A Brief Review of the Pharmacology of Psilocybin

The Impact of Chocolate and Other Cocoa Products on Human Health Amanda Newcombe

Abstract

The large quantity of chocolate and cocoa products consumed throughout the world raises questions about their impact on health. This paper provides an historical and chemical background of chocolate and assesses the existing research about the positive impacts of chocolate and cocoa as well as what remains unclear about chocolate consumption.

History and Background

Chocolate has been a part of society from the time of the Olmecs, the first Mesoamerican civilization, that existed around 1500 BCA. In order for chocolate to be created from a cocoa bean, the bean must be fermented, dried, and roasted. During the anaerobic phase of fermentation, amino acids and peptides are the major nitrogen-containing flavors. However, during the drying stage many of the acids, such as acetic acid, are lost.1 Therefore, the health benefits of consuming cocoa may be different than the health benefits of consuming chocolate. Of the different types of chocolate, the more cocoa solids in a chocolate, the closer that chocolate will beto resembling cocoa. Additionally, the structural makeup of the chocolate varies depending on the type. The chemical makeup of different cocoa products can vary the health benefit of the product significantly. Cocoa contains high levels of antioxidants, the most abundant of which is procyanidin. Since darker chocolates contain more cocoa solids than other chocolates, they typically have higher levels of antioxidants and procyanidins. However, baking chocolates contain fewer procyanidins due to having a higher fat content (50-60 percent) than natural cocoa. Also, chocolates that has undergone alkalization, such as Dutch chocolates, have significantly reduced amounts of procyanidin and therefore have fewer antioxidants.2 Chocolate is the richest natural source of theobromine, which is similar to caffeine. Because dark chocolate has more cocoa solids, it has more theobromine, and white chocolate, which contains only cocoa butter and does not have cocoa solids, only has a minimal amount of theobromine. Theobromine, which provides a lift after eating chocolate, is easily metabolized by humans, but it is hard for cats and dogs to metabolize, causing chocolate to be toxicto them.3

Figure 1: the basic chemical differences of dark, milk, and white chocolate3 Chocolate can also be used as a functional food, meaning that it provides health benefits beyond basic nutrition. While protein, fat, carbohydrates, vitamins, and minerals are considered basic nutritional needs, chocolate also has benefits to other aspects of human health, including a lower cardiovascular mortality and a decreased risk of high blood pressure.4

Health Impact of Chocolate

In addition to being a functional food and providing an energy boost, chocolate and other cocoa products have positive health benefits as they lower the risk of cardiovascular disease and contain antioxidants. A 2012 article published in the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition reviewed research regarding the health impact of chocolate, and it was found that the health benefits of consuming cocoa or dark chocolate outweigh the risks. The risks of consuming chocolate come from the sugar, fat, calories, and caffeine it contains, but this study concluded that cocoa and dark chocolate can also decrease cardiovascular disease risk and mortality, reduce insulin resistance, and have positive effects on fibromuscular dysplasia (FMD).5 The study included two people separately reviewing articles to decrease the bias before focusing the review on 42 of the most controlled and on-topic articles. The participants in the studies included healthy people as well as people who were overweight, had high blood pressure, had high serum total cholesterol levels, were type two diabetic, had cardiovascular disease risk, had stable coronary artery disease, had congestive heart failure, had smoking related endothelial dysfunction, had chronic fatigue, or had hypertensions and impaired glucose tolerance. Within the studies, there was a variation in the way the cocoa products were consumed, including consumption via cocoa drinks, dark or milk chocolate, cocoa supplements, solid chocolate plus cocoa drinks, or a whole diet which included cocoa powder and chocolate. In all the trials, the effects from the cocoa was compared to effectsoflowflavan-3-olversionsofthesame foods, allowing the study to identify the health impact of the flavan-3-ols in chocolate.5 Flavan-3-ols are what provide the bitter taste in cocoa because they form complexes with salivary proteins. In chocolate, the bitter flavor from the flavan3-ols is often masked by other flavors. The primary flavan-3-ols in cocoa are epicatechin, catechin, and procyanidins, and the procyanidins are primarily responsible for the antioxidant activity in cocoa products. The aromatic rings in the flavan3-ols can neutralize free radicals, chelate metals that enhance reactive oxygen species, inhibit enzymes, and upregulate antioxidant defenses.6

