International Practices in Architecture, Urban Design and Urban Planning by Rinika Prince

IP International Practices

Architecture, Urban Design and Urban Planning

Taubman College of Architecture and Urban Planning University of Michigan 2018 ARCH 509 CREDITS Layout Design Yaqi Dai, Christopher Humphrey Book Compilation Andrea Marquez, Turner Solterman Consistency Check Tristan Snyder, Andrea Marquez Copy Editing Tristan Snyder, Bryan Hicks, Austen Gillen-Keeney, Katherine Lai English to Chinese Translations Kungang Ding, Zhipeng Liu, Yue Lu, Quiaoer Ma, Mingdi Zhou Cover Design Rinika Prince, Anika Shah

Contents Introduction by Roy Strickland, Professor of Architecture Guest Lecture List

01 03

I. International Architectural Expression 1.1 Culture in Architecture

05 07 17 27

II. International Reclamation and Reuse

39 41 49

III. International Urban Transformation 3.1 Gentrificationâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Effects on Two Neighborhoods

59 61 69

1.2 Comparison between Jinmao and Taipei 101 1.3 Community Engagement 2.1 Urban Flooding in Shanghai and Miami 2.2 Post-Industrial Environment

3.2 Behind Density

Introduction

Arch 509: International Practices Roy Strickland, Professor of Architecture

This book is an outcome of the course, International Practices in Architecture, Urban Design and Urban Planning, held at the A. Alfred Taubman College of Architecture and Urban Planning at the University of Michigan during Fall Term, 2018. The course is new and experimental, generated by the College’s “One School” initiative that seeks to leverage the international backgrounds of students and faculty toward cross-cultural learning. As the professions of architecture, urban design and urban planning grow more global, the College, through the initiative and other activities and programs, helps prepare students to act globally. International Practices in Architecture, Urban Design and Urban Planning was inspired by a conversation between faculty members of the One School Task Force and Sharon Sutton, professor emerita at the University of Washington, who suggested that the College develop a seminar that would serve as a platform for students of varied nationalities to share discussion and research around themes of their choosing, in that way expanding their knowledge of architecture, urban planning and urban design while reaching across differences in their backgrounds and areas of expertise as they engaged each other in the seminar. The course, a three-point elective, enrolled sixteen students, roughly half from the United States, the other half from China, with one student from India. Because of scheduling conflicts with urban planning and urban design course requirements, only masters-level architecture students participated—with the exception of one crossregistered student from the College of Engineering. All architecture students were first-year students enrolled in either the two-year or three-year masters-level programs. The course had fourteen, three-hour sessions held once per week: one session for introductions to the course, students and their national backgrounds and disciplinary and professional interests (Figure 1); eight sessions with faculty guests from the College (and one external to the College) representing architecture, urban planning and urban design; one session during which teams presented their preliminary research to each other (Figure 2); three sessions during which teams presented their findings; one session for seminar members to discuss the organization and design of this book (after preliminary work done outside of class time) (Figure 3); and a final session to discuss students’ conclusions drawn from their research and seminar participation. The seminar was designed to promote participation and interaction by all students. For each faculty and team presentation, students were appointed in small international groups as responders to initiate

Figure 1. Board notes from seminar’s first session showing breadth of students’ interests in global issues in design, planning and the environment.

conversation by the rest of the students (for faculty presentations, readings were assigned and prepared in advance by all students); each student team prepared a forty-five- to sixty-minute PowerPoint presentation on its topic as well as five-page written summary that was circulated for discussion by all participants (PowerPoints and summaries providing the basis for the chapters in this book); and all students worked creating this book, dividing responsibilities across areas such as organization, design, editing and translating. To encourage cross-national exchange and teambuilding, students sat around a single, large seminar table where name cards were placed in advance of every session. The cards were arranged so that international and United States students sat next each other and were re-arranged each session to encourage

Figure 2. Presentations by students to each other of their preliminary research findings.

Introduction International Practices

different people to sit beside one another. (The cards were printed in a font large enough to be seen from one end of the table to the other so that students as well as faculty guests could speak to each other by name.) Meanwhile, each research team was required to combine people of at least two different nationalities. (Only one team, due to its choice of topic, consisted of two students from the United States.) Additionally, the seminar held a small reception for the guest speaker from off-campus. The event enabled students to socialize informally early in the semester to help break down barriers between whose who were not fully acquainted with each other. (Figure 4) As noted above, the seminar’s guest speakers represented architecture, urban planning and urban design. All—with one exception—were College faculty engaged in international projects and research. Noticeably, guests were often originally from countries outside the United States, enabling them to speak not only about their work but about establishing work and practice outside their countries of origin, useful to students as they prepare

Figure 3. Student-run session toward development of this book.

As the seminar concludes, students will be asked their recommendations for improving it. As part of One School Task Force meetings, urban planning students have lobbied to enroll in the class. In the future, should the seminar continue, a goal will be to have both national and disciplinary diversity among student participants, as was the original intent.

Guest Lecturers Maria Arquero de Alarcon Urban Natures

Lars Graebner and Christina Hansen

Detroit/Germany/Spain/China: An International Collaboration (Volume One) Figure 4. Students meeting informally at reception for guest speaker, part of the seminar’s effort to encourage cross-national socialization.

for global practice. The seven guests and their topics, in order of their presentations, were Maria Arquero de Alarcon (urban designer from Spain), “Urban Natures”; Lars Graebner (architect and urban designer from Germany), “Detroit/Germany/Spain/China – An International Collaboration (Volume One)”; Sandra Manninger and Matias del Campo (architects from Austria) – “SPAN Architects, Matias del Campo and Sandra Manninger”; Sai Balakrishnan (urban planner and urban designer from India, Harvard Graduate School of Design), “The Role of International Actors in Domestic Design and Planning Practice”; Sharon Haar (architect from the United States), “Envisioning China”; Harley Etienne (urban planner and HaitianAmerican), “Considering Housing Precarity and the Uses of Haiti and Detroit”; and Claudia Wigger (architect from Germany), “High Density”. (Although an invitation was extended to a College faculty member from China, she had to decline because the seminar’s time conflicted with her own course in the urban planning program—a situation to be avoided in the future.)

Sandra Manninger and Matias del Campo

SPAN Architects, Matias del Campo and Sandra Manninger

Sai Balakrishnan

The Role of International Actors in Domestic Design and Planning Practice

Sharon Haar

Envisioning China

Harley Etienne

Considering Housing Precarity and the Uses of Haiti and Detroit

Claudia Wigger High Density

I. INTERNATIONAL ARCHITECTURE EXPRESSION

Culture in Architecture International Practices

1.1 Culture in Architecture - Summary Exploring Context’s Impact on High Rise Buildings Bryan Hicks, Yaqi Dai

Design concept diagram. MAD Architects. 2009.

Design concept diagram. MAD Architects. 2009. https://www.dezeen. com/2009/12/10/urban-forest-by-mad/

This paper explores processes for grounding high rise contemporary architecture within its surrounding cultural context. High rise architecture has become a symbol of international cultural hegemony. “Global cities” are being created using towers which have no connection to the cities they are erected in. This loss of cultural identity spurs the creation of cities which put less and less value on human scale and interaction with the built environment.

文化在建筑中的表达这篇文章探讨了如何让当代高层建筑更好地与当地文化背景相融合。当今社会，高层建筑已经成为国际文化领导力的象征。“国际化大都市”正在通过兴建那些与城市联系甚少的高层建筑来宣布主权。我们正在通过兴建这些缺少文化认同感的高层建筑来建设我们的城市，值得一提的是，这些高层建筑缺少了对人体尺度以及周边环境交互的考量。

Specifically, the paper looks at two architects from different backgrounds who are exploring culture in their separate ways. One is a young Chinese designer named Ma Yansong, the other is an experienced French designer, Jean Nouvel. Each has his own solution to incorporating culture into high rise buildings and each solution grows out of the architects own culture, background, and education. This paper highlights the design elements used by each architect to craft a contextually conscious structure. Although many critics have pointed out flaws in the designs discussed, the point of this paper is less about presenting foolproof repeatable solutions and more about highlighting some of the current ideas being put forward to address issues of culture and context.

具体来说，本文着眼于两位来自不同背景的建筑师，他们正在以各自的方式探索文化。一位是年轻的中国设计师马岩松，另一位是经验丰富的法国设计师让·努维尔。每个人都有自己的解决方案，将文化融入高层建筑，每个解决方案都源于建筑师自己的文化和教育背景。本文重点介绍了每个建筑师用以构建具有文脉意识的结构的设计元素。虽然许多评论家都指出了所讨论的设计中存在的缺陷，但本文的重点不在于提出万无一失的可重复的解决方案，而在于强调当前提出的一些解决文化和背景问题的想法。

Culture in Architecture International Practices

1.1

Culture in Architecture

Shanshui City

Exploring Context’s Impact on High Rise Buildings

Wang Mingxian, an architecture critic, created a series of paintings. He put contemporary buildings in Beijing, such as the CCTV new tower, Bird Nest and National Grand Theater, into traditional landscape paintings. All these new buildings in the paintings seem at least somewhat awkward. While when Chaoyang Park Plaza was added in, it looks quite harmonious.

Bryan Hicks, Yaqi Dai

Introduction Ma Yansong & Shanshui City research, courtesy of MAD Architects.

“The influence from architecture to people and culture, and the response from people and culture towards architecture, a well as the conversation between them, is what I care about the most.” Ma and his teacher Hadid

The Imperial Palace(BEIJING).2017

Christo Anestev . Parthenon (Greece). 2017

Robie House(Chicago)

Culture -- “The customary beliefs, social forms, and material traits of a racial, religious, or social group” Merriam - Webster dictionary It encompasses the land and its topography, housing patterns, local language, climate, food habits, religious beliefs, art and music, to name a few. It can be viewed as the sum total of characteristic features of everyday existence, as synergetic diversions of economic, political and social life, or a way of life collectively shared by people in a place and time (Rapoport, 1977 and 1983; Harvey, 1989). Architects are outstanding because they are able to perceive, discover, and operate through their own minds and present to the world an architectural work that evokes cultural contemplation. The culture and context of a city can affect an architect’s thought process, and can be as important as the architects own experiences. The context of a city does not exist in a specific place or space, nor is it the same as the tangible environment of a city. While skyscrapers, by the very nature of their huge scale and height, are sometimes intrusive into the urban environment. It makes us question whether all such high-rise buildings create a seemingly unhappy, inhuman place, which seems to act against culture and vernacular character. This paper explores the possibility that highrise building typology can enhance place-making and foster social interactions when designed well and placed in proper locations1. This paper will be analyzing how two contemporary architects respond to locale context and how that interacts with their innate knowledge of culture. To achieve this goal, the paper looks at two architects from different backgrounds and cultures who are exploring locale and expressing culture in their different ways. One is a young Chinese designer named Ma Yansong, the other is an experienced French designer, Jean Nouvel. We can see their understanding

and efforts to explore culture in modern architecture as two models, neither perfect, but each attempting to address what he sees as a loss of culture to insipid internationalism.

Urban Forest Ma Yansong

Ma was born in Beijing in 1975. He is very young among those well-known architects. There once was a joke which described him, “It is impossible to become a famous architect as early as their 30s, unless you are Ma Yansong”. Growing up in the traditional Beijing quadrangle, he collided with western architecture culture while he was attending graduate school at Yale University. He founded his own architecture firm in 2002, and was awarded the “Young Global Leaders” award by the World Economic Forum in 2014. He was referred to as the “first Chinese architect” because he was the first Chinese architect to achieve traditionally western feats. In 2010, he was the first Chinese architect to receive a RIBA fellowship, and in 2012, he was the first Chinese architect to win an overseas landmarkbuilding project. Now, MAD Architects has three offices, the first was located in Beijing, China, the other two in Los Angeles and New York.

Zaha Hadid was the teacher of Ma through his time at Yale, and Ma went on to work for Hadid in her studio. Some people think Ma inherits Hadid’s style or even argue that Ma simply mimics Hadid’s work. However, Ma argues that his style is different then Hadid, “actually, I am really different with Hadid, those who create rectangle building are almost the same.” 2 Ma tends to create architecture that responds to ever-changing nature, creating a curved form which is endless as Hadid did, is not the most important part of architecture for Ma. In this way, he thinks curves are not a kind of genre or category but something to move beyond. More importantly, the starting points of Ma and Hadid are different. To Hadid, architecture is a separate object with a geometric image of the perfect image to reflect personal aesthetic taste. Whereas Ma states, “What I want to represent is instead a kind of imperfect poetry, like the feeling we gain from Chinese traditional landscape painting. One stroke is highly abstract, and only at this time, even myself cannot create it even tomorrow.” 2 Ma thinks architecture is pursuing a tight relationship to its surrounding to convey its spirit to its users otherwise form is emotionless.

Ma Yansong and Zaha Hadid.

Ma leads design across various scales. Recently many of Ma’s designs follow his concept of the “Shanshui City”, in translation “Mountain Water City”, which promote the combining the function and nature spirit within such high-dense urban background. A former reaction to Modernist values, Shanshui city seeks a kind of civilization which has an intimate relationship between our emotion and nature.

Wangmingxian. Traditional Chinese painting. 2016. Chaoyang Plaza Park. MAD Architects. 2014

Heydar Aliyev Center. Zaha Hadid Architects. 2014

Lucas Museum of Narrative Art. MAD Architects. 2014

Culture in Architecture International Practices

Eastern and Western Naturalist perspective

Chaoyang Plaza Park 2012-2016 Residential, commercial, residential Building Area: 223,009 square meters Chaoyang Park Plaza attempts to create a dialogue between artificial landscape and the natural scenery. By transforming features of classical Chinese landscape painting -- lakes, springs, forests, valleys and stones -- and inserting them into the contemporary city context. Unlike a typical urban-block that delineate the boundary between city and garden, a pair of towers appear at the edge of the park as an organic part of the adjacent green space. By exploring the symbiotic relationship between modern architecture, urban life and environment, Chaoyang Park Plaza creates a place where people can share in a sense of belonging. 3

LEEDS building

Huangshan Mountain Village. MAD Architects. 2016

Nanjing Zendai Himalayas Center 2012-2017 Commercial, office, residential, hotel Building Area: 567,844 square meters Now, Nanjing is experiencing a contemporary renaissance as transit-oriented design spurs large-scale development. Nanjing Zendai Himalayas Center is a part of this, and creates a new urban typology that integrates nature with such kind of metropolis. Its building mass of office and residential towers traces the siteâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s periphery and evokes a series of mountain ranges carved from ancient process of water and wind erosion. Similar to traditional Chinese garden designs, several architectural follies and garden elements are featured against the mountains backdrop of towers.3 Chaoyang Plaza Park. MAD Architects. 2016

Huangshan Mountain Village 2009-2016 Residential Building Area: 70,000 square meters The village blurs the boundaries between the geometries of architecture and nature - its form evokes the geology of the region. It is an extension of the existing mountains. Individual apartments feature unique floor plates with large balconies of sculpted concrete wrapped by curved glass balustrades that maximize views to the water and surrounding mountains. The use of local building materials and the intimate relationship between building and nature re-establishes the ancient art of Chinese landscape design within a framework of contemporary life. 3

There is a difference in how the East and the West treat nature. Throughout the process of contemporary Western urbanization, skyscrapers were the symbol of technological competitions, prime capitals, and formal enslavement of the powerful and rich. Sustainable ecology became more of a demand for comfort; just as with the LEED certificate in architecture, it becomes a very technologically driven way of thinking. In western culture, many do not think that human-beings are part of nature, or that nature is the spiritual extension of humankind. While in traditional eastern cultural values, much more attention is paid to the interpretation of traditions. In Eastern Philosophy the perspective of nature and the man-made is all tied together within natural outdoor experiences. 4

Administration divisions diagram

Urban Forest Design Background

Currently, the constitution of China provides for five levels: the provincial (province, autonomous region, municipality, and special administrative region), prefecture, county, township and village.5 Municipalities are a higher level of city that is directly under the Chinese government, with status equal to that of the provinces. In practice however, their political status is higher than that of common provinces. Chongqing is a major city in southwest China. Administratively, it is one of Chinaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s four municipalities under the direct administration of central government (the other three are Beijing, Shanghai and Tianjin). It is the only such municipality in China located far away from the coast. As an important pole of the growing economy in western China, the city area of Chongqing is more than twice of those of Beijing, Shanghai and Tianjin combined. 6-7

Municipalities in China

Nanjing Zendai Himalayas Center. MAD Architects.2017

Beijing. Visual China.2017

Huangshan Mountain Village. MAD Architects. 2016

Shanghai. Li yang.2016

Tianjin.Banyan Tree.2017

Chongqing.supchina.2017

Culture in Architecture International Practices

Design Analysis Concept

Urban Forest is inspired by traditional Chinese “Shanshui” paintings, in which the natural environment and artificial structure are harmonious with each other. MAD architects proposed the concept for a new pattern of Chinese urban development. This project explores a sustainable high-rise located in the youngest municipality in China, where nature can be reincorporated into the built-environment based on the background of high-density in the contemporary city. It evokes the affection for nature which is now lost in much of the oriental world.

Structure Each tower of this high rise commercial complex has an abstract curved shape with a cylindrical structure in the center of the building. Each floor is surrounded by glass as a wall structure. This design increases the transparency of the building while making each floor appear to be suspended above the floor. It also creates dynamic light-filled offices and floating patios, free from suffocation by the concrete world below. All this combines to create green spaces and broad urban views which bring nature into the skyscraper. 10-11

Skyscrapers have historically been symbols of technological mastery and abundant capital, they are many times ego-driven, expressing an architects ambitions for all to see. Many western firms now push a “green” architecture. Unfortunately, in contemporary standards this means pursuing higher technological standards which on their own lack an intuitive desire for a connection with nature. Unlike typical western skyscrapers that have strong straight profiles, Urban Forest appears as a living creature within the city context. This “living” profile allows the building to evoke natural forms at a large scale. At the scale below this, the project mixes commercial office spaces, hotel, and residential accommodations, creating complex and multidimensional spaces. Rather than driving the project vertically, MAD architects created a stake of floors, each sliding to offset in a horizontal direction to create spaces for gardens and patios which provide access to nature and public space for the buildings residents. This building is 385 meters in height and the shape of it mimics a mountain range, shifting in a dynamic pattern and yet creating a recognizable rhythm. The architectural form creates a fluid space between air, wind and light, which evokes ancient poetic lifestyle in a combination between Eastern humanism spirit and the high-density urban requirement. In this environment, people encounter nature filled with unexpected surprises. “The Urban Forest will not be a piece of mediocre urban machinery, but an artificial organ that lives and breathes new life in the steel & concrete filled city center”. 8-9

Doha Skyline. Unknown Photographer. 2014

Doha Tower Background Urban Forest. MAD Architects. 2009

The Doha Tower or Burj Doha is a high rise office building in the center of Doha’s business district. The tower was commissioned by Sheikh Saud Mohammed al-Thani in the early 2000’s and was completed in 2012. The tower is rare because of the amount of attention given to its surrounding context both climatically and culturally. The primary strategic vision for the structure was to create a symbol of Islamic Qatari culture in contemporary Doha. Jean Nouvel was hired as the principal architect having experience creating both culturally relevant and iconic buildings. The Doha Tower manages to create a distinctive contemporary symbol of Qatar’s heritage through a unique combination of Sheikh Saud bin Mohammed Al Thani’s vision for Qatar and Jean Nouvel’s own philosophies and design decisions. Design Influence

Urban Forest. MAD Architects. 2009

Jean Nouvel was in many ways a perfect candidate to build such a culturally iconic building. Nouvel has spoken on culture and architecture’s relationship in the past saying that, “Our work (Atelier Jean Nouvel) is anchored in the belief that architecture must reverberate deeply within the local context.”17 More specifically

culture itself, Nouvel stated, “I think that now architecture has lost relationships with cultures. Architecture has completely lost touch with local or national cultures, geographical situation, location and spirit of the time.”17 Complementing this view of context was Sheikh Mohammed Al Thani’s own views on the need for a cultural resurgence in Qatar. Al Thani was the Minister of Culture, Arts and Heritage from 1997 - 2005 and had held a lifelong interest in art and culture. He commissioned the Doha Tower from his own fortune, paying almost double the average cost, mandating that Nouvel create an iconic building which addressed this lack of cultural context. The design itself is appropriate for the city of Doha at many differing scales. At the largest scale, the most noticeable feature of the tower from a distance is its conical shape. This is a shape which had always interested Nouvel, who first attempted a circular high rise tower in his unbuilt Tour Sans Fins (Paris, 1989) and later successfully completed the well known Torre Agbar in Barcelona. The Doha Tower’s shape is obviously greatly impacted by these earlier designs, but it is also shaped to resemble several well known local minaret towers. This is in many ways the weakest form of adaptation to local culture because it is purely aesthetic. All traces of the original function, and scale are completely lost. Although this move is done at a large scale, it is probably the most inconsequential to the project as a whole. The most important move in this building is the steel screen which acts as a sunshade and covers the entire facade.

Culture in Architecture International Practices

is a fundamentally different and stronger connection than the earlier discussed move to create a reference to the minaret towers.16 The final pivotal moment of cultural representation takes place in the dome topping the tower. The pivot from vertical to horizontal has always been a significant moment in Islamic architecture. The creation of muqarnas, one of the most iconic forms of Islamic architecture, deals with this exact moment. Islamic domes are characterized by several features including: their attention to geometric designs, aesthetically reinforced structure, and color. The dome of the Doha Tower manages to capture each of these features in a way that is similar to the screens ability to capture the

Conclusion At once, high-rise has become a trend and symbol of Western cultural hegemony around the world and it is leading to a kind of “global cities.” This is means that many cities are facing the danger of losing their identities. However, skyscrapers of distinct and culturally inspired forms can act a good response to locale culture while improving a city’s identity. We have analyzed two architect’s approaches to the this problem facing growing global cities. Each has his own solution to incorporating culture into high rise buildings and each solution grows out of the architects own culture, background, and education. Ma Yansong has created buildings which view culture as a way of living or a set of ideals which he has put at the core of his buildings. Jean Nouvel, on the other hand, sees culture as a reference and continuation to traditional ornamental forms and systems. Both methods address the same issues, and it makes complete sense that two architects of differing backgrounds and cultures would also have differing views as they seek to implement culture back into the built world.1

Jean | Nouvel Doha Tower Dome. Katsu Tanaka. 2017

Endnotes

Hazrate-masomeh’s mosque. Merdad. 2016

Traditional Mashrabiya. Unknown photographers. 2014

This steel screen is the outside part of a double facade system which allows the screen to stop the sunlight and heat before it ever hits the glass. In something that is surprisingly uncommon on many modern high rise structures, the sides of the structure differ visibly as a reaction to possible solar heat gain and glare. The screen changes density and size to create opacity of 25% to the North, 40% to the South, and 60% to the East and West. The screens patterning and function relate directly to the Qatari context. The screen patterning is based on the traditional Islamic Najm star patterning while the function is taken directly from traditional Mashrabiya. Mashrabiya are ornamented screens usually associated with the urban elites houses and palaces. There most important function was as a shading and cooling device with a secondary function of separating the public and private spheres. This function and aesthetic is precisely captured in the screen of the Doha Tower. This sharing of function

1.Al-Kodmany, Kheir, and Mir M.Ali. “SKYSCRAPERS AND PLACEMAKING: SUPPORTING LOCAL CULTURE AND IDENTITY.” ArchNet-IJAR, July 20, 2012, 43-64. 2. Chen, Christine. “馬岩松的山水城市.” DFUN. January 28, 2016. Accessed November 18, 2018. http:// /馬岩松的山水城市/. 3. Ma, Yansong. MAD Works, MAD Architects. London, N1: Phaidon Press Limited, 2016.

Jean | Nouvel Doha Tower. Katsu Tanaka. 2017

and aesthetic of the Mashrabiya, but what truly makes this dome great is its movement beyond the referential. This dome is successful because instead of alluding to the traditional or the past, it is creating a continuation of the past. When looking at images of Islamic domes on the next page, the Doha Tower dome is not at all out of place. It has not simply copied the other domes, it has added its own unique, completely contemporary, steel and glass structure to the enumeration of Islamic domes. Doha Tower Conclusions

Doha Office. CTBUH. 2010

Doha tower is an imperfect example of one way to create a culturally sensitive building. Where the tower is successful it is not done by simply copying forms from historical architecture without regard to scalar relationships or function. A genuinely successful building of this type will be looked upon as a natural continuation of traditional architecture while itself being constructed in a fully contemporary manner.

