The Strategic Context for Wood Use in Canadian Architecture

UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE IDBE 15

THESIS The Strategic Context for Wood Use in Canadian Architecture Exploring value potential, industry promotion and inertia among design professionals

Richard W P Klopp January 2012

Submitted to the University of Cambridge in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Studies - Interdisciplinary Design for the Built Environment.

Supervisor: Nicholas Ray Director of Studies: Dr. Julie Jupp

UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE [IDBE 15] THESIS: THE STRATEGIC CONTEXT FOR WOOD USE IN CANADIAN ARCHITECTURE

ABSTRACT This work explores the strategic context for greater wood use in Canadian architecture: the value propositions, intense industry promotion, and cultural resistance, especially among design professionals, related to shifting practices towards wood-based design solutions. In the North American building industry, there is an important split between two roughly equal sized market sectors: the low-rise residential sector, in which wood is the dominant material for structural applications, and other building sectors, in which steel and concrete are more commonly used.

The term “architectural sector� is proposed for these other building sectors that as a group share some distinct differences from the low-rise residential sector, notably the involvement of design professionals. Understanding the origins of this market split and its legacy on wood use practices is an important focus of the work.

Written during a period of forest industry restructuring and reorientation, the work contributes to the rapidly expanding body of research assessing the market opportunities for, and barriers to, the use of wood products in the architectural sector.

It offers a design professional’s perspective, which appears to be lacking from the supply-side literature, in particular in relation to the value-added potential of design and integrated practice.

The thesis posits that wood, as a construction material, is characterised by diversity, both upstream and downstream of its product supply chains, from its source in the forest to its end use in a particular building application. Architects and other design professionals are increasingly required to make value-based decisions regarding wood use that are motivated not only by project constraints and client preferences, but also by public policy and ethical accountability rooted in the ecological and socioeconomic ideologies of climate change and regional development. Generalist notions of forest, wood, wood product, and wood use are therefore insufficient to address the many questions that require knowledge of the broad range of qualities or possibilities that these notions entail. The main aim of this work then is to generate a rich contextual source of knowledge that will provide the means for an informed debate on the broader issues relating to wood use in Canadian architecture. The emphasis throughout the research has been to draw out the fundamental and structuring elements that inform industry practices and motives.

The main topics and content presented include: a classification of wood products, applications and markets; a proposed definition of the architectural market sector and the role of design consultants in it; an overview of Canadian forestry and the wood products industry; and three historic trends that have shaped both production and use. Case studies show the diverse opportunities for wood use within existing market contexts. A concluding discussion offers critical insights on four themes related to the greater use of wood in the architectural sector: 1) the strategic importance of the architectural sector to achieving both public policy and industry objectives; 2) the value-added potential of design and integrated practice; 3) the contextual basis for professional resistance and negative perceptions; and 4) the industry promotion of wood as a climate change strategy. Possible scenarios for an advanced wood building culture in Canada are explored in the prologue and epilogue. Based on existing wood use practices both domestically and internationally, they demonstrate the importance of leadership and integration at different levels of project team, industry association, and society.

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UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE [IDBE 15] THESIS: THE STRATEGIC CONTEXT FOR WOOD USE IN CANADIAN ARCHITECTURE

PREFACE Academic context This work was submitted to the University of Cambridge in partial fulfilment of the program requirements for the Degree of Master of Studies - Interdisciplinary Design for the Built Environment (IDBE). The principal aim of the IDBE program as stated in the course handbook is: … to give its graduates a broad strategic understanding of the social, economic and environmental context of design, and the current challenges and opportunities facing the production of the built environment. 1

About the author Given the interdisciplinary scope of this work, a brief biographical statement has been provided to assist the reader in situating the author’s perspective in relation to the topics explored.

Richard Klopp

MAIBC MRAIC LEED

is an architect, educator, and public advocate for

sustainability in the built environment. He lives in Montréal, Canada. His professional practice experience of 15 years spans a wide range of project types and cultural contexts in both European and Canadian consultant firms. He was adjunct professor at McGill University School of Architecture from 2002 to 2009 and currently teaches in the Architectural Technology program at Vanier College. His involvement in public advocacy includes principal authorship for the exhibition “How to Build Post-Kyoto,” an official parallel event to the 2005 United Nations Climate Change Summit in Montreal. His avid interest in the material culture of wood can be traced back to an upbringing in the heavily forested - and actively logged - Southern Interior forest region of British Columbia.

kloppr@vaniercollege.qc.ca

1

University of Cambridge (2007) IDBE Masters Programme Course Handbook, 2008-2010 edition.

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UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE [IDBE 15] THESIS: THE STRATEGIC CONTEXT FOR WOOD USE IN CANADIAN ARCHITECTURE

TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT .............................................................................................................i PREFACE .............................................................................................................. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS......................................................................................... iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...................................................................................... iv LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................... v LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................ vi LIST OF CASE STUDIES ..................................................................................... vii ABBREVIATIONS................................................................................................ viii PROLOGUE ..............................................................................................................1 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................4 METHODOLOGY ...................................................................................................6 DEFINING THE CONTEXT ......................................................................................11 CLASSIFICATION OF WOOD PRODUCTS AND MARKETS...............................11 Species classification ........................................................................................12 Lumber grading .................................................................................................13 Product types: solid, composite, hybrid .............................................................13 Value-added products .......................................................................................15 End-use applications .........................................................................................16 Engineered wood products................................................................................17 End-use building sectors ...................................................................................19 Building code classifications..............................................................................20 DEFINING THE SUBJECT MARKET ...................................................................21 Architectural sector ...........................................................................................21 Market characterisation .....................................................................................22 Growth potential ................................................................................................23 Role of design professionals .............................................................................24 Market barriers ..................................................................................................25 CANADIAN FORESTRY AND WOOD PRODUCTS INDUSTRY ..........................29 Timber supply ...................................................................................................30 Economic considerations ..................................................................................32 Regional differences .........................................................................................33 Sustainable forest management ........................................................................34 HISTORICAL TRENDS IN WOOD PRODUCTION AND USE ..............................38 Technological orientations of the wood industry ................................................38 Emergence of building codes ............................................................................40 Modern materials and substitution.....................................................................43 CONCLUDING DISCUSSION ..................................................................................46 The strategic nature of the architectural sector..................................................47 Opportunties for creating value .........................................................................49 Professional resistance rooted in contextual factors ..........................................51 Critical perspectives on wood use and sustainability .........................................53 EPILOGUE ..............................................................................................................57 BIBILIOGRAPHY.....................................................................................................59 REFERENCES .................................................................................................59 OTHER SOURCES CONSULTED ....................................................................65 APPENDIX A – Potential for end-use efficiencies ....................................................67

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I wish to acknowledge and thank the following people for their contributions to this work:



Nicholas Ray, IDBE thesis supervisor, for his engaging discussions and insights. When my research suggested that negative perceptions were a principal barrier to greater wood use by design professionals, he asked me to go a step further and address the root causes.



Dr. Digby Symons also acted as supervisor when this work was first proposed as an essay. He encouraged me to take a more balance perspective on the wood products supply chain by expanding the scope of research beyond its initial focus on demand-side literature and the challenges of design consultants.



Dr. Sebastian Macmillan, IDBE program director, whose support and flexibility allowed me to complete this work.



Dr. Julie Jupp, IDBE director of studies.

I am grateful for the valuable comments and assistance received by many of the authors of the published and built works cited. Their knowledge and passion for the subject has been a continual source of inspiration. I would like to specifically thank Dr. François Robichaud at FPInnovations for his feedback and helping me access research material from their library.

Finally, I dedicate this thesis with heartfelt thanks to Youki Cropas. Your ongoing support is what got me through what seemed an endless process, but one that represents a new beginning for us.

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LIST OF TABLES Table 1 – Taxonomy of wood products by raw material and end-use category

13

Table 2 – Wood hybrid types and examples of structural applications

14

Table 3 – Value-added scenarios in product and building design

16

Table 4 – Building size limitations for combustible construction in Canada

20

Table 5 – Canadian forestry data

30

Table 6 – Levels of value innovation and triggering conditions

39

Table 7 – International comparison of building height limits for wood structures

42

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UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE [IDBE 15] THESIS: THE STRATEGIC CONTEXT FOR WOOD USE IN CANADIAN ARCHITECTURE

LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1 – Forest management in Canada, two views

1

Figure 2 – Forest regions of Canada and species distribution by structural group 12 Figure 3 – Comparison of residential and nonresidential building sectors

23

Figure 4 – Market shift toward higher density housing (architectural sector)

23

Figure 5 – Original and remaining primary forest regions of the world

31

Figure 6 – Area of provincial forest tenures controlled by five largest companies

36

Figure 7 – Historic city fires

40

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LIST OF CASE STUDIES Case Study 1 –

Vancouver Aquarium expansion

2

Case Study 2 –

Richmond Olympic Oval

3

Case Study 3 –

New Monta Rosa Hut, Swiss Alps

10

Case Study 4 –

e3, Berlin

15

Case Study 5 –

World Heritage buildings in wood

17

Case Study 6 –

Stadthaus, London

24

Case Study 7 –

Fondaction, Québec

41

Case Study 8 –

Liu Institute for Global Issues, UBC, Vancouver

45

Case Study 9 –

Highwood Court, London

46

Case Study 10 – Surrey Central City

50

Case Study 11 – Speculative wood high-rise projects

51

Case Study 12 – Forest Sciences Centre, UBC, Vancouver

52

Case Study 13 – Gilmore Skytrain station, Vancouver

55

Case Study 14 – Open Academy, Norwich

57

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ABBREVIATIONS BC

British Columbia (province of Canada)

CLT

Cross laminated timber

CNC

Computer numerical control

CSA

Canadian Standard Association

EWP

Engineered wood product

FSC

Forest Stewardship Council

FJL

Finger-jointed lumber

GLT

Glue laminated timber (glulam)

GHG

Greenhouse gas

IDBE

Interdisciplinary Design for the Built Environment

IPCC

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

LVL

Laminated veneer lumber

MDF

Medium density fiberboard

NBC

National Building Code of Canada

OSB

Oriented strand board

OSL

Oriented strand lumber

QC

QuĂŠbec (province of Canada)

ROCE

Return on capital employed

SFI

Sustainable Forestry Initiative

UK

United Kingdom

US

United States of America

WCC

Wood / cement composite

WPC

Wood / plastic composite

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Figure 1

Forest management in Canada, two views

Satellite images of 200 km2 forest.

Right: Example of a protected primary forest, Coast forest region (Strait of Georgia, BC) Left: Example of harvested cutblocks, Columbian forest region (Monashee Mountain range, BC) 18

SOURCES: Googlemaps, website: http://maps.google.com/maps?hl=en&ll=50.227661,-124.692421&spn=0.141446,0.395508&sll=37.0625,95.677068&sspn=44.60973,67.763672&vpsrc=6&t=h&z=12 [accessed Sept 30, 2011] http://maps.google.com/maps?hl=en&ll=49.979267,-118.660927&spn=0.142182,0.395508&sll=37.0625,95.677068&sspn=44.60973,67.763672&vpsrc=6&t=h&z=12 [accessed Sept 30, 2011]

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PROLOGUE Visitors to Canada are often astonished by the immensity and pristine nature of the primary forests that remain from the original unbroken dark green mass of continental proportions. Today, in all but the most remote or protected areas, these forests are more commonly interspersed with a patchwork of lighter green and beige tones suggesting harvested cut blocks at different stages of regeneration (Figure 1). The cumulative forest harvest represents an enormous output of wood production, yet surprisingly little of it is visible in the built environment. Where is all the wood? – a visitor might ask. They would be told that wood products are used extensively for framing and sheathing, but other materials usually covered them up. They might also be told that Canada is one of the world’s leading exporters of wood products. If they are more curious, they would discover that most of this production is oriented towards supplying just one export nation (US) and one market sector (low-rise residential) with essentially two commodity products (framing lumber and structural panels) for a singular standardized construction method (platform frame).

The undiversified and underdeveloped wood design culture in Canada has been a nagging preoccupation ever since I completed my architectural studies and entered the realm of professional practice nearly two decades ago. Where were the woodbased construction systems and innovations to match the wealth, technology, design talent, and abundant forest resources available in Canada? The vast majority of houses in North America are framed and sheathed with wood using vernacular methods, but do not usually involved architects. In the building types requiring the services of design consultants – i.e., most non-residential and multi-residential buildings – wood products and systems are underutilised. Is wood not appropriate for these building types? Are there better material alternatives? Numerous historic and contemporary examples attest to the fact that wood construction systems offer a very wide range of practical, cost-effective, ecological, durable and visually attractive building solutions. Why then are architects and other design consultants reluctant to specify wood? One explanation supported by market research is that design consultants do not consider wood an “exciting” or “modern” construction material (Robichaud et al. 2009: 62; Williamson et al. 2009: 2). This would seem an oversimplification; but if it is so, then what is the basis for these negative perceptions? Is it truly the material that is outmoded, or is it the culture surrounding its use? If the latter is true, then how does one reinvigorate wood design culture?

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Case Study 1

Vancouver Aquarium expansion

The Pacific Canada Pavilion expansion provided the Vancouver Aquarium with a new asymmetrical and column-free space to house a large display, toplit by a skylight within a central pyramidal truss.

Five parallel strand beams, trussed with stainless steel kingposts, rods and custom clevises, carry the entire roof. Hybrid bowstring trusses comprised of shaped parallel strand and stainless steel members give lateral resistance to the glazed façade. Elements were premanufactured as a kit-of-parts to minimize disruption on site. One of the designer’s objectives was to redefine the character of heavy timber construction, which is usually associated with a rustic and traditional image. The design expression offers a modern and refined structural aesthetic for this locally sourced material.

Location: Completion: Architect: Structural consultant: Supplier (wood assemblies):

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Vancouver, BC, Canada 1999 Bing Thom Architects Fast + Epp StructureCraft Builders Inc

SOURCES: Canadian Consulting Engineer, website: http://www.canadianarchitect.com/issues/story.aspx?aid=1000152236&type=Print%20Archives [accessed Oct 11, 2011] Epp and Woustra (2000) Taggart (2003)

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With these questions in mind, I began gathering Canadian examples of bold and innovative uses of wood in contemporary architecture. Several projects resulting from a particular design-build partnership would inspire the broad lines of research for this thesis and offer a potent model for transforming wood design culture in Canada. It is worth introducing this model up front, as it embodies many of the themes addressed in this work and will help set its overall objectives and focus.

The inspiration came from a short article entitled “Building in Design” appearing in the May 2003 edition of Canadian Architect. In it, Jim Taggart (2003) draws on the body of work of Vancouver-based consulting engineers Fast+Epp and their offshoot fabrication company StructureCraft to demonstrate that greater integration of design and production is a means not only to overcome many of the technical, engineering, and cost barriers that discourage design consultants from specifying wood, but also to achieve high quality and inspiring results. The project in question involved a visually polished, custom prefabricated timber structure for a new exhibit space at the Vancouver Aquarium (Case Study 1). That no contractor was willing to build it for the budget allocated is an all-too-common tendering scenario, whereby design innovation and unconventional construction methods are met with risk aversion in the form of inflated bids. In this scenario, the designers are usually faced with the painful prospects of redesign.

Fast+Epp instead proposed an unorthodox approach to fulfill their contractual obligations to the client: build the structure themselves. Confident with their budget estimate, they set up a construction company that would bid on the subcontract to fabricate and install the custom-designed structural elements. Given the modest project size and their intimate knowledge of the design and its logistical constraints, this venture was a calculated risk. It offered a unique opportunity for StructureCraft founder Gerald Epp to pursue a personal vision of integrated practice that involved “...bringing the centuries-old tradition of master-craftsman to bear upon the sophisticated engineering and construction techniques of the modern world.” 2 As Taggart (2003) explains, this commitment to quality and innovation would be impossible to achieve with standard fee scales, which in Canada typically account for 3-5% of the structural cost. Detailing highly articulated, exposed structures, especially in timber, is time consuming not only for the designer, but also for the 2

StructureCraft website: www.structurecraft.com [accessed Jul 11, 2010 – no longer available] See corporate statement on LinkedIn: http://www.linkedin.com/company/structurecraft-builders-inc. [accessed Oct 14, 2011]

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Case Study 2

Richmond Olympic Oval

The Richmond Olympic Oval built for the 2010 Winter Games is a visually stunning example of integrated design and resource use. The 2.5-hectare exposed wood ceiling is a hybrid structure comprised of 100-metre span glulam-steel arches covered by a prefabricated, 3-dimensional wood panel system. Built up of one million linear metres of small-section lumber from diseased trees, these innovative pre-tensioned panels successfully integrate functional, aesthetic and ecological concerns. In British Columbia, approximately 75% of the lodgepole pine across a forested land area the size of England are standing dead as a result of the mountain pine beetle and a symbiotic fungus. They have rapidly spread under favourable conditions of mild winters and unnaturally mature pine stands – both conditions significantly influenced by human intervention in climate change and forest management. In this project, low-value timber has been used to create a high-value assembly. To achieve the uncluttered architectural expression, a structural concept was developed to incorporate acoustic insulation, building services and sprinklers within the depth of the members. 1 Location: Completion: Architect: Structural consultant (roof): Supplier (panels):

Richmond, BC, Canada 2009 Cannon Design Fast + Epp StructureCraft Builders Inc

SOURCES: Fast+Epp, website: http://www.fastepp.com/index.php/projects/recreational/richmond-olympic-oval-roof [accessed Oct 11, 2011] Paul Jay (2008) “The beetle and the damage done” CBC News, website: http://www.cbc.ca/news/background/science/beetle.html [accessed Oct 11, 2011] Taggart (2009)

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contractor, who might spend 10% of the structural costs on shop drawings – or twice the engineer’s fee. By integrating design and production, the shop drawing process becomes an extension of design development, which eliminates redundant work and allows more time and budget to refine details, test solutions and identify economies early on. The result is greater design autonomy, production feedback, and experimentation. While this approach might be applicable to any highly customized structural design, their particular focus would be engineered timber systems.

Since completing the Vancouver Aquarium expansion in 1999, Fast+Epp and StructureCraft have partnered on a number of increasingly large and challenging high-profile projects (Taggart 2010). In 2009, they received an IstructE Award 3 for the roof of the Richmond Olympic Oval (Case Study 2). This project takes structural timber design to a heroic scale, while addressing broader ecological and social concerns, such as: creating uses for low-value wood from diseased forests or new market opportunities for the local forest industry in the throes of an economic crisis.

The projects of Fast+Epp / StructureCraft challenge conventional modes of practice and preconceived notions of wood as being a traditional, unsophisticated and rustic material. Their leadership and commitment demonstrates not only the technical and aesthetic possibilities of wood construction, but also its potential for value creation through design. In this case, a more integrated and streamlined procurement model and greater interaction across the supply chain generates opportunities to innovate with wood and, in so doing, to optimize project value for the client.

Value-added is a dominant theme and policy platform in the forest products industry (BC 2009a; Québec 2008; Woodbridge 2009). It is a term usually associated with product enhancements, manufacturing and its economic spinoff potential. This is a means to creating value, but not an end to which value can truly be embedded. The work of Fast+Epp / StructureCraft demonstrates a higher form of value creation that operates at the level of buildings, public investment, and culture - the elements by which the broader objectives and aspirations of society can be achieved.

