowed to provide instruction to athletes but they are permitted to be present at practice but only in lim-

ited roles, such as a record keeper/timer. As with other departments on campus, the operations person may become the point of contact for the compliance office and he or she should be kept in the lines of communication regarding roster changes and any eligibility issues. Since the operations person is involved in so many aspects of the track and field program, it is important to have an understanding of the rules in order to make sure violations arenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t committed.

Recruiting

Ernie Aranyosi PHOTO

The role of the Director of Operations varies when it comes to recruiting depending on the number of coaches in the program. If permissible, the Director of Operations could serve as a recruiting coordinator, maintaining a database of recruits and making phone calls and scheduling visits. It is also possible that the only recruiting role the operations person will be allowed to do is on-campus recruiting. In this case, the individual coaches may be the ones doing the recruiting but the operations person can assist in making the travel arrangements for visits. There could also be a separate recruiting coordinator that handles the recruiting responsibilities for the program. The recruiting responsibilities vary from staff to staff and the Director of Operations can have a large or small a role in recruiting, depending on the program and NCAA guidelines.

Special Events Whether a banquet, alumni event or a championship meet, the Director of Operations will most likely play a role in the planning and execution of the event. Planning ahead is crucial for any special event and it helps to talk to all of the departments that are involved in the event as early as possible to plan for any situation that may arise. An event that requires an invitation or registration should be planned enough in advance to communicate details to the interested parties. If you are planning on feeding a group of people, ask for RSVPâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s so you have an idea of what to plan for. Decide what you can afford to spend on the event and determine if you need to charge attendees, either to cover costs or to follow NCAA rules. A venue must be secured and it must be determined who is responsible for setting it up, decorating, cleaning up and tearing down. If any presentations are going to be shown, plan ahead for AV equipment. With championship meets, it is important to think through all of the details of the meet well in advance. Imagine yourself being at the event and thinking about where people are going to want to go to coach, cheer on their teammates and spectate. The fewer restrictions you provide, the happier the crowds will be. However, safety is always the top priority so be sure you have enough restrictions to keep everyone safe, especially when it comes to the throwing events. The flow of the athletes as they warm up, check in, compete and receive awards needs to be well-planned, staffed and communicated to the athletes and coaches in advance. Typically,

a participant guide will be provided a few weeks prior to the event. A general rule of thumb is that it should contain enough information so coaches should have virtually all of their questions answered from the information in the guide. A large volunteer crew is vital to the success of championship meets and volunteer assignments and working times need to be scheduled well in advance of the event in order to make sure enough helpers are in place to run a professional and efficient meet.

A Big Job As stated earlier, the Director of Operations position can be specific to the program and the individual. The job description can include a variety of different tasks from travel to home meet management to special events and everything in between. The Director of Operations needs to be skilled at multi-tasking and should be efficient, not only with his or her own time but with working with a large team. Although some programs treat the operations position as an entry level job, it can be a major position within the track and field staff due to the number of responsibilities they have within the program. It is an invaluable position to the coaches because it allows them to focus on their athletes and getting them ready to compete at their absolute best.

BIO Andrea Tepe is in her fifth year as the Director of Track and Field Operations for The University of Akron. Her primary responsibilities include team travel, home meet management, equipment and special events planning. She was a four-year member of the Miami University track and field team.

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2013 USTFCCCA national outdoor COACHES & ATHLETES OF THE YEAR Division I

Stanley Redwine Kansas Women’s Head COY

Mike Holloway Florida Men’s Head COY

Wayne Pate John Henry Johnson Kansas USC Women’s Assistant COY Men’s Assistant COY

Brianna Rollins Clemson Women’s Track AOY

Bryshon Nellum USC Men’s Track AOY

Brigetta Barrett Arizona Women’s Field AOY

Derek Drouin Indiana Men’s Field AOY

Division Ii

Lennox Graham Johnson C. Smith Women’s Head COY

George Williams Saint Augustine’s Men’s Head COY

Blaine Maag Sandy Chapman Grand Valley State Saint Augustine’s Women’s Assistant COY Men’s Assistant COY

Danielle Williams Johnson C. Smith Women’s Track AOY

Jermaine Jones Saint Augustine’s Men’s Track AOY

Sam Lockhart Grand Valley State Women’s Field AOY

J. Patrick Smith Chico State Men’s Field AOY

Division Iii

Marcus Newsom Wartburg Women’s Head COY

Josh Buchholtz UW-La Crosse Men’s Head COY

Melissa Norton Derek Stanley Wartburg UW-La Crosse Women’s Assistant COY Men’s Assistant COY

