The Dynamics of Territory | AALU Term 1 Booklet

The Dynamics of Territory

Rimjhim Chauhan MArch Landscape Urbanism 2016/18 Term I Booklet

The Dynamics of Territory Territorial Formations Term I : Compilation Booklet

Rimjhim Chauhan MArch Landscape Urbanism

AA LANDSCAPE URBANISM 2016/18 ARCHITECTURAL ASSOCIATION SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE LONDON, UK DIRECTORS ALFREDO RAMIREZ EDUARDO RICO STUDIO MASTER CLARA OLORIZ HISTORY & THEORY TUTOR DOUGLAS SPENCER TECHNICAL TUTORS GUSTAVO ROMANILLOS GIANCARLO TORPIANO VINCENZO REALE TERM I : SEPTEMBER-DECEMBER 2016 NOTE This Booklet is a compilation of the works that have been conducted in the workshops of Term I of the MArch Landscape Urbanism 2016/18 programme.

All workshops have been completed with the contribution of 2 team members, due credit given within notes indicating which team member(s) were responsible for the deliverable.

Traversing Terrains

The Oil Fields of Bakersfield

NOVEMBER 2016 DECEMBER 2016

06

A Crafting Grounds Workshop Oil field Typologies • Network Configurations • Site Deployment • Infill Well Installation Systemic Principles of Oilfields • Fabricatiing Grounds • Final Fabrication • Way Forward

Autumnal Foothills

OCTOBER 2016

OCTOBER 2016

CONTENTS

Modular Origami

26

A Protopaper Workshop Preliminary Protopaper Modelling • Modular Origami Deployment

Soft Gold in the Hermit Kingdom: A Profile on Pashmina

30

A Social Formation Workshop Pahmina • The Producers • ...and the Concumers • The Value Addition Chain • Territorial Formation Grazing Grounds • Perceived Conflicts And Resource Competitions • Conclusions

Scripting Severn

Investigations on a Meandering River 56

A Landscript Workshop Riparian Morphology • The Context of Caersws • Palaeochannels • Human Interventions at Caersws • Preliminary Simulations Analysis of Riparian Behaviors • Schematic Interventions • Conclusions & Way Forward

Conclusions

76

•

References 77

•

List of Figures 78

Traversing Terrains

The Oil Fields of Bakersfield The Manufactured Landscape at Kern River Oil Fields, CA A Crafting Grounds Workshop October 2016

It is human nature to manipulate, alter, and socialize landscapes to fit their intented purpose. It is thus inevitable that a landscape be manufactured in order to tap its potential as a resource, and this can manifest as terracing, excavations, defence and retention, and remediation. In this exercise, we examined such manufactured landscapes in order to understand the principles that govern how, to what extent, and in what capacity the landscape was altered. We researched existing territories as well as engineering techniques to understand the principles behind their construction as well as innovative systems available to construct these territories.

We then focused on a particular site, the Kern River Oil Fields, where the application of terracing and excavation techniques are apparent and developed systemic representation tools to describe them. In this following pages, we define the objectives of site selection, the parameters according to which the site was sculpted and the nuances which lead to the application of the specific configuration within the oilfield.

This catalogue of data was used to produce physical models that describe the materials, variations and these different configurations. In the end, we are able to test the implications of applying variations of the techniques and are able to visualise the spatial consequences of the application of these techniques in different contexts or requirements.

“The landscape is not a use, nor is the act of preserving it.”

- Jonathan Bailey

Fig.1.1 Threading the Terrain Nail-and-thread model by R. Chauhan & M. Mjć

Team Members: Rimjhim Chauhan Matëa-Ana Mjć

Oil Field Typologies Oil and natural gas drilling rigs are used to create holes that allow extraction from reservoirs. Primarily in onshore oil fields and gas fields, once a well has been drilled, the drilling rig will be replaced by a service rig.

An “oil field� is a region with an abundance of oil wells extracting petroleum (crude oil) from below ground. Because the oil reservoirs typically extend over a large area, full exploitation entails multiple wells scattered across the area. In addition, there may be exploratory wells probing the edges, pipelines to transport the oil elsewhere, and support facilities. According to the lay of the land, different landscape and engineering techniques are used to construct these oil fields and tap the natural resource (Fig.1.2).

For our purpose, we will be exploring the geometrical configurations of oil fields in North Americs, especially in the southern state of California (see facing).

8 // Traversing Terrains: The Oil Fields of Bakersfield

Fig.1.2. Different Configurations of onshore Oil Rigs (clockwise): Kern River, Inglewood, Odessa, Manifa, Ghawar, and Bakken Oil fields

Fig.1.3. Oil Fields in California State Fig.1.4. Cross section of an onshore Oil Rig

AA Landscape Urbanism Term I : Workshop I // 9

Kern River Oil Field, Bakersfield, California

North Ward Estes Oil Field, Wickett, Texas

Network Configurations As the oilfield is laid out according to the topography and the subterranean reservoirs, different configurations are necessary to optimise oil drilling both spatially and profitably.

This implies a need for variety in netwrok superimposition where roads, rigs and pipelines are interlinked in corresponding ways. (fig 1.5)

Parcel of Site selected for study

10 // Traversing Terrains: The Oil Fields of Bakersfield

We can observe a rigid geometricality of layout in the flatland oilfields of Texas and Nevada, whereas the configurations in Bakersfield are more intuitive due to the undulating topography.

Brahaney Oil Field, Plains, Texas

Oilrig Pad Infill Oilrig Pad Access Road Pipeline Network

Fig.1.5. Different Configurations of Rig, Road and Pipeline networks (top) R. Chauhan

Fig.1.6. Existing on-site configuration (left) R. Chauhan

Site

Kern River Oil Fields

Zone Location

Bakersfield, CA

Area

10,750 acres (43.5 km2)

Climate

Desert climate 32°C (Köppen BWh)

Precipitation

165 mm

Oil Production

9,183 active wells

Pool Types

Pliocene-Pleistocene age, (400 m) below ground surface; Oligocene and Miocene ages, (1,290 m)

Soil Types

Alluvial Fan of Kern River (sand and gravel)

Hydrology

Kern River flows south of the field, from east to west

Topography

San Joaquin Valley,Bakersfield in the lower Sierra foothills

Elevation

400 to 1,000 feet (300 m)

Site Deployment First discovered in 1899, the Kern River Field is one of the world’s leading heavy oil production sites, with more than 10,000 wells drilled.

There is a total of 215,000 barrels a day of oil produced in the San Joaquin Valley, of which Kern River amounts to about 80,000 barrels.

The Kern River field has one large pool and two smaller pools of oil.

The formation containing the Kern River pool is of Pliocene-Pleistocene age, and lies 400 to 1,300 feet (400 m) below ground surface, and the Vedder and Jewett are of Oligocene and Miocene ages, respectively, with depths of 4,700 and 4,220 feet (1,290 m)

with all of the excess water. Chevron’s approach is to treat the water and reuse it, partly for its own use in generating steam, and partly to resell for agricultural use.

Type of Oil Field: Heavy Oil Owner: Chevron Corporation

Fig.1.7. Kern River Oil Field, Bakersfield

The technique Chevron uses to heat the earth to better extract the oil is called steam flooding which was introduced in 1965. Since the oil-water mixture that is extracted is approximately 90% water, the question is what to do AA Landscape Urbanism Term I : Workshop I // 11

Fig.1.8. Superimposition of Networks M.Matea

Complete Network

Fig.1.9. Hierarchy of Networks R. Chauhan

Pipeline

Secondary Road Network

Rig Pad

Rig Placement

Primary Road Network

Access Roads Main Roads (metalled) Secondary Roads (metalled)

Initial Placement Grid

Dirt Roads Ramps and Platforms Pedestrian Vehicular / Equipment

Land

Pipelines Oil / Natural Gas Water

12 // Traversing Terrains: The Oil Fields of Bakersfield

Fig.1.10. Kern River Oil Field is a complex network of roads, oilrigs, circulation channels and pipelines

Infill Well Installation A mature field is a field that has been developed for many years (>10 years); this field is also characterized by a high water cut (>75%). Infill drilling can accelerate oil recovery in heterogeneous reservoirs. Most of the oil in the Kern River oilfield has now been drained. The challenge now is to find the remaining pockets and drain them as efficiently as possible. Chevron has developed cell imaging models of the field that allow them to target those areas most likely to have oil remaining. Each of the 155,000,000 cells represents an area 50 feet x 50 feet by 2 feet deep.

This is used to determine the placement of new oilrigs between the existing ones. (Wang et al., 2015)

Parcel of Site selected for study

Source: Esri, DigitalGlobe, GeoEye, Earthstar Geographics, CNES/Airbus DS, USDA, USGS, AEX, Getmapping, Aerogrid, IGN, IGP, swisstopo, and the GIS User Community

AA Landscape Urbanism Term I : Workshop I // 13

Systemic Principles of Oil Fields:

(United Nations Environment Programme Industry and Environment Centre, 1997)

Oil well exploration and construction 1. Once a promising site has been identified, the only way to confirm the presence of hydrocarbons and the thickness and internal pressure of a reservoir is to drill exploratory boreholes.

2. For land-based operations a pad is constructed at the chosen site to accommodate drilling equipment and support services. These are normally split into modules to make them easier to move. • The excavation vehicles requires a track of at least 3450mm width to traverse the upland terrain. • A pad for a single exploration well occupies between 4000-15000 m2.

3. Once on site, the rig and a support camp are then assembled.

4. The number of wells varies with the size of the reservoir and its geology. Large oilfields can require a hundred or more wells to be drilled, whereas smaller fields may only require ten or so. This number will determine the grid of rig placement.

3450mm

(a)

Nearly all of the producing wells at Kern River are vertical wells. Recently, Chevron has begun using a small number of horizontal wells as well.

Horizontal wells only make sense if the bypassed oil lies in a horizontal pattern and if the soil for the entire length has been adequately heated by steam.