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The Institution of Structural Engineers (IstructE) “is the world’s largest membership organisation dedicated to the art and science of structural engineering” with 23,000 members worldwide. The Richmond Olympic Oval received the award for Sports and Leisure Structures in 2009. www.istructe.org/events/structuralawards/previous_shortlist/2009/ [accessed Oct 8, 2011]

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UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE [IDBE 15] THESIS: THE STRATEGIC CONTEXT FOR WOOD USE IN CANADIAN ARCHITECTURE

INTRODUCTION This thesis explores the strategic context for wood use in Canadian architecture: the value propositions, intense industry promotion, and cultural resistance, especially among design professionals, related to shifting practices towards wood-based design solutions. In Canada, and internationally, a greater use of wood products is being promoted as a means to achieve objectives on multiple public policy fronts, including: 

climate change strategies – to achieve carbon emission reduction targets;



economic development strategies– to support regional forest economies;



value-added strategies – to generate employment and wealth; and even,



cultural strategies – to develop an appreciation of domestic resources.

The wood products industry in Canada faces some unique and pressing challenges relating to the fact that its products and markets are largely undiversified. Supplying low-price commodity exports such as framing lumber and structural panels to US housing markets, has been, and continues to be, the industry’s main orientation, despite its vulnerability to market cycles, trade barriers, and growing international competition (FPInnovations 2010; Kozak and Cohen 1999). The US housing market crash that began in 2006 and triggered the subprime mortgage crisis, has resulted in an unprecedented decline in wood exports, and with it, record losses in employment and revenues across the supply chain. In the wake of this industry contraction, previously underdeveloped markets in the nonresidential construction sector are being actively explored and promoted. Many see this shift as an opportunity to dovetail economic interests with a broad range of ecological and socio-cultural objectives, such as: the reduction of carbon emission or the optimisation of value and shared benefits from forests that are mainly in public ownership (Kozak 2007).

Written during a period of industry restructuring and reorientation, this work contributes to the rapidly expanding body of research addressing market opportunities for, and barriers to, the use of wood products in the nonresidential and multi-unit residential building sectors. The thesis posits that wood, as a construction material, is characterised by diversity, both upstream and downstream of its product supply chains, from its source in the forest to its end use in a particular building application. Architects and other design professionals are increasingly required to make value-based decisions regarding wood use that are motivated not only by

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project constraints and client preferences, but also by public policy and ethical accountability rooted in the ecological and socio-economic ideologies of climate change and regional development. Generalist notions of forest, wood, wood product, and wood use are insufficient to address the many questions that require knowledge of the broad range of qualities or possibilities that these notions entail. The thesis further maintains that greater differentiation and specificity is necessary to properly understand the barriers, negative perceptions, and market influences behind the reluctance of design professional to explore wood-based design strategies. Case studies are used to demonstrate that improved relations and integration across the supply chain are an important means of generating the value propositions that lead to successful project outcomes and innovation. In essence, the thesis emphasizes a greater cultural appreciation for the diversity of the natural resource, products, and practices embodied in the generic sounding material called “wood.�

This work is intended as the first part of a larger research project that explores the value potential of integrated practice in its broadest sense, from hybrid material assemblies to inter-firm relationships, and the role of leadership as a catalyst in the transformation of design and construction culture. The prologue introduces this broader objective, using built examples to illustrate the diversity and specificity of wood-based solutions that can emerge from integrated practice. The main body of the present work offers a contextual overview of the subject and prepares the ground for future research. Topics include: the classification of wood products, applications and markets for building construction; a proposed definition of the architectural market sector and the role of design consultants in it; an overview of Canadian forestry and the wood products industry; and three historic trends that have shaped both production and use.

The concluding discussion will summarise the key findings and describe the strategic importance of the architectural market sector to achieving both public policy and industry objectives. It will include some critical insights on the opportunities for value creation through design, the contextual sources for professional resistance, and industry promotion of wood as a climate change strategy. An epilogue offers two wood use scenarios for the architectural market sector in Canada: a specialist, industry-led scenario versus a broader cultural scenario, which together can be read as short-term and long-term possibilities.

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METHODOLOGY The research for this work has followed a long trajectory backward from a solutionbased approach, i.e. a case study analysis (what works?); to a problem-based approach, i.e. review of barriers (what doesn’t work?); and finally, to a contextual approach, i.e. industry definition (why does or doesn’t it work?). These shifts in research focus, through three distinct bodies of literature – roughly corresponding, in reverse order, to supply, demand, and end use applications – was necessary to gain a holistic view of the market context, within which design professionals practice and form their perceptions. While the case studies and review of demand-side barriers are not the primary focus of this work, they are directly linked to the end result, which is a praxis-oriented and contextual foundation for future research.

The research process has generated a large interdisciplinary literature base that offers a critical reading of the wood products supply chain.

With the emerging

knowledge focus in the wood products industry, Cohen and Kozak (2001: 111) have emphasized the importance of interdisciplinary research that steps beyond traditional physical and engineering sciences. This work offers a design professional’s perspective, which appears to be lacking from the supply-side literature – in particular in relation to the value-added potential of design and integrated practice.

Flyvbyerg’s book, Making Social Science Matter, describes as the ultimate goal of social science research: “to produce input to the ongoing social dialogue and praxis in a society” (2001: 139). This requires context-dependent judgment or practical wisdom: knowledge which Aristotle named phronesis. “Phronesis thus concerns the analysis of values…as a point of departure for action” (Flyvbyerg 2001: 57). This is purposeful research with a political dimension, concerned with ethical questions like: 

Where are we going?



Who gains, and who loses, by what mechanisms of power?



Is it desirable?



What should be done? (Flyvbyerg 2001)

Very much aligned with objectives of the IDBE program from which it emerges, the ambition for this research is to produce strategic knowledge that will enable insight, collaborative engagement and effective decision-making in the shift towards sustainability in the built environment. The specific goal of this work is to contribute to

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the development of a flourishing wood design and construction culture in Canada: one that not only draws from a renewable and sustainably managed resource, but also has sustainable end-goals in its sights.

The term architectural sector is proposed as a definition of the subject building markets explored in this work. The rationale for this will be explained further on. This definition encompasses both the nonresidential and multi-unit residential building sectors and is intended as a precision on the use of the term nonresidential sector, which in the literature is used to describe differences in building typology and cultures-of-practice. Wherever separate data is provided for the multi-unit residential building sector, these figures have been added to the nonresidential totals; otherwise the terms architectural and nonresidential are used interchangeably.

The emphasis will be on structural applications for wood products, which are the dominant end use in the architectural sector and perceived to hold the greatest market expansion potential (McKeever 2008; Williamson et al. 2009). Architects and structural engineers are considered to have the most influence with regards to the choice of structural material (Kozak and Cohen 1999) and they are the implicit subject of this work and main intended audience. As a group, they will be referred to as design professionals in this limited sense.

The two largest Canadian forest economies, British Columbia (BC) and QuĂŠbec, are the main market focus of this work, although it will draw from a number of international sources and case studies. Wherever possible, Canadian and regional data will be used; however, given the comparative size of the US market and the export orientation of the Canadian wood products industry, most of the market research sources involve US or North American studies. This is specifically the case for detailed statistics on the end-use applications of wood products, which are either not gathered or not made publicly available in Canada. With similar building cultures and harmonised standards on both sides of the border, wood use profiles for the US are broadly considered to be representative for North America as a whole.

This work should find relevance with a wider readership than its aforementioned geographic focus. There is growing international interest in wood for its ecological, aesthetic and performance benefits in building construction. Parallels exist between developments in Canada and the European Union, which are mutually influenced by

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an active exchange of exports, knowledge, and technology. One of the broader aims of this thesis is to contribute to this ongoing exchange of knowledge.

Scope has been a major consideration in the development of this work. Given the interdisciplinary subject, the broad research questions, and the complex and interrelated issues involved, the risk of a superficial or unbalanced analysis was a constant preoccupation. The emphasis throughout the research has been to draw out the fundamental and structuring elements that inform industry practices and motives.

The aim is to generate a rich contextual source of knowledge that will provide the means for an informed debate on the broader issues relating to wood use in Canadian architecture. The concluding discussion is therefore less of a closing review of topics covered, and more of a demonstration of how the knowledge can be synthesized to open new lines of research or to take a position on salient issues.

Important knowledge was gained by shifting research methodology and sources, which will be briefly summarised and explained below.

The initial focus of the research on architectural case studies generated a contentrich source of knowledge that shows the diverse potential for wood use in both Canadian and international contexts. Robichaud et al. (2009: 61) have identified physical examples as highly influential in communicating the benefits of wood use to architects. In this work, case studies are used to illustrate particular examples of practice. They are not intended as a representative sample of wood buildings and will not be formally compared or contrasted.

While case studies were a useful starting point, they presented the exceptions rather than the rule. Generally, the market share for wood products in architectural projects is quite low and historic trends indicate a steady decline in wood use intensity in all North American building sectors (McKeever 2009). In an effort to understand the basis for these declines, the research focus shifted to demand-side and marketbased sources.

A significant body of market research has explored the material preferences of architects and structural engineers with regards to the role and opportunities for wood in structural applications. While this research offers a fairly detailed picture of habits and preferences, it does not appear to be a useful source for understanding

RICHARD KLOPP

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UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE [IDBE 15] THESIS: THE STRATEGIC CONTEXT FOR WOOD USE IN CANADIAN ARCHITECTURE

the basis for these preferences. One might argue that practitioners in a culture dominated by other materials are simply not in the position to offer these answers. It is akin to a survey on dietary staples in an Asian rice-based culture attempting to justify why there is not a greater use of bread products – when it is simply not the culture. The difference is that wood-based construction was once the dominant building culture in North America, and still is, in the low-rise residential sector. The question is: what are the structuring forces that create this industry split and how did it come about?

Market surveys of design professionals, such as the recent work by Robichaud et al.

(2009), consistently report that wood is perceived to perform less well than concrete and steel in terms of durability, fire protection, structural performance and overall contribution to project value; although it is appreciated for it environmental qualities.

On a case-by-case basis, these negative perceptions can be objectively refuted, and many design professionals agree with the associations promoting wood, who would characterise them as “misperceptions” in need of correction. If these are misperceptions, then how are they informed? Are there cues from market divisions, professional practice, the regulatory context, the built environment, or history that continue to reinforce certain perceptions, despite evidence to the contrary.

One of the challenges for market research directed at design professionals is getting complete and honest responses to questions that could undermine the values at the basis of their professional entitlement, such as: competency, impartiality, and prioritising client and public service in decision-making. Evidently, this means that research results will tend to undervalue the role of fees, experience, and established business practices/interests as factors in the design and material selection process; and instead, focus attention on externalised issues such as wood performance, which can be more easily justified and rationalised by design professionals.

The case study research offered a valuable evidence base for cross-examining the results of industry surveys and focus groups, in particular with regards to the perceptions and barriers expressed by design professionals. The process highlighted inconsistencies between barriers and actual possibilities; between perceptions and unspoken realities; and between the general and the specific. It seemed that for each barrier presented in the literature, there were solutions identified in the case studies; and that for each perception, there were built works that offered countering images.

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Case Study 3

New Monte Rosa Hut, Swiss Alps

At the forefront of modern CNC production technology, wood offers enormous potential for mass customisation of building elements. The “softness” of wood is particularly well suited to milling and sculpting and holds enormous potential for design creativity. The many advantages of prefabricated wood products are highlighted in this prominent reconstruction of a Swiss mountain refuge: high strength to mass ratio; low embodied energy; excellent thermal properties; versatility of use; precision manufacturing and milling; rapid erection despite adverse conditions; and a structure that doubles as a finish. Located on a remote outcropping at the confluence of three glaciers, this 6-storey timber building is completely self-sufficient in terms of energy, water and waste treatment, providing a comfortable temporary lodging for up to 120 alpinists. A building-integrated solar array provides the onsite energy source; formerly, fuel for heating and power generation had to be transported. The low density of wood compared to other structural materials made it possible to preassemble large, finished components for delivery and rapid assembly by helicopter.

Location: Completion: Architect: Structural consultant (wood): Supplier (wood assemblies):

14

Swiss Alps (facing the Matterhorn at 2883m) 2010 Studio Monte Rosa / Bearth & Deplazes Architekten AG Holzbaubüro Reusser Holzbau AG

SOURCES: Baumgartner (2010) Neue Monte Rosa-Hütte SAC, website: http://www.neuemonterosahuette.ch/ [accessed Oct 14, 2011]

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UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE [IDBE 15] THESIS: THE STRATEGIC CONTEXT FOR WOOD USE IN CANADIAN ARCHITECTURE

For example, the perception of wood as a traditional or “unexciting” material (Robichaud et al. 2009) clearly does not apply to the modern reinterpretation of the Swiss mountain refuge in Case Study 3.

From both the case study and demand-side research it became increasingly clear that opportunities abound for greater wood use within the present regulatory, technical, and cost framework for design and construction in the architectural sector, but that design professionals have been largely unmotivated to explore them. Could the negative perceptions expressed by design professionals in market surveys and focus groups be interpreted as symptoms of an unappealing practice context, rather than an unappealing product?

Another way to ask the question – why don’t design professional specify wood products more often? is to take their point of view and shift the focus to – why should they? The value potential of wood use and its environmental benefits are key motivators to initiate changes in established design and construction practices. This explains these two additional streams of research in the work, both of which require an integrated reading of the supply chain.

The decision to take a more expanded contextual view of the wood products supply chain and its markets was prompted by the nature of the questions emerging from the research, which appeared unanswerable from the limitations of a demand-side perspective alone. This shift in research focus from problem solving to problem definition seemed to offer the greatest potential to both satisfy personal research objectives and contribute new knowledge to the existing body of literature.

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UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE [IDBE 15] THESIS: THE STRATEGIC CONTEXT FOR WOOD USE IN CANADIAN ARCHITECTURE

DEFINING THE CONTEXT One of the challenges of working with wood, both as construction material and as a research topic, is that it defies generalisation – what is true for one species, product, market or application is not necessarily true for another. The first objective of this work is to provide definition and differentiation to the homogenous sounding term “wood products” as well as to the market sectors and applications in which they are employed. The subject architectural market sector is characterised and a definition is proposed. This will be followed by an overview of the Canadian forest products industry to understand the political and market forces at play. It includes a discussion on forest management, which at first glance would seem to be quite distant from the main topic of this thesis, but will be shown to play a pivotal role in marketing and motivating the use of wood in architectural projects. Three historic trends are identified as having a significant structuring influence on the supply chains, end use markets, and demand for wood products. They round out this contextual overview and set the scene for the concluding discussion.

CLASSIFICATION OF WOOD PRODUCTS AND MARKETS Wood is a building material with diverse properties, applications and products forms that are categorised in a number of ways. For this study, the following classification groups have been examined: 

Tree species (type, group);



Wood quality grades (structural, appearance);



Material composition (solid, composite, hybrid);



Level of value transformation (unprocessed, commodity, value-added);



End-use applications (structural, panel, appearance, specialty);



End-use building sectors (residential, nonresidential, architectural); and



Building code (combustible, noncombustible) (Part 3, Part 9).

Each of the categories and subcategories of these classification groups reflects qualitative differences in material characteristics, performance expectations, or value that will in part determine whether a wood building product or system is suitable for a given building application – or, perhaps more importantly for this study, whether the wood product or system is more suitable than alternative material choices. Let’s examine each of these classification groups in turn, beginning with tree species.

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Figure 2

Forest regions of Canada & species distribution by structural group

2

SOURCES: Graphic material adapted from data and images from Canadian Wood Council (structural species groups, tree profiles), website: http://www.cwc.ca/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=233&Itemid=51&lang=en [accessed Oct 15, 2011] Natural Resources Canada (map, legend), website: http://ecosys.cfl.scf.rncan.gc.ca/images/classif/forest-reg2_e.pdf [accessed Oct 15, 2011]

RICHARD KLOPP

UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE [IDBE 15] THESIS: THE STRATEGIC CONTEXT FOR WOOD USE IN CANADIAN ARCHITECTURE

SPECIES CLASSIFICATION A wide variety of commercially harvested timber species supply the Canadian wood products industry and its large export market. Tree species are not evenly distributed across the country, which creates significant regional differences in forest economies and market opportunities for wood products. Figure 2 identifies the main forest ecosystems of Canada and their principal trees species. The quality of timber varies significantly by species and its growing conditions. The largest and most valued softwood species are harvested from the towering forests of southern and coastal BC. Vast tracts of smaller diameter and less productive softwood species extend across the boreal regions of northern Canada. Commercial hardwood species are predominantly located in eastern Canada along the southern border with the US.

Wood products are broadly classified as either softwood or hardwood, which corresponds to the major species types of coniferous and broadleaf trees. This division is a gross generalisation of the actual “hardness” or “softness” of the wood 4, but it does reflect some typical differences in cellular structure and tree form, which affects the end use (CWC 1991). Softwoods are usually well suited for structural applications due to a high proportion of longitudinal cells, a high strength-to-weight ratio, and a tall, straight trunk. Hardwoods, with a denser and more complex cell structure, have better wear resistance and visual attributes than typical softwoods.

Hardwoods are therefore more commonly used for higher value appearance products such as furniture, flooring, interior panelling, and trim. Softwoods are the dominant species type in Canadian forests, annual harvest, lumber production, and domestic lumber consumption by the respective proportions 6:1, 5:1, 55:1, and 16:1. This is not to imply that the hardwood products sector is small – more than 800 000 m3 of hardwood lumber was produced in 2009 (down from 1.8 million m3 in 2004) – rather, it reflects Canada’s position as one of the world’s leading producers and exporters of softwood lumber. (NRCan 2010; FPInnovations 2010)

Contrary to most other building materials, solid wood products do not have uniform characteristics. The material properties of lumber may differ significantly depending on the tree species, its age and growing conditions, location in log (heartwood or sapwood), orientation of cut (plain, quarter, or rift sawn), quantity and location of knots, and moisture content. These and other factors relating to a wood source, 4

The variation in hardwood densities encompasses the entire softwood range (CWC 1991).

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Table 1

Taxonomy of wood products by raw material and end-use category

Solid Wood Products

Composite (Engineered Wood) Products

[from log]

[from board]

[from veneer]

[from fiber]

[from strand]

CATEGORY 1: STRUCTURAL PRODUCTS Structural products can be divided into three main subcategories: solid wood lumber, engineered lumber, and structural panels. While the market share for engineered lumber (GLT, LVL, OSL) in North America is growing, dimensional lumber and OSB panels are by far the most common structural products, especially in the low-rise residential sector, which is the dominant market for wood products. Solid wood products are visually graded for structural performance according to the general strength characteristics of its species group as well as the specific qualities/defects of each element. They can also be mechanically graded, which is independent of species group. Composite wood products are “engineered” to achieve higher and more uniform strength characteristics by optimizing the arrangement of wood fibers for the intended use.

