Techniques August 2015

contents

Volume 9 Number 1 / August 2015

in every issue

4 A Letter from the President 5 USTFCCCA Presidents

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FEATURES

8 Energy Systems & Training

Physiology of the jumping events

Boo Schexnayder

20 Zinc Supplementation

In high school distance runners

Scott L. Christensen and Dr. Janet E. Steele

34 The Long Sprint

Reclassifying the 800m

Mike Cox

42 Inspiring Excellence

Enhancing performance through effective cues

Talen Singer

46 What’s Often Overlooked

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The “other” components of training programs

AWARDS

55 USTFCCCA National

Outdoor Coaches & Athletes of the Year 56 Division I: USTFCCCA Regional

Outdoor Coaches & Athletes of the Year 58 Division II: USTFCCCA Regional

Outdoor Coaches & Athletes of the Year 60 Division III: USTFCCCA Regional

Outdoor Coaches & Athletes of the Year 62 Junior College Regional Outdoor

Coaches & Athletes of the Year

COVER

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Photograph courtesy of Kirby Lee AUGUST 2015 techniques

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A LETTER FROM THE PRESIDENT Publisher Sam Seemes Executive Editor Mike Corn Contributing Editor Sylvia Kamp

B

efore we advance through the summer and into another school year, I would like to thank Beth Alford-Sullivan for her hard work these past two years as president of USTFCCCA. She and the rest of the board of directors have done a tremendous job of moving us forward. I would also like to thank the officers of all divisions that have put in countless hours of work that continues to make our organization the finest coaches association around.

It is great pride that I have the opportunity to represent our organization as president for the next two years. I look forward to helping guide our membership to fulfill our highest potential as we move forward.

Much like our teams, in order to be successful we will need more of our membership to help carry the torch, load, and mission forward. Doing things such as pitching in and serving on committees, serving as an officer, teaching clinics, participating in anyway helpful. Our membership numbers are at the all time high, if we can have good participation from many of you, we will have an even brighter future together.

I would like to welcome our newest members from the NAIA and NJCAA to USTFCCCA. Your addition makes us a united collegiate force, and it is an exciting time to work together.

As we begin working on our individual programs for this year, please take the opportunity as you come across association issues to share these with your regional reps and divisional presidents well before the convention. I would like for all of our divisions to make timely, informed decisions and move agendas along. Getting more input and participation from you will help us accomplish many things this year.

Finally, as you are planning your academic year, I want to remind you to place the 2015 USTFCCCA Convention on your calendar of events.

This year’s convention will take place at the JW Marriott Hill Country resort in San Antonio on December 15-18. The convention is a one stop shop of educational programs, networking opportunities, awards programs and a great platform to get involved with your association. There will also be a number of Track & Field Academy programs offered on the front and back end of the convention for you to take advantage of.

Good luck to all of your cross country teams this fall.

Damon Martin President, USTFCCCA Director of Cross Country and Track and Field Adams State University. ddmartin@adams.edu

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DIRECTOR OF MEDIA, BROADCASTING AND ANALYTICS Tom Lewis DIRECTOR OF COMMUNICATIONS

Kyle Terwillegar Membership Services Dave Svoboda Photographer Kirby Lee Editorial Board Tommy Badon, Todd

Lane, Boo Schexnayder, Derek Yush

Published by Renaissance Publishing LLC 110 Veterans Memorial Blvd., Suite 123, Metairie, LA 70005 (504) 828-1380 myneworleans.com USTFCCCA

National Office 1100 Poydras Street, Suite 1750 New Orleans, LA 70163 Phone: 504-599-8900 Fax: 504-599-8909 Techniques (ISSN 1939-3849) is published quarterly in February, May, August and November by the U.S. Track & Field and Cross Country Coaches Association. Copyright 2014.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any manner, in whole or in part, without the permission of the publisher. techniques is not responsible for unsolicited manuscripts, photos and artwork even if accompanied by a self-addressed stamped envelope. The opinions expressed in techniques are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the view of the magazines’ managers or owners. Periodical Postage Paid at New Orleans La and Additional Entry Offices.

POSTMASTER: Send address changes to: USTFCCCA, PO Box 55969, Metairie, LA 700555969. If you would like to advertise your business in techniques, please contact Mike Corn at (504) 599-8900 or mike@ustfccca.org.

DIVISION PRESIDENTs DIVISION I DENNIS SHAVER

Dave Smith

Dennis Shaver is the Head Men’s and Women’s Track and Field Coach at Louisiana State University. Dennis can be reached at shaver@lsu.edu

Dave Smith is the Director of Track & Field and Cross Country at Oklahoma State University. Dave can be reached at dave.smith@okstate.edu

Ryan Dall

Mark Misch

Ryan Dall is the head Track & Field and Cross Country coach at Texas A&M Kingsville. Ryan can be reached at ryan.dall@tamuk.edu

Mark Misch is the head Cross Country coach at the University of Colorado-Colorado Springs.

Mark can be reached at mmisch@uccs.edu

Gary Aldrich

Robert Shankman

Gary is the Associate Head Track & Field Coach at Carnegie Melon University and can be reached at galdrich@andrew.cmu.edu

Robert is the Head Cross Country and Track & Field coach at Rhodes College and can be reached at shankman@ rhodes.edu

Jerry Monner

Brad Jenny

Jerry Monner is the head Track & Field coach at Grand View University. Jerry can be reached at jmonner@grandview.edu

Brad Jenny is the head Cross Country coach at Doane College. Brad can be reached at brad.jenny@doane.edu

Ted Schmitz

Don Cox

Ted Schmitz is the head Track & Field coach at Cloud County Community College.

Ted can be reached at tschmitz@cloud.edu

Don Cox is the head Track & Field and Cross Country coach at Cuyahoga Community College.

Don can be reached at donald.cox@tri-c.edu

NCAA Division I Track and Field

NCAA Division I Cross Country

DIVISION II NCAA Division II Track & Field

NCAA Division II Cross Country

DIVISION III NCAA Division III Track and Field

NCAA Division III Cross Country

NAIA NAIA Track & Field

NAIA Cross Country

njcaa NJCAA Track & Field

NJCAA Cross Country

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Energy Systems & Training Physiology of the Jumping Events Boo Schexnayder

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kirby lee photo

Energy System Physiology The Energy Systems The energy systems are responsible for providing ATP, an energy rich compound to fuel the work and recovery of cells. There are three such systems: the alactic acid energy system, the glycolytic energy system, and the aerobic energy system.

ATP, or andenosine triphosphate, is the basic fuel of muscle contraction. The purpose of all energy systems is to produce ATP from various substrates. ATP produces energy from the breaking of a chemical bond, separating ATP into andenosine diphosphate (ADP) and inorganic phosphate (Pi).

The Alactic Acid Energy System The alactic acid energy system uses ATP available in muscle for immediate energy. It synthesizes additional ATP from ADP and Pi present in the form of creatine phosphate.

This system requires no fueling and creates no by-products that harm performance, but can provide energy for only 6-7 seconds. The alactic acid system is the primary system used in jumps competition. Jump training programs employ great volumes of training activities that use and challenge this system.

For this reason, in spite of its importance, concerted efforts to train this system are usually unnecessary.

The Glycolytic Energy System The glycolytic energy system makes ATP available for muscle contraction and other purposes using glycogen as a substrate. The anaerobic system can provide energy for very intense work for an extended period of time, approximately 90 seconds. This system eventually produces lactic acid and an acidic state that ceases performance. The glycolytic system enables us to produce energy at a rate that surpasses our oxidative phosphorylation capabilities. Time is required at the completion of work to buffer blood acidity, clear lactate and remove other by-products.

Glycolytic requirements for the jumps do exist, but are secondary to other performance factors. For this reason glycolytic development in jumps training programs should be addressed in a very specific manner, with respect to these concerns.

Many activities in jumps training programs have a high glycolytic component, so some glycolytic development work is necessary to permit handling of certain volumes of specific training.

Fostering Recovery. There is evidence that moderate levels of lactic acid produce blood chemistry and endocrine changes favorable to strength development, speed development, and recovery. Achievement of moderate AUGUST 2015 techniques

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Energy systems & training lactate levels is a goal of most restorative training sessions and some speed/power oriented sessions.

Lactate Shock. Severe acidic states associated with this type of training may have temporary negative effects on efficiency of the neuromuscular system. This fact, along with the limited need for this type of work, implies that care should be taken in the scheduling of this work and its amount.

The Aerobic Energy System The Aerobic Energy System makes ATP available for muscle contraction and other purposes using fat or glycogen as a substrate. The aerobic system uses oxygen while producing ATP. The aerobic system is very efficient at producing energy per molecule of oxygen and substrate, but it cannot keep up with the demand for ATP at high work intensities.

Aerobic requirements for jumps are minimal and secondary to other performance factors. Aerobic fitness helps to withstand large training loads and permits easier recovery from exercise, but is never the limiting factor in performance.

The aerobic system is in use, even during glycolytic activities, and recovery is an aerobic process. This provides sufficient opportunity for aerobic development during training as a consequence of the total training load. For these reasons, jump training programs should not contain units devoted to aerobic development. In fact, excessive aerobic activity produces changes in myosin isoforms that harm its speed and power production capabilities.

Figure 1

Neurophysiology – The Nervous System The nervous system is one of the body’s two control networks. The nervous system recruits and activates muscle tissue to meet force production needs. The nervous system’s effectiveness at recruiting muscle tissue is critical, and the characteristics of the nervous system dictate to some degree the characteristics of skeletal muscle tissue. For these reasons, the effectiveness of the nervous system is possibly the greatest single factor in performance, and training the nervous system may be the most important goal of training in speed and power oriented sports.

The nervous system is composed of a central nervous system (CNS) and a peripheral nervous system. The CNS consists of the brain and the spinal cord. The peripheral nervous system consists of the branch nerves and the neuromuscular junctions.

These branch nerves can be afferent or efferent. Efferent nerves effect action, while afferent nerves are sensory in nature.

A neuron is a nerve cell. Its purpose is to conduct a neural impulse to muscle tissue, or to another neuron. The nerve cell is composed of a soma (cell body), a axon, and a dendrite. The axon conducts the neural impulse toward the cell body, while the dendrite conducts the impulse away from the cell body.

Motor neurons are neurons that, when activated, stimulate skeletal muscle tissue and produce muscle contraction.

The neural impulse is basically composed of electrical pulses. If a neuron receives these pulses, and the pulses are of

sufficient magnitude, the affected neuron is stimulated to conduct the impulse.

The all or none principle states that there are no varying degrees of conduction, and neurons operate on an on-or-off basis. If the neural signal received is sufficient, the neuron will conduct the received impulse. If a motor neuron is sufficiently stimulated, all muscle fibers affected by that motor neuron will be stimulated into contraction. For these reasons, control of the force of muscular contraction is not possible at the cellular level.

Myophysiology Skeletal muscles produce the force needed during performance. This force is produced as the muscle contracts, applying force at its points of attachment to the skeleton. The muscles and bones effectively operate as lever systems during force application.

The sarcomere is the smallest unit of muscle tissue that is capable of demonstrating contractile qualities. Many sarcomeres combine to form muscle fibers and entire muscles. The sarcomere consists of noncontractile proteins (proteins not involved in the contraction process) that provide structure to the muscle tissue, and contractile proteins (proteins involved in the contraction process).

There are two types of contractile protein filaments, thick and thin. The thin filaments are composed of the proteins actin, troponin, and tropomyosin. They are attached to Z-discs, which are noncontractile protein ends of the sarcomere, and extend toward the middle of the sarcomere. Thick filaments are composed of the protein myosin, found in the middle of the sarcomere, and lie between the thin filaments. Also in the sarcomere is a structure called the sarcoplasmic recticulum, which houses materials needed for the contraction process. (See Figure 1)

The Sliding Filament Theory Each thick fiber possesses many crossbridges, which extend toward the thin filaments. There is a head at the end of each crossbridge, capable of carrying an ATP molecule. Actin and myosin have a chemical affinity for each other, but in this situation the actin found in the thin filaments cannot bond with the thick filament. This is because actin bonding sites are not available when the actin molecules are assembled in combination with the other thin filament proteins.