4. Ling, Xiang. “We Work for MAD Special: MAD Partners Interview – Ma Yansong.” Gooood. November 06, 2018. Accessed November 20, 2018. https://www.gooood.cn/we-work-for-mad-special-mad-partners- interview-ma-yansong.htm. 5. “Archived copy” 中国的行政区划——省级行政单位. Government of the People’s Republic of China. 2009-04-17. Archived from the original on 2015-07-15. Retrieved 2015-09-07.

Jameh’s mosque. Merdad. 2016

6. “China’s Direct-Controlled Municipalities”. Geography.about.com. 14 March 1997. Retrieved 2013-12-10. 7. 2015年重庆常住人口3016.55万人继续保持增长态势 [2016年重庆常住人口 3670 万人继续保持增长态势] (in Chinese). Chongqing News. 28 January 2016. Retrieved 2016-02-13 8. Etherington, Rose. “Urban Forest by MAD.” Dezeen. December 10, 2009. Accessed October 30, 2018. https://www.dezeen.com/2009/12/10/urban-forest-bymad/. 9. Chin, Andrea. “MAD Architects : Urban Forest.” Designboom. November 30, 2009. Accessed October 30, 2018. https://www.designboom.com/ architecture/mad-architects-urban-forest/.

Shahe-cheragh’s mosque. Merdad. 2016

10. Etherington, Rose. “Urban Forest by MAD.” Dezeen. December 10, 2009. Accessed October 30, 2018. https://www.dezeen.com/2009/12/10/urban-forest-bymad/. 11. Chin, Andrea. “MAD Architects : Urban Forest.” Designboom. November 30, 2009. Accessed October 30, 2018. https://www.designboom.com/architecture/madarchitects-urban-forest/.

Grand Mosque of Shah Jehan, Thatta . Sajid. 2011 15

Culture in Architecture International Practices

12. Etherington, Rose. “Urban Forest by MAD.” Dezeen. December 10, 2009. Accessed October 30, 2018. https://www.dezeen.com/2009/12/10/urban-forest-bymad/.

1.2 Jinmao Tower & Taipei 101 - Summary Culture & Structure in Architecture Qiaoer Ma & Turner Solterman

13. Chin, Andrea. “MAD Architects : Urban Forest.” Designboom. November 30, 2009. Accessed October 30, 2018. https://www.designboom.com/architecture/madarchitects-urban-forest/. 14. “Doha High Rise Office Tower.” Ateliers Jean Nouvel. Accessed November 18, 2018. http://www.jeannouvel.com/en/projects/doha-9-high-rise-office-tower/. 15. Hoover, Kristin. “Doha Tower | Jean Nouvel.” Arch2O.com. June 24, 2015. Accessed November 21, 2018. https://www.arch2o.com/doha-tower-jean-nouvel/. 16. “Doha Tower Facts and Information.” The Tower Info. Accessed November 14, 2018. https://thetowerinfo.com/buildings-list/doha-tower/.Jean Nouvel | Doha Tower. Accessed November 21, 2018. http://katsu-tanaka.com/jean-nouvel--dohatower.html. 17. Karakus, Fokhan. “2016 On Site Review Report Doha Towre.” Archnet. org. Accessed November 12, 2018. https://archnet.org/system/publications/ contents/10762/original/DTP103147.pdf?1476108725. Futagawa, Yoshio. Jean Nouvel: Recent Project. Tokyo: A.D.A. Edita, 2014.

Taipei 101 (https://www.cylee.com/project/Taipei-101)

Jin Mao Tower (https://www.som.com/projects/jin_mao_tower)

Ever since humans have interacted with the built environment, we have seen a progression of complexity and technology expressed through our creations. In this progression, we have also seen different expressions of similar buildings due to differences in available building material, culture, economic realities, and technology available to the architect/engineer. What is most fascinating however, is that sometimes the expression of two very similar ideas can take on the same superficial shape but originate from very different circumstances. This is most apparent is the comparison between the Jinmao Tower in Shanghai and Taipei 101 in Taipei. To the casual observer of super tall buildings, these two buildings serve almost identical purposes, look almost the same, and are even in the same part of the globe! But a more detailed analysis into what went behind these two buildings is crucial in showing the vast differences between the two buildings. Throughout this paper, the differences in culture, economics, motivations, architects, and technology will show that underneath the simple façade of an inverted pagoda, these buildings start to look more dissimilar than they once did.

自从人类与建造环境相互作用以来，我们已经看到了通过我们的创作所表达的复杂性和技术的进步。在这一过程中，由于建筑师与工程师可用的建筑材料，文化，经济现实和技术的差异，我们也看到了类似建筑的不同表现形式。然而，最令人着迷的是，有时两个非常相似的想法的表达可以呈现相同的外观形态，但概念却源自于不同的情境。最明显的是上海金茂大厦与台北的台北101之间的比较。对于超高层建筑的不经意的观察者来说，这两座建筑几乎完全相同，甚至位于地球的同样位置！但是，对这两栋建筑背后的内容进行更详细的分析对于展示两座建筑之间的巨大差异至关重要。在整篇文章中，文化，经济动机，建筑学和技术的差异将表明，在中国式古塔的立面下，这些建筑开始看起来比以前更加不同。

Case Study International Practices

1.2

COMPARISON BETWEEN JINMAO TOWER & TAIPEI 101

Culture Comparison

Culture & Structure in Architecture Qiaoer Ma & Turner Solterman

History Comparison

Old City Shanghai (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_City_(Shanghai))

Taipei (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taipei)

Shanghai Skyline (https://www.yiyahanyu.com/blog/?author=1&paged=2)

Taipei 101 (https://www.gettyimages.com/photos/ taipei?sort=mostpopular&mediatype=photography&phrase=taipei)

The comparison of the histories of our two cities (Shanghai and Taipei) is an interesting place to start our analysis. Shanghai, being one of the oldest cities in mainland China, has a long history of being a major trading and cultural hub.1 Its history is to mainland China as New York’s history is to the United States. Shanghai’s importance as an international financial capital and trading port have always given it a very strong international influence.1 It was one of the first cities to implement new technologies of every era, including electricity, public transit, telephone and many more given the help and international influence that the American, British and French have historically had there. Recently under the Peoples Republic of China, Shanghai has seen an economic boom and therefore a need to expand its infrastructure and reestablish its place in the world as an “international city”.2 Like all “international cities” these days, that means skyscrapers and iconic architecture to set it apart from others and cement its location on the map during this new building fad.

In comparison, Taipei is a smaller player on the world stage. Its significance came about when the Peoples Republic of China forced out its more nationalistic political parties leading to the island of Taiwan and its administrative capital, Taipei.3 Political relations between the mainland Chinese government and the government in Taiwan are tense; the Peoples Republic of China claiming still that Taiwan is part of mainland China and the Taiwanese government insisting that it isn’t.3 This disagreement speaks to a larger flavor of conservative Taiwanese culture in Taipei. They view themselves as the decedents of the old order of Chinese government, and this is reflected in their sense of national pride and political organization. If Shanghai had an international flavor, Taipei has an aggressively Taiwanese flavor.

Top Left: Taiwan Night Market (https://imgcop.com/search/2018-1026883/), Left: Taipei 101 Illustration (https://www.artstation.com/artwork/EAXJA) Bottom Left: Lin Antai Old Homestead (https://www.taiwannews.com.tw/en/news/3241662), Bottom Middle: Ximending Night View (https://www.skyscanner.com.hk/news/inspiration/8-places-you-must-visit-for-your-first-time-in-taipei-201606)

Top Left: Shanghai Winter Skyline (https://medium.com/shanghaiist/tagged/winter), Bottom Left: Shanghai Street (http://sh.news.fang.com/open/29109849.html) Bottom Middle: Fancy Food in Shanghai (https://design.i-n-d-j.com/filter/INSTALLATION/FLOW), Left: Three Shanghai Skyscrapers (https://www.harpersbazaar.com/uk/travel/travel-guides/a43941/what-to-do-in-china/)

In the 1970s, Taiwan’s economic take-off had brought tremendous impact to traditional culture, especially traditional buildings and historical districts. In August 1978, the Taipei City Government prepared to demolish the Lin’an Taigu in order to implement the urban reconstruction project, which triggered a big discussion about “demolition” and “preservation” in the society. The academics in architecture field have called for the preservation of ancient buildings. Some architects have also proposed compromises such as road diversions, underground roads, and slow lane bypasses, but the government has categorically rejected them, citing that costs would be too high, and traffic would be too hindered. They believe that since Taipei is to be built into a modern city, the roads must

be arranged in a straight checkerboard pattern. The old houses are unsightly and must be dismantled. Although this was questioned by the parliament and appealed by public opinion, what was finally achieved was only a compromise between the numbering and the reconstruction of the land. Undoubtedly, in this debate, the ancient buildings in the eyes of the theorists are not a simple temple, but a symbol of culture. Through it, you can not only witness the long history of this region, but also witness the constant cultural love between Taiwan and main land. More importantly, once the ancient temple is demolished, this cultural heritage will be lost.

Case Study International Practices

The dismantling incident of Lin’an Taigu reflects the question of how people will view their relationship between cultural tradition and modernization once they enter a period of rapid development. The decision to continue to preserve traditional architecture and the cultural significance it symbolizes is under debate; and with Taipei 101, the Taipei government and the client have come down firmly on the side of preserving traditional architectural characteristics. According to the project introduction of Taipei 101 “The application of symbols and totems in China intends to convey the message of fulfillment. Therefore, the talisman symbol and dragon phoenix motifs are employed at appropriate places on the building. For example, the commercial complexes roof is in the form of a Phoenix’s tail, symbolizing good fortune and luck. Furthermore, at the sharp angles on the building that generate unfavorable geometry, auspicious dragons are place to dissipate the evil energy…”17 This goes on quite a while, however all the awards this project received or being nominated was about the structure and building system that helped accomplish the tallest building at the time. On the other hand, the Jinmao Tower with a similar appearance, was against the trend of modernism which has been happening in Shanghai since reforming and opening up policy. The fact that it was designed with respect to the ancient Chinese pagoda by SOM is intriguing because it fights against international style in Shanghai. Instead of explaining all the symbolic meanings that could be dug out of this shape, the Jinmao Tower shows a cohesive interpretation of ancient inspiration in modern language. Adrian Smith, chief architect of SOM Design, explored Chinese architecture, especially those associated with high-rise buildings, and found that the form of the pagoda was actually one of the earliest examples of high-rise buildings. The ratio of height to width of the pagoda was very similar to that of today’s tower structures. The paradigm is suitable for Jinmao Tower. As a memorial building of Buddhism, the pagoda was introduced from India to China in the Eastern Han Dynasty more than 1,800 years ago, and then merged into the Chinese traditional attic property. The pagoda became one of the Chinese native architectural models. The ladder-like structure, which stacks from bottom to top, not only satisfies people’s high level of technical and visual aesthetics, but it also expresses the instinctive impulse of people to ascend. The form design of Jinmao Tower fully reflects the architect’s understanding and expression of Chinese culture. Starting from the sixteenth floor of the first section of the Jinmao Tower, each section is reduced by two stories, and is gradually reduced to the eighth floor of the fifth section. After that, each section is subtracted by one layer. Finally, the appearance of the pagoda is similar to that of the Chinese pagoda. The perfect proportion gives the building a rich outline and a dynamic sense of growth. The pagoda inspired tower is symbolic; reflected in China’s villages and towns as the center of the town. It is tall and can be seen from far away, allowing different activities happening around it. Therefore, Jinmao Tower can also be used as a symbol of the last skyline of the century. In Shanghai, as the tallest building at the time, it presents the significant influence of gathering surrounding communities. 20

Business Motivational Comparison There is an interesting correlation between the forces of the macroeconomy and the rise of super tall buildings. In the book "The Skyscraper Curse", Mark Thornton lays out a very compelling case that’s main premise is when the economy is booming, and businesses can afford to put huge amounts of money into their prized skyscrapers, they do. However, around the time when the skyscrapers are completed, the economy has swung back to its recovery phase and the businesses that had funded the skyscraper have hit harder times or no longer consider their investment in the skyscraper a good idea.4

exterior symbol with its height and decorative symbolism, but to create as much leasable space in the interior as possible. That meant no funny business with architectural constraints such as the atrium that Jinmao had. In the earlier parts of the design, the building was to be much shorter. But as the investors started congealing into massive capital pot, and when they all mused to each other that they wanted the tallest building in the world based off nothing more than nationalistic pride, they got their tallest building in the world. To

the outsider with no historical or cultural context, this would seem a simple example of Phallic symbolism gone awry. To the person with a basal level of historical context, this is Taiwan trying to stick it to their old friends in China and succeeding.

Architectural Comparison

Bringing minimal specific relevance to this analysis, this realization did however shed some light on the motivations of the architects and engineers, and later down the road, the owners and their respective governments. As it has been reported in the Taiwanese press, the architecture firm C.Y. & Lee was going through a period where their work was very slow due to a lack of commissions. This all changed when they won their bid for the Taipei 101, but because they had largely done smaller cultural buildings (notably with strong conservatively Taiwanese influences), they lacked the experience to undertake this project by themselves.18 Therefore, they hired the engineering firm of Thornton Tomasetti to be the structural engineer of record, and this has led to some very interesting differences that will be discussed later. In comparison, the Jinmao Tower was done by the A/E firm of SOM, and therefore, its structural engineers and architects were integrated from the start. Regarding SOM’s interest in doing work in China, this was their second major project in the country and it served as a great business development tool and a market they would heavily lean on in the coming financial crisis.5 They built the Jinmao Tower out of an effort to get more recognition in the country and hopefully get a seat at the table when the new master plan of Shanghai needed to be built. The most striking comparison is that of the clients and their respective governments. The Jinmao Tower was part of the Shanghai master plan and therefore did not have the need to shine above the rest (in fact it would be eclipsed by a taller building on the same block within the decade).6 The purpose of the Jinmao Tower in the eyes of the client (and very closely, the Peoples Republic of China) was to shine through the noise that its neighbors would eventually bring. Jinmao was also built as a mixed-use tower, and its main attraction would be the tallest interior atrium in a hotel in the world (a record it still holds today). This is another way to say that Jinmao was not supposed to be a magnet for business or international fame, it was supposed to be an internationally digestible example of Chinese architecture in tall building form.7 Almost as a way to ‘posterize’ Shanghai in the hall of skyscraper fame. The message behind the Taipei 101 was much different. The Taiwanese businesses and their government wanted to make a wave in the international business world when they opened their own building because they wanted to put Taiwan on the map.8 The choice, as discussed later, was to make the tower not only an

Above: Giant Wild Goose Pagoda (https://www.pinterest.com/lostplate/china-travel-places/), Top Right: Jin Mao Tower (https://www.som.com/projects/jin_mao_tower) Bottom Left: Pagoda Corner (http://wang21c.blogspot.com/2016/03/), Bottom Right: Jin Mao Tower Corner (http://www.som.com/projects/jin_mao_tower)

“The 420-meter-high Jinmao Tower was China’s tallest building at the time of its completion and today remains its most iconic. Recalling historic pagoda forms, with setbacks that create a rhythmic pattern, the 88-story tower has become a model for skyscraper design throughout the country… Advanced structural engineering techniques protect the building from the typhoons and earthquakes typical of the area. The structure’s metal-and-glass curtain wall reflects the city’s constantly changing skies, while at night the tower shaft and crown are illuminated.” -Project description from SOMs website. 15 It is an extreme challenge for high-rise buildings to take form inspiration from ancient Chinese towers as the structure system and the scale is different. Pagodas as well as other Chinese pavilions are formed based on the wood structure and the joints where the elements meet, such as tenon and mortise and Bucket arch. The details of the façade present the quality of the fine grains of keels of Chinese ancient pagoda façade and roof. The Jinmao Tower,

however took the advantage of steel structure and created a modern iteration of Chinese tower. It is not a simple imitation of form but a paradigm with respect of the ancient Chinese culture. Structure and technology and culture and form are no longer at the different end of a spectrum, but they merge into one.

Case Study International Practices

The plane composition of the JinMao Building is a biaxially symmetric square, and the façade is composed of 13 inner subtower sections, which are downsizing from the bottom up. Viewed from the diagonal of the plane square, it forms the two best angles of view. The sense of downsizing is accelerated section by section which recreate the visual image of Baoding Pagoda and Big Wild Goose Pagoda. Seen from the axis of the square, Jinmao Tower is vertical on both sides forming a monumental perspective. Looking around, Jinmao Tower is like a pagoda, the shape is constantly changing, and the motif is repeated. The shape of the upper layer makes it full of the charm of the ancient Chinese tower, but the high-tech material makes its appearance change over time. Its

character varies through day and night, sunny and cloudy, higher and lower perspective, presenting itself silver or gold, blue or grey, hidden or presented. It fulfills the delicate feeling of oriental beauty. Perhaps it is this kind of sophistication that makes us never feel oppressive when approaching it. The building volume is enormous, but it is not empty. In fact, Jinmao Tower always surprises us with its richness spatial content. We can see the curving bridge flying across the atrium, the Jiangnan Moon Cave Gate from the end of the backyard to the atrium of the front hall and the windows of the northern dwellings turned into a golden vault. The traditional Chinese cultural symbols expressed by Jinmao Tower are full of individuality and mutual complementation.

“The form of a traditional Chinese peak helps the view from indoors. With eight floors as a peak and structural entity, Taipei 101 marches upward by stacking peak on peak. It is similar to the form of the bamboo joint expressing upward progress and prosperous business. Furthermore, the Oriental expression of height and width is achieved with the extension of stacking units and not like in the West, which expands a mass or form.” 17 -Project description from C.Y. Lee & Partners website. Even if the project description of Taipei 101 called out the bamboo concept, the fact that each section of main body of the tower is the same size did not give the rhythm and dynamic of growth. The façade of Taipei 101 is decorative. People from the local area with rich culture background understand the symbolic aspect of the decoration, which is an isolated system from architecture itself, but people who don’t understand the context cannot resonate to

this building as a coherent architecture. The façade of the tower is a typical high-rise tower curtain wall system with decorative architraves irrelevant to spatial qualities or structure system. The cultural aspect of this building is not buried deep enough to design

Left: Jin Mao Tower Atrium (http://www.som.com/projects/jin_mao_tower) Right: Taipei 101 Atrium (https://www.cylee.com/project/Taipei-101)

Structural Comparison

Left: Ancient Pagoda (http://www.dea5.com/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E5%8F%A4%E5%A1%94%E7%BA%BF%E6%8F%8F/) Right: Taipei 101 (https://www.cylee.com/project/Taipei-101)

According to C.Y.Lee, culture can be divided into three layers: superficial culture, middle culture, and deep culture. The superficial culture is our physical environment, solved by our technology. The middle culture is the form of life, such as the round table for Chinese people to eat and the deep culture is the source and the root of our culture. The design concept of Lee’s work comes from the traditional philosophical ternary theory of China. China’s ternary theory refers to heaven, people, and earth. “Heaven” stands for nature, “earth” is man-made, and “people” live between heaven and earth.16 He believes that to be a Chinese building, we must understand Chinese culture. Western architecture often uses abstract geometric figures as a form of architecture. China is different. Because of the pictographic culture, the “shape” in Chinese culture is very important. Through the “shape” to express the “Conception” behind, “Conception” is behind the “realm”. The environment is born from the heart, so the Chinese architecture must not only pay attention to the shape, but more importantly, consider how people

feel at heart. Therefore, for most of his work the imitation of a certain Chinese symbolic object and stress the conception behind it is of vital importance. Jin Mao Floor plan (http://global.ctbuh.org/resources/papers/download/1033-jinmao-towers-unique-structural-system.pdf)

Left: Taipei 101 Spire (https://www.cylee.com/project/Taipei-101) Right: Taipei 101 Entrance (https://www.cylee.com/project/Taipei-101)

The structural system of the two towers is remarkably similar given the aforementioned differences in culture, architecture, and economics. Having been completed around the same time (Jinmao in 1999 and Taipei 101 in 2004), these two feats of engineering came about in a time where the technology to go this high is still in its maturing phase and the differences in the way the structural engineering industry thinks about these buildings are very small. The structural engineers had to overcome some site specific and building specific challenges. Another thing to keep in mind is that the engineering on this project was delivered in two very distinct ways; SOM having their structural team in house and C.Y. Lee & Partners having to use Thornton Tomasetti as a structural consultant. The difference in project delivery type from the structural aspect is highly subjective, but there are some notable differences.

Taipei 101 Floor plan (http://global.ctbuh.org/resources/papers/download/1650structural-design-of-taipei-101-the-worlds-tallest-building.pdf)

With the Jinmao tower, there are a couple things to note from a performance aspect. First, this building was to have the largest interior atrium in the world, and this large open space presented serious structural concerns and opportunities to adapt. Secondly, this tower would be the first tower in China to be in the super tall category (400m +) and it would not stay that way long as the master plan for Shanghai stipulated that two other super tall buildings were slated to go right next to this building.9 The architecture of the building has been discussed previously, but the structure also deserves to be recognized. The engineers at SOM realized that over the life span of the building, the concrete core would tend to shrink down largely due to a process known as creep. This differential 23

Endnotes

Case Study International Practices

1. Boxer,Baruch, “Shanghai”, Encyclopedia Britannica, last updated October 22nd 2018, https://www.britannica.com/place/Shanghai.

Conclusion shortening of the concrete core could lead to increases in stress of the outrigger trusses if the force could somehow be avoided. They came up with the ingenious idea of slotting the holes for the trusses on the outrigger trusses so that the core could shift down and none of the members in the outrigger trusses would take any extra load.6 They also implemented, for the first time in China, the tube in a tube structural system. This system allows for a central concrete core to provide the stiffness needed in a wind event such as the frequent typhoons that Shanghai experiences, and flexible enough to absorb and deal with the energy input of an earthquake. Because of architectural constraints, the outrigger system was reduced to three two-story levels. These were chosen with strategic importance because where these brace points occur determines what kind of shapes the core will take under extreme wind or seismic events.6 Taipei 101 has some very specific site characteristics as well. It has no requirement for a massive interior atrium, and therefore can utilize this space for things like elevator shafts and fire escapes. It also must deal with the combination of strong winds and seismic forces but takes a different approach. Being almost a full 100m taller than the Jinmao Tower, this tower had to deal with the challenges that not only go into having an extra 100m of structure to restrain, but also the weight and constructability of the building.11 The tower still relied on a 4m mat foundation to carry the load, but also used drilled piles to bedrock as a redundant method of force distribution. One massive aspect of the structural system in Taipei 101 is the tuned mass damper about two thirds of the way up the tower. This is necessary because steel is an incredibly poor damping material naturally, and the tower was to deflect way too much during extreme events. This deflection would have caused nausea on the top floors of the tower, but also damaged curtain wall systems, disrupted elevator shafts, and ultimately lead to the tower being unusable. The fix was to place a massive mass in the building that would use its inertial force to counteract the natural sway of the building under these events. Some of the similarities are as follows: -Both towers use a variation of the tube in a tube system. Flexible enough for seismic events, but stiff enough for wind events

Jin Mao Tower Outrigger Trusses (http://global.ctbuh.org/resources/papers/ download/1033-jin-mao-towers-unique-structural-system.pdf) 24

to prevent any serviceability issues. 6-11 -Both towers use thick mat foundations to distribute the heavy column loads over the base of the tower. Having both been built on incredibly bad soil, these responses aren’t especially new or innovative, but similar and practical.11-13 -Both towers use the concept of super (or mega) columns as their outer tube in the effort to limit the space where structural members impede on views and reduce leasable space.14 Some of the comparisons are as follows: -Because the Jinmao Tower needed to have an interior atrium, a concrete core was necessary to provide the inner core stiffness that is typical of the tube in a tube system. Taipei 101 had no such restraint, and because of this, it was more economical to have a braced steel frame in the core instead of the concrete core.12-14 -Stemming from this comparison, because concrete was used in the Jinmao Tower so extensively, there was no need for an active damping system to be designed because the concrete is naturally better at absorbing energy during extreme events. Taipei 101 had no need to use concrete, and because the goal was to have as much office space as possible, shear walls and lateral force resisting systems were in place but at a minimum. This meant that Taipei 101 had to have some sort of corrective damping system, and that’s how they came to have a tuned mass damper in the building.12 -The inverted pagoda of the two buildings is very similar in shape, but not its execution. The Jinmao Towers setbacks are much smaller in comparison and therefore do not require the same magnitude of force redistribution as Taipei 101.11 Another interesting comparison is the personnel setup of the different projects. As mentioned before, C.Y. & Lee partners had to contract out their structural engineering while SOM has their engineering team integrated with their architects. Weather the organization of the office drove the goals of the project is highly doubtable, but it is interesting to note that the project where the architecture seems more intertwined with the structure is also the firm with the architects intertwined with the structural engineers. It is most likely that the clients goals and needs were met by the different flavors that each of the architecture/engineering firms provided.