Particle Board

Dimensional lumber

GLT

LVL

OSL

MDF

Nominal 2” module

(Glued Laminated Timber)

(Laminated Veneer Lumber)

(Oriented Strand Lumber)

(Med. Density Fiberboard)

Heavy Timber

CLT

Plywood

OSB

WCC

Round or sawn

(Cross Laminated Timber)

(Oriented Strand Board)

(Wood / Cement Composite)

CATEGORY 2: PANEL PRODUCTS

Other sawn boards

Edge-glued boards

(Nonstructural uses)

Machined profiles

FJL (Finger-Joined Lumber)

Panel products are used in a wide range of construction applications that can be grouped into five subcategories: structural (diaphragm, stressed skin panel, beam webbing, etc); construction (formwork, hoarding, etc); sheathing (rigid support for membranes, cladding anchors, applied finishes, etc); sheet stock (furniture, cabinetry, doors, etc); and finishes (interior or exterior panels, moldings, etc). Of the 41 000 000 m3 of wood panel products used in North American construction in 2006, OSB panels accounted for 50%; plywood 25%; and nonstructural panels accounted for the remaining 25%.

Built-up profiles

CNC milling / turning

WPC extrusions

(Comp. Numerical Control)

(Wood / Plastic Composite)

CATEGORY 3: APPEARANCE PRODUCTS & VALUE-ADDED PROCESSES Wood is valued for its beauty, tactile qualities, and diversity of colours and grain patterns. Major subcategories of appearance wood products include: exterior cladding & finishes; interior surface materials; shelving & cabinetry; doors & windows; flooring; and molding.

A wide range of hardwood and softwood species are available in boards, veneers, and further transformed products such as edgeglued countertops or built-up window frame profiles. Many structural and panel products are also available in appearance grade and may be subject to further value-added machining processes such as tongue-and-groove, finger-joining, or CNC milling. While certain species are naturally resistant to rot, insect attack, and impact damage, there are value-added treatment options to improve durability: wood can be painted, impregnated with preservatives, heat treated (torrefied), or extruded as a wood/plastic composite.

SOURCES: Cohen et al. (1996); CWC (2001); NRCan (2010); McKeever (2009). Images from miscellaneous web sources.

RICHARD KLOPP

UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE [IDBE 15] THESIS: THE STRATEGIC CONTEXT FOR WOOD USE IN CANADIAN ARCHITECTURE

including the price and availability, will determine its suitability for a particular product application. This diversity in wood material is double-edged: on the one side, it produces an enormous range of products for conventional and specialised building applications; on the other side, it adds complexity to the design and construction processes. Some wood products require the characteristics available only in a narrow range of species (e.g., lamstock for glulam beams) or even select cuts from one species (e.g., No. 1 grade, Western Red Cedar shingles), while other products can be manufactured from a much wider range (e.g., stud quality lumber). This brings us to the topic of grading. (CWC 1991)

LUMBER GRADING Structural lumber is commonly sorted according to species groups of similar strength characteristics and then visually graded for defects. Design values are assigned according to cross-sectional dimensions, visual grade, and species group. The four species groups are represented on Figure 2 and referenced to their originating forest regions. S-P-F is the most common species group and accounts for 62% of overall forest timber stock and over 90% of structural lumber production – spruce being the dominant species followed by pine (FPInnovations 2010). D.Fir-L and Hem-Fir have the best structural characteristics, while Northern species perform least well structurally. Machine graded lumber is an alternative method of structural grading that mechanically evaluates each piece of lumber and can more precisely determine it strength characteristics independent of size, visual qualities and species. Machine graded lumber is used primarily for roof trusses and other engineered wood products to optimize the strength and member sizes and to avoid costly overdesign. Solid wood products not intended for structural use are classified by species and visually graded according to relevant performance and appearance criteria. (CWC 1991)

PRODUCT TYPES: SOLID, COMPOSITE, HYBRID Solid wood products are but one stream of products that all come from the same source – a sawn log. While a solid wood product may be further machined or treated, it remains a piece of a tree, with its particularities and potential weaknesses. There are a number of other streams of engineered wood products that can be grouped into two major categories: composites and hybrids. Examples of solid and composite wood products are presented in Table 1.

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Table 2 Hybrid Component (primarily wood)

Wood hybrid types and examples of structural applications Hybrid Component (mixed material)

Hybrid Assembly

Hybrid System

Hybrid Structure

Engineered I-joist Strength optimization with composite products

Wood/steel joist Open web allows for integration of services

Composite floor Wood ceiling structure with concrete topping

Heavy timber columns, beams and deck with concrete shear cores

Concrete podium structure with lightframe wood above

Nail-plate wood truss Mass customization and material efficiency

Stressed-skin panel Insulated core stiffened with OSB sheets

Heavy timber roof Steel rods in tension reduce beam depths

Concrete columns and slabs with light-frame wood partitions

Heavy timber structure with an adjacent concrete exit stair

RICHARD KLOPP

UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE [IDBE 15] THESIS: THE STRATEGIC CONTEXT FOR WOOD USE IN CANADIAN ARCHITECTURE

Composites are reconstituted wood products that bind similar wood elements together to create a new monolithic material with higher and more uniform strength characteristics, improved dimensional stability, and other enhancements over solid wood products. Raw materials for composite wood products include boards, veneers, strands, and fibres – each representing its own stream of products. Wood composites offer a wider variety of product proportions and sizes from thin panels to thick slabs to very large elements that are limited only by manufacturing and transportation constraints.

Wood hybrids combine different materials – solid wood, composite wood, or other non-wood materials – in specific spatial arrangements that take advantage of their inherent strengths to satisfy the many functional requirements of a building, including: structural efficiency, weather tightness, thermal comfort, aesthetics, durability, environmental performance, fire resistance, acoustics, maintenance, integration of services, etc. Gagnon and O’Connor (2006) propose a definition of hybrid building systems that comprises four scales of nested construction forms: components, assemblies, systems, and structures. Some examples of wood hybrids for structural applications are illustrated in Table 2.

Hybrid components are discrete construction elements at the level of a product that may be comprised of different wood types or wood in combination with other materials.

Hybrid assemblies combine a number of components in specific spatial arrangements to produce larger scale building elements, such as, walls, floors, stairs, etc. Assemblies may be also be procured as premanufactured products to simplify, expedite or otherwise improve upon the quality of on-site construction, but generally, as we move beyond the component hybrid level, we are already leaving the domain of products and entering the domain of design strategies.

Hybrid systems are the next level up, comprising a family of assemblies that form a unity, whether that be a particular structural system, a building envelope system, or a building code classification that includes aspects of both.

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Case Study 4

e3, Berlin

The e3 housing project is an example of a hybrid wood construction at all levels, from components to assemblies to the overall spatial arrangement of the structural systems. Working with city planning and fire department officials, the architects were able to negotiate beyond the five-storey limit for combustible construction by providing special safety features, including a freestanding concrete stair and concrete ground floor construction. The main structural frame is a hybrid assembly of heavy timber and steel components, which are clad in fire-rated plasterboard. The floors slabs are a hybrid assembly of wood and concrete in composite action. The solid wood floor slabs are themselves hybrid components of nailed lumber, in which the ceiling surface is left exposed.

9

Location: Completion: Architect: Structural consultant (wood): Supplier (wood assemblies):

Berlin, Germany 2008 Kaden Klingbeil Architekten Bois Consult Natterer SA Projekt Holzbau GmbH

SOURCES: Ferchner (2008) Kaden Klingbeil, website: http://www.kaden-klingbeil.de [accessed Oct 15, 2011] Minssart (2009)

RICHARD KLOPP

UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE [IDBE 15] THESIS: THE STRATEGIC CONTEXT FOR WOOD USE IN CANADIAN ARCHITECTURE

Finally, hybrid structures involve the spatial adjacency of two or more different systems of the same type. This is a useful approach to address building code limitations on combustible construction as illustrated in Case Studies 4 and 12.

An important consideration relating to the greater use of wood products in architectural projects is that virtually all buildings involve hybrid forms, so when we speak of “wood buildings”, we are actually referring to “construction hybrids with a particular proportion of wood in the mix.”

VALUE-ADDED PRODUCTS Another method of classifying the transformation of wood into products is from a socio-economic perspective, rather than a technical one. This involves the level of value generated through secondary processing of raw materials, or value-added for short. Three major categories delimit the bottom end of the nearly limitless range of value investments: unprocessed wood – e.g., raw logs for export; mass-produced commodity products – e.g., dimensional lumber or structural panels; and specialised value-added products and services – e.g., composite window frames with a performance guarantee.

Value-added is an indicator of a product’s economic spinoff potential, degree of market focus, resource use and quality of employment. This is an important issue for regional economies in Canada that are dependent on volume exports of commodity timber products. Many industry and public policy analysts see a value-added strategy as the means for Canadian forest economies – in particular those most dependent on commodity exports – to continue to prosper and compete in global markets and to do so in a socially and ecologically sustainable manner (Martin and Porter 2001; Kozak 2007; Forintek 2000).

The Canadian forest products industry has not reached anywhere near its potential in terms of value-added and, because it predominantly produces commodity goods for export, it ranks very low globally in terms of value generated per volume of wood harvested (Woodbridge 2009). By means of comparison, the United States generates almost two and a half times more GDP activity per unit of wood fibre, Germany four times more, and Japan five times more (BC 2009a).

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Table 3

Value-added scenarios in product and building design

RICHARD KLOPP

UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE [IDBE 15] THESIS: THE STRATEGIC CONTEXT FOR WOOD USE IN CANADIAN ARCHITECTURE

Value-added usually refers to supply-side investments in technology and innovation to create higher value proprietary products. On the demand-side, there is a second dimension of value-added involving innovative end use strategies for wood products: i.e., designs that optimize project-value, rather than product-value. These two dimensions of value enhancement are summarized in the four scenarios on Table 3.

In Canada, most wood construction falls under the commodity product / conventional design scenario at the low end of both value-added scales, where relations between suppliers and designers are limited or unnecessary. The scenario at the high end of each scale requires a collaborative relationship to develop and customize the product line or system. Forintek describes this as “the most efficient approach to developing new

engineered

products

matching

resource

characteristic

and

end-user

expectations (2000: 116).

We can also look at value-added from a socio-cultural perspective. This third dimension of value might describe how a wood use culture – both in its production and application – contributes to quality of life and the broader aspirations of society.

Does it generate a greater appreciation for domestic resources, create a healthier and more vibrant society, or help reduce greenhouse gas emissions?

Recent government policies and action plans are emphasizing the importance of cultural values, both as a means and as an end to greater wood use in the commercial and institutional building sectors (BC 2010; Québec 2008). The BC Wood First Act (BC 2009b) specifically defines its purpose as “facilitating a culture of wood” in enabling local governments to adopt wood use requirements for all provincially funded building projects. Québec has taken a voluntary approach of promoting a greater appreciation of wood through a broad alliance of partners and a culture of innovation through targeted research and funding (Québec 2008).

END-USE APPLICATIONS We will now turn to the end-use classification groups, which define the markets for wood products by application, construction sector, and building code class.

Wood has a very broad range of potential end-use applications. In the past it was quite common, and it is still possible today, to construct buildings almost entirely out of wood: structural frame, interior and exterior cladding, flooring, doors and window

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Case Study 5

World Heritage buildings in wood

The many extraordinary wood buildings listed under UNESCO World Heritage demonstrate that durability, structural capacity, and size limitations have had very high thresholds in the past, without the aid of engineered products and modern hybrid construction methods.

Daibutsu-den (left), in the Tōdai-ji Temple complex in Nara, Japan, is a 48-metre high wooden structure housing a colossal gilded bronze statue of Buddha. The original construction, dating back to 743, was 30% larger. Rebuilt in its present form in 1709, it is one of the world’s largest extant wooden buildings.

Examples of larger wood structures, by a factor of 10, include the remaining zeppelin hangers erected in various US locations during World War II, when steel was in short supply. These clear-span structures were built to the colossal dimensions of 115 m wide by 52 m high by 340 m long.

Stave churches, such as the one shown (right) from Borgund, Norway, are among the oldest surviving all-wood structures, dating back over 800 years.

5

SOURCES: Japan Atlas, website: http://web-japan.org/atlas/historical/his13.html [accessed Oct 15, 2011] Langenbach (2008) UNESCO World Heritage Convention, website: http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/870 [accessed Oct 15, 2011] Wikipedia “Tōdai-ji,” website: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C5%8Ddai-ji#cite_note-jnto-1 [accessed Oct 15, 2011] Wikipedia “Borgund Stave Church,” website: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borgund_stave_church [accessed Oct 15, 2011]

RICHARD KLOPP

UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE [IDBE 15] THESIS: THE STRATEGIC CONTEXT FOR WOOD USE IN CANADIAN ARCHITECTURE

frames, roofing, insulation, decorative trim, cabinetry and furniture. The evidence of a superior level of technical achievement, refinement and longevity in many wood buildings of the past (Case Study 5) would suggest that the most significant barriers to wood use in our contemporary context are likely political and cultural in nature.

Non-wood product choices may have been more limited in the past, but today there are many alternative and competing materials. Wood is still highly valued as a framing material; as a sheet good for creating a flat surface, enclosure or structural diaphragm; and as a decorative finish. As a result, major end-use applications for wood products are structural, panel, and appearance. A separate category of specialty products is often used to classify certain value-added products that fall outside the three major end-uses5. Each category has a number of subcategories, many of which are described on Table 1. Given the potential for multiple uses of a product, there is a certain amount of overlap between the categories: for example, plywood and OSB panels fall into both structural and panel applications.

In North America, roughly two thirds of all wood products are used for construction purposes, the majority of which serve structural framing applications (McKeever 2009). While structural products dominate, appearance and specialty products generate much higher value. Kozak (2007) identifies the overlooked opportunities for value-added exports to the $200 billion US specialty wood product market; by comparison the market for dimensional lumber is $10 billion US.

ENGINEERED WOOD PRODUCTS With regards to structural end-use applications, it is important to make the distinction between engineered wood products and sawn lumber. Engineered wood products (EWPs) include composite wood members (GLT, LVL, OSL on Table 1) as well as hybrid components, such as I-joists as shown on Table 2. While both sawn lumber and EWPs have a wide range of applications and can be used separately, together, or combined with other structural materials, sawn lumber presents some special design challenges. These challenges include: anisotropic (directionally variable) strength characteristics and swelling behaviour in changing humidity levels; weaknesses due to knots and other inconsistencies; and the imprecise nature of visual grading. In larger buildings, where spans and structural loads are greater, 5

Appearance and specialty products have been combined on Table 1.

RICHARD KLOPP

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UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE [IDBE 15] THESIS: THE STRATEGIC CONTEXT FOR WOOD USE IN CANADIAN ARCHITECTURE

where public safety is of major concern, and where there is a greater sensitivity to construction tolerances, the design challenges are compounded and the problematic issues may appear insurmountable to the design consultant (O’Connor et al. 2004).

The nonuniform nature of sawn lumber sets it apart from steel, concrete and masonry elements, which have more consistent and measurable structural properties. While the characteristics of sawn lumber are largely predictable, they do impose complexity, uncertainty, and limitations on both designers and builders, who, as a result, may search out other material alternatives.

Engineered wood products and hybrid components have been developed to address the weaknesses and limitations of sawn timber, to make use of smaller trees or byproducts of sawmills, and to provide products that are more suited to specific building applications.

They use wood fibre more efficiently than sawn lumber; they are

stronger, more consistent in quality; and they are dimensionally more stable. Some of the disadvantages of EWPs relate to the increased processing that increases cost, embodied energy, and possibility of certain health risks. Lstiburek (2007) explains the increased potential for mould growth on composite materials due to the higher proportion and distribution of sapwood, which contain more sugars than heartwood.

While EWPs may be more advantageous at the component level, this might not be the case at the level of a building assembly, where other means of creating composite action and structural redundancy are possible using solid wood elements that equally satisfy performance requirements in a cost-effective manner. The prefabricated ceiling panels in the Richmond Olympic Oval (Case Study 2) or the timber floor slabs of the e3 housing project (Case Study 4) both illustrate this approach.

Due to their strength characteristics, which are more optimised, uniform, and predicable, engineered wood products have emerged as a substitute for not only dimensional lumber and sawn timbers, but also steel and concrete structural members. EWPs in Canada represent about 8% of the total lumber production value in 2003 (Lavoie et al. 2006) and is a growing market. In certain niche markets such as wood floor joists, EWPs hold half the US market share by product volume (Spelter et al. 2007), which amounts to a proportionally greater floor area due to the material efficiency of EWPs.

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UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE [IDBE 15] THESIS: THE STRATEGIC CONTEXT FOR WOOD USE IN CANADIAN ARCHITECTURE

END-USE BUILDING SECTORS The construction industry defines two major end-use building sectors: residential and nonresidential. The residential sector is comprised of new single-family dwellings, new multi-family buildings and residential repair and remodelling. Single-family dwellings include detached, semi-detached, townhouse, and mobile homes. Multifamily buildings can be divided into low-rise, mid-rise, and high-rise. The nonresidential sector covers all other building types, whether they are commercial, institutional, or industrial in nature.

The residential and nonresidential sectors represent two very different markets for wood use and there is a significant body of market research on the subject. These sector designations do not always match the divisions in industry culture attributed to them. For example, from the point of view of design and construction practices, midrise and high-rise residential buildings have more in common with the nonresidential category, while some of the smaller nonresidential buildings would be better classified in the residential category. However, this is moot from a wood use perspective, since these exceptions represent only a small proportion of each category or are simply not included due to building code restrictions that generally limit wood construction to below mid-rise building heights.

There are fundamental differences between the residential and nonresidential sectors in terms of procurement and construction methods as well as the tiers of professionals, builders and products that are employed. These differences can be largely attributed to the market structuring influence of building regulations, the involvement of professionals in the procurement process and the level of investment risk at stake. In terms of wood use in North America 6, the two construction sectors could hardly be further apart: while wood is the dominant above-ground structural material for the vast majority of low-rise residential buildings, most nonresidential buildings, as well as most mid-rise and high-rise residential buildings, have steel framed or reinforced concrete structures (McKeever 2008; O’Connor et al. 2004).

6

While important regional variations exist, there is a great deal of harmonisation in the building standards between Canada and United States and construction practices are similar.

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Table 4

Building size limitations for combustible construction in Canada Maximum building height (storeys) and corresponding maximum area (m2) for nonsprinklered (NON) and sprinklered (SPR) buildings, following the “acceptable solutions” compliance method of the NBC, 2005 edtion.

1

SOURCES: CECOBOIS, website: http://www.cecobois.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=208&Itemid=173 [accessed Oct 15, 2011] NBC (2005)

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UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE [IDBE 15] THESIS: THE STRATEGIC CONTEXT FOR WOOD USE IN CANADIAN ARCHITECTURE

BUILDING CODE CLASSIFICATIONS Building codes have a major influence on the markets for wood buildings, not just through regulation, but also by creating structural divisions in the construction industry. The classification of buildings by the National Building Code of Canada (NBC 2005) primarily reflects fire safety considerations relating to differences in use (major occupancy), building size (area and height), type of construction, fire protection, and firefighting access. The NBC defines three types of construction permitted for a building’s structural members and assemblies according to their level of combustibility: combustible, heavy timber, and non-combustible construction.