(b)

6m 6m

6m

2x5m

(c)

Fig.1.11. Principles of Oilfields: (a) according to dimensions of construction, (b) size of rigpads, platform and circulation, (c) spacing and grid of pads, and (d) alignment of pads (top to bottom) R. Chauhan & M.Mjć

14 // Traversing Terrains: The Oil Fields of Bakersfield

(d)

Oil well placement, optimisation 1. Typically, each well requires an area of some 10 m2 surrounded by a security fence.

2. Two consecutive rigs require a minimum distance of 20ft (6.096m) between them and an area of about 10-15m2 surrounded by a security fence.

3. Due to the terrace formation and narrow width of the terraces, the rigs are always laid parallel to the contour/track.

Infill oil well placement

Phase I: Initial Well Installation Principle: Grid Pattern in discovered field

45m

Phase II: Topographical Adjustment Principle: Pathways, slopes and

45m

Phase III: Infill Well Installation Principle: Pathways, slopes and terraces and Oil Pockets

45m

Phase IV: Cut and Fill techniques for Platforms Principle: Pathways, slopes and terraces and Oil Pockets

45m

4. A Mature field has considerable potential because they have generally been developed for many years under suboptimal conditions. Development adjustments, such as drilling new infill wells and changing the injection/production rates of wells, can improve the performance of mature fields and significantly increase oil recovery. (Wang et al., 2015) 5. Infill wells are new wells added to an existing field within original well patterns as and when needed. (fig.1.12.)

Fig.1.12. Methodology of Landscape Transformation & Oil Rig Installation on-site (top to bottom) R. Chauhan

AA Landscape Urbanism Term I : Workshop I // 15

Fabricating Grounds The design of the approach route responds to the rules and principles described before, as well as physical constraints such as topography, slope and circulation area required by the machinery. A particular area was selected to test and apply these terracing and excavation techniques. As several materailas and techniques were used, we gained a better understanding of the methodologies, enabling us to carry these forward in the final model.

Phase 1: Paper: Topographic Interpretation Paper was used in the preliminary stages to try and emulate the basic undulating landscape of the oil fields. Though it could be achieved to some extent, it was not feasible for showing the complexity of the site and overlying networks.

Therefore, we expanded our model to include secondary materials over the underlying base which wouls served to represent our baseline situation.

Path 1

Phase 3: High-Density Foam : Exploration of Pathways and Terracing Due to the lack of three dimensional clarity and stability of the previous method, the priority was to accurately reproduce the terrain we had to work with, for which we used high density foam chiselled into the landform at scale, upon which the grid of oilrigs was superimposed in order to obsere the patterns in which the placement responded to slope and whther a clear logical pathway could be engineered.

This pathway would determine where the terracing would be undertaken and which approach would be best.

16 // Traversing Terrains: The Oil Fields of Bakersfield

Pipelines

Rigs

Path 2

Phase 2: Needle and Thread: Rig Connectivity In this phase, an actual portion of the site was used to try and navigate the paths between oil rigs that exist in the oilfield. The idea was to connect rigs within similar contours and sloes in order to minimise the volume of soil that woul need to be extracted , as well as to make the simplest paths up the terrain.

While connections were being explored, the need for multiple paths up the hill was discovered, as some rigs were not within reach of a single path. Mutiple entry points were then initiated, which eventually merge into the primary path. These can be seen represented by coloured threads which are wound around needles and rise in level when the path moves up to the next contour.

While this model was able to clear up some of the principle we adapted in the next models, it was still in need of better representation in the form of volumetric techniques of cut and fill.

This was tried to be rectified in subsequent models, which were more uniform in terms of material and technique.

AA Landscape Urbanism Term I : Workshop I // 17

Phase 4: Thread and Nails: Exploration of Slopes, Pathways and Terracing Next, thread was used to represent the natural slope of the terrain(white) and the path (black) connecting the rigs, which also become platforms, as represented by the broadening of thread looping in some places. This technique was found to be particularily useful and was carried forward in the final fabrication as well.

In another experiment, the threads were placed at an elevation from the contours, and red and green coloured threads were used to denote cut and fill methods respectively. The wider the mesh of threas, the more volume and span of soil is being transferred. This model typology was more successful, except that it was too restrictive in

18 // Traversing Terrains: The Oil Fields of Bakersfield

terms of contouring, whereas in reality, platform levels do not necessarilty correspond simply to the levels represented by the contours.

Moreover, the representations of slope and cut and fill wasn’i compatible, making it difficult to accomplish on the same model. Therefore, it was decided that there should be some uniformity of representaion for all landforms that appear in terms of paths, ramps, terraces and extractions.

Phase 5: Thread and Nails: Techniques of Slopes, Pathways and Terracing Here, we feel the need to elaborate on some of the techniques, patterns and protoypes that were discovered during the development and trial phases of modelling.

A cut and fill technique of ramps is ovious, where a Full bench configuration with Outslope and Backslopes are evident. (fig.1.15., overleaf) The backslopes are used for the network of pipelines and the outslope without a ballast or additional subgrade is used for the platform tread. (fig.1.13) Using these principles, the final fabrication of the site is done. (fig.1.15)

Fig.1.13. Full Bench Terracing : sectional model R. Chauhan

Fig.1.14. Proposed assembly of model with protoptype rig placement techniques on plexiglass

Fig.1.15. Overleaf; Oil field configuration (photo) with the corresponding representation in threading techniques (model) R. Chauhan

AA Landscape Urbanism Term I : Workshop I // 19

20 // Traversing Terrains: The Oil Fields of Bakersfield

Platform

Platform

Platform

Platform

Platform

Platform

AA Landscape Urbanism Term I : Workshop I // 21

Platform

Platform

(a)

(b)

(e)

(f )

Final Fabrication A grid of 45x45m, with oilrigs on intersections, is placed on the site, and their position with resepect to the contours is evaluated. The position of the rigs is moved at an angle of 55 or 65 degrees depending on the conflict with slope and contours.These positions are then taken into account when placing nails along the contours, (a) according to whether the landscpe needs to be cut or filled to accomodate the resultant rigs.

The next step is to place nails according to the circulation space for each platform, and where the backslopes are to be placed (b).

22 // Traversing Terrains: The Oil Fields of Bakersfield

We then start threading the model accorsing to what landform exists between the nails. The rules and principles listed in section are used to make these landforms such as platfrom tread, vehicular pathway, outslope, sideslope, backslope and ramps (c, d, e) , While the colour of the thread is kept uniform for the sake of a uniform representation, different techniques are used for representing different landforms (Fig.1.).

(c)

(d)

(g)

For representing the methodology by which oilrigs are placed, layers of plexiglass are mounted upon the frame depicting the grid layout and the phases in which further additions are laid out. When the superimposed dataframes are viewed together, the principles used to create the landscape become clear.

(h)

Sideslope

Ramp

Backslope

Platform Tread

Fig.1.16. Transformation of Landscape: Cut and fill Platforms Construction of Thread-and-Nail Model (l to r) R. Chauhan & M.Mjć

Fig.1.17. Threading Techniques for different landforms R. Chauhan

AA Landscape Urbanism Term I : Workshop I // 23

Way Forward While this is one of the ways that the landscape is traversed and manufactured in Oilfields, we can also logically observe other paterns and methodologies in which the land can be manipulated. These techniques of representation using techniques also gives us hand-on experience for getting a good understanding of the sites we work upon.

The catalogue of terracing techniques that have been formulated can also be used in urban projects such as that of riverscape, landfill and urban promenades, where the platform and slope can be used as linear, open, recreational spaces.

24 // Traversing Terrains: The Oil Fields of Bakersfield

AA Landscape Urbanism Term I : Workshop I // 25

Autumnal Foothills Modular Origami Protopaper Modelling Exercise A Protopaper Workshop October 2016

This Protopaper workshop was aimed at experimenting and exploring paper as a means of understanding the patterns, limitations and the workability of a landscape.

Often, we try to apply ideas onto a site without truly understanding the physical constraints and scale. Using paper as a new tool may help us comprehend these characteristics and begin to envisage better ways to intervene unto the land. With a huge variety in thickness, weight, texture, folding endurance, strength and size, the material helps us understand the limits and possibilities in the physical model through the techniques of cutting, folding, interlinking and pasting . We begin to visualise how the paper emulates the properties of a landscape, once we start combining the right techniques.

Here, by focusing on learning new ways to mould paper and applying these techniques, we explored both how to adapt and alter our approaches according to the limitations, and to work the material and make it do what we want. In this section, we talk about how we applied the collective art of origami and kirigami to achieve different, fascinating results and thus learnt more about the possibilites of using paper as a sandbox for trying out different design approaches and defining design parameters.

“Origami (...) in accordance with the laws of nature, require(s) the use of geometry, science, and physics. ...the possibility of creation from paper is infinite “ - Akira Yoshizawa

Fig.1.2.1 The flexibility of the origami modular construction allows us to give the shape some curvature and fluidity Image altered by R. Chauhan

Fig.1.2.2 Preliminary protopaper experiments (top left) R. Chauhan

Fig.1.2.3 Construction of origami modules R. Chauhan & D. Dibos

The workshop began with learning existent techniques of folding and cutting to manipulate paper into taking geometrical shapes and patterns and explore the possibilities of using it as a reasonably appropriate material for modelling landscapes.

After making preliminary modules with normal paper, we began testing folding techniques rhomboidal and triangular grids of protopaper and experimenting with the flexibility and range of patterns that can be achieved with different grades of paper.

28 // Autumnal Foothills: Modular Origami

For the final model, a number of origami modules are created using a high gsm of paper, with autumnal colour palette, In addition, various joining techniques are implemented to find the most suitable for the compiled model. After a few trials of techniques of combining the modules, we decided on the capping and taping methods, as they do not require extraneous materials to join the modules, which would have otherwise compromised the integrity of the model.

Once the joinery is complete, we notice that the flexibility of the origami modular construction allows its the shape some curvature and fluidity.

This is useful to see the pliability of the final model and let its shape and pattern be controlled as per the intended use.