Taipei 101 Tuned Mass Damper (http://global.ctbuh.org/resources/papers/ download/1650-structural-design-of-taipei-101-the-worlds-tallest-building.pdf)

The comparisons between history, culture, economic situations and motivations, architecture and structure have been laid out in some detail. What these comparisons mean overall and in the contrast of crudely comparing these two projects is a far more complex question to fully answer. It is very possible that under tighter economic circumstances, the Taipei 101 complex would have stuck to the course of being a set of mid-rise towers and would have never made the record books. It is also possible that without the political and economic liberalization of Shanghai, its resurgence as an international city would have been delayed or canceled out altogether, and thus, the Jinmao Tower project. To compare these two projects based on the aforementioned categories assumes that these different categories act independent from each other. However, a couple general statements can be made with some degree of integrity. These statements try to tie in all the categories we covered in our brief presentation, and present a concise picture of the projects: -The Jinmao tower served as an international beacon to let the world know that the ancient city of Shanghai was still open for business as an international trading and commerce hub. It was done under the careful eye of the Peoples Republic of China to make sure that the project (and by proxy, the city itself) didn’t become a culture-less edifice, but an internationally digestible symbol of Chinese wealth and prosperity in this new age of building. To further display this sense of international credibility, they hired SOM to lend a hand in their thoughtful tribute to ancient Chinese architecture. Being at the forefront of their field, SOM employed the latest in architectural and structural engineering practices and created a building that wouldn’t be the tallest in Shanghai (or even on its block), but it would solidify its place in the postcards about Shanghai for years to come. -Taipei 101 also served as an international beacon, but almost as a response to the completion of the Jinmao Tower. Reflective of its tumultuous history of bouncing back and forth between two world powers, Taiwan and Taipei wanted to assert itself on the world stage as an independent and surging power. Stemming from old guard of the Chinese government, Taipei’s culture is much more conservatively Taiwanese than international. This lead the government and the clients representing the project to select a homegrown architect to be the voice of conserving traditional architectural characteristics. C.Y. Lee & Partners then went out with their mandate to build the tallest building in the world to one of the rising stars in the consulting engineering world and selected Thornton Tomasetti. Using the now established species of super tall building and improving on its design a little, the next tallest building in the world would have a strikingly similar structural system to that used in the Jinmao Tower. In closing, the historical, economic, and cultural comparisons influenced the choice of architect and the overall architecture of the building, but because of a shared regional Sino pride, the buildings had very similar facades and vertical shapes. Also, being built around the same time, the two projects made full use of the most advanced technology of the time with their tube-in-tube structural system.

2. “History of Shanghai”, Wikipedia, last updated November 24th, 2018, https:// en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Shanghai 3. The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica, “Taipei”, Encyclopedia Britannica, last updated August 29th 2018, https://www.britannica.com/place/Taipei 4. Mark Thornton, Skyscraper Curse: And How Austrian Economists Predicted Every Major Economic Crisis of the Last Century (Auburn, Alabama: Ludwig von Mises Institute, 2018) 5. Scott Duncan and Yue Zhu, “SOM and China: Evolving Skyscraper Design Amid Rapid Urban Growth” CTBUH Journal, 2016 Issue IV (2016): Page 12-18 http://global.ctbuh.org/resources/papers/download/3007-som-and-china-evolvingskyscraper-design-amid-rapid-urban-growth.pdf 6. Korista, Stanton; Sarkisian, Mark; Abdelrazaq, Ahmad “Jin Mao Tower’s Unique Structural System” 1995 Shanghai International Seminar for Building Construction Technology – Technology of Construction for High Rise Buildings, 1995, http:// global.ctbuh.org/resources/papers/download/1033-jin-mao-towers-uniquestructural-system.pdf 7. Adrian Smith,”From Jin Mao to Kingdom: Search for an Asian Super tall Vernacular”, CTBUH 2012 9th World Congress - Shanghai, http://global.ctbuh.org/ resources/papers/download/1012-from-jin-mao-to-kingdom-search-for-an-asiansupertall-vernacular.pdf 8. Kelly Geenson, “The building of the Taipei 101 Skyscraper”, Property Forum, last updated April 24th 2009, https://www.propertyforum.com/emerging-propertymarkets/230-the-building-of-the-taipei-101-skyscraper.html 9. Mark Sarkisian, Neville John Mathias, Eric Long, Aaron Mazeika, John Gordon, Jean-Pierre Chakar,”Jin Mao Tower’s Influence on China’s New Innovative Tall Buildings”, 2006 International Seminar of Design and Construction Technologies of Super High-Rise Buidlings, 2006, http://global.ctbuh.org/resources/papers/ download/392-jin-mao-towers-influence-on-chinas-new-innovative-tall-buildings. pdf 10. Robert Goodwin. “Context, Climate, Culture – Investigating Place in Tall Building Design” Context, Climate, Culture – Investigating Place in Tall Building Design , 2005, http://global.ctbuh.org/resources/papers/download/2467-contextclimate-culture-investigating-place-in-tall-building-design.pdf 11. Dennis Poon, Shaw-Song Shieh, Leonard Joseph, Ching-Chang Chang. “Structural Design of Taipei 101, the World’s Tallest Building” CTBUH 2004 Seoul Conference, 2004, http://global.ctbuh.org/resources/papers/download/1650structural-design-of-taipei-101-the-worlds-tallest-building.pdf 12. “World’s Tallest Buildings with Dampers” CTBUH Journal, 2018 Issue III (2018): Page 48-49 https://store.ctbuh.org/index.php?controller=attachment&id_attachment=102 13. Stan Korista, Mark Sarkisian, Ahmad Abdelrazaq, “Design and Construction of the Jin Mao Tower’s Mat Foundation”, Structural Engineering World Congress 1998, 1998, http://global.ctbuh.org/resources/papers/download/1034-design-andconstruction-of-the-jin-mao-towers-mat-foundation.pdf 14. Ali Sherif S. Rizk, “Structural Design of Reinforced Concrete Tall Buildings”, CTBUH Journal, 2010 Issue I, 2010, http://www.ctbuh.org/LinkClick. aspx?fileticket=dR0eJRVy8Vg= 15. SOM, Jinmao Tower Project Facts, https://www.som.com/projects/jin_mao_ tower 16. C.Y.Lee & Parteners, Beijing Pangu Plaza-Culture Discourse, https://www.cylee.com/project/Beijing-Pangu-Plaza 17. C.Y.Lee & Parteners, Taipei Financial Center (Taipei 101)-THE EARTH AND SKY, https://www.cylee.com/project/Taipei-101?lang=en 18. Liangrong Chen, Yurong Zheng, “The 72-year-old Li Zuyuan’s second half of life began. The old dog is going to be a new trick. The architects are in the clouds and green energy”, Wealth Magzine, July 21,2010, https://www.wealth.com.tw/home/ articles/560 25

Culture in Architecture International Practices

Bibliography “History of Shanghai”, Wikipedia, last updated November 24th, 2018, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Shanghai “World’s Tallest Buildings with Dampers” CTBUH Journal, 2018 Issue III (2018): Page 48-49, https://store.ctbuh.org/index.php?controller=attachment&id_attachment=102 Boxer,Baruch, “Shanghai”, Encyclopedia Britannica, last updated October 22nd 2018, https://www.britannica.com/place/Shanghai.

1.3 Community Engagement - Summary Local Labor in Architecture Chris Humphrey & Katherine Lai

C.Y.Lee & Parteners，Beijing Pangu Plaza-Culture Discourse， https://www.cylee.com/project/Beijing-Pangu-Plaza C.Y.Lee & Parteners, Taipei Financial Center (Taipei 101)-THE EARTH AND SKY, https://www.cylee.com/project/Taipei-101?lang=en Duncan, Scott; Zhu, Yue. “SOM and China: Evolving Skyscraper Design Amid Rapid Urban Growth” CTBUH Journal, 2016 Issue IV (2016): Page 12-18 http://global.ctbuh.org/resources/papers/download/3007-som-and-china-evolving-skyscraper-design-amid-rapid-urban-growth.pdf The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica, “Taipei”, Encyclopedia Britannica, last updated August 29th 2018, https://www.britannica.com/place/Taipei Geenson, Kelly, “The building of the Taipei 101 Skyscraper”, Property Forum, last updated April 24th 2009, https://www.propertyforum.com/emerging-property-markets/230the-building-of-the-taipei-101-skyscraper.html Korista, Stanton; Sarkisian, Mark; Abdelrazaq, Ahmad, “Design and Construction of the Jin Mao Tower’s Mat Foundation”, Structural Engineering World Congress 1998, 1998, http://global.ctbuh.org/resources/papers/download/1034-design-and-construction-of-the-jin-mao-towers-mat-foundation.pdf Korista, Stanton; Sarkisian, Mark; Abdelrazaq, Ahmad, “Jin Mao Tower’s Unique Structural System” 1995 Shanghai International Seminar for Building Construction Technology – Technology of Construction for High Rise Buildings, 1995, http://global.ctbuh.org/resources/papers/download/1033-jin-mao-towers-unique-structural-system.pdf Liangrong Chen,Yurong Zheng,“The 72-year-old Li Zuyuan’s second half of life began. The old dog is going to be a new trick. The architects are in the clouds and green energy”,Wealth Magzine, July 21,2010, https://www.wealth.com.tw/home/articles/560 Poon, Dennis; Shieh, Shaw-Song; Joseph, Leonard; Chang, Ching-Chang, “Structural Design of Taipei 101, the World’s Tallest Building” CTBUH 2004 Seoul Conference, 2004, http://global.ctbuh.org/resources/papers/download/1650-structural-design-of-taipei-101-the-worlds-tallest-building.pdf Robert Goodwin. “Context, Climate, Culture – Investigating Place in Tall Building Design” Context, Climate, Culture – Investigating Place in Tall Building Design , 2005, http:// global.ctbuh.org/resources/papers/download/2467-context-climate-culture-investigating-place-in-tall-building-design.pdf Sarkisian, Mark; Mathias, Neville John; Long, Eric; Mazeika, Aaron; Gordon, John; Chakar, Jean-Pierre, “Jin Mao Tower’s Influence on China’s New Innovative Tall Buildings”, 2006 International Seminar of Design and Construction Technologies of Super High-Rise Buidlings, 2006, http://global.ctbuh.org/resources/papers/download/392-jin-maotowers-influence-on-chinas-new-innovative-tall-buildings.pdf SOM, Jinmao Tower Project Facts, https://www.som.com/projects/jin_mao_tower Rizk, Ali Sherif S., “Structural Design of Reinforced Concrete Tall Buildings”, CTBUH Journal, 2010 Issue I, 2010,http://www.ctbuh.org/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=dR0eJRVy8Vg= Smith, Adrian, “From Jin Mao to Kingdom: Search for an Asian Super tall Vernacular”, CTBUH 2012 9th World Congress - Shanghai, http://global.ctbuh.org/resources/papers/ download/1012-from-jin-mao-to-kingdom-search-for-an-asian-supertall-vernacular.pdf Thornton, Mark, Skyscraper Curse: And How Austrian Economists Predicted Every Major Economic Crisis of the Last Century (Auburn, Alabama: Ludwig von Mises Institute, 2018)

Iwan Baan, Butaro District Hospital

Akoaki Design, Nice Outfit

The purpose of this case study is to explore three offices which highlight an alternative way of practicing architecture, which branches out from the more normative service oriented models, international corporate practice models, or star driven architectural practice model. These three office, Mass Design Group, Rural Urban Framework, and Agency Akoaki, embed the practice of their architecture in the communities that they operate within by actively having their research agenda engage with an issue or issues facing that community. The practice of architecture produced through the manner in which these offices operate envisions an architectural design practice that is more equitable, sustainable, and value driven. These three firms seek out opportunities to act in communities and areas of need such as rural Africa, rural China, and post-industrial Detroit, using those opportunities to bring creative, design oriented solutions to communities that need them. The comparison of the three firms will highlight different design and practice strategies that these office utilize to pursue their social and research agenda. The economy of means, not only in construction but in terms of longevity, for the projects that these offices build is critical. Local materials, building methods, and labor are capitalized on, passive conditioning methods are utilized, grassroots community organization is implemented to energize the local community, and training of tradespeople or students shares knowledge and skills that pay dividends towards the future. The architecture produced through these means is grounded in the community and culture, in addition to being designed for its programmatic functions and spatial qualities.

Rural Urban Framework, JinTai Village Housing

我们主要对Mass Design Group、Rural Urban Framework和 Agency Akoaki这三家公司的实践模式进行了研究。不同于规范化的服务主导模式、国际化的企业实施模式或明星建筑师带动的建筑实践模式，这三家公司展现出了建筑设计的另一种实践方向。他们通过将研究成果与其所在社区所面临的问题相结合，在社区中植入他们的设计哲学。这三家公司在这种运营方式下形成的建筑设计手法或许更加公平、更具可持续性和价值引导作用。他们在非洲农村、中国农村以及后工业化的底特律等地区的积极寻求开发机遇，以便利用这些机遇为有需要的社区带来具有创意和设计感的解决方案。这三家公司分别运用了三种不同的设计实践策略来推动他们的研究和社会工作。对这三家公司承接的项目来说，设计方案的经济性至关重要。这不仅体现在施工环节，还体现在建筑的寿命上。他们的设计方案都力主充分利用当地材料、建造方法和劳动力资源，试图发挥建筑的被动调节潜能，并且积极调动基层社会组织以激活当地社区、培养商人和学生对知识和技能的分享意识，以期在未来产生一定的效益。除了能满足人们对功能排布和空间品质的需求，这些概念（模式）催生的建筑设计方案还深深的扎根于社区和当地文化之中。

Case Study International Practices

1.3 Community Engagement Local Labor in Architecture Chris Humphrey & Katherine Lai

This case study will compare three firms, all of whom implement their design through community engagement and use of local labor and materials. The firms, Mass Design Group, Rural Urban Framework, and Akoaki Design, practice architecture in wildly different conditions and contexts, from Rwanda to rural villages in China to Detroit’s neighborhoods. What unites them is a vision of social equity and sustainability as enacted through the design and construction of spaces. This presentation will expand on the specific design philosophies of each office, ongoing research agendas related to where they implement their architecture, and how each office is funded, which allows them to pursue a social agenda that may not be viable on the free market. The economy of means surrounding these projects is critical - local materials and building methods are taken into account, passive methods of conditioning the interior are utilized, and grassroots organization to motivate and involve the local communities are used in order to allow the design to have the greatest impact with the lowest cost. All three offices implement community engagement and social equity differently, both from each other and from a stereotypical architectural office that gains most of its work from a serviceoriented approach. The case studies selected all illustrate that there is an alternative way of practicing architectural design which suggests that architects can empower themselves by also empowering the communities that they operate within. In engaging with the local community, architects might not only find greater agency but also find a more ethical way of producing architecture. The three offices were selected because they allow us to compare the ramifications of different localities, their methods of practice, and their research interests: rural Africa, rural/urban China, and post-industrial Detroit. As a way of enriching their design process, Mass Design Group, Rural Urban Framework, and Akoaki Design all take up a social and research agenda that is specific to the place in which they are developing and building their work. For Mass Design Group, designing buildings that provide quality healthcare and education to communities in crisis is an underlying framework for their architecture and research. For Rural Urban Framework, rapid urbanization policies in China have uprooted many farmers and blurred the dichotomy between urban and rural spaces. For Akoaki Design, the fortitude and ingenuity exhibited by the people of Detroit, as well as the rich cultural and manufacturing history provide a tapestry for their designs to draw upon. Thus, the approach for these offices is three pronged: partnerships within the local community, a research agenda that addresses issues facing the local community, and the implementation of an architectural 28

design that is programmatically and spatially responsive to local needs and takes into account the economy of means in its design.

Mass Design Group Established in Boston and founded in 2008 by Alan Ricks and Michael Murphy, Mass Design Group’s agenda from the initial inception of the office was to re-frame architecture’s capacity to generate social and political change in the communities that they serve. They see architecture as an agent of change, whose value projects beyond the building itself. But with agency comes accountability: Mass Design Group fundamentally believes that architecture actively needs to address its role in perpetuating social injustices. In the intervening years, MDG has proposed and implemented projects in Rwanda, Congo, Liberia, Haiti, Boston, and Colorado. Much of their work has been done in Africa, specifically in Rwanda where they have partnered with government and non-profit organizations such as the Rwandan Ministry of Health and Partners in Health to create a responsive design process.

Unknown, African Village

The history of the African continent encompasses that of humanity. However, two more modern historical arcs have heavily shaped contemporary Africa as it exists today: colonization and decolonization. From 1880 to 1900 much of the African Continent fell under a European Power’s control. This period of time was dubbed the “Scramble for Africa.” By 1905, the only countries that remained independent were Liberia and Ethiopia (though South Africa and Egypt would gain independence in the 1910’s). This would be the status quo for the first half of the nineteenth century, until after World War II. In the wake of the second World War, much of Europe was in a state of economic and social distress. Between 1950 to 1966, many of the African nations under European control would gain their independence. The consequences of colonization are

Iwan Baan, The Butaro District Hospital

incalculable; Africa spent five decades exporting its resources with very little benefit to the native people and economy. In addition, when the European nations territorialized the continent, they did so with little regard for local and regional communities leading to civil and ethnic violence. The aftermath of all of this conflict still left the need to rebuild national economies, install governments, and build public infrastructure. Today, Africa is undergoing rapid urbanization, and facing all the attending issues that accompany urbanization. Africa has both the most youthful (60% under 20) and fastest growing population (5.5 children per woman). Currently, growth in urban centers outpaces regional and local government’s capacity to provide basic services such as utilities (drinking water, plumbing, electricity, etc.), institutions (schools and hospitals), and housing. In addition to the highest fertility rate, the African continent also has the highest infant mortality rate - one in five children die before their fifth birthday. These deaths are usually from preventable causes such as malnutrition and treatable diseases such as malaria. With a younger, growing population, the capacity to provide school for people is also critical to urbanization. Sub-Saharan Africa has the highest rate of primary secondary school aged children out of school - this problem will only get worse as the rate of population, particularly the population under twenty increases, placing more stress on institutional systems that already have trouble providing for the existing population. Maintenance of existing schools, construction of new facilities, access to learning tools such as textbooks, shortages of teachers, access to basic amenities such

as outdoor recreation space, electricity, potable water are all issues facing schools. In addition, the lack of schools for creative architectural designers is problematic - given the anticipated population boom, more architectural designers will be needed to provide creative solutions to these problems. Mass Design Group situates itself in reaction to these circumstances and tries to design buildings that begin to address these issues their local communities face, with access to healthcare and education facilities being two major research interests of the office. The firm approaches every project with a series of design strategies based around a concept coined “lo-fab” and an overarching research question. The issues of health and education are not only addressed through the considered design of spaces and buildings but also the implementation of education programs such as the African Design Center.

Butaro District Hospital Located in Rwanda, the Burera District is a region of roughly 400,000 without access to medical care to the point where those in the region don’t even have access to a doctor. The lack of resources, including economic, material, and labor, provided an opportunity to revitalize and build not only a new medical facility but a new skill set for the local Rwandans. The intention of the design was to mitigate the spread of airborne illnesses while keeping within a sustainable and economic framework. Passive ventilation and cross ventilation systems via a 29

Case Study International Practices

villagers who lacked construction experience prior. The villagers interested in learning the trade were taught how to work with the local materials through a series of workshops and on-site training, leading to the construction of the hospital. Aside from one bulldozer used to clear the land, all construction processes, from door assembly to laying stone, were completed by hand on-site. The project not only worked to alleviate the lack of medical coverage, but also served as a tool to empower locals and provide them with a skill set that would be profitable.

specialist who was in conversation with Mass Design Group about a potential Tuberculous treatment facility in Haiti, was tapped to aid in the Cholera epidemic and when he discovered the conditions of the treatment facilities, he engaged MDG to provide an architectural solution. Tasked with designing around a devastated infrastructure and an ever spreading epidemic, MDG developed a strategy that was able to address the existing conditions and answer the question, “Can a building help resist an epidemic?”2

African Design Centre Launched in September of 2016, the African Design Centre is a fellowship program that teaches young African designers. The program is still in its pilot stage currently but is expected to become an institute of higher education for architecture within the next 3 years. The overall goal of the program is to train young African designers, or those interested in design, to respond to the demands of the environment and economy within Africa. Participants work with established designers, take classes, develop a research thesis, and complete a full design build project. Currently, there is a shortage of Architects within Africa and Mass Design Group saw this as an opportunity to engage young designers and teach them the methods that they have found successful through the projects already completed. There is roughly 1 Architect to every 130,000 people which is not enough to meet the demands of the exponentially growing population. The region is in need of over 700 million housing units, 310,000 schools, and 85,000 health centers to service the population currently.

Mass Design Group, Gheskio Cholera Treatment Center

Gheskio Cholera Treatment Center top, Iwan Baan, Villagers constructing foundation, Butaro District Hospital bottom, Iwan Baan, Butaro District Hospital Treatment Room

series of windows paired with patient areas that were bright and open allowed for frequent exchange of air, reducing the threat of airborne transmission. Materials and construction labor were all local to the hospital. Volcanic stone, rammed earth, and other “lo-fab” construction materials were used and the construction was completed by local 30

Following an earthquake that left Haiti in ruins, an outbreak of Cholera plagued Port-au-Prince. Tent structures, designed to be temporary, were put in place and used beyond their capacity as treatment facilities, but due to a lack of running water and waste pipes, the tent campuses actually contributed to the increase in the Cholera outbreak instead of providing the intended relief. Without a physical treatment facility with sanitation, waste was being transported away from the site and dumped, leading to an increase in the spread of the bacteria into the water cycle. Dr. Jean Pape, an infectious disease

Unknown, Farmland in Rural China

Mass Design Group, Artisan crafting panel, Gheskio Cholera Treatment Center

The design engages an elevated plinth which serves to both guard the center from potential floods and store collected rainwater from the roof for purification and use within the facility. A simple structural system supports a faceted roof that routes rainwater and optimizes daylight and interior cross ventilation. Local artisans and laborers were brought onto the project to fabricate custom steel facade screens and rammed earth blocks which were used throughout the interior and exterior of the project. The integration of the locally made screens and construction materials was an efficient response to the lack of construction materials due to the earthquake’s devastation. The project was funded in part by GHESKIO and by funds raised by Mass Design Group.