Heavy timber is considered a special class of combustible construction that due to the larger dimensions of its members has better structural performance in a fire.

Buildings requiring non-combustible construction demand a high degree of fire safety, which generally limits or excludes the use of wood unless equivalent fire safety can be demonstrated. The recommended building area and height limitations for combustible construction (including heavy timber) are presented on Table 4.

Certain building types such as theatres, hospitals, and prisons are severely restricted in terms of wood use, but represent a relatively small proportion of the overall built area.

There is an important division in the NBC (2005) between small buildings (maximum 3 storeys and 600 m2 building area) of specific occupancies (residential, business, mercantile, low- and medium-hazard industrial) that are governed by Part 9 requirements, and larger, more complex buildings that fall under Part 3. Part 9 buildings generally allow combustible construction and do not involve professional design consultants to the same degree as Part 3 buildings. This second point is very important because it hints at the two building cultures that can be found behind Part 3 and Part 9 regulations: the design-based knowledge of professional consultants versus the craft-based knowledge of builders. Thus, the NBC (2005) allows an experienced carpenter or general contractor to construct a wood-framed Part 9 building without consulting a structural engineer 7, whereas an engineer is required to design and approve the structure of a Part 3 building.

7

The NBC (2005) is a model code amended by each province.

The references in the QuĂŠbec Construction Code can be found in A-1.3.3.2., B-9.4.1.1., and C-2.2.1.2.

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UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE [IDBE 15] THESIS: THE STRATEGIC CONTEXT FOR WOOD USE IN CANADIAN ARCHITECTURE

DEFINING THE SUBJECT MARKET ARCHITECTURAL SECTOR This thesis focuses on the particular sector of the construction industry requiring the professional services of an architect. This includes most nonresidential buildings and multi-unit residential buildings above a certain size and complexity, where public safety and level of investment risk demands professional accountability. It is the scope of buildings for which architects have exclusive right to practice as set out in provincial legislation, usually an Architects Act. The term architectural is proposed for this end-use building sector. A regulatory definition, rather than one based on building typology or use, differentiates building sectors based on cultures-of-practice rather than end product and offers a more useful platform from which to address the strategic interests of those involved.

Nonresidential is the term commonly used to describe this building sector, in part because this is how statistics are published. The nonresidential classification is problematic in that it includes small buildings that do not require design professionals and it excludes larger multi-unit housing that do require design professionals. The term Part 3 building is better, but not perfect, because the architect’s exclusive right to practice does not exactly correspond to this code classification.

In fact, the

professional domain of the architect is significantly broader and includes many buildings under the Part 9 designation.

The problem with a practice-based definition is that the architect’s scope varies to a certain degree across the country, but these variations are minor and involve the smallest buildings. Architects are also engaged in projects outside their exclusive domain, such as single-family houses, but they are a minority player in this case and have little influence on the overall market. Keeping these imperfections in mind, I propose the use of the term architectural to define the subject market for this work and I invite future research to do the same. To avoid confusion, I will continue to use the term residential to describe the vernacular building sector that does not require architects, but qualify it as low-rise residential.

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UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE [IDBE 15] THESIS: THE STRATEGIC CONTEXT FOR WOOD USE IN CANADIAN ARCHITECTURE

MARKET CHARACTERISATION As mentioned previously, the architectural and low-rise residential sectors are quite different in terms of procurement and construction methods as well as the tiers of professionals, builders and products that are employed. Building structures in the architectural sector are typically noncombustible steel or reinforced concrete construction. Wood faces a certain competitive disadvantage in architectural projects, not only as a result of its material properties, but also because it is not as well integrated in building practice: meaning that professionals and builders are less familiar and experienced with its use; that skilled trades are lacking; and that supply chains are not as well established or streamlined. Building design and construction is a risk-averse industry (Gaston et al. 2001) with a great deal of inertia and vested interests in maintaining existing construction methods and relationships. Negative attitudes and perceptions towards wood use by building professionals are often cited as one of the main barriers to more widespread use of wood in this sector (Kozak and Cohen 1999; O’Connor et al 2004; CWC 2008a; Williamson et al 2009; Robichaud et al 2009).

Wood use in the architectural sector is often placed in opposition with the low-rise residential sector, where wood is the dominant structural material. It is important to note that despite the enormous volume of wood consumed by North American lowrise residential construction, 110 million m3 in the US alone in 2006 (McKeever 2009), the vast majority of this wood feeds just two basic product lines: dimensional lumber and structural panels; and essentially one end-use building system: lightframe construction. This building system is extremely versatile and cost competitive, but faces a number of limitations in architectural projects, where generally, spans are larger, loads are higher, and there are different expectations with respect to fire safety, durability, maintenance, acoustics, vibrations, and construction tolerances.

Low-rise residential construction follows a very standardized albeit versatile method composed almost entirely of wood elements, while architectural projects must respond to a more diverse range of performance requirements and construction methods, in which wood is often used in isolated or hybrid applications. Wood use in North American residential construction could be characterized as homogenous, whereas in architectural construction, it is very heterogeneous and constantly shifting.

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Figure 3

Figure 4

Comparison of residential and nonresidential building sectors

Market shift toward higher density housing (architectural sector)

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UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE [IDBE 15] THESIS: THE STRATEGIC CONTEXT FOR WOOD USE IN CANADIAN ARCHITECTURE

McKeever’s (2008) broad market study of nonresidential buildings expresses this diversity across a variety of criteria, including building type, size, location, and assembly. For example, intensity of wood use per unit of floor area is higher in certain building types, such as hotels, religious buildings, and healthcare facilities and lower in industrial, commercial, and public buildings. In general, buildings with smaller floor areas and heights are more likely to use wood than larger buildings.

Wood use is more predominant in certain applications, such as roof structures and rarely used in other applications, such as foundations. There are also significant regional variations: for example, western United States and Canada have a stronger wood-based building culture than other regions. In terms of products preferences, the architectural sector differentiates itself from the low-rise residential sector by using a higher proportion of EWPs and plywood panels and lower proportion of dimensional lumber and OSB panels.

GROWTH POTENTIAL With the sudden decline in US export markets for Canadian wood products, government and industry bodies are actively exploring and aggressively promoting alternative markets both domestically and internationally. The architectural market sector holds great promise, because “[i]n relation to other opportunities…it is large, the opportunity to gain share is high, the challenges are not overwhelming, and positive results can be achieved in a reasonable time period.” (Williamson et al.

2009 : 1). Figure 3 shows that total construction value of the architectural sector in Canada is of the same order of magnitude as the low-rise residential sector, 8 although average North American wood usage rates in the architectural sector are a factor of 10 lower (Spelter et al. 2007: 9). In addition, Canadian housing statistics show an increasing proportion of apartment type units being built, which reflects trends toward more urban, high-density building typologies and an expanding architectural sector (Figure 4). In the US, the construction value of the nonresidential sector has grown 65% in the five-year period ending in 2008, while the residential sector has slumped by 20% over the same period, which has resulted in a dominant nonresidential sector, by a margin of 20% (McKeever 2008: 28).

8

Data on building permit values collected by Statistics Canada (data series 61-205) over the past 25 years shows an average ratio of 4:3 between the residential and nonresidential sectors. However, the architectural sector includes mid-rise and highrise housing, which would shift this ratio closer to 1:1.

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Case Study 6

Stadthaus, London

Proclaimed to be the world’s tallest timber residential building, the high wood content of the Stadthaus in Murrey Grove is not easily legible inside or out. The top eight floors of this nine-storey building are constructed of structural cross-laminated timber panels, which are concealed by fire-rated plasterboard on walls and ceilings and by concrete topping on floors. Wood fibre cement panels clad the exterior with a contemporary expression. The timber structural system offered a number of advantages over concrete, including: reduced construction time, greater precision, improved air tightness and thermal performance, and a lower environmental footprint. It was erected in just 28 days by a team of four carpenters with a mobile crane.

Location: Completion: Architect: Structural consultant: Supplier (wood assemblies):

11

London, United Kingdom 2008 Waugh Thistleton Architects Techniker / Jenkins & Potter KLH Massivholz GmbH

SOURCES: AIA, “Wood’s Re-growth as a Structural Material,” website: http://info.aia.org/aiarchitect/thisweek09/0313/0313d_wood.cfm [accessed Oct 11, 2011] Wallwork (2011) Waugh Thistleton Architects, website: http://www.waughthistleton.com/profile_press.php [accessed Oct 11, 2011]

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UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE [IDBE 15] THESIS: THE STRATEGIC CONTEXT FOR WOOD USE IN CANADIAN ARCHITECTURE

Canadian and US sources estimate that a 4-fold to 5-fold increase in wood product use is possible within the code-defined constraints of the architectural sector (Dagenais 2009: 6; Spelter et al. 2007: 9; Enright 2010). These estimates are based on structural and appearance applications at current wood usage rates of typical concrete-, steel-, and wood-framed buildings and the incremental difference resulting from building the maximum possible wood-framed buildings. Since wood usage rates are generally quite low, this does not reflect the true potential for wood use in the architectural market sector (Spelter et al. 2007).

Québec‟s wood use strategy has set what it considers reasonable 5-year targets of doubling structural wood use in architectural projects and increasing the use of appearance applications by 20% (Québec 2008: 9).9

From the supply side, one of the distinct advantages of this relatively untapped market is its stable growth: it does not exhibit the same cyclical and volatile behaviour of residential markets (Kozak and Cohen 1999). On the demand side, there is growing appreciation of the benefits of wood to reduce costs, meet tight schedule and site constraints, improve building performance, and create attractive, ecologically responsible buildings (Case Study 6).

ROLE OF DESIGN PROFESSIONALS In the architectural sector, design professionals usually specify construction materials and are therefore perceived to have the greatest influence on the market expansion for wood products in this sector. Market research is commonly based on the assumption that architects and structural engineers are the most important group of specifiers – architects being the most influential and supportive of wood use in structural applications (Kozak and Cohen 1999; Gaston et al. 2001; O‟Connor et al.

2004). There is also a sense that the challenges among the various groups of specifiers are similar and that the survey results of architect‟s concerns are representative of other specifier groups (Robichaud et al. 2009). However, it is perhaps overly simplistic to assume that since design professionals document and take responsibility for design decisions, they also have the most influence in 9

Québec wood-use strategy, proposed increases: Nonresidential buildings, structural applications: Multi-unit residential buildings, structural applications: Appearance applications:

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96 to 300 million board feet equivalent 168 to 245 million board feet equivalent 378 to 458 million board feet equivalent

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UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE [IDBE 15] THESIS: THE STRATEGIC CONTEXT FOR WOOD USE IN CANADIAN ARCHITECTURE

decision-making. Bysheim and Nyrud‟s (2008) research implies that the decisionmaking power of the architect in particular appears to be overestimated in the literature. They claim that the project architect‟s choice of materials and construction systems is highly influenced by the attitudes of others, such as senior staff, structural consultant, cost consultant, builder, developer, and permitting authority (Bysheim and Nyrud 2008) – parties that are often less receptive to the use of wood (O‟Connor et al. 2004). Bysheim and Nyrud (2008) also identify practice norms, previous experience with wood, and perceived behavioural control over others, as important factors in decisions regarding material selection.

MARKET BARRIERS The market research on wood design and construction in the architectural sector identifies many opportunities and barriers to market expansion (Kozak and Cohen 1999; Gaston et al. 2001; O‟Connor et al. 2004; CWC 2008a; Williamson et al. 2009; Robichaud et al. 2009). Barriers can be grouped according to the following categories: technical barriers, regulatory barriers, industry barriers, specifier barriers, and perceptual barriers. Each of these categories will be briefly touched upon with the aim of drawing out the contextual factors at the basis of both industry inertia and specifier resistance to greater wood use.

In terms of real market barriers, we can eliminate the first two categories. While many technical challenges exist, all-wood or hybrid solutions exist for practically every design challenge. The case studies presented in this work and in numerous reference sources (CWC 1991; Natterer et al. 1996; Kolb 2008; Gauzin-Muller 2009) demonstrate the vast potential for wood use in a diverse range of applications.

Technical barriers relate more to achieving cost competitiveness, user-friendliness, and equivalency in a market context dominated by steel and concrete structures. To gain market share by substitution, the wood products industry is often forced to focus on eliminating the weaknesses, rather than exploiting the strengths of wood.

Regulatory barriers are often cited as one of the principle barriers to wood use, yet the market growth potential allowable within the existing regulatory framework is largely untapped (Dagenais 2009; Spelter et al. 2007). This would imply that building regulations are not the most important limiting factor. As we will see later, regulatory barriers are more a question of perceptions and attitudes that are rooted in a lack of

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expertise and uncertainty with the approvals process. Case Studies 4, 6 and 12 illustrate how motived designers may overcome regulatory constraints using hybrid design strategies. As Gagnon and O‟Connor (2006) correctly state, there are also many hybrid opportunities to incorporate more wood in an incremental manner, rather than as a complete change of building system.

Industry barriers and specifier barriers involve the interrelated cultures of supply and demand, and the interests and motivations behind maintaining the status quo. There is resistance to change on both sides, and “for good reason; the high price of failure, low profit margins, and tight schedules are all inhibitors to innovation or other deviation from standard practice” (O‟Connor et al. 2004: 26).

On the supply side, there is a lack of investment in wood product offerings that specifically address the needs of the architectural sector. Kozak (2007) attributes this to the predominant industry focus on commodity products intended for low-rise residential markets, and the bulk sales practices of multinational companies that control most of the harvest rights to Canadian timber. Market expansion for wood products in the architectural sector would require a robust and diversified local wood product manufacturing industry geared to its needs. The small- to medium-sized companies comprising the value-added wood manufacturing sector in Canada often have difficulty accessing suitable raw materials, which limits growth in this sector (Kozak 2007; Sierra Club of Canada 2006; Lavoie et al. 2006).

Although structural products are the predominant focus of the wood industry, cladding systems and prefabricated wall assemblies have been identified as significant end-use markets for the architectural sector (Lavoie et al. 2006). Brookes and Meijs (2008) in their book on exterior cladding identify a key limitation of wood products when compared with other materials: wood products are rarely offered as part of a complete system, especially in cladding applications. Wood building systems that can be supplied and installed with a guarantee of fitness for purpose would address many concerns of design professionals regarding performance, quality control, liability, and design support. Glazed curtain wall and many other complete building envelope solutions are offered this way. “Most such systems are erected by specialized façade building contractors, who therefore take responsibility for its correct application. The situation differs in the case of timber, whereby correct installation usually becomes the responsibility of the main contractor, who may or

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UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE [IDBE 15] THESIS: THE STRATEGIC CONTEXT FOR WOOD USE IN CANADIAN ARCHITECTURE

may not have been chosen for his knowledge of timber cladding. Moreover, architects cannot rely on the manufacturer of the system, because there is no system” (Brookes and Meijs 2008: 173).

The frequent use of mixed-material construction in the architectural sector would imply that marketing wood as the structural material of choice may be misdirected, and that it might be better promoted “as a material that can be effectively used in tandem with other products and systems” (Cohen and Kozak 1999: 43). While hybrid and mixed-material construction practices are common, builders and structural suppliers, who are generally aligned with particular subtrades and material combinations, are often reluctant to change practices (Fast 2010). Specifiers of hybrid assemblies and systems tend to force this situation, which can translate into higher construction costs and the potential for coordination errors and delays.

Specifier barriers are tied to professional practice and industry context. Of the main specifiers of wood products, structural engineers tend to be most resistant to using wood as an alternative to steel or concrete (Cohen and Kozak 1999; O‟Connor et al.

2004). The published findings of focus group research with structural engineers and other industry experts (Williamson et al. 2009; CWC 2008) identify a number of causes for this reluctance, which stem from four interrelated deficiencies in education, standards, quality and fees. These are briefly described below.

There is a general lack of familiarity with wood design among structural engineers. It begins in the formative years of their university education, where wood design is either not offered or not given the same emphasis as steel and concrete design. This generates a vicious circle: graduates give secondary importance to wood solutions; they are less able and likely to specify wood products; fewer wood structures are built; which in turn justifies the lack of course offerings by engineering departments.

The engineering standard for calculating concrete and steel designs is Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD). Although this more modern limit state design method exists for wood structures, Allowable Stress Design (ASD) method is what engineers currently use in practice. This reinforces a common perception of wood as an “old-fashioned” material. It is also deters engineers from exploring the potential for wood use in hybrid structures, due to the challenges of mixing ASD/LRFD methods.

Also, without a classification standard for structural wood products, engineers are

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reluctant to use proprietary products that, depending on local cost and availability, may require substitution and, consequently, re-engineering.

Engineered wood product manufacturers complain that designers lack experience and familiarity with wood as a structural material for large projects (Lavoie et al.

2006). Design professionals are equally concerned that a wood design might attract unsuitable contractors from the low-rise residential sector, who may have experience working with wood, but not to the quality standards and methods of project execution expected in the architectural sector.

Fixed-fee standard engineering contracts encourage structural solutions that require less time to design, document and review for quality. Product and material associations play an important role in helping designers streamline these processes and achieve better results with greater profits. Until recently, the wood industry has not invested heavily in this sort of design support. Wood design solutions are consequently less competitive from a specifier‟s perspective, regardless of whether they contribute to superior building performance or reduced project costs.

Perceptual barriers are the most difficult to address because they are subjective responses to a particular market context or practice culture that is in constant evolution. Perceptions may change as a result of education and marketing, but when these perceptions are embedded in legislation, engineering school curricula, and norms of practice, they become real barriers. Wood is a versatile and practical building material that often suffers from negative associations with its dominant applications in light-frame residential construction, dominant product types such as sawn lumber, or historic events such as the great city fires. Common cultural biases characterise wood as: traditional, not modern; craft, not design; generic construction, not innovative construction; suburban, not urban; domestic, not public; appropriate for small buildings, not large, multi-storey buildings. Many negative perceptions stem from the “living” qualities of solid wood and the following associations: organic = perishable; variability = unreliable; anisotropic = unpredictable; and combustible = dangerous. Despite the obvious influence of perceptions on industry investment and specifiers‟ practices, they should be read more as symptoms than causes, because they are embedded in “what was” or “what has come to be”, rather than “what is “ or “what could be.” To unravel these perceptions, it is important to look at historic and contextual factors, which will be addressed in the following sections.

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UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE [IDBE 15] THESIS: THE STRATEGIC CONTEXT FOR WOOD USE IN CANADIAN ARCHITECTURE

CANADIAN FORESTRY AND WOOD PRODUCTS INDUSTRY Stepping back from a focus on wood products and a demand-side perspective, we will now address some broader contextual issues from the Canadian wood products industry and the forests at the origin of its supply chain. This context is essential to understanding the underlying issues that shape market trends, policies and decisionmaking related to the promotion of greater wood use in the architectural sector. As we will see, there is a strong relationship between end use product decisions concerning wood and upstream forest stewardship practices. Since the political motivations, socioeconomic drivers, and supporting ecological rationale for increasing the use of wood products in architectural applications stem largely from forestry industry concerns; it is worth examining them in some detail.