Christy Cazzola UW-Oshkosh Women’s Track AOY

Sean Bernstein SUNY Oneonta Men’s Track AOY

Melissa Norville Illinois College Women’s Field AOY

Tim VanLiew Rutgers-Camden Men’s Field AOY

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DIVISION I 2013 USTFCCCA Regional outdoor Coaches & Athletes of the Year great lakes region

Angela Martin Indiana State Women’s Head COY

John McNichols Indiana State Men’s Head COY

Alan Turner Jade Barber Notre Dame Notre Dame Women’s Assistant COY Women’s Track AOY Men’s Assistant COY

Terrence Somerville Cincinnati Men’s Track AOY

Felisha Johnson Indiana State Women’s Field AOY

Derek Drouin Indiana Men’s Field AOY

Fred Samara Princeton Men’s Head COY

Willie Johnson John Gondak Marshall Penn State Women’s Assistant COY Men’s Assistant COY

Mahagony Jones Penn State Women’s Track AOY

Casimir Loxsom Penn State Men’s Track AOY

Vanessa Jules Marshall Women’s Field AOY

James Plummer Rutgers Men’s Field AOY

Gary Pepin Nebraska Men’s Head COY

Wayne Pate Joey Woody Kansas Iowa Women’s Assistant COY Men’s Assistant COY

Ashley Spencer Illinois Women’s Track AOY

Justin Austin Iowa Men’s Track AOY

Andrea Geubelle Kansas Women’s Field AOY

Erik Kynard Kansas State Men’s Field AOY

Ralph Lindeman Air Force Men’s Head COY

Dion Miller Scott Steffan Texas Tech Air Force Women’s Assistant COY Men’s Assistant COY

Emma Coburn Colorado Women’s Track AOY

Diego Estrada Northern Arizona Men’s Track AOY

Chari Hawkins Utah State Women’s Field AOY

Mark Jackson UTEP Men’s Field AOY

mid atlantic region

Beth Alford-Sullivan Penn State Women’s Head COY

midwest region

Stanley Redwine Kansas Women’s Head COY

mountain region

Brian Bedard Colorado State Women’s Head COY

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northeast region

Rich Bowman Cornell Women’s Head COY

Nathan Taylor Cornell Men’s Head COY

Megan Johnson Artie Smith Cornell Cornell Women’s Assistant COY Men’s Assistant COY

Abbey D’Agostino Dartmouth Women’s Track AOY

Eric Jenkins Northeastern Men’s Track AOY

Victoria Flowers Connecticut Women’s Field AOY

Montez Blair Cornell Men’s Field AOY

south region

Caryl Smith-Gilbert UCF Women’s Head COY

Bob Braman Florida State Men’s Head COY

Karen Harvey Matt Kane Florida State Alabama Women’s Assistant COY Men’s Assistant COY

Aurieyall Scott UCF Women’s Track AOY

Isiah Young Mississippi Men’s Track AOY

Erica Bougard Mississippi State Women’s Field AOY

Omar Craddock Florida Men’s Field AOY

south central region

Pat Henry Texas A&M Women’s Head COY

Chris Bucknam Arkansas Men’s Head COY

Vince Anderson Sean Lonergan Texas A&M Stephen F. Austin Women’s Assistant COY Men’s Assistant COY

Regina George Arkansas Women’s Track AOY

Charles Silmon TCU Men’s Track AOY

Makeba Alcide Arkansas Women’s Field AOY

Sam Humphreys Texas A&M Men’s Field AOY

southeast region

Shawn Cobey Clemson Women’s Head COY

Dave Cianelli Virginia Tech Men’s Head COY

Tim Vaught Tim Hall Coastal Carolina Clemson Women’s Assistant COY Men’s Assistant COY

Brianna Rollins Clemson Women’s Track AOY

Spencer Adams Clemson Men’s Track AOY

Karimah Shepherd NC State Women’s Field AOY

Tomas Kruzliak Virginia Tech Men’s Field AOY

west region

Fred Harvey Arizona Women’s Head COY

Robert Johnson Oregon Men’s Head COY

Carjay Lyles John Henry Johnson San Diego State Southern California Women’s Assistant COY Men’s Assistant COY

Kori Carter Stanford Women’s Track AOY

Bryshon Nellum Southern California Men’s Track AOY

Brigetta Barrett Arizona Women’s Field AOY

Julian Wruck UCLA Men’s Field AOY

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DIVISION II 2013 USTFCCCA Regional outdoor atlantic region

George Williams Saint Augustine’s Men’s Head COY

Quanette Ford Sandy Chapman Lincoln Saint Augustine’s Women’s Assistant COY Men’s Assistant COY

Danielle Williams Johnson C. Smith Women’s Track AOY

Jermaine Jones Saint Augustine’s Men’s Track AOY

Kendall Reynolds Bowie State Women’s Field AOY

Matt Tholis East Stroudsburg Men’s Field AOY

Mark Schuck Minnesota State Men’s Head COY

Kevin Sanger Brett Suckstorf Minnesota State Wayne State Women’s Assistant COY Men’s Assistant COY