Rural Urban Framework Rural Urban Framework operates as a non profit research and design collaborative working through the University of Hong Kong School of Architecture, where both Joshua Bolchover and John Lin teach in addition to running their practice. Since 2005 the office has been researching the intersection of rural and urban landscapes in China, with particular interest in how the effects of the aggressive urbanization policies that the government has implemented impact rural residents. Their architectural proposals seek to react and contribute to the areas undergoing this rural to urban transition, and question the current models and policies of rural development. As recently as 40 years ago, much of the Chinese population were farmers living in rural villages. As the world has rapidly become

more global and interconnected since the turn of the 21st century, China has taken steps to urbanize its rural population in order to alleviate poverty and spur further economic growth. In 2013 the Chinese government began enacting a modernization plan that would move 70% of its population into cities by 2025, meaning that the government is actively marshaling its resources to move 250 million people from their rural villages into cities. Underpinning this plan is the need for infrastructural overhaul on a regional and national level to accomplish this goal - new wider roads, hospitals, schools, and denser high-rise housing are replacing small farming villages. The desire for new modern buildings demands spaces for the buildings to be erected. In addition, buildings constructed before 1999 need to be demolished to meet new contemporary standards. It is estimated that China has dismantled more than 16% of its existing housing stock nationally between the years of 2005 and 2010. All of this highlights how rapidly China has urbanized in an effort to both keep up with its exploding population and with the world. Such rapid urbanization has consequences - there’s little assurance that these relocated farmers will be able to find jobs in the cities, the cost of housing and utility expenses are significantly greater, and the general cost of living is higher as well. Rural Urban Framework is interested in the ongoing transition and upheaval of rural China in relation to the larger urban agenda, and the consequences of this transition. Given China has historically been a country where most of its citizens lived in rural contexts, the collective history of agrarian culture will play a role in the restructuring of Chinese society. In traveling through China’s various landscapes, Rural Urban Framework has observed different rural/urban conditions that defy the dichotomy - these are the conditions that they are keen on operating within. TongJiang Recycled Brick School The building is situated in a small rural farming village of about 5,000 people. The small village belongs to a township called Xiaosong on the eastern border of the Jiang Xi province. New regulations that determine building setbacks from the roads indicate 31

Case Study International Practices

that there are intentions to widen the streets. The building is an expansion, enlarging an existing school from 220 students to 450 students. Given the location in a rural, poor village, there were immediate budget considerations: it needed to cost what it would take to build a similarly sized school in China. Before designing the building, workshops were held with local children, asking them to depict a school. All the children drew schools that resembled the generic school typology in China: a two story building with open balconies that served as circulation into classrooms with an open plaza for play. These buildings are finished with brick or concrete infill. The existing school is exactly this kind of building. With considerations of cost, form, and material in mind, Rural Urban Framework proposed a building that sensitively reacted to all the parameters in place. The Tong Jiang Recycled Brick School fits itself within the parameters of the familiar typology, using the same materials and basic form as the typical Chinese school house. Despite following the basic outline, the building sets itself apart in a number of ways. The school addition forms a thickened edge condition along the

street, forming a protective interior courtyard where the children can play. Part of the proposal was to use building matter from the demolition of old buildings in the area and incorporate it into this new building as an example of better more sustainable design in rural areas. CMU blocks rotated on their sides and stacked make up the south facade along the corridor. The perforated facade allows the corridor to remain open, much like the traditional school typology, but also shields the circulation from direct exposure to the sun. This reduces heat gain in the classrooms and keeps the corridor cool. In addition, the perforation produces a breeze across the building that furthers cools the rooms as there is no forced air system. Low quality brick rubble was collected from nearby demolition sites and further crushed. The rubble was then used as insulation and thermal mass on the roof. In the summer, the heavy roof surface collects cool air in the evenings and releases it back into the building during the day, with the reverse happening in the winter. In addition, the organic matter collects wind blown lichen, leading to green growth on the roof. Long slot windows have two different types of operable openings - a top hung window at the top of each window to shed rain and ventilate warm air, and casement windows that offer even greater ventilation in the summers. Between the classroom and corridor, there are additional openings to allow for a cross breeze from southwesterly winds. Jintai Village Housing In 2008, The village of Jintai in the Sichuan Province of China was hit by a major earthquake leaving around 5 million homeless and a large portion of the building stock demolished.23 After a few years of rebuilding efforts, the town was then hit by torrential rains that led to landslides which furthered the destruction. In response to the

disaster, Rural Urban Framework developed a strategy that could be deployed in situations following earthquakes. This project takes a deep look at the intricacies involved with physical and social reconstruction following disasters. The conditions presented for the housing development are unique due to the small portion of land that is required to support a total of twenty-two houses, mimicking conditions more similar to an urban context than rural. The dense configuration is comprised of four different styles of homes distinguishable in plan and in section, particularly in the roof. Taking cues from local agricultural practices, each roof is stepped and has a green surface, capable of being cultivated with harvestable plants and the plan accommodates the keeping of livestock such as pigs and chickens. The design of the houses also take into consideration the collection of rainwater which is re-purposed through the agrarian functions aforementioned.

Akoaki Design Anya Sirota and Jean Louis Farges founded Akoaki Design in 2008. Their practice deploys architectural interventions around the city of Detroit in the form of built architecture and architectural education. Her work connects local artisans, community members, and fabricators to complete site specific installations meant to activate public space and alter public perception of design and deteriorated space. Additionally, her work with the Arc-Prep program educates students in Detroit about design and serves as an architectural intervention to design in Detroit (similar to the education based

Unknown, Post-Industrial Detroit

method used by MASS).

above left, ArchDaily, TongJiang Recycled Brick School 32

Rural Urban Framework, Jintai Village Housing

Unknown, Post-Industrial Detroit

population boom to 1.85 million by 1959. This would be the height of Detroit’s population, making it the 4th largest city in the United States at the time. The arts also flourished: in 1959 Berry Gordy founded Motown Records which would go on to sign musical acts such as the Supremes, the Temptations, Marvin Gaye, Stevie Wonder and the Jackson 5. By 1967 racial tensions in the city broke out into violence in the 12th Street Riots.24 Since the late 60’s, Detroit’s population has steadily decreased, in tandem with its economic prospects; White flight spurred by racial fears, federal government lending policies, and development subsidies (installed after World War II) favored suburban development, an exodus from the city, which further eroded the tax base of Detroit. Recent renewed interest in Detroit’s development over the past five years has allowed for the city to begin to set the foundation to bounce back. Grassroots activities and programs have helped Detroit persist through difficult periods when the government failed to provide its constituents with basic services. Examples of such ingenuity are urban farming (Oakland Avenue Urban Farm + Michigan Urban Farming Initiative are two of the larger examples), small business incubators (Ponyride), and artist hubs which help foster creative talent (Artists Village). Reinvestment from larger corporations has also helped to encourage and stimulate development interest. GM is currently the primary occupant of the re-purposed Renaissance Center, where they’ve been located since 2004. Ford recently purchase the Michigan Central Train Depot, where they plan to research driver-less vehicles. Dan Gilbert, in 2010, moved the headquarters of Quicken Loans into Downtown Detroit and has since become one of the most prominent property owners in Detroit.

Detroit serves as the backdrop for many of Akoaki’s projects. Detroit’s history is tied closely with the history of the automobile industry, as well as the legacy of racial tensions between black and white people in the United States. In 1896, Ford test drove his first automobile on the streets of Detroit; 7 years and 2 false starts later, Ford founded the Ford Motor Company. Following that, in 1908 and 1925, GM and Chrysler were both established in Detroit. With an abundance of manufacturing jobs, Detroit flourished and saw its 33

Case Study International Practices

Conclusion While each of the firms/projects discussed address very different issues across a range of contexts, there is a common thread in their approach to practice and how the projects become realized. At the center of every project is a research agenda that is committed to providing equitable solutions to the issues facing each community through methods that closely integrate members of that community. The relationship to each firm and academia, as each of the firms listed was founded by or currently has a leader who practices and teaches, is an integral part in the completion of each project.

top, Akoaki Design, The Mothership at community festival bottom, Akoaki Design, DJ inhabiting Mothership

Mothership Designed and constructed in 2014, the Mothership, mobile DJ and event booth, was conceived of as a modular unit that could be deployed around Detroit for various events.25 The construction of the booth features a simple fastening system (bolts and screws) that allow for fast assembly and disassembly in areas where complex construction couldn’t be entertained. The significance of the projects comes not so much from the construction, but from the design which is an homage to African patterns and cultural cues which give the booth an element of iconography. The Mothership “touches down” in various neighborhoods and serves as a platform for community members to perform and host experimental events. Nice Outfit In partnership with Detroit based artist, Olayami Dabls, and local community members, the Nice Outfit art installation was designed and built in 2015 to be a backdrop for various performances in Detroit 34

top, Akoaki Design, Nice Outfit at community festival bottom, Akoaki Design, Olayami Dabls painting element

neighborhoods. The form of the installation alludes to traditional African forms and patterns while also drawing influence from local culture.26 The nine figures in the installation are constructed out of cost effective materials with a simple structural system. The surfaces are adorned with painted patterns or “outfits” that were designed by Olayami who is the founder of the MBAD African Bead Museum based in Detroit. Due to the success of the project, the figures now have a permanent home and the temporary installation has become a community staple. 35

Endnotes 1) “About,” Mass Design Group. 2018. Accessed November 10, 2018. https:// massdesigngroup.org/about. 2) “Design,” Mass Design Group. 2018. Accessed November 10, 2018. https:// massdesigngroup.org/design. 3) “Team,” Mass Design Group. 2018. Accessed November 10, 2018. https:// massdesigngroup.org/team. 4) Ehiedu E. G. Iweriebor, “The Colonization of Africa.” Africana Age: African and African Diasporan Transformations in the 20th Century. 2011. Accessed November 10, 2018. http://exhibitions.nypl.org/africanaage/essay-colonizationof-africa.html. 5) Benjamin Talton, “The Challenge of Decolonization in Africa.” Africana Age: African and African Diasporan Transformations in the 20th Century. 2011. Accessed November 10, 2018. http://exhibitions.nypl.org/africanaage/essaychallenge-of-decolonization-africa.html. 6) Sylvie Kande, “Africa 1980–2010: Tragedies, Triumphs, and Challenges.” Africana Age: African and African Diasporan Transformations in the 20th Century. 2011. Accessed November 10, 2018. http://exhibitions.nypl.org/africanaage/ essay-africa-2010.html. 7) Sylvie Kande, “Africa 1980–2010: Tragedies, Triumphs, and Challenges.” Africana Age: African and African Diasporan Transformations in the 20th Century. 2011. Accessed November 10, 2018. http://exhibitions.nypl.org/africanaage/ essay-africa-2010.html. 8) Habibatou Gologo, “Rapid Urbanization in Africa: Investing in the Development of Africa’s Cities.” The World Bank. May 2, 2017. Accessed November 10, 2018. http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2017/05/02/rapid-urbanization-inafrica-investing-in-the-development-of-africas-cities.

19) John Lin, “Rural Urban Framework: TongJiang Recycled Brick School.” Diversare. May 21, 2013. Accessed November 6, 2018. https://rural-urbanframework.divisare.pro/projects/231379-tongjiang-recycled-brick-school.

Adelman, Larry. “Where Race Lives: Uncle Sam Lends a Hand.” Race: The Power of an Illusion. 2003. Accessed November 10, 2018. https://www.pbs. org/race/000_About/002_06_a-godeeper.htm.

20) John Lin, “Rural Urban Framework: TongJiang Recycled Brick School.” Diversare. May 21, 2013. Accessed November 6, 2018. https://rural-urbanframework.divisare.pro/projects/231379-tongjiang-recycled-brick-school.

Bolchover, Joshua, and John Lin. Rural Urban Framework: Transforming the Chinese Countryside. Basel, Switzerland: Birkhäuser, 2013.

21) Joshua Bolchover and John Lin. “TONGJIANG RECYCLED BRICK SCHOOL JIANGXI PROVINCE.” Rural Urban Framework. Accessed November 10, 2018. http://www.rufwork.org/index.php?/project/04-tongjiangprimary-school/. 22) Lin, John. “Rural Urban Framework: TongJiang Recycled Brick School.” Diversare. May 21, 2013. Accessed November 6, 2018. https://rural-urbanframework.divisare.pro/projects/231379-tongjiang-recycled-brick-school. 23) “Jintai Village Reconstruction / Rural Urban Framework.” ArchDaily. November 02, 2017. Accessed November 10, 2018. https://www.archdaily. com/882714/jintai-village-reconstruction-rural-urban-framework. 24) Larry Adelman, “Where Race Lives: Uncle Sam Lends a Hand.” Race: The Power of an Illusion. 2003. Accessed November 10, 2018. https://www.pbs.org/ race/000_About/002_06_a-godeeper.htm. 26) “Mothership.” Projects. Accessed November 5, 2018. http://www.akoaki. com/mothership.html. 27) “Nice Outfit.” Projects. Accessed November 5, 2018. http://www.akoaki. com/nice-out-fit.html.

“Butaro Hospital.” Partners in Health. January 2011. Accessed November 10, 2018. https://www.pih.org/.

Iweriebor, Ehiedu E. G. “The Colonization of Africa.” Africana Age: African and African Diasporan Transformations in the 20th Century. 2011. Accessed November 10, 2018. http://exhibitions.nypl.org/africanaage/ essay-colonization-of-africa.html. Johnson, Ian. “Pitfalls Abound in China’s Push From Farm to City.” New York Times, July 13, 2013. July 13, 2013. Accessed November 10, 2018. https://www.nytimes.com/2013/07/14/world/asia/pitfalls-abound-inchinas-push-from-farm-to-city.html. Johnson, Ian. “China’s Great Uprooting: Moving 250 Million Into Cities.” New York Times. July 13, 2013. Accessed November 10, 2018. https:// www.nytimes.com/2013/06/16/world/asia/chinas-great-uprootingmoving-250-million-into-cities.html.

10) “Education in Africa.” UNESCO. February 2018. Accessed November 10, 2018. http://uis.unesco.org/en/topic/education-africa.

Lin, John. “Rural Urban Framework: TongJiang Recycled Brick School.” Diversare. May 21, 2013. Accessed November 6, 2018. https://ruralurban-framework.divisare.pro/projects/231379-tongjiang-recycledbrick-school.

13) African Design Centre. 2017. Accessed November 10, 2018. https://www. africandesigncentre.org/. 14) “What We Do.” Rural Urban Framework. Accessed November 10, 2018. http://www.rufwork.org/index.php?/framework/introduction/2/. 15) Ian Johnson, “China’s Great Uprooting: Moving 250 Million Into Cities.” New York Times. July 13, 2013. Accessed November 10, 2018. https://www. nytimes.com/2013/06/16/world/asia/chinas-great-uprooting-moving-250-millioninto-cities.html. 16) Wade Shepard, “Half the Houses will be Demolished within 20 Years: On the Disposable Cities of China.” City Metric. October 21, 2015. Accessed November 22, 2017. https://www.citymetric.com/skylines/half-houses-will-be-demolishedwithin-20-years-disposable-cities-china-1470. 17) Ian Johnson, “Pitfalls Abound in China’s Push From Farm to City.” New York Times, July 13, 2013. Accessed November 10, 2018. https://www.nytimes. com/2013/07/14/world/asia/pitfalls-abound-in-chinas-push-from-farm-to-city. html. 18) Joshua Bolchover and John Lin. Rural Urban Framework: Transforming the Chinese Countryside. Basel, Switzerland: Birkhäuser, 2013, 7.

Weber, Peter. “The Rise and Fall of Detroit: A Timeline.” The Week. July 19, 2013. Accessed November 10, 2018. https://theweek.com/ articles/461968/rise-fall-detroit-timeline.

Gologo, Habibatou. “Rapid Urbanization in Africa: Investing in the Development of Africa’s Cities.” The World Bank. May 2, 2017. Accessed November 10, 2018. http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2017/05/02/ rapid-urbanization-in-africa-investing-in-the-development-of-africascities.

Kande, Sylvie. “Africa 1980–2010: Tragedies, Triumphs, and Challenges.” Africana Age: African and African Diasporan Transformations in the 20th Century. 2011. Accessed November 10, 2018. http://exhibitions. nypl.org/africanaage/essay-africa-2010.html.

12) “The Lo-Fab Movement,” Mass Design Group. 2018. Accessed November 10, 2018. https://massdesigngroup.org/work/advocacy/mackenzy-vil.

Talton, Benjamin. “The Challenge of Decolonization in Africa.” Africana Age: African and African Diasporan Transformations in the 20th Century. 2011. Accessed November 10, 2018. http://exhibitions.nypl.org/ africanaage/essay-challenge-of-decolonization-africa.html.

“Education in Africa.” UNESCO. February 2018. Accessed November 10, 2018. http://uis.unesco.org/en/topic/education-africa.

9) Sylvie Kande, “Africa 1980–2010: Tragedies, Triumphs, and Challenges.” Africana Age: African and African Diasporan Transformations in the 20th Century. 2011. Accessed November 10, 2018. http://exhibitions.nypl.org/africanaage/ essay-africa-2010.html.

11) African Design Centre. 2017. Accessed November 10, 2018. https://www. africandesigncentre.org/.

Bibliography

Lin, John, and Joshua Bolchover. “TONGJIANG RECYCLED BRICK SCHOOL JIANGXI PROVINCE.” Rural Urban Framework. Accessed November 10, 2018. http://www.rufwork.org/index.php?/project/04tongjiang-primary-school/. Mass Design Group. 2018. Accessed November 10, 2018. https://massdesigngroup. org/. Shan, Gao. “China’s Urbanization Plan Could Heighten Social Unrest.” Radio Free Asia. November 13, 2013. Accessed November 10, 2018. https:// www.rfa.org/english/news/china/urbanization-11132013104023.html. Shepard, Wade. “Half the Houses will be Demolished within 20 Years: On the Disposable Cities of China.” City Metric. October 21, 2015. Accessed November 22, 2017. https://www.citymetric.com/skylines/ half-houses-will-be-demolished-within-20-years-disposable-citieschina-1470. Sow, Miriama. “Foresight Africa 2016: Urbanization in the African Context.” Brookings. December 30, 2015. Accessed November 10, 2018. https:// www.brookings.edu/blog/africa-in-focus/2015/12/30/foresight-africa2016-urbanization-in-the-african-context/. Rosenberg, Tina. “In Rwanda, Health Care Coverage That Eludes the U.S.” New York Times, July 3, 2012. Accessed November 10, 2018. https:// opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/07/03/rwandas-health-caremiracle/. 37

II. INTERNATIONAL RECLAMATION AND REUSE

Case Study International Practices

2.1

Urban Flooding in Shanghai and Miami - Summary Investigating Response Strategies Kungang Ding and Andrea Marquez

Photo collage of merging Shanghai and Miami skylines

With global sea levels on the rise and increased frequency of natural disasters, there is little known about how urban policies adapt to urban flooding and how planning will change in the future. To illustrate these strategies, the following case studies will focus on comparing two coastal cities, Miami, Florida (United States) and Shanghai (China), who are vital to their nation’s economy, image, and who face ongoing environmental challenges. Since approximately half of the world population lives on the coast, these areas become poster cities for other regions to learn from when facing similar problems. Deconstructing the strategies behind these two global cities in their efforts to become more resilient against urban flooding will be demonstrated through the use of visual and corresponding data. Firstly, the context of each city will discuss the geographical location, specific characteristics and risk factors. Then current design strategies will follow showing different scales of interventions. Interestingly, these strategies will to some extent represent the cultural influence of each country and their views for the future.

随着全球海平面上升和自然灾害频发，人们对城市政策如何适应城市洪水以及未来规划将如何改变知之甚少。为了阐述这些策略，下面的案例研究将集中于比较两个沿海城市，迈阿密，佛罗里达(美国)和上海(中国)，它们对各自国家的经济、形象至关重要，并且面临着持续的环境挑战。由于世界上大约一半的人口生活在沿海地区，这些地区成为其他地区在面临类似问题时借鉴与学习的对象。我们通过可视化和相应的数据，分析这两个全球城市增强抵御城市洪水能力的战略。首先，对于每个城市的背景，我们将讨论其地理位置、具体特征和风险因素。然后，当前的设计策略，两个城市将展现不同规模的干预。有趣的是，这些战略在某种程度上代表了每个国家的文化影响及其对未来的看法。

Case Study International Practices

Response Strategies

2.1 Urban Flooding in Shanghai and Miami

With all those issues at hand, there are several top-down strategies being undertaken in Shanghai. There are three overall response strategies: first, a more strict construction guidelines. Second, constructing new barrier and enhancing the existing associated flood defense. Third, updating the existing pumping system and clarifying with a better management of the collection of household litter and construction refuse.7 For urban flooding response strategies, China is building the largest deep-water drainage system beneath the Suzhou Creek waterway, consist of 15km of pipes to drain rainwater across a 58 sq. km area. Secondly, in order to mitigate the risk of the upstream lake flooding, a 40 billion-yuan ($5.8 billion) River Flood Discharge project is projected to stretch for 120 km between Lake Taihu and the Huangpu river.8

Investigating Response Strategies Kungang Ding and Andrea Marquez

Over 40% of the world population lives along the coast due to favorable conditions in supporting industry, tourism, fishing, and transportation.1 Urban growth is expected for many coastal cities because of these factors but increasing environmental challenges started to become more common. In lieu of increasing sea levels and frequency of natural disasters due to rising global temperatures, there is little known to the public on how urban policies are adapting to address urban flooding and how the future of planning will change. To shed light on these strategies, this research will focus on comparing two opposing coastal cities, Miami-FL-USA and Shanghai-CHINA. Both of these areas are vulnerable to different forms of urban flooding such as storm surge from typhoons or hurricanes, which are expected to be more intense according the climate assessments.2 These poster cities are important in order to learn from precedent implementations and policy strategies when referencing other territories who are facing similar issues. Miami, Florida contains a widely diverse socio-economic and ethnic population for investors, snowbirds, retirees, and immigrants from the Caribbean and Latin America. Their number one industry in tourism also plays a significant factor in how Miami carefully approaches these challenges without affecting visitors. Shanghai is considered the economic capital in China and yet it faces a duality of keeping sea level rise in hidden sight from the public. Both case studies will specify how the public community and government respond to different forms of urban flooding. This comparison analysis will be broken down into two parts using visuals and corresponding data starting with an overview of the common challenges each city is facing. The background of each city will then discuss geography, specific characteristics, and risk factors followed by current design strategies that seek to mitigate them.

SHANGHAI Global Warming As the development of human beings and increasing amount of energy and resources are being used, global warming starts to play a significant role in the 21st century. Global warming causes sea level rise, and more frequent natural disasters, such as typhoons and hurricanes. When these kinds of natural disasters move toward the city, other problems arise such as flooding and waterlog.3 Those are the issues Shanghai is facing. Background of Shanghai

Coastal sedimentary accretion at the Yangtze River Delta, Yangtze River Delta Project, 2013

intensive development of Shanghai, the groundwater has been used rapidly, therefore, the land keeps sinking.

Shanghai as a large economic center in China and is the first port that connects to other countries. According to the Climate Central data discussed at the UN Summit last year, Shanghai is the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s most vulnerable major city that is going to be greatly affected by global warming due to its high population.4 Shanghai has 12 metropolitan districts, 10 suburban counties, with a growing population of 24.18

Urbanization of Shanghai

Shanghai Storm Surge Diagram (https://ars.els-cdn.com/content/image/1-s2.0S0048969717332825-fx1_lrg.jpg)

The Suzhou Creek floodgate, located at its conflux with the Huangpu River, 2013. Photo by Dorothy Tang

million in 2017. Urban residents within the 12 metropolitan districts account for 57.6 percent, with a maximum population density of 160,000 person/km2. Shanghai is one of the four municipalities which is directly under the control of central government of China and is administratively counted as a province. The city is located in the Yangtze Delta, which is the grain basket of China due to its close connection with the shallow groundwater, flat ground, river access, fertile alluvial soil, and hot and wet climate during summer time.5 The east of Shanghai is East China Sea, and north is where Yangtze River enters the sea. The Yangtze River carried a huge amount of sediment and drops those sediments along the edge of the land. As a result of that, the boundary of Shanghai is growing eastwards. However, as a result of global warming, the salt sea water intrudes the land, which reduces the productivity of the grain.6 Also, as the

and the Pudong International Airport are located there. However, due to the extraction of groundwater for the intensive development, the land of this area is subsiding, especially since some old districts are mostly below or around 1 meter from the mean sea level.3 Over the century, natural disasters happened more frequently in Shanghai as well as the rest of the world. According to the data recorded in Shanghai, the rising flood level is increasing from 3.0 to 4.9 above mean sea level during 1940 to 2000. According to the chart, the number of incidents by Typhoon is increasing from 3 per century to 96 per century. The trending diagram of waterlog also indicates that the maximum water level is rising.3

The metropolitan districts of Shanghai have expanded rapidly eastwards into the Pudong area across Huangpu River. Shanghaiâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s well-known buildings, such as Oriental Pearl Tower, the Jin Mao Tower, the Shanghai World Financial Center, the Shanghai Tower,

As for a specific response project, a floodgate at the confluence of Suzhou Creek and the Huangpu River will be raised and lowered twice daily with the tides and weather since high tides are also a major issue. It is designed to withstand a one in 1000-year tidal surge while also protecting the Suzhou district of Shanghai.9 Another project is a new continuous seawall at the East China Sea, much of it built since 2009. It is a safe guard defense system for the billion dollars worth of transportation and industrial infrastructure existing in place.10 In December 2013, President Xi Jinping announced a national plan to combat flooding in Chinese cities. He said that during the upgrade

Seawall at the East China Sea in Pudong, Shanghai, 2010. Photo by Bo Shui

Chinaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s largest deepwater drainage system beneath the Suzhou Creek waterway, 2016 (https://archive.shine.cn/metro/society/Upgrade-for-creek-flood-defenses/)

of urban drainage infrastructure we should make it a priority to retain valuable water resources and to utilize the natural system. It is important to achieve drainage, to establish natural retention,

Shanghai Population Density (Zong, Yongqiang, and Xiqing Chen. "Typhoon Hazards in the Shanghai Area." Disasters23, no. 1 (1999): 66-80. doi:10.1111/14677717.00105) 42

Case Study International Practices

Orlando, and parts of Georgia. Thousands came from Puerto Rico in frenzy. There, when the storm shifted westbound, people were not as prepared. Hurricane shutters were hastily put up and food supplies were selling out. The millions that fled were forced to face the storm head-on as it followed their path to Georgia. A total of 6.5 million people relocated statewide. Nearly 192,000 people sought refuge in public shelters and about 9,000 flights were canceled. Those who preferred the safety of their family/homes (or who could not afford to leave) chose to stay. There was no power for 7.7 million people statewide. Even though Irma reduced to a Category 3, she cost $50 billion in damages. 84 people lost their lives in the U.S. Monroe County experienced a -0.18% growth rate in population according to recent census data. “Sponge City.” Barry Wilson Project Initiatives (http://www.initiatives.com.hk/sponge-city.html)

Florida Population by Density, World Population 2018

infiltration and purification- like a “sponge city”.11 The neighboring country of Japan is also dealing with the effects of sea level rise and urban flooding. They have responded with similar approaches using water pump extraction systems and sea walls. For instance, the Kansai Airport was constructed on an artificial island in Osaka Bay with the intention of noise reduction. However, the storm surge set a record of 11 feet after the Jebi Typhoon, which surpassed the sea wall killing eleven people. Excess water is extracted using giant pumps and reinforcing the sea wall along the island.12

topography also provides a major risk against high-tide floods or hurricanes. The average elevation in the area is 6 feet (1.8m) above sea level with the highest point reaching 40 feet (12m). Even the outskirts of Miami-Dade bordering the Everglades is also at risk, especially where Monroe County meets the Gulf of Mexico.16 The areas projected to be underwater in the future contain about 400 billion dollars of real estate at its current value. This urban response analysis will focus on the east coastline of Miami-Dade Countysuperficially two municipalities, City of Miami and City of Miami Beach.

