Techniques May 2017

contents

Volume 10 Number 3 / May 2017

in every issue

4 A Letter from the President 5 USTFCCCA Presidents

8 FEATURES

8 High Jump Approach Mapping

A New Way to Develop A Consistent High Jump Approach

Dusty Jonas

24 Overtraining in Sport

With An Emphasis On Distance Runners

Molly Hirt

34 Start-Up

Challenges & Opportunities for New Programs

Landon Bright

46 Breaking the Mold

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That Happiness Or Success Is Only Achieve On The Other Side Of A Result

Nate Hoey

52 Let the Rhythm Hit Them

Adjusting the Tempo to Skillfully Surf the Intensity Curve.

Brad H. DeWeese, John P. Wagle, and Garett E. Bingham

AWARDS

62 National Coaches and Athletes of the Year

COVER

Photograph courtesy of Kirby Lee

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A LETTER FROM THE PRESIDENT Publisher Sam Seemes Executive Editor Mike Corn Contributing Editor Kristina Taylor

I

would like to take this opportunity to congratulate all the coaches, athletes and support personnel who won Indoor Conference and National Championships last month. It was exciting to follow all our membership divisions as their teams competed for the podium. This year’s Division I Championship meet delayed broadcast achieved a higher rating on ESPN2 that day than Major League Soccer and two College Basketball Championship games and also the 9-11pm Bracketology program!

During this time I encourage all of our members to visit the USTFCCCA website to keep updated on new NCAA legislation and updates on the work of our executive committees and subcommittees. Proposals can be submitted by any member, at any time during the year, allowing the respective executive committee to discuss during monthly conference calls. This new proposal process allows additional transparency for you to keep up to date with issues submitted which address possible changes in how we operate in all areas related to our sports. As members, I charge each of you to visit the site often and log in to your respective division for updates. Only with your participation can we continue to improve how we advance our sports in the changing times in which we currently operate. I wish all proposals submitted would positively impact every member of the association, but we all realize this is not a reality. Often we begin by assessing the impact the proposal would have on our programs, where we need to assess the impact on our sports moving into the future. A proposal for change, as circulated through our members, details can be misunderstood and rationale and reasons for the change may not be fully disclosed. The new proposal process has given members the opportunity to study ask questions in order to fully understand the proposal. Please feel free to contact your conference representative or the national office for clarification on all issues of concern.

It’s not too early to start thinking about attending the annual USTFCCCA convention. This year’s convention will be held at the JW Marriott Desert Ridge Resort & Spa in Phoenix, AZ on December 12 – 15.

We wish everyone a successful outdoor regular season and look forward to following along during the postseason, which is rapidly approaching. I am sure the outdoor season will progress and end with the same level of excitement as the indoor season. At the time I am writing there have already been several NCAA records broken in this early outdoor season! Let’s all work together to make our sports better for the athletes, coaches and fans of our sports. Best of luck to everyone this spring and summer.

DENNIS SHAVER President, USTFCCCA Dennis Shaver is the head men’s and women’s track and field coach at Louisiana State University. Dennis can be reached at shaver@lsu.edu

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DIRECTOR OF MEDIA, BROADCASTING AND ANALYTICS Tom Lewis Membership Services Kristina Taylor communications assistant

Tyler Mayforth Photographer Kirby Lee Editorial Board Tommy Badon, Todd

Lane, Boo Schexnayder, Derek Yush

Published by Renaissance Publishing LLC 110 Veterans Memorial Blvd., Suite 123, Metairie, LA 70005 (504) 828-1380 myneworleans.com

USTFCCCA

National Office 1100 Poydras Street, Suite 1750 New Orleans, LA 70163 Phone: 504-599-8900 Fax: 504-599-8909 Techniques (ISSN 1939-3849) is published quarterly in February, May, August and November by the U.S. Track & Field and Cross Country Coaches Association.

Copyright 2016. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any manner, in whole or in part, without the permission of the publisher. techniques is not responsible for unsolicited manuscripts, photos and artwork even if accompanied by a self-addressed stamped envelope. The opinions expressed in techniques are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the view of the magazines’ managers or owners.

Periodical Postage Paid at New Orleans La and Additional Entry Offices. POSTMASTER: Send address changes to: USTFCCCA, PO Box 55969, Metairie, LA 70055-5969. If you would like to advertise your business in techniques, please contact Mike Corn at (504) 599-8900 or mike@ustfccca.org.

DIVISION PRESIDENTs DIVISION I Connie Price-Smith

Dave Smith

Connie Price-Smith is the head men’s and women’s track and field coach at the University of Mississippi. Connie can be reached at cmprice@olemiss.edu

Dave Smith is the director of track and field and cross country at Oklahoma State University. Dave can be reached at dave.smith@okstate.edu

Ryan Dall

Jim Vahrenkamp

Ryan Dall is the head track and field and cross country coach at Texas A&M Kingsville. Ryan can be reached at ryan.dall@tamuk.edu

Jim Vahrenkamp is the Director of cross country and track & field at Queens University. Jim can be reached at vahrenkampj@queens.edu

Jason Maus

Dara Ford

NCAA Division 1 Track & Field

NCAA Division I Cross Country

DIVISION II NCAA Division II Track and Field

NCAA Division II Cross Country

DIVISION III Jason is the head cross country and track and field coach at Ohio Northern University and can be reached at j-maus@onu.edu

Dara is the head cross country and track and field coach at Otterbein University and can be reached at DFord@Otterbein.edu

Mike McDowell

Heike McNeil

Mike McDowell is the head men’s and women’s track and field coach at Olivet Nazarene University. Mike can be reached at mmcdowel@olivet.edu

Heike McNiel is the head track and field and cross county coach at Northwest Christian University. Heike Can be reached at hmcneil@nwcu.edu

Ted Schmitz

Don Cox

Ted Schmitz is the head track and field coach at Cloud County Community College.

Ted can be reached at tschmitz@cloud.edu

Don Cox is the head track and field and cross country coach at Cuyahoga Community College.

Don can be reached at donald.cox@tri-c.edu

NAIA NAIA Track & Field

NAIA Cross Country

njcaa NJCAA Track and Field

NJCAA Cross Country

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High Jump Approach Mapping A New Way to Develop A Consistent High Jump Approach Dusty Jonas 8

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high jump approach mapping

W

hen Dick Fosbury introduced the world to the “flop” high jump technique at the 1968 Olympic Games it became the gold standard for high jumping from beginners to Olympic champions. The “Fosbury Flop” has gained popularity through the years due to its simplicity to learn and its efficiency over the previously used straddle, roll, or scissors techniques.

Development of an approach that is specific to each individual is of the utmost importance in order for a jumper to clear the highest bars efficiently while avoiding unnecessary injury in the process.

A non-debatable fact about using a curved approach is its purpose: To create inward lean and centripetal force. The resulting forces after takeoff create a twisting backwards somersault that allows the athlete to twist their back to the bar while simultaneously rotating the body over it (Dapena & Ficklin, 2007). By doing this efficiently it is possible for a jumpers center of mass (COM) to potentially pass below the bar meaning that the athlete does not have to jump as high to successfully clear the bar. These principles will be used to answer the question of where to begin developing a high jump approach.

For the purposes of this article a 10 stride “J” style run up will be used. This includes a five-stride acceleration on a straight line and a five stride portion on a curve. My goal for this article is for you to be able to map out a full approach and quantify several useful pieces that are often neglected: The attack angle at of the end of the approach and the arc length.

PREVIOUSLY USED METHODS

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The two most widely used approach development methods are: the “J” run back, and straight line approaches that are transferred onto a curve. There are inconsistencies with each of these methods that may lead to technical issues later in the athlete’s development.

The “J” run back is performed by an athlete starting at a takeoff point an arm’s length away from the bar and running back in the shape of the letter J. This approach is difficult to replicate with any consistency and using this technique requires the athlete to accelerate on a curve rather than a straight line.

The straight line approach is performed by the athlete running five steps in a straight line at the speed that they feel that they could successfully execute a jump. After 3-5 trials, the average of the measurement is taken.

The athlete is then asked to run the full ten steps on the same line, marking the average distance of the tenth or takeoff step in the same manner as before. The two measurements are taken to the apron where the athlete and coach estimate a distance from the standard and a radius length to fit.

Using this method can result in hours of guesswork regarding the curved portion of the approach.

Any radius that is decided upon by the coach will be purely conjecture and will more than likely not be executed correctly for quite some time, if ever.

APPROACH MECHANICS The process begins with discussing what makes the flop so effective: the curve.

The two main reasons to run a curve in the high jump are to lower the athlete’s COM and to facilitate rotation around the bar

in flight (Kerin, 2015). The curve an athlete runs in a high jump approach is determined by several different factors such as age, body morphology, strength levels, speed, and experience. The most important thing to remember is that regardless of the curve an athlete runs, it should be run correctly with good curve running mechanics.

Using this method of approach development means that it is very important to explain what the term “good curve running mechanics” means. The goal of the first five strides of the approach is to develop as much horizontal velocity as can be maintained through the next five strides on the curve into takeoff.

The mechanics of the first five strides are consistent with a normal acceleration pattern and upright sprint mechanics. If the athletes have not developed sufficient horizontal velocity prior to entering the curve they may try to accelerate while running the curve. The mechanics and postures involved in acceleration are much different than those desired while running the curved portion of the approach and these may contribute to the athlete deviating from the curve (Becker, Kerin & Chou, 2013).

The goal of the second half of the approach is to run a curve with the greatest amount of controllable horizontal velocity with as much inward lean as possible and still be able to safely execute the jump (Dapena, McDonald & Cappaert, 1990). When an athlete begins to run a curve, the forces being exerted through the ground are no longer just vertical, they are also lateral. This means that the smaller the radius is, the more difficult it is to stay on the curve in a normal stride pattern with

Figure 1: Posterior view of two athletes showing proper and improper lean through the curve. Athlete A has a straight line through the body and is leaning from the ankles keeping outward pressure against the curve. Athlete B is broken at the hips and is leaning into the curve with the shoulders. Notice Athlete A’s COM is lower by effectively leaning through the curve.

Table 1: Average radius distances run by men and women in the high jump.

speed without deviating from it (Chang & Kram, 2007).

It is highly possible that a deviation from the curve is one of the biggest contributing factors to an athlete missing the bar. Deviations from the curve result in the loss of inward lean which will inhibit the facilitation of rotation around the bar. Research also shows that the loss of inward lean contributes to longer times spent on top of the bar by way of distance traveled down the bar during flight (Becker, Kerin & Chou, 2013). See Figure 1 for proper and improper curve running mechanics.

Teaching an athlete how to run a technically correct curve is the best way to start developing a high jump

approach.

circles.

Running A Technically Correct Curve Results In… • High vertical velocity off of the ground relative to the athlete • Back rotating to the bar • Fast somersaulting over the bar • Short time spent over the bar

Things to Remember When Selecting A Radius Size • Radius size is dependent on the greatest amount of controllable inward lean and horizontal velocity • High velocity + high strength level = LARGER radius • Low velocity + low strength level = SMALLER radius • Experiment with different sizes, drills, and speeds

THE CIRCLE DRILL The best way to teach an athlete a skill is by doing drills that are specific to the event. This method of approach development starts with a drill that is modified from the long-utilized circle drill.