Fig.1.2.4 Modular Origami Deployment (top) R. Chauhan & D. Dibos

Fig.1.2.5 Origami Module: Step-bystep Instructions Image altered by R. Chauhan

AA Landscape Urbanism Term I :Workshop Ia // 29

Soft Gold in the Hermit Kingdom: A Profile on Pashmina

Linkage between Producers and Consumers A Social Formation Workshop November 2016

Of all the social formations in the world, perhaps the most interesting are those which compel you to wonder at the fascinating connections between the producers and consumers. Some instances are those which manifest when (a) the demand and consumption creates a material vacuum in the producing regions; (b) when there is a great socio-economic divide between the producers and consumers and (c) when the circumstances of the linkage between them is unique.

Pashmina is a prized commodity that originates in the remote Ladakh district of Northern India, so much so that entire Ladakhi-Tibetan tribes and Kashmiri household handicraft traditions are established and dependent on the production, fabrication and trade industry. We endeavour to trace the social formation of this pashmina wool and the finished shawls, through time and space, looking at the macro-scape in the broader perspective and then scrutinizing the Samad micro-landscape and the effects of the pashmina economy on the producers’ livelihoods and their immediate environment.

This critical examination brings out complex interdependencies between the inhabitants and the landscape, given the nature of their nomadic pastoralism, their deep connection with the land, and its cold, arid and remote geography. We also discover some unintended effects on the lives of the producers and attempt to visualise the repercussions of the ongoing pursuit of a successful global luxury fibre industry.

“Consumption is the sole end and purpose of all production and the welfare of the producer ought to be attended to, only so far as it may be necessary for promoting that of the consumer. “ - Adam Smith, The Wealth of Nations, 1937

Fig.2.1 Changra Goats foraging for wild grass on the dry arid slopes of Ladakh Valley

Team Members: Rimjhim Chauhan Tao Sun

Pashmina: A profile

The pashmina, word derived from pashm which means “wool” in Persian is a finer variant of the wool of cashmere. The real cashmere pashmina is exclusively produced in the ancestral regions, that is Central Asia. The native goats of the race changthangi, also known as pashmina goats produce an extremely fine fleece in winter to protect itself from icy temperatures, the scarves, shawls and stoles obtained by this cashmere wool is called pashmina.

The cashmere is an animal fibre obtained from certain races of goats.

Due to the cold temperature in the high altitude regions, the wool produced by the goats of cashmere is one of the finest, softest and solid texture in the world. Although real cashmere, produced from goats of the Himalayan region is the reference in wool, the cashmere can be produced in various regions of the world and with varied races of goats. Only the dry temperature of the mountainous high plateaus allow a real softness of the wool, which is why there are several qualities of cashmere.

Fig.2.2. Atlas of Animal Fibre Sources R. Chauhan

Indian P ashmina breeds 1. Changthangi ( Changra) goat – Lena hair 2. Chegu goat

Fig.2.3. Strcuture of Wool fibre and position in classification

Producer

Changpa Tribe Pastoralist Nomads

Consumer

Linkage

Local Traders

Processors

Textile Manufacturer

Exporter

The Linkage between Producers and Consumers

32 // Soft Gold in the Hermit Kingdom: A Profile on Pashmina

Retailers

Global Scale

Etymological Origins And Trends In Terminological Usage

Cashmere

Pashmina

The word "cashmere," from the eighteenth-century English spelling of Kashmiri shawls' geographical home, was popularly linked with "exotic" luxury in nineteenth-century Britain. European and American firms used "cashmere" to give distinction to locally manufactured shawls, fabrics, and even toiletries.

Western manufacturers produced imitation Kashmiri shawls and used the word "cashmere" to promote their own products.

Similarly, in the late 1990s western European and American

Over time, repeated European and Euro-American usage disassociated the word "cashmere" from its geographical origin and may have weakened its link to the "exotic." China and Mongolia have become geographical references for cashmere sweaters in thirty-eight U.S. mail order catalogs such as Lands' End.(Maskiell 2002).

Fig.2.4. The difference between Cashmere and Pashmina Fig.2.5. N-grams showing usage trends of terminology R. Chauhan

Pashmina comes from Persian: ‫ ﭘﺷﻣﯾﻧﮫ‬/ pašmina Kashmiri: pashmina

Shawl comes from Indo-Persian: shaliat / shal Dard: sha

"made from wool" "Soft Gold“

“fine woollen woven fabric” “shawl-wool goat”

Shawl

Cashmere Pashmina Pashm

Pashmina

Shawl

Pashm

Cashmere

AA Landscape Urbanism Term I : Workshop II // 33

The Producers...

India has two recognised pashmina breeds Changthangi (Changra) and Chegu.

The breeding tract of pashmina goats is restricted to the Nyoma and Durbuk blocks of Changthang sub-division of district Leh, in the cold arid region of Ladakh in Jammu and Kashmir; Ladakh is a remote district of Jammu and Kashmir state in India, and is politically separate from Tibet. Its capital is at Leh and it lies to the east of the valley of Kashmir.

The altitude of pashmina region ranges from 3000 to 5000 metres above sea level. The topography and climate of these areas suits pashmina production.

Changthangi with a population of 1,96,383 is native to high altitude areas (3700 to 4500m) in Ladakh region of Jammu and Kashmir reared by a pastoralist nomadic race ‘Changpas’.

The people of the Changtang are nomadic pastoralists, they are known as ‘Changpa’, for ‘northerners,’ or ‘Drukpa’ for ‘nomads’ in Tibetan. Trade has played an important role for the Changpa as they are not able to produce all the goods they consume. Salt, meat, live animals, wool, and unprocessed cashmere are traded for basics such as grain, cooking pots, and other metal implements, as well as more modern goods.

Fig.2.6. Producers along the linkage chain : (top to bottom) the nomads, the fdyers, weavers and the goats R. Chauhan

34 // Soft Gold in the Hermit Kingdom: A Profile on Pashmina

...and the Consumers.

Timeline of Pashmina Consumption The trade routes of Pashmina Shawls have been in place for centuries, even before the European shipping routes had been established.

Kashmiri shawls were well-known exports within Asia and moved through established trade networks linking international areas of demand long before the shawls became European commodities. (Maskiell 2002)

1500-1700s

It went around as a prized commodity within royal and elitist circles all over Asia Bennett (1935, p48) contends that “Due to its novelty, the glamour of its Oriental origin, and the patronage of royalty, the shawl rapidly became an indispensable item of fashionable dress leading eventually to a new weaving industry in the British Isles and France, the chief centers of production being Paisley near Glasgow, and the city of Lyons�.

Pashmina shawls went from being exclusive high fashion to middle-class popularity in 2000. (Maskiell 2002) 1700-1800s

1800-1900s

Fig.2.7. Transformation of Historical Trade Routes : (top to bottom) R. Chauhan

1900-2000s

London Toronto

Paris

Chicagio New York

Beijing

Rome

Seoul Los Angeles Dubai Mexico City

Tokyo

New Delhi

Mumbai

Singapore

Jakarta

Sydney

2000s-current

AA Landscape Urbanism Term I : Workshop II // 35

Goats & The Economics of Pashmina Industry

AGE DISTRIBUTION OF PASHMINA GOATS

(Wabi 2014)

A sizable portion of goat population of the state viz 3.20 lacs is found in the Leh District of the Ladakh region and major chunk of this goat population comprises of Pashmina / Changra. These goats are reared at an altitude of 12000 to 18000 ft. above mean sea level.

Mainly, the Pashmina product flows through Channel-I (45%), followed by Channel-II (35%), Channel-III and Channel-IV. The bulk of the pashmina finally reaches Kashmir valley and some to Himachal Pradesh for further production. Private traders in Leh (Channel-II) offer higher compensation and rates for the raw pashmina wool as compared to other buyers, including institutional buyers. Therefore, the best pashmina wool finds its way to Kashmir and the inferior wool to Himachal Pradesh and other northern states.

All Changthang Pashmina Growers Co-operative Marketing Society Limited has primary marketing societies functioning in 22 revenue villages of Changthang (breeding tract of Changthangi pashmina goats). A pashmina processing (de-haring and cleaning) facility is available with the apex co-operative society. Now the society is planning spinning and weaving of pashmina in cottage industries, handicrafts and co-operative centres. Traders from Kashmir obtain hardly 20 per cent of their requirement from Ladakh and import it from other parts of the state. However, it may be mentioned here that it is the skill of Kashmiri artisans that practically creates demand for pashmina.

Tibetan refugees besides being engaged in pashmina husbandry have strong purchasing power to alarm the local traders who have social ties with Tibet and engage in barter of pashmina with Chinese traders for electronic goods, silk garments and velvet.

Kurzok

Durbuk

Nyoma

1800 1600 1400 1200 1000 800 600 400 200 0 0-1

1-2

2-3

3-4

5-6

4-5

6-7

7-8

FIBRE DIAMETER RANGE (µM) 9-13 µm

8-12 µm

0

2

4

6

8

14-15 µm

13-14 µm

10

12

14

16

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ALTITUDE AND PASHMINA PRODUCTION Altitude (m m asl)

Population of Pashmina Goats

40000

5000

35000

4500 4000

30000

3500

25000

3000

20000

2500

15000

2000 1500

10000

1000

5000

500

0

0

Fig.2.8 Relationship between altitude and pashmina wool quality R. Chauhan

Fig.2.9 Geopolitical context of the Changthang region

Location & context

R. Chauhan

Fig.2.10 Value Chain for Pashmina

R. Chauhan

Changthang Region

36 // Soft Gold in the Hermit Kingdom: A Profile on Pashmina

18

AA Landscape Urbanism Term I : Workshop II // 37

45%

Quantum of sales through channels I-IV

Changpa Tribe Pastoralist Nomads

PRODUCER

35%

10%

Local level

IV

III

II

I

10%

All-Changthang Pashmina Growers Co-op Marketing Society

Local Village Agents

Butcher

Pre-Fabrication Networks

Regional level

Tibetan refugees

Dehairing and Processing Plant, Leh

Traders from Leh

Srinagar Wholesalers

Textile Industries

Traders

Chandigarh/Punjab/ Delhi/Srinagar

National level

Government and co-op agencies

Srinagar/Himachal Pradesh/Delhi/Punjab

Indian Wholesalers

Shawl Industry

Srinagar, Budgam, Ganderbal and Anantnag

Fabrication Networks

Linkage between Producer and Consumer

VALUE CHAIN FOR PASHMINA PRODUCTS

Retailers

Trading Networks Fabrication/Processing Networks

Cross Border Trade

Consumer

CONSUMER

Export Networks Marketing Networks

Fabrication/Processing Networks

Trading Networks

International level

Overseas Fabrication & Distribution

Textile Industry

Retailers

Post-Fabrication Networks

Export Market

The Value Addition Chain

Pashmina Shawl Fabrication under the Traditional Kashmiri Textile Industry (Ammayyappan 2011)

Collection of Pashm Pashm is collected in the outskirts of Leh by the nomadic pastoralists known as Changpa who are scattered around Chnagthang, a vast and complex terrain in Ladakh. The main occupation of these nomadic pastoralists is to collect pashm from the Changra pashmina goats which they have domesticated.