MIAMI, FLORIDA

The City of Miami is on the mainland and City of Miami Beach is mostly located on a natural and man-made barrier island between the Atlantic Ocean and Biscayne Bay. They are both separated by the Bay and connected by A1A (i.e MacArthur Causeway), which runs all the way up to Fort Lauderdale in Broward County. Miami Beach is on top of the “million dollar sandbar”, and is home to the neighborhood of South Beach (SoBe), which contains the Art-Deco Historic District. This barrier island is significant because it rests upon limestone rock; therefore, it cannot move like other barrier islands and has been artificially extended over the years.17 However, since it currently sits at 4 feet above sea level, beach erosion and coastal construction are major issues. Many beaches in Miami are no longer considered “natural” since its sand has been re-nourished since the 1970’s17. This is done either through importation or

Background Last year, Florida’s population surpassed New York by one million.13 The Greater Miami area ranks seventh largest metropolitan area in the nation.11 Despite its density, water infrastructure problems are met with short-term remediation, which continue to ignore longterm solutions. Four Florida Counties are more at risk due to their geographic location along the Atlantic and the Gulf of Mexico. When a Hurricane is approaching, Monroe County is one of the first to evacuate. They are at the southernmost point of Florida with 77.5k people (2015 Census). 27,000 of that population live in the fourth oldest city in Florida, Key West, which was first visited by Juan Ponce de Leon in 1521 but was later claimed by the U.S. in 1822. Miami-Dade County is located directly adjacent, with 2.8 million people. Broward County contains 1.9 million, followed by Palm Beach at 1.5 million.13 Despite the heavy tourism over the years (16 million visitors in 2017), journalists are describing this region as a modern-day “Atlantis in the making”14. Its porous limestone foundation makes it vulnerable to sea level rise since the salt water can rise up through the ground. This can be dangerous if the ocean water starts to mix with drinking water. The principal source of water is from the Biscayne Aquifer, which is mostly limestone and expands to about 4,000 square miles.15 When the aquifer is contaminated, millions of people do have not direct access to drinking water. Florida’s flat 44

Miami “is kind of the poster child for a major city in big trouble...”

Rising Sea Levels Since the massive ice sheets from Greenland and Antarctica are melting into the ocean, it’s only a matter of time before the water rises at a rate that is difficult to adapt to. In the 20th century, the ocean rose 6 inches; today it is rising at twice that speed. The National Oceanic Report 2017 demonstrates data that the sea level will increase 1ft-8ft by 2100. In Miami Beach sea level has risen +0.6 feet, since the 1970’s, with a 3.9 feet storm surge for a category 3 hurricane. It is projected in 2050, sea level rise will rise +1.8 feet with a 5.4’ storm surge for the same type of hurricane. The rate will affect on whether the carbon emissions are reduced, which can cause a temperature difference in the atmosphere up to 8 degrees. If the water rises slowly, people have time. But if it rises quickly or suddenly, it is difficult to adapt or prepare for.

There are several public agencies initiated by the government in preparation for and response to natural disaster events. In 2016, Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) was funded with 3.9 billion USD to needed recipients. FEMA provides grants to qualified homeowners to repair damage not covered by insurance, but these grants may not pay for all the damage. The timeline for aid may range from a week to a few months. The Florida Division of Emergency Management also seeks to “respond, recover, and mitigate” through economic, environmental and social means.

cultivating from the seafloor. Hurricanes

Local Response

When the eye of Category 5 Hurricane Irma was heading towards Florida, people were reminded of Harvey and its destructive aftermath on Houston. People felt that this storm could be similar. Many in the southeast region fled to the west side of the peninsula,

There are often conflicts on the state level since the Governor of Florida, Rick Scott still remains in denial of its impact in the region after he temporarily banned the term “climate change” in 2015.18 Therefore, in contrast to national and state government agencies,

The Water Will Come: Rising Seas, Sinking Cities, and the Remaking of the Civilized World (2017)

Typology of Miami Beach by Rob Wile (interactive.fusion.net/pumpit/)

Government Response

The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) on the other hand provides a more scientific and community oriented approach with “science, service, and stewardship” as their focal points. It is common that these organizations to partner with others such as the National Ocean Service (NOS) where they specifically deal with preparedness, response, and recovery.

- Jeff Goodell

there are community led organizations that initiate change on the local level.19 For instance, there is a 100 Resilient City campaign across the world and the Greater Beaches Area is determined to join the efforts. In Miami Beach, the Sea Level Task Force reviews data and provides assessment to current conditions and proposed strategies. The Miami Climate Alliance is an umbrella organization consisting of more than 50 non-for-profit and community groups with a focus on hurricane preparedness, access to transportation, and sea level rise.20 Recently, they have successfully advocated for Miami-Dade’s new budget for resilience efforts and actions against climate change. As a result, residents will pay an extra $2.80 cents

Raising street levels on public vs private properties (City of Miami Beach, Miami Herald)

on their water bill per month for the County to access their service needs and upgrade their storm water system.21 Design Strategies: Infrastructure The Bay in between the mainland of Downtown-Brickell (City of Miami) and the island of Miami Beach demonstrates a high-end economic approach for design interventions against urban flooding. Rich cities can afford to build up infrastructure but are torn between short and long-term strategies. Higher elevation land will also be worth more and be further built upon, which starts to shape climategentrification.16 In fact, the City of Miami Beach Code of Ordinances is pushing design firms and developers to build on higher elevation by increasing the base elevation by 5 feet in the anticipation of increasing street levels.22 However, if the government wants raise 45

Case Study International Practices

many of them were leveled off for tourists. This will to resist erosion and high tides since they are becoming more frequent. Coral reefs also have reduced the impact of wave heights by 88% and wave energy by 97%. The Everglades and other wetlands along the coast provide a filtering system that reduces pollutants and contaminants. However, many of these habits have been lost to urban development and still remain one of the most threatened systems on the planet.2

Hurricane Irma Storm Surge Effects in Miami, FL (https://www.kwch.com)

Perez Art Museum Miami by Herzog de Meuron (https://www.herzogdemeuron.com)

streets, it usually leaves the private sector in conflict since their business or home is now legally submerged underwater (since legally the coastline level has changed). This makes it difficult for small businesses and homes to have successful claims with their insurance if a flooding does occur. As an additional precaution, about three miles of sea walls are being built along the perimeter of Miami Beach. The city is pushing to raise the height by two more feet. However this strategy is not as effective as the one proposed in Shanghai since the ocean water can seep up into the limestone foundation. Another artificially designed intervention is the $500 million water pump system that is used to extract excess water into the Bay.16 The water being pumped back out into the Bay is at risk for being contaminated and threatening the health of the coastline.

building off the ground. For instance, the Perez Art Museum-Miami by Herzog de Meuron was built at the edge of the mainland in Miami and elevated their art exhibit space up one level so the guests will enter on the second floor.23 The ground level contains car parking and permeable landscaping (lined with crushed rock and rubber trails for pedestrians). Theses type of trends are also encouraged to be integrated in new commercial and residential homes along the coast.

New “Ground Level” Norms and Permeability There is also a desire to build above ground by at least one level in order to leave ample parking underneath. The Code of Ordinance by the City of Miami Beach is proposing to raise their Freeboard elevation by 5 feet, which will result in an overall increase in height for commercial buildings from an original 10 feet per floor to 12 feet.22 Across the Bay in Brickell, designers are also

Healthier Ecosystems

1970 sea levels with Hurricane Irma Scenario. Modeled storm surge: 3.1 ft

Improving existing ecosystems that are already inherently resilient provide an additional buffer to mitigate environmental challenges.2 A coastal barrier system contains many benefits: reduces the impact of storm surge, provides a low-cost option for capturing carbon, and absorbs some of the ocean’s wave energy. Well-functioning ecosystems make a significant difference in determining how a region can cope or control urban flooding. Mangroves, coral reefs, dunes, and wetlands are essential elements to strengthening the coastal barrier. Mangroves are Florida native plants that can obtain fresh water from salt water. However, not many areas are protected and since the 1940’s they have depleted by 86% due to fishing and urbanization.2 Another strategy is recreating vegetated dunes since

image caption. 8pt, 60% opacity, italic

2017 Hurricane Irma. Sea level increase +0.6ft Observed storm surge: 3.9 ft

2050 Hurricane Irma Scenario. Sea level increase +1.8ft Modeled storm surge: 5.4ft

City of Miami Beach Code Ordinance - Existing and Proposed Freeboard Amendment for Commercial Buildings (https://library.municode.com/fl/miami_beach/codes/code_of_ordinances) 46

Comparison of Hurricane Irma Storm Surge Scenarios with sea level rise taken into account. (First Street Foundation, October 2018, in Collaboration with Columbia University Professor Dr. Jeremy Porter)

Compare and Contrast Geographically, Shanghai is located more inland along a river leading out into the Pacific Ocean whereas Miami is located directly on the coastline. Despite the location of these global cities on the opposite side of the world, urban flooding is a growing threat for both of them. On the national level, their governments deal with them rather similarly with response and recovery agencies. However, on the local level, it is easier to come into an agreement on a issue a city is facing but more challenging and costly to initiate change from the U.S. State governments. The state’s tax income and overall population also plays into effect with how much financial attention the U.S. government is willing to spend. In China, it is more a top down strategy coming directly from central governments. All kinds of departments will work together on the same issues. When a natural disaster comes, the central government will gather all kinds of forces, immediately organizing a troop from various duties consists of armies, doctors, nurses, architects, engineers, media workers, editors and volunteers to help people who suffers. It is under the direction and control of the central government that the design strategies are being taking place. Through this analysis, we have observed that the citizen relationship with environmental challenges are affected by the degree of truth revealed by the government. Miami-Dade and Miami Beach residents start to form local organizations and activist groups in order to push urban policy changes and legal issues that arise. In-State and Out of State Universities also focus heavily on sea level rise and are more research oriented about future possibilities in investigating different design strategies.24 From the local perspective in Shanghai, people are not as familiar with the information since the central government hides the truth to some degree. Meanwhile, the majority of people in Shanghai trust their central government to protect their safety and will act accordingly if help is needed. The public tends to refrain from social responsibility and lack initiation for community-led organizations. In other words, response strategies are always given by the government and the involvement of the public is not necessary. Based on our findings of both case studies, the future of Shanghai remains uncertain as the government continues to take a covert approach on design implementation strategies for urban flooding. As sea levels continues to rise in Miami, millions of people will move inland to central Florida. Tourism will be affected and billions of dollars of real estate will plummet. However, there is speculation on Miami becoming a Venice-like city where visitors and residents will use boats24 to get to different locations as high rise buildings will have already built in preparation for this event. Even if the future remains uncertain, it is vital to understand how each city is influenced to initiate implementations and how their adaptability evolves towards becoming more resilient.

Post-Industrial Environment International Practices

Endnotes Barragán, Juan Manuel & María de Andrés. Analysis and trends of the world’s coastal cities and agglomerations. Ocean & Coastal Management, Volume 114, 2015, Pages 11-20. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0964569115001544 1

Velez, Christina R., and Bruce Dunn. “Managing the Perfect Storm: How Healthy Ecosystems Increase Resilience.” Development Asia, 8 Nov. 2018, development. asia/explainer/managing-perfect-storm-how-healthy-ecosystems-increase-resilience 2

Zong, Yongqiang, and Xiqing Chen. “Typhoon Hazards in the Shanghai Area.” Disasters23, no. 1 (1999): 66-80. doi:10.1111/1467-7717.00105. 3

Municode Library. Accessed October 15, 2018. https://library.municode.com/fl/ miami_beach/codes/code_of_ordinances 22

“306 Pérez Art Museum Miami.” Herzog & De Meuron. Accessed October 12, 2018. https://www.herzogdemeuron.com/index/projects/complete-works/301325/306-perez-art-museum-miami.html.

2.2

Post-Industrial Environment

Comparison: Duisburg Nord Landscape Park & Domino Sugar Refinery Masterplan Rinika Prince, Zhipeng Liu

Wile, Rob. “Pump It.” Inside Miami Beach’s $500 Million Plan to Stay Dry, Fusion, interactive.fusion.net/pumpit/. Sourced from Peter Harlem, Miami Beach City, Sea Level Rise Toolbox by FIU, Google Maps 24

Holder, Josh, et al. “The Three-Degree World: Cities That Will Be Drowned by Global Warming.” The Guardian, Guardian News and Media, www.theguardian. com/cities/ng-interactive/2017/nov/03/three-degree-world-cities-drowned-globalwarming. 4

“Yangtze River Delta Project.” Scenario Journal. January 03, 2014. Accessed November 14, 2018. https://scenariojournal.com/article/yangtze-river-delta-project/. 5

Yang guishan, Jiwen Zhu. Effects of global sea level rise on the saltwater intrusion of the Yangtze river 13, vol. B, 1993,23 (1) : 69-76. 6

Zhou, Jian, Lin Cong, and Min Zhang. “The coastal line engineering in Shanghai area is affected by relative sea level rise.” China journal of geohazards and prevention and control, 2000,11 (3) : 70 - 78 7

“Upgrade for Creek Flood Defenses.” SHINE - BEYOND A SINGLE STORY, 11 Aug. 2016, archive.shine.cn/metro/society/Upgrade-for-creek-flood-defenses/ shdaily.shtml.

Foto Wandeling Nijmegen, https://www.fotowandelingnijmegen.nl/product/147724/ fototrip-landschaftspark-duisburg-zaterdag-3-november-2018-volgeboekt

Domino Sugar Factory Master Plan, Brooklyn, New York City Cover Citation: Schulz, Dana. “REVEALED: New Renderings of Domino Sugar Factory’s Waterfront Park and Esplanade.” 6sqft. April 05, 2018. https://www.6sqft. com/revealed-new-renderings-of-domino-sugar-factorys-waterfront-park-andesplanade/

Post-industrial societies are largely defined as a stage of society’s development when the service sector generates more wealth than the manufacturing sector of the economy. It not only transforms the economy; it alters society as a whole. As a new spatial manifestation in the post-industrial city leads to the creation of: new commercial and administrative centers along the easily accessible roads in the hinterland of lacking the historical continuity (edge cities), extensive residential zones created by one developer usually containing basic elements of civic amenities (master planned communities), residential areas with restricted access (gated communities) and larger business residences usually in “greenfield” (corporate campuses). These newly emerging areas are sometimes symbiotic, sometimes in direct conflict with the still more powerful environmental movements, environmental awareness and increasing demands on the quality of life of residents in the city. In this case study we try to investigate two scenarios of post industrialization redevelopments that are very different in their trajectories. As we study these, we hope to analyze these postindustrial plots and how their natural and geographic characteristics of the individual projects led them to proposals that have very different set of outcomes. We have looked at the Duisburg Nord Landscape Park in Germany and the Domino Sugar Factory master plan project in Brooklyn. We aim to identify key factors that the project situates itself within the larger context of the urban fabric and analyze how those reflect and manifest in the outcome of the projects.

当社会发展中服务业产生的财富多于经济制造业时，将进入后工业社会。它不仅改变了经济，也改变了整个社会。作为后工业城市的一种新的空间表现，缺乏历史连续性的腹地（边缘城市）易于建立新的商业，行政中心，和由开发商创建的住宅区。这些新兴区域有时是共生的，有时与更大范围的环境变化，环境意识和城市居民对生活质量的要求日益增加相冲突。在本案例研究中，我们尝试研究两种后工业化重建的情景，这两种情景的发展轨迹截然不同。

Wang, Ming-Zhu, Marco Amati, and Frank Thomalla. “Understanding the Vulnerability of Migrants in Shanghai to Typhoons.” Natural Hazards60, no. 3 (2011): 1189-210. doi:10.1007/s11069-011-9902-9. 9

”千里海塘.” Urban flood control. Accessed October 15, 2018. https://www.swedri. com/brand 10

“Soak it up: China’s ambitious plan to solve urban flooding with ‘sponge cities’.” https://www.theguardian.com/public-leaders-network/2016/oct/… 11

Tabuchi, Hiroko. “Many Major Airports Are Near Sea Level. A Disaster in Japan Shows What Can Go Wrong.” The New York Times, The New York Times, 7 Sept. 2018, www.nytimes.com/2018/09/07/climate/airport-global-warming-kansai.html. 12

“Florida Population 2018.” Total Population by Country 2018, worldpopulationreview.com/states/florida-population/. 13

Goodell, Jeff. The Water Will Come: Rising Seas, Sinking Cities, and the Remaking of the Civilized World. Black Inc., 2018. 14

“Biscayne Aquifer.” Ground Water Atlas of the United States. Accessed November 11, 2018. https://pubs.usgs.gov/ha/ha730/ch_g/G-text4.html. 15

Treuer, Galen, “Risk and the Response to Sea Level Rise in South Florida” (2017). Open Access Dissertations. 1928. https://scholarlyrepository.miami.edu/oa_dissertations/1928 16

Finkl, Dr. Charles W. “East Florida’s Barrier Islands: Natural vs. Man-Made; By Dr. Charles W. Finkl.” Coastal Issues / Coastal Care, coastalcare.org/2014/02/eastfloridas-barrier-islands-natural-vs-man-made/. 17

Caputo, Marc. “Florida Governor Remains Unsure about Climate Change after Hurricane Irma.” POLITICO, POLITICO, 14 Sept. 2017, www.politico.com/states/ florida/story/2017/09/14/florida-governor-remains-unsure-about-climate-changeafter-hurricane-irma-114498. 18

“Southeast Florida Regional Climate Compact.” Southeast Florida Regional Climate Compact, www.southeastfloridaclimatecompact.org/.

在本次案例分析中，我们希望分析这些后工业地块去了解它们的自然和地理特征如何导致截然不同的设计方案。我们学习了德国杜伊斯堡北部景观公园和布鲁克林的多米诺糖厂总体规划项目。我们的目标是确定影响项目定位在城市范围内的关键因素，并分析这些因素如何反映并体现在项目的结果中。

“City Wide Initiatives.” Miami Beach – Rising Above. Accessed October 13, 2018. http://www.mbrisingabove.com/your-city-at-work/resilient-land-use-anddevelopment/city-wide-initiatives/. 20

Stein, Kate. “Advocates Cheer ‘Significant Wins’ For Resilience Efforts In MiamiDade’s New Budget.” WLRN, www.wlrn.org/post/advocates-cheer-significant-winsresilience-efforts-miami-dades-new-budget 21

Post-Industrial Environment International Practices

2.2

Post-Industrial Environment

Comparison: Duisburg Nord Landscape Park & Domino Sugar Refinery Masterplan Rinika Prince, Zhipeng Liu

Duisburg Nord Landscape Park

Background The Ruhr is a polycentric urban area in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. With a population density of 2,800/km2 and a population of over 5 million. It is the largest urban area in Germany.1 (Fig 1) And Duisburg was one of the biggest industrial cities in the Ruhr area last century, sitting on the east Rhine riverbank. After the economic crisis occurring over the world in 1973, industrial development in Germany was held back severely. Under the pressures of increasing prices, scarcity of coal resources, and what’s more, many lower-cost suppliers in Asia, many enterprises sought to a higher-profit and higher-efficiency industry. At the same time, problem of pollution drew a large attention to both the public and the government. As a result, the government need creative principles to overcome these difficulties. That was when and why IBA Emscher Park program began.

the location of Ruhr area

the former factory on the site Soho, “Post-industrial landscape park”, http://www.sohu.com/a/223011834_657688

The Internationale Bauausstellung Emscher Park (International Architecture Exhibition Emscher Park) program, carried out by the government in 1988 and 1989, aimed to revive the Ruhr area in social, economic, cultural, ecological, architectural and urbanistic incentives, and finally “achieve a paradigm shift from the “rust belt” towards a green, modern and wealthy metropolitan area”.2 Within many general principles, a new park system for the whole area along the Emscher River was brought up. (Fig 2) The Duisburg park, sitting on the downriver of the Emscher River, became the key project in this program. So the competition of a new park in Duisburg Nord was launched by government and a real estate fund. The site is former Thyssen Steelworks manufacturing plant, bought by the fund.3 At the end, Peter Latz won the competition with his landscape reflecting many of IBA’s goals.

Master plan of Duisburg Nord Landscape Park Latz+Partner, “Duisburg Nord Landscape Park”, https://www.latzundpartner.de/en/projekte/postindustrielle-landschaften/landschaftspark-duisburg-nord-de/

Theory Understanding a project is always after learning the theory of the designer. Peter Latz (Fig 4) held an advanced and creative thought in that era, where most of designers tried to detach the industrial relics from the nature. He instead regarded the industry as a part of the natural evolution. As he said, “Artifacts can develop that pursue natural processes in derelict surroundings according to ecological rules initiated and maintained by technological processes. These artifacts symbolize ecology, of both natural and technical systems.”4 In this part, I summarize his ideas into four points to help readers understand this project.

the park system plan of IBA program

1. Definition of the Nature The definition, in my opinion, is the base of his whole theory. While

talking about the nature, the first thing coming to our minds may be the flowers or trees. However, as Latz pointed out, things like vegetable beds are never natural even if they look close to.5 Instead, irons, steels and stones are actually part of the nature because they are the products of the time and human culture. We should respect ourselves as humankind is an important member of the nature. 2. Metamorphosis of the landscape He thought that landscape design should take advantage of both positive and negative existing elements. “The result is a metamorphosis of landscape without destroying existing features, an archetypal dialogue between the tame and the wild.”6 In the metamorphosis progress, the landscape develops as the change of

Post-Industrial Environment International Practices

the environment and serves different function accordingly. In this project, Latz succeeded in preserving almost the entire site but altering its meaning and the relationship to people.