When sufficient neural stimulation contraction is applied at the neuromuscular junction, filaments attach and slide against each other, producing movement.

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Steps of this process are as follows: (See Figure 2) Acetycholine Release. The neurotransmitter acetycholine is released at the neuromuscular junction.

Calcium Release. Acetycholine triggers the release of calcium ions from the sarcoplasmic recticulum into the sarcomere. If enough calcium is released, the succeeding steps will occur.

There are no degrees of contraction. This is referred to as the threshold response principle.

Shape Changes. The calcium ions bond with the troponin molecules, causing a cascade of shape changes in the thin filament. These changes make actin bonding sites available to the myosin crossbridge heads.

Crossbridge Head Bonding. The crossbridge heads bind to the thin filaments at a 90 degree angle (if an ATP molecule is present), and ADP is released.

Crossbridge Head Swiveling. The crossbridge head swivels to a 45 degree angle, causing movement, and Pi is released.

Bond Breaking. If ATP is present, the bond is then broken, and the process may repeat, if calcium ions are still present in the sarcomere. ATP is required to form the bond, and to break the bond.

The Calcium Pump. A calcium pump mechanism exists in the sarcomere, pumping calcium out constantly, so that calcium ions do not linger in the sarcomere. This prevents prolonged contractions. All contractions in their simplest form are twitching type contractions. Prolonged contractions of a muscle are comprised of many of these twitchlike contractions. (See Figure 2)

Motor Unit Physiology A motor unit consists of a motor neuron (a nerve cell that activates muscle fiber, effecting motor activity), and all the muscle fibers that cell innervates. The group of fibers is normally scattered throughout a muscle, and is called a pool of fibers.

Motor units may function in one of two ways. Volitional Function involves cognitive activity that originates the transmission of impulses to the motor neuron, activating it and producing contraction in its pool of fibers. Movement is consciously originated.

The Reflex Arc involves a signal generated by some sensory organ or proprioceptor being transmitted to the motor neuron, activating it and producing contraction in its pool of fibers. The brain is left out of the loop, and movement is not consciously originated. This type of movement is used in all reflex actions. (See Figure 3)

Types of Motor Units There are three types of motor units that we will distinguish, differentiated by motor neuron size, fueling enzyme activity, and fiber type.

Type I. These motor units have small motor neurons, are oxidatively fueled, and exhibit low speeds of contraction.

Type IIa. These motor units have larger motor neurons, are fueled more glycolytically, and exhibit higher speeds of contraction.

Type IIb. These motor units have the largest motor neurons, are fueled glycolytically, and exhibit high speeds of contraction.

Physiology of Force and Velocity As indicated in our discussion of the all or none principle, the

energy systems & training Figure 2

Figure 3

body cannot control force production by altering the magnitude of signal from the nervous system. Force must then be controlled in these other ways: Recruitment. More motor units are called into play as force production needs rise. Each unit has a unique threshold of response, so those with lower thresholds are recruited first, etc. The order of recruitment deserves examination. The size principle states that size is the primary determinant of recruitment order; the smallest motor unit is recruited first, then others are recruited in order of size until the largest is recruited last. The advantage of the size principle is that the order of recruitment is predetermined, saving time. The disadvantage is that the smaller units must first be recruited before the large ones can be called into play. Also, training must occur at high intensities if the largest motor units are to be trained. There may be exceptions to the size principle. There is evidence that in reflexive actions smaller units may be bypassed and larger ones recruited initially.

Rate Coding. Rate coding refers to the ability of the nervous system to increase the frequency of the neural impulses. If these impulses occur sufficiently close together, then the next impulse may begin before the previous subsides completely, allowing an aggregate increase in the magnitude of the impulse. Tetanus results when these individual impulses merge into one sustained impulse. Speed-and-power-related activities seem to have a positive effect on rate coding capabilities.

Temporal Patterning and Synchronization.

Temporal Patterning and synchronization refer to the ability of the body to call motor units into play in a particular sequence with a particular timing. This unique pattern of timing of recruitment results in a greater total force production. Speed-and-powerrelated activities seem to have a positive effect on temporal patterning and synchronization capabilities.

Force and Velocity Force and velocity are the two characteristics of the muscle contraction most important to performance. Force is determined by the number of crossbridges attached.

Velocity is determined by the rate of cross-

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Energy systems & training

Rate Coding and Temporal Synchronization.

Achieving improvements in these force control strategies dictate the necessity of training at high levels of power output.

Force and Velocity. The differing mechanisms of force and velocity production dictate training along all points of the force-velocity curve.

Motor Unit Types. The documented effects upon mysosin isoform changes would dictate that no chronic activity or aerobically based training regimes be used in speed-power training, and that all training must exhibit some significant level of power output, punctuated with significant rest opportunities to minimize accumulative fatigue.

Physiology of Fatigue The contractile mechanisms may fatigue due to failure of the energy systems or buildup of waste products. This type of fatigue is commonly classified as metabolic fatigue, and recovery rates from this type of fatigue in humans are relatively quick.

Most fatigue encountered in jumps training results from the accelerated buildup of ADP and inorganic phosphate in the sarcomere.

Fatigue may also occur in the nervous system (neural fatigue), at the neuromuscular junction, in the branch nerve, or in the CNS. This type of fatigue is quite different from metabolic fatigue, and recovery from this type of fatigue occurs at a much slower rate. CNS fatigue that is commonly observed is thought by some to be an inhibitory response, designed to prevent harm to other fatigued tissues. bridge cycling, which is determined by the myosin isoform (subtype) found in the sarcomere. Force and velocity are generated independently.

Force and velocity of contraction are inversely proportional to each other. As one increases, the other must decrease.

This is because at high speeds, crossbridge cycling becomes less efficient, thus reducing the force produced. We can train power by altering the rate of force or velocity loss, but we cannot change the nature of this inverse relationship. (See Figure 4)

Motor Unit Type Determination Research shows that usage patterns are 14

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the single most important factor that determines the speed of contractions.

Chronically used fibers tend to shift toward slower contraction speeds and oxidative fueling to increase metabolic efficiency.

Inactivity produces faster contracting fibers, as does high speed training. This lends itself to a philosophy of training for high speed movement that includes high speeds of movement in training, lower volumes, and longer rest intervals.

Training Implications Recruitment. The size principle dictates some training at maximal intensities is essential to train the largest motor units.

Types of Muscle Contractions There are three types of muscle contractions: concentric, eccentric, and isometric.

In a concentric contraction, movement results as contraction takes place and the muscle shortens. The contracting muscle performs work. In an eccentric contraction, the muscle lengthens in spite of the engagement of the contractile mechanisms. The contraction resists the lengthening of the muscle. Finally, in an isometric contraction, there is an absence of joint movement in spite of the engagement of the contractile mechanisms. In an isometric contraction, no movement takes place and stabilization of a joint occurs. kirby lee photo

Energy systems & Training Neuromechanics of the Stretch Shortening Cycle Muscles contract more forcefully when they are stretched immediately prior to the contraction.

This prestretching, along with the enhanced subsequent contraction and energy production is called the stretch shortening cycle (SSC). The muscles reaction to this prestretch is called the elastic response. The stretch shortening cycle plays a crucial role in performance.

The mechanical energy produced in this sequence of muscle activity, resulting in increased force production is called elastic energy. This energy is created at no metabolic cost.

We must simply use techniques that elicit this reflex in order to gain this benefit.

In the stretch shortening cycle, we see contraction patterns that occur in the following sequence: Isometric Preparation. Isometric contraction prior to impact, in order to stabilize the joints and prepare them for impact.

Eccentric Activity. Eccentric contraction upon impact, as the muscles resists the lengthening they are being forced to undergo. This phase is commonly called the amortization phase.

Concentric Work. Concentric contraction, beginning when the lengthening phase ends, resulting in concentric work.

The elastic energy produced in the stretch shortening cycle come from several sources.

Noncontractile proteins are proteins that stretch and rebound, contributing to the elastic response.

Contractile proteins are filaments that stretch and rebound provided crossbridges are attached, contributing to the elastic response.

In a proprioceptively signaled contraction, proprioceptors in the muscle sense the prestretch and transmit a signal that stimulates a Figure 4

motor neuron, producing contraction.

Finally, connective tissue can stretch and rebound, contributing to the elastic effect. Tendons in particular are capable of storing great amounts of elastic energy, so much so that the tendon is considered to possess its own elastic reflex.

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Anabolic Hormones

The quality of the initial isometric preparation determines to a great degree the quality of the succeeding eccentric and concentric phases. For this reason, teaching proper isometric preparation of the affected body part is a necessary coaching practice.

Coupling time is the time required for eccentric to concentric conversion. The prestretch and the associated coupling times in SSC activities are to be optimized, not minimized or maximized. Maximized coupling times are associated with excessive prestretch and collapse, minimized coupling times are associated with insufficient prestretch and rigidity.

Testosterone is a male sex hormone, but it is found in some degree in both males and females. Its presence normally indicates an anabolic state of the organism.

Elevated testosterone levels are nearly always associated with improved athletic performance.

Growth hormone is produced by the pituitary gland. It regulates growth by stimulating the formation of bone and the uptake of amino acids, molecules which are vital to building muscle and other tissue. Its presence is important to foster recovery from exercise.

Insulin is a hormone produced by the pancreas. It causes cells in the liver, muscle, and fat tissue to take up glucose from the blood, storing it as glycogen in the liver and muscle. It also assists in regulating protein metabolism.

The Length – Tension Curve

Catabolic Hormones

The length of the muscle prior to contraction dictates the amount of force it can produce upon contraction. As the muscle is stretched, force production capabilities may greatly exceed 100% of its force production capabilities at normal resting length. The intensities involved in competition regularly force skeletal muscle into eccentric situations, so all training and rehabilitation activities must employ eccentric work.

(See Figure 5)

Cortisol is a hormone that causes a breakdown of stored protein molecules and an increase in the concentration of circulating amino acids. It also promotes fatty acid release and stimulates formation of sugar from non-carbohydrate sources. Elevated cortisol levels are usually associated with heavy training or overtraining.

Glucagon raises blood glucose levels.

Its effect is opposite that of insulin.

Glucagon also stimulates the release of insulin, so glucose can be taken up and used by insulin-dependent tissues.

Thus, glucagon and insulin are part of a feedback system that keeps blood glucose levels stable.

Quality of the Stretch Shortening Cycle

Neuroendocrine Physiology The neuroendocrine system is one of the body’s two control systems. It operates by releasing controlling substances called hormones into the bloodstream in response to certain neural signals.

The hormone acts as a chemical messenger that transports a signal from one cell to another. In this section, we will examine various types of hormones, their function, and the role of the neuroendocrine system in jumps training and performance.

Hormones can be classified into two groups: anabolic and catabolic.

Anabolic hormones are associated with the enhancement of protein reactions,

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while catabolic hormones are associated with the breakdown of molecules.

There are many different human hormones, but we will confine our discussion to these.

Training Implications Research shows that high training intensity, and low volumes, with long recovery times between exercise bouts, are associated with improved endocrine profiles in men. Moderate intensities, with higher volumes are associated with improved endocrine profiles in women.

These increases generally improve the organism’s anabolic state. While it is believed that these responses are primarily due to testosterone increases,

Energy systems & Training Figure 5

growth hormone level changes may be a part of this as well.

Research also shows that higher training volumes are associated with growth hormone increases, especially for athletes with younger training ages. These volumes normally take the form of high repetition/low resistance schemes.

Neuromechanics of the Proprioceptive System Proprioceptors are sensory organs that obtain and transmit information about body positions and movements. The proprioceptive system is responsible for body awareness, control of movement, and kinesthetic sense. The proprioceptive system, via its sensory function, is also a part of many of the body’s reflex actions. In the jumping events, we are concerned primarily with muscle spindles, Golgi tendon organs, Pacinian corpuscles, and Ruffini endings.

Muscle spindles are small organs found in the fleshy part of the muscles.

They primarily sense the magnitude of stretch placed upon the muscle. When stimulated, they reflexively signal muscle 18

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contraction.