Let us recall that the main subject of this thesis involves a strategic overview of the potential for wood use in architectural projects. Therein lies an implication that a greater use of wood is desirable. This is a critical subject of debate, which will be revisited in the concluding discussion.

Wood differs from most other construction materials – steel, concrete, brick, glass, plastics, etc. – in that it comes from a renewable source. Unlike iron ore, limestone, clay, silica, petroleum and other inert ground deposits, unharvested timber stands reside in living forests, which offer important ecological and societal benefits. Forests are complex ecosystems that provide habitat for numerous species and play an essential role in the hydrological cycle, the carbon cycle, and other terrestrial life support systems. In addition to valuable wood fibre, forests support human society with purified air and water, food and medicinal substances, flood control and wind shelter, resistance to soil erosion and desertification, fuel, and a wealth of recreational and cultural assets. 10 These benefits are not necessarily in competition and can be optimized with good forest management practices. Conversely, there is 10

The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005) groups ecosystem services into the following categories: provisioning services such as food, water, timber, and fibre; regulating services that affect climate, floods, disease, wastes, and water quality; cultural services that provide recreational, aesthetic, and spiritual value; and supporting services such as soil formation, photosynthesis, and nutrient cycling. The value of these ecosystem services are largely unaccounted for in decisions relating to land-use planning and industrial development and can give the impression of economic wealth, while degrading the natural capital reserves on which that wealth is based. The Pembina Institute (2005) illustrates the importance of these ecosystem services in its analysis of the boreal region, which is 41% forested and one of three “frontier forests” remaining on earth. The report finds that in 2002 “the total non-market value of boreal ecosystem services is 2.5 times greater than the net market value of boreal natural capital extraction… forestry, oil and gas, mining, and hydroelectric energy combined.”

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Table 5

Canadian forestry data

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UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE [IDBE 15] THESIS: THE STRATEGIC CONTEXT FOR WOOD USE IN CANADIAN ARCHITECTURE

great deal at stake if forests are not properly managed, which explains why the forest products industry is often subject to greater public scrutiny and emotional response than other resource industries.

Since wood products cannot be easily disassociated from their forest origins, the procurement of raw materials is complicated by the different interests of the many stakeholders involved. Timber is only one of the forest’s offerings, which must be balanced against the opportunity cost of the corresponding tree loss for the duration of its regeneration cycle. For this reason, when assessing the value of using wood products, especially as a substitute for other construction materials, we must take a broader forestry perspective, one that is based upon sustainable harvesting practices.

TIMBER SUPPLY Canada is the world’s second largest nation and on its vast soils grow 10% of the world’s forests: over a third of the world’s boreal forests and one quarter of the world’s temperate forests (FAO 2011). Key figures relating to supply, harvest, and forest management are presented and referenced on Table 5 and summarised below.

Canada’s forested lands are 93% publicly owned: 77% under provincial jurisdiction and 16% under federal jurisdiction. Most timber harvesting is regulated provincially and carried out under long-term tenures agreements, which transfer harvest rights and forest management responsibilities over to commercial interests (Lee et al.

2004). More than half (53%) of all forested areas fall under such tenure agreements.

Tenure agreements define harvest volumes and areas, with an overall aim of limiting harvest yields to a sustainable regeneration rate. The annual harvest area in 2008 represented less than a quarter of one percent of the total forest cover. Harvest volumes were slightly over half of the estimated sustainable cut. This is down dramatically from previous years that were approaching, and in some cases surpassing, sustainable thresholds. By comparison, forest fires annually consume an area twice that harvested and both these losses are completely overshadowed by insect and disease related impacts. Of recent concern, is the major pine beetle infestation in western Canada that in just over a decade has decimated vast stands

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Figure 5

Original and remaining primary forest regions of the world

3

SOURCE: Map adapted from Canadian Boreal Initiative, website: http://www.borealcanada.ca/popup.html?images/maps/original-forests.gif [accessed Oct 11, 2011]

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UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE [IDBE 15] THESIS: THE STRATEGIC CONTEXT FOR WOOD USE IN CANADIAN ARCHITECTURE

of mature pine: estimated losses in BC alone are equivalent to 4 years of annual harvest volume for the entire country at the 2008 rate.

While retaining 91% of its original forest cover, nearly half of Canada’s total forested area has been subject to forest harvesting or other anthropomorphic impacts. Over 90% of new harvesting continues to take place in primary forest areas using clearcut logging methods, 11 which results in the degradation and fragmentation of established natural habitats and exposes them to increased access-related disturbances. While the annual deforestation rate due to land use changes is very low in proportion to the total forest area, it still represents a significant loss, which, depending on the source, amounts to 460 km2 (NRCan 2010) or as high as 1100 km2 (ForestEthics 2008).

Overall less than 8% of Canadian forests are protected in designated conservation areas, which on a percentage basis is the lowest of G8 nations (FAO 2011). Of global ecological and conservation significance, Canada has one of the last remaining expanses of frontier forest (Figure 5), located largely in the sensitive boreal region, where soils are fragile and regeneration cycles are long. Commercial timber tenures have already been allocated for much of the southern edge of this forest region, but they are subject to changes resulting from intense public pressure. 12

In summary, Canada has abundant forest resources, but much of it faces moderate to severe productivity limitations, which will affect long-term supply. 13 Similar to other natural resources, the “easy” reserves have been largely exploited, and accessing the remaining frontier forests is often accompanied by progressively higher levels of economic and ecological risk. Woodbridge (2009) has suggested that any long-term supply strategy would go beyond simply replanting harvested areas, and involve establishing new forests, especially highly productive plantation forests, in close proximity to processing and population centres.

Global Forest Watch Canada, website: www.globalforestwatch.ca (accessed May 15, 2011) In a landmark agreement between forest products companies and environmental organizations, industry stakeholders have accepted a temporary moratorium on logging over a vast area comprising 290,000 km2, while a comprehensive conservation and forest management plan is being developed. The Canadian Boreal Forest Agreement: www.canadianborealforestagreement.com (website accessed July 7, 2011)

11,13 12

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ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS Historically, Canadian forests were a vital source of materials and wealth for both aboriginal and colonial cultures. This is still true today, despite the fact that the overall importance of the forest sector in the Canadian economy has been gradually decreasing, as summarised in the following statistics published by FPInnovations (2010). This slide has accelerated with the recent downturn in the US economy. By 2009 the entire forest sector (wood, pulp, paper, forestry, and logging industries) contributed a record low 1.7% of the gross domestic product, down from a fairly steady level above 2.7% from 1990 to 2005. Canada is a leading export nation for wood products, most of which are destined for US residential construction markets.

The industry has traditionally followed the demand cycles for housing, but has never experienced such dramatic fluctuations in production as in the recent US real-estate bubble, which saw record highs and lows in the span of a few years. In 2009, house starts in the United States were 50% below the previous worst years since recording began in 1950. And if this was not enough, the devaluation of the US dollar (by one third relative to 2002 levels) coupled with protectionist export tariffs on Canadian lumber, caused further reductions in an already dwindling demand. From 2004 to 2009, the total value of wood product exports contracted from $25 billion to less than $9 billion. As an indication of the dependence of the Canadian wood products industry on US residential markets, is noteworthy that, despite the low demand in 2009, US exports represented more than half of the total production of softwood lumber and structural panels. Total production in 2009 amounted to 44 million m3 and 6 million m3 respectively.

Forest industry statistics are published annually by the Canadian Government in the State of Canada’s Forests (NRCan 2010). The 2010 edition provides a sober analysis of recent trends, yet with a strangely positive outlook. Using a number of sustainability and economic indicators, it portrays the forest industry as a “do-good,” but “down-on-its-luck” victim of global economic circumstances: like a mature and resilient tree facing a regular drought cycle, it has experienced significant die off and pruning of assets and human resources, but also new growth, and there are signs of blossoms that are expected to bear fruit in the next market upswing. This may be an overly optimistic perspective, given that job losses, mill closures, and low ROCEs 14 have been hampering the industry well before the collapse of the US housing market.

14

Return on capital employed

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UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE [IDBE 15] THESIS: THE STRATEGIC CONTEXT FOR WOOD USE IN CANADIAN ARCHITECTURE

According to Woodbridge (2009), Kozak (2007), Thorpe and Sandberg (2007) there are systemic problems relating to an industry focus and tenure system that is geared toward commodity production and bulk sales at the expense of diversification, value creation, and customer focus. Canada has been steadily losing its global share of export markets for forest products that it once dominated. Domestically, the relative value of forest product exports to all other exports has also been declining from its historic levels – in recent years dropping from 16% in 1995 to 7% in 2009 (FPInnovations 2010). Concurrent with these declines, provincial government priorities appear to have shifted to include the concerns of other stakeholders of public forests and to improved forest management regulations – both of which influence the profitability of forest products companies. Ironically, public forest service agencies have seen significant cutbacks at a time when the scope and complexity of their role has increased. This might not be a contradiction, when ones considers the co-dependent nature of the provincial forest tenure system, where public forest service agencies both regulate and collect stumpage fees from forest product companies (Thorpe and Sandberg 2007). From an economic and public relations standpoint, it may be of mutual interest to both parties of this public-private partnership to have the most stringent regulations, but without the means to enforce them. That said, many policy analysts believe that forest tenure reform is at the heart of solving current forest industry woes.

REGIONAL DIFFERENCES This research has focused on Canada’s two largest provincial forest economies, British Columbia (BC) and Québec. With their geographical separation on opposite sides of the continent, comes significant regional differences in forest resources, timber supply, production focus, export markets, and construction practices. Unless otherwise mentioned, FPInnovations (2010) is the source of the following statistics, which are offered as an illustration of the regional contrasts.

BC has more than double the timber resources and lumber production of Québec and its forests are more productive, meaning that they yield more wood per harvest area and that they regenerate more quickly. BC forests have a number of species that are unique to the west coast of North America – such as Douglas-fir, Sitka spruce, western hemlock, western red-cedar, and yellow-cedar – which are prized for their appearance, structural properties, log size, as well as other qualities including

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UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE [IDBE 15] THESIS: THE STRATEGIC CONTEXT FOR WOOD USE IN CANADIAN ARCHITECTURE

decay resistance (Dumont and Wright 2006). These species fetch 2-5 times the export price of the more common Spruce-Pine-Fir lumber, but are often shipped as raw logs to be processed elsewhere. Although both BC and Québec are currently operating at well below sustainable harvest rates, they both face medium term reductions in annual allowable cut (AAC) due to recent overharvesting. Québec has already reduced its AAC by nearly 20% and BC anticipates a 30% contraction of supply after all commercially salvageable pine beetle-killed timber has been harvested.

Québec has invested much more heavily in value-added processes in order to generate market opportunities for their small diameter trees. In 2003, the proportion of value-added to commodity products was five times higher in Québec than in BC (Sierra Club Canada 2006). Québec has a more mature and diversified manufacturing sector, of which forest products form a small proportion, whereas forest products in BC represent a large proportion of its manufacturing output, despite recent declines. Although BC has a significant value-added sector, commodity products are the still the main stay of its production.

While both provinces’ main trading partner is the US, Québec has greater proximity to European markets, while BC has better access to Japanese and East Asian markets.

With greater abundance of high-quality timber and distance from steel production centres, the building culture in BC has traditionally been more open to the use of wood in the architectural sector, while Québec construction industry is more entrenched in the use of steel and concrete.

SUSTAINABLE FOREST MANAGEMENT Perhaps more than any other construction material, wood evokes environmental concerns. In Canada, there is a long history of standoffs between environmentalist and logging companies, which over time has resulted in increased regulation, public awareness and stakeholder influence regarding the use of public forests. Today, the forest products industry is proud to report that 92% of harvest areas are covered by one or more voluntary forest certification standards, which demonstrate corporate responsibility through an independent verification of their forest management

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UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE [IDBE 15] THESIS: THE STRATEGIC CONTEXT FOR WOOD USE IN CANADIAN ARCHITECTURE

practices 15. Certification requirements extend beyond the scope of provincial forest management regulations, which are often referred to as among the most stringent in the world. At yearend 2010, 1.5 million km2 of forested land in Canada was committed to certification, which amounts to half of all certified forest land globally. 16

Forest certification is of growing strategic importance in the intensely competitive export markets, where commodity producers and large corporate buyers of unethically harvested timber sources are increasing vulnerable to public shaming campaigns and consumer boycotts. The forest products industry has proactively invested in an aggressive marketing campaign to promote Canada’s lead role in sustainable forest management and the environmental benefits of using wood.

Certification Canada is an industry-led initiative that promotes three certification programs: Canadian Standards Association (CSA), the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC), and the Sustainable Forestry Initiative (SFI). They describe the common features of these programs as follows: 

Conservation of biological diversity;



Maintenance of wildlife habitat and species diversity;



Protection and/or maintenance of special sites (biological and cultural);



Maintenance of soil and water resources, including riparian areas;



Ensuring sustainable harvest levels and reforestation;



Protection of forestlands from deforestation and conversion to other uses;



No wood from illegal or unauthorized sources;



Aboriginal rights and/or involvement; and



Public disclosure.

Numerous websites and documents produced by both forest industry associations and government sources are remarkably consistent in the information presented – but equally so with the information withheld. This should not come as a surprise given the industry consolidation into very large companies and the intertwined interests of government and forest tenure holders.

15,16

Certification Canada: www.certificationcanada.org (website accessed May 15, 2011.)

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Figure 6

Area of provincial forest tenures controlled by 5 largest companies

4

SOURCE: Map adapted from Zoran Stanojevic, Global Forest Watch Canada, website: http://www.globalforestwatch.ca/tenure/maps/Map03b.png [accessed Oct 11, 2011]

RICHARD KLOPP

UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE [IDBE 15] THESIS: THE STRATEGIC CONTEXT FOR WOOD USE IN CANADIAN ARCHITECTURE

Amongst the information typically withheld are the following disconcerting facts and trends. They reveal a considerable disconnect between the vision of sustainability being offered and certain realities behind the scenes.



Tenure agreements, which transfer usage rights for vast public lands to quite narrow commercial interests, are rarely mentioned by industry or government sources; yet they are the primary means for wood products companies to secure timber supply and represent an important source of revenue for provincial governments. The tenure system has been widely criticized as encouraging industry consolidation and volume production of low-priced commodities – trends that are at odds with current policy objectives of generating the maximum social and economic benefit from public forests. Figure 6 reveals how a small number of large corporations control much of the timber supply in Canada (Lee et al. 2004).



Public funding for monitoring has been severely cut back, despite the information intensive nature of sustainable forest management and increased areas of forest certified. According to Global Forest Watch Canada, “There is a sever lack of an independent national perspective on forestry issues. There is a severe absence of up-to-date, detailed maps and other monitoring and verification tools to identify what is happening and poised to happen in Canada's forests.” 17



Public forest services have seen significant budget and staffing cuts in recent decades, at both national and provincial levels of government. In BC, field inspections dropped by nearly 50% over the 3-year period 20022005, leading the Canadian Centre for Policy Alternatives (Parfitt 2010) to demand a public inquiry into the capability of the BC Forest Service to carry out its public mandate of ensuring compliance with forestry regulations, which it sees as “hopelessly compromised.” 18

17 18

Global Forest Watch Canada: www.globalforestwatch.ca (website accessed May 15, 2011) Some examples of the weak regulatory situation in BC: In one region, the average area of land overseen by a single Forest Service employee is 2322 km2 (Parfitt 2010). Over the 3-year period from 1995 to 1998, more fines were collected by the Vancouver Public Library for late fees than were issued to logging companies for noncompliance over a harvest area totalling 5000 km2 (GFWC website).

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UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE [IDBE 15] THESIS: THE STRATEGIC CONTEXT FOR WOOD USE IN CANADIAN ARCHITECTURE



Finally, the forest products industry has created the umbrella organization, Certification Canada, for promoting three forest certification programs, giving the impression that they are equivalent; yet, as May (2000) has testified to a Parliamentary standing committee, this is far from the case.

For example, the Sustainable Forestry Initiative has been discredited as failing to achieve its environmental objectives and lacking independence in its management and auditing process (Forest Ethics 2010).

We will return to questions of wood use and sustainability in the concluding discussion. Wood is a natural, renewable, and locally harvested material, which in theory offers great potential for Canadian society to reduce its collective ecological footprint 19 and achieve a more sustainable built environment. In practice, this is complicated by many contextual factors that go beyond the usual focus of how and how much wood is used. At this point, however, it should be clear that wood is not a generic material and that supply chain and forest management issues must be considered to properly evaluate its benefits and embodied impacts.

19

National per capita ecological footprint is among the highest in the world (www.footprintnetwork.org).

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UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE [IDBE 15] THESIS: THE STRATEGIC CONTEXT FOR WOOD USE IN CANADIAN ARCHITECTURE

HISTORICAL TRENDS IN WOOD PRODUCTION AND USE Three historic trends will conclude this contextual overview. They include: the shifting technological and market focus of the forest industry; the emergence of building regulations in response to fire safety and insurance concerns; and user preferences resulting in product substitution. Each of these trends has contributed to the current state of low demand for wood products in the architectural sector; however, with recent industry changes, this market sector appears to be opening up again. What is difficult to assess is the degree of market inertia that resides in the structuring effects of these long-term trends on construction culture, practices and attitudes.

TECHNOLOGICAL ORIENTATIONS OF THE WOOD INDUSTRY Cohen and Kozak (2001) describe the evolution of the North American forest products industry over the last century through its changes in orientation: from an extraction or logging focus 20 – to a production focus – to a marketing focus. The authors link these major shifts in industry orientation to advancements in research and technology: as research and technology was applied to overcome the limitations of a specific industry orientation, new challenges resulting from the changing industry context would require a transition in industry orientation. The initial industry focus was on increasing timber supply in a market context of relative scarcity of raw materials. As the supply of raw materials began to match demand, the industry focus shifted to production output and efficiencies. Then, with the expansion of global production, a new context of oversupply and intense competition has emerged, requiring industry priorities to shift again, towards export marketing and other initiatives to attract and secure buyers. This has been accompanied by the consolidation of companies into ever larger entities on both the supply and demand side, each attempting to achieve greater leverage and “be the last one standing.”

Kozak (2007) describes this race for the lowest price as an end game of diminishing returns, which must eventually give way to value-added approaches to revenue generation. According to Woodbridge (2010), this transition is urgent, because it is no longer profitable for companies to invest in the industry in the current context. Given the public ownership of Canadian forests and the value of non-timber forest services (Pembina Institute 2005) a more selective value-based forestry policy of maximizing local employment and revenue per volume of wood harvested would appear to be in the best interests of society (Kozak 2007).

20

Cohen and Kozak (2001) use the term “forestry focus,” which is a more polite, but vague description.