According to the 2007 official records, the number of pashmina goats kept by the Ladakhi Changpa was about 170,590.

Dusting & Dehairing

Fleece from Pashmina goats contain extraneous material including dust, thorns etc, and removal of this debris and the separation of guard hairs and fine fib-

The Pashmina fibre has been unique in that raw and unsorted fibre weighing 400gm costing up to Rs 800 (£9) after value addition fetches up to Rs 25000 (£295) with a net weight of shawl around 200gms.

Combing & Spinning

After the raw form of pashm is distributed to various merchants and brokers in Kashmir, the second step involves the cleaning and the spinning of the pashm.

Combed Pashmina is obtained in the form of a loaf called Tumb followed by gluing usually with soaked powdered rice. Tumb is subjected to spinning on the traditional Charkha or spinning wheel so as to make yarn and is collected on small bobbins. Spun yarn

Dyeing

The spun wool is dyed before knitting and weaving.

Constituting a separate community of dyers known as ‘rangrez’, only natural ingredients are used in the dyes, which produce different colours depending on the concentration used.

The range of colors of the hand-mixed dyes may vary as they are produced by a natural process. It is pertinent to mention that dyeing of the Pashmina is being done using mostly organic compounds.

Warping & Design

Design Drawing, Colour fixing and Talim writingare the steps that need the services of specialists from three different communities: Naqqash ,Taragur, and Talim gur.

Naqqash draws the designs, the taragur adjusts different colors according to the designs and finally the talim gur writes the designs in a code for the weaver.

Burling, Washing & Ironing The pashmina is then subjected to warping, wefting, dressing and reeling. For each job the services of separate skilled persons is needed.

The wrap maker or what is popularly known as ‘nakuta’ adjusts the dyed yarn for wrap and weft.

Weaving & Embroidery After washing or dyeing, yarn is weaved on local handlooms into various designs. Finishing involves embroidering for value addition, washing, pressing and scheduling the batches for dispatch.

38 // Soft Gold in the Hermit Kingdom: A Profile on Pashmina

Collection of Pashm

Dusting & Dehairing

Combing & Spinning

Fig.2.11. VAlue Addittion Process R. Chauhan

The pashm collected is sold to the brokers, merchants and retailers in Srinagar, Budgam, Ganderbal and Anantnag.

Distribution

Dyeing Ready Product

Warping & Design

Weaving & Embroidery

Burling, Washing & Ironing Calendaring & Packing

AA Landscape Urbanism Term I : Workshop II // 39

Fabrication Centre

Srinagar

Himachal Pradesh

Punjab

Fig.2.12. Atlas of Production & Fabrication:Trade Routes of Pashm and Pashmina T.Sun, R.Chauhan

40 // Soft Gold in the Hermit Kingdom: A Profile on Pashmina

Producer

Changpa Tribe Pastoralist Nomads

Consumer

Linkage

Local Traders

Processors

Textile Manufacturer

Exporter

Retailers

Global Scale

Trading Centre

Leh

Durb uk

Production Centre Samad Kharnak Nyoma

Korzok

Hanle

Himachal Pradesh

Primary Pashm Wool Route Samad – Leh – Kashmir Secondary Pashm Wool Routes Districts – Leh Secondary Pashm Wool Routes Districts – Leh – Indian States Pashmina Shawl Route

AA Landscape Urbanism Term I : Workshop II // 41

Territorial Formation Timeline of Rupshu territory The economy of the region is based around the livestock of the Changpa, and the most important resource is the plants the animals graze on. Despite the harsh conditions, the Changpas do not move from one climatic region to another. They only have access to their traditional grazing in different valleys in summer and winter.

Prior to the Indo-Sino War, the pastoralists had the Skagjung Winter Pastures as a reserve pasture which was lost and the remaining territory is now centred around the Tso Kar Basin, Divided into both summer and winter pastures, it has altered the ruminant population trends and triggered intense pressure on the land.

Skagjung Winter Pasture

Fig.2.13. Location & Connectivity between Nomadic Settlements R.Chauhan

Fig.2.14. Transformation of Rupshu Territory R.Chauhan

42 // Soft Gold in the Hermit Kingdom: A Profile on Pashmina

AA Landscape Urbanism Term I : Workshop II // 43

Nomadic Routes & Seasonality Of Activities NOVEMBER The autumn months include long movements when the nomads move back to the Tso Kar Basin to their winter settlements. The Changpas move to both Pankanugu and Thukje whereas the Tibetan Refugees (TR) settle in Pankanugu.

Major Activities: Movement from Summer to Winter Pastureland.

DECEMBER The month starts with Losar (Tibetan New Year) at the Thukje Monastry, requiring preparation for four days of feasting.

The Nomads then move to Napokhar pasturelands for the rest of December.

It is a busy time with slaughtering of livestock for own subsistence and for sale to the market.

Major Activities: Slaughtering, Tibetan New Year Losar

JANUARY - FEBRUARY The Nomads move to separate pasturelands in the Stasafuk and Rigulthang regions.

The lambing period started in January, while the kidding took place in February.

Major Activities: Lambing, Kidding

FEBRUARY – MARCH - APRIL The Nomads move to emergency pasturelands in the Northeast of the TsoKar Basin.

Used in the harshest months of winter.

The tents were scattered between four settlements and during the daytime the herders brought the livestock deep into the valleys and high up in the mountains.

Major Activities: Grazing, Grass Stocking

MAY The Nomads make a brief stop at their winter campsites to prepare for the summer season and migrate to Skyangchuthang areas.

Major Activities: Grazing, Grass Stocking

Fig.2.15. Nomaidc Routes & Seasonality of Activities R.Chauhan, T.Sun

JUNE The Nomads move between their winter campsites in theSkyangchuthang areas.

JULY The Nomads move between their winter campsites in the Skyangchuthang areas.

AUGUST The Nomads move between their winter campsites in the Skyangchuthang areas.

Major Activities: Milking Sheep

Major Activities: Milking goat, Pashmina combing, Wool Cutting, Religious festival in Nyorchung (10 days)

Major Activities: Milking sheep, trade, Wool cutting

44 // Soft Gold in the Hermit Kingdom: A Profile on Pashmina

SEPTEMBER – OCTOBER The Nomads move to the Zara campsites shared with the Kharnak areas.

OCTOBER -NOVEMBER The Nomads start moving to the winter rangelands

Major Activities: Long Movements to Zara

Major Activities: Long Movements

Changpas and TRs Changpas TRs Changpas (gompa)

AA Landscape Urbanism Term I : Workshop II // 45

Grazing Grounds The Politics of Land and Herd (from Bhasin 2012)

Changpa Households Changpa Households

Unlike much of Central Asia, where command economies override traditional access rights, Ladakhi tribes like the Changpas have communal pasture land with strong community regulation of land usage.

They follow the traditional system of grazing wherein the headman- the goba decides areas for animal grazing. A unique feature of the traditional pastoral system is the complex administrative system of pasture allocation and reallocation by goba. The Changthang is divided into a number of named pastures of varying size, each with delimited borders recorded in register book. These borders are recognised by physical and geographical marekers such as streams, bedrock, valleys and ridges.

Changpa households can use only their assigned pastures. Each pasture is painstakingly suitable for a fixed number of animals calculated locally on their own system. Thus, access to pasture with particular characterstics is allotted to a particular household with some combination of animals, totalling to a specified number. Each pasture is expected to sustain only what is considered an appropriate number of livestock. Triennial censuses of adult animals determine each household’s herd size and its allocation of pastures and taxes. Additional pastures are allocated to household whose herds have increased and are taken from those whose herds have decreased.

Grouping

HH

Livestock /HH

A (44%)

26

<100

B (53%)

32

100-300

C (3%)

2

300

Tibetan Refugee 22 HH

A (55%)

12

<100

B (45%)

10

100-300

Gompa

TH

-

-

Changpa Tribe 60 HH

Tibetan Households Tibetan Households Thangmar Thangmar PasturePasture Households Changpa Changpa Households

Tibetan Households Tibetan Households

Changpa Households Changpa Households

Thangmar Thangmar Pasture Pasture

Tibetan Households Tibetan Households Thangmar Thangmar PasturePasture

44% <70 ruminants 53% 70-300 ruminants 03% >300 ruminants 55% 45%

<70 ruminants 70-300 ruminants

Map Key

The whole area under his control is divided in to two zonesâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;one for gompa (monastary) animal grazing and the other for household animal grazing. Every year three families selected by goba in rotation take gompa animals with their own herds to allotted pastures (lungrung). The community and gompa animals graze at pastures, which are far off from each other. In addition, one selected family has to take all community as well as gompa horses for grazing. The gompa animals graze on the best pastures and so do the animals of the caretaker families. The families who look after gompa animals are in an advantageous position as their animals have good graze, along with gompa animals.

Fig.2.16 Breakdown of the Rangeland Distribution Logic (top) R. Chauhan

Fig.2.17. Size of Household/herd and the corresponding allocation of grazing grounds T. Sun

46 // Soft Gold in the Hermit Kingdom: A Profile on Pashmina

2000s-current

Transhumanist Trends (from Bhasin 2012) Changpas have neither crop-residue option nor any institutional arrangement with other communities for grazing their animals. They have only access to their traditional grazing in different valleys in summer and winter. Single resource competitors always have framework to overcome scarcity and conflicts due to internal pressures (population growth, growth in herd size and change of activity) and external pressures (climate changes and environmental degradation) as their resources are limited. The organisation of spatial movements is important in pastoral communities.