It is performed by having the athlete run, skip, or jump around various sized

Table 1 shows the variety of radius distances by elite men and women measured over time (Dapena, 1995).

The collegiate men that I coach do

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high jump approach mapping

Figure 2: Diagram of layout for circle drills. Lines shown in black are chalked down on the track. Radius distances that are shown are a starting point to use as a reference based on the numbers in Table 1. The distances may be adjusted by the coach depending on the level of their athletes. These drills are generally performed away from the apron with no pit or standards to use as reference. The subtraction of a given takeoff point assists in keeping the athlete focused on the technique and rhythm of the run without running to a certain takeoff spot.

well on a 35’-42’ radius and women on 30’-36’. These are just suggestions and may be adjusted as the athlete progresses.

Begin the setup of the drill by drawing three different half circles on the track with different radius measurements that are all connected at the same mid mark. Radius measurements of 30’, 35’, and 40’ are most often selected as these distances cover the entire range for men and women.

Smaller or larger radius measurements may be chosen to suit the needs of varying skill level athletes.

There is some degree of trial and error that the athlete and coach will experience until a radius is found that fits well and that can be executed correctly. Experiment with different radius sizes until one is found that fits the athlete best. The layout for the circle

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drill is shown in Figure 2.

Once the different radii have been drawn on the track the athlete is asked to do a variety of drills on the different sized half circles. After mastering curve running technique on the chosen radius, the straight line portion of the approach is added.

The straight line portion of the approach is added by having the athlete start on the mid mark and run back five strides in the same acceleration pattern that they would use on a normal high jump approach. Using Figure 2 as reference, a left footed jumper would run to the right side on the guideline and a right footed jumper would do the opposite.

Have the athlete run as many repetitions as needed to get a consistent starting point for the beginning of the approach. Once a consistent mark is

achieved, have the athlete run from the new starting point to the mid mark and check to make sure that it is still consistent.

Once the athlete is consistently hitting the mid mark, they are to continue running around whichever radius has been selected. Having three different sized radii going through the same mid mark allows a large group of athletes to work on the same set up. Limit the number of radii to three, as any more can be difficult to differentiate visually for the athlete. Using different colored chalk for each radius makes them much easier to see.

What this drill effectively does is take an entire high jump approach away from the apron and allows the athlete and coach to experiment with different radius measurements to see which radius the athlete runs optimally. This

Figure 3: The first mark to determine is the starting point of the first five strides of the approach. The second mark to determine is the starting point to the takeoff point

Table 2: Sample table for gathering data. Distance A = Starting point to mid-mark, Distance B = Mid- mark to takeoff point, Distance C = Takeoff point to guideline (chord length), Distance C (Actual) = Adjusted takeoff point relative to distance down the bar, Distance D = Mark on guideline back to starting point, Distance D + Takeoff Distance = Same as Distance D but accounting for takeoff distance, Arc Length to be calculated last.

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Figure 4: All measurements up to this point. Note that the approach set up is rotated 90˚ counter clockwise in this view.

drill is continued for a period of a few weeks or until the athlete and coach have experimented with various radius distances and speeds.

Once the athlete and coach are comfortable with the chosen radius it is time to begin developing an approach using the same drill.

APPROACH DEVELOPMENT Once a radius is decided upon, draw the drill on the ground with the chosen radius in the same manner that is shown in Figure 2.

When the drill is chalked down on the track and measured, be sure that there is a guideline to help ensure that it is set up as squarely as possible. This will help with the collection of accurate data later. The first mark that will be determined is the starting point of the approach. This process is the same as previously discussed in the circle drill.

The athlete should be able to run 3-5 repetitions within 2-3 inches of each other before advancing.

Once a consistent starting point has been established the athlete is asked to run the full ten stride approach around the selected radius. It is important that the athlete is consistent on the previ16

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ously established marks. After the athlete has run 5-6 full approaches within approximately six inches of each other the most consistent mark will be used to establish the takeoff point. See Figure 3 for illustration of the different marks.

Measurements will need to be taken when both points are established and marked. It is recommended that both metric and imperial measurements be taken to allow for easier calculations later. Using a spreadsheet to help organize your data is very helpful. An example is provided below in Table 2 with completed data. The data being used in Table 2 is from a male jumper that will be referred to as Athlete 1.

See Figure 4 for measurements taken from Athlete 1.

Three of the cells in Table 2 have intentionally been left blank since there is not enough data thus far to complete it. The current measurements show the distance of the actual approach but does not take into account the takeoff distance from the bar nor the distance down the bar that the athlete will take off. A general rule for takeoff distance away from the bar is an arm’s length.

Experience has shown that 3 feet for women and 4 feet for men works well

but the coach and athlete may experiment with what is comfortable. I prefer one foot up to 18 inches down the bar at takeoff and for the purpose of this article 18 inches will be used.

These measurements will make it possible to calculate “Distance D + Takeoff Distance” and “Actual C Distance”. This will begin to answer the question “How far out from the standard should I be?”

The answer: It depends on the size of the radius and the speed at which it is run.

See below for instructions on how to calculate these distances with data from Figure 4.

To map the approach some inexpensive tools will be needed: A compass, protractor, an engineer’s scale, and graph paper.

At this point, all of the data that is needed to draw the full approach map has been gathered. Using graph paper to draw the full approach map is especially helpful for keeping the measurements square.

Once the map is drawn on paper it gives the coach a visual reference to check the direction of the run up and calculate the arc length.

Using an engineer’s scale is very sim-

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Figure 5: From left: Engineers Scale, Compass, and Clear Protractor

ple since every inch is broken up into powers of ten up to sixtieths. The tenths scale is the only scale to be used in this process. Using the tenths scale, 1”= 10’.

For example, if the radius is 38 feet, it would be scaled down to 3.8 inches.

Since measurements were taken in metric and imperial, the data can be scaled down using the imperial system while still having numbers in metric to do easy math with.

It is very helpful to draw the pit and standards to provide a reference to start drawing from. Here is how to do it step by step in the order that I prefer. You may draw or measure the approach any way that suits your style. The measurements used will be from Figure 6.

1. Begin by drawing the Actual C Distance or 16’1”. This will be a measurement of 1.61 inches using the engineers scale. Start measuring at the middle of the standard as illustrated in Figure 6. Since the scale only works in tenths you may use 1.6 inches.

2. Draw the line that indicates Distance D + Takeoff Distance or 67’1.5”. This will be a measurement of 6.7 inches on the engineers scale.

3. Mark the mid mark by starting at the starting point and measure 31’6.5 or 3.1” towards the standard on your paper. This is Distance A. 4. Now mark the takeoff point.

Using this example 18” down the bar is allowed while taking off 4’ away from 20

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the bar. These scaled measurements would be .15 inches down the bar and .4 inches away from the bar.

5. Draw a line for Distance B, or chord length, from the mid mark to the takeoff point. In this case, it is 36’1.5” or 3.6 inches. This is also the time where previous measurements can be checked.

If the chord length does not equal 3.6 inches on your scale an error may have occurred while drawing previous measurements.

6. The center of the circle, or origin, must be found. The radius is the distance from the center of the circle to any point on it. The point to be drawn on paper will be the point where the radius length is equal from the origin to the mid mark and the origin to the takeoff point. Notice in Figure 6 that these two lines are of equal length.

7. Draw the radius with the compass.

The needle point of the compass will be placed at the origin point and the pencil will be placed on the mid mark.

If you have measured correctly it will pass through the takeoff point that was drawn in step 4.

8. Measure the origin angle. This is done by using the clear protractor.

9. Measure the angle at the end of the run. This is done by placing the vertex of the clear protractor on the takeoff point with the radius line to the origin point oriented at 90˚ perpendicular to the takeoff. Next place a mark even with

the baseline of the protractor. You may then draw a line from the takeoff point to the mark you just made. You will now have a tangent line from the radius. To get the angle of attack, simply measure this line in relation to the front of the high jump pit. See the full approach map for a representation of this line.

See Figure 6 for the full approach map of Athlete 1.

Once the approach map is drawn I would recommend taking the time to analyze it. If the angle of the run up is too shallow or steep the radius may have to be adjusted. For the level of jumper that I have coached, I find that angles of 30˚-35˚ (33 ± 3˚) have been the most effective for women and angles of 35˚-40˚ (36˚ ± 5˚) have been most effective for the men. These angles at the end of the run fit my philosophy of the high jump and should only be taken as suggestions. I encourage everyone to experiment with different radius measurements and angles to see which fit the individual athletes best.

Once satisfied with the measurements the arc length can now be calculated using a simple equation using data from Athlete 1.

The arc length will not be discussed in detail because to do so would result in going into a great amount of detail regarding the technical model. I do believe that it has some significance since it shows the actual distance run

Figure 6: Full representation of the full approach map for Athlete 1. A few things to note: Actual C distance is measured from the inside of the vertical portion of the standard but for this illustration the middle of the standard was chosen.

Attack angle at the end of the run is determined by using a protractor as well is the origin angle (ø).

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by an athlete around the curve. This measurement can lend itself to timing possibilities if one has access to capable timing equipment.

Once the coach is satisfied with the result of the full approach map, make note of the measurements that the athlete will used when transferring the approach to the apron for practice or competition. There are three measurements that are taken and I prefer to measure them in this order: 1) Distance out from the standard 2) The full approach distance and 3) The mid mark.

Using the full approach map, Athlete 1 would have these measurements: 1) 16’1” out from the standard 2) 67’1.5” back to the starting point and 3) 35’7.25” to the mid mark. The distance from the down mark to the mid mark is achieved by taking the difference between “Distance D + Takeoff Distance” and “Distance A”.

This method of approach development will give the coach and athlete a chance to experiment and work together on what improves mechanics, positions and corresponding results. I believe that it is a superior alternative to approach development as compared to other methods specifically with regards to the curve and radius measurement. It has also saved me hours of practice time in the process. Since it gives a more precise

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measurement of where an athletes approach should be, the changes that are made are very small. There may be a change of a few inches instead of changing a few feet from practice to practice. This means more practice time devoted to being able to teach a skill with consistency and less time in a trial and error search.

As the athlete masters an approach, do not be afraid to experiment with new measurements. Changes to the approach will likely happen throughout an athlete’s career based on maturity, strength, speed, and technical mastery. I think it is beneficial to be able to keep a record of approach maps on individuals to see how they progress over their careers.

Dapena, J. & Ficklin, T. (2007). High Jump Report #32 (Men) (pp. 2-4, 24).

Indianapolis: USA Track and Field.

Dapena, J., McDonald, C., & Cappaert, J. (1990). A REGRESSION ANALYSIS OF HIGH JUMPING TECHNIQUE. Medicine & Science In Sports & Exercise, 22(2), S17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1249/00005768199004000-00098 Kerin, D. (2015). The Curve Run & US High Jump. Presentation.