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Table 6

Levels of value innovation and triggering conditions

2

SOURCE: Diagram adapted from Woodbridge Associates (2009) BC’s Forest Industry: Moving from a Volume Focus to a Value Perspective, p26. www.bcbc.com/Documents/2020_200910_Woodbridge.pdf [accessed Oct 11, 2011]

RICHARD KLOPP

UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE [IDBE 15] THESIS: THE STRATEGIC CONTEXT FOR WOOD USE IN CANADIAN ARCHITECTURE

In an industry dominated by volume producers of wood commodities, companies have historically focused on what Lefaix-Durand (2008) calls transactional rather than relational exchanges. She maintains that customer-supplier relationships are an important means of value creation and represent a solution for organizations to increase their competitiveness. This is at the heart of what Cohen and Kozak (2001) called knowledge focus: emerging industry trends that reflect the increasing importance of information in the sale of any product. They identify a number of market-based knowledge clusters, as practical manifestations of a shift to a new industry orientation, one which they believe drives the current research and technology agenda and will define the success of business ventures operating within that market context. This includes supply chain management, whereby knowledgesharing across different sectors can increase the value of the industry as a whole, and interconnectivity, which creates opportunities for feedback, resource tracking, and inter-firm collaboration. Mass-customisation is an example of a high-value, information-intensive production method (Table 3) emerging from more collaborative customer/fabricator relations, by which custom products can be achieved at low cost using numerically controlled manufacturing systems. This corresponds to the higher levels of innovation and value creation shown on Table 6, which Woodbridge (2009) describes as emerging from certain triggering conditions in the construction industry.

Industry orientation is an important determinant of the market opportunities for wood use. The industry’s historic focus on volume production of low price commodity goods has been geared toward serving the needs of its dominant export and residential markets, but this does not particularly well serve the domestic architectural market. While material costs may drive competitiveness in the low-rise residential markets, where one framing material and method dominates; overall cost competitiveness in the architectural sector is driven by a much wider range of factors.

In the architectural sector, where there are many competing building systems, the contribution of a wood product or assembly to overall system performance is more important than its unit cost as compared to another material (Forintek 2000: 16).

Product, technology, and service enhancements that can facilitate design and construction processes, reduce labour, and improve quality control all contribute to overall cost competitiveness of the system.

This would imply that to access architectural market opportunities, there must be a greater industry focus on value-added wood products and premanufactured

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Figure 7

Historic city fires

The London Fire of 1666 burned over 3 days and destroyed most of the city centre, home to 80,000 citizens. The narrow streets and timber-framed, thatched buildings would later be replaced by brick, stone and tile to prevent such a tragedy happening again. Many cities have enacted similar ordinances after great fires in order to limit the quantity of wood and other combustible materials in new construction. Entire sections of Montréal were repeatedly destroyed by fire in the 18th and 19th centuries, despite increasingly strict and expanded regulations that had a significant long-term impact on the character of the urban environment. The perception that wood is an inappropriate construction material for urban buildings is difficult to dispel despite technological advances in fire detection, fire resistant construction methods, fire safety and egress, and fire suppression; a shift away from open-flame heating and lighting sources; increased speed and capacity of fire fighting response; and a fire insurance record that shows a low and decreasing level of claims (Calder and Senez 2008; CWC 2002).

6

SOURCES: Old London Maps (image), website: http://www.oldlondonmaps.com/oldlondonmapimages/OddImages/merian01.jpg [accessed Oct 15, 2011] Province of Quebec, “Montreal on Fire,” website: http://www.provincequebec.com/montreal/montreal-on-fire/ [accessed Oct 15, 2011] Wikipedia, “Great Fire of London,” website: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Fire_of_London [accessed Oct 15, 2011]

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UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE [IDBE 15] THESIS: THE STRATEGIC CONTEXT FOR WOOD USE IN CANADIAN ARCHITECTURE

assemblies that are either offered as complete building systems or at least conceived with system requirements in mind. This would requires greater investment in customer relations and services, which in the case of the architectural sector is not only with builders, but also designers. Given the higher level of marketing sophistication involved in addressing the needs of the architectural sector, it is understandable that the industry has not seriously pursued these markets when much easier prospects existed within the limits of the annual allowable forest harvest.

Historically this has come at a significant opportunity cost to investments in valueadded technologies, but more importantly, to the overall value potential that public forests offer to society.

EMERGENCE OF BUILDING CODES In 1905, a 9-storey heavy timber commercial building (including 2-storeys below grade) was constructed for Kelly, Douglas and Co. in Vancouver, reaching a height of 30 meters above grade (Karacabeyli 2009). This building is still standing and occupied. How is it possible that over 100 years later, the 6-storey Fondaction office building (Case Study 7 overleaf) in QuĂŠbec City, of lower building height (22 m) and area, would be considered a landmark achievement in wood construction? The answer resides with ongoing changes in the regulatory context that a one time imposed severe restrictions on combustible construction and is slowly becoming more permissive.

Modern building codes and property insurance have common origins in the great urban conflagrations of the past (Figure 7) – both practices emerging as preventative measures to limit the extensive and devastating fire losses that routinely plagued many cities well into the 20th century (CWC 2002). In many North American cities, fire underwriters played an important part in pressuring municipal councils to adopt building codes (Ching and Winkel 2009). These early fire-based codes were municipal in scope and modeled on the fire risk classification methods used by insurance companies at the time (CWC 2002). Regulations limiting building height and area were largely based on the capabilities and concerns of the local fire department with their primary objective being the prevention of conflagrations. Many of the prescriptive requirements adopted by the more influential municipalities would later be rolled into the early national model codes (Calder and Senez 2008).

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Case Study 7

Fondaction, Québec

The design of the Fondaction building (right) followed the new “alternative solutions” compliance method to demonstrate conformity with the 2008 Québec Construction Code. Additional safety measures involved: oversizing the timber elements to maintain structural integrity during a fire, based on a known charring rate; providing an additional fire stair; and increasing the capacity of the sprinkler system. This permitted a 6-storey heavy timber construction, 2-storeys more than the “acceptable solutions” compliance method: a record building height for a 21st century timber building in North America, but is well below the achievements of more than a century earlier, such as the Kelly, Douglas and Co. building in Vancouver (left). Wood use in the Fondaction building was a client objective aimed to support the local forest economy and encourage a wood construction culture n Québec. In this fully exposed structure, made of Black Spruce glue laminated beams, columns and decking, the concealed steel connections are “fire protected” by the wood. Nearly 1000 m3 of FSC certified wood were employed, which offers significant carbon emissions offsets over a concrete structure of similar size.

Location: Completion: Architect: Structural consultant: Supplier (wood assemblies):

17

Québec, QC, Canada 2010 GHA Architecture et Developpement B.E.S. Inc Nordic Structures

SOURCES: CECOBOIS, website: www.cecobois.com/repertoire/index.php?option=com_rea&view=fiches&id=224&Itemid=94 [accessed Oct 12, 2011] Gagnon and Rivest (2010) Karacabeyli (2009) Naturally Wood, website: www.naturallywood.com/sites/default/files/Fondaction.pdf [accessed Oct 12, 2011]

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UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE [IDBE 15] THESIS: THE STRATEGIC CONTEXT FOR WOOD USE IN CANADIAN ARCHITECTURE

As Calder and Senez (2008) demonstrate, it is important to trace back these origins in order to understand the current structure and application of our building codes, which in their analysis can been shown to retain a bias against the use of wood in mid-rise buildings without a scientifically-based rationale. To quote from their report: “…height and area requirements were primarily developed as a passive measure to mitigate the perceived risk to life and property in the early 1900’s – and were based on the understood capabilities of the fire departments at that time” (2008: 2). “Since the early 1900’s, advances have occurred in building regulations, construction materials and techniques, effectiveness and reliability of fire alarm and sprinkler systems, and fire fighting tactics and equipment. These advances have been reflected in the fire record, indicating a reduction of structure fires over the past century…” (2008: 16). Despite these improvements in fire safety and building protection, superseding model building codes have been adopted without significant increases to the area and height limitations and without challenging original assumptions. The problem is not so much an unwillingness to change, but rather the difficulty of reassessing the legacy requirements that were adopted by early model codes, for which the original objectives and rationale are unavailable (2008: 5). In their conclusions, Calder and Senez (2008) recommend a complete review of the basis for restrictions to combustible construction, one that is empirical derived from current standards and technologies and that properly reflects the contributions of both active (e.g., sprinklers) and passive (e.g., compartmentalization) fire protection methods.

In Canada, building regulations are under the jurisdiction of provincial and territorial governments, who in the past transferred this responsibility on to municipalities and their permits and inspections departments. In the absence of a national or provincial standard, the proliferation of locally enacted building bylaws created a fragmented construction industry, effectively limiting the reach of building consultants, contractors and suppliers to the municipal scale. In order to remedy this situation, the federal government commissioned the development of model codes that could be amended and then adopted by provinces through enabling legislation. The first model building code appeared in 1941 and new codes have been published regularly, the most recent being 2010.

Until 2005, Canadian model codes were prescriptive in nature: a collection of requirements often lacking a rationale or clear statement of intent that could be

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Table 7

International comparison of building height limits for wood structures Summary of restrictions in European and Canadian regulations

United Kingdom

unlimited

No height restriction for wood structure if other fire protection requirements are met.

90 min FRR, 120 min FRR for shafts and exits. Sprinklers required above 30m.

France

unlimited

No height restriction for wood structure if other fire protection requirements are met.

Italy

unlimited

No height restriction for wood structure if other fire protection requirements are met.

Fire protection certificate required above 12m.

Norway

unlimited

No height restriction for wood structure if other fire protection requirements are met.

Sweden

unlimited

No height restriction for wood structure if other fire protection requirements are met.

Wood facades: maximum 8 storeys, sprinklers required above 2 storeys.

Austria

7 storeys

Less than 22m from grade to uppermost storey Above 4 storeys, 90 min FRR required

Switzerland

6 storeys

Above 5 storeys, additional fire protection measures required.

Germany

5 storeys

Less than 13m from grade to uppermost storey

Finland

4 storeys

Sprinklers and smoke detectors above 2 storeys.

SOURCE: Steurer and B端ren (2009)

Canada

4 storeys

(6 storeys)

Permissible as an acceptable solution under the National Building Code (2005).

Above 3 storeys, sprinklers and 60min fire resistance rating (FRR) required.

Additional storeys are possible if conforming as an alternate solution of equivalency to the appropriate noncombustible building classification.

British Columbia Building Code amendments allow an extra 2 storeys of combustible construction for residential buildings provided additional fire protection, structural and seismic requirements are met, including: sprinklers, reduced floor area (<1200m2), and noncombustible cladding.

SOURCES: NBC (2005); BCBC (2009)

RICHARD KLOPP

UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE [IDBE 15] THESIS: THE STRATEGIC CONTEXT FOR WOOD USE IN CANADIAN ARCHITECTURE

challenged with an equivalency. In a shift towards greater clarity and performance criteria, the 2005 model codes have adopted an objective-based approach, which retains most of the former prescriptive requirements as prequalified acceptable solutions only. Alternate solutions are also permitted as long as they fulfill the objectives and functional statements that are now linked to each requirement.

Potworowski (2010) sees this code transformation as creating a more flexible and adaptable regulatory framework that would allow for greater innovation, in particular innovations leading to a more sustainable society. In fact, the Fondaction building (Case Study 7), referenced at the beginning of this section, is an example of the alternate solution compliance method; the height limit would otherwise have been limited to 4 storeys for heavy timber construction. While the alternate solution path does offer greater opportunities for wood construction, the onus is on the design professional to seek compliance and the authority having jurisdiction retains a right of refusal.

Table 7 offers a comparison of height limitations for wood construction in select European building regulations. It shows a wide variation, but generally less restrictive context than in Canada.

The building code has an important influence on the building industry, not only from the point of view of its requirements and restrictions, but also from its organizational structure. For example, the NBC is divided in to 10 parts: Part 3 defines the Fire Protection, Occupant Safety, and Accessibility requirements for all buildings, except for the small buildings permitted under Part 9 (<3 storeys , <600 m2, of certain occupancy types). This split between larger, more complex buildings and smaller, simpler buildings is reflected in the construction industry divisions: residential versus institutional builders, classes of construction materials, etc. Another example is the NBC classification of buildings according to the combustibility of construction materials, regardless of whether those materials are fire protected: meaning that when comparing a heavy timber structure and a steel structure that are equally fire protected, the heavy timber structure is limited in height and area, while the steel structure is not. There is no empirical evidence to prove that the steel structure would perform better in the case of a fire.

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UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE [IDBE 15] THESIS: THE STRATEGIC CONTEXT FOR WOOD USE IN CANADIAN ARCHITECTURE

MODERN MATERIALS AND SUBSTITUTION The process of material selection from competing building products or assemblies involves an ever-shifting balance of choices, reflecting changes in user preferences, production technology, construction practices, material costs and availability, building regulations, and so forth. A substitution in choice may involve a material change, e.g., a glulam beam instead of a steel beam; a product change within the same material type, e.g., an engineered wood lintel instead of a sawn lumber lintel; or a change in construction assembly, e.g., a stressed skin panel system instead of a light-framed assembly.

Within the wood products sector, technological advances as well as changes in the characteristics of the wood supply have resulted in a general substitution for more efficient products: as large diameter or higher quality logs have become scarce, composite products have replaced solid wood products. For example, OSB has largely replaced plywood as a residential sheathing material, which decades earlier had replaced the use of diagonal boards (Spelter et al. 2007: 6). MSR and fingerjointing were once considered value-added processes, but are now widely used in commodity production.

Wood and steel structural elements are more commonly in competition than wood and concrete, because the product forms and applications have greater similarity: both involve linear elements and sheet goods used in framed assemblies that generally require fire protection. Wood products can also be assembled into heavy timber slabs of sufficient strength and fire resistance to compete with reinforced concrete construction using traditional methods of tongue-and-groove structural decking or nailed lumber assemblies. Cross-laminated timber is a more recent import technology that has shown rapid growth in European building markets and holds great promise as a direct substitute for concrete construction in North America.

Crespell and Gagnon have estimated that CLT would be a cost-competitive structural system in nearly two third of the buildings in the architectural sector (2010: 20), offering a wide range of benefits as describe in Case Studies 6 and 14 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; not the least which for the Canadian context includes rapid and unheated erection under winter conditions.

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UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE [IDBE 15] THESIS: THE STRATEGIC CONTEXT FOR WOOD USE IN CANADIAN ARCHITECTURE

Although new, competitively priced wood products and applications are constantly emerging in the market place, these trends might appear as relatively small counter currents when placed in the broader historic context of declining wood use in North America. The data from McKeever’s (2009) study shows that since 1950 there has been a steady downward trend in overall wood use intensity for all construction sectors, measured either in terms of wood content relative to built area or as a proportion of construction value. It is unfortunate that data from the earlier half of the 20th century is not available, as it would show the impacts of regulatory restrictions on combustible construction that were being implemented at the time.

Green (2006) has written about the gradual disappearance of wood products from North American society and the built environment. In his historical account, he describes the diverse qualities and past uses for wood in all manner of cultural production; its essential role in making possible the Industrial Revolution; and its subsequent decline through a process of material substitution, eventually giving way to steel, concrete, and other synthetic materials. He points out that although craftspeople have always been able to work with the variable material properties and imperfections of wood, the transition from craft culture to mechanized mass production and its demands for uniform quality, has largely left wood behind. Wood did not fit with the image of modernity; its ongoing appeal stemmed rather from its connection to nature and tradition.

While the non-desirable organic attributes of wood – i.e., combustibility, rot, and variability – may have been responsible for its historic decline in use, Green also suggests that its renaissance may come as a result of the pollutants and nondecomposable wastes associated with the inorganic materials that have replaced wood (2006: xxxi). In a time of greater sensitivity to ecological issues and with shifting ideals of modernity, the nature connection appears to be part of the redefinition of a “modern” material. If the perceived liabilities of wood use are to be reinterpreted as assets, then combustibility becomes bio-energy, rot becomes biodegradable waste, and variability becomes niche markets or value-added potential. Natterer (2002: 245) has predicted that “wood, with its low production energy requirement and capacity for storing CO2, could be the building material best suited to the 21st century.”

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Case Study 8

Liu Institute for Global Issues, UBC, Vancouver

After an initial service life of 40 years in the University of British Columbiaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Pan-Hellenic House (left), glulam beams and cedar structural decking were salvaged and recut for their new configuration in the roof structure of the Liu Institute (right), a building on the same site with a design life of 100 years.

Designing wood structures for ease of disassembly and reuse creates an inventory of future construction materials and the potential for long-term carbon storage.

Location: Completion: Architect: Structural consultant: Salvage contractor:

13

Vancouver, BC, Canada 2000 Architectura with Arthur Erickson Bush, Bohlman & Partners Litchfield & Co Ltd

:

SOURCES: Kernan (2002) Kwan and Masselik (2000) UBC Liu Institute for Global Issues, website: http://www.ligi.ubc.ca/about_building.htm [accessed Oct 14, 2011]

RICHARD KLOPP

UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE [IDBE 15] THESIS: THE STRATEGIC CONTEXT FOR WOOD USE IN CANADIAN ARCHITECTURE

An important policy driver for wood substitution is emerging from international mobilisation around climate change. Comparative lifecycle assessments of various construction materials show that wood assemblies have lower overall environmental impacts and produce less GHG emissions than equivalent concrete or steel assemblies (Sathre and Oâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Connor 2010). Since substitution benefits are derived from wood replacing non-wood construction, the greatest potential gains are in the architectural sector, where wood usage rates are low. Wood from sustainably harvested forests is both a renewable resource and a temporary sink for atmospheric carbon. Wood building components, which, if reused, may extend beyond the life of the building (Case Study 8). How these benefits compare to leaving the wood in the forest is part of a highly charged debate, which we will return to in the concluding discussion.

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Case Study 9

Highwood Court, London

The constraints of urban construction offer a niche market for premanufactured wood assemblies. This model infill project proposed nine homes in a courtyard surrounded by existing buildings, accessible only by a narrow lane. Using a panelized timber system with preinstalled windows and services, the buildings were erected and made weather-tight in just four weeks, minimizing noise, dust, and traffic disruption on site. Exterior walls were pre-clad with thermally treated wood siding, providing a durable, low-maintenance finish. Thermal performance and air tightness is very good. Although shipped from Germany, the lightweight panels could be densely packed to optimize transportation.

Location: Completion: Architect: Structural consultant: Supplier (wood assemblies):

15

London, United Kingdom 2010 SUSD KMG Partnership Becker-Haus

SOURCES: Building4Change, website: http://www.building4change.com/page.jsp?id=425 [accessed Oct 14, 2011] M端ller-Lotze (2010) SUSD, website: http://www.susd.co.uk/developments/highwood-court/ [accessed Oct 14, 2011]

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UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE [IDBE 15] THESIS: THE STRATEGIC CONTEXT FOR WOOD USE IN CANADIAN ARCHITECTURE

CONCLUDING DISCUSSION In line with the praxis-based aims of this work, the following concluding discussion identifies four broad themes that have emerged from the research and serve as recommendations for future research. These themes can be summarised in the following questions: 

Why has the architectural sector suddenly become as a strategic market for wood use, after a century of declines?



What role does design and integrated practice play in the value-added potential for wood use in the architectural sector?



Might the negative perceptions and inertia of design professionals towards adopting wood-based design solutions be better attributed to an unmotivating practice context, rather than an undesirable product?