Golgi tendon organs are small organs found in the area where the muscle and tendon join. They primarily sense the rate of stretch placed upon the muscle. When stimulated beyond their response threshold, they reflexively signal muscle relaxation.

Pacinian corpuscles are small organs found in the joint capsule. They convey a signal of long duration, relating static joint position information.

Ruffini endings are sets of nerve endings found in the joint capsule. They are stimulated by joint movements and send a signal of short duration. They are involved in sensing joint movements.

These four do not by any means make up a complete list. There are numerous other proprioceptors, most notably the vestibular equipment responsible for stability and balance, cutaneous receptors in the skin, and pain receptors.

Propriceptive Function Proprioceptive ability is directly related to coordination abilities. The ability to learn complex skills is greatly determined by the ability to obtain, receive, and

process proprioceptively gained information. Training proprioception is normally accomplished through activities that demand and challenge coordination and balance. It is also possible to develop improvements in proprioception by providing a variety of stimuli in the training environment. This may include changing the training order of frequently used training activities from time to time. This variety demands the body to coordinate movement under various states of proprioceptive fatigue, thus forcing the body to rely more strongly on nonfatigued proprioceptor types.

A clear understanding of the physiological factors at play with speed and power events such as the jumps will greatly enhance the coaches’ ability to formulate effective training plans for his or her athletes and help them realize their potential.

Editor’s note: This article was taken from the curriculum of the Jumps Specialist Certification of the Track & Field Academy. Boo Schexnayder is the Director of the Track & Field Academy and the author of this excerpt.

Zinc Supplementation in High School Distance Runners

by Scott L. Christensen and Dr. Janet E. Steele

kirby lee photo

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Zinc Supplementation

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nfluence of zinc supplementation on three self-reported respiratory health indicators in a sample of adolescent distance runners. Purpose: Zinc supplementation was administered concurrently with 40 miles per week of aerobic distance training in adolescent male runners to isolate the influence of the supplementation on the respiratory health of the subjects. Methods: Twenty male adolescent athletes capable of voluntarily running every day at a training volume of 40 miles per week for a 10 week experimental period were studied.

During the training period 10 subjects orally supplemented 15 mg of mineral zinc in tablet form every day to their normal diet. Every other day they completed a self-inventory assessment of upper respiratory tract infections (URTI) symptoms, using the Daily Analysis of Life’s Demand for Athletes (DALDA).

Results: Subjects who consumed zinc supplements daily did not show a significantly different number of days expressing the three key symptoms of URTI compared with non-supplemented, similarly trained, placebo group subjects (p=.46, p=.40, p=.20). Conclusion: The zinc supplemented adolescent athletes showed some positive variance in affected days of URTI symptoms, although the difference was not statistically significant. These results suggest that adolescent distance runners do not profit from 15 mg zinc supplementation to their daily diet with regard to reduction of URTI. Further studies might include a comprehensive inventory of the subject’s diet to accompany a zinc supplementation study protocol of distance runners.

INTRODUCTION The importance of ingesting the trace mineral zinc on a regular basis has been scientifically shown to be part of a good nutrition plan for all humans (36).

Ideally, humans need to replenish 1% of their baseline zinc supply each day, with the best source being red meat from beef or lamb (40). Since the discovery in 1963 of the significance of dietary zinc in human physiology, many mechanisms responsible for the patho-physiology of zinc deficiency have become clear (36).

The observed association between the increased susceptibility to immune22

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deficiency, infectious diseases, and low human plasma zinc concentrations led physiologists and nutritionists to speculate that there must be a link between zinc and immunity function (23).

Zinc deficiency in humans is mainly due to a lack of bio-available zinc in the diet, general malnutrition or malabsorption (48). Studies indicate that specific populations of humans such as vegetarians, pregnant women, the elderly, the under-fed, and endurance athletes, particularly those who adopt a diet rich in carbohydrate but low in protein and fat, are at risk for zinc deficiency (24, 25). This may lead to loss of body weight, latent fatigue, and a compromised immune system (49).

Zinc is known to be essential for all highly proliferating cells in the human body, especially the immune system (19). Low plasma zinc levels in humans impair natural killer cell activity and phagocytosis by macrophages and neutrophils (20). However, zinc is important even for the maturation and functioning of T-cells because zinc is an essential cofactor for the nonapeptidic thymus hormone thymulin, an immunity mediator (16). Thymulin is secreted by thymic epithelial cells, and requires the presence of zinc for its biological activity (5).

This peptide promotes T-cell maturation, cytotoxicity, and IL-2 production, all of which are key components of the human immune system (8). Zinc has been shown to bind to thymulin in a 1:1 stoichiometry via the side chains of the amino acid asparagine and the hydroxyl groups of the two serines (13). Thymulin activity in mammals is dependent on plasma zinc concentration, so marginal changes in zinc intake or availability affect thymulin activity (8). Thymulin is detectable in the serum of zinc deficient patients but is not active (11). In addition, zinc is a major intracellular regulator of lymphocyte apoptosis (12).

Lymphopenia, which is linked to zinc deficiency is due to an alteration in the production of lymphocytes, is evidenced by the loss of precursor cells via an apoptotic mechanism and is evidenced by an increased amount of glucocorticoids leading to depression of the immune system (44).

The human body contains 2-4 g of zinc, and occurs in a concentration

of 12-16 μmol/L in the plasma (24).

Although the zinc plasma pool is very small, it is highly mobile and immunologically very important (41). Nutritional zinc requirements are difficult to determine since many dietary factors affect the bioavailability of zinc, and physiological requirements of zinc vary greatly between age groups (1). However, recommended daily allowances [RDA by the U.S. National Research Council 1989] of 12-15 mg for all adolescents and 15 mg for adult males appear reasonable to achieve a normal plasma zinc level of 11-18 μmol/L (48). On the other end of the scale, it has been difficult to determine what the healthy upper limit of the daily dietary or supplemental zinc ingestion for humans (47). The World Health Organization established safe upper limits of daily zinc intake at 13 mg for infants up to one year, 23 mg for children aged 1-6 years, 32-34 mg for adolescents and up to 50 mg for adults (48). However, it appears that these recommendations are based on short-term trials and they do not take into account the possible long-term hazards of zinc supplementation (37). A literature review discussion by Favier included this statement: “Most of the authors agree in considering 50 mg of daily zinc supplementation as safe over the ages of 14 years” (9). Another study recommended a total intake of only 20 mg of zinc daily for adolescents (29).

At supplemental zinc dosages of 100-300 mg per day, which would be 10 times the daily requirement, diminished lymphocyte proliferation, neutrophil chemotaxis and phagocytosis have been reported in humans (4). Studies also show that monocytes and T-cells show a different susceptibility to high zinc dosages. High zinc levels stimulate monocytes, but T-cell function is impaired at much lower zinc plasma concentration (48). This may help explain why both high and low high plasma zinc concentrations appear to suppress the immune system (6).

Because of the problematic nature of establishing an adequate human zinc dosage, the 1989 RDA committee recommended that daily (chronic) ingestion of zinc supplements at not exceeding 15 mg per day without medical supervision [National Research Council 1989] (3).

Zinc Supplementation

Immunosuppression in athletes involved in substantial amounts of endurance training is undoubtedly multifactorial in origin (14). Dietary deficiencies by such athletes of protein and other micronutrients have long been associated with immune dysfunction (21). An adequate intake of iron, zinc, and B vitamins is particularly important in proper nutrition, however there are dangers in large doses and supplementation is a real problem because many micronutrients when taken in large doses actually reduce human immune responses (15). To maintain immune function, endurance athletes should consume a well-balanced diet sufficient to meet their energy demands (10). An athlete exercising in a carbohydrate-depleted state experiences larger increases in circulating stress hormones and a greater perturbation of several immune deficiency symptoms (17). Endurance athletes that maintain a high carbohydrate diet to alleviate carbohydrate depletion stress usually do so at the expense of protein intake (2). Zinc is a micronutrient that is most readily found in animal based proteins, so a diet deficient in animal proteins will lead to low levels of both zinc and iron in athletes (42).

Aerobic running (training of more than 25 miles per week) is considered elite training because of the demands on the

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body (45). Elite training has been suggested as a link to increased susceptibility to upper respiratory tract infections [URTI] during periods of heavy training and the one to two week period following such training (32). Several researchers have reported a diminished neutrophil function in endurance athletes during periods of intense and heavy training (34). Following each bout of prolonged heavy endurance exercise, several components of the immune system appear to demonstrate suppressed function for several hours (27).

Zinc is a fractional component of human sweat, and like other micronutrient components, is lost through the evaporative cooling process of the body and through exhalation especially under dry atmospheric conditions (43). Loss of zinc through sweat, coupled with a dietary deficiency of zinc due to a compromised protein intake, suggests a possible immunological link to low plasma zinc and the increased incidence of URTI that are found in some endurance runners (31, 33).

A large body of epidemiological literature has examined the effects of differing amounts of intensities and exercise on a wide variety of respiratory symptoms.

One published study (18), showed that athletes running approximately 30 miles per week had a significantly higher risk

of self-reported URTI than runners at 15 miles per week. The running/mileage study (28) demonstrated that a single bout of intense exercise can cause serious deficiencies in immune defense when a potentially lethal virus is contracted.

Another study suggests that moderate exercise of 10-15 miles per week actually improves the function of certain T-cells, but exercise in excess of 25 miles per week has a suppressive effect on T-cells (22). Martin (2009) showed symptoms of URTI were seven times higher in a selfreporting inventory among a group of elite endurance runners exercising at 50 miles per week over the group exercising at 25 miles per week.

The goal of this study is to evaluate the influence of 15 mg daily dietary zinc supplementation on the respiratory health of male elite distance runners ages 16-18. While the health benefits of moderate aerobic exercise has been well established (18), intense exercise of lengthy duration is associated with depressed immune systems in both small animal models and in humans (22).

Plasma zinc deficiency has been linked to a depressed immune system. The high carbohydrate/low protein diet of an endurance runner coupled with mineral loss in sweat has been shown to produce a low plasma zinc concentration (46).

MATERIALS AND METHODS Subjects This study was approved by the Internal Review Board (IRB) of the University of Nebraska at Kearney (protocol #12051111). Invitation to participate in the study, youth consent form, and a parent informational letter were mailed to all 78 members of the Stillwater (MN) High School boys’ cross country team. Of the 48 athletes who expressed interest in participating, 20 were chosen at random to serve as subjects. The subjects were then randomly placed into two study groups of ten each. One group served as the experimental group and was given the zinc supplement, and the other 10 subjects served as the control group.

Zinc supplementation The experimental subjects were each given a supply of 70 tablets of 15 mg of zinc (Nash Finch Co, #17863 34563) in a

kirby lee photo

Zinc Supplementation clear plastic bottle. The control (placebo) subjects were given 70 tablets each of a dextrose/green tea tablet (Glucotabs, BBI Healthcare), in an identical bottle.

Both tablet supplies looked similar and the subjects did not know which supplements they were receiving. Each morning at home, subjects orally ingested one of the assigned tablets.

DALDA Questionnaire The subjects were given a folder with their name on it as well as a subject number. In the folder were 35 response sheets and a self-survey inventory question sheet known as the Daily Analysis of Life’s Demands for Athletes (DALDA).

The DALDA inventory consists of 34 questions that self-report a variety of symptoms of both physical and mental stress (39). While the subjects completed the entire questionnaire each time, responses to questions #15 (sore throat), #20 (chest congestion), and #25 (running nose) only were analyzed. Subjects completed the questionnaire every other day for 10 weeks with a total of 35 visits. All three symptoms that were analyzed are physical signs of URTI.

Subject physical training During the 10 week study period, all twenty athletes trained with the same endurance-based dosage protocol at a strict self-governed intensity. The training model used was 40 miles of outdoor winter road training each week. The subjects all trained at 65-70% of their individual VO2 max pace intensities (aerobic threshold). They all ran seven days per week and covered the same distance each day. All subjects maintained a selflog of their daily mileage which was submitted at the completion of the study.

Statistical analysis All data were analyzed using numerical discrete analysis with significance ascribed for p<0.05. A Chi-Square goodness of fit test (x2) was used to analyze the count data (p<0.05 compared with control).