Melissa Agnew U-Mary Women’s Track AOY

Jerrell Hancock Minnesota State Men’s Track AOY

Carly Fehringer Wayne State Women’s Field AOY

Christopher Reed Minnesota State Men’s Field AOY

William Sutherland Kazeem Ibraheem Gary Gardner John Wallin Southern Connecticut UMass Lowell UMass Lowell Southern Connecticut Women’s Head COY Men’s Head COY Women’s Assistant COY Men’s Assistant COY

Ada Udaya New Haven Women’s Track AOY

Selasi Lumax Southern Connecticut Men’s Track AOY

Candace Greene UMass Lowell Women’s Field AOY

Nick Lebron Southern Connecticut Men’s Field AOY

Hannah Osborn Grand Valley State Women’s Track AOY

Michael Jordan Southern Indiana Men’s Track AOY

Lennox Graham Johnson C. Smith Women’s Head COY

central region

Mike Thorson U-Mary Women’s Head COY

east region

midwest region

Jerry Baltes Grand Valley State Women’s Head COY

Jud Logan Ashland Men’s Head COY

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Blaine Maag David Smalley Grand Valley State Ashland Women’s Assistant COY Men’s Assistant COY

Sam Lockhart Grand Valley State Women’s Field AOY

Derrick Vicars Findlay Men’s Field AOY

Coaches & Athletes of the Year DIVISION II south region

Soyini Thompson David Cain Alabama-Huntsville Alabama-Huntsville Women’s Head COY Women’s Assistant COY Men’s Assistant COY Men’s Head COY

Kedeshia Simpson Alabama-Huntsville Women’s Track AOY

Blaise Binns Alabama-Huntsville Men’s Track AOY

Euphemia Edem Stillman Women’s Field AOY

Jeffery Henderson Stillman Men’s Field AOY

south central region

James Reid Angelo State Women’s Head COY

Damon Martin Adams State Men’s Head COY

Tom Dibbern Rosemary DuPree Angelo State Incarnate Word Women’s Assistant COY Men’s Assistant COY

Alicia Nelson Adams State Women’s Track AOY

Kevin Batt Adams State Men’s Track AOY

Barbara Szabo Jeron Robinson Western State Texas A&M-Kingsville Women’s Field AOY Men’s Field AOY

southeast region

Jim Vahrenkamp Queens Women’s Head COY

Gary Aycock UNC Pembroke Men’s Head COY

Clive Caesar Clayton State Women’s Assistant COY

Joseph Wassink Limestone Men’s Assistant COY

Kimone Hewitt Queens Women’s Track AOY

Pardon Ndhlovu UNC Pembroke Men’s Track AOY

Jessica Matthews Clayton State Women’s Field AOY

Jordan Manning Limestone Men’s Field AOY

west region

Gary Towne Tom Flood Ryan McWilliams Chico State Grand Canyon Alaska Anchorage Women’s Head COY Women’s Assistant COY Men’s Assistant COY Men’s Head COY

Helen Crofts Simon Fraser Women’s Track AOY

Fred Taylor Grand Canyon Men’s Track AOY

Vashti Thomas Academy of Art Women’s Field AOY

J Patrick Smith Chico State Men’s Field AOY

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DIVISION IIi 2013 USTFCCCA Regional outdoor atlantic region

Mike Jackson Ramapo Women’s Head COY

Steve Patrick SUNY Cortland Men’s Head COY

Mike Woods Norm Tate SUNY Geneseo Rowan Women’s Assistant COY Men’s Assistant COY

Alyssa Smith SUNY Geneseo Women’s Track AOY

Sean Bernstein SUNY Oneonta Men’s Track AOY

Michelle Favre Ramapo Women’s Field AOY

Tim VanLiew Rutgers-Camden Men’s Field AOY

Joe Dunham Central Men’s Head COY

Melissa Norton Erik Diley Wartburg St. Thomas Women’s Assistant COY Men’s Assistant COY

Taylor Berg St. Thomas Women’s Track AOY

Eli Horton Central Men’s Track AOY

Kaari Jensen Concordia Moorhead Women’s Field AOY

Eric Larson Central Men’s Field AOY

Tyler Mettille Mount Union Men’s Track AOY

Elizabeth Evans Rose-Hulman Women’s Field AOY

Danisha Higgs Albright Women’s Track AOY

Jordan Schilit Haverford Men’s Track AOY

central region

Marcus Newsom Wartburg Women’s Head COY

great lakes region

Kevin Lucas Matthew Cole Brian Diemer Mount Union Rose-Hulman Calvin Women’s Head COY Women’s Assistant COY Men’s Assistant COY Men’s Head COY