Railroad Park pxhere, https://pxhere.com/en/photo/1001019

3. Accepting the situation Nature has been disturbed and manipulated by humankind for centuries.7 When Latz brought up the idea of accepting the situation, the landscape design method and concept was changed profoundly. Latz liked all of the natural process no matter how unpleasant to the public it would look like, such as erosion. In his opinion, erosion is a natural principle of the materials.8 We shouldn’t prevent but rather encourage it to attain new formations of the landscape. 4. Use of language of traditional horticulture Although the theory was advanced of the time, Latz utilized traditional garden art as well, ranging from medieval period to 1950s. Plenty of elements or techniques, such as canals, irrigation systems, flower beds and squares, are included in the garden art, which are familiar to the public and help define the space relationship to people. And it is these elements make it possible to recognize and interpret different kinds of space in this landscape park project.9

Approach Footbridge and Promenades Latz+Partner, “Duisburg Nord Landscape Park”, https://www.latzundpartner.de/en/ projekte/postindustrielle-landschaften/duisburg-nord-bahnpark/

Water Park Latz+Partener, “Duisburg Nord Landscape Park”, https://www.latzundpartner.de/ en/projekte/postindustrielle-landschaften/duisburg-nord-wasserpark/

In this part I will show that how the theories are applied to the project. Duisburg Nord Landscape Park occupies 2.3 km2 land. Designed in 1991, while opening in 1995, the park serves 500,000 tourist around per year. This park is famous for preserving and transforming the industrial relics into landscape people can use. Latz is not the first designer to do so. In 1962, Richard Haag seized the opportunity for preservation and transformation of the factories in his project Gas Works Park in Seattle. This park is also for public use but only involves one set of building without a whole system. So Latz thought the landscape park in Duisburg Nord systematically and stepped forward on this field. “A blast furnace is not only an old furnace. It is a menacing ‘dragon’ frightening men and rising above its surrounding.”10 Latz used his imagination and techniques to consider the disturbed and complex conditions for their “creative potential”.11 He develops four systems based on his idea, railroad park, footbridges and promenades, water park and area of public use. 1. Railroad Park He compares the giant railway bridge structure in this park as harps. He regards these engineers’ work a hundred years ago as the Land Art. In this park, the railroad is the system most continuous whether open or out of operation. They form a organized grid and pattern for public use and merge themselves into this park.

Blast Furnace Park Latz+Partener, “Duisburg Nord Landscape Park”, https://www.latzundpartner.de/ en/projekte/postindustrielle-landschaften/duisburg-nord-hochofenpark/

2. Footbridges and Promenades The pedestrian system is designed in different levels, so people

can experience different views and access to buildings in different ways. It includes the railroad tracks, sidewalks and some new built high level paves. The promenades at street level connect parts of the towns around that were separated before. 3. Water Park The Emscher River used to be a seriously contaminated waste water canal passing through the Duisburg Nord. Considering that the park sits on the downriver, it’s important for the park to make the water flowing into Rhine clean. So Latz design the water system as an eco-friendly system that can process the water cleaning and natural evolvement. The water system thus is maintained by both the nature rules and technology, which represents the big idea of Latz that technology is part of the natural product as well. 4. Area of Public Use Blast Furnace Park It was a controversy to create places and public spaces around a blast furnace plant. Today, the fear of pollution and contamination has given way to a calm acknowledgment of the old structures.13 During festivities up to 50.000 people gather here where the blast furnaces and the wind heaters combine with landscape. To some extent, a new understanding of the contaminated site and of the landscape art is defined. Sinter Park The place of the former sintering plant was heavily contaminated and had to be almost completely demolished. Today it is a flourishing meadow and a shady grove. What’s more, the original building is extremely toxic due to the former chemistry factory, so Latz had to ruined it down but leave only the short walls as the relics. Then he brought different kinds of plants to resume this land. That exactly represents, in my opinion, his dialectical thought in his theory. Preservation itself is not the purpose, which means we don’t necessarily preserve everything single thing irrespective of its condition.

Conclusion As far as I am concerned, Latz, as a famous designer of Structuralism, successfully rebuild the relationship between people and the nature, and created multifunctional spaces to demonstrate clearly his concept to the public. The multifarious spontaneous uses in the park are visible proof of the success of this fundamental design principle.14 “Peter Latz seized the opportunity to work with the deep structures of the site. He did not impose his own will or signature, but instead cultivated the hidden processes and forces inherent to the site itself.”, recognizes James Corner, one of the main designer of New York’s High Line project that is inspired by Latz’s park. Moreover, Duisburg Park successfully achieved the principle of combining natural and technical systems into a new pattern of the park, which bring us a wholly new understanding towards the nature. Considering its significances of education, inspiration, economy and being a precedents of the worldwide post-industrial park design, I think this project explains perfect where the industrial relics will head for.

Sinter Park Latz+Partner, “Duisburg Nord Landscape Park”, Latz+Partner, “Duisburg Nord Landscape Park”, https://www.latzundpartner.de/en/projekte/postindustriellelandschaften/duisburg-nord-wasserpark/

Piazza Metallica The Piazza Metallica, consisting of 64 iron plates, represents a metamorphosis of the existing industrial structure in the park. As indicated above, erosion is also an exciting progress in the nature, which should be shown to and accepted by the public. Iron plates, which were once used to cover casting modes in the casting works, become today a symbol of the natural evolution. In this park, under the eyes of the tourists, these iron plates will continuously get rusted. Adventure Playground In the transition zones between park and residential areas, selected places as a net are specifically designed for children and youths. Some new steel boxes are designed for sports and active games. They are set some distance away from the more intensively used

Piazza Metallica Latz+Partener, “Duisburg Nord Landscape Park”, Latz+Partener, “Duisburg Nord Landscape Park”, https://www.latzundpartner.de/en/projekte/postindustriellelandschaften/duisburg-nord-wasserpark/

Post-Industrial Environment International Practices

Domino Sugar Factory MasterPlan Background

2018

The Domino Sugar Factory master plan project by SHoP architects stands today as a project that has marked its basis on capitalizing on privatization as a means to foster development along the waterfront in the city of Brooklyn. The Domino Sugar Factory in Brooklyn was one of New York City’s architectural icons. For 150 years, a massive building and its annexes loomed over the East River and Brooklyn’s Williamsburg neighborhood. Inside its humid and sticky walls, workers spent long days laboring over machines refining raw sugar from Caribbean plantations. But in 2004, the machines stopped and workers laid off. For the next decade, the buildings sat still, quiet and empty, falling into disrepair, awaiting destruction. Dating back to 1856, it was once the largest and most productive sugar refinery in the world and, at one point, the tallest building in Brooklyn15. The original refinery was built in 1856, and by 1870 it processed more than half of the sugar used in the United States. The Havemeyer family established their first sugar refinery on Vandam Street in Manhattan at the turn of the nineteenth century. Frederick C. Havemeyer Jr. (1807-1891) expanded the business in 1857 after he established the longstanding South 3rd Street factory on the Williamsburg waterfront. The factory went through multiple accidental hazards over the years. The site became well known for holding labor strikes by workers who protested for better wages and working conditions. After its closure in 2004, the land was open for developers to take ownership and re-energize the abandoned industrial area.

American Refinery Company factories in Williamsburg, around Dailey, Jessica. “22 Historic Photos of Domino When It Was Still A Sugar Factory.” Curbed NY. March 11, 2013. Accessed December 02, 2018. https:// ny.curbed.com/2013/3/11/10265530/22-historic-photos-of-domino-when-it-wasstill-a-sugar-factory.

affordable and luxury housing, retrofitting office spaces in the old factory building along with another set of commercial and office spaces, open public spaces and so on. It is an extensive proposal that provides public access to the waterfront while incorporating many of the historic elements of the sugar factory that once operated out of the site. By using different artifacts off the site, the architects try to retain the historic identity of the factory in a society that is changing so rapidly. They have retained and modified the existing elements to make them more engaging with the public. The Design Team

Zoning Map, 2018 “Historical Zoning Map Table.” NYC. Accessed December 02, 2018. https://www1.nyc.gov/site/planning/zoning/historical-zoningmap-table.page.

Zoning, land acquisition and design Throughout New York’s history, the city has played a major role in the region’s ecology and its physical and economic development. Thousands of years ago, glaciers created much of the estuary as they scraped and scoured the region. As the glaciers receded, they left behind marshes, barrier beaches and islands along the shoreline. The Dutch who settled the area in 1620s began to alter the natural shoreline by filling in lowlands and constructing wharfs and docks to ease transport between the new world and the old. By the mid1800s, the port of New York had become the nation’s largest. Its vast expanse of shoreline provided tremendous growth potential for port and industrial facilities that imported raw materials and exported manufactured products. The harbor bustled with activity; ferries carried passengers and goods across the rivers and the bay. In the mid-19th and 20th centuries, the waterways served as the means of entry for waves of immigrants to this country. However, over the last 50 years, this pattern of the waterfront and port use has changed. The invention of the automobile and the growth in trucking diminished the importance of waterways for transporting goods. As water-dependent uses declined, large areas of the industrial waterfront became dormant. During the 19th century, New York City’s waterfront became a place of “health and pleasure” as well as a place for “the convenience of commerce.” The city governance and the residents began to view the water as a valuable resource for open space and recreation. Improved water quality, combined with large tracts of vacant land, fueled the desire to live, work and play near the waterfront16. Two Trees management, a well-known real estate development company bought the land from another developer at that time for a booming $180 million. Multiple proposals were iterated for the site which then finally was handed over to SHoP architects for their proposal. SHoP architects, a multidisciplinary design firm developed a proposal of a mixed use master planning for the area incorporating

SHoP architects is an architecture firm practicing out of Lower Manhattan, New York City. It is an inter disciplinary team led by four principals largely providing services to residences, commercial buildings, schools and cultural institutions as well as large scale master plans. At the heart of the firm’s method of practice is a willingness to question accepted patterns of practice, coupled with the courage to expand, where necessary, beyond the architect’s traditional roles18. They come to each new project with open minds, an expert team and a collaborative process that adapts itself specifically to the problem at hand. The architects have tried to maximize existing geographic and programmatic potentials to suggest a proposal that focuses on bringing in striking architecture, affordable housing to local residents and the local Brooklyn retailers to the Williamsburg waterfront19.

The Design Proposal The ‘complex’ features an unusual design, with public access to the extensive waterfront green space and six playfully donut shaped buildings through which the parkland and water will be visible from the streets around the complex. They have fleshed out all possible amenities that could help sustain the proposal to attract the public at large from all strata20. It will consist of 60% more public open space, mixed use development all through the site to make more permeable connections to the waterfront. The existing heritage factory building will be adapted to be reused as a 380,000 square feet office space with additional 220,000 square feet of office spaces. By moving the new building footprints back on the site and extending River Street through the site, the new one-quarter-mile long open park space created along the waterfront will rival the Nelson Rockefeller Park in Battery Park City in size, with multiple public uses (kayak launches, picnic areas, beer gardens, etc.) and a public plaza for larger events such as fairs, performances, or even graduation ceremonies21. The park will also include a section dedicated to using salvaged pieces and materials of the Domino Sugar Factory itself.

Visual imagery of the project by SHoP architects Frearson, Amy. “Domino Sugar by SHoP Architects and James Corner Field Operations.” Dezeen. May 06, 2015. Accessed December 02, 2018. https://www.dezeen.com/2013/03/05/dominosugar-by-shop-architects-and-james-corner-field-operations/.

The failure of the project Visual imagery of the project by SHoP architects Frearson, Amy. “Domino Sugar by SHoP Architects and James Corner Field Operations.” Dezeen. May 06, 2015. Accessed December 02, 2018. https://www.dezeen.com/2013/03/05/dominosugar-by-shop-architects-and-james-corner-field-operations/.

Though the projects tries to highlight the promises of a future that is more social and interactive among the society at large, the loser in this situation are the last workers who have been forced to move out of their homes which at once used to be near the factory’s location. With the onset of mixed use zoning and changing codes for development, meant increasing land values and booming unaffordable rents22. While the developers have agreed to provide some low-income housing in the new development, a lottery for

Post-Industrial Environment International Practices

the first redeveloped building had 87,000 applicants for the 104 affordable units. These fractions of availability offer little relief to the growing number of New Yorkers who, after being priced out of apartments, have been pushed to the city’s far edges. On the same waterfront, where a monument to both modernity and obsolescence once stood, a monument to gentrification will rise in its place. At the top, the famous Domino sign, a relic of its past life and a continuing cultural marker, will alight again. Landscape Design

James Corner was the landscape architect commissioned for the project. He is a landscape architect and theorist whose works exhibit a focus on “developing innovative approaches toward landscape architectural design and urbanism.” His designs of note include Fresh Kills Park on Staten Island and the High Line in Manhattan, and Domino Park in Brooklyn, all in New York City24. The Park weaves its way through the 11-acre Domino mega project and incorporates many of the historic elements of the sugar factory that once operated out of this site. The highlight of the park is the 450-foot-long elevated walkway that will be called the Artifact Walk. The approximately five-block long walkway runs along the footprint of the warehouse that stored the sugar25. The Artifact Walk is inspired by the series of catwalks that connected the buildings on the Domino site when it was still a sugar factory. He incorporates large pieces of machinery from the sugar factory, with two 80foot tall cranes being placed at the northern end of this walkway as a part of the landscape proposal. He has retained elements of the sugar factory making it a permanent part of the site’s historic identity. Throughout the six-acre park, visitors will find artifacts from the old factory like 585 linear feet of crane tracks, 36-feet tall cylindrical tanks that collected syrup during the refining process, and 21 columns from the sugar warehouse.

Endnotes

Bibliography

1. Wikipedia, “Ruhr”, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruhr

Stilgenbauer, Judith. “Landschaftspark Duisburg Nord-Duisburg, Germany (Latz.” In places-a forum of environmental design, vol. 17, no. 3, pp. 6-9. c/o places, po box 1897, lawrence, ks 66044-8897 usa: design history foundation, 2005.

2. Wikipedia, “Internationale Bauausstellung Emscher Park”, https://en.wikipedia. org/wiki/Internationale_Bauausstellung_Emscher_Park 3. Stilgenbauer, Judith. “Landschaftspark Duisburg Nord-Duisburg, Germany (Latz.” In places-a forum of environmental design, vol. 17, no. 3, pp. 6-9. c/o places, po box 1897, lawrence, ks 66044-8897 usa: design history foundation, 2005.

Latz, Peter. “The idea of making time visible.” 2000. Weilacher, Udo. Syntax of landscape: the landscape architecture of Peter Latz and partners. Walter de Gruyter, 2007.

4. Latz, Peter. “The idea of making time visible.” (2000).

Rosenberg, Elissa. Gardens, Landscape, Nature: Duisburg-Nord, Germany. na, 2009.

5. Weilacher, Udo. Syntax of landscape: the landscape architecture of Peter Latz and partners. Walter de Gruyter, 2007.

Weilacher, Udo. “Learning from Duisburg-Nord.” Topos 69, 2009.

6. Latz, Peter. “The idea of making time visible.” (2000).

Latz, Peter. “Landscape Park Duisburg-Nord: the metamorphosis of an industrial site.” In Manufactured Sites, pp. 163-178. Taylor & Francis, 2003.

7. Rosenberg, Elissa. Gardens, Landscape, Nature: Duisburg-Nord, Germany. na, 2009. 8. Ibid.

Keil, Andreas. “Use and perception of post-industrial urban landscapes in the Ruhr.” In Wild Urban Woodlands, pp. 117-130. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, 2005.

9. Weilacher, Udo. Syntax of landscape: the landscape architecture of Peter Latz and partners. Walter de Gruyter, 2007.

Braae, Ellen Marie. Beauty redeemed: Recycling post-industrial landscapes. Birkhäuser Verlag GmbH, 2015.

10. Ibid. 11. Ibid. 12. Rosenberg, Elissa. Gardens, Landscape, Nature: Duisburg-Nord, Germany. na, 2009. 13. Latz+Partners, “Duisburg Nord Landscape Park, DE”, https://www.latzundpartner. de/en/projekte/postindustrielle-landschaften/landschaftspark-duisburg-nord-de/

Van Etteger, Rudi, Ian H. Thompson, and Vera Vicenzotti. “Aesthetic creation theory and landscape architecture.” Journal of Landscape Architecture 11, no. 1 (2016): 8091. Hamilakis, Yannis. “Sensorial assemblages: affect, memory and temporality in assemblage thinking.” Cambridge archaeological journal 27, no. 1 (2017): 169-182.

14. Weilacher, Udo. “Learning from Duisburg-Nord.” Topos 69 (2009): 94-97. Visual imagery of the landscape proposed by James Corner Field Howarth, Dan. “Williamsburg’s Domino Sugar Factory Site to Become Six-acre Park by James Corner Field Operations.” Dezeen. April 25, 2017. Accessed December 02, 2018. https://www.dezeen.com/2017/04/25/williamsburg-domino-sugar-factory-sitepark-james-corner-field-operations-brooklyn-new-york/.

15. Diamond, Anna. “These Photos of the Abandoned Domino Sugar Refinery Document Its Sticky History.” Smithsonian.com. December 19, 2017. https://www. smithsonianmag.com/history/photos-abandoned-domino-sugar-refinery-documentsticky-history-180967578/.

Comparison The projects from their urban conceptions and design approaches have a strong hold on in ways they develop these postindustrial scenarios in two very different urban contexts. The Duisburg landscape proposal manages to engage with the public by transforming a “rust belt” zone into a green, modern and wealthy metropolitan area by means of using natural and technological innovations. On the other hand, the Domino sugar factory master plan looks at a case where the stakeholders have a good grasp on the points of focus and how the project largely situates itself along these parameters. The project in comparison is very “program” and “form based” in its approach of weaving the society into the proposal. The natural cues it takes for itself from the context are very urban principles that define the overall narrative structure of the project.

Portion of the park open to the public Howarth, Dan. “Williamsburg’s Domino Sugar Factory Site to Become Six-acre Park by James Corner Field Operations.” Dezeen. April 25, 2017. Accessed December 02, 2018. https://www.dezeen.com/2017/04/25/williamsburg-domino-sugar-factory-sitepark-james-corner-field-operations-brooklyn-new-york/.

16, 22. TERMINATION OF INDIVIDUAL HEALTH POLICIES BY INSURANCE COMPANIES.https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CZIC-ht168-n5-n437-1992/html/ CZIC-ht168-n5-n437-1992.htm. 17. Diamond, Anna. “These Photos of the Abandoned Domino Sugar Refinery Document Its Sticky History.” Smithsonian.com. December 19, 2017. https://www. smithsonianmag.com/history/photos-abandoned-domino-sugar-refinery-documentsticky-history-180967578/. 18. “SHoP Architects.” Wikipedia. December 27, 2017. Accessed December 02, 2018. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SHoP_Architects. 19. “SHoP Architects Completes Doughnut-shaped ‘325 Kent’ Residences in Brooklyn.” Designboom | Architecture & Design Magazine. June 07, 2018. https:// www.designboom.com/architecture/shop-architects-325-kent-domino-sugarfactory-new-york-02-11-2018/. 20. Dailey, Jessica. “22 Historic Photos of Domino When It Was Still A Sugar Factory.” Curbed NY. March 11, 2013. https://ny.curbed.com/2013/3/11/10265530/22-historicphotos-of-domino-when-it-was-still-a-sugar-factory. 21. Howarth, Dan. “Williamsburg’s Domino Sugar Factory Site to Become Sixacre Park by James Corner Field Operations.” Dezeen. April 25, 2017. Accessed December 02, 2018. https://www.dezeen.com/2017/04/25/williamsburg-dominosugar-factory-site-park-james-corner-field-operations-brooklyn-new-york/. 23. Diamond, Anna. “These Photos of the Abandoned Domino Sugar Refinery Document Its Sticky History.” Smithsonian.com. December 19, 2017. Accessed December 02, 2018. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/photos-abandoneddomino-sugar-refinery-document-sticky-history-180967578/. 24. Fo. “DOMINO SUGAR FACTORY WATERFRONT.” Field Operations Project_details. https://www.fieldoperations.net/project-details/project/dominofactory-waterfront.html. 25. Klimoski, Alex. “Domino Park by James Corner Field Operations.” Architectural Record RSS. October 29, 2018. Accessed December 2018. https:// www.architecturalrecord.com/articles/13586-domino-park-by-james-corner-fieldoperations?v=preview. 57

III. INTERNATIONAL

URBAN TRANSFORMATION

Case Study International Practices

3.1 Gentrification’s Effects on Two Neighborhoods - Summary East Liberty and Roppongi

Austen Gillen-Keeney, Yue Lu, Anika Shah

Google Maps

This case study explores the causes and effects of gentrification in East Liberty in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania and Roppongi in Tokyo, Japan. East Liberty is currently a lively neighborhood with an abundance of economic opportunities. However, this has not always been the case. Gentrification of the business districts created a neighborhood that was no longer economically feasible for the original tenants. More specifically, the redevelopment of Penn Plaza Apartments by LG Realty Advisors resulted in the displacement of the original tenants and caused the city of Pittsburgh to step in to help smooth negotiations. The turmoil among the residents and the city caused the in-statement of new guidelines for redevelopment which included funds going to affordable housing, park improvements, and encouraged community engagement through meetings. Roppongi has become one of the most well-known names in Japan transforming itself from an old military base into a lively commercial district. However, at the same time the economy brought development to Roppongi, gentrification increased dramatically. There are two main reasons for the gentrification of Roppongi: urban planning and legislation. The redevelopment of Roppongi was started by the Tokyo government who allowed real estate developers to replan and design the area creating a more international environment. The resulting gentrification of the area negatively impacted the community in two ways. It resulted in the removal of the original landowners who were forced to move out and significantly changed the culture by putting restrictions on the well-established nightlife. However, the gentrification of Roppongi has not always caused negative impacts. For example, the design of Roppongi Hills updated the area improving the safety hazards and making people’s lives more efficient. As exemplified by East Liberty and Roppongi gentrification remains an enormous issue, and while the results of gentrification in these two disparate areas are remarkably similar, the processes towards development are much different.

本案例研究了宾夕法尼亚州匹兹堡的 East Liberty 社区和日本东京六本木的绅士化的原因和影响。虽然 East Liberty 现在是一个充满活力经济机会丰富的社区，然而情况并非如表面看起来一样。商业区域的绅士化使现在的社区对原有住户不再具有经济适用性。具体来讲，LG Realty Advisors 重新开发的 Penn Plaza Apartments 导致原有租户流离失所，以至于匹兹堡政府介入，以帮助公司和住户的协商顺利进行。居民和城市之间的冲突和矛盾导致了新的规划方案的实施，方案包括了用于经济适用房、公园改善和鼓励社区参与的会议的资金。六本木从一个军用基地转变成一个生机勃勃的商业区，现在已经成为日本最著名的代名词之一。然而在经济为六本木带来发展的同时，绅士化也在迅速加剧。影响六本木绅士化的原因主要有两个：城市规划和立法。六本木的重新规划是由日本政府发起的，它授权房地产开发商对这片区域进行重新规划和设计，从而创造一个更加国际化的环境。由此产生的负面影响在两个方面影响着六本木社区。它导致了原来的土地拥有者被迫搬离，并且法律的限制在很大程度上改变了早已形成的夜生活文化。然而绅士化并不总是带来负面的影响。六本木丘的设计对这个区域进行了更新，减少了安全隐患，使人们的生活更加高效。正如 East Liberty 和六本木所显示的这样，绅士化依然是一个重大的议题，尽管这两个地区绅士化的方式非常相似，但发展的过程却不尽相同。

Case Study International Practices

3.1

Gentrification’s Effects on Two Neighborhoods East Liberty and Roppongi

Austen Gillen-Keeney, Yue Lu, Anika Shah

Our case study explores the causes and effects of gentrification in contrasting geographical locations. Since this topic is large with many different aspects, we have chosen to focus on two neighborhoods in which gentrification has severely changed the culture and urban fabric: East Liberty in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania and Roppongi in Tokyo, Japan. Beginning with brief descriptions of each area before gentrification, we will then explore the process each neighborhood underwent in becoming a gentrified area including how and why gentrification occurred, government policies that may have reinforced the issue, the public’s reactions, and the government’s response to any backlash. The goal of this case study is to provide insight into the issue of gentrification while drawing connections between two seemingly unrelated places through the lens of gentrification.

Gentrification Overview Gentrification has remained a highly debated issue in locations around the world including London, Brooklyn, and Seattle transpiring from the movement of middle-class families into inner-city, economically dejected neighborhoods. The influx of a new population tends to heighten the cost of living thus driving out the existing working-class inhabitants. However, the exact impacts caused by gentrification have continuously been questioned since the 1960s when research surrounding the topic of gentrification first began.1 Supporters of gentrification believe that the improvement in the neighborhood’s economy can help raise the wealth of the original lower-income residents without displacing them. In contrast, the opposite side believes that the economic development negatively impacts the original tenants by raising the cost of living through property taxes, rents, and home values to an extent most can no longer afford.1 Since many are driven out by rising costs, they are unable to access the benefits created by the positive economic development as they no longer have the same connection to the neighborhood they once called home. One remedy would be to create affordable housing in these revitalized neighborhoods, however, this becomes difficult when the affordable housing structures are often the properties taken over and demolished to make way for new development.1

East Liberty East Liberty is a neighborhood located in Pittsburgh’s East End. It is currently a bustling neighborhood with a variety of economic opportunities and housing offices of corporations such as Google. Currently, East Liberty streets are lively, lined with high-end stores and restaurants. The streets used to be much quieter and had many empty storefronts. This alone makes it seems that East Liberty

Rae, Maranie. Staab/PublicSource. 2017.