RESULTS Zinc supplemented subjects did not show a significantly different number of days expressing symptoms of URTI

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symptoms compared with the control.

In response to the survey prompt concerning a sore throat (Table 1), the experimental group subjects had a mean of 3.0 days/person of symptom expression, while the control group showed a mean of 4.7 days/person of symptom expression (p=.46, x2=1.55). Responses to the chest congestion symptom prompt (Table 2) showed the experimental group subjects had a mean of 1.2 days/person of symptom expression, while the control group showed a mean of 3.8 days/ person of symptom expression (p=.40, x2=1.83). Regarding the running nose symptom prompt (Table 3), the experimental group had a mean of 1.3 days/ person of symptom expression, while the control group showed a mean of 5.0 days/person of symptom expression (p=.20, x2=3.17). None of these were statistically significant.

Two of the subjects in the control group were impacted by relatively severe episodes of undiagnosed URTI resulting in a high number of days expressing URTI symptoms, ultimately resulting in lost training days. One of the subjects showed 11 days of expression of a sore throat (mean=4.7 days), 11 days expression of chest congestion (mean=3.8 days) and 12 days expression of a running nose (mean=5.0 days). The other subject had 10 days of expression on a sore throat (mean=4.7 days), 15 days expression of chest congestion (mean=3.8 days), and 17 days expression of a running nose (mean=5.0 days).

DISCUSSION Aerobic exercise has been shown to increase the incidence of URTI when weekly training volume dosage exceeds approximately 20 miles per week (28). As training volume increases into the elite athlete category (aerobic elite is defined as athletes capable of >30 miles per week volume) the incidence of URTI increases significantly (28). The current study examined subjects in the 40 mile per week training volume. Any expression of URTI symptoms compromises aerobic fitness training, and in many cases leads to cessation of training for a time until the symptoms diminish. A halt in fitness training influences later competitive success for the athlete (38). It is thus impor-

tant to the health and fitness of the athlete to avoid URTI, minimize the effects of URTI if symptoms are expressed, and shorten the duration of the URTI. A robust immune system is necessary to minimize the deleterious effects of URTI resulting from the infection (26). The effect of aerobic training volumes greater then 20 miles per week compromises the human immune system to a linear degree (28).

During the course of the 10 week treatment period, subjects in the treatment group reported slightly fewer URTI symptoms, better overall health, and fewer affected training days compared to placebo subjects. The difference, however, was not statistically significant.

Elite runners whose athletic activities cause significant physical stress are more susceptible to URTI (30). A previous study reported that nutritional supplementation can modulate the health status of these high-performance athletes (43). In this study on over the counter mineral zinc supplements, a slightly reduced incidence of URTI symptoms concerning respiratory health as measured by the DALDA assessment were reported. Zinc supplemented subjects reported both fewer URTI manifestations and had fewer affected days. The URTI symptoms reported by subjects are typical of cold and flu manifestations, and analogous to symptoms reported in other studies (33). In this current study, a total of URTI symptoms were summed by subject and included three different URTI manifestations. Well-established and clinically valid techniques (DALDA survey, URTI symptoms) were used during the course of this study. Therefore, the results of the three self-reported respiratory symptoms are valid and can be used as the groundwork for future studies on respiratory health status.

Physical and psychological factors of subjects undergoing stressful situations are reported to increase the incidence of URTI (22). Overall, the subjects on 15 mg mineral zinc tablets reported slightly better respiratory health than those in the placebo group.

Mineral zinc supplementation improves immune function in a variety of animal models (19). From helping to prevent anthrax infection and mortal-

Zinc Supplementation Table 1. Daily Analysis of Life’s Demands for Athletes (DALDA) responses for question concerning throat condition (#10) in elite adolescent male distance runners.

Experimental group subjects consumed 15 mg zinc daily.

Mean Number of Responses ________________________________________________________________________

Control (n=10)

Worse than Normal Normal 4.7 29.9

Experimental (n=10)

3.0

31.0

Better than Normal .4

1.0

Table 2. Daily Analysis of Life’s Demands for Athletes (DALDA) responses for question concerning congestion (#20) in elite adolescent male distance runners. Experimental group subjects consumed 15 mg zinc daily.

Mean Number of Responses ________________________________________________________________________

Control (n=10)

Worse than Normal Normal 3.8 30.5

Experimental (n=10)

1.2

30.2

Better than Normal .8

.6

Mean Number of Responses ________________________________________________________________________ Worse than Normal Normal 5.0 29.6

Experimental (n=10)

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This study was made possible by the willing participation of the entire Stillwater (MN) High School Boys Cross Country team. The authors thank Dr. Kevin Bjork, who provided medical expertise regarding oral supplementation, and to Andrew Weaver, who helped maintain the paperwork of the self-assessment inventory

REFERENCES

Table 3. Daily Analysis of Life’s Demands for Athletes (DALDA) responses for question concerning dripping nose (#25) in elite adolescent male distance runners. Experimental group subjects consumed 15 mg zinc daily.

Control (n=10)

ity in mice (19) to reduced duration and severity of cold manifestations in humans (35), zinc supplementation has been shown to be effective. However, zinc is not the only supplement that may help endurance athletes. Vitamin C supplementation in ultra marathoners reduced the duration and severity, but not incidence, of URTI when taken 21 days before an ultra-marathon footrace of 90 km (43).

The current study did not separate URTI duration and severity from symptom incidence. Moreover, the current study did not include a controlled or inventoried diet assessment of the subjects. Since both the zinc supplemented and placebo subjects were running 40 miles per week in training volume it was thought that like many of the elite running level athletes previously studied, their diet was high in carbohydrates and low in protein intake and thus were candidates for dietary zinc deficiency (10).

1.3

33.1

Better than Normal .5

.6

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1990;10:415-431.

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678-84.

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1995;5(6):74-83.

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Nieman D. Exercise Immunology: future directions for research related to athletes, nutrition, and the elderly. Int J Med. 2000a;21(1):61-68.

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2000b;32(7):406-411.

Nieman D. Immune response to heavy exertion. J App Phys. 1997a;82(5):1385-94.

Nieman D. Risk of upper respiratory tract infection in athletes: an epidemiologic and immunologic perspective. J Ath Train. 1997b;32(4):344-49.

Nieman D, Johanssen L and Lee J. Infectious episodes in runners before and after a running roadrace. J Spor Med Phys Fit. 1989;29(3):289-296.

Peake J, Gerrard D and Griiffin J. Plasma zinc and immune markers in runners in response to a moderate increase in training volume. Int J Spor Med. 2003;24(3):212-216.

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2001;4:367-383.

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preparation of Olympic athletes. J Spor Sci. 2009;27(13):1409-20.

Rushall B. A tool for measuring stress tolerance in elite athletes. App Spor Psy. 1990;(2):51-66.

Sandstead M. Zinc requirement and the risk benefit of zinc supplementation. J Tra Ele Med Bio. 2006; 20(1):3-18.

Shanker A and Prasad A. Zinc and immune function: the biological basis of altered resistance to infections. Am J Clin Nutri. 1998;68(2):447-463.

Singh A, Faillla M and Deuster P. Exercise-induced changes in immune function: effects of zinc supplementation. J App Phys. 1994;76(6):2298-2303.

Talbott S and Talbott J. Effect of BETA 1, 3/1, 6 GLUCAN on upper respiratory tract infection symptoms and mood state in marathon athletes. J Spor Med and Sci. 2009;45(8):509-515.

Vallee B. and Falchuk K. The biochemical basis of zinc physiology. Phys Rev. 1993;73:79-118.

Vaughan, R. Hormonal stress on elite endurance runners. Spor Med. 1998:28(4):247-261.

Venkatraman J and Pendergrast D. Effects of dietary intake on immune function in athletes. Spor Med. 2002;32(5):323337.

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Wellinghausen N. Immunobiology of gestational zinc deficiency. Brit J Nutri.

2001;85(2):81-86.

Williams, M. Dietary supplements and sports performance: minerals. J Int Soc Spor Nutri. 2005; 2(1):43-49.

Bios: Scott Christensen has been the Boys Cross Country and Track & Field Coach at Stillwater High School (MN) for over 30 years. He currently heads up the Track & Field Academy’s Endurance program and serves as the program’s lead instructor. Dr. Janet E. Steele is a professor in the Department of Biology at the University of Nebraska at Kearney.

The Long Sprint Reclassifying the 800m

By Mike Cox

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the long sprint

T

he 800-meter race is one of the most challenging and exciting events to race and coach in track.

Tactically, there is no margin for error and it demands that athletes possess a combination of strength, speed, and endurance. The running community generally regards the 800m, along with the mile, as track’s mid-distance events. This perspective influences both the approach to training and racing as well as how talent is funneled for long term development. Recent research on metabolic distribution and pacing strategies challenges this classification. The 800m is an extended sprint similar to the 400m, necessitating a revision of racing and training recommendations.

Energy System Distribution & Race Profiles Scientific research can provide coaches with energetic profiles of running events to establish training intensities, racing tactics, and optimal plans to help athletes reach peak performance. Both aerobic and anaerobic processes contribute significantly to the metabolic demands of long sprint and middle distance events. The Creatine Phosphate (CP) system is able to provide immediate energy without the breakdown of fuels so it is the primary system operating in the very beginning of the race and is able to sustain relatively high intense efforts for roughly 5-20 seconds. For the remainder of the race, the anaerobic glycolytic system supports higher intensity efforts for shorter durations and the aerobic system supports lower intensity efforts for longer durations. The race profile (relative interaction of the energy systems) would therefore be dependent upon the intensity, duration, and type of exercise being

performed (8, 12).

Many current coaching practices have been influenced by earlier misrepresentations of the anaerobic energy contribution to sprint and middle distance running events (8, 33). Figure 1 below illustrates several profiles based upon these early energy system models.

Utilizing this model, it would seem logical for coaches to perceive the 800m and 1500 as sharing a similar profile. Their more even distributions appear distinct from events of shorter and longer durations lending to their designation as track’s “mid-distance” events. These profiles were based on a conceptual model that utilized measures of oxygen debt to quantify anaerobic energy release. This method presented the energy systems as working in a sequential fashion and overrepresented the value of anaerobic energy since it assumed a slow aerobic response rate (8, 20). (See Figure 1) Medbo, Tabata, et al, helped provide a newer system of assessing anaerobic capacity through the Maximal Accumulated 02 Deficit Model (AOD or MAOD) (14, 15). This model showed that aerobic and anaerobic energy releases were important throughout the entire effort, and although both increased with duration, the relative importance of the anaerobic system decreased (14). They concluded that aerobic energy accounted for 40% of the energy release as early as 30 seconds and an equal contribution was found at 60 seconds during the high intensity exercise (14). This contrasted with the earlier research that set the crossover threshold at or after two minutes (14). In addition to providing a new measure of anaerobic capacity, this challenged the existing energetic profiles and demonstrated that energy

Figure 1: Early Profile of Relative Anaerobic/Aerobic Energy Distribution in selected running events (23).

Event

36

Energy Distribution Anaerobic

Aerobic

400

81.5%

18.5%

800

65%

1500 5000

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systems were not utilized in a sequential manner (14, 15).

Additional studies supported the findings of Medbo, et al, and built upon the model to develop a seemingly more accurate energetic profile of running events (5, 7, 8, 21). Figure 2 below illustrates the newer energetic profile of these race distances developed by Spencer and Gastin. In their study, Spencer and Gastin had athletes simulate various pacing strategies, based upon their own racing experiences, to provide a more real world testing scenario (20). While they supported the new AOD model findings they concluded that in treadmill “simulated” race conditions, the crossover occurred even earlier, somewhere between 15 and 30 seconds (20). (See Figure 2) As additional research has demonstrated, the crossover varies between individuals based on training status and distribution values vary based on the specific testing methods utilized by researchers (fixed pace, treadmill, cycling, rowing, etc.). For example, Thomas, et al, questioned Spencer and Gastin’s use of fixed paced treadmill testing since events like the 800 are rarely run at a fixed pace (21). They concluded when utilizing a different test scenario that, contrary to Spencer and Gastin, middle distance runners did actually reach and exceeded V02 max during an 800m race (21).