Among Changpas, these movements are regular and cyclic between the areas of summer pastures and winter pastures. The orbit of routes and pastures, the routine, direction and schedules of migration are fixed.

The economy of the region is based around the livestock of the Changpa, and the most important resource is the plants the animals graze on.

The transhumance of the Changpa over one year limits the impact that their animals have on the grazing lands. Some of the characteristics are as follows (Goldstein et al., 1990): • The Changpa do not move from one climatic region to another; this allows them to move shorter distances in many cases, in the range of about 10–40 miles.

• Migratory routes are established and followed year after year, staying in the same encampments each year.

• Wealthier nomads may have buildings for storage and living in for the part of the year

they spend at their Village.

• Survival Techniques to even out the periods of surpluses and shortages • Animals are slaughtered early in the winter, after fattening up in the summer and while the weather is conducive to storage.

Composition of Changpa herd is not random but is an adaptive response to environment, which they inhabit and the resources available to them. The herd of different animals takes full advantage of the use of vegetation in the same pasture as different animals graze on different plants making efficient use of resources.

Different animals also provide diversified products for self-consumption or sale. (Namgaik et al., 2007)“ Maintaining diverse herd composition is also a strategy employed by nomads to minimize the risk of losses from disease or harsh winters, since a mix of different species provide some insurance that not all animals will be lost and herds can be rebuild again” (Miller 2004).

Winter Pastures of the Tso Kar Basin, Samad Block

December

November February- March JanuaryFebruary

Fig.2.18. Communal Pastures and Grazing Right R.ChauhanT. Sun

AA Landscape Urbanism Term I : Workshop II // 47

Distribution Of Grazing Grounds: Macro Scale Per Household division of the Tso Kar Basin, Samad Block

1960s: Pre Indo Sino War Herd Category Changpa Tribe 30 HH

Household (HH)

Livestock /HH

A (33%)

10

<200

B (43%)

13

200-1000

C (24%)

7

>1000

Tibetan Refugee 22 HH

A (55%)

12

<50

B (45%)

9

50-300

Gompa

TH

-

-

1970s: Post Indo Sino War

Map Key

Herd Category Changpa Tribe 45 HH

Tibetan Refugee 8 HH (50) Gompa

Household (HH)

Livestock /HH

A (27%)

12

<100

B (62%)

28

100-500

C (11%)

5

>500

D (90%)

7

<50

E (10%)

1

>50

TH

-

-

Map Key

AVAILABILITY OF GRAZING AREA

National: 1.0 hectare per livestock unit* Jammu and Kashmir: 0.4 hectare per livestock unit Due to continued negligence of pastures, the existing level of biomass vis-Ă -vis its production is meagre.

Further, due to increase in livestock holdings In 1960s, the wealthy nomads had large herds with around 1,000 sheep and goats, around 100 yaks and 15 horses and poorest households had 150200 sheep and goats, four yaks and two horses.

In 1990, an average household had about 300 sheep and goats, five-six yaks and a few horses.

However, there is increase in number of goats because of increase in value of pashmina.

The nomads have to move the increasing population of livestock on a smaller rangeland, and they have to make more shifts of settlements than in the past, to avoid overgrazing. The families have to keep smaller stocks due to the increased number of households. The daily movements also have to be shorter and better planned today than in the past when the nomads could move their herds on large areas.over the years, per capita availability of such biomass has drastically reached a disproportionate level.

48 // Soft Gold in the Hermit Kingdom: A Profile on Pashmina

According to the local nomads, the average annual income was 30,000 - 40,000 rupees and the average number of livestock was 170-200.

The richest families earned about 100,000 Rupees and they had more than 300 livestock. A poor family had an income of 9,000-10,000 rupees and less than 70 livestock.

1990-2000s: Post â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;80s Pashmina Boom Household (HH)

Livestock /HH

A (36%)

18

<100

B (58%)

29

100-500

C (6%)

3

>500

Tibetan Refugee 15 HH

D (60%)

9

<50

E (40%)

6

Gompa

TH

-

Herd Category Changpa Tribe 50 HH

2000s: Current distribution

Map Key

Household (HH)

Livestock /HH

A (44%)

26

<70

B (53%)

32

70-300

C (3%)

2

300

Herd Category Changpa Tribe 60 HH

A (55%)

12

<70

>50

Tibetan Refugee 22 HH

B (45%)

10

70-300

-

Gompa

TH

-

-

Loss of livestock this winter due to starvation and skin disease, exacerbated by the heavy snowfall.

POPULATION OF RUMINANTS

Map Key

Fig.2.19. Trends of Distribution of Grazing grounds in Winter pastures: 1960-2000s (l to r)

Pashmina Production (kg)

R. Chauhan & T. Sun

250000 200000 150000

Non-Pashm ina Goat

100000

R. Chauhan

Changluk Sheep Mulluk Sheep

50000 0

Fig.2.20. Population of ruminents and Pashm Wool prices

Pashmina Goat

Merino Sheep Angor a Cross

Pashmina 1995 P rices Wool 1996Boar d Price (Rs/kg) 1997

Pashmina P rices Private Traders Price (Rs/kg)2001 1998 1999 2000

2002

2003

2004

2005

Pashmina Raw Wool Price Trends 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

Pashmina P rices Wool Boar d Price (Rs/kg)

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

Pashmina P rices Private Traders Price (Rs/kg)

AA Landscape Urbanism Term I : Workshop II // 49 Pashmina Raw Wool Price Trends

Effects Of Route Convergence And Conflicts On Rangeland

1960s: Pre Indo Sino War

1970s: Post Indo Sino War

1990-2000s: Post â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;80s Pashmina Boom

Fig.2.21 Increased overgrazing on

winter rangeland T. Sun

2000s: Current distribution

50 // Soft Gold in the Hermit Kingdom: A Profile on Pashmina

Fig.2.22 Route Convergence And

Conflicts T. Sun

Herder Camps Convergence Mobility Routes Households Areas with intense grazing Changpa Overgrazing TR Overgrazing

AA Landscape Urbanism Term I : Workshop II // 51

Perceived Conflicts And Resource Competition Overgrazing of Rangeland and Loss of Biodiversity

As the area abounds in wildlife as well, there is interaction between domestic livestock and wildlife in selected areas. The existence of competitive and interference interactions between wild ungulates and livestock husbandry is cause of worryfor the Changpas as well as conservationists.

Species A

-

Species B

+

-

+

Resources

Kiang (Tibetan Wild Ass)

Argali

Fig.2.23. Effects of goat-rearing and grazing on wild ungulates R. Chauhan & T. Sun

52 // Soft Gold in the Hermit Kingdom: A Profile on Pashmina

AA Landscape Urbanism Term I : Workshop II // 53

Conclusions & Way Forward The Consequences of an Industry

Contributors

Demand for Pashmina

Loss of Pastures**

Overgrazing

Increase in human population

Increase in Goat population

Pressure on Rangeland

Decrease in sheep population

Soil Erosion

More frequent nomadic shifts

Increase in goats per household

Low pasture yield next season

Harsher Conditions

Starvation & Loss of Livestock

Less Commodities for Trade (Cash Economy)

Economic Loss, Poverty

Loss of Biodiversity

Less Pashmina Production

Abandonment of Pastoralism

Adoption of Livestock

Impacts

Resource competition with Argali, Kiang

Shortage of Food

More frequent nomadic shifts

Shortage of Labour

Pressure and depletion of pastures ** Due to geopolitical reasons or infrastructural development

The Pashmina Industry has an underlying ache in terms of the resource pressure faced by the nomads in their livelihood.

Due to several pressures and factors (see above), there are four major concerns for the producers of pashmina: 1. Decrease in Food supply: due to more breeding of goats than sheep 2. Shortage of Labour due to Urban Migration 3. Pressure and depletion of pastures: Loss of food source for herds 4. Increasing frequency of camp shifting: shorter seasons and harsher life

Due to demand for pashmina from the market, the nomads have increased the number of goats in favour of sheep, even though sheep are a better food source as meat, and better survival during winter.

Due to a reduction in size of the herds, the nomads said that a heavy winter could be catastrophic for the small herds and they could end up with fewer animals than was the minimum for survival.

With increased migration, adopted livestock increases the livestock per house as well. This makes us think of what the effect will be on the land in a few years, and whether this is trulty

sustainable for the nomadic settlements. Perhaps contact with the outside world is having too much odf a cultural and economic pressure on them.

Fig.2.24. Cauality chart linking the producers and consumers R. Chauhan

Fig.2.25. Prospective Future: Tso Kar Basin in 2020 T. Sun

54 // Soft Gold in the Hermit Kingdom: A Profile on Pashmina

AA Landscape Urbanism Term I : Workshop II // 55

Scripting Severn

Investigations on a Meandering River Riparian Flooding Mechanisms A Landscript Workshop December 2016

The River Severn is a meandering river that flows in a semi-circular route through the Welsh county of Powys. Topographically, it is confined by a rim of low hills and ridges, but the wide basin floor is essentially flat, rising only 20m in 5km, eastwest. which gives it exceptional strategic and historical importance in Wales, but it is also the reason it is highly prone to flooding. Due to this frequent flooding, the floodplain continues to get eroded and the town of Caersws is highly susceptible to damage.

Hence, this project is about devising methods for flood control by envisaging and observing riparian behaviour through digital simulations over 10-20 years. River Severn, currently a meandering river, has had at least periodically, a more braided course over its history. Studies have shown that the river channel continues to be reworked by a complex of meanders since 3-6 AD. Our project traces these palaeochannels and tries to stabilise the river floodplain by reinforcing this tendency to braid. After observing the river in the baseline situation, we devised a Start-stop methodology of Interventions such as barriers, ponds, and channels to try and alter and manage the river meandering and artificially monitor the channel axis of the river to the most optimum path.