References Becker, J., Kerin, D., & Chou, L. (2013). Consequences of Deviation From the Curve Radius In The High Jump Approach. Taipei, Taiwan: Conference of the International Society of Biomechanics in Sports.

Chang, Y. & Kram, R. (2007).

Limitations to maximum running speed on flat curves. Journal Of Experimental Biology, 210(6), 971-982. http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/jeb.02728 Dapena, J. (1995). How to design the shape of a high jump run-up. Track Coach, (131), 4179-4181.

Dusty Jonas is an assistant coach at the University of Nebraska where he has coached nine Big 10 champions in the High Jump.

Following his own very successful competitive career at Nebraska, Jonas competed for Team USA a total of eight times in his career, including the 2008 Olympic Games and the 2010 World Indoor Championships where he earned a bronze medal.

Overtraining in Sport With An Emphasis On Distance Runners Molly Hirt

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overtraining in sport

C

olin Powell stated, “a dream doesn’t become reality through magic; it takes sweat, determination, and hard work” (Brainy Quote, 2013). Many of us were taught growing up that we can achieve our goals if we work hard enough.

However, with regard to the training for athletics, is there a point where you can work too hard? Overtraining is a condition where an athlete experiences fatigue, loss of appetite, and decreased performance. In this article, I will go into detail about the nature of overtraining and the symptoms associated with it.

Then, I will explain how to prevent and treat overtraining. Finally, I will shed light on the debate as to whether overtraining is an actual condition or just a reflection of athletes becoming weak and succumbing to fatigue.

What is Overtraining?

McKenzie (1923) reported that there are three different kinds of exhaustion after exercise: (1) acute exhaustion accompanied by marked breathlessness, from which recovery is rapid; (2) fatigue of the whole musculature system, which requires a day or two of rest; and (3) chronic fatigue, which he refers to as ‘staleness,’ and from which recovery was prolonged and could last weeks or even months. A decrease in performance is observed in an athlete who has overtrained. The natural response of many athletes, particularly runners, is to train even harder, believing that any poor performance was due to being undertrained. This attributional process simply exacerbates the problem, and the vicious cycle of overtraining continues. Once an athlete is even mildly overtrained, they are already past peak condition; at this point, the only way to recover is to rest until the body is able to rejuvenate itself, and the desire to compete and run returns (Noakes, 2003).

Noakes (2003) believes that one of the critical reasons that runners are prone to overtraining is because of their lack of ability to make an object assessment of their performance capabilities. It is difficult to accept and understand the notion that an athlete has a natural, genetic performance range. The American dream has carried over into the mentality of many runners, who believe that the harder they train and run, the more 26

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successful they will be. However, this is not always the case.

Foster and Lehmann (1997) have proposed a set of risk factors that are characteristic of athletes susceptible to overtraining, which include: training very intensely for a protracted period of time, and running a series of races in short succession following an intensive training block. When runners do not have adequate recovery between high-intensity training sessions or perform the same type of training monotonously, they increase their risk of developing overtraining syndrome (Foster & Lehmann, 1997). Research conducted by Costill et al. (1985) found that the peak muscle power of swimmers was lowest when they trained the most. Muscle power was then found to increase progressively during a seven-day taper before competition. One of the reasons for this decreased power during intense training is due to the brain’s inability to recruit enough muscle fibers, which contributes to the fatigue that develops (Noakes, 2003). This reaction serves as a protective mechanism produced by the body to help prevent the athlete from continuing to exercise and train when in the overtrained state (Noakes, 2003).

Stages of Overtraining With regard to overtraining, Doc Counsilman stressed that as long as the training performance was stable or improving, then feeling tired doesn’t necessarily mean that the athlete has done too much (Counsilman, 1968). He argued that during the intense, precompetition phase of training, his athletes should not fully recover completely before the next workout (Counsilman, 1968). This method of training keeps athletes in a “valley of fatigue” during the training week before days of reduced training over the weekend (Counsilman, 1968). Counsilman found this training method to produce good long-term results.

The Science of Swimming written

by Counsilman uses Figure 1 to demonstrate the fatigue levels of different athletes who trained hard for five consecutive days, and then recovered on Saturday and Sunday. By Friday, each of the athletes reached a “valley of fatigue,” which is also referred to as overreaching training (Counsilman, 1968). Athlete

A becomes mildly fatigued by Friday, barely reaching the failing zone (valley of fatigue). On Sunday, the fatigue level returns to what it was on the previous Monday. Athlete B pushes him/ herself to the limit of the failing zone (Counsilman, 1968). However, when this athlete recovers over the weekend, the body has superadapted to a fatigue level that is even lower than the previous Monday (Counsilman, 1968). This situation reflects the athlete’s increase in fitness and ability to resist fatigue while training, which is exactly what a coach is looking for during a training week. Athlete C trains the hardest throughout the week and dips into the failing adaptation zone (Counsilman, 1968). By Sunday, the athlete has not fully recovered from the previous week’s training (the level of fatigue was higher on Sunday than the previous Monday).

If the athlete continues to train hard on Monday without allowing his/her body to recovery, then the athlete will progress from overreaching to overtraining (Counsilman, 1968).

Symptoms of Overtraining The early signs of overtraining are generalized fatigue, recurrent headaches, diarrhea, weight loss, sexual disinterest, and a loss of appetite for food or work (Noakes, 2003). Many athletes who are overtrained also have difficulty sleeping, which is often characterized by early morning wakening and an inability to relax (Noakes, 2003). Heiss (1971) found that overtrained athletes have an increased susceptibility to infection. Therefore, respiratory inflections, swelling of lymph glands, colds, or the flu are common among overtrained athletes due to a weakened immune system. Athletes often feel sluggish and have heavy legs when they are exercising. Muscle soreness is common during a given training block due to muscle cell damage and glycogen depletion.

Moreover, with overtraining, athletes’ heavy legs are inappropriately sore, and this soreness does not pass as a training run progresses (Noakes, 2003). When athletes are experiencing full-blown overtraining, their legs do not recover within 24-48 hours and instead require extensive periods of time before the symptoms of overtraining are alleviated.

With overtraining, the athlete is unable

Figure 1: Counsilman’s fatigue zones (adapted from Counsilman’s The Science of Swimming (1968, p. 236)).

to let their body recover, so there is persistent muscle damage and depletion of energy stores (Noakes, 2003). Sjostrom et al. (1987) compared muscle biopsies of a group of runners before and after a seven-week intense training period. A considerable difference was seen between the muscle fibers before and after. After the training period, the average musclefiber size was reduced and the type II (fast-twitch) muscle fibers were more susceptible to injury.

Based on his experience as a coach, Counsilman (1968) claims that the primary indicator of overtraining in an athlete is a decrease in performance during training and competition. Newton (1947) claims that one of the signs of staleness is the inability to produce your best when you are in good shape. When an athlete is overtrained, for a given exercise bout at the same intensity, the athlete’s heart rate is higher than when they are not overtrained. The early morning pulse rate of overtrained athletes has also been found to be increased as well. The reason for the increased heart rate is unknown, but is hypothesized to be due to fatigue of the

heart muscle (Dressendorfer et al., 1985) or heightened activity of the sympathetic nervous system, reflecting the increased stress on the body and inadequate recovery (Noakes, 2003).

One of the greatest female distance runners in history, Grete Waitz, claimed, “I judge my fatigue more by my moods.

If it’s hard to sleep or I am cranky, impatient or annoyed, I am probably overtraining. In my case, family and friends often know when I am overtraining even before I do” (Waitz & Averbuch, 1986).

One of the main difficulties in determining whether overtraining is occurring is that there is no physiological test that can be done to confirm it. Barron et al. (1985) investigated whether or not overtrained runners were able to appropriately secrete cortisol in response to the biochemical demands placed on the body. In his experiment, he injected overtrained runners with insulin to induce a hypoglycemic state, and found that overtrained runners demonstrated an abnormal cortisol response (Barron et al., 1985).

The athletes were unable to increase their blood cortisol levels in response to hypo-

glycemia. The inability to increase cortisol was found to be due to exhaustion by the hypothalamus (Barron et al., 1985).

In another study, MacConnie et al. (1986) reported that male runners who were overtrained demonstrated reduced luteinizing hormone release from the pituitary.

Costill et al. (1988) investigated whether or not there were differences in biological markers (i.e., blood concentrations of a variety of hormones, chemicals relating to muscle damage, or markers of immune function) between athletes who are overtrained and those who are not. The result of their study did not find any significant predictors of the onset of overtraining.

Therefore, while there may be some physiological differences between athletes who are overtrained and those who are not, there has yet to be any definitive evidence that biochemical markers can differentiate overtrained athletes from those who are training intensively, but have adapted appropriately to the heavier training load (Noakes, 2003).

It is difficult to conduct research on overtraining because it is difficult to get approval from the IRB, since participants MAY 2017 techniques

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ning. In order to protect the body and maintain homeostasis, the brain is prevented from recruiting muscles used during training, and results in fatigue and infections.

Differentiating Overtraining from Other Conditions

in these studies have to perform exercise until exhaustion. Also, since no definitive marker of overtraining has currently been identified, how do researchers definitely determine if an athlete is truly overtrained or not?

Berglund and Safstrom (1994) found that a mood state, which was measured using the Profile of Mood State (POMS) questionnaire, showed that Swedish canoeists preparing for the Olympics deteriorated progressively as the train28

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ing demand increased (i.e., their POMS scores were abnormally high). When the training was reduced for a taper, all of the athletes by the second week exhibited lower POMS scores. Many athletes who are overtrained demonstrate decreased vigor and increased feeling of fatigue, depression, and anger (Noakes, 2003).

These symptoms occur because overtraining syndrome appears to be caused by a disruption in the body’s ability to respond to normal stresses, such as run-

Hypothyroidism is a condition that has similar symptoms to overtraining syndrome. Common symptoms associated with hypothyroidism include fatigue, muscle weakness, pain, stiffness, and depression (Mayo Clinic, 2013). Diagnosis of hypothyroidism is possible by appropriate blood tests, in particular, the immunometric thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) assay.

The similarities between the symptoms of overtraining and hypothyroidism make it important to differentiate between them, because the treatment for each of these conditions is different. Athletes with hypothyroidism do not want to be resting and taking time off from running because they think that they are overtraining, for it will not alleviate their symptoms. Instead, they should be taking the synthetic thyroid hormone levothyroxine to help treat their condition.

Another condition that is important to differentiate from overtraining is post-viral fatigue syndrome. This condition is characterized by fatigue following a viral infection. Symptoms commonly associated with this syndrome are fatigue, musculoskeletal pain, neurocognitive difficulties, and mood disturbance (Ho-Yen, 1990).

Patients with this condition also Fighting Irish Media photo

experience nausea, loss of appetite, and wakeup from sleep feeling unrefreshed (Ho-Yen, 1990). While there is no cure for post-viral fatigue syndrome, the use of over-the-counter analgestic medication often helps to alleviate symptoms. Many of the symptoms associated with overtraining will not improve with the use of medication.