In surveying various studies from 1990-2001, Duffield, Dawson, and Goodman found that, despite the AOD being a more accurate method for analyzing anaerobic capacity, a wide range of values has been reported by researchers (6). In their study of actual racing conditions, they found that the crossover point occurred at 40-55 seconds

Figure 2: Energetic Profile based upon Spencer & Gastin AOD model (8, 20, 23).

Event

Energy Distribution Anaerobic

Aerobic

400

57%

43%

35%

800

34%

66%

47.5%

52.5%

1500

16%

84%

20%

80%

5000

12%

88%

due to higher velocities earlier in the race, and the general model of distribution percentages established by Gastin & Spencer was accurate (6). Figure 3 illustrates their findings, which highlights that even though there is a greater anaerobic dominance in the 400m, and aerobic dominance in the 800m, they are more similar in their relative profiles than previously understood by scientists and coaches (6). While men and women do exhibit slightly different results due to higher velocities and shorter durations of their respective race performances, the relative pattern remains consistent (6).

(See Figure 3) This new research and more accurate profile illustrates that the previous assumption about the limited role of the aerobic system in sprint and middle distance races (200m-800m) is not supported by modern research. In addition, energy systems do not work in an exclusively sequential fashion. Instead, coaches should perceive the aerobic and anaerobic energy systems as working throughout the whole race in an overlapping fashion with their relative roles shifting depending upon the intensity and duration of the race. The most

important priority for coaches in establishing an annual training plan should be ensuring a balanced approach that does not overemphasize one specific zone.

These newer findings also illustrate that the current classification system of race events as sprint (100m to 400m), mid-distance (800m to 1600m/3k), and distance (3k/5k to Marathon) is outdated. Ultimately, when expressed in relative terms, the evidence of studies, utilizing AOD in actual race scenarios, show that the 800m race is not truly a middle-distance event; rather it is an extended sprint. In many ways, the biggest change from the research is found in the recognition of the significant role of aerobic energy release in the 400m to the degree that it is much more closely related to the 800m than previously accepted within the coaching community (6). Furthermore, when analyzing the newer distribution model it shows that the 1500m should be grouped with the 3k and 5k since they have almost identical energy releases (2, 20, 23).

While individual training backgrounds and racing tactics always factor into the actual racing effort, the 800m necessitates that athletes fully maximize both

aerobic and anaerobic development in their training (4, 13). The effort achieved during the 800m is a near maximum use of anaerobic stores, but there also needs to be a significant aerobic element to sustain the pace (6). While athletes from a wide range of profiles (2, 3) can have success at the 800m, if coaches donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t factor in this unique relative energy distribution they will not help athletes maximize their potential or may incorrectly funnel athletes into an event not suited for their individual profiles. In addition, if the 800m continues to be categorized by coaches and publications as a middistance event separated from the 400m, training programs will fail to incorporate the proper anaerobic training and optimal pacing strategies necessary for success over that distance (6, 13).

One of the most important understandings from this newer research is recognizing the critical role of establishing optimal pacing strategies for running events. For the 800m, it has been demonstrated that a fast start is essential to success in the race since the relative use of anaerobic and aerobic energy makes the event a decelerated effort (6, 18). Similar to the 400m, as long as the

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the long sprint Figure 3: Energetic Profile for Men/Women in 400 and 800m racing events. (6)

Event

Anaerobic(%)-M/W

Aerobic(%)-M/W

400

59/55

41/45

800

40/30

60/70

Figure 4: Average 200m split, approximate first 200m split and approximate 1st to 2nd lap deceleration during the 2012 Men’s Olympic 800m final.

Athlete

Average 200m split

1st 200m split

1st-2nd lap deceleration

Rudisha

25.23

23.18

2.75

Amos

25.36

23.66

2.58

Kitum

25.63

23.85

2.77

Solomon

25.71

23.52

3.34

Symmonds

25.74

24.59

2.41

Amman

25.8

23.52

4.53

Kaki

25.83

23.34

4.7

Osagie

25.94

24.18

3.7

starting pace of the 800m does not exceed critical velocity that produces excessive metabolic waste, the faster pace maximizes the energetic profile of the event (6, 18, 21). As Timothy Noakes has demonstrated in the Central Governor Model (CGM) of fatigue, it is the physiology of pacing that is the core issue for exercise performance (16, 17). Pacing strategy prevents physiological failure so various systems provide feedback to the brain to gauge a pacing strategy based upon the duration of the exercise (16, 17).

Billet, et al, identified that the best 800m runners were those who demonstrated the highest anaerobic capacity at the end of the race (1). Whereas the best 1500m runners were those who possessed the highest time limits at anaerobic power in the first two-thirds of the race, based upon lower start velocity (1).

Therefore, since the 800m is more 38

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of a sprinting effort, it is important that athletes maintain as high of velocity as possible before exhaustion and 1500m runners not start too fast to extend the time limit of anaerobic power (1). Training models and racing strategies that perceive the 800m and 1500/1600m as similar will undermine the optimal adaptation of athletes to the unique pacing demands of the 800m.

Optimal Pacing for 800m Race Recent studies on pacing strategies and world record (WR) progressions support this classification of the 800m as an extended sprint. Although the 800m and 1500m races can be complementary, the optimal pacing strategy of the 800m is more similar to the 400m since both exhibit a deceleration effect (9, 19). Unfortunately, since many coaches and athletes still perceive the 800m as a distance event, they strive for an

even or negative split pacing strategy utilized in events ranging from the 1500m to the marathon. In addition, training programs that overemphasize the aerobic system at the expense of anaerobic development, unknowingly prepare 800m athletes to only be able to run an even or negative split pace. Those athletes may run a relatively fast 800m, but since they have been trained to race with a suboptimal strategy, this approach undermines their true performance potential. The unique energetic profile of the 800m requires a positive split pacing strategy for maximum performance.

Several researchers have compiled and analyzed elite performance and world record (WR) data that clearly demonstrates the importance of viewing the 800m race as a decelerated effort. Ever since the first 800m race was run below 1:50 in 1932, only two out of the 22 WR performances were run as negative splits (10). In their analysis of 800m WR performances from 1912 to 1997, Tucker and Noakes found that the second lap of the 800m was slower (approximately two seconds) than the first (22). In an article published for the BMC, Kevin Prendergast noted that the positive split differential for elite 800m performances was approximately 1.8 seconds and that speed roughly dropped two percent for each 200m segment (18). Using a mathematical model to quantify the deceleration, he argued that the optimum pace per 200m segment of the race would be 104.5%, 99.25%, 98.5%, 97.73% of the average goal pace (18).

James Reardon’s mathematical model of entropy accumulation further substantiates the decelerated nature to both the 400 and 800m (19).

The fastest runners in the event have demonstrated this trend. Wilson Kipketer’s fastest 800m was run with a 5% positive differential (1:41.11-49.3/51.8), Joaquim Cruz a 4% differential (1:41.77-49.7 & 52.0), and Seb Coe also ran a 4% differential (1:41.73-49.7/52) (11). David Rudisha’s sub 1:41 WR 200m splits in 2012 exhibited a 10% velocity decrement (19). An examination of the splits of all athletes running against Rudisha in the 2012 Olympic 800m final highlights the deceleration pattern found during the last 600m of the race and provides insight into optimal pacing strategies. This particular race is noteworthy since it represents the fastest and deepest 800m race ever run, with all finalists earning personal bests and eight sub 1:44 performances. In fact, the eighth place time would have taken the gold medal at the previous three Olympics. (See Figure 4) While race tactics always factor into race performance this specific race serves as the best example of an optimal 800m racing effort. As shown in figure four above, all athletes ran a faster first 200m than their average 200m pace for the whole race, and all had a second lap significantly slower than their first lap. The decisive factor separating the medalists from non-medalists was who had the lowest degree of deceleration, as long as the initial 200m acceleration was maximal, relative to their overall average pace.

In the first 200 meters of the race, the athlete must

the long sprint accelerate quickly to obtain a tolerable pace that is as close to their maximum speed as possible. If the athlete is unable to do this, they will not achieve the relative pace necessary to offset the deceleration effect found later in the race. As the effort progresses through the remaining 200m segments, the athlete must sustain a pace close to the average desired pace, while reducing the degree of deceleration. Although it is possible for athletes to run a relatively fast 800m race using an even paced or negative split strategy, regardless of their individual profile, the effort will be suboptimal, and they will not reach their maximum potential for that distance.

The energetic profile and deceleration effect of racing an optimal 800m necessitates that it be classified as an extended sprint. Although the 800m and mile/1500m can be complementary events for athletes, it is more functional to consider the 800m as similar to the 400m and the mile as similar to the 3000/5000m races. Interestingly, given the energetic and pacing correlation between the 400m and 800m events, it is surprising that U.S.A. Track and Field has been underrepresented on the international level in the 800m. Even a cursory glance of the all-time performance lists for the 400m and 800m on the IAAF website shows how the American domination of the 400m has never correlated to success in the 800m. Given the amount of developmental athletes (high school and collegiate) in the United States who compete at a high level in both the 400 and 800, this demonstrates a fundamental flaw in the training approach and system of funneling athletes into events. In order to fully develop the potential of 800m athletes it is necessary to begin classifying it as an extended sprint and ensuring that training programs reflect the unique energetic and pacing demands of the event.

references Billat, V., L. Hamard, J. P. Koralsztein, and R. H. Morton. “Differential Modeling of Anaerobic and Aerobic Metabolism in the 800-m and 1,500-m Run.” Journal of Applied Physiology 107.2 (2009): 478-87.

Web. Brandon, L. J., and R. A. Boileau.

“Influence of Metabolic, Mechanical and Physique Variables on Middle Distance 40

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Running.” J Sports Med Phys Fitness 32.1 (1992): 1-9. Web. Brandon, L. Jerome. “Physiological Factors Associated with Middle Distance Running Performance.” Sports Medicine 19.4 (1995): 268-77. Web. Busso, T., and M. Chatagnon.

“Modelling of Aerobic and Anaerobic Energy Production in Middle-distance Running.” European Journal of Applied Physiology 97.6 (Aug 2006): 745-54. Web. Craig, I.S., and D.W. Morgan.

Relationship between 800m Running Performance and Accumulated Oxygen Deficit in Middle-Distance Runners. Med. Sci Sports Exerc. 11 (1998); 1631-6. Web Duffield, Rob, Brian Dawson, and Carmel Goodman. “Energy System Contribution to 400-metre and 800-metre Track Running.” Journal of Sports Sciences 23.3 (2005): 299-307. Web. Gastin, Paul B., David L. Costill, David L. Lawson, Krzysztof Krzeminski, and Glenn K. Mcconell. “Accumulated Oxygen Deficit during Supramaximal All-out and Constant Intensity Exercise.” Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise 27.2 (1995): 255-263. Web. Gastin, Paul B. “Energy System Interaction and Relative Contribution during Maximal Exercise.” Sports Medicine 31.10 (2001): 725-41. Web. Hanon, Christine, and Claire Thomas.

“Effects of Optimal Pacing Strategies for 400-, 800-, and 1500-m Races on the V02 Response.” Journal of Sports Sciences 29.9 (2011): 905-12. Web. “Lap Times in 800m World Records Since The First Sub-1:50” available online at http://www.trackandfieldnews.com/ index.php/display-article?arId=48269 Latter, Phil. “800 Meters: The Oddest Race.” Runners World found online at www.m.runnersworld.com/eliterunners/800-meters-oddestrace.

Magness, Steve. The Science of Running: How to Find Your Limit and Train to Maximize Your Performance. Origin, 2014.

Print.

Martin, David E., Peter N. Coe, and David E. Martin. Better Training for Distance Runners. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 1997. Print.

Medbo, Jon Ingulf, and Izumi Tabata.

“Relative Importance of Aerobic and Anaerobic Energy Release during Shortlasting Exhausting Bicycle Exercise.”