â&#x20AC;&#x153;Consumption is the sole end and purpose of all production and the welfare of the producer ought to be attended to, only so far as it may be necessary for promoting that of the consumer. â&#x20AC;&#x153; - Adam Smith, The Wealth of Nations, 1937

Team Members: Rimjhim Chauhan Majedeh Sayyedi

Understanding Riparian Morphology Rivers may be categorised into the following types according to the fluvial geomorphoogy that it displays. These may depend on soil type, sediment deposit and erosion (fig.3.3.), the depth of the water table, the velocity of the water, and the volume of water that the river typically receives either in the form of upland source or precipitation.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Straight Channel Wandering Channel Meandering Channel Anastomosing Channel Braided Channel

For our purpose, we only need to concern ourselves with meandeing rivers and their behaviour in reaction to different physical, geomorphological and climatic conditions that we impose on them.

In contrast to braided rivers, meandering rivers typically only contain one channel that winds its way across the floodplain. As it flows, it deposits sediment on banks that lie on the insides of curves (point bar deposits), and erode the banks on the outside of curves. When the river floods, it deposits fine-grained material on the floodplain. As the floodplain is a lot larger than the channel, deposits of meandering river systems are dominated by fine-grained material; coarse-grained channel deposits tend to be relatively minor.

As the channel migrates, parts of it may become abandoned and left behind as Oxbow Lakes. (fig.3.2.) These lakes have a characteristic horseshoe shape that mimics a river bend. They become sites for deposition of fine-grained lake sediment. These components of a braided river may or may not all exist at once at any particular time, but the potential of formation remains. (fig.3.4.)

Fig.3.2. Formation of Oxbow lake Image altered by R.Chauhan

Fig.3.3. Geomorphological Classification of Rivers

Fig.3.4. Bar and Swale topograhy of a Meandering River Image altered by R.Chauhan

Meander Belt

Oxbow Lake

Natural Levee Channel Axis Alluvial Deposits

Incipient Oxbow

Channel Cutoff Meander Belt Axis

58 // Scripting Severn: Investigations on a Meandering River

The Context of Caersws Site

River Severn, Caersws

Zone Location

52.521458°N 3.422429°W Powys, Wales

Climate

Oceanic climate (Köppen Cfb)

Avg. Temperature

10.1 °C

Avg. Precipitation

925 mm

Major Land Use

Pasture Land, Grade 3-4 Moderate quality Agriculture land

Geomorphology

The valley floor displays a series of river terraces, palaeochannels and alluvial fans of Holocene and Pleistocene age (periods up to about 12,000 BC) .

Soil Types

Deep Loam Soils of Severn River (sand, silt, and clay)

Path of the River

Source at Plynlimon, Mouth at Bristol Channel

Topography

Alluvial Floodplain of the Caersws Basin

Elevation

120-320 metres

The River Severn is 6 miles longer than the River Thames, making it the longest river in Great Britain. (Barrow, 2013) It is a meandering river that flows in a semi-circular route through the Welsh county of Powys. Topographically, the Caersws Basin presents a striking natural arena wohich is confined in almost every direction by the surrounding, seemingly unbroken, rim of low hills and ridges between about 300m and 400m above sea level.

The apparently enclosed but wide basin floor is essentially flat, rising only 20m in 5km, eastwest. This remarkable, albeit shallow, natural arena has made the basin an area of exceptional strategic and historical importance in Wales, while the confluence of the Rivers Carno and Trannon with the Severn has also made Caersws in the centre of the basin a natural focus for communications. (CPAT, n.d.) But it is also

precisely because of its low-lying topography and the high precipitation that it is highly prone to flooding.

The normal level of the River Severn at Caersws in average weather conditions is between 1.05m and 1.20m. The usual range of the River Severn at Caersws in more extreme weather conditions is between 1.07m and 2.14m. It has been between these levels for 90% of the time since monitoring of the flood levels began. The highest level ever recorded at the River Severn at Caersws is 3.69m, recorded on Wednesday 28th October 1998 at 2:30am. (Riverlevels, 2017)

Fig.3.5. River Severn at Caersws in regular(a,b,c) and flooded (d,e) periods

AA Landscape Urbanism Term I :Workshop III // 59

1817

1836

1885

1897

1903

1905

1925-48

1951

2006

Fig.3.6. Historical Riparian drifts and meanders (l to r) Maps altered by R. Chauhan

2009

2016

Palaeochannels There are suggestions that the river Severn at least periodically has had a more braided course over its history. Most of the floodplain has been relatively stable and with a single river channel probably since at least 2,000 BC and certainly since about AD 70.

Studies have shown that the river channel of the Severn continues to be reworked by a complex of meanders which have been active since the 3rd to 6th century AD, which work themselves downstream in a zone between several metres to several hundred metres across in places.

There are many meanders around Caersws because the river is now flowing across low land.

The River Severn begins to wander from side to side across the valley floor. The main erosion seen here tends to be horizontal (sideways), rather than the vertical erosion seen in the mountains.

Fig.3.7. Paleochannels seen in falsecolour digital elevation graphic (transparency), and superimposition on existing meandering channels, (overleaf ) at Caersws DEM Image altered by M.Sayyedi Google Image altered by R.Chauhan

60 // Scripting Severn: Investigations on a Meandering River

Compound Bend

Shute Cut-off

Oxbow Lake

Potential Neck Cutoff

Preliminary Simulations

CAESER-lisflood 1.8

Simulation Tool: CAESER-lisflood 1.8 Duration: 5500 Days Simulation Reach Mode: Low flood Meandering Water Volume Input : 8-10 Time step: 60000000 min

Riparian Morphology : principle of shift

Year 1

62 // Scripting Severn: Investigations on a Meandering River

Baseline Situation

Year 2

Year 6

Year 7

Year 11

Year 12

Fig.3.8. The Transforming Landscape 5500 Days Simulation

Principle of Fluvial Velocity

M. Sayyedi, R. Chauhan

Year 3

Year 4

Year 5

Year 8

Year 9

Year 10

Year 13

Year 14

Year 15

AA Landscape Urbanism Term I :Workshop III // 63

Baseline Situation

Year 1

Year 2

Year 3

Year 4

Year 5

Year 6

Year 7

Year 8

Year 9

Year 10

Year 11

Year 12

Year 13

Year 14

Year 15

Riparian Behaviour : principle of shift

Fig.3.9. River Avulsion & Floodplain Erosion: 5500 Days Simulation

5500 Days Simulation

R. Chauhan

Simulation Tool: CAESER-lisflood 1.8 Duration: 5500 Days Simulation Reach Mode: Low flood Meandering Water Input : 8-10 Time step: 60000000 min

© Pearson Prentice Hall

64 // Scripting Severn: Investigations on a Meandering River

Principle of Erosion

Baseline Situation

Year 1

Year 2

Year 3

Year 4

Year 5

Year 6

Year 7

Year 8

Year 9

Year 10

Year 11

Year 12

Year 13

Year 14

Year 15

Riparian Behaviour : principle of shift 5500 Days Simulation

Fig.3.10. Curvature of Channel Axis & Floodplain erosion 5500 Days Simulation R. Chauhan

Simulation Tool: CAESER-lisflood 1.8 Duration: 5500 Days Simulation Reach Mode: Low flood Meandering Water Input : 8-10 Time step: 60000000 min

• Increase in curvature of Channel Axis • Shift in Meander Belt Axis • Narrowing of Meander Belt

Principle of Shift

AA Landscape Urbanism Term I :Workshop III // 65

Y ea r 1

Y ea r 6

Y ea r 7 Y ea r 2

Y ea r 3

Y ea r 4

Y ea r 5

Y ea r 8

Y ea r 9

Y ea r 10

Ye a r 1

Ye a r 6

Ye a r 2

Ye a r 7

Ye a r 3

Ye a r 8

Ye a r 4

Ye a r 9

Ye a r 5

Ye a r 10

Year 2030 Year 2016

Riparian Analysis From our simulations, we see that the river tends to have : • An increase in channel axis, • Narrowing of the Meander Belt • Shift in meander belt axis From our water depth sections (fig.3.14), we also notice a high amout of bank erosion and inner bank deposition.

From these observatons, we can see that the river tends to foloow the shortest path when the volume of wtaer input increases and we will need to intervene such that this behavior can either be encouraged or reasonably mitigated.

We therefore select a portion of the site which would have the greatest imapct on the river flow, because irt itself has a large alteration of course when flooding occurs. (see overleaf )

66 // Scripting Severn: Investigations on a Meandering River

Fig.3.11. River Avulsion and Floodplain Expanion: Simulation R.Chauhan

Fig.3.12. River Flow Velocity R. Chauhan

Fig.3.13. Shift in Channel Axis R. Chauhan

Fig.3.14. Water Depth Sections of the River: 5500 days Simulation M.Sayyedi

High

Water Depth

Low

AA Landscape Urbanism Term I :Workshop III // 67

Floodplain Erosion & Deposition 5500 Days Simulation

Study Area

Translation

Fig.3.15. Floodplain Erosion & Deposition: Catalogue of River Fluvial Formations R. Chauhan

68 // Scripting Severn: Investigations on a Meandering River

Translation and Expansion

Chute Cut-off

Neck Cut-off

Translation, Expansion and Development of Compound Bend

Current River Channel 15yr Simulated River Channel

AA Landscape Urbanism Term I :Workshop III // 69

Schematic Interventions

Methodology of Start-Stop Simulations 2 years

5 years

Stage 2

Stage 3

0 years

Increasing Complexity

Application of triggers

DEM

More Ponds

Channels Nested Reservoirs Year 3

Stage 1

Reservoirs Year 3

Channels Year 3

Barriers

DEM

Year 3

Baseline Situation

Year 2

Temp

Fig.3.16. Schematic Methodology of Interventions: Start-stop Interventions R. Chauhan

70 // Scripting Severn: Investigations on a Meandering River

8 years

10 years

Application of hybrid triggers

Channels, Barriers More Ponds

DEM

Year 10 Application of hybrid triggers

s

Year 2

Stage 2

DEM

Stage 3

Application of hybrid triggers

Year 10

Year 10

Year 15

Stage 1

poral Shift

Year 2

AA Landscape Urbanism Term I :Workshop III // 71

0

Baseline Simulation

D

Duration: 5500 days

E

Water Volume : 8-10 Timestep:6000000 Reach Mode - Low flood Meandering

C

In this, we take the DEM from the 2 year of the simulation of the Baseline Situation, and input it into the interventions of the first stae. There are devised to encourage and discourage water channelling in specific ways so as to determine the pros and cons of each simulated result.