Treating Overtraining If full-blown overtraining syndrome has developed, complete rest for 6-12 weeks is essential (Noakes, 2003). Continuing to train and race will just exacerbate the condition and result in poor performance, increased risk of injury, and infection.

Continuing to train will also just prolong the period of time that the athlete will ultimately have to rest (Noakes, 2003).

When coming back from overtraining syndrome, it is important to do so slowly.

Athletes need to learn how to match their mental desires with the ability of their bodies so that they do not repeatedly demand more of their bodies than they can deliver (Noakes, 2003).

Preventing Overtraining One of the most important factors for preventing overtraining is to gain an understanding of the stages of overtraining and have the self-awareness to differentiate between overtraining and the more generalized fatigue that is a natural part of training. For Brendan Foster (a British distance runner who founded the Great North Run), one of the signs of overtraining is when you “wake up tired and go to bed even more tired� (Noakes, 2003).

When diagnosing overtraining syndrome, it is important to determine when the fatigue being experienced is excessive.

One method that is commonly used by athletes to monitor their fatigue level and compare them to previous years is to keep a training journal. Recording and analyzing training and racing performances allows the athlete to detect symptoms of overtraining (Noakes, 2003).

Debate about Overtraining Researchers have not been able to determine the exact physiological changes that cause overtraining, which has led some experts to argue that overtraining is com-

pletely mental. However, Noakes (2003) argues that when physically stretched, the body, not the mind, is always the first to quit. Many overtrained runners find that while their mind is ready to run, their body is exhausted. I presented this topic in my K533 Advanced Theories of High Level Performance class at Indiana University. At the end of the presentation, one student argued that overtraining is not a real condition, but simply athletes becoming wimps who are unable to handle the training load placed on them. Each athlete has a different range of physical abilities, but they also differ in the ability to withstand fatigue.

Noakes et al. (2005) propose that fatigue is a result of a central governor aimed at maintaining homeostasis throughout the body. The central governor integrates peripheral afferent signals and exogenous reference signals to regulate efferent muscle control (Noakes et al., 2005).

Teleanticipation is also used in this model to aid in the determination of pacing and perceived exertion (Noakes et al., 2005).

Noakes et al. (2005) reported that each individual athlete has a different type of

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central governor. For example, Noakes et al. argue that even in a race in which all participants have similar ability levels, the person with a robust central governor is often times not the person who wins the race. The athlete with the strong central governor is able to more readily detect the physiological stress being placed upon the body, and this recognition forces the athlete to succumb to the feelings of exhaustion, causing them to slow down or stop exercising. I believe that this notion 30

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can also be carried over into the concept of overtraining. While some athletes are physically stronger and better able to handle and adapt to the demands of vigorous training, I also believe that the central governor and the strength of that governor can also influence whether an athlete develops overtraining syndrome or not. Athletes with a weak central governor may not respond as negatively to the demands of training and succumb to fatigue as another athlete with a simi-

lar talent level but with a strong central governor. Therefore, I believe that overtraining is both physiological and mental.

The central governor of each athlete can alter the recruitment of motor neurons in order to preserve homeostasis, which can lead to muscle damage, soreness, and fatigue. This is why it is important for coaches to individualize training more for each athlete to determine how their body best responds to different types of workouts. This may not be feasible in sports

syndrome. In doing this, coaches will be able to elicit the best performance from their athlete and help them maintain their enjoyment for the sport and prevent overuse injuries.

Hard work and dedication are essential ingredients for an athlete to become successful. However, athletes can reach the point where they overdo it and enter into overtraining syndrome. The most common symptoms associated with overtraining are fatigue, muscle soreness, difficultly sleeping, and loss of appetite. The only treatment for overtraining is rest.

Once an athlete is overtrained, continuing to train just exacerbates the cycle of overtraining. While some experts argue that overtraining is not a true syndrome but simply a mental condition, I argue that an athlete’s susceptibility to becoming overtrained is influenced by the athlete’s central governor. When coaching an elite athlete, it is important to determine what type of training the athlete best responds to, and also to recognize symptoms of overtraining presented by the athlete.

Literature Cited

such as high school football, where there are so many players on a team that it is impossible to set up a training schedule for each individual athlete. However, when this concept is applied to elite performance athletes in events such as long distance running, it is important for coaches to know their athlete well enough to determine what type of training does and doesn’t work for that athlete, and also be able to detect the signs that the athlete may be falling into overtraining

Barron, J.L., Noakes, T.D., Levy, W. et al.

Hypothalamic Dysfunction in Overtrained Athletes. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism 60(4): 803.

Berglund, B., Safstrom, H. (1994).

Psychological monitoring and modulation of training load of world-class canoeists. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 26:1036-1040.

BrainyQuote. (2013). Hard Work Quotes. Available online at: http://www. brainyquote.com/quotes/keywords/hard_ work.html Costill, D.L., Flynn, M.G., Kirwan, J.P. et al. (1988). Effects of repeated days of intensified training on muscle glycogen and swimming performance. Med Sci Sports Exercise 20: 249-254.

Costill, D.L., King, D.S., Thomas, R. et al. (1985). Effects of reduced training on muscular power in swimmers. Physician and Sports Medicine 13:94-101.

Counsilman, J.E. (1968). The Science of Swimming. United States: Prentice-Hall.

Dressendorfer, R.H., Wade, C.E., Scaff, J.H. (1985). Increased morning heart rate in runners: a valid sign of overtraining.

Phys Sports Med 13:77-86.

Foster C, Lehmann M (1997) Overtraining syndrome. In: Guten

GN (ed) Running injuries. Saunders Philadelphia:173–188 Heiss, R.C. (1971). Unfallverhutung beim Sport. Schorndof: Karl Hoffman Ho-Yen, D.O. (1990). Patient management of post-viral fatigue syndrome.

British Journal of General Practice 40(330): 37-39.

MacConnie, S.E., Barkan, A., Lampman, R.M. et al. (1986). Decreased hypothalamic gondadotropin-releasing hormone secretion in male marathon runners.

The New England Journal of Medicine 315(7):411-417.

McKinzie, R.T. (1923). Exercise in Education and Medicine. Saunders, London.

Mayo Clinic. (2013). Hyperthyroidism.

Available online at: http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/hyperthyroidism/DS00344.

Newton, A.F.H. (1947). Commonsense Athletics. Berridge, London.

Noakes, T. (2003). Lore of Running.

Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Noakes, T.D., Gibson, A.S.C., Lambert, E.V. (2005). From catastrophe to complexity: a novel model of integrative central neural regulation of effort and fatigue during exercise in humans: summary and conclusions. British Journal of Sports Medicine 39: 120-124.

Sjostrom, M., Friden, J., Ekblom, B. (1987). Endurnace, what is it? Muscle morphology after an extremely long distance run. Acta Physiologica 130(3): 513520.

Waitz, G., Averbuch, G. (1986). World class: A champion runner reveals what makes her run, with advice and inspiration for all athletes. New York, NY: Warner Books.

Molly Hirt is a graduate of Bloomington North High School (IN), and the University of Notre Dame, where she was an outstanding Middle Distance and XC runner. She studied under Dr. Phil Henson while pursuing a Masters’ Degree in Applied Sport Science at Indiana University. Dr. Henson Ph.D. served as faculty advisor on this article.

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Start-Up Challenges & Opportunities for New Programs Landon Bright

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kirby lee photo Bob Jones University photo

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ver the last decade, frequent headlines have circulated of cross country and track and field programs being eliminated. Despite losing the occasional program, the number of NCAA programs across all divisions has gone up for both cross country and track and field in the last 10 years.

One would expect that women’s offerings have increased, but even men’s programs in cross country, indoor track, and outdoor track have increased since the 2005-2006 NCAA season. In men’s cross country, the total amount of teams has increased by 12 in Division I, 46 in Division II and 57 in Division III (National Collegiate Athletic Association, 2016). Although programs continue to be eliminated from college offerings, we still see a net increase in the NCAA. Some of these numbers can be attributed to institutions changing divisions, most recently NAIA schools switching to NCAA Division II, but the numbers still provide a positive framework moving forward for the sport at the college level and for coaching opportunities in all divisions.

The biggest jumps have been in smaller associations, whose administrations tend to see cross country and track and field as an effective and affordable way to increase student enrollment and their athletic offerings. For example, the number of NCAA Division III women’s outdoor track and field programs has increased from 258 teams in 20052006 to 313 in 2015-2016 (National Collegiate Athletic Association, 2016).

The NCAA numbers do not reflect the many additional programs that have been started at smaller institutions that compete in other associations, including the NAIA, USCAA, NCCAA, and various junior college associations. As colleges continue to look for ways to increase their offerings for potential student-athletes, both cross country and track and field will continue to be included on the short list of possibilities.

With this increase, many coaches

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have had the opportunity to start new programs. Some have been completely from scratch and others have been additions to already existing complementary programs, such as a school starting outdoor track and field after offering cross country for a few seasons before. I have been a part of two new programs, as both a graduate assistant and a head coach. Although it is an exciting opportunity, starting a program presents challenges that can quickly lead to frustration and burnout.

If coaches are persistent and identify potential roadblocks, starting a program can be one of the most rewarding experiences of your career.

Although the challenges will vary depending on the program, such as scholarship vs. non-scholarship, the following points are major areas that will most likely face the majority of new programs. Despite the many challenges, starting a new program also presents various opportunities to set the tone for a successful program from the start. These points are most directly related to college programs, but they can also be applicable to new youth clubs, high school teams and even post-collegiate programs.

Fading Excitement Momentum is one of the biggest benefits of a new program.

Administrators, alumni, parents and students will all show excitement over a new program, regardless of the sport. A new sport is shiny and has endless potential. All the equipment, uniforms and gear are new. Incoming and current students will jump at the opportunity to be a part of school history, even if they have limited experience in the sport.

These are all positive aspects of adding a sport, but eventually the momentum fades and a program transitions from new to old. There will be challenges with student-athletes, faculty, administrators, and potentially parents, which take the shine off a new program. Even as a coach, you may not have the energy and excitement you had leading up to

your program’s first season. This is all to be expected. Successful programs look to be consistent without being celebrated. This is a difficult transition, but growing your program from a start-up to an established program offers a tremendous learning experience. Much like our student-athletes, coaches must learn to be persistent and motivated, even if momentum is not moving forward.

Limited Resources Many institutions looking to start a new program want to do so on a limited budget. This may mean it will be several years (or decades) before you can build a facility. It may mean hitting certain numbers before adding full-time assistant coaches. Every program will be different and choose to allocate funds how they see fit.

If you are starting a program at a smaller school, you will most likely not have the resources of an established program. If you embrace this fact, it will help curb potential frustrations. The best way to overcome this is to be creative. If you do not have a facility, establish a relationship with a high school that does. If you do not have assistant coaches, create a program where volunteers, graduate assistants, and even student managers are celebrated. Sometimes having fewer resources can lead you to be a hungrier coach, which is a trait you can pass down to athletes. I like to remind my student-athletes that some of the best track and field athletes come from regions where there are little to no all-weather tracks.