Journal of Applied Physiology 67 (1989):

1881-886. Web. Medbo, Jon Ingulf, Arne-Christian Mohn, Izumi Tabata, Roald Bahr, Odd Vaage, and Ole M. Sejersted. “Anaerobic Capacity Determined by Maximal Accumulated O2 Deficit.” Journal of Applied Physiology 64 (1988): 50-60. Web. Noakes, T. D. “The Central Governor Model in 2012: Eight New Papers Deepen Our Understanding of the Regulation of Human Exercise Performance.” British Journal of Sports Medicine 46.1 (2011): 1-3. Web. Noakes, Timothy D. “The Central Governor Model and Fatigue During Exercise.” Regulation of Fatigue in Exercise. Ed. Frank E. Marino.

Hauppauge, NY: Nova Science, 2011. 1-26.

Nova Publishers. Web. Prendergast, Kevin. “Optimum Speed Distribution in 800m and Training Implications.” BMC News 3.14 (Autumn 2002): 1-4. Web. Reardon, James. “Optimal Pacing for Running 400m and 800m Track Races.”

Am J. Phys. 81 (2013), 428-435.

Spencer, Matt R., and Paul B. Gastin.

“Energy System Contribution during 200to 1500-m Running in Highly Trained Athletes.” Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise 33.1 (2001): 157-62. Web. Thomas, C., C. Hanon, S. Perry, J-M. LeChevalier, A. Couturier, H. Vandewalk.

“Oxygen Uptake Response to an 800m Running Race.” Int. J. Sports Med (2005), 26: 268-273.

Tucker, R., MI Lambert, and T. D. Noakes. “An Analysis of Pacing Strategies during Men’s World-record Performances in Track Athletics.” International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance 1.3 (2006): 233-45. Web. Vigil, Joe. “Training for Endurance Events.” The Running Summit.

Morristown Medical Center, Morristown.

25 Aug. 2012. Lecture.

BIO: Michael Cox is a teacher and coach at Central Bucks High School South in Warrington, PA. He has completed all of the requirements of the USATF Coaching Education Level III program.

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JERRY MILLEVOI photo

Inspiring Excellence With Effective Cues

by Talen Singer

E

very coach wants his or her student athletes to achieve their best performances during any contest.

This is especially true at meets as they are quantifiers, the sole measurement of production. As a coach, how can you enhance both immediate and future performance?

Coaches and athletes need to be invested in both performance and communication. Holding athletes accountable and being supportive when they fail to perform to the best of their ability is the one of the pillars of a creating successful coach/athlete relationship. Good coaches know when to spark enthusiasm with a fiery speech or a soft whisper of “I know you can do this”. Great coaches understand that the primary success strategy to utilize on meet day is proper cueing. Cuing isn’t simply telling an athlete what they did wrong or what you what them to do next. Tone, timing and the ability to communicate in verbiage that gives the athlete confidence in the immediate instruction are all part of successful cueing.

An effective and comprehensible cue system that will truly assist an athlete in the heat of competition is composed of four principles: Keep all cues “positive”.

Do not instruct in the middle of the competition.

Maintain consistency in use of language.

Limit your feedback.

“Positive” does not mean cheerleading, or smiling while you say everything.

It means instructing the athlete without negative judgment. He may or may not know what he did wrong. The coach’s goal is not to have him focus or persever-

ate upon the negative, but to move forward toward success. The way to do this is to verbally convey to the athlete exactly what he needs to change without mentioning the negative action observed.

For example: A pole-vaulter’s hands are late to plant. Anyone who has attended a meet has seen this happen and has heard a myriad of responses from coaches.

“Your hands are late!” might be one response. This lets the athlete know what they did wrong, but it provides no instruction to remediate the error and therefore, zero encouragement. Positive cues in this scenario would include “push your hands on that second to last step!” or simply, “get your hand up earlier, that will get you into a better position at take off!”

The first statement is an observation; the latter two statements are cues.

Effective cues shift the athlete’s perception from failure to progress. It engages him or her by actively coaching them to perform an action with which they are familiar. Observations, or improper cues, merely point out errors and leave the athlete without an instruction to improve their immediate performance.

Too often observations from coaches such as, “That was horrible!” or “What was that?” are commonly heard at meets.

From the coach’s viewpoint, it can be frustrating, sometimes even heartbreaking, to see an athlete fail at something that involved months of hard work. But a negative observation is not going to help the athlete get back on point. Be an active coach, not an observer. Always cue the athlete in a positive way that will lead to immediate adjustments and fix the issues that made an attempt go poorly.

-Do not instruct in the middle of the

competition.

Simply put, long, involved explanations followed by multiple gestures between jumps are confusing to an athlete focused on competing. As discussed above, good cues are actionable changes that an athlete can make with a moment’s notice. In order for cues to be effective, they need to be definitive.

Cues should require little additional thought on the athlete’s part, as they are referencing actions taught and drilled prior to the competition. While a cue is an instructional moment, it is not the time to teach new material.

Competent and enthusiastic coaches strive to provide great explanations. The day of the competition is not the time or the place for this knowledge exchange.

Post competition meetings are the appropriate forum to explain rationale and will further engender improved communication in future competitions.

-Maintain consistency in use of language.

Developing a consistent vocabulary that is utilized in both practice and in competition is essential for athletes to stay in sync with coaches and each other during a meet. The team will function most effectively if every member speaks and comprehends the same “language”.

For example, at practice a coach cues the athlete to bring the free leg through stronger, but then in the meet, the coach refers to it as a drive leg. The athlete, already in competition mode, will cognitively have to do a translation mid-meet to comprehend and process the coach’s instruction. Some coaches might say to move back a “shoe” while others say a “foot”.

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Inspiring Excellence

Developing the team vocabulary should begin on the very first day of practice.

Athletes arrive with a variety of experiences from different coaches and programs.

Once consistency is established, it not only enhances performance, but also unifies the athlete group.

-Limit your feedback.

The best coaches need very few words to make an adjustment in an athlete’s performance. The ability to be concise is learned through experience. It is a well-honed skill, and it takes time. Begin by prioritizing. Quickly list and then 44

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define the issues with the performance.

Following that, discern which of the issues are fixable. Then, quickly determine which one or two adjustments can be made in order to most facilitate a better immediate performance. Do all of this mentally, before even verbalizing the cue to the athlete.

For example, a coach tells a high jumper that she is “drifting off the curve, coming in a bad angle, not getting the arms in the jump, and the step is close to the bar.” While these are all certainly astute observations of what may have taken

place, how much of that information is useful, in that moment to the athlete?

None of those observations will empower the athlete to correct a technical error or instill confidence that the next jump will be better. In this example, the observation can be transformed into a cue by saying, “back up six inches and drive the line to get back to your solid approach.”

With this cue, the coaching becomes active by providing the athlete with concrete and definable actions to perform.

These actions are familiar and have been practiced, so she can reference them easily, and the language used is understood because it is consistent. All of these factors allow the athlete to process the information without losing her flow and in turn, the coach has increased the athlete’s confidence. The process is subtle and inspirational. The athlete gets the message that the coach believes that the next jump will be better.

By using these four seemingly simple principles, a coach can establish a strong cuing system, but it takes an investment in time and consistent effort. Examine the coaching of take offs for example.

There are many “like” cues in the different jump event take offs. While differing in angle and other actions, driving of the free leg or stable ankle position is an example of an actionable cue that crosses over. Cross over in between practice drills and competition actions are critical. For example, the use of take off cues while teaching the skips and run-run-jumps drills at practice. Postural cues, hip and shin alignment cues can all be developed and implemented during practice, where the pressure of competition is removed.

This enables the athlete to follow the cue instruction with a much higher degree of accuracy on the day of the meet and make the changes needed to apply immediate improvement in the next attempt.

Great performances and great coaching are void of apathy. When actively coaching through the use of effective cues, it is possible to inspire excellence and lead your athletes to great results.

Bio: Talen Singer is an assistant track & field coach at Villanova University specializing in the jumping events.

VILLANOVA MEDIA RELATIONS photo

What’s Often Overlooked

The “Other” components of THROWS training programs

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kirby lee photo

AUGUST 2015 techniques

47

What’s Often Overlooked

W

hile possessing a thorough understanding of the technical aspects of each of the throwing events is vital to success as a coach, recognizing that there are many, many less talked about and often overlooked components to a training program as well is equally vital. In this article we will examine the “other” components of a well-conceived and well executed training program.

Record Keeping Quantification is the process of planning and recording training volumes.

The quantification process is typically concerned with quantifying volumes or intensities.

The quantification of volume can take many forms. Units of measure might be quantified as the number of sets or repetitions performed, meters run, total weight lifted, number of foot contacts, or time spent in work.

The quantification of intensity can take many forms as well. In some training modalities, intensities are measureable. The intensity measurements most used are percentages of maximal effort in weight training exercises, running efforts, or other training activities. At other times, intensity is determined solely by the nature of the exercise chosen, is not readily measureable, and is highly subjective.

Still subjective intensity evaluation can be done with some accuracy if the demands of the work are understood. For example, a decision that depth jumps are more intense than in-place jumps may be subjective to some degree, but understanding the increased stresses associated with the depth jumps makes this decision likely to be accurate.

Indexing is a systematic approach to the process of planning and recording volumes, or the combined effects of volume and intensity. Intensities may be evaluated objectively or subjectively. An example of a simple indexing system for run training may include multiplying the distance run by the percentage of personal best time (or some factor thereof).

This would characterize training with some numerical factor that considers volume and intensity. Various types of multijump exercises could be assigned some intensity factor, and the number of contacts performed could be multiplied by 48

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this factor to form another such system.

Testing Testing is the measurement of performances in controlled environments in order to gain accurate, objective data and objective means of evaluation. Reasons for testing include talent identification, program analysis, evaluation of balance and development of physical performance components, and performance prediction.

Testing should not be done haphazardly, as information gained in this way cannot be used for the purposes intended with any reliability. Tests should be valid, and the testing environment controlled as much as possible. This includes standardizing measurement, number of trials, test sequence, equipment, and warmup practices.

Common tests used are listed below.

A coach may employ any or all at certain times in the training regimen.

30 Meter Sprint. The 30m sprint test of accelerative power. The athlete runs 30 meters for time from a stationary start.

Fly Tests. Fly tests are tests of absolute speed. The athlete runs a particular distance (usually 10 or 30 meters) for time, after having previously accelerated through a designated (usually 20 or 30 meters) acceleration zone.

Standing Long Jump. A short bounding exercise, the standing long jump is a test of starting power and reactive strength.

The athlete performs a single jump for distance from a standing start.

Standing Triple Jump. A short bounding exercise, the standing triple jump is a test of reactive strength, power, and coordination. The athlete, from a double legged standing start, performs three jumps. The test begins with a double leg takeoff, then a right-left or left-right contact pattern prior to landing.

Double-Double. A short bounding exercise, the double-double is a complex test of reactive strength, power, and coordination. The athlete, from a double legged standing start, performs five jumps. The test begins with a double leg takeoff, then a right-right left-left or left-left-right-right contact pattern prior to landing.

Overhead Back Shot Throw. A multi-throw exercise, the overhead back shot throw is a test of power and coordination. The athlete stands on the shot toeboard fac-

ing away from the sector with the shot in both hands. The athlete then squats, lowers the shot below the waist, then throws the shot overhead for distance.

Between the Legs Forward Shot Throw. A multi-throw exercise, the between the leg forward shot throw is a test of power and coordination. The athlete stands on the shot toeboard facing the sector with the shot in both hands. The athlete then squats, lowers the shot below the waist, and then throws the shot forward for distance.

General Strength Tests. General strength exercises can be used to construct tests of general strength qualities, coordination, and body control. The athlete is asked to perform as many repetitions of a given general strength exercise as possible in a certain period of time. A 30 second situp test is an example.

Weight Training Exercise Tests. These are tests of absolute strength and power using weight training exercises as the measurement tool. Safety in testing should always be a priority. Various protocols can be used, and these typically take three forms.

Single Repetition Maximums. These tests are designed to determine the maximum amount of weight an athlete can use in a single successful repetition. While these tests have use, they are risky and to be used with care at appropriate times when athletes are prepared for such tests.

Multiple Repetition Maximums. These tests are designed to determine the maximum amount of weight an athlete can use when successfully performing a set of some designated number of repetitions.

These tests, while demanding, entail less risk than single repetition maximum tests.