Figure2:thebasicstructureofaflavan-3-olwithdifferentR groups depending on thetype5 The study found that consumption of chocolate or cocoa reduced insulin resistance because of a decrease in insulin secretion. Also, it was found that the chocolate or cocoa had beneficial effects on FMD, which proved to be stable to sensitivity analysis. Reductions in diastolic blood pressure, triglycerides, and average arterial pressure were also found, but these results were less stable in the sensitivity analysis. The same results occurred with LDL and HDL cholesterol, and significant effects on systolic blood pressure and CRP concentrations were found. However, when cocoa or chocolate consumption was combined with other dietary interventions, beneficial effects on HDL cholesterol were greater in longer-term trials and increasing the epicatechin dose led to significant improvements in FMD following acute intake. Overall, based off the limited data in this study, a notable relationship between

chocolate or cocoa intake and cardiovascular health indicates that increased consumption of chocolate or cocoa results in lower blood pressure and lower risks of stroke and cardiovascular mortality. 5 Additional research has since shown that the cause of flavan-3-ols resulting in lower blood pressure is due to flavanols producing nitric oxide in the endothelium, the lining of blood vessel cells. This occurrence can help to relax blood vessels and improve blood flow, therefore lowering blood pressure. Additionally, because the flavan-3-ols in chocolate have been proven to reduce insulin resistance in short term studies, in the long this could reduce the risk of diabetes.7 Due to the negative effects that over consumption of chocolate could have on human health, it is important to understand the quantity of chocolate needed in order to

1 Tannenbaum, Ginger. “Chocolate: A Marvelous NaturalProductofChemistry.”JournalofChemical Education,EditedbyGeorgeKauffman,vol.81,1 Aug. 2004, pp. 1131–1135., https://people.chem.umass.edu/mcdaniel/chem26 9 /experiments/trimyristin/chocolate-and-itscomplexity.pdf.

2 Core, Jim. “In Chocolate, More Cocoa Means Higher Antioxidant Capacity.” Agricultural Research Service U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, 4 Apr. 2005, www.ars.usda.gov/newsevents/news/research-news/2005/in-chocolatemore-cocoa-means-higher-antioxidant-capacity/.

3 Bigler, Abbey. “The Chemistry of Chocolate.” National Institute of General Medical Sciences, U.S.DepartmentofHealthandHumanServices, 12 Feb. 2020, biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/2020/02/the- chemistry-ofchocolate/.

4 Albrecht, Julie A, et al. “Http://Extensionpublications.unl.edu/Assets/P df/ hef599.Pdf.” University of Nebraska Lincoln Extension, University of Nebraska, 2012, extensionpublications.unl.edu/assets/pdf/hef599.pdf. receive the health benefits of chocolate. A 2017 study found that consuming more than one to three 30-gram servings of chocolate a week does not further increase the health benefits. Another study done at the same time suggests that older adults who consumed 10 grams of any type chocolate everyday had better cognitive function than non-chocolate eaters, and the people who consumed dark chocolate had a lower risk of mild cognitive impairment. However, this study on the cognitive impact of chocolate could have been affected by other lifestyle, dietary, or genetic factors.8 Overall, cocoa and chocolate consumption has been proven to have positive effects on cardiovascular health, insulin resistance, and fibromuscular dysplasia due the flavan-3-ols and their antioxidant priorities, but research stillneeds to be done to determine the long-term impact of cocoa and chocolate consumption.

5 Hooper, Lee A, et al. “Effects of Chocolate,Cocoa, and Flavan-3-Ols on Cardiovascular Health: a Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Trials.” The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, vol. 95, no. 3, Jan. 2012, pp. 740–751., https://academic.oup.com/ajcn/article/95/3/740/ 4576702.

6 Katz, David L, et al. “Cocoa and Chocolate in Human Health and Disease.” Antioxidants & Redox Signaling, vol. 15, 15 Nov. 2011, pp. 2779–2811., https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4 696435/.

7 “Dark Chocolate.” The Nutrition Source, Harvard T.H.ChanSchoolofPublicHealth,4Nov. 2019, www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/foodfeatures/dark-chocolate/.

8 “Should You Show Your Love with (Chocolate) Flavonoids?” Tufts Health & Nutrition Letter, Tufts University, 17 Jan. 2019, www.nutritionletter.tufts.edu/healthyeating/should- you-show-your-love-with-chocolateflavonoids.