Ultimately, our sport is designed to be accessible to all and that includes small-budget collegiate programs.

As a new program, your alumni base will be non-existent for several years. This could potentially hinder the fundraising capabilities for your program early on. It will be difficult to raise money specifically for cross country and track and field for your school when there are very few alumni and most have just started their careers.

This is certainly a disadvantage,

Start-up

but starting a program provides the opportunity to easily keep track of every student-athlete that has been through your program. If you are organized, you can update mailing and email addresses of alumni for future use. Although the alumni office of your institution will probably do this, your alumni will increase every year, so it will be easier to keep your own database up-to-date to use when you wish. This information can be used to organize alumni events or fundraising campaigns. Although there are few immediate rewards to tracking alumni, having a complete list will make it easier for you to connect with former student-athletes, which will increase their support of the program.

Shortsightedness Success may not come right away.

There are programs that see success very early, but it may take you and your program several seasons before you reach the success you first imagined. As coaches, this can be a

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troublesome realization. It’s difficult to accept mediocrity or below-average outcomes, but if you are invested in the program and are putting in the work, the mediocrity will not last for long. The temptation will be to give up when success is not first realized, but if you are consistent and competitive, you will care less about the immediate results and focus on the habits that lead to long-term success.

With new programs, it will be easy to make excuses for your potentially slow start. But you must remember that every college has its pros and cons. You will have unique challenges that will make it harder to succeed. Instead of focusing in on your schools problems, write down a list of what makes your school unlike any other institution.

This will help shift your focus from the negative to the positive.

In his book Road to the Top (1995), Coach Joe Vigil wrote about the size of the city and school when he coached many top athletes at Adams State University. “The advantage of living

in a small community and attending a small institution (3,000 students) is that it allows the athlete and coach to have several encounters during the day, in addition to the main training lessons.” He goes on to write, “It has given me, as the coach, an opportunity and the environment to discover the many gifts that my athletes have possessed” (p. 248).

Coach Vigil gives us a great example of taking a possible negative of being at a smaller institution and turning into a positive. Although, his program was well-established by the time he wrote the book, he provides a blueprint for how to avoid the shortsightedness of your school’s potential negatives features.

Enrollment One of the major reasons institutions add an athletic program is the potential to increase enrollment.

Administrators may see the large numbers that athletic programs at other institutions bring in and want to Bob Jones University photo

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replicate it. This is a great advantage for our sport, but if you are a smaller school who’s immediate and long-term future depends on the enrollment of a small number of students, this can be a daunting and stressful task. You may be asked to hit certain numbers, which is not as easy as it sounds. Your dream of being a coach can quickly turn into a position that seems closer to desperate salesman.

The temptation will be to bring in any student who shows interest in the program. This may be beneficial early on, but as you enter into your second or third season, you will want to make sure to bring in student-athletes who fit your team dynamic and are invested in the program long-term, even if it means a smaller team. Clear communication with administration is key. Explaining your recruiting and retention plan early on, even if it changes over time, can cut down on potential conflicts. Be sure to cast your vision of the program in a realistic, but optimistic way. If you make big promises early on, it will make the challenges that much more frustrating and stressful when they come about.

Administrators specifically see cross country as an affordable way to increase the student-athlete population. Their inclination is correct, but this is not an overnight formula. For smaller schools, especially non-scholarship institutions, building the student-athlete population through cross country and track and field will mean having the patience to build a program that keeps and not just 42

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recruits students. This requires patience on the part of both coaches and administrators. It means the coach will have to take time to build a quality program and not only focus on bringing in as many student-athletes as possible. It will be important for athletic directors and their superiors to understand that the school’s investment will be beneficial, but it may take a few years before consistent success is realized.

Recruiting One of your first steps when beginning a new program will be coming up with a recruiting plan. Depending on when the school’s administration approved the program, coaches will have various lengths of time to recruit studentathletes. Coaches will most likely not only be behind on recruiting current high school seniors, but could also be late on contacting high school juniors.

Some coaches are brought in just several months before the first season, making it very difficult to put together a competitive team the first season. It is important to note that a late start in recruiting will not just influence that first season, but could have potential ramifications for three to four seasons. It may take up to five years for each class of studentathletes to have similar numbers.

Hopefully, your program can begin with healthy and consistent numbers, but it could take some patience and determination on your part.

Despite the many challenges in

recruiting for a new program, there are also many advantages. You will be able to highlight the opportunity for potential student-athletes to be the pioneers for the program. Going to an established program has many benefits, but for some recruits, being able to set the tone for a new program can be a potential draw for them. Even the idea of holding a school record the first couple of seasons can be something to mention to a potential student-athlete.

It will be important to give these early student-athletes a good athletic and academic experience, as they will be the ones promoting your program to their friends, family and contacts in the future. As mentioned in the limited resources section, your alumni base will be small the first few years and this will also potentially influence recruiting. However, even if your program is not competitive the first few seasons, student-athletes who have a great experience can be one of your best recruiting tools in the future.

Conclusion Ultimately, when a new program is launched and is in early phases, it is key for the coach to have an equal mix of enthusiasm and tempered expectations. At some point, every program had a beginning, and it is unlikely that even the successful ones started off as an elite program. Many of the top programs of today have been around for numerous decades and have had an opportunity to build up prestige and trophies over several generations of student-athletes. This is not an excuse to not recruit and compete well, but it can provide some perspective if you are trying to get a new program off the ground. I will sometimes research the

early years of successful programs to remind myself of the various ways these programs started. Sometimes they were competitive right away, but others took a slow build-up before becoming consistent winners.

It could be the case that you will not be the coach in place when the program gains traction, but hopefully you made decisions that put the program on a positive trajectory from the start. If we want the opportunities for college programs to exist and continue to rise, it is important for every coach to leave his or her program in a great place for the next coach to take over. As coaches, we sometimes get into a scarcity mentality, believing there can only be so many successful programs. Although only one school will win your division’s championship, the opportunities for a successful programs do not have to only belong to the few. This will be vital for new coaches to process. If you can measure success in ways outside of championships, it will both increase your motivation and lead to a high quality program for the studentathletes.

I have found that the single most important step I can take as a coach of a new program is to plan as though I will be there for a long time. This mindset will free you from the frustrations of the daily challenges of starting a program. Even if you are a graduate assistant, part-time coach or volunteer, this mindset can be extremely beneficial.

If you show up to your office and to practice with a long-term vision, the day-today operations will fall into place. This is probably true for every coach, but is especially beneficial for those overseeing new programs.

Your career may take unex-

pected turns or you may have greater aspirations, but having a long-term focus will be more beneficial for your career than updating your exit strategy after each frustrating event.

It will be crucial to make long-term goals alongside your season-to-season goals.

Your student-athletes will also benefit from a coach that is focused on being with the program through its early struggles. Like improving athletic performances, improving new programs is about repetition. There may not be clear improvement at every meet, but with continual healthy optimism and a long-term outlook, coaches can maximize their enjoyment of starting a new program. They will put themselves in a position to help individual student-athletes improve and hopefully provide a lasting positive impact on their institution.

References National Collegiate Athletic Association. (2016). Studentathlete participation: NCAA sports sponsorship and participation rate report (1981-82 – 2015-16).

Indianapolis, IN: Erin Irick Vigil, J.I., (1995). Road to the top. Albuquerque: Creative Designs, Inc.

Landon Bright joined the Bob Jones University staff in June 2013 as the cross country program’s first head coach. Prior to his time at BJU, Bright served as a graduate assistant coach for cross country and track and field at Hardin-Simmons University (TX) .

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Breaking the Mold That Happiness Or Success Is Only Achieve On The Other Side Of A Result Nate Hoey 46

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his article will look at breaking the mold of happiness or success being on the other side of achievement. If the coach creates an intentionally positive training environment which is mindfully focused on the task at hand, and embraces the process, this combination will put the athlete in a better position and set the table to achieve their aspirations.

Society has taught us that happiness needs to be on the other side of a result and success is not achieved until that result is reached. We are often taught to work really hard and when you achieve a goal, then you will be rewarded with happiness and success. With this structure, coaches are setting kids up for failure with the false promise of achievement, meaning the only way to win, achieve success or happiness is by reaching a specific result. There is a better way. Coaches can help put athletes in a position to achieve their aspirations and this will teach the athlete to grow and learn along their journey. Being journey driven and mindful of the moments which make up the process will put the athlete in a better position to strive for their aspirations.

Application Coaches should look to creating an environment where the focus is on setting high aspirations and striving for excellence as the athlete pursues their aspirations. However, the coach should make it clear their definition of success does not revolve around whether an athlete achieves that specific aspiration or not.

The season is about progress, not perfection. The coach should clearly establish that they care about the athletes’ track & field performance, but that there is a greater care for who the athlete becomes as a result of the chase, and as a result of the pursuit of their aspirations. The athlete will not be defined by a result.

The person they grow into becoming and the character traits they develop over the course of a season and four-year period is the priority within the program.

It should be established that the individual and team will strive to win, but do it by enjoying and embracing the moments which make up the process.

Teammates supporting and lifting each other up with positive words and actions.

When this is done, the athletes’ happiness

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does not need to be on the other side of a result. They will instead enjoy the experience and the process which in turn, will put them into a better position to achieve their specific aspirations.

People have been traditionally taught that if they work hard, they will achieve success and that they will be happy once a specific achievement is reached. This mindset has become a staple in the athletic arena. Athletes are told to set a goal, work really hard to achieve that goal and once the goal is achieved, the athlete will be happy. Harvard professor Shawn Achor states, “This is scientifically backwards. Once you achieve success your brain just changes the goal post standard for what success looks like” (Achor, 2011).

So once an athlete does achieve a specific goal or aspiration, they will immediately establish a new goal and aspiration to pursue.

For example, an athlete wants to break 12 seconds in the 100m, once they break 12 seconds, then they want to run 11.80.

An athlete wants to High Jump 5’8”, once they clear 5’8” they now want to clear 5’10”. An athlete aims run 14.30 in the 100m Hurdles, once the run 14.30, now they want to run 14.15. A climber wants to summit Mt. Everest, they summit Mt. Everest, and now they want to do it again, but this time without oxygen tank support. Once a goal is reached, the human drive for achievement will then always reset the goal standard.

“We are born with the powerful urge to have an effect on and master our environment.” (Elliot, A.J, McGregor, H.A, Thrash, T.M, YEAR, p15-16). Humans are wired to pursue achievement and that is great.

Coaches should embrace this pursuit, but simply not want their athlete’s happiness to be on the other side of a result.

The coach and team leaders should find ways to create an environment which allows the athlete to learn, enjoy and embrace what is in front of them on a given day. Encourage them to not worry about down the road, but instead simply focus on doing the best they can on the task at hand. Teach them to embrace the moments which make up the process and the journey. Motivate the team to enjoy the relationships with their teammates.

Foster a high energy and supportive environment where teammates are cheering each other on in their workout and

during a weight room session. Over time simple acts repeated daily will make a big impact on establishing the environment and culture.