Projected Maximums. These tests require the athlete to perform as many repetitions as possible with a designated load. This data is then manipulated mathematically to determine a projected single repetition maximum. Projected maximum tests are the safest form of weight testing. It should be understood that in the early stages of training, the single repetition maximum projection does not represent the athlete’s abilities at that point, but is a measure of progress and a value to consummate as training progresses.

Periodization of Testing Testing should be periodized with respect to the principles of training. Over time,

tests should progress from general to specific, and simple to complex. While a core battery of pertinent tests should be regularly administered, other tests from outside this group should be done from time to time. The scheduling of these tests should be done with respect to the qualities being tested and the sequencing of training.

ity as measured in testing if the next cycle features heavy absolute strength work.

This does not mean that the speed cycle has failed; these qualities are likely to emerge later. For this reason, test results are often specific only to one particular training program, or one particular time of year.

Testing and Performance Prediction Scheduling of Testing Scheduling of testing an important variable. Training done in the immediate past is likely to have an effect on the results.

Most systems test at the same relative time during each training cycle for this reason. For example, it is common to test each cycle during the rest period, or during the first work period of the cycle.

Testing is a low volume, high intensity activity. These demands should be considered in the design of training. A testing day is not necessarily an easy day.

Testing and Adaptation Adaptation does not occur immediately, so completing a cycle of training for a particular quality does not mean that this quality will show improvement immediately upon the completion of that cycle.

When a test is new, improvements on the test improve rapidly (the Hawthorne effect). This should be considered when evaluating test results.

Sequential training may suppress the emergence of improved qualities, and improvements on related tests. For example, a cycle of speed development work may not show improvements in this qual-

Achievement of certain performance levels in the various physical performance components is necessary to attain elite performances in track and field. When these markers have not been attained elite performances should not be expected. (See Figure 1)

Rest and Restoration Facilitating restoration of the body is an important part of planning training.

Restoring the body not only assists in injury prevention and general comfort, but also enhances the effectiveness and quality of training, and makes one able to handle larger training loads.

Forms of Restoration Rest. Rest is the total absence of training activity.

Active Rest. Active rest is the prescription of some activity of a nature different from traditional training, such as another sport.

Restoration Modalities. Restoration modalities are activities that help to eliminate soreness and accelerate recovery from exercise. Restorative modalities include whirlpool (hot or cold), ice baths,

sauna, and massage.

Restorative Training Units. Restorative training units are traditional training activities that foster recovery from the negative effects of training. They are generally lower intensity activities with a metabolic or mobility component.

General strength, medicine ball, hurdle mobility, tempo runs, or bodybuilding lifts can serve this purpose.

Periodization of Restoration Restoration can be scheduled at any time, but it is most frequently scheduled after more intense work. It is crucial to success at high levels to consider restoration as part of training, not an addendum to it.

Alternative medical modalities can be a useful part of restoration. Active release techniques, myofascial release techniques, use of trigger and reflex points, chiropractic medicine, acupuncture, and acupressure may all contribute to the athleteâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s wellbeing.

Lifestyle Issues Good sleep habits are crucial to the success of the training plan. Adequate sleep (8-10 hours per day) is essential to permit regeneration. Also, adequate sleep, especially the hours before midnight, is necessary to allow healthy production of anabolic hormones key to recovery.

A complete discussion of nutrition is beyond the scope of this article, but we will examine some general guidelines for throwerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s nutritive needs. A proper nutritional plan is essential to the success of the training program. Athletes should AUGUST 2015 techniques

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What’s Often OVerlooked

eat a variety of nutritious foods and avoid unhealthy choices. The nutritional status of the athlete greatly determines the effectiveness of the training and the ability to handle large training loads.

Following are general suggestions for the diets of athletes: Weight Gain/Loss. Weight loss or gain should only be undertaken carefully after much examination and planning, and with extreme patience.

The Food Groups. Choosing from and balancing the traditional four food groups (fruits and vegetables, dairy, meats, and grains) is a simple, effective way to plan for general nutrition needs.

Avoiding Processed Foods. Highly processed foods (such as sugars, oils, and flours) should be avoided in excess. They are not recognized by the body as foods, and are difficult for the body to process.

Diet Construction. The diet should be fairly low in fats and simple carbohydrates. It should be rich in vitamins, minerals, complex carbohydrates, and protein.

Insulin Management. Sufficient protein should be present in meals to prevent extreme insulin fluctuations due to the rapid digestion of carbohydrates.

Food Preparations. Simply cooked meals or raw foods are nutritionally superior to complex preparations.

Meal Distribution. Ideally, several small meals scattered throughout the day is most effective for the athlete.

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The Importance of Breakfast. Breakfast is extremely important, and should contain some protein-rich food.

Variety in the Diet. Eating a variety of foods increases nutritive value of the diet, and enhances immune system function.

Hydration While a complete discussion of the function of water is the body’s chemical reactions is beyond the scope of this article, suffice it to say that sufficient water intake is crucial to maintaining efficiency in nearly all body functions. It is equally important to adaptations from training.

Following are some basic guidelines for thrower’s hydration needs.

Athletes should drink approximately one gallon of water a day as a minimum.

This water is best taken in small servings scattered throughout the day.

Increased water intake may be necessary during hot or dry weather, especially when windy. Air travel tends to dehydrate the body quickly, so increasing water intake prior to such trips is advised.

Intake of coffee, tea, and carbonated drinks should be limited or eliminated.

These act as diuretics and act to dehydrate the body.

Supplementation Supplementation programs can range from low risk vitamin and mineral supplementation to more risky and complicated supplements such as amino acids, cre-

atine, combinations of products, etc.

Take extreme care and seek trusted expertise when choosing supplements, and planning the supplementation program. Only choose supplements produced by reputable manufacturers.

Consider not only the contents of any supplement, but also how absorbable it is to the body.

Even well planned diets may be nutritionally deficient and may need supplementation, because many foods are grown in denatured soils or are nutritionally deficient for other reasons.

Supplementation is not a substitute for a good diet. Many supplements require a good diet as a transport system for supplemented nutrients.

Many legal supplements contain dangerous substances and should be avoided, and may become even more dangerous when combined with supplements that may be safe otherwise. Extreme care should be taken and labels read closely when purchasing these products.

Supplements may contain ingredients that may trigger positive drug tests. One should be familiar with the list of banned substances when using certain types of supplements.

As mentioned in the opening paragraph of this article, knowing the technical aspects of coaching the throwing events is a key piece of the puzzle, however it is just that, a piece. Having a working knowledge of the “peripheral” areas will lead to greater success.

Bio: This article was taken from the Track & Field Academy’s Throws Specialist Certification Course curriculum. Boo Schexnayder is the Director of the Track & Field Academy and is responsible for the development of the course content. kirby lee photo

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2015 ustfccca national OUTDOOR coaches & athletes of the year NCaa Division i

Robert Johnson Oregon Women’s Head COY Men’s Head COY

John Smith Southern Illinois Women’s Assistant COY

Andy Powell Oregon Men’s Assistant COY

Kendra Harrison Kentucky Women’s Track AOY

Andre De Grasse Southern California Men’s Track AOY

Akela Jones Kansas State Women’s Field AOY

Marquis Dendy Florida Men’s Field AOY

NCaa Division ii

Kirk Pedersen Central Missouri Women’s Head COY

Kip Janvrin Central Missouri Women’s Head COY

George Williams Saint Augustine’s Men’s Head COY

Tucker Woolsey Central Missouri Women’s Assistant COY

Derrick Vicars Emily Oren Findlay Hillsdale Men’s Assistant COY Women’s Track AOY

Tabor Stevens Adams State Men’s Track AOY

Salcia Slack New Mexico Highlands Women’s Field AOY

Jeron Robinson Texas A&M-Kingsville Men’s Field AOY

NCaa Division iii

Pat Healy UW-La Crosse Women’s Head COY

Josh Buchholtz UW-La Crosse Men’s Head COY

Lisa Becharas Illinois Wesleyan Women’s Assistant COY

Eric Schueffner UW-Whitewater Men’s Assistant COY

Carly Fehler UW-Eau Claire Women’s Track AOY

Luke Campbell Salisbury Men’s Track AOY

Divya Biswal St. Lawrence Women’s Field AOY

Jamie Ruginski Southern Maine Men’s Field AOY

njcaa Division i

Chris Beene South Plains Women’s Head COY Men’s Head COY

Blaine Wiley South Plains Women’s Assistant COY Men’s Assistant COY

Harry Mulenga Central Arizona Men’s Track AOY Men’s Track AOY

Gleneve Grange New Mexico Women’s Field AOY

Michael Samuels South Plains Men’s Field AOY

njcaa Division iii

Gary Parker Mohawk Valley Women’s Head COY

Robb Munro SUNY Delhi Men’s Head COY

Josh Gregory SUNY Delhi Men’s Assistant COY Women’s Assistant COY

Stephanie Boucher Mohawk Valley Women’s Track AOY

Chuck Collins Finger Lakes Men’s Track AOY

Zhane Ridley SUNY Delhi Women’s Field AOY

Keimon Barrow SUNY Delhi Men’s Field AOY

division i 2015 ustfccca regional OUTDOOR coaches & athletes of the year great lakes region

Walt Drenth Michigan State Women’s Head COY

John Goodridge Angela Goodman Dave Astrauskas Eastern Michigan Purdue Wisconsin Men’s Head COY Women’s Assistant COY Men’s Assistant COY

Leah O’Connor Michigan State Women’s Track AOY

Matt McClintock Purdue Men’s Track AOY

Brooke Pleger Bowling Green Women’s Field AOY

Shawn Barber Akron Men’s Field AOY

Stephanie Schappert Marcus O’Sullivan Dan Frake Robert Farrell Villanova Villanova Bucknell Rutgers Men’s Head COY Women’s Assistant COY Men’s Assistant COY Women’s Track AOY

Thomas Awad Penn Men’s Track AOY

Rachel Fatherly Penn State Women’s Field AOY

Darrell Hill Penn State Men’s Field AOY

Courtney Frerichs Missouri-Kansas City Women’s Track AOY

Michael Stigler Kansas Men’s Track AOY

Akela Jones Kansas State Women’s Field AOY

Ifeanyichukwu Otuonye Kansas St Men’s Field AOY

Anthony Rotich UTEP Men’s Track AOY

Chari Hawkins Utah State Women’s Field AOY

Kole Weldon Texas Tech Men’s Field AOY

mid atlantic region

Gina Procaccio Villanova Women’s Head COY

midwest region

Cliff Rovelto Kansas State Women’s Head COY

Mike Turk John Smith Adrian Wheatley Illinois Southern Illinois Illinois Men’s Head COY Women’s Assistant COY Men’s Assistant COY

mountain region

Brian Bedard Colorado State Women’s Head COY

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Wes Kittley James Thomas Cierra White Texas Tech Texas Tech Texas Tech Men’s Head COY Women’s Assistant COY Women’s Track AOY Men’s Assistant COY

techniques AUGUST 2015

NORTHEAST region

Jason Saretsky Harvard Women’s Head COY

Simon Hodnett Robert Hoppler Megan Johnson Long Island-Brooklyn New Hampshire Cornell Men’s Head COY Women’s Assistant COY Men’s Assistant COY

Emily Sisson Brendon Rodney Providence College Long Island-Brooklyn Women’s Track AOY Men’s Track AOY

Nikki Okwelogu Harvard Women’s Field AOY

Jonathan Jones Buffalo Men’s Field AOY

SOUTH region

Amy Deem Miami Women’s Head COY

Mike Holloway Petros Kyprianou Ryan Vanhoy Kyra Jefferson Shakima Wimbley Dedric Dukes Erica Bougard Florida Georgia Mississippi Florida Miami Florida Mississippi State Men’s Head COY Women’s Assistant Men’s Assistant COY Women’s Track Women’s Track AOY Men’s Track AOY Women’s Field AOY COY AOY

Marquis Dendy Florida Men’s Field AOY

SOUTH CENTRAL region

Lance Harter Arkansas Women’s Head COY

Mario Sategna Tonja Buford-Bailey Kris Grimes Dominique Scott Texas Texas Texas A&M Arkansas Men’s Head COY Women’s Assistant Men’s Assistant COY Women’s Track COY AOY