Chambers, Steph. Post-Gazette. 2018.

Glaser, Susan. The Plain Dealer. 2016.

has progressed in a positive direction, but the improvement of the business districts came at the cost of the original residents, and old family businesses. What was once their home, is now a place they can no longer afford to live and in some cases keep their businesses running. Businesses such as Target, occupy the spaces where affordable housing once stood.2 The construction of these developments has driven out many of the neighborhoods original tenants without them having a real say in the situation. East Liberty has seen a shift in its demographics from the early 2000s. The population of AfricanAmericans within the neighborhood has been declining three times faster than the Caucasian population. According to census data, noted in the PGH City paper, the median income from African-Americans increased by 14 percent after the decline, showing that those that could not afford the new standards are the ones who left.3

Penn Plaza Redevelopment In 1966 the city’s Urban Redevelopment Authority constructed a two-building complex called Penn Plaza Apartments.2 Penn Plaza was an affordable housing structure where many people from lower-socioeconomic statuses called home for decades. Penn Plaza no longer exists and near where it once stood is the proposed development of a Whole Foods, commercial buildings, offices, and market-rate apartments. The realty company that owned Penn Plaza at the time, LG Realty Advisors, began looking for ways they could reconfigure the use of the site to complement the surrounding growth that was happening within the neighborhood and its surroundings. Unfortunately, they were not keeping the current tenants in their plans for the future of the lot. When the Urban Redevelopment Authority established Penn Plaza, they had the owner follow affordable housing requirements, but after 40 years this housing covenant had expired leaving nothing stopping the realtors from redevelopment.2 Once they acquired the city to rezone the land, 90-day notices were issued

Penn Plaza Apartments Time-line. Public Source. 2018.

to the remaining tenants of Penn Plaza. This was not taken well by the residents, nor the city. As a result, residents began to hold protests in front of the Pittsburgh City-County Building. Eventually, the mayor, Bill Peduto, stepped in and after negotiation, LG Realty agreed to pay the residents who left by February 28, 2016, a sum of $1,600 per apartment, and those who stayed longer and left by March 31, 2017, a sum of $800.2 A nonprofit organization, Neighborhood Allies, along with the city helped relocate residents, as well as, organized 50% of tax increments to go to an Affordable Housing Fund in the first ten years of the new development. The family that owns the realty company made the following statement,

(Our company did) what no private developer in Pittsburgh has ever done: provide generous relocation assistance and stagger the development so that those who wanted to stay would have housing for an additional 18 months. To date, we have spent more than $400,000 both on the relocation assistance and in refurbishing existing units.2

backlash. By the summer, the legal issues had been negotiated with no input from the residents that had already been displaced. By October 2017, new guidelines were established for redevelopment. Parts of the new guidelines included funds going to affordable housing and park improvements for the neighborhood. The new guidelines encouraged community engagement through meetings that were open to the public before the Planning Commission and other agencies who would review the development progress. Engaging the public within these meetings allowed them to voice their issues that were previously silenced. As of March 2018, the developer’s tax contribution to the affordable housing fund will supply money to create 251 new affordable housing units around 1 mile from the Penn Plaza site.4 The redevelopment will continue to engage the public through meetings with updates on the project. Currently, Bill Peduto is finding ways to utilize the Affordable Housing Fund to establish new affordable housing units within East Liberty.5

In reality, the residents of Penn Plaza really did not have much of a choice or say in the situation. Many of the tenants were given Section 8 vouchers, while others did not fit into a category that was accepted to receive special help. By March 31, 2017, all of the residents of Penn Plaza were relocated, some of which were displaced around ten miles away.4 At the same time, lawsuits had been filed between LG Realty Advisors and the City of Pittsburgh. As this developed further, Whole Foods backed out of the project due to the public

Case Study International Practices

Roppongi Moving to the other side of the globe, Minato is a prime commercial area located in the metropolitan center of Tokyo. Many large corporations are located there including, Sony, Honda, Mitsubishi, NEC, and many others. For those living outside of Japan, Roppongi has become one of Minato’s most well-known names in recent years. Many upscale residential districts were built, along with museums, cafes, and restaurants. These residential districts have become popular with executives, diplomats, and celebrities, by creating a place they can enjoy peace and tranquility in an otherwise busy city. Before World War II, Roppongi was home to the Japanese military. After the war, the Americans seized the land and used it for a base. During the 1980s, Tokyo experienced the “extreme bubble” period which resulted in decreased land prices. In 1986, Mori’s family gained permission from the Tokyo government and began to redevelop Roppongi.6 Minato’s redevelopment resulted in the demolition of many historic streets and was at the expense of the original residents living spaces. This kind of cost seems to be a passive result from a top-down process. Since the original households have minimal say in the redevelopment process many must leave to meet the new urban development needs. Many reasons, often not understood by the citizens, led to the government’s re-evaluation of the district’s urban planning. For example, the initial change in the Roppongi area was due to the new urban planning needs of the city. Between 1996 and 2005 the population increased by 10%, while the household size continued to decline.7 Old districts were demolished and turned into anonymous skyscrapers. Many owners lost their restaurants and pubs in these historic streets. Young men moved into the newlydeveloped district and the population of people over 50 years old decreased more than 10,000 in these 10 years.7

Urban Planning The Roppongi district used to be home to many entertainment venues, like nightclubs, before it experienced a downturn when Japan’s bubble burst in the early 90s. After having been a rugged and rough place for many years, the district has gone through a marked transformation. Major mix-use developments such as the Roppongi Hills and the Tokyo Midtown have come to provide upscale residential flats, commercial, and recreational facilities which cater to the needs of the affluent.8 The Roppongi Hills development was spearheaded by Minoru Mori a real estate tycoon in Japan. In November 1986, the Tokyo Metropolitan Government designated the site as a ‘redevelopment induced area’, becoming one of the largest private-led urban redevelopment projects. Before development began, there were around 500 individual owners in this 11-hectare site.8 It took the government 17 years of negotiation with the owners before the Ownership Transfer Plan was approved. The majority of these owners were said to have received a piece of the property, either an office or a flat in the complex, in return for their land ownership rights.8 There were about 400 individual landowners who were promised condominiums in the towers to be constructed on the land they were being asked to give up, but only 161 actually 64

Japan Property Central. 2018.

took the offer.6 Japanese city planners have always been interested in the selfcontained community. They planned many “new towns” in the suburbs of major cities between the 1960s-1970s. Modern apartment blocks and single-family houses were located near shopping and leisure facilities.6 However, though these developments attracted many businesses there were not enough people to work for them. This resulted in these cities being detached from the true “towns” until the working residents returned. The arrival of the working residents resulted in the displacement of the original tenants. This may be the initial reason for the gentrification of Roppongi as it sparked development in the city.

Entertainment Business Control and Improvement Law (風営法) Located between the gentrified areas of Roppongi Hills and Midtown, are many vibrant nightlife and entertainment districts. Though they are not seen as red-light districts, there is still a lot of sexual entertainment. These areas have long been understood as a site of diverse cultural and social encounter due to their close proximity to several foreign embassies and the large numbers of expatriates working in nearby financial districts.9 As a result, Roppongi has become an international city. The government, police, and corporate construction began to seek to define and control the direction and pace of Japan’s internationalization.9 They controlled how these areas developed which resulted in the old Roppongi gradually disappearing. One of the most apparent phenomena was the shrinking nightclub zone, which gave way to the “neoliberal lifestyles and landscapes” that were associated with Roppongi Hills.9 To achieve this idea, they began using a legal method to

Japanese Subculture Research Center. 2013.

One of the most famous dance clubs called Muse (ミューズ) became the latest victim of this crackdown.9 The police arrested the manager and some people working there. This action began with the Entertainment Business Control and Improvement Law, created in 1948, which prohibited dancing after midnight.9 Muse is just one of those dance clubs that were busted. While it is hard to evaluate whether this crackdown was a good or bad, there is no doubt that things have changed a lot in these old areas. The crackdowns have taken away much of the nightlife in Roppongi Hills and these areas will likely continue to become gentrified in the near future.

that frequently suffers from earthquakes, the constructions are easily destroyed. So the re-construction and gentrification in Roppongi helped make this area a good example of an environmentally responsible and disaster-proof neighborhood. Compared to those neighborhoods built in a rush, Roppongi is good enough to be selfcontained, self-sufficient and state-of-the-art in terms of withstanding disasters.6 Though we tend to see gentrification in a negative light, not all aspects are negative. While many studies say gentrification negatively affects districts, most gentrified areas are affected by many external factors. However, these factors are often beyond the control of citizens and are due to policy and planning reasons. So, while the effects of these factors may appear to negatively impact the area in the short term, it could provide positive results in the future. This was the case for the planning of Roppongi in which the construction of Roppongi New Town has created many positive benefits.

It may be the first time that some people have a feeling that there is “less and less Japan in Japan, especially in Tokyo”.9 Less gentrified areas are not necessarily equivalent to more traditional environments, but without these traditional environments there may be less national identity among the people. For those who were forced to leave these districts, there is a high possibility that they may be the “new poor”, in both wealth and cultural identity.9

Roppongi Hills The gentrification of Roppongi began from the clean-up of these areas, which led to the opening of the fifty-four story Mori Tower in Roppongi Hills.6 Minoru Mori was well-known for his promotion of ‘vertical garden cities’, advocating for the vertical assemblage of various urban functions instead of horizontal expansion.8 This allows people to complete their daily affairs mainly in one building. It is not solely about the efficiency it also attempts to reintegrate resources. It mixes some elements of suburban areas to make it a nice complex in the city. The average outdoor temperature within its borders because of the immense greenery is 2-to-3 degrees cooler than that of the surrounding neighborhoods, thus addressing the urban heat island effect.6 Roppongi used to be a densely concentrated and fire-prone neighborhood that housed 20% of Tokyo’s population.6 Before Roppongi was planned and built, the streets around this area were very narrow, which made it hard for fire brigade to pass. For a city

Roppongi Hills - Maps. 2014.

Case Study International Practices

Analysis Through an analysis of East Liberty and Roppongi, it becomes evident that while the locations of these areas are drastically different, the fundamental effects of gentrification are remarkably similar. In both scenarios, the heightened economic activity in each area resulted in the displacement of the original tenants and a shift in demographics. In East Liberty affordable housing was replaced with business districts, causing the population of African Americans living in the area to drop three times faster than the Caucasian population.3 The neighborhood also became a destination for boutiques and restaurants accompanied by chain stores including Home Depot, Whole Foods, and Target, thus effectively attracting a new sector of the population.2 Similarly, in Roppongi old districts were demolished in order to build new skyscrapers and while the population in the area saw a 10 percent increase between 1996 and 2005, the distribution of the population changed with an increase of young men and a decrease of older tenants.7 Due to its size, the resulting area transformed into a cultural city center with the establishment of high-end stores, entertainment places, museums, and tourist attractions. Major mixed-use developments including Roppongi Hills and Tokyo Midtown were established to provide upscale residential flats for the new affluent residents and hotels and restaurants for the tourists visiting the area. However, while the results of gentrification in East Liberty and Roppongi appear similar, each area underwent many different processes towards development. These differences are most evident by examining the different policies and laws in each country. Penn Plaza, redeveloped by LG Realty Advisors, immediately dispersed 90-day notices to the residents after acquiring the city to rezone the land. However, due to public unrest, they subsequently required the assistance of the city government in negotiations with the original tenants. As a result, the original residents were provided compensation and the acquisition development process was staggered.2 In contrast, Roppongi Hills began with the Tokyo Metropolitan Government designating the site as a ‘redevelopment induced area’ in November 1986. After 17 years of negotiation to approve the Ownership Transfer Plan, the area became one of the largest private-led urban redevelopment projects.8 While, in theory, the individual landowners were compensated through offers of a piece of the new properties in exchange for their land ownership rights they could never benefit from such a deal because of the high costs of such property parcels.

Conclusion As exemplified by East Liberty and Roppongi, gentrification remains an enormous issue in places around the world. While the gentrification of areas may seem inevitable, new practices must be

instated to provide a buffer between the residents, with their existing culture, and the developers to help ease the negative effects that these original tenants experience. In both of the cases examined in this study, the developer did engage in some sorts of negotiations with the displaced residents. Unfortunately, these appeared to be primarily one-sided negotiations with tenants having minimal agency over their future and the future of their homes. Economically, the redevelopment of underutilized areas is a logical and appealing investment, however, the community and traditions that will inevitably be displaced must be considered. As discussed in relation to nightlife and entertainment in Roppongi, one result of the redevelopment of the area was the loss of the “old” Roppongi culture and the creation of a more international style city.9 Such a loss of culture due to gentrification is a significant issue that developers should consider when making redevelopment plans. This will require the active engagement of the current residents of the area and the broader public. This proved an effective method of providing that buffer in the East Liberty example in which new development guidelines were established based on public meetings with the Planning Commission and alternate city agencies.4 These benefits never would have been realized if the residents had not been given the opportunity to voice their opinions. Thus, as areas continue to become gentrified, future developers should weigh the benefits and costs to the area before making rash decisions based solely on economics that do not accommodate for the needs and culture of those being displaced.

Endnotes

Bibliography

1. Kozak, Stephanie L. “From Section 8 to Starbucks: The Effects of Gentrification on Affordable Housing in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.” Order No. 3627410, University of Kansas, 2014. http://proxy.lib.umich.edu/login?url=https://search-proquest-com. proxy.lib.umich.edu/docview/1558874402?accountid=14667.

Brasor, Philip and Tsubuku, Masako. “Roppongi Hills: controversial blueprint for Tokyo’s new breed of high-rise – a history of cities in 50 buildings, day 38.” The Guardian. May 18, 2015. Accessed November 6, 2018. https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2015/may/18/roppongi-hills tokyo-controversial-new-high-rise-history-of-cities-50-buildings-day-38.

2. Keppler, Nick. “Pittsburgh Affordable Housing Is Replaced by Whole Foods Store in Epitome of Gentrification.” Alternet. September 29, 2016. Accessed October 12, 2018. https://www.alternet.org/culture/pittsburgh-affordable-housing-replacedWhole-foods-store-epitome-gentrification. 3. Deto, Ryan. “Pittsburgh Is Poised for Growth for the First Time in 60 Years. Will the City’s African-American Community Grow With It?” Pittsburgh City Paper. December 9, 2015. Accessed October 12, 2018. https://www.pghcitypaper.com/ / pittsburgh-is-poised-for-growth-for-the-first-time-in-60-years-will-the-citys-africanamerican-community-grow-with-it/Content?oid=1872826. 4. Vrabel, Jason. “Key Moments in the Penn Plaza Displacement Saga.” Public Source. January 8, 2018. Accessed October 12, 2018. https://www.publicsource.org/ key-moments-in-the-penn-plaza-displacement-saga/. 5. Sheehan, Andy. “Mayor, Community Leaders Unveil Plan to Combat Gentrification in East Liberty.” CBS Pittsburgh. August 24, 2018. Accessed November 30, 2018. https://pittsburgh.cbslocal.com/2018/08/24/plan-unveiled-combat-east-libertygentrification/. 6. Brasor, Philip and Tsubuku, Masako. “Roppongi Hills: controversial blueprint for Tokyo’s new breed of high-rise – a history of cities in 50 buildings, day 38.” The Guardian. May 18, 2015. Accessed November 6, 2018. https://www.theguardian. com/cities/2015/may/18/roppongi-hills-tokyo-controversial-new-high-rise-historyof-cities-50-buildings-day-38. 7. Lützeler, Ralph. “Population increase and ‘New-build Gentrification in central Tokyo,” Vol. 62, no. 4 (2008). 8. Hyun, Bangshin. “Tokyo, the Roppongi Hills, and Vertical Urbanism.” September 1, 2012. Accessed November 6, 2018. http://urbancommune.net/2012/09/tokyo-andthe-roppongi-hills-in-december.html. 9. Hubbard, Phil. “‘You Can’t Lose at Muse’ no Longer True. Iconic Roppongi Club Lost in War on Dance.” Japan Subculture Research Center. October 25, 2013. Accessed November 6, 2018. https://societyandspace.org/2013/02/27/roppongicrossing-the-demise-of-a-tokyo-nightclub-district-and-the-reshaping-of-a-globalcity-by-roman-cybriwsky-reviewed-by-phil-hubbard/.

Chambers, Steph. Pittsburgh’s City-paid Demolitions Saw Sharp Decline amid Asbestos Rules. March 22, 2018. Pittsburgh. In Pittsburgh Post Gazette. March 22, 2018. Accessed October 29, 2018. https://www.post gazette.com/local/city/2018/03/22/Pittsburgh-demolition-budget controller-audit-Michael-Lamb-Maura-Kennedy-asbestos-regulations Allegheny-County-Health-Department-Karen-Hacker/ stories/201803220176. Deto, Ryan. “Pittsburgh Is Poised for Growth for the First Time in 60 Years. Will the City’s African-American Community Grow With It?” Pittsburgh City Paper. December 9, 2015. Accessed October 12, 2018. https://www. pghcitypaper.com/pittsburgh/pittsburgh-is-poised-for-growth-for-the first-time-in-60-years-will-the-citys-african-american-community-grow with-it/Content?oid=1872826. Glaser, Susan. Pittsburgh’s Evolving East Liberty Neighborhood. March 4, 2016. Pittsburgh. In Cleveland.com. March 4, 2016. Accessed December 1, 2018. https://www.cleveland.com/travel/index.ssf/2016/03/the_next_ chapter_in_the_recove.html. Hubbard, Phil. “‘You Can’t Lose at Muse’ no Longer True. Iconic Roppongi Club Lost in War on Dance.” Japan Subculture Research Center. October 25, 2013. Accessed November 6, 2018. https://societyandspace. org/2013/02/27/roppongi-crossing-the-demise-of-a-tokyo-nightclub district-and-the-reshaping-of-a-global-city-by-roman-cybriwsky reviewed-by-phil-hubbard/. Hyun, Bangshin. “Tokyo, the Roppongi Hills, and Vertical Urbanism.” September 1, 2012. Accessed November 6, 2018. http://urbancommune.net/2012/09/ tokyo-and-the-roppongi-Hills-in-december.html. Keppler, Nick. “Pittsburgh Affordable Housing Is Replaced by Whole Foods Store in Epitome of Gentrification.” Alternet. September 29, 2016. Accessed October 12, 2018. https://www.alternet.org/culture/pittsburgh-affordable housing-replaced-Whole-foods-store-epitome-gentrification. Kozak, Stephanie L. “From Section 8 to Starbucks: The Effects of Gentrification on Affordable Housing in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.” Order No. 3627410, University of Kansas, 2014. http://proxy.lib.umich.edu/login?url=https:// search-proquest-com.proxy.lib.umich.edu/ docview/1558874402?accountid=14667. Kubo, Angela Erika. Muse in It’s Heyday. October 25, 2013. Roppongi. In Japan Subculture Research Center. October 25, 2013. Accessed November 20, 2018. http://www.japansubculture.com/you-cant-lose-at-muse-no longer-true-iconic-roppongi-club-lost-in-war-on-dance/. Lützeler, Ralph. “Population increase and ‘New-build Gentrification in central Tokyo,” Vol. 62, no. 4 (2008). Roppongi Hills - Maps. April 2014. Roppongi. In Tokyo Line. April 2014. Accessed November 23, 2018. https://tokyo-line.jimdo.com/tokyo-guide/roppongi/ropongi-hills/. Roppongi Hills. Roppongi. In Japan Property Central. Accessed November 18, 2018. Sheehan, Andy. “Mayor, Community Leaders Unveil Plan to Combat Gentrification in East Liberty.” CBS Pittsburgh. August 24, 2018. Accessed November 30, 2018. https://pittsburgh.cbslocal.com/2018/08/24/plan-unveiled combat-east-liberty-gentrification/. Staab, Maranie Rae. The Penn Plaza Apartment Complex in East Liberty before It Was Demolished in 2017. February 23, 2017. Pittsburgh. In Public Source. February 23, 2017. Accessed November 29, 2018. https://www. publicsource.org/the-city-of-pittsburgh-is-taking-penn-plaza-owners-to court-over-alleged-broken-promises/. Vrabel, Jason. “Key Moments in the Penn Plaza Displacement Saga.” Public Source. January 8, 2018. Accessed October 12, 2018. https://www.publicsource. org/key-moments-in-the-penn-plaza-displacement-saga/.

Behind Density International Practices

3.2

Behind Density - Summary

Shanghai (China), Guangdong (China), and Austin (US) Yanci Chen, Tristan Snyder, and Mingdi Zhou

We began this investigation looking into the phenomenon of densification in cities between the Chinese and American Cultures. As we studied these opposite cities we were hoping to gain insight on the benefits or problems of rapid densification, but we began finding microcosms of these urban populations in neighborhoods and boroughs. There were communities that had long-standing history in their city but are/were facing redevelopment to maximize returns. Each of us dove into the histories of our cases to uncover the forces behind the push for densification. We will be looking at three communities in rapidly developing regions: Shanghai, China; Guangdong Province, China; and Austin, Texas; that lay in the shadow of densification, specifically focusing on their histories (to contextually orient the neighborhoods), economies (what monetary strings were pulled to encourage the changes), political (regulations and laws preventing or encouraging densification), and cultures (how the people responded to their changing context) from the street level. We titled this paper Behind Density because the nature of changing density creates moments of uncertainty at scales often overshadowed by numbers

中美文化中的城市密度变化所引发的现象是我们调研分析的起点。我们期望在研究过程中，发现和总结出城市密度快速增长带来的益处和消极影响。但是随着我们的调查范围聚焦到城市社区的尺度，我们开始总结出一些在社区尺度下的城市密度变化的范式。在城市中，一些有悠久历史的社区，他们正在或是曾经经历重新开发以期获得经济利益最大化。我们小组将深入研究三个案例来比较分析城市密集化发展背后的深层动因。我们分析的三个区域分别位于：中国上海，中国广东和美国德克萨斯州奥斯汀。他们都经历了相对剧烈的密度变化。在城市密集化发展的背景下，我们将从历史、经济、政策、文化等方面进行分析。在历史层面，根据城市环境定位社区；在经济层面，找到促进或是抑制发展的决定性因素；在政治层面，研习鼓励城市密集化发展的法规和制度；在文化层面，收集社会对于密度变化的态度和反馈。标题：密度背后表达了我们对密度化的本质的理解。研究城市密度对于建筑规划的意义在于现象背后的复杂成因而非数据本身。

Behind Density International Practices

3.2

www. vcg.com

BEHIND DENSITY Yanci Chen, Tristan Snyder, and Mingdi Zhou

www. qq.com

Fig. 02: Jing’an location and history.

Shanghai

Guangdong

Austin

Preface We began this investigation by looking into the phenomenon of densification in cities between the Chinese (Shanghai, Shezhen) and American Culture (Austin, Texas). As we studied these, seemingly, opposite cities we were hoping to gain insight into the benefits and hindrances of density. In doing so, we noticed microcosms of these urban fabrics that appeared strikingly similar. There were communities that had longstanding history in their city but are/were facing redevelopment to increase density and maximize returns. Each of us dove into the histories of our cases to uncover the forces behind the push for densification. Our study of density has evolved into a story of these two neighborhoods in limbo. We titled this paper Behind Density because the nature of changing density creates moments of uncertainty at scales often overshadowed by numbers and statistics.

to increase tax base to pay for new civic amenities or infrastructure. We will be looking at three communities in rapidly developing cities: Shanghai, China; Shenzhen, China; and Austin, Texas; that lay in the shadow of densification, specifically focusing on their histories (to contextually orient the neighborhoods), economies (what monetary strings were pulled to encourage the changes), politics (regulations and laws preventing or encouraging densification), and cultures (how the people responded to their changing context) from the street level.

Introduction Across cultures and through history the formal arrangements of a city can almost appear alien in their mannerisms and methods, but within these structures there is a system of innate necessity that all urban environments are guided. A city contains places (in which people, data, and material seek to be), between which there must be access or paths (where information, material, and people move), and sometimes a combination of these programs like a street market (the path of movement is also a place). Although these pieces remain constant, the arrangement of the categories is what controls the perception of the environment. Under this arrangement there is a system of metaphysical strings pushing and pulling the evolution of our urban environments: geography, climate, culture, government, proximities, etc.. Co-existing within these factors is economic gain. The movement 70

Fig. 01: Image of Shanghai looking down the Huangpu River.