Sit in on any post-season banquet, and listen to stories which teammates share about graduating seniors. You will rarely hear about a major performance or result.

You will hear about how a graduating senior made another individual on the team feel. Those small seemingly insignificant moments when compounded over time are what make up the experience for the athlete and the foundation on what the relationship and experience is built upon.

Shaw Achor states “it’s not necessarily the reality that shapes us, but the lens through which your brain views the world that shapes your reality.” Achor continues “You don’t get happy by achieving success. You achieve success by getting happy” (Achor, 2011). “When we are happy, when our mindset and mood are positive, we are smarter, more motivated and thus more successful. Happiness is at the center and success revolves around it” (Achor, S. 2010, p.37).

Achor calls this the “happiness advantage,” our brain works better in a positive state then it does in a negative, neutral or stressed state. When coaches create an intentionally positive environment, then the athletes will be able to have more productive training sessions which will in turn put them into a better position to achieve their aspirations.

When a person is in a positive and intentionally grateful state “positive emotions flood our brains with dopamine and serotonin, chemicals that not only make us feel good, but dial up the learning centers of our brains to higher levels.”

(Achor, S. 2010, p.44). It is important to note that creating a positive environment does not mean there will be an absence of negativity. There will be unfortunate injury, illness and personal challenges.

However, when the team has a sound support network around them, these negative situations will appear with less frequency and the individual will be better equipped to handle them when they do show up. Achor continues, “happiness is not all yellow smiley faces and rainbows, for me happiness is the joy we feel striving after our potential” (Achor, S. 2010, p.40). The coach needs to always be

breaking the mold

honest and upfront with the athlete, not simply pretending everything is perfect.

He or she needs to address negative situations or challenges as they arise. The coach needs to be constructive, instructive and supportive with their communication and feedback. If something is not going well, it’s important to recognize it, address it clearly head on, so the athlete can grow from that situation. The season will not be a clean linear path to achievement. Letting the athletes know there will be ups and downs and that is OK and all part of the process. This is an important step in creating a growth mindset environment. Learning and growth for everyone is messy. Through this process, the athletes will grow physically, mentally and emotionally, and be better prepared down the road for when similar situations appear.

“Growth never occurs in a vacuum, so we must choose the kind of person we wish to become.” (Compton, W.C, Hoffman, E. 2013, p225). This team environment will not happen organically.

The team needs to intentionally create their environment with an emphasis on encouraging positivity, supporting teammates, learning from failure, and bring-

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ing a team-first attitude. Small consistent daily acts will go a long way in establishing the culture. This can be done with creating core values and standards of behavior which the team itself puts together. These values are what the team holds true to their identity. When created by the team, they will have a vested interest and the result will be they are more likely to hold themselves and each other accountable to those standards.

That accountability is the key to creating an intentional environment.

We do not control factors or events down the road, but having a conscious focus on being your best self today, on the task at hand, will help the athlete get the most out of the training session. Learning to celebrate their own events and training with positivity and gratitude is another way in which teammates can intentionally set each other up for success. Awareness of this is a big step in creating an intentionally positive environment. Focusing and being in the present is another step. Learning from the past and planning for the future, but being mindful on this one day. Having a clear objective of this session will help that athlete focus on that activity. On

a daily basis at practice, clearly stating WHAT you are doing, WHY you are doing it, and HOW the workout should flow will give clear expectations and objectives to the athlete. Then follow the session up with a clear and direct debrief; What went well today and why?

What can be improved upon next time?

Coach Dan Pfaff, a world leader in high performance coaching who has guided 52 athletes to ten Olympic Games and ten Olympic medals has talked about the benefits of creating and fostering a positive, supportive training environment. Track & Field is a sport full of driven individuals and the sport itself is about the pursuit of being your very best self and trying to attain that “personal record.” Dan Pfaff states, “I think it comes down to your fundamental philosophy that you establish with your training group as a coach. If you’re process or journey driven, then I think that is a constant focal point and conference point in the relationship. So balancing intrinsic and extrinsic goals and objectives versus process, is the art of coaching.” (Pfaff, D. Personal Interview, Oct. 11, 2016). What is contained in a team’s core values and standards of behavior

Marisa Turner photo

should reflect this philosophy the coach and captains have for the program. The team should be held accountable to those standards on a daily basis.

Coach Pfaff has sustained success at the pinnacle of the sport. When asked what he feels are the most important factors that go into the coaching engine, he states “being enmeshed in the process and the relationships and the moment along the journey for me are the central drivers. I think after you have done it a few times, you realize those extrinsic landmarks that you strove for really didn’t change your life that drastically and they didn’t really bring perhaps the joy or relief or confirmation you thought they would.

So I think the longer you’re in coaching, the more you value the relationships, the process, the journey and the moments so to speak, rather than the grand moments that people see on TV.” (Pfaff, D. Personal Interview, Oct. 11, 2016).

Athletes often feel that once they hit that landmark achievement, they will be happy and confirm their value as a person and an athlete. It’s important to make a part of the daily process and culture of the training environment, that an athlete’s self-worth never be tied into a result. An athlete needs to understand and feel that their value as a team member does not go up or down based on performance, but that their value is in who they are, how they act, the effort they put into their journey and how they treat their teammates. When they do this, they are going to be able to let go of the fear of failure and go out and replicate what they have been doing in their training and execute their event model or race plan at a higher level without the external pressure of needing validation.

Being mindful of oneself and their individual path and journey can enhance the environment. The sport of Track & Field is all about comparing. A performance list comes out for a meet and athletes are quickly looking online to compare where they are relative to someone else. “Who is in my heat or flight” is a phrase often heard. Comparison is the thief of all joy.

A coach’s philosophy and teaching structure needs to consistently bring this to the forefront from day one. “There are so many variables that go into a world class performance in any event that to compare yourself to the next person defies logic, because of the unique matrix of variables that individual possess.” (Pfaff, D. Personal Interview, Oct. 11, 2016). If a coach can use that as a central teaching

point in their daily training environment and culture, one that discusses and talks about the importance of focusing only on what the athlete can control, the coach is already one step ahead of the game on the comparison trap. “If you are truly involved in the process and you define serious key performance indicators there shouldn’t be a lot of time to compare to other people or a need to compare, because you are trying to address your unique map and journey” (Pfaff, D. Personal Interview, Oct. 11, 2016).

Establishing clear, realistic team and individual goals and then process oriented goals which will help put the athlete into a position to achieve their aspirations is a very important piece of the puzzle.

The end goal is not the most important step, it’s the process oriented goals and steps which are the most critical. These process oriented goals should be steps the athlete is fully in control of. These may be consistent sleeping habits, nutritional goals or weight room focus points. All specific measureable, actionable items they can look to achieve and keep track of.

“Goals: the results to which effort is aimed.” (Ledbetter, B. 2016, p.2). “When you focus on goals, what do you focus on? Results.” (Ledbetter, B. 2016, p.2). So having a clear conversation and established process goals, knowing they are what you will focus on and put your effort and energy toward is critical. We want to direct the effort and the energy on a daily basis to being their best self on that day.

“When you focus on the effort aimed at the result, you focus your energy on the things that you can control.” (Ledbetter, B. 2016, p.3). This is the process. Your process is what drives you toward your results. This drive will not guarantee you will achieve the result, but it will help get you into the right neighborhood.

suit of the athlete’s goals and aspirations.

Work to create a program which will strive to win, but do it in an environment which fosters enjoying and embracing the moments which make up the process and by supporting and lifting up their teammates. Create an environment where the athlete will enjoy the pursuit of striving for excellence. An environment where the athletes’ happiness will not be on the other side of a result, but their happiness in the daily moments will in turn put them into a position to achieve their goals and aspirations. Happiness, joy and gratification will come from the journey of striving to become their very best self.

References Achor, S. (2010). The Happiness Advantage. The Seven Principles of Positive Psychology That Fuel Success and Performance at Work, p. 37, 40, 44.

Achor, S. (2011, May). Shawn Achor: The happiness advantage: linking brains to performance [video file]. Retrieved from https://www.ted.com/talks/shawn_achor_ the_happy_secret_to_bett_work Compton, W.C., Hoffman, E. (2013).

Positive Psychology. The Science of Happiness and Flourishing, p. 225 Elliot, A.J, McGregor, H.A, Thrash, T.M, YEAR, The Need For Competence, Handbook of self- determination research, p. 15-16 Ledbetter, B. (2015). What Drives Winning. Building Character Gets Results.

Here’s How, p. 2-3 Lohr, J. (2012). The Only Way To Win. How Building Character Drives Higher Achievement and Greater Fulfillment in Business and Life, p. 16 Pfaff, D. (2016, October 11). Personal Phone Interview

Conclusion It’s really all about the little things. An athletes experience ultimately is the sum of all the “small” little details which add up to make the overall experience what it is. An athlete knows that a coach is there to help them run faster, jump farther/ higher and throw farther than they ever thought possible, but more importantly the coach needs to be there to help guide the athlete as they grow during their four years. The coach needs to care about the athletes T&F performance, but they need to care more about who the athlete becomes as a result of the chase and pur-

Nate Hoey is in his fourth year as the Head Women’s Track & Field Coach at Williams College. He has guided Williams to three straight NESCAC Championships.

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rhythm hit them Adjusting the tempo to skillfully surf the intensity curve.

Brad H. DeWeese, John P. Wagle, and Garett E. Bingham

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hile most track and field coaches agree that speed is enhanced through a consistent exposure to sprinting, the density at which these practices can occur is limited by the athlete’s preparedness (33). Practically speaking, in order to run fast, sprinters need time to recover from and respond to previous exposure to high-intensity training. To date, the accepted time needed to optimally recover from ballistic activity ranges from 24-72 hours depending on numerous factors not limited to training age, type of stimulus, and athlete’s relative strength (23). With that being said, sprint coaches are faced with the challenge of finding unique ways to (a) appropriately dose training volume, (b) reduce the effects of summated fatigue through a microcycle, (c) maintain a work capacity that allows for optimal participation in multi-day or -event competitions, and (d) provide training time for the rehearsal of motor skills that are approximate to top-speed running mechanics.

One such method of addressing the aforementioned concerns is through the inclusion of tempo, a term popularized by the late Charlie Francis, which describes a training tool that traditionally places emphasis on aerobic enhancement and active recovery (7). This form

of running is analogous to the Goldilocks principle in that the running intensity prescribed is neither so fast that one cannot neurologically recover from the previous day’s training; nor too slow that it dampens the desired physiological responses to training; yet swift enough to maintain a rhythm which affords sprinters time to rehearse upright sprint mechanics at reduced intensities.

Historically speaking, these training sessions utilize repetition distances that are approximate to the sprinter’s specialty. For instance, short sprinters may place their efforts over a range of 50-200m, whereas a long or hybrid sprinter could see distances slightly above 400m within their programming.

While training volumes ranging between 1000-3000m have been generally prescribed, a true lack of clearly defined normative data exists. Therefore, coaches should dose this training tactic based on their athlete’s ability to maintain optimal posture and running mechanics throughout.