Omar McLeod Arkansas Men’s Track AOY

Rodney Brown Trayvon Bromell Sandi Morris LSU Baylor Arkansas Men’s Track AOY Women’s Field AOY Men’s Field AOY

SOUTHEAST region

Edrick Floreal Kentucky Women’s Head COY

Erik Jenkins Shawn Wilbourn Martin Maric Western Kentucky Duke Virginia Men’s Head COY Women’s Assistant COY Men’s Assistant COY

Kendra Harrison Kentucky Women’s Track AOY

Tevin Hester Clemson Men’s Track AOY

Jeannelle Scheper South Carolina Women’s Field AOY

Filip Mihaljevic Virginia Men’s Field AOY

WEST region

Caryl Smith Gilbert USC Women’s Head COY

Robert Johnson Curtis Taylor Andy Powell Oregon Oregon Oregon Men’s Head COY Women’s Assistant COY Men’s Assistant COY

Jasmine Todd Oregon Women’s Track AOY

Andre De Grasse USC Men’s Track AOY

Jenna Prandini Oregon Women’s Field AOY

Bryan McBride Arizona State Men’s Field AOY

AUGUST 2015 techniques

57

division iI 2015 ustfccca regional OUTDOOR coaches & athletes of the year atlantic region

Dave Osanitsch Jonathan Morrow Steve Spence Shippensburg Seton Hill Shippensburg Women’s Head COY Women’s Assistant COY Men’s Assistant COY Men’s Head COY

Quanera Hayes Livingstone Women’s Track AOY

Omar Johnson Saint Augustine’s Men’s Track AOY

Mallory Sanner Seton Hill Women’s Field AOY

LeQuan Chapman Shippensburg Men’s Field AOY

central region

Russ Jewett Pittsburg State Women’s Head COY

Jim Dilling Tucker Woosley Chris Parno Minnesota State Central Missouri Minnesota State Men’s Head COY Women’s Assistant COY Men’s Assistant COY

Leah Seivert Augustana Women’s Track AOY

Emmanuel Matadi Minnesota State Men’s Track AOY

Heavin Warner Central Missouri Women’s Field AOY

Caniggia Raynor Central Missouri Men’s Field AOY

east region

Melissa Stoll John Wallin Joe Van Gilder Bill Sutherland Southern Connecticut Southern Connecticut Southern Connecticut Southern Connecticut State State State State Women’s Head COY Men’s Head COY Women’s Assistant COY Men’s Assistant OY

Carly Muscaro Mike Biwott Briana Conyers Michael Cameron Merrimack College American International New Haven Southern Connecticut Women’s Track AOY Men’s Track AOY Women’s Field AOY State Men’s Field AOY

midwest region

Andrew Towne Hillsdale Women’s Head COY

58

Mike Hillyard Joe Lynn Derrick Vicars Southern Indiana Hillsdale Findlay Men’s Head COY Women’s Assistant COY Men’s Assistant COY

techniques AUGUST 2015

Emily Oren Hillsdale Women’s Track AOY

Johnnie Guy Southern Indiana Men’s Track AOY

Rebecca Preisler Lewis Women’s Field AOY

Justin Welch Findlay Men’s Field AOY

2015 ustfccca regional division iI OUTDOOR coaches & athletes of the year south region

Scott Byrd Shorter Women’s Head COY

Pierre Goode Soyini Thompson Antonio Wells Stillman Alabama-Huntsville Kentucky State Men’s Head COY Women’s Assistant COY Men’s Assistant COY

Katelin Barber Alabama-Huntsville Women’s Track AOY

Dontavius Wright Stillman Men’s Track AOY

Krishanda Campbell-Brown Benedict Women’s Field AOY

Darius Hyacinth Stillman Men’s Field AOY

south central region

Bob DeVries Tom Dibbern Patrick Johnson Salcia Slack Chris Siemers New Mexico Highlands Texas A&M-Commerce New Mexico Highlands Colorado School of New Mexico Highlands Women’s Head COY Men’s Head COY Women’s Assistant COY Women’s Track AOY Mines Men’s Assistant COY Women’s Field AOY

Tabor Stevens Adams State Men’s Track AOY

Jeron Robinson Texas A&M-Kingsville Men’s Field AOY

southeast region

Jim Vahrenkamp Queens Women’s Head COY

Bruce Strickland Matt Van Lierop Travis LeFlore Nikia Squire North Carolina Pembroke Mount Olive College Wingate Queens Men’s Head COY Women’s Assistant COY Men’s Assistant COY Women’s Track AOY

Austin Steagall Mount Olive Men’s Track AOY

Christina Matheny Wingate Women’s Field AOY

George Williams Wingate Men’s Field AOY

west region

Brit Townsend Simon Fraser Women’s Head COY

Oliver Hanf Gary Towne Lindsey Butterworth Chico State Chico State Simon Fraser Men’s Head COY Women’s Assistant COY Women’s Track AOY Men’s Assistant COY

Dominik Notz Alaska Anchorage Men’s Track AOY

Allison Updike Azusa Pacific Women’s Field AOY

Justin Balczak Azusa Pacific Men’s Field AOY

AUGUST 2015 techniques

59

division iII 2015 ustfccca regional OUTDOOR coaches & athletes of the year atlantic region

Ringo Adamson Rowan Women’s Head COY

Ed Jaskulski Mike Woods Eric Flores Adriana Wright Brockport SUNY Geneseo Rensselaer Polytechnic Lehman Men’s Head COY Women’s Assistant COY Men’s Assistant COY Women’s Track AOY

Austin Becker Buffalo State Men’s Track AOY

Divya Biswal St. Lawrence Women’s Field AOY

Pat Weinert SUNY Oneonta Men’s Field AOY

Joe Dunham Richard Maleniak Melissa Norton Central St. Thomas Wartburg Men’s Head COY Women’s Assistant COY Men’s Assistant COY

Tricia Serres Luther Women’s Track AOY

Eli Horton Central College Men’s Track AOY

Amelia Campbell Carleton Women’s Field AOY

Colt Feltes Wartburg Men’s Field AOY

Clyde Morgan Andrew Bloom Roger Busch Wabash Ohio Wesleyan Wabash Men’s Head COY Women’s Assistant COY Men’s Assistant COY

Sara Johnson Ohio Wesleyan Women’s Track AOY

Nick Boyce Wabash Men’s Track AOY

Aedin Brennan Denison Women’s Field AOY

Marcus Dozier DePauw Men’s Field AOY

Vince Touey Lauren Lucci James O’Brien Widener Swarthmore Lebanon Valley Men’s Head COY Women’s Assistant COY Men’s Assistant COY

Frances Loeb Johns Hopkins Women’s Track AOY

Charlie Marquardt Haverford Men’s Track AOY

Osazenoriuwa Ebose Swarthmore Women’s Field AOY

Gibby Graves Haverford Men’s Field AOY

central region

Dan Schofer Cornell Women’s Head COY

GREAT LAKES region

Kris Boey Ohio Wesleyan Women’s Head COY

MIDEAST region

Chris Wadas Misericordia Women’s Head COY

60

techniques AUGUST 2015

2015 ustfccca regional division IiI OUTDOOR coaches & athletes of the year MIDWEST region

Ryan Chapman Aurora Women’s Head COY

Don Augustine Lisa Becharas Eric Schueffner St. Norbert Illinois Wesleyan Wisconsin-Whitewer Men’s Head COY Women’s Assistant COY Men’s Assistant COY

Meg Heafy Thurgood Dennis Wisconsin-La Crosse Wisconsin-Eau Claire Women’s Track AOY Men’s Track AOY

Allie Boudreau Illinois Wesleyan Women’s Field AOY

Luke Winder North Central Men’s Field AOY

NEW ENGLAND region

Brian Chabot Worcester Polytechnic Women’s Head COY

Halston Taylor Todd Linder Nickolas Davis MIT MIT MIT Men’s Head COY Women’s Assistant COY Men’s Assistant COY

Maryann Gong MIT Women’s Track AOY

Terrence Gibson Worcester State Men’s Track AOY

Cimran Virdi MIT Women’s Field AOY

Jamie Ruginski Southern Maine Men’s Field AOY

SOUTH/southeast region

Robert Shankman Rhodes Women’s Head COY

Shane Stevens Chris Stonestreet Denver Davis Hannah Chappell-Dick Bridgewer UT-Tyler Bridgewer Eastern Mennonite Men’s Head COY Women’s Assistant COY Men’s Assistant COY Women’s Track AOY

Jeremy Phillips Rhodes Men’s Track AOY

Whitney Simmons UT-Tyler Women’s Field AOY

Evan Truman Lynchburg Men’s Field AOY

west region

Glenn Stewart Toby Schwarz Joe VanHoomissen Tyler Yamaguchi Claremont-Mudd-Scripps Whitworth Whitworth Occidental Women’s Head COY Men’s Head COY Women’s Assistant COY Men’s Assistant COY

Melissa Skiba California Lutheran Women’s Track AOY

Darren Centi Redlands Men’s Track AOY

Allie Hadley California Lutheran Women’s Field AOY

Joseph Green Whitworth Men’s Field AOY

AUGUST 2015 techniques

61

NJCAA 2015 Junior College Regional Outdoor Coaches & Athletes of the Year Atlantic di Not Pictured

Michael Smart Essex County Women’s Head COY

Lesleigh Hogg Monroe Men’s Head COY

Walt Smith ASA Women’s Assistant COY

Not Pictured

Tim Marsee Vincennes Men’s Assistant COY

TaPring Goatee Vincennes Women’s Track AOY

Robert Murphy Vincennes Men’s Track AOY

Breaisha Morton ASA Women’s Field AOY

Jared Kern Lincoln Men’s Field AOY

Johnnie Jackson Coffeyville Men’s Field AOY

central di

Ted Schmitz Cloud County Women’s Head COY

James Ortiz Colby Men’s Head COY

Remuro Henry Coffeyville Women’s Assistant COY

Robert Wood Coffeyville Men’s Assistant COY

Lydia Mato Barton County Women’s Track AOY

Chris Speaks Colby Men’s Track AOY

Angelica Collins Coffeyville Women’s Field AOY

Nigel Bigbe Iowa Central Women’s Assistant COY

Dee Brown Iowa Central Men’s Assistant COY

Hannah Palmeter North Iowa Area Women’s Track AOY

Strymar Livingston Iowa Western Men’s Track AOY

Destiny Carter Iowa Central Women’s Field AOY

Jamal Whittaker Iowa Central Men’s Field AOY

Chris-Ann Gordon South Plains Women’s Track AOY

Harry Mulenga Central Arizona Men’s Track AOY

Gleneve Grange New Mexico Women’s Field AOY

Michael Samuels South Plains Men’s Field AOY

Jim Macnider Harper Women’s Assistant COY Men’s Assistant COY

Leah Kloss Harper Women’s Track AOY Women’s Field AOY

Juan Barajas Harper Men’s Track AOY

Jason John Thaddeus Stevens Men’s Field AOY

Joe Kalnas Rowan Women’s Assistant COY Men’s Assistant COY

Tamoya Brown Union County Women’s Track AOY

Gary Smolyak Howard Men’s Track AOY

Pam Watson Rowan Women’s Field AOY

Samard Walker Union County Men’s Field AOY

Stephanie Boucher Mohawk Valley Women’s Track AOY

Chuck Collins Finger Lakes Men’s Track AOY

Zhane Ridley SUNY Delhi Women’s Field AOY

midwest di

Denny Myers Iowa Central Women’s Head COY Men’s Head COY

west di

Chris Beene South Plains Women’s Head COY Men’s Head COY

Blaine Wiley South Plains Women’s Assistant COY Men’s Assistant COY

central diii

Renee Zellner Harper Women’s Head COY Men’s Head COY

east diii

Ryan Hughes Rowan Women’s Head COY Men’s Head COY

northeast d3

Gary Parker Mohawk Valley Women’s Head COY 62

Robb Munro SUNY Delhi Men’s Head COY

techniques AUGUST 2015

Josh Gregory SUNY Delhi Women’s Assistant COY Men’s Assistant COY

Keimon Barrow SUNY Delhi Men’s Field AOY