How might governments and industry align sustainability claims with a broader mission?

Before turning to these questions, a few general conclusions will be drawn from the research on case studies. While by no means a representative sample of wood buildings, they do offer the following insights from the leading edge of practice: 

wood products are commonly used in hybrid or mixed-material assemblies – therefore, wood use is not a question of either-or, but of how much?



the materials and constructions methods in architectural projects are characterised by diversity and specificity – contrary to the generic methods of low-rise residential construction;



wood solutions exist for practically every building type and assembly – technical barriers appear to be more of a motivational problem;



prefabrication and systems-based strategies are often employed to control quality and facilitate rapid construction (e.g., Case Study 9); and



design innovation offers great potential for value generation, which typically emerges from integrated practice.

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UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE [IDBE 15] THESIS: THE STRATEGIC CONTEXT FOR WOOD USE IN CANADIAN ARCHITECTURE

THE STRATEGIC NATURE OF THE ARCHITECTURAL SECTOR The first theme of discussion and recommendation for future research involves the question of relevance. After more than a century of declining use as a building material, how does wood suddenly appear as a viable and attractive alternative to concrete, steel and other materials that have a more established presence in the architectural sector? One way to understand the historic declines is from the viewpoint of alternative prospects: there were simply other, more lucrative options – or paths of less resistance – available to both product suppliers and specifiers. For wood product suppliers, the demands of low-rise residential markets for volume production of standardized goods were easiest to fulfill. For design professionals, steel and concrete structures were less onerous to engineer, detail, and have approved by municipal permitting departments.

The research has shown that many of the negative attitudes and barriers to wood use in architectural projects can be traced to the broad structuring influences of building codes, market divisions, industry focus and the historical events and trends that shaped them. What then has changed to make the architectural sector a strategic market for wood use? The answers lie not just in product innovations and designs that offer improved material and systems performance, but even more so in the cultures of use and the contextual factors that influences them. A new constellation of political, economic, and cultural factors is creating more receptive market conditions for wood product applications in the architectural sector. These factors include: 

Shifting market opportunities for wood products. With the dramatic contraction of export markets and shrinking profit margins for commodity products, greater emphasis is being placed on domestic markets and higher-value exports. The architectural sector offers immediate growth potential four times greater than current wood usage rates. Compared to the cyclical market behaviour of the housing sector, growth is more consistent in the architectural sector, and the market balance between the two sectors is shifting towards the latter as new housing is increasingly of mid-rise typology.



Abundant, cost-competitive, and available supply. Growing inventories and underutilized production capacity for wood products will ensure that material costs stay low in the near future (Berg 2010). Wood is predicted

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UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE [IDBE 15] THESIS: THE STRATEGIC CONTEXT FOR WOOD USE IN CANADIAN ARCHITECTURE

to be increasingly cost-competitive against steel and concrete, because its production and transport is less dependent on fossil fuel and its costs are therefore more isolated from rising oil prices. The greater availability of wood supply to value-added product manufacturers opens the door to new product offerings for the architectural sector. 

Appreciation of ecological benefits of wood construction. With growing awareness of the negative environmental impacts embodied in the physical structures and operating energy sources of buildings, the demand for renewable and low carbon materials in construction is steadily increasing. Forest certification is responding to market demands for products that come from sustainably harvest sources.



Strategic wood use policies. The architectural sector has been targeted as a means to achieve multiple policy objectives, including: job creation in hard-hit forest regions, action on climate change, and value optimization of natural resources. The architectural sector offers potential new markets for value-added wood products that generate employment and investment opportunities. Provincial governments are adopting policies to encourage wood use in publicly funded projects.



Investments in knowledge and technology transfer. Government and industry are directing research funding to the most promising wood product technologies and construction assemblies in the mid-rise building height range of 4 to 10-storeys. For example, standards and testing for cross-laminated timber have been fast-tracked to enable local production and use of this product. Support to design professionals in the form of design tools, technical assistance, and learning/networking opportunities has increased significantly through the services of organisation such as Wood-Works and CECOBOIS.

Structural applications for wood products are strategic on a number of levels: they have the least number of competing material choices, material volumes are large, conditions are least prone to decay, and they form the most durable elements for long-term carbon storage.

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UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE [IDBE 15] THESIS: THE STRATEGIC CONTEXT FOR WOOD USE IN CANADIAN ARCHITECTURE

OPPORTUNTIES FOR CREATING VALUE The second theme of discussion and future research relates to the potential for wood products to generate value in the broadest sense. This involves different scales of intervention: from the material/product level to the design/project level to the cultural/practice level. Strategic investments and policy changes can provide the leverage to unleashing this potential. One of the challenges would be to find a useful metric to compare opportunities or to prioritise investments.

Canada is one of the world’s largest exporters of wood products, but is highly dependent on the economic cycles of the US housing market and facing increasing global competition. With one of the lowest value-added rates of timber producing nations, Canada’s forest industry has traditionally been oriented towards the volume production of competitively priced commodity goods for export. This role reflects a natural resource condition of vast forested areas and abundant timber stands that out-scale domestic demand for wood products. It also reflects an exploitative attitude towards abundance. Most of Canada’s forests are on public land and harvest rights are regulated by tenure agreements between the Crown and private corporations that define the annual allowable cut, stumpage fees and forest management responsibilities. Tenure agreements provide a significant revenue stream to provincial government coffers. As a result, government forest policy encourages maximizing harvest rates to a sustainably renewable limit, but do not necessarily encourage the value optimisation of this publicly owned resource. If one takes a positive view of declining export markets and production: it has forced governments to leave the trough of direct harvest revenues and begin to seed more dispersed and indirect economic grazing opportunities through value-added policies. The untapped potential for value-generation means that reductions in harvest volumes need not result in overall economic losses in the long term and may instead contribute to a more diversified and robust economy. Strategic policy initiatives are increasingly directed towards developing a cultural appreciation and markets for wood’s diversity.

Research and policy on the subject of value-added opportunities for wood tends to focus primarily on product innovations and outputs of the manufacturing sector (i.e., the supply side), in part because that is how the wood industry contributes to value generation and their scale of intervention gives them a big voice. However, the design and construction sector (i.e., the demand side) also contributes to value – in

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Case Study 10

Surrey Central City

This project illustrates the potential for design to increase project value through a process of upcycling and for innovation to emerge through greater interaction with the supply chain. The timber space-frame roof structure of Surreyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Central City atrium is comprised of nearly 4000 Douglas fir peeler core members, a by-product of the plywood industry. A cable-supported kingpost truss creates a dramatic column-free space for this irregularly shaped public foyer. The main façade features an innovative application of milled parallel strand timber members that provide the vertical and lateral support for the curved glass curtain wall.

7

Location: Completion: Architect: Structural consultant (roof): Supplier (wood assemblies):

Surrey, BC, Canada 2002 Bing Thom Architects Fast + Epp StructureCraft Builders Inc

SOURCES: CWC (2008b) Fast+Epp, website: http://www.fastepp.com/index.php/projects/public/surrey-central-city/atrium-roof [accessed Oct 15, 2011] StructureCraft, website: http://www.structurecraft.com/#/portfolio/15/ [accessed Oct 15, 2011] http://www.structurecraft.com/#/portfolio/17/ [accessed Oct 15, 2011]

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UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE [IDBE 15] THESIS: THE STRATEGIC CONTEXT FOR WOOD USE IN CANADIAN ARCHITECTURE

greater depth but less breadth – at the project scale. In architectural projects, the use of wood products is driven more by building design concerns, rather than product innovations. At both scales of product and project, there are common value-added strategies employed, which are visible in many of the Case Studies and include: 

upcycling: to transform low-value materials into high-value products or assemblies (e.g., Case Study 10);



prefabrication: to improve cost competitiveness, material efficiency, quality control and facilitate construction (e.g., Case Study 9); and



hybrid construction: to enhance overall system performance through mixed materials and assemblies (e.g., Case Study 4);.

Architectural projects are characterised by hybrid and mixed-material construction practices and there are many opportunities to incorporate a greater proportion of wood in the mix as part of a value-added strategy. While product manufactures usually operate at the component level, designers can influence all hybrid levels: component, assembly, system, and structure. Designers can employ higher levels of hybrid construction to create opportunities for wood use in situations where building regulations would normally prohibit them (e.g., Case Study 12).

One of the key issues related to value-added wood products is that manufacturers must have a much better knowledge of their customers and building system requirements. Designers and suppliers are to a certain degree independent of one another: designers can choose from competing material or product options, while suppliers can select the most attractive markets for their products. That being said, the greatest opportunities for new markets and applications for wood products appear to be emerging from a collaborative interaction between designers and suppliers, working above the product level: i.e., on premanufactured assemblies, mass-customization and other systems-based solutions. System-based approaches have the best opportunities for successful adoption by design consultants, because design work, quality control, and risk management are simplified for them.

Finally, greater communication, partnering, and other forms of relational integration across the supply chain have been shown to offer a more competitive and creative context for wood use. Industry associations play an important mediating role in bringing stakeholders together and assisting design professional in shifting practices.

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Case Study 11

Speculative wood high-rise projects

The technical thresholds for wood construction are steadily being rolled back as design and research teams explore the potential building heights achievable with hybrid structures. The Life Cycle Tower is a speculative prototype for a building up to 20 storeys in height, designed as a premanufactured kit of parts. It is being developed by an international consortium of partners, who are preparing for the inevitable escalation of oil prices, when wood will have a competitive price advantage over other more fossil fuel dependent structural materials. Designs for 20-storey and higher timber buildings are also being developed by UK architect/engineer team of Waugh Thistleton/Techniker and by the Vancouverbased Canadian firm, McFarlane Green Biggar Architecture + Design. Funding for the Canadian study was provided by the BC Wood Enterprise Coalition, an organization set up to promote wood use in commercial and institutional projects.

Location: Developer/Builder: Architect: Structural consultant: Supplier (wood assemblies):

16

speculative prototype Rhomberg Bau Architekten Hermann Kaufmann ZT GmbH ARUP WiEHAG Timber Construction

SOURCES: Randy Boswell (2011) Timber Skyscraper in works, Postmedia News, March 8, 2011 http://aibcenews.wordpress.com/2011/03/10/tall-timber-skyscrapers-workable-report-says/ [accessed Oct 14, 2011] Rhomberg, website: http://www.rhombergbau.at/en/start_page/allgemein_informationen/press/archive/press.html?tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=18 2&tx_ttnews%5BbackPid%5D=54&cHash=e0315c9619 [accessed Oct 14, 2011] Wallwork (2011)

RICHARD KLOPP

UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE [IDBE 15] THESIS: THE STRATEGIC CONTEXT FOR WOOD USE IN CANADIAN ARCHITECTURE

PROFESSIONAL RESISTANCE ROOTED IN CONTEXTUAL FACTORS The third theme for discussion and future research involves a reinterpretation of the design professional’s negative attitudes and perceptions to wood use as symptomatic reflections of a practice context, rather than as core beliefs regarding a material’s character. For example, architects, in a recent North American survey, have characterised wood with personality traits normally associated with traditional and rural qualities, which according to the branding framework used, belong to the construct of “sincerity” – and the traits most lacking belong the construct of “excitement” (Robichaud et al. 2009: 62). Is wood an “unexciting” material because of some inherent qualities? Or, is it reflecting unexciting practice opportunities (poor fee prospects, low qualities assurances, etc.) and making unexciting mental associations with the qualities of the dominant market and cultural contexts for wood use (single family homes, rustic chalets, unsophisticated trades, etc.)? This research would strongly suggest the latter. In any case, the results point to a lack of motivating context to use wood.

It is evident from the case study research that, when motivated, design professionals can not only surpass conventional technical limitations (Case Study 11), but also create opportunities for wood use where building regulations would normally prohibit them (Case Study 12 overleaf). In the Canadian architectural sector, there is now a favourable political context for wood use and convincing value propositions in place, but there remains at least two important sources of inertia to changing the established practices of design professionals: the motivational factors internal to professional practice and the external market factors that influence professional perceptions and attitudes.

On the professional practice side, the Fast+Epp / StructureCraft case study in the prologue illustrates that wood is not necessarily on equal footing with steel or concrete with regards to the scope of work required by the engineer. When lack of education and experience is factored in, this creates a significant financial disincentive for structural engineers to use wood. The architect appears to have the most influence on material selection, but is in turn highly sensitive to the attitudes and perceived risks of others, in particular the builder. The material selection process is complex and involves a balance of both performance-based and practiced-based criteria. Given two material options for systems of similar cost and performance, the

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Case Study 12

Forest Sciences Centre, UBC, Vancouver

This building illustrates that greater wood use is perhaps foremost a question of motivation and design intent. Despite a building code classification that required non-combustible construction, the architects were able to prominently feature wood in the main public spaces. This was achieved by grouping the office and laboratory functions into two separate buildings and joining them with a tall, single-storey atrium, clad in wood paneling and held up by a structure of parallel strand members. Establishing wood use as a project objective is an emerging policy strategy to both reduce carbon emissions and stimulate regional forest economies. 10 Location: Completion: Architect: Structural consultant: Supplier (wood assemblies):

Vancouver, BC, Canada 1998 DGDK Architects CWMM Consulting Engineers Timber Systems Limited

SOURCE: Furdyk (1998)

RICHARD KLOPP

UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE [IDBE 15] THESIS: THE STRATEGIC CONTEXT FOR WOOD USE IN CANADIAN ARCHITECTURE

design professional will be motivated to select the one that offers the greatest potential for: reward (e.g., profit, notoriety, new knowledge, or new contracts); meeting budget and schedule constraints; satisfying the client; obtaining regulatory approvals; ensuring quality control; reduced exposure to liability; maintaining good professional relations; and many other factors not directly related to the actual material characteristics. In order for wood products suppliers to be competitive in the selection process, they must address both performance and practice criteria.

System-based solutions and the services of timber specialists have emerged as a market response to these dual needs.

Contextual factors also have an influence on the attitudes of design professionals towards wood use. This research has explored three historic trends that are the source of the market division between the architectural and low-rise residential sectors, and polarised wood use accordingly. This division finds its roots in fire regulations designed to prevent urban conflagrations and the emergence of “modern” non-combustible construction materials and design methods. As wood use declined in urban environments, supplying the high demand for basic commodity products of suburban housing markets became the primary focus of the wood products industry at the expense of other higher value, but much smaller markets.

This long-standing market split is significant: whole industry divisions and cultures of practice have developed around them. The common association of wood with one side of this market split would appear to explain many common cultural biases regarding the material and its perceived character as: 

traditional, not modern;



craft, not design;

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generic construction, not innovative construction;

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suburban, not urban;

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domestic, not public;

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appropriate for small buildings, not large, multi-storey buildings.

While these perceptions can be refuted with numerous built examples, both past and present, they remain a powerful force of inertia resisting change.

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UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE [IDBE 15] THESIS: THE STRATEGIC CONTEXT FOR WOOD USE IN CANADIAN ARCHITECTURE

CRITICAL PERSPECTIVES ON WOOD USE AND SUSTAINABILITY Finally, and perhaps most importantly, in a market context where climate change concerns appear to be a driving factor to greater wood use in the architectural sector, there is a need for research that explores not only the effectiveness of the wood products industry to reduce carbon emissions, but also the broader alignment of this objective with end use markets and consumption patterns.

It is important to consider the economic context from which industry promotion is emerging. For the wood products industry, a change in orientation towards the more diversified, value-based, and client-focused needs of the architectural sector has not been a priority until record high demand for commodity exports suddenly and dramatically dropped off. While on the supply side there is now a pressing economic incentive to replace production losses with new markets, the demand side has been slow to broadly adopt wood-based products and assemblies in its design and construction practices. It would appear that the cost and performance benefits of wood use are not enough of an enticement to significantly shift market behaviour.

Arguably the greatest potential motivating force to overcoming demand-side inertia is the growing sense of responsibility, both socially and politically, to take action on climate change. The “wood solution” being intensely promoted by government and industry sources, offers the following proposition: 

Wood, when substituted for more fossil-fuel intensive materials, such as concrete or steel, can result in significant reductions in GHG emissions.

The low wood usage rates of the architectural sector make it an ideal market for substitution benefits.



Sustainably managed forests maintain an overall carbon balance with the atmosphere; wood harvested from these forests and embedded in building structures will store carbon that would otherwise be returned to the atmosphere. Structural applications are strategic, because they are the most durable elements and generate the largest product volumes.



Commercially harvested forests in Canada are subject to strict government regulation and, in most cases, receive third-party certification for sustainable forest management practices; it follows that Canadian wood products are essentially a renewable and carbon neutral resource.

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UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE [IDBE 15] THESIS: THE STRATEGIC CONTEXT FOR WOOD USE IN CANADIAN ARCHITECTURE

While these statements may hold true in theory, there is hardly a better case for an argument in need of both greater specificity, on the one hand, and broader vision, on the other. In practice, the actual carbon emissions benefits of a wood product lie in the details, breadth and diversity of its lifecycle characteristics, including: the type of forest and its regeneration cycle; harvest and production efficiencies; the comparative benefits of end-use applications with regards to material efficiency and building performance; durability and maintenance cycles; and the influence, if any, on the overall energy consumption patterns of building users.

The research points to a number of troubling “details” that challenge the credibility of government and industry claims regarding the effectiveness of wood use as a climate change strategy. For example, the dominant timber harvest continues to be in old growth forests in increasingly remote areas and severe climate zones 21, where regeneration rates are slow and forest carbon losses are the greatest (May 2000).

Ensuring compliance with sustainable forest management practices – the underlying basis for any wood use strategy to reduce carbon emission – is challenged by understaffed forestry services (Parfitt 2010), inadequate data collection and monitoring 22, and questionable performance of the SFI certification program (ForestEthics 2010). These issues seem resolvable, and it is likely that greater market feedback and investment in the architectural sector would generate the economic incentive and political will to address them. But this will not solve what appears to be a fundamental blind spot in the promotional claims.

Ingerson (2009) makes the case that carbon sequestration benefits are much greater and long-lasting in old growth forests, than in building products and replanted forests.

And while the substitution of wood products for other building materials may offer a reduction in carbon emissions, it does not offer a net atmospheric carbon benefit.

Cole (1999) and McDonough and Braungart (2004) remind us that in questions of sustainability, it is important not to confuse baseline improvements with end goals.

“Doing better” is actually “doing less bad,” and when expressed in this way, it is clear that doing more of something “less bad,” does not equal “good.” This is the difference between “green” and “sustainable” (Cole 1999) or “eco-efficient” and “eco-effective” (McDonough and Braungart 2004).

21, 22

Global Forest Watch Canada, website: www.globalforestwatch.ca (accessed May 15, 2011)

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Case Study 13

Gilmore Skytrain station, Vancouver

This project illustrates the broad potential for a wood use culture to align sustainability objectives from the material source to its end-use applications. It makes efficient use of materials from fast-growing wood species and contributes to a more resource- and transport-efficient built environment.

Vancouverâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s transit authority made wood use a priority for the stations of its Millennium Skytrain line.