1

Stage 1: Barriers

B

A

Placement of Barriers is to experiment with the path that the river might take upon being met with obstacles. Initially, the water splills out of the channel, but soon creates secondary channels, in addition to eroding the barrier. This assists in letting the river reach its simulated path earlier than before, and without eroding the basin as much as before.

Duration: 3650 days Intervention at: 730 days

Stage 1: Nested Ponds

Placement of Ponds in strategic areas of the predicted trajectory of the meaner belt will help accelerate the meandering of the river. Upon floods, when the channel gets wider and erosion occurs, excess water gets channelled to these ponds. Upon receding of the water, these may serve as storage reservoirs or allow slow discharge into the ground water over time, depending on the bed of the pond.

Stage 1: Channels Channels help align the river with its preferred flow and takes the pressure off the land which would get eaten up by the river when it starts eroding to narrow down the meander belt.

This seems to give the most uniform result in the form of alluvial fans.

72 // Scripting Severn: Investigations on a Meandering River

2

Stage 2: Nested Ponds > Channel Here, we add channels once the ponds have been utilised. Now that we know the trajectory of the river, we can place channels tp prematurely turn the river that way and be prepared for it.

Duration: 3650 days Intervention at: 730 days

Stage 2: Nested Ponds > Nested Ponds Here, we add another layer of nested ponds because the intervention needs to be updated every few years for it to remiain relevant. Upon receding of the water, these may serve as storage reservoirs or allow slow discharge into the ground water over time, depending on the bed of the pond.

Duration: 3650 days Intervention at: 730 days

3

Stage 3: Channels > Nested Ponds Water Volume : 100 -->10 Timestep:6000000 Reach Mode - High flood to Low Flood Meandering The Ponds placed at this stage are the ones that lie on the blue corridor and let the water during flash flood be stored in proper reservoirs and decreases the amount of water in the channel, thereby, leading to less erosion of the banks.

This corridor and reservoir strategy gives the river room to expand without eroding the basin.

C

A

AA Landscape Urbanism Term I :Workshop III // 73

Study Area

Conclusions & Way Forward Development of Blue Corridors These Blue Corridors are channels and open spaces that lie within the floodplain, and with the help of sytematic flood control and mitigation strategies, can be converted to emergency channels for the floodwater to travel through. This helps reduce the pressure on the main channel axis and reduces flooding in ateas where the extraneous water may have discharged.

The main aim is to ncourage compatibility between open spaces, and their strategic uses in floods. For example, receiving surplus river flows and developing ‘blue corridors’ – opportunities to make space for rivers to expand as flood flows occur.

Moreover, these open spaces when not being used for flooding, can serve as recreation areas and community spaces. For example, the retention ponds can be used to store the flood water and help serve as water storage for the ruminants from the surrounding pasturelands.

In this manner, a typology of measures can be formulated, being updated every few years to meet ne needs of the land and its inhabitants.

74 // Scripting Severn: Investigations on a Meandering River

Current River Channel 15yr Simulated River Channel

Blue Corridors Formation through Interventions Fig.3.17. Blue Corridors Formation

through Interventions R. Chauhan

AA Landscape Urbanism Term I :Workshop III // 75

Conclusion

...and Way Forward

The workshops undertaken in Term 1 initiate our learning about the dynamics of landforms and the reason and logic behind their geomorphological behaviors. By gaining this knowledge, we are able to negotiate with the landscape and get a better understanding of how to manipulate and adapt our methods and strategies around them. This will be helpful to create more comprehensive and coherent cartographies and strategies in future projects as well.

By trying our hand at physical models, and technical simulations for the same projects, we will be able to produce more a holistic set of deliverables. These exercises also give insight into real-world issues and projects which could be handled with the innovation that we generate within the course.

76 // Scripting Severn: Investigations on a Meandering River

References Ahmed, M. (2004). The Politics of Pashmina: The Changpas of Eastern Ladakh. Nomadic Peoples, 8(2), pp.89-106.

Ammayappan, L., Shakyawar, D.B., Krofa, D., Pareek,P.K., and Basu,G. (2011a). Value addition of Pashmina products: Present status and future perspectives–a review, Agri Review.

Hagalia, W. (2004). Changing rangeland use by the nomads of Samad in the highlands of eastern Ladakh, India. M.S. Dissertation. Agriculture University of Norway, Oslo Maskiell, M. (2002). Consuming Kashmir: Shawls and Empires, 1500-2000. Journal of World History, [online] 13(1), pp.27-65. Available at: http://www.jstor.org/stable/20078943.

Bakersfield Chamber of Commerce. (n.d.).

Oil & Energy - Bakersfield Chamber of Commerce. [online] Available at: https://www. bakersfieldchamber.org/oil-energy/ [Accessed 13 Oct. 2016].

Namgail, T., Bhatnagar, Y., Mishra, C. and Bagchi, S. (2007). Pastoral Nomads of the Indian Changthang: Production System, Landuse and Socioeconomic Changes. Human Ecology, 35(4), pp.497-504.

Bhasin, V. (2005). Ecology and health: A study among tribals of Ladakh. Stud Tribes Tribals.

Namgail, T., Van Wieren, S. and Prins, H. (2010). Pashmina production and socio-economic changes in the Indian Changthang: Implications for natural resource management. Natural Resources Forum, 34(3), pp.222-230.

Bhasin, V. (2012). Life on an edge among the Changpas of Changthnag, Ladakh. Journal of Biodiversity, 3(2), 85–129.

Bhasin V (2011) Pastoralists of Himalayas. J Biodiversity, 4(2): 83-113 Bhasin, V. (2011). Status of women in transhumant societies. Journal of Sociology and Social Anthropology, 2(1), 1–22 Bhasin, V. (1996). Transhumants of Himalayas: Changpas of Ladakh, Gaddis of Himachal Pradesh and Bhutias of Sikkim. Delhi: Kamla Raj Enterprises.

Bhatnagar et al. (2006) Bhatnagar, Y. V. , Wangchuk, R. , Herber, H. T. , Prins, H. H. , Van Wieren, S. E. , & Mishra, C. (2006).

Perceived conflicts between pastoralism and conservation of the kiang Equus kiang in the Ladakh Trans-Himalaya, India. Environ Manage.

Bhattacharya, T., Misra, S., Sheikh, F., Kumar, P. and Sharma, A. (2004). Changthangi Goats: A rich source of pashmina production in Ladakh. Animal Genetic Resources Information, 35, pp.75-85.

Cadw, (2001). Register of Landscapes, Parks and Gardens of Special Historic Interest in Wales. Part 2.2: Landscapes of Special Historic Interest.

Conservation.ca.gov. (2017). DOGGR Oil, Gas, and Geothermal - DOGGR Home Page. [online] Available at: http://www.conservation.ca.gov/dog [Accessed 5 Sep. 2016].

Daly, S. (2002). KASHMIR SHAWLS IN MID-VICTORIAN NOVELS. Victorian Literature and Culture, [online] 30(1), pp.237256. Available at: http://www.jstor.org/stable/25058583.

Goldstein, Melvyn; Beal, Cynthia (1990).

Nomads of Western Tibet. Berkeley, CA, USA: University of California Press. ISBN 0-52007211-1.

Namgail, T., Wieren, S. and Prins, H. (2013).

Distributional congruence of mammalian herbivores in the Trans-Himalayan Mountains. Current Zoology, 59(1), pp.116-124.

Singh, N. J., Bhatnagar, Y. V., Lecomte, N., Fox, J. L., & Yoccoz, N. G. (2013). No longer tracking greenery in high altitudes:Pastoral practices of Rupshu nomads and their implications for biodiversity conservation. Pastoralism: Research, Policy and Practice. [online] Available at: https://www.researchgate.net/ publication/236892731_No_longer_tracking_ greenery_in_high_altitudes_Pastoral_practices_of_Rupshu_nomads_and_their_implications_for_biodiversity_conservation

Wang, X., Feng, Q. and Haynes, R. (2015).

Optimization of Well Placement and Production for Large scale Mature Oil Fields. Journal of Engineering Science and Technology Review, [online] 8(5), pp.134 - 140. Available at: http://www.math.mun.ca/~rhaynes/fulltext85192015.pdf [Accessed 11 Oct. 2016].

Wani, S.A., and Wani, M.H. (2007), Economics of Pashmina Production under Pastoralist Nomadic System of Management in Cold Arid Region of Jammu and Kashmir, World J. Agric. Sci. Wani S.A., Wani M.H., Wani G.M., Yousuf S. (2009). Economics of Pashmina based trans-humance production system in cold arid region of Jammu and Kashmir. Ind. J. Agri. Eco.64: 229–45.

Wani, Shaheen, Baba, Naqash, & Manzoor (2014) Wani, S. A. , Shaheen, F. A. , Baba, S. H. , Naqash, F. , & Manzoor, M. (2014). Value chains for livestock products in Himalayan Mountains: Studies from Jammu & Kashmir, Indian. Journal of Agricultural Economics, 69(3), 280–289.

Zutshi, C. (2009). “Designed for eternity”: Kashmiri Shawls, Empire, and Cultures of Production and Consumption in Mid-Victorian Britain. The Journal of British Studies, [online] 48(02), pp.420-440. Available at: http://www.jstor.org/stable/25483041.

Sheikh, F.A. (2014). Community innovations in the informal sector: Study of Kashmiri Pashmina shawls. Paper presented at Delhi workshop on grassroots innovation movement. New Delhi: Centre for Studies in Science Policy, Jawaharlal Nehru University.

Shrotriya, S., Reshamwala, H. S., Mahar, N., Habib, B., Suhail, I., Takpa, J. (2015): Distribution and Population Estimation of Ungulates in Changthang Region, Ladakh, Jammu & Kashmir, India. Technical Report – Wildlife Institute of India and Department of Wildlife Protection, Govt. of J&K. Pp. 15.

Theoildrum.com. (2017). The Oil Drum | A Visit to Chevron’s Kern River Heavy Oil Facility. [online] Available at: http://www. theoildrum.com/node/5023 [Accessed 11 Oct. 2016].