As a result, this regimen may be of benefit to those coaches who employ a high-low approach to programming.

This type of polarized planning system (Figure 1) attempts to disperse acute fatigue through the coupling of highintensity sprint sessions with subsequent low-intensity practices. Coaches who

Figure 1. Example polarized approach across phases of training.

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use this programming tactic hope to stave off an unnecessary residual fatigue that accumulates through a microcycle, and perhaps training block, if sprinting intensities stay unchecked. In other words, tempo-based training may allow for a seamless and skillful transition inbetween practice sessions that prioritize higher-intensity, near-maximal speeds that are synonymous with sprinting.

Overview on Sprinting Recall that sprinting is defined as a volitional activity that represents how fast an athlete can move down the track through a rapid, un-paced, maximal run lasting less than 15 seconds while under the restriction of gravity, wind, and ground reaction forces (22). However, in the athletic setting, a sprint event lasts wellbeyond this time constraint as competitors cover distances up to 400-meters with completion times encroaching the 1-minute mark, especially within the long-hurdle event. Interestingly, Weyand and associates proposed evidence suggesting that an acute-bout of maximal sprinting up to a minute is still overwhelmingly anaerobic (28, 29). While still a postulation, the ability to reduce the reliance on aerobic metabolism during the completion of a long sprint is perhaps reliant on the integrity of movement patterns. These preferable upright-

LET THE RYTHM HIT THEM

Figure 2. Proposed Intensity Zones for Tempo Training. Intensities are taken from athlete’s current personal best (PB) of a respective distance.

running mechanics have been shown to rely on the delivery of properly-directed and high forces through an abbreviated stance phase that results from a ground contact that is more underneath the hips, effectively staging the stretch-shortening cycle (3, 16, 30, 31). In short, the ability to transmit, tolerate, and take-off through enhanced tissue stiffness underpins sprint economy.

Additional Considerations within the Sport of Sprinting While strong evidence suggests that a stand-alone sprint event is particularly anaerobic, this may be a myopic view on the sport of sprinting. Within the competitive arena, single-sprint success is required for entry into the event; however, the final 8 lanes are reserved for those athletes who can survive same-day rounds or multiple-day competitions.

Therefore, admission into the final heat requires not only judicious race planning, but predicates the need for robust physical development.

Considering the wealth of information that exists regarding the contrasting relationship between aerobic enhancement and strength-power training, one can easily dismiss the inclusion of tempo training within a sprinter’s program (15). However, this assumption ignores a deeper understanding of how tempo or other sub-maximal running activity can be employed within the practical setting.

Emerging evidence suggests that success in the sprint events, where homogeneity exists between competitors, is dependent upon the demonstration of optimized biomechanics (2). As such, tempo is a

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coaching strategy that attempts to further retain and refine the sprint-skill, notably those that associate with top-speed running.

For instance, the sprinter should emphasize a tall posture that has been described as “stacked joints” where the shoulders sit atop the hips. In addition, the sprinter should maintain relaxed shoulders and a “smooth, unhurried” arm cadence. Furthermore, the leg action should be economical with the foot “cutting through the shin”, which works to limit an over-rotation during the swing phase portion of the sprint cycle. Lastly, the height of each step should reflect the prescribed running speed, as a more flexed hip promotes a higher range of motion setting the stage for a forceful and aggressive foot-strike within the subsequent stance phase. Failure to maintain these positions within a session, or at a prescribed intensity, serves as anecdotal evidence for the modification of either volume or pace in order to ensure optimized training effect.

The purpose of this paper is to provide rationale for the inclusion of tempo running within a sprinter’s training plan.

Emphasis is placed on describing the physiological adaptations, psychological aspects, and motor skill retention that may result from partaking in this conditioning modality.

Neurophysiological Underpinnings of Tempo The sympathetic demands of sprint training, particularly early in a speed curriculum when motor learning is concentrated, requires an alternative

impetus that serves to simultaneously direct physical regeneration and motor program storage (5). Therefore, the parasympathetic responses that results from submaximal running logically play a pivotal role in the full development of a sprinter. Such a stimulus may provide the necessary neurophysiological underpinnings to dually express a necessary work capacity and more favorable responses to the high intensity stimuli through approximate motor-skill recital. Through the development of aerobic fitness, lower resting sympathetic nerve activity has been observed, while simultaneously possessing the ability to invoke a larger sympathetic response to higher intensity stimulus (20). As such, it serves to reason that tempo variations may stage greater responses to high intensity stimulus.

As illustrated in Figure 2, tempo running can be separated into 4 zones that attempt to address specific physical qualities during various phases of training. Particularly, the suggested zones of training are: Intensive (80-85%), Intensive-Extensive (70-80%), Extensive (65-70%), and Extensive-Restorative (6065%). These general intensities are based on the athlete’s current or estimated personal best of a respective distance, while also considering speed loss due to surface or footwear (8). Regardless of the chosen intensity zone, skill acquisition and reinforcement are significant drivers of how this modality is incorporated into a speed development program.

Intensive Tempo. Intensive tempo largely serves as a bridge to long-speed reserve, (also referred to as special endurance work), which is a category of run-

ning distances that can broken down into 2 classifications. Traditionally, “Special Endurance 1” describes sprints that span 150-300m, while “Special Endurance 2” sprint efforts can range between 300-600m. Ultimately, this type of training provides a sprinter the opportunity to express their speed-reserve through the rehearsal of racing tactics that minimize speed-decay (6).

Early on in the General Preparatory Phase (GPP), running sessions that are more intensive (approximately 80-85% of best time for a given distance) permit the athlete to maintain an upright running technique while partaking in training that promotes anaerobic power adaptations. Specifically, the aim of intensive tempo is to stimulate an acute increase of lactate production that is coupled with intermittent rest intervals that afford the body enough time to “buffer” this dosed accumulation. In response, the body adapts to imposed stressors by increasing enzyme activity to first better tolerate lactate production, followed by the improved facilitation of lactate usage in metabolism (21). This lactate usage is in part due to changes in enzyme activity, particularly phosphorylase, phosphofructokinase (PFK), glyceraldehyde phosphate dehydrogenase, and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH). Anaerobic enzyme activity has been shown to increase with intermittent submaximal sprinting similar to typical intensive tempo prescription, which affords the sprinter the metabolic capacity to successfully transition to long speed reserve training (6, 21).

While metabolic efficiency seems to result from this training modality, this subdivision of tempo prescription should be prescribed with cautionary precision.

Due to the aggressive paces used within this particular regimen, true polarity in comparison to other neurologically demanding training components, such as speed and strength development will be compromised (22). With this in mind, the coach must be mindful of the impact that intra-session fatigue may have on the central nervous system and stiffness qualities. This sudden fatigue may alter pre-landing motor control, leading to unfavorable changes in connective tissue compliance qualities and negative hip displacement (11). This objective evidence has important practical ramifications, as an attempt to chase prescribed finish times while ignoring movement quality could lead to a less-specific trans-

fer of training.

Extensive Tempo. As the sprinter moves through the GPP and into specific preparation, sprint velocities experienced during high-intensity practices typically trend upward. These more taxingsessions on the nervous system place a greater necessity on the inclusion of a more-extreme polarizing stimulus as compared to that provided by intensive tempo (7). For that reason, extensive tempo, which is a relaxed, rhythmic upright run executed between 65-70% of the sprinter’s best time for the given distance may be prescribed. Extensive tempo, then, provides a means by which the athlete can accumulate repetitions of proper arm action, foot fall, and propulsion, ensuring a skill development congruent with prior and current training. The high sympathetic stimulation of the sprint sessions serve as the ‘drive’ of sprint skill maturation, while submaximal practices ‘reinforce’ that skill (5).

This ‘reinforcement’ is predicated on extensive tempo’s lower intensity and may be due to the inherent interplay between sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems observed within polarized training models (5, 18).

While maintaining a keen coaching eye on the sprinter’s quality of movement during these submaximal sessions, extensive tempo can also promote the retention of physiological qualities that underpin a work-capacity necessary for multi-event or day competition.

Extensive pacing zones are thought to aid in the development of this critical physical robustness, initially through increases in mitochondrial density (9, 10). Mitochondria are ATP synthesizing factories, providing energy for contraction and integrity of the sarcolemma, which impacts the effectual energy turnover mechanisms and structural durability (1, 10, 13). Additionally, to mitochondrial density, improvements in enzymatic density and action also results.

Specifically, the activity of pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDH) has been shown to markedly increase following moderateto-low-intensity aerobic training (14).

Greater activity of PDH may be advantageous for the sprinter during intrasession recovery between high-intensity outputs, as the lactate accumulated from longer speed reserve training would be better utilized within the muscle, reducing the need for extracellular transport to re-establish optimal pH. Without these

mitochondrial adaptations, the sprinter may have a lower capacity for repeatability during high-intensity sessions, adversely altering the motor ‘drive’ that supports sprint skill acquisition.

Further, denser capillary networks, another adaptation associated with lowintensity training, provide an increased capacity for blood delivery to the tissue (9). Blood flow is determined by a variety of central and peripheral influences, but an upgrade to the ‘plumbing’ of the body may enhance gas diffusion and substrate exchange (19). Extensive tempo may create an optimized gas and nutrient exchange mechanism, allowing the sprinter to perform and recover through: a greater surface area for diffusion, shorter diffusion distance, and increased contact time between blood and specific tissue (19). Theoretically, the latter point serves the athlete most in terms of recovery, potentially affording the blood enough ‘contact time’ with the muscle to deliver nutrients and remove metabolic byproducts. Also, through the acute increase in blood flow, greater shear stresses are applied to the capillaries and arteries, providing a stimulus for chronic alterations to vessel wall dimensions and diameter, leading to systemic alterations in circulatory capacity and efficiency (25).

Intensive-Extensive Tempo. In addition to the previously described tempo prescription zones, coaches may require additional modes of training that seamlessly link phases within a sequenced plan. For that reason, intensive-extensive tempo may be a solution during the transitory periods lying between the GPP and pre-competition. What can be described as extensive tempo under a more intensive condition, this previously undefined pacing parameter attempt to limit stark alterations in stressors across blocks of training and provide retaining loads for previously developed qualities.

Practically speaking a session dedicated toward intensive-extensive tempo may primarily emphasize extensive zones (65-70%), while a few repetitions are performed at slightly higher intensities (~75%) in order to retain those previously established fitness qualities. The typical structure of such a session would include ‘ladders’, which progress the athlete from extensive repetitions up to intensive repetitions, and then back down into extensive. Through the ‘ladder’ structure, the athlete is challenged MAY 2017 techniques

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Figure 3. Theoretical polarized training model, demonstrating the removal of intensive volume loads to increase realization of speed qualities.

with progressive, but still moderately dosed, levels of lactate accumulation and subsequent buffering, developing the metabolite clearance and pH balance qualities associated with extensive prescriptions.