Mary Mahoney Mount Union Women’s Track AOY

Tom Postema Defiance Men’s Field AOY

mideast region

Joel Hoffsmith Elizabethtown Women’s Head COY

Vince Touey Widener Men’s Head COY

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Eric Price Judy Bataille Salisbury Salisbury Women’s Assistant COY Men’s Assistant COY

Micah Leonard Moravian Women’s Field AOY

Dylan Bilka Penn State Behrend Men’s Field AOY

Coaches & Athletes of the Year DIVISION IiI midwest region

Pat Healy UW-La Crosse Women’s Head COY

Josh Buchholtz Jake Gabrilska UW-La Crosse UW-Oshkosh Men’s Head COY Women’s Assistant COY

Derek Stanley UW-La Crosse Men’s Assistant COY

Christy Cazzola UW-Oshkosh Women’s Track AOY

Thurgood Dennis UW-Eau Claire Men’s Track AOY

Melissa Norville Illinois College Women’s Field AOY

Isaac Vazquez UW-La Crosse Men’s Field AOY

new england region

Kristen Morwick Tufts Women’s Head COY

Ethon Barron Tufts Men’s Head COY

Lisa Wallin-LeClair Tufts Women’s Assistant COY

Todd Goewey Bates Men’s Assistant COY

Molly Rouillard Bridgewater State Women’s Track AOY

Adam Scalesse Coast Guard Men’s Track AOY

Kelly Allen Tufts Women’s Field AOY

David Pless Bates Men’s Field AOY

south/southeast region

John Curtin Emory Women’s Head COY

Doug Thomasey Carl Blickle Lynchburg Roanoke Men’s Head COY Women’s Assistant COY

Emily Krizmanic UT Tyler Men’s Assistant COY

Tiarra Goode Birmingham-Southern Women’s Track AOY

Randy Lott Virginia Wesleyan Men’s Track AOY

Elizabeth Krug Hendrix Women’s Field AOY

Roy Buck Thompson UT Tyler Men’s Field AOY

west region

Kendra Reimer Claremont-MuddScripps Women’s Head COY

Toby Schwarz Whitworth Men’s Head COY

Doug Beatty George Fox Women’s Assistant COY

Kelly Beck Claremont-MuddScripps Men’s Assistant COY

Melissa Skiba Cal Lutheran Women’s Track AOY

German Fabela Whittier Men’s Track AOY

Beth Stam George Fox Women’s Field AOY

Carter Comito Whitworth Men’s Field AOY

august 2013

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Updates from the NCAA Eligibility Center by leigh ann kennedy

n the last installment of Updates from the NCAA Eligibility Center, we focused on providing resources relating to the Eligibility Center’s educational efforts regarding the new eligibility requirements for NCAA Divisions I and II. In this quarter’s edition, we will hone in on the specific requirements for cross country and track and field athletes who wish to compete at an NCAA Division I institution as a Full Academic Qualifier. Please keep in mind that these requirements apply to collegebound student-athletes who plan to enroll at an NCAA Division I college or university on or after August 1, 2016.

• 3 years math at Algebra I level or higher; • 2 years natural or physical science (one lab if offered at any high school attended); • 1 year additional English, math or natural/physical science; • 2 years social science; and • 4 years additional from areas above or foreign language, philosophy or comparative religion. • Minimum required GPA: • Minimum GPA of 2.300 required for competition in those 16 core courses. • Graduate from high school.

Summary of Changes

Core-Course Progression for a Division I Full Qualifier

• Minimum core-course GPA of 2.300 required for competition; • Ten core courses (seven of which must be in the area of English, Math or Science) required before beginning of seventh semester for competition; and • Slight changes in GPA/test score index (sliding scale).

• Must complete 10 core courses before seventh semester of high school (e.g., senior year). • Of the 10 core courses completed, seven must be in the area of English, Math, or Science. • These 10 core courses become “locked in” for the purpose of corecourse GPA calculation. (Note: a repeat of one of the “locked in” courses will not be used if taken after the seventh semester begins.)

Possible Academic Outcomes

• Full qualifier = competition, athletics aid (scholarship), and practice the first year. • Academic redshirt = athletics aid the first year, practice in first regular academic term (semester or quarter). • Nonqualifier = no athletics aid, practice or competition the first year. Requirements for a Division I Full Qualifier

• 16 core courses in the following areas: • 4 years English; 56

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Changes in the Division I Sliding Scale

• The full sliding scale can be found out www.eligibilitycenter.org under “Resources.” Leigh Ann Kennedy is the Assistant Director of Amateurism Certification at the NCAA Eligibility Center. She can be reached at lkennedy@ncaa.org