Gilmore station features a novel roof system consisting of 64 identical pre-tensioned curved timber strand panels supported by a simple structural steel frame. The panels measure 2.4 m x 5 m and only 38mm thick. Bowed with stainless steel wires stretched over a custom spreader of cast steel, this light hybrid assembly is an expressive and efficient use of materials.

8

Location: Completion: Architect: Structural consultant (roof): Supplier (wood assemblies):

Vancouver, BC, Canada 2002 Busby + Associates Fast + Epp StructureCraft Builders Inc

SOURCES: Fast+Epp, website: http://www.fastepp.com/index.php/projects/transportation/transit-stations/gilmore [accessed Oct 15, 2011] StructureCraft, website: http://www.structurecraft.com/#/portfolio/9/ [accessed Oct 15, 2011] Taggart (2001)

RICHARD KLOPP

UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE [IDBE 15] THESIS: THE STRATEGIC CONTEXT FOR WOOD USE IN CANADIAN ARCHITECTURE

If we step outside of the wood products supply chain and take a broader view of the potential for wood to reduce carbon emissions, we invariably must address end-uses and consumption patterns. This involves the designers, clients and consumers that make decisions as to how wood products are embedded in our built environment.

Enlarging the focus challenges us to ask broader questions than “Are we respecting forest regulations?” or “How efficient is our production?” or even “Is wood better than concrete and steel?” These questions deal with the performance of specific links in the supply chain, but not necessarily the effectiveness of the supply chain to achieve ultimate objectives, such as “sustainability,” “prosperity,” or “cultural enrichment.” To address these ultimate objectives, it would be more appropriate to ask: “What are we building with our forest resources?” or “What do we value in society?” These important policy questions should guide any wood use strategy, particularly in Canada, where over 90% of forested land is publicly owned.

Wood products can contribute to more compact, healthy, and resource-efficient buildings and land use patterns, such as the public transportation structure illustrated in Case Study 13. Alternatively, they can be used to build wasteful, energy-intensive building typologies that contribute to urban sprawl and automobile dependency.

Unfortunately, at the end of the wood products supply chain, we typically find the latter, rather than the former. Single family houses and other low-rise suburban buildings are the most common end-use markets for wood products and are largely responsible the land use changes that cause roughly 50 km2 of deforestation in Canada each year (NRCan 2010: 23).

This brings us to the issue of consumption. The dual-pronged marketing of wood and sustainable forest practices – wood, as an ecological, carbon-neutral alternative to concrete or steel; and sustainable forest practices, to ensure an endlessly renewable supply – is powerful leverage for greater market access in the architectural sector.

But there is some confusion between means and ends: is the aim sustainability or greater wood use, or both? We may have the natural resources and efficient means to supply new markets, but does this justify maximising wood production to the limit of our forests’ regenerative potential? Given the wide range of ecological, economic, and cultural benefits that forests offer, this would appear to be a compromised approach; one that demonstrates the limits of efficiency when disconnected or distracted from broader goals or aspirations.

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UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE [IDBE 15] THESIS: THE STRATEGIC CONTEXT FOR WOOD USE IN CANADIAN ARCHITECTURE

Kozak (2007: 12) has suggested that a conservation-based strategy of optimising value and jobs per unit of forest harvested would best achieve the “tenuous balance between economic well-being, environmental sustainability and community health and vitality.” If we consider the architectural market strategic in its potential for generating high-value wood products and applications, reducing carbon emissions by material substitution, and contributing to a more sustainable land use practices and building typologies, then an industry shift in market focus would seem to support Kozak’s approach. But could this be achieved without drawing further on forest resources?

When one examines the excesses in the single-family housing market, it is not difficult to find the sources of softwood lumber required to effectively supply the entire code-defined growth potential for structural framing in the architectural sector. Three possible solutions stand out: more efficient house plans or typologies; more durable construction; or moderate changes in homebuyer preferences. (Refer to calculation method in APPENDIX A).

Aligning industry objectives with more positive outcomes will require an integrated approach across the supply chain and an enlarged perspective of the socio-cultural and ecological foundations of society. In this way, sustainable forestry might not only serve sustainable construction practices, but also sustainable built environments and lifestyles. Striving for broader end goals of this kind might require a seemingly contradictory mix of greater forest cover and a shift to plantation harvests; more efficient production processes decoupled from fossil fuel sources; higher value wood products that are designed for long-life and reuse; a greater proportion of wood in buildings, but more material-efficient designs; and finally, more attractive and resource-efficient building typologies and planning models. Most of all, it must bring cultural enrichment and social engagement at all levels or it will not truly be sustainable from a human needs perspective.

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Case Study 14

Open Academy, Norwich

The Open Academy is the largest timber building in the UK with a floor area of 9000 m2. Comprised of CLT panels and glulam beams imported from Austria, the structure demonstrates the efficiency and versatility of this construction system. The 230 mm thick floor panels can span 7.55 m without beams.

162 mm thick wall panels are used in single curvature and 78mm thick roof panels are used in double curvature. Overall 3500 m3 of timber were employed, with an estimated carbon offset equivalent to 10 years of emissions to operate the building. While the timber structure is more expensive than a comparable steel or concrete structure, it offers other savings that make it cost equivalent. These savings result from: a shallower substructure due to the lighter loads; faster erection time and achievement of a weathertight envelope; precisely precut opening for doors and windows; integrated scaffolding; ease of installing building services; and improved construction safety.

Location: Completion: Architect: Structural consultant: Suppliers (CLT/Glulam):

19

Norwich, United Kingdom 2010 Sheppard Robson Ramboll UK KLH/Wiehag

SOURCES: TRADA case study on Wood-works, website: http://www.wood-works.org/NR/rdonlyres/D797CC4A-5474-4149-970D-3796DC9EC535/0/OpenAcademyTimberSolution.pdf [accessed Oct 11, 2011] Wallwork (2011)

RICHARD KLOPP

UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE [IDBE 15] THESIS: THE STRATEGIC CONTEXT FOR WOOD USE IN CANADIAN ARCHITECTURE

EPILOGUE In Canada, it is difficult to separate government and industry claims about the environmental benefits of wood use from the enormous political and economic stakes at play, especially where interests are so intertwined and at a time when the industry faces record-breaking losses. With the dramatic decline in wood product exports following the US housing market collapse, the pressure to open new markets would seem to outweigh any form of balanced perspective on the topic. In this time of industry reorientation and retooling, two international examples of wood use cultures offer possible short- and long-term scenarios for the market expansion of wood products in the Canadian architectural sector.

If environmental claims were only a front for expansionist interests of industry, then an unlikely candidate for climate change policies in support of wood construction would be the United Kingdom (UK), which – by contrast to Canada – imports most of its timber and has a relatively small and fragmented forest products industry with limited political influence (Wallwork 2011). Yet, carbon reduction policies are one of the main market drivers for wood products in the UK’s architectural sector, where precedent-setting innovations in wood construction are capturing worldwide attention (Case Studies 6 and 14). It is instructive to look at the UK context to see how market barriers no less significant to those in Canada have been overcome by a prefabricated construction system using cross-laminated timber.

Tristian Wallwork, a UK timber specialist, has described two trends that have encouraged wood use and innovation in the UK: a growing demand for prefabricated building systems and an industry shift toward low-carbon construction (Wallwork 2011). The benefits of prefabrication include: a faster, more simplified, “dry” construction process; improved quality control; and significant waste reduction.

Interestingly, timber design and fabrication in the UK is a market niche occupied by a small number of specialist consultants and competing suppliers – the result of a general absence of timber education in the country. The UK context demonstrates how a systems-based approach to timber construction can succeed in a building culture where there is not widespread expertise or acceptance of wood construction, but where a supportive regulatory and policy framework is in place.

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UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE [IDBE 15] THESIS: THE STRATEGIC CONTEXT FOR WOOD USE IN CANADIAN ARCHITECTURE

At the opposite end of the spectrum of an industry-led, technology-focused market, in which a product becomes the object and interface of customer-supplier relations, one might find a culturally-based market, where interest and interaction is generated across the supply chain from resource management to end-use applications.

Dominique Gauzin-Mueller (2009) has documented how such an approach has brought greater economic, social, and cultural vitality to the Austrian province of Vorarlberg, where knowledge and appreciation for quality wood construction is a cultural project shared by broad segment of society. Technical skills and craft are both highly valued, and their wood industry is at the forefront of innovation and technology. Education and cultural integration exists at all levels of the supply chain.

In this context, it would not be uncommon for an architect and their client to meet with a forest lot owner to select the specific trees and harvest conditions to suit a particular building application. This would not be unlike visiting a marble quarry to choose the appropriate colour and character of stone, except that in the case of wood, they might also be interested in factors related to its cultivation and harvest. In this way, it is perhaps more comparable to a traditional wine culture, where there is cultural engagement at all levels of production and consumption.

This discerning approach to material culture, which has transformed the Vorarlberg region of Austria into a world leader of high quality wood construction and exporter of value-added technology, is an inspiring model to guide policies and investments in the changing Canadian context.

The remarkable achievements of wood buildings past and present would suggest that the most significant barriers to wood use in our contemporary context are likely political and cultural in nature. If this were true, then political support, education, and collaborative interaction at all levels of the supply chain should be at the heart of a cultural revival of wood construction in Canadian architecture. Shifting cultural practices is a long-term project, but there are many encouraging signs that this beginning to happen.

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UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE [IDBE 15] THESIS: THE STRATEGIC CONTEXT FOR WOOD USE IN CANADIAN ARCHITECTURE

BIBILIOGRAPHY REFERENCES Baumgartner, Marcel (2010) The New Monte Rosa Hut, conference proceedings from the 3rd European Congress on Energy-Efficient Wood Construction, Köln, Germany – June 9, 10.

Berg, Robert (2010) Timber Markets: How Much Wood is in the Woods?

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Cole, Raymond J (1999) Building environmental assessment methods: clarifying intentions. Building Research and Information, Vol. 27 (4/5), pp 230-246. www.arch.ubc.ca/people/raycole/research/research_pdf_files/building_clarifying.pdf [accessed Oct 13, 2011]

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Dumont, Bill and Wright, Don (2006) Generating More Wealth from British Columbia's Timber: A Review of British Columbia’s Log Export Policies

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Fast, Paul (2010) Unusual Hybrid Timber - Steel Structures, IstructE presentation on May 19, 2010. http://istructe.emea.acrobat.com/p83578900/ [accessed Oct 13, 2011]

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ForestEthics (2010) SFI: Certified Greenwash.

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Gagnon, Sylvain and O’Connor, Jennifer (2006) Hybrid Building Systems Problem Analysis, Background and Literature Review, Forintek Canada Corporation.

Gaston, Christopher; Kozak, Robert; O’Connor, Jennifer (2001) Potential for increased wood-use in North American nonresidential markets, Vancouver: Forintek Canada Corporation.

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Kernan, Paul (2002) Old to New Design Guide: Salvaged Building Materials in New Construction – 3rd edition, Vancouver: GVRD. http://www.lifecyclebuilding.org/files/Old%20to%20New%20Design%20Guide.pdf [accessed Oct 14, 2011]

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Kozak, Robert; Cohen, David (1999) Architects and structural engineers: an examination of wood design and use in nonresidential construction, Forest Products Journal, 49(4), pp 37-46.

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Kwan, Lisa and Masselik, Derek (2000) A Report on the Deconstruction of the PanHellenic House, Vancouver: UBC Sustainability Office. http://www.metrovancouver.org/about/publications/Publications/panhellenichouseubcdeconstruction1.pdf [accessed Oct 14, 2011]

Langenbach, Randolf (2008) Building Tall with Timber: A Paean to Wood Construction, Structural Engineering International, Journal of the International Association for Bridge and Structural Engineering, 18:2, pp130-132.

Lavoie, Patrick; Fell, David; Laytner, Frank (2006) Roadmap for the Canadian Value-added Industry. Canadian Forest Service.

Lee Peter; Stanojevic, Zoran; Gysbers, Jeannette (2004) Canada’s Commercial Forest Tenures 2003: Background and Summary Report. Edmonton, Alberta: Global Forest Watch Canada.

Lefaix-Durand, Aurelia (2008) Customer Supplier Relations as a means of Value Creation, unpublished doctoral dissertation, Laval University, Québec, Canada.

Lstiburek, Joseph (2007) The Mold Explosion – Why Now? Fine Homebuilding, 184, pp 70-75. www.buildingscience.com/documents/published-articles/pa-mold-explosion-why-now [accessed Oct 13, 2011]

Martin, Roger and Porter, Michael (2001) Canadian Competitiveness: a decade after the Crossroads. www.rotman.utoronto.ca/rogermartin/Competitiveness.pdf [accessed Oct 13, 2011]

May, Elisabeth (2000) Evidence submitted by the Executive Director of the Sierra Club of Canada to the Parliament of Canada, Standing Committee on Natural Resources and Government Operations, Standing Order 108(2): A study of Canadian forest management practices as an international trade issue, February 23, 2000. www.parl.gc.ca/HousePublications/Publication.aspx?DocId=1039998&Language=E&Mode=1&Parl=36&Ses=2 [accessed Oct 13, 2011]

McDonough, William and Braungart, Michael (2004) Cradle to Cradle: Remaking the Way we Make Things, New York: North Point Press.

McKeever, David (2009) Estimated annual timber products consumption in major end uses in the United States, 1950–2006. Madison, WI: USDA Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory.

McKeever, David (2008) Wood products used in the construction of low-rise nonresidential buildings in the United States. Sponsors: USDA Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory & Wood Products Council/WoodWorks.

Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005) Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Synthesis. Island Press, Washington, DC. Minssart, Yves (2009) Le bois prend de la hauteur, Ecologik, no 8, pp44-52. http://www.kaden-klingbeil.de/uploads/pdf/ecologik-2009-0405-opt.pdf [accessed Oct 15, 2011]

Müller-Lotze, Johannes (2010) Inner-urban potential: built-up courtyard in London, conference proceedings from 3rd European Congress on Energy-Efficient Wood Construction, Köln, Germany – June 9, 10.

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Natterer, Julius (2002) New technologies for engineered timber structures, Progress in Structural Engineering and Materials, 4(3), pp 245-263.

Natterer, Julius; Herzog, Thomas; Volz, Michael (1996) Holzbau Atlas – 2nd edition, Köln: Rudolf Müller.

NBC National Building Code of Canada (2005) Ottawa: National Research Council of Canada.

NRCan Natural Resources Canada (2010) State of Canada’s Forests – Annual Report. http://cfs.nrcan.gc.ca/pubwarehouse/pdfs/31835.pdf [accessed Oct 13, 2011]

OAQ Ordre des Architectes du Québec (2009) Memoire de l’OAQ : Faire progresser en qualité et en quantité la construction en bois. www.oaq.com/fileadmin/fichiers/documents/Memoires/Me__moire_OAQ-Bois.pdf [accessed Oct 13, 2011]

O’Connor, Jennifer; Kozak, Robert; Gaston, Christopher; Fell, David (2004) Wood use in nonresidential construction: Opportunities and barriers, Forest Products Journal, 54(3), pp 19-28.

QCC Quebec Construction Code (2008) Ottawa: National Research Council of Canada.

Parfitt, Ben (2010) Axed: A Decade of Cuts to BC’s Forest Service, written for the Sierra Club BC and Canadian Centre for Policy Alternatives – BC Office www.policyalternatives.ca/sites/default/files/uploads/publications/BC%20Office/2010/12/CCPA_BTN_forest_service_web.pdf

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Pembina Institute (2005) Counting Canada’s Natural Capital: Assessing the Real Value of Canada’s Boreal Ecosystems www.borealcanada.ca/documents/Boreal_Wealth_Report_Nov_2005.pdf [accessed Oct 13, 2011]

Potworowski, André (2010) The Transformation of the National Building Code of Canada: from Prescriptions to Objectives. Telfer School of Management, Ottawa. www.nationalcodes.ca/obj/doc/UofO_building_code_case_study.pdf [accessed Oct 13, 2011]

Québec Government (2008) Wood Use Strategy for Construction in Québec

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Robichaud, François; Kozak, Robert; Richelieu, Andre (2009) Wood use in nonresidential construction: a case for communication with architects, Forest Products Journal, 59(1/2), pp 57-65. www.forestry.ubc.ca/sbml/pdfs/Markets%20and%20Trade/Robichaud%20et%20al_FPJ_2009.pdf [accessed Oct 13, 2011]

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Spelter, Henry; McKeever, David; Alderman, Matthew (2007) Profile 2007 Softwood sawmills in the United States and Canada. Madison, WI: USDA Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory.

Steurer, Anton; von Büren, Charles (2009) Der andere Holzbau : drei, vier, viele Geschosse, ARCH+ 193/42(9), pp 78-84.

Taggart, Jim, editor (2010) Symphony of Structure: the work of Fast+Epp structural engineers, Gatineau, QC: Janam Publications Taggart, Jim (2009) Why wood works: designing the Richmond Olympic Oval, Construction Canada, Nov 2009, pp46-56. www.kenilworth.com/publications/cc/de/200911/files/46.html [accessed Oct 13, 2011]

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OTHER SOURCES CONSULTED Beers, David (2009) Coleman shrugs off six-story wood structure safety fears. www.thetyee.ca/Blogs/TheHook/Housing/2009/02/10/coleman-wood-structure-fears/ [accessed Oct 13, 2011]

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Hu, Lin and Gagnon, Sylvain (2010) Construction Solutions for Wood-Based Floors in Hybrid Building Systems, FPInnovations – Forintek Division.

Lapointe, M; Beauregard, Robert; D'Amours, S (2005) An exploration of design systems for mass customization of factory-built timber frame homes, CIB W78 22nd Conference on Information Technology in Construction.

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APPENDIX A – POTENTIAL FOR END-USE EFFICIENCIES Most North Americans live in detached, single family homes. The average US house size in 2003 was 217 m2, or 83 m2 per person. Wilson and Goehland (2005) have documented how house sizes have doubled from 1950 to 2003, while the number of household members has steadily decreased over the same period, resulting in a three-fold per capita space increase since 1950.

The low-rise residential markets consume the lion’s share of softwood lumber production. Spelter et al. (2007: 9) have estimated total softwood lumber volumes for US building sectors in 2003 as follows: Low-rise residential sector 

New single family houses:

47.2 million m3



Residential repair & remodeling:

36.4 million m3 83.6 million m3

Architectural sector 

New multi-family housing:

3.9 million m3



New low-rise nonresidential:

2.6 million m3 6.5 million m3

They estimate that an additional 8.7 million m3 could be used in the architectural sector if the current code-defined market potential was fully realised. This could be achieved without additional production, if new home buyers would consider spaceefficient designs 18.5% smaller than the 2003 average 23, which translates into a house size of 177 m2, or 67 m2 per person – still more than twice the floor area per person as in 1950.

The enormous quantities of lumber expended annually on residential repairs and remodelling would suggest that more durable construction methods or stylistic preferences could offer other large possible reductions in wood consumption.

23

Wilson and Boehland’s (2005) study shows a linear relationship between floor area and lumber volumes in wood-framed house construction. Therefore, a 18.5% reduction in average house size would translate into a total lumber reduction of 8.7 million m3 (47.2 million m3 x 18.5%).

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