United Nations Environment Programme Industry and Environment Centre, (1997).

Environmental management in oil and gas exploration and production. UNEP IE/PAC Technical Report 37. [online] United Kingdom: UNEP IE. Available at: http://www.ogp. org.uk/pubs/254.pdf [Accessed 11 Jan. 2017].

AA Landscape Urbanism Term I :Workshop III // 77

List of Figures Workshop 1 : Fig.1.2. Different Configurations of on-shore Oil Rigs (clockwise): Kern River: Burtynsky, E. (2004). Oil Fields #27 Bakersfield, California, USA. [image] Available at: https://melcher.com/wp-content/ uploads/2013/12/OLF_27_04_SRC_REPRO_ ipad.jpg.

Inglewood: Google, Inc, (2017). Inglewood Oil Field, near Culver City.. [image] Available at: https://cdn.theatlantic.com/assets/media/ img/photo/2014/08/the-urban-oil-fieldsof-los-angeles/u05_00000013/main_1200. jpg?1420498885.

Odessa: Ecoflight, (n.d.). Oil development at Jonah Field, Wyoming. [image] Available at: http://wilderness.org/sites/default/files/LargeJonahField_BLM_EcoFlight_R_01.jpg.

Manifa: Planet Labs Inc., (2015). Manifa Project, Saudi Arabia. [image] Available at: https:// planetgallery.global.ssl.fastly.net/web/manifa-project-web.jpg.

Ghawar: Steinmetz, G. (2002). An intersection of pipelines leading to the Gas Oil Separation Plant of Saudi Arabiaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Shaybah Oil Field.. [image] Available at: http:// s3.amazonaws.com/medias.photodeck.com/ a1e0d970-c82d-11e1-b09c-cfde62d4d945/STNMTZ_20020201_81_xgaplus.jpg.

Bakken Oil fields: Todorov, J. (2016). Large oil fields in Texas. [image] Available at: http:// main-designyoutrust.netdna-ssl.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/4-114-990x660.jpg.

Fig.1.3. California Department of Conservation, (2002). Kern County Oil Fields. [image] Available at: http://ftp://ftp.consrv.ca.gov/pub/ oil/maps/dist4/Dist4_fields.pdf.

Fig.1.4. Pump Jack labelled. (2011). [image] Available at: https://commons.wikimedia.org/ wiki/File:Pump_Jack_labelled.svg.

Fig.1.5. Different Configurations of Rig, Road and Pipeline networks: Henner, M. (2013). Kern River Oil Field, Bakersfield, California. [image] Available at: http://assets.vice.com/content-images/ contentimage/no-slug/c94b842ac873f8d58a2cf0543354685c.jpg [Accessed 11 Nov. 2016].

Henner, M. (2013). Brahaney Oil Field, Plains, Texas. [image] Available at: https://smedia-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/736x /33/27/09/332709aea7ac1c8c38fe5881f1cc88e3.jpg [Accessed 11 Nov. 2016].

Henner, M. (2013). North Ward Estes. [image] Available at: http://assets.vice.com/content-images/contentimage/no-slug/36eb558068298ec3ea83fae57dde23c5.jpg [Accessed 11 Nov. 2016].

Fig.1.7. Burtynsky, E. (2004). Oil Fields #27 Bakersfield, California, USA. [image] Available at: https://melcher.com/wp-content/ uploads/2013/12/OLF_27_04_SRC_REPRO_ ipad.jpg.

Negi, A. (2014). Sheep Scape at Tsokar Lake in the Land of Changathang in Ladakh. [image] Available at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/ ezee123/15616528149 [Accessed 11 Nov. 2016].

Fig.1.10. Aerial photograph of the Kern River Oil Field. (2012). [image] Available at: https:// en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kern_River_Oil_Field#/ media/File:Kern_River_Oil_Field_aerial.jpg.

Fig.2.11. Various: ZEZE COLLECTIVE, (2015). [images] Available at: http://www.moowon.com/stories/ pashmina [Accessed 11 Nov. 2016].

Nepal Pashmina Industry, (2008). [images] Available at: http://www.npi-nepal.com/main/ process/11_dyeing.jpg [Accessed 11 Nov. 2016].

Fig.1.15. Anderson, A. (2014). Oil Field, 1. [image] Available at: http://blog.at-edge.com/ wp-content/uploads/atedge-oil-fieldledge.jpg.

Workshop 1.2 : Fig.1.2.1. archello.com, (2017). Modular Origami. [image] Available at: https://https://smedia-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/564x/f3/33/09/ f3330911d8f1f7a9b0d5abb377553abd.jpgin. pinterest.com/pin/179018153909900519/ [Accessed 10 Jan. 2017].

Fig.1.2.5. Daring Book for Girls, (2007).

Cootie Catchers Folding Instructions. [image] Available at: http://daringbookforgirls.com/ about-the-book/cootie-catchers/ [Accessed 11 Nov. 2016].

Workshop 2 : Fig.2.1. Singh, M. (2012). Following the animals into this bleak landscape were the Chang pa herders. [image] Available at: https:// itisemriarticles.files.wordpress.com/2012/07/ afr_2835.jpg?w=575&h=382 [Accessed 11 Nov. 2016].

Fig.2.2. LAULHĂ&#x2C6;RE, (2017). Merino Wool Plan. [image] Available at: http://www.military-beret.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/ MerinoWoolPlan900.jpg [Accessed 11 Nov. 2016].

Fig.2.4. The Kashmir Company Inc., (2017).

Guinevere_Jade_Shawl_Pashmina_Jamawar_ Shawl. [image].

Fig.2.6. Various: Jani, G. (2012). Changpas. [image] Available at: http://im.rediff.com/getahead/2012/ dec/04changpa3.jpg [Accessed 11 Nov. 2016]. nomadicwoollenmills, (2017). Ladakhi Cashmere Flyer. [image] Available at: http://nomadicwoollenmills.com/wp-content/uploads/ Ladakhi-Cashmere-Flyer-26-von-111.jpg [Accessed 11 Nov. 2016].

ZEZE COLLECTIVE, (2015). Kashmiri Pashmina Weaving. [image] Available at: http:// www.moowon.com/stories/pashmina [Accessed 11 Nov. 2016].

Nepal Pashmina Industry, (2008). After color is approved it goes for dying.. [image] Available at: http://www.npi-nepal.com/main/process/11_dyeing.jpg [Accessed 11 Nov. 2016].

78 // Scripting Severn: Investigations on a Meandering River

Workshop 3: Fig.3.1. The River Beat. (2011). [image] Available at: http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-rd_BIZIfJiE/TbU6e3CSpsI/AAAAAAAAAO8/ GUI9r61knOE/s1600/P4161263.JPG [Accessed 11 Nov. 2016].

Fig. 3.2. Pearson Prentice Hall, (2005). Oxbow Lake Formation. [image].

Fig. 3.3. Buffington et.al (2013). Geomorohlogical classification of rivers. [image].

Fig. 3.4. Pearson Prentice Hall, (2005). Bow and Swale Tooography. [image].

Fig.3.5. Driver, T. (2011). Caersws, from North. [image] Available at: http://map.coflein. gov.uk/index.php?action=do_details&numlink=268006&cache_name=cG5wcm4sMzA1NjI5X3NlYXJjaHR5cGUsYWR2YW5jZWRfb3Jh [Accessed 11 Nov. 2016].

Fig. 3.6. Maps from National Library of Scotland: Montgomeryshire XXXV.SE (includes: Llandinam; Llanwnnog.) - Ordnance Survey Six-inch England and Wales, 1842-1952 http://maps.nls.uk/view/102187406

Montgomeryshire XXXVI.SW (includes: Aberhafesb; Llanllwchaearn; Penystrywaid.) Ordnance Survey Six-inch England and Wales, http://maps.nls.uk/view/102187436 Montgomeryshire XXXVI.SW (includes: Aberhafesb; Llanllwchaearn; Penystrywaid.) Ordnance Survey Six-inch England and Wales, http://maps.nls.uk/view/102187433 (inset images) Pg. 65 Influence of channel shape on velocity. (n.d.). [image] Available at: http://courses.missouristate.edu/emantei/creative/glg110/streams. html#page217 [Accessed 11 Nov. 2016].

Pg. 66 Pearson Prentice Hall, (2005). Sediment Deposition. [image].

Pg. 67 California Rivers and Streams(n.d.). [image] Available at: http://thebritishgeographer.weebly.com/uploads/1/1/8/1/11812015/1380533_orig. jpeg?317 Pg. 74 Jeffrey F. Mount, 1997. Ripple formations on meandering rivers. [image].

Montgomeryshire XXXV.SE (includes: Llandinam; Llanwnnog.) - Ordnance Survey Six-inch England and Wales, 1842-1952 http://maps.nls.uk/view/102187403 Montgomeryshire XXXV.SE (includes: Llandinam; Llanwnnog.) - Ordnance Survey Six-inch England and Wales, 1842-1952 http://maps.nls.uk/view/102187409 SO09 - Ordnance Survey 1:25,000 maps of Great Britain, 1937-1961 http://maps.nls.uk/view/93505432 Montgomeryshire XXXVI.SW (includes: Aberhafesb; Llanllwchaearn; Penystrywaid.) Ordnance Survey Six-inch England and Wales, http://maps.nls.uk/view/102187430 Llanidloes (Outline), Sheet 164 - Ordnance Survey One-Inch to the mile, England and Wales, Revised New Series http://maps.nls.uk/view/101168006 Sheet 128, Montgomery and Llandrindod Wells - Ordnance Survey One-inch to the mile maps of Great Britain, Seventh Series, 1952http://maps.nls.uk/view/91576814 Sheet 16 - Aberystwyth - Bartholomew’s ‘Half Inch to the Mile Maps’ of England and Wales, 1902-1906 http://maps.nls.uk/view/97492951 Sheet 128, Montgomery and Llandrindod Wells - Ordnance Survey One-inch to the mile maps of Great Britain, Seventh Series, 1952http://maps.nls.uk/view/91576814 AA Landscape Urbanism Term I :Workshop III // 79