Extensive-Restorative Tempo. As running velocities mature and competition begins, the sprinter may require a low-intensity stimulus that stages active recovery. Extensive-restorative tempo, also a previously undefined running zone, utilizes a pace ranging 60-65% of the athlete’s current personal best for a given distance. Under the condition of extensive-restorative tempo, the runner would follow the tenets of the Goldilocks principle in that tempo runs should cease once an increased body temperature or subjectively sufficient warmth is achieved. An increase in muscle temperature initiates two distinctly important responses. Primarily, as muscles warm, they become more compliant to stretch, reducing resting tone, and have been shown to maintain range of motion better when a warm-up is performed prior to stretching (32). Given that stretch-induced changes in ROM can extend out to at least 24-hours, this provides an opportunity to ensure adequate mobility is maintained during extensive-restorative sessions, granting the athlete access to required positions and optimizing 58

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optimal sprint-skill rehearsal on highintensity days (4).

Moreover, increases in muscle temperature may enhance enzyme activity whose content has been increased via prior tempo variations, maintaining high energy efficiency. Coinciding with the reduced overall volumes inherent with extensive-restorative prescriptions, this training tool may dually promote a physical state that optimizes mobility while also retaining previously developed fitness characteristics without compromising speed realization (12, 24, 27). Specifically, mitochondrial proteins have a half-life of between four and eight days, creating a situation that demands retention of this previously developed physical breadth, affording the athlete the ability to maintain mitochondrial density (26).

Finally, extensive-restorative tempo allows for a truly polarized model of physical preparation. In more micro views of the training program, such as entering the competitive season or a taper, the dose-response relationship must be managed with great care (Figure 3). The coach must view this portion of the training as a realization of physical evolution, raising peak performance, while providing the athlete a framework to maintain breadth in the foundation, allowing for repeatable performance. Extensive-restorative tempo

provides such a balance, with the athlete able to retain robustness while still allowing the removal volume load (17).

Conclusion Success in the sprint events requires the ability to produce high rates of force development through sound biomechanics under the resistance of fatigue.

Furthermore, these high rates of force are often expressed over multiple footraces within a competition. For this reason, we as coaches find ourselves making programming decisions based on desired physiological outcomes, including work capacity.

However, sound judgment should be employed during the practice session so to ensure the maintenance of sprintrelated postural integrity. While the pacing strategies and volumes listed above are beneficial, the authors recommend that both sprint and tempo-based sessions be adjusted or terminated if and when form is less than optimal. While traditionally viewed as a metabolic stimulus, the spectrum of variants described throughout this article shed light on the role that submaximal, cadenced, or tempo-training has on technical proficiency under parasympathetic conditions.

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Exercise physiology: Human bioenergetics and its applications. Mayfield publishing company, 1996.

2. Buechner M. Gait Intervention for Improvements in Human Top Speed Running. 2015.

3. Clark KP and Weyand PG. Are running speeds maximized with simple-spring stance mechanics? Journal of Applied Physiology 117: 604-615, 2014.

4. De Weijer VC, Gorniak GC, and Shamus E. The effect of static stretch and warm-up exercise on hamstring length over the course of 24 hours. Journal of Orthopaedic & Sports Physical Therapy 33: 727-733, 2003.

5. Deese J, Lazarus RS, and Keenan J. Anxiety, anxiety reduction, and stress in learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology 46: 55, 1953.

6. DeWeese BH, Sams ML, Williams JH, and Bellon C. The Nature of Speed: Enhancing Sprint Abilities Through a Short to Long Training Approach, in: Techniques. 2015, pp 8-22.

7. Francis C and Patterson P. The Charlie Francis Training System. TBLI Publications, 1992.

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9. Hermansen L and Wachtlova M. Capillary density of skeletal muscle in well-trained and untrained men. Journal of Applied Physiology 30: 860-863, 1971.

10. Hoppeler H, Howald H, Conley K, Lindstedt SL, Claassen H, Vock P, and Weibel ER. Endurance training in humans: aerobic capacity and structure of skeletal muscle. Journal of Applied Physiology 59: 320-327, 1985.

11. Horita T, Komi P, Nicol C, and Kyröläinen H. Effect of exhausting stretchshortening cycle exercise on the time course of mechanical behaviour in the drop jump: possible role of muscle damage. European journal of applied physiology and occupational physiology 79: 160167, 1999.

12. Issurin V. Block periodization versus traditional training theory: a review.

Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness 48: 65, 2008.

13. Layec G, Bringard A, Le Fur Y, Micallef J-P, Vilmen C, Perrey S, Cozzone PJ, and Bendahan D. Mitochondrial Coupling and Contractile Efficiency in Humans with High and Low V˙ O2peaks.

Medicine and science in sports and exercise 48: 811-821, 2016.

14. LeBlanc PJ, Peters SJ, Tunstall RJ, Cameron‐Smith D, and Heigenhauser GJ. Effects of aerobic training on pyruvate dehydrogenase and pyruvate dehydroge-

nase kinase in human skeletal muscle. The Journal of physiology 557: 559-570, 2004.

15. Leveritt M, Abernethy PJ, Barry BK, and Logan PA. Concurrent strength and endurance training. Sports Med 28: 413427, 1999.

16. Mann R. The mechanics of sprinting and hurdling. 2013.

17. Mujika I and Padilla S. Scientific bases for precompetition tapering strategies. Medicine and science in sports and exercise 35: 1182-1187, 2003.

18. Plews DJ, Laursen PB, Kilding AE, and Buchheit M. Heart-rate variability and training-intensity distribution in elite rowers. International journal of sports physiology and performance 9: 1026-1032, 2014.

19. Prior BM, Yang H, and Terjung RL. What makes vessels grow with exercise training? Journal of Applied Physiology 97: 1119-1128, 2004.

20. Raymond DA. The effect of aerobic fitness on the cardiovascular and sympathetic nervous system response to physiological stress at rest and during dynamic exercise. 2012.

21. Roberts A, Billeter R, and Howald H. Anaerobic muscle enzyme changes after interval training. International journal of sports medicine 3: 18-21, 1982.

22. Ross A, Leveritt M, and Riek S. Neural influences on sprint running.

Sports Medicine 31: 409-425, 2001.

23. Sayers SP and Clarkson PM. Force recovery after eccentric exercise in males and females. European journal of applied physiology 84: 122-126, 2001.

24. Siff MC. Supertraining.

Supertraining Institute, 2003.

25. Tuttle JL, Nachreiner RD, Bhuller AS, Condict KW, Connors BA, Herring BP, Dalsing MC, and Unthank JL. Shear level influences resistance artery remodeling: wall dimensions, cell density, and eNOS expression. American Journal of Physiology-Heart and Circulatory Physiology 281: H1380-H1389, 2001.

26. Van Wessel T, De Haan A, Van der Laarse W, and Jaspers R. The muscle fiber type–fiber size paradox: hypertrophy or oxidative metabolism? European journal of applied physiology 110: 665-694, 2010.

27. Verkhoshansky Y and Verkhoshansky N. Special strength training: manual for coaches. Verkhoshansky Sstm Rome, 2011.

28. Weyand PG and Bundle MW. Energetics of high-speed running: integrating classical theory and contemporary observations. American Journal of Physiology-Regulatory, Integrative and

Comparative Physiology 288: R956-R965, 2005.

29. Weyand PG, Lee CS, Martinez-Ruiz R, Bundle MW, Bellizzi MJ, and Wright S. High-speed running performance is largely unaffected by hypoxic reductions in aerobic power. Journal of Applied Physiology 86: 2059-2064, 1999.

30. Weyand PG, Sandell RF, Prime DN, and Bundle MW. The biological limits to running speed are imposed from the ground up. Journal of applied physiology 108: 950-961, 2010.

31. Weyand PG, Sternlight DB, Bellizzi MJ, and Wright S. Faster top running speeds are achieved with greater ground forces not more rapid leg movements.

Journal of applied physiology 89: 19911999, 2000.

32. Woods K, Bishop P, and Jones E. Warm-up and stretching in the prevention of muscular injury. Sports Medicine 37: 1089-1099, 2007.

33. Zatsiorsky VM and Kraemer WJ. Science and practice of strength training.

Human Kinetics, 2006.

Dr. Brad DeWeese, is an assistant professor in the Department of Exercise and Sport Science at East Tennessee State University where he also serves as the Head Performance Coach within the Olympic Training Site.

John P. Wagle, is currently working towards his PhD within the Department of Exercise and Sport Science at East Tennessee State University. Prior to this, John was the Director of Sport Performance for DePaul University.

Garett Bingham, is currently working towards his PhD within the Department of Exercise and Sport Science at East Tennessee State University where he also serves as the Athletics Weightroom supervising fellow.

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2016 National COACHES AND Athletes of the Year ustfccca division i

Robert Johnson Oregon Women’s Head COY

Pat Henry Texas A&M Men’s Head COY

Curtis Taylor Oregon Women’s Assistant COY

Ben Thomas Virginia Tech Men’s Assistant COY

Keturah Orji Georgia Women’s Field AOY

Raven Saunders Ole Miss Women’s Field AOY

KeAndre Bates Florida Men’s Field AOY

Hannah Cunliffe Oregon Women’s Track AOY

Christian Coleman Tennessee Men’s Track AOY

ustfccca division iI

Rock Light Adams State Women’s Head COY

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Jeremy Croy Tiffin Men’s Head COY

techniques MAY 2017

Peter Early Merrimack Women’s Assistant COY

Raymond Robinson Tiffin Men’s Assistant COY

Rellie Kaputin West Texas A&M Women’s Field AOY

Coy Blair Tiffin Men’s Field AOY

Carly Muscaro Merrimack Women’s Track AOY

Mobolade Ajomale Academy of Art Men’s Track AOY

ustfccca division iII

Jeff Stiles Washington Women’s Head COY

Frank Gramarosso North Central Men’s Head COY

Lane Lohr Washington Women’s Assistant COY

Justin Kinseth Benedictine Men’s Assistant COY

Alexa Wandy SUNY Geneseo Women’s Field AOY

Jerry Williams UW-Stevens Point Men’s Field AOY

Amber Celen Bridgewater Women’s Track AOY

Peter Hale Williams Men’s Track AOY

NAIA

Doug Edgar Indiana Tech Women’s Head COY Men’s Head COY

Zac Osgood Hastings Women’s Assistant COY

Austin Roark Indiana Tech Men’s Assistant COY

Chelsea Baker Friends Women’s Field AOY

Dakarai Hightower Doane Men’s Field AOY

Hannah Segrave Daniel Garcia Cardinal Stritch Milligan Women’s Track Men’s Track AOY AOY

NJCAA division I

Keith Blackwill New Mexico JC Women’s Head COY

Denny Myers Iowa Central CC Men’s Head COY

Tony Davis Barton CC Women’s Assistant COY

Dee Brown Iowa Central CC Men’s Assistant COY

Latavia Coombs New Mexico JC Women’s Field AOY

Jared Seay Iowa Central CC Men’s Field AOY

Esther Gitahi New Mexico JC Women’s Track AOY

Gilbert Kigen Central Arizona Men’s Track AOY

MAY 2017 techniques

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techniques MAY 2017