Shanghai In 1292, the Emperor of the Yuan Dynasty established the County of Shanghai. The name “Shanghai” is derived from its location in the upper reaches of the Yangtze River. The excellent climate and geographical location provided desirable natural conditions for the stable development of Shanghai. In 1980, Deng Xiaoping set Shanghai as China’s Special Economic Zone, which became a milestone in the history of Shanghai’s development.1 Since then, Shanghai has truly become a window of trade between

China which also meant Shanghai stepped into an era of explosive development. With a rapidly expanding population and city, along with a dramatically changing social structure, Shanghai has been transformed in less than four decades. Today, Shanghai is one of the largest international metropolises with thousands of skyscrapers and a population of twenty-three million. Shanghai is often described as prosperous, new, fast-paced, and fashionable. Jing’an District, named after the ancient temple Jing’an Temple, is the centrally located administrative district with the longest standing history. In the second year of Tongzhi in the Qing Dynasty (1863)1, the central and southern parts of Jing’an District were turned into the US Concession, and later became the public concession shared by western countries. During the concession period, the relatively stable and affluent social environment attracted a large number of Chinese gentry and wealthy businessmen who all chose to settle down in Jing’an District. At the same time, in order to meet their living demands, western countries with English and French-main have built a large number of townhouses in Jing’an District. These dwellings follow the residential form of the Jiangnan (regions south of Yangtze River) dwellings2, with generally three or five doors, maintaining traditional Chinese architectural forms with a central axis and symmetrical layout. The entrance to these dwellings is a horizontally long dooryard with left and right wing-rooms on both sides, directly opposite the guest room with long windows. These dwelling halls are about twelve feet wide and twenty feet deep and are used for meetings and banquets. Secondary rooms are located on the two sides of the hall, behind which are wooden stairs leading to the second floor. There is an additional back courtyard, which is half as deep as the dooryard in the front, with a well. Behind the back courtyard are single-story attached trunks, commonly used as kitchens, miscellaneous houses, and storerooms. There are entrances and exits in the front and rear of the whole house. The front façade is composed of the wall of the dooryard and the gable wall of the wing-rooms. The main entrance door frame is made of stone, and equipped with black lacquer and thick wooden door leaf. The rear wall is roughly the same height as the front wall, forming a nearly enclosed facade. These townhouses are called “Shikumen” because of the stone arched main entrance, and translate to mean “the residence of the stone door”. Although Shikumens were located in the downtown area, they still have the advantage of a high-walled courtyard, producing a quiet atmosphere, which was quite popular amongst the gentry and wealthy merchants of the concession area at that time. In 1937, when the Shanghai was occupied, the Japanese army changed Jing’an District to Zhabei Administrative Office and

Historic alley. Photography by Mingdi Zhou.

Shanghai North District Office. The public concession became an “island” before the Pacific War. For this reason, during the eightyear Sino-Japanese War, the Shikumens of the Jing’an District were not completely destroyed, enabling us to see the well-preserved Shikumens.7 East Siwenli is located in the central part of Jing’an District in Shanghai, surrounded by Chengdu North Road, Xinzha Road, Datian Road, and Suzhou River. It is the earliest and largest zone of Shikumen. Now, other similar zones are already, or planned to be, demolished and replaced by high-rise apartments, offices and malls. However, there is dispute surrounding the development method of East Siwenli. Both developers and the Shanghai government want profits, while local residents want compensation payments and better living conditions. Historians and architects want a better urban environment for which they are proposing to renovate this area instead of demolishing it because of its unique historic value. That is why this area has not been developed until now. In the past two centuries, the major inhabitants of East Siwenli’s have undergone three stages of change. The first stage took place between 1860 and 1937.3 At that time, shikumen was just emerging. Located along the road and by the river, Siwenli was known as “Jing’an Villa District”, which was one of the most comfortable and pleasant areas in the suburbs of the city at that time. The residents there were mainly from upper classes who were rich enough to occupy a whole unit for a single family. The name of “Siwenli” was also given at that time for its “siwen”, which means beauty and elegance in Chinese. In the 1937, the war broke out. After the “August 13th” incident, the former rich residents moved to north of the Suzhou River.9 The shikumens were gradually occupied by a mixture of middle and lower class refugees. The population of Siwenli surged and single unit of shikumen started to be shared by multiple families, even though the living condition and atmosphere in East Siwenli was still good. The harmonious neighborhood reflected Shanghai people’s spirit of inclusivity at that time. The residents of Siwenli in this period of history is often described as “Seventy-two Gatekeepers”, which 71

Behind Density International Practices

means the joint maintainer of Shikumen. Since the beginning of the 21st century, more and more aborigines have been gradually moving away from Siwenli due to the rising income, renting and selling vacant houses, and replacing them with a large number of low-income families and migrant workers. At that time, the social structure of Siwenli changed, and the emotional connections between residents was gradually weakened. The emergence of the principal landlords and secondary landlords led to an unprecedented upsurge in the population density of Siwenli. Of course, this also meant extremely small living space and extremely inferior living quality. Now, the west part of Siwenli has been demolished. Among the remaining 361 residential units in East Siwenli, there were more than 2,700 households and 6,900 persons before the relocation.5 On average, there were seven households in the one-number house. Most of them are low-income people such as low-income, old-aged aborigines, migrant workers, and craftsmen.

Fig. 03: Point cloud elevations.

Today, Jing’an District has many high-rise buildings and rich commercial formats. It has become one of the oldest and most prosperous administrative districts in Shanghai. In 2016, the average real estate transaction price in Jing’an District reached 2016 dollar per square feet, and the population density reached 85.24 thousand people per square mile, both ranked second in all administrative districts in Shanghai. At the same time, Jing’an District has a superior geographical position and convenient transportation. It is well-connected and forms a transportation network such as railway, elevated, subway and public transportation. Convenient and excellent living conditions also bring an increasing cost of living. For the present residents living in East Siwenli, on the one hand, they have meager income. On the other hand, the high space value of Shikumen is out of touch with the poor quality of space. The backward space function needs to be updated. The traditional spatial layout is incompatible with the contemporary urban texture. Such dwellings are obviously unattended in today’s real estate market, which means it is extremely hard for the residents of East Siwenli today to sell their Shikumen. Therefore, those residents are facing a dilemma that they are unable to afford the high cost of living in Jing’an District, to purchase or lease other houses to relocate, or to fund the maintenance of the degrading Shikumen. They are trapped in the most prosperous area in the world’s most prosperous city. Obviously, the maintenance of Shikumen and the improvement of the living quality of Shikumen residents are more than the tasks of Shikumen residents. In fact, the government is also making proposals for this. In 2014, the government proposed to 72

repurchase Shikumen from the residents, thus providing residents with relocation expenses.6 In this proposal, the government will pay 148 dollar per square feet, all sorts of subsidies of at least 600 dollar per square feet (including housing buyback subsidies, urban renewal subsidies, decoration subsidies, relocation subsidies, transition fee subsidies and other subsidies), and taxes of 135 dollar per square feet, a total of at least 883 dollar per square feet. The government needs to spend at least 0.36 billion dollar per square feet considering the total area of development reaches to 4,090,000 square feet, which is an astronomical number. Therefore, the government needs to demolish Shikumen, build high-rise complexes on the original site, and transform the whole area into the urban central business district with high plot ratio to balance the budget.5 The proposal, which would obviously cause great damage to Shikumen and thus affect the city’s character, was opposed by a large number of citizens and urban scholars. However, without demolition and construction, it is difficult for the government to afford the huge development costs. As a result, the development of this valuable land has reached an impasse. As a unique architectural form of Shanghai, the Shikumen building is not only the living place of several generations of Shanghainese, but also the development history and culture of Shanghai’s modern times. Nowadays, the urbanization process is advancing rapidly, and the urban appearance of Shanghai has undergone earth-shaking changes compared with the last century. As an excellent cultural heritage of historical buildings, we cannot fully restore Shikumens, let alone completely dismantle them. In the 21st century, what kind of roles East Siwenli and its residents should play in the modern urban environment has become one of the major issues we have to consider.

Living quarters. Photography by Mingdi Zhou.

Fig. 04: Locating Guangdong Province.

Guangdong Shezhen, is a major city in Guangdong Province, China. It is located within the Pearl River Delta, on the north side of Hong Kong. The area of Shenzhen used to be composed of several farming and fishing villages. Chairman Mao, at that time, had passed a law that determined land ownership; the rural areas were owned by the farmer collectives, but in 1980 Shenzhen was designated as China’s first Special Economic Zone.10 The policy of “reform and opening” by Deng Xiaoping created easy means of urban expansion into these rural lands, while the rapid foreign and domestic capital rushing into the city encouraged the purchase of land from these farmer collectives. Due to the availability of cheap land and the proximity to Hong Kong, the expanding development quickly enveloped the extant farming villages overnight. Statistics show that the population density of Shenzhen is 5,963 people per square kilometer, 41 times the national average, and ranked first in China. The city is accommodating 11.9 million residents with a land size of less than 2,000 square kilometers. However, if the terrain was more forgiving around Shenzhen the population would be even larger. The population in Shenzhen has increased 400 times in 22 years.10 As the city developed, the land become so valuable that the owners of the lands (the farmers collective) refused to sell the land to the developers or the government. The villages remained isolated and undeveloped while the city reached for the sky surrounding the village like soldiers. The “village in the city” or ViC (chengzhongcun) is a byproduct of this rapid urbanization which emerged all around the Pearl River Delta region of China, especially in Guangzhou. Many villages were swallowed up by the urban sprawl. ViCs are recognizable for their “dual urban-rural structure”. The agriculturally dependent villagers were forced to change cultures as their land was purchased. Leaving no choice, the villagers turned to capitalizing on their land value by becoming “builders”. They had to build “illegal” construction to accommodate mass families as migrants, who are institutionally and economically on the fringe of the urban system.

As a result, ViCs, to some extent, became a shelter for migrants adding to extreme density and overcrowding. The density of Shenzhen is frightening due to the newly constructed high-rises, yet the density within these small villages in city is exponentially more extreme. It is a fascinating urban condition that has haunted urban planners for decades. The government is placing institutional barriers to deny migrants access to the city, like setting restrictions on their housing, education, and employment. Redevelopment projects, which would reshape the space around ViCs, were launched to interfere with the daily lives of the migrants and villagers trying to make the owners sell their property below market value. Architects are doing research and holding events like Bi-city biennale of urbanism/architecture to advocate the idea that the dense urban condition in Shenzhen and Hongkong are very much worth thinking about. There is a paradox of the future of ViCs, people living inside these buildings are mostly migrants and do not have hukou (like a visa for cities). To some extent, they live on borrowed time. They make a living off the government’s grid because they do not have legal access to the local public resources, but due to the high cost of legal housing living inside the ViCs is the only hope that they have of staying in the city. They are reluctant to move out, yet the real residents who own a house inside the ViCs are eager to be bought because the tremendous compensation they could get due to the high land value in the middle of the city.10 For these migrants, the problem of ViCs are more about survival. On the other hand, these living conditions are detrimental to the city’s overall image. According to Yanliu Lin’s essay, due to the problems of overcrowding, deficient spatial structures and high crimes rates, the government does not want to keep these ViCs in the district, but the development of these districts is extremely high, and it is nearly impossible for developers to get a return on investment. In the past two decades, only one case was successfully redeveloped by the government, named Liede Village. No other 73

Behind Density International Practices

redevelopment plan reached this stage of implementation. According to analyses made before, the ViCs are closely related to the number of city migrants. The formation process of the ViCs correspond to migrant’s demand for informal employment and education. Lin concludes: there are three common types of redevelopment, all of which neglect the most important part of the process, the migrants. The first approach is to demolish the existing layout and replace it entirely with high-end apartments, high-rise offices and commercial buildings. This approach cuts down the the migrants access to urban services and prevents the fulfillment of informal jobs. The migrants have no choice but to leave. The second approach is collective projects. These projects have a major effect on the redistribution of income among indigenous villagers, but they provide some opportunity to the migrants. Thirdly, small projects, which restructure and reshape the space of ViCs, relating to the survival strategies of migrants in the market exchange and reciprocity spheres. However, most low-income migrants cannot access the upgraded housing due to the increased rent. Others are seeking for opportunities to redevelop with their own power, like the case of Dafen Village. The villagers spontaneously started a painting industry. The whole village is producing commercial products, and people are trained to gain more profit by selling goods and services. When they accumulated some money, Dafen village decided to launch a project called Dafen Art Museum to build the village an anchor, bringing the village together. The architects’ propose that this museum could be a node for the painting market in Dafen. As expected, an obvious rise in the economy has been witnessed with the rent of housing in Dafen village increasing when the project finished. This “Bottom-up” approach, as an architectural intervention, of the redevelopment has its obvious flaws. The art museum is not performing as the architects expected due to lack of management. This system is also vulnerable to external impacts and and has difficulty getting support from the villagers. Although Dafen relies on interior force to accomplish the redevelopment project, the success of the Dafen redevelopment might be hard to replicate. According to Jialin Pan, in the article called Dafen village: Exploring urban village industry, influential factors such as the peripheral location, the specific industry within the urban village, and the pioneer attitude of the local authorities are not easy to find in other ViCs. I took Liede Village as the case study to find out why the same success cannot be duplicated in other ViCs. The process of demolition and rebuilding started in 2007 and finished in 2010. Liede village is centrally located in the new CBD. With this new planning launched by city government, the network of roads are more efficient, and the land value increased.

Fig. 07: City of Austin looking down the Colorado River.

Austin

Fig. 05: Locating Guangdong Province.

Fig. 06: Elevation of Gangxia Gateway Street. 74

Austin, Texas, the capitol of the second largest state and second most populous 12 in the United States has experienced rapid growth relative to the rest of the nation. The city was founded along the banks of the Colorado river atop the informal settlement of Waterloo in 1839 12(Waterloo was located over the camp grounds of the Tonkawa, Comanche, and Lipan Apache 13). Geographically the city lies on the edge of the Balcones Escarpment splitting Texas in half. West of the fault line you have nearly solid limestone, and East expansive black soil perfect for agriculture. The Colorado river connects the geographically land-locked city to the Gulf of Mexico. The city was determined to be the capitol of the new Republic of Texas and exploded in population as Judge Erwin Waller surveyed and laid out the street plan in 1839. Within months the population of the city grew to 856 people. It was in this initial plan, designed by Judge Waller, that the character of city was determined; a gridded city designed for efficiency with controversial links to the rational plan of Philadelphia by William Penn.13 The city would continue to grow into Judge Waller’s plan, and in the 1884 the Driskill neighborhood was developed by Frank Rainey and Jesse Driskill. The district was a residential neighborhood filled with white middle-class tradesmen for 40 years. During this time the city was a desirable place to live, but as the automobile became the primary means the demographics rapidly shifted as these middleclass families moved to the suburbs. Downtown became populated with blue-collar minorities that could not afford a car.14 In the late 20th century the district was being considered for redevelopment as the city built its exposition center only a couple blocks away. The current owners feared being pushed out of their homes creating a long commute. The owners protested zoning changes and in 1967 became a historic district, thus granting it protection by the government and several influential organizations. Austin is home to a large artist community needed for album and singles covers, and miraculously the booming tech

industry needed animators and designers. Because of this large skilled labor supply companies like Dell and Apple began eyeing the city. In the 1980’s and 90’s the massive influx of tech companies began. The new companies brought more jobs to the region and the city of Austin exploded, averaging an influx of nearly 12,000 people/ year 15. This immense increase in population caused a housing boom in the early 2000’s, and the political eyes once again looked to Rainey district. At this same time the desire to return to the city began to take hold across the US. Cost of gas was reaching $4.00 16 a gallon in central Texas, and real estate prices skyrocketed to meet the new demand. New developers began building their business on mixeduse high and medium rise construction to alleviate market supply shortages. There is a problem with this development. Austin has an abysmal mass-transit system with only one light rail line in the region. The city had to decide; to begin rezoning old historic districts for almost no cost to the city, or to spend billions of dollars on a modern light rail system that would allow for more dispersed development. Many residents of Driskill now hoped for rezoning which would encourage developers to buy up the aging homes. Many of the residents had lobbied for the rezoning from R1 (residential single family) to join the high-density mixed-use Central Business district because rising property values pushed annual taxes through the roof 17. The Rainey district was rezoned in 2005, but few of those dreams came to fruition. Before the rest of the neighborhood could be purchased, almost as if on cue, the housing market crashed in 2007. The residents that had hoped for a reprieve were not bought out, and for the next five years they continued to pay increasingly high property taxes. Many residents racked up debt holding on to their childhood homes, and some residents were forced out by the cost of electricity. At the height of the recession Bridget Dunlap began renting a house on the sleepy street. The home was transformed into a bar 75

Behind Density International Practices

bar called the Lustre Pearl in 2009 18. â&#x20AC;&#x153;The bar that started it all...â&#x20AC;? this is what the Pearl is referred to by many journalists and residents of the district because following the opening of the bar dozens more would follow in Dunlapâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s footsteps. There are currently 20 bars along the three block stretch of road, and nearly a dozen more are planned. Many planners believe the district cannot sustain itself as property prices continue to increase dragging taxes and rent with it. New high rises seem to be planned every day in the city, and Rainey street already lives in the shadows of four new high rises. The city has signed new ordinances into place to prevent more bars from opening in the district and encourage more diverse development in the area 14. Currently the much louder Rainey street is a destination and part of the culture of Austin. If you go out in the city you decide between clubs on 6th street or Rainey street.

Fig. 08, 09, 10 (left) 11, 12, and 13 (right): Homes before and after the zoning code change. 76

Conclusion Density is the product of many different invisible strings that are intertwined pushing and pulling, periodically in a counterproductive manner. Politics that dictate zoning code and the appointments to positions of power to influence subsidiary aspects of the city, money that guides corporate interests in property development, social changes of a burrough that increase the desirability of a realestate market, and many other aspects all determine the fate of a neighborhood. Beneath all of these aspects are stories of people moving and settling to find better jobs, retiring where they grew up, protecting their family roots, and education, with each of these individuals having stories to tell. We began this study looking to demonstrate the statistics of density across cultures, but simply stating statistics does not explain the human side. We found that across these cases there are multiple methods behind density, but in all cases there are parties that may not be willing to accept these projects. In the role of an architect it is our job to understand these situations before we begin designing in their place. After all design is for the inhabitants, not for making money.

Fig. 14: Shanghai. 77

Behind Density International Practices

Endnotes 1) Singapore Urban Redevelopment Authority (URA). Conservation Guideline [Z]. Singapore: The Urban Redevelopment Authority (URA),2017 2) Marc, A, Rosen. Measuring the Externality Effects of Commercial Land Use on Residential Land Value: A Case Study of Seoul[D]. Seoul,Korea:Hee Jin Yang, Jihoon Song and Mack Joong Choi 3, 2016. 3) Bureau, Stedelijke, Planning, B, V, Klein, Amerika, 18, Gouda. Mixed-use Development: Theory and Practice in Amsterdam’s Eastern Docklands[J]. European Planning Studies, 2004, 13(7): 15-32 4) Elmira, Gur. Regeneration of The Historical Urban Center and Changing Housing Market Dynamics: “Fener-Balat”[D]. Istanbul Technical University:Elmira Gur, 2015. 5) Gur E. Regeneration of the historical urban center and changing housing market dynamics: ‘Fener-Balat’[J]. ArchNet-IJAR, 2015, 9(1):232-246. 6) Qiu Jianhua. The Enlightenment of the “Gentlemanization Movement” to the Renewal of Old City in China[J]. , 2002, 22(2): 125-129 7) Zhang Yiqi. Research on the Gentlemanization Phenomenon in Urban Renewal[J]. City Architecture, 2016(32):360-361. 8) Zhang Xu. Research on Spatial Diversity Design Strategy of Traditional Streets [D]. Architecture of Hunan University, 2012 9) Fang Wei. Singapore’s Historical Street Protection Strategy——Taking Chinatown Historic District as an Example[J]. Planner, 2011, 27(9): 120-125 10) Yurtoğlu, Nadir. “Http://www.historystudies.net/dergi//birinci-dunya-savasin a-bir-asayis-sorunu-sebinkarahisar-ermeni-isyani20181092a4a8f.pdf.” History Studies International Journal of History10, no. 7 (2018): 241-64. doi:10.9737/ hist.2018.658.Lin, Yanliu & Meulder, Bruno & Wang, Shifu. (2011). Understanding the ‘Village in the City’ in Guangzhou. Urban Studies. 48. 3583-3598. 10.1177/0042098010396239. 11) Yanliu Lin, Bruno De Meulder, Shifu Wang, Understanding the ‘Village in the City’ in Guangzhou, DOI: 10.1177/0042098010396239 ,2011 12) Total Population by Country 2018. Accessed November 21, 2018. http:// worldpopulationreview.com/states/ 13) “Brief History of Austin.” Austin Public Library. Accessed November 21, 2018. http://library.austintexas.gov/ahc/brief-history-austin. 14) Barnes, Michael. “The Puzzlement of Austin’s Original City Plan.” Statesman. September 25, 2018. Accessed November 21, 2018. https://www.statesman.com/ article/20150829/NEWS/308299748. 15) “The Ghost of Developers Past - The Austin Chronicle.” Accessed November 20, 2018. https://www.austinchronicle.com/food/2012-05-25/the-ghost-ofdevelopers-past/.http://www.kut.org/post/texas-austin-suburbs-lead-nationpopulation-growth-again 16) “Rainey Street History in the Making | Community Impact ...” Accessed November 20, 2018. https://communityimpact.com/austin/developmentconstruction/2015/03/24/rainey-street-history-in-the-making/. 17) “Priced Out in the Shadow of Downtown Austin.” The Texas Observer. May 10, 2018. Accessed November 21, 2018. https://www.texasobserver.org/priced-outin-the-shadow-of-downtown-austin/. 18) Mashhood, Farzad. “To Slow Influx of Bars on Rainey Street, Austin City Council Considers New Rules.” Statesman. September 26, 2018. Accessed November 21, 2018. https://www.statesman.com/news/20130228/to-slow-influx-ofbars-on-rainey-street-austin-city-council-considers-new-rules. 78

Bibliography Fig 01: “Business, Language Culture.” CIEE. Accessed December 04, 2018. https:// www.ciee.org/go-abroad/college-study-abroad/programs/china/shanghai/ business-language-culture. Fig 02: http://sh.eastday.com/m/20161226/u1ai10192748.html Fig 03: Architectural Heritage Protection Center for International Studies. Accessed December 04, 2018. http://ahc.sjtu.edu.cn/Default.aspx. Fig 04: Environmental Policy Simulation and Assessment under Rapid Urbanization: Case Study of Essential Area Policy in Shenzhen, China, Yang Gao, Zhe Feng, Jiansheng Wu, Jian Peng

Fig 05: Villages in the City. Hong Kong University Press, 2014. Fig 06: Villages in the City. Hong Kong University Press, 2014. Fig 07: Forrest, Hugh. “SXSW PanelPicker Trends: Austin on Top – Hugh Forrest – Medium.” Medium.com. August 28, 2018. Accessed December 04, 2018. https://medium.com/@hugh_w_forrest/sxsw-panelpicker-trends-austin-on- top-28f36c35b536. Fig 08: “A Walk Down Rainey Street Then and Now.” KLBJ 93.7 FM - Austin’s Rock. Accessed December 04, 2018. https://www.klbjfm.com/blogs/cjsblog/walk-down-rainey-street-then-and-now. Fig 09: “A Walk Down Rainey Street Then and Now.” KLBJ 93.7 FM - Austin’s Rock. Accessed December 04, 2018. https://www.klbjfm.com/blogs/cjsblog/walk-down-rainey-street-then-and-now. Fig 10: “A Walk Down Rainey Street Then and Now.” KLBJ 93.7 FM - Austin’s Rock. Accessed December 04, 2018. https://www.klbjfm.com/blogs/cjsblog/walk-down-rainey-street-then-and-now. Fig 11: “A Walk Down Rainey Street Then and Now.” KLBJ 93.7 FM - Austin’s Rock. Accessed December 04, 2018. https://www.klbjfm.com/blogs/cjsblog/walk-down-rainey-street-then-and-now.

Fig 12: “A Walk Down Rainey Street Then and Now.” KLBJ 93.7 FM - Austin’s Rock. Accessed December 04, 2018. https://www.klbjfm.com/blogs/cjsblog/walk-down-rainey-street-then-and-now. Fig 13: “A Walk Down Rainey Street Then and Now.” KLBJ 93.7 FM - Austin’s Rock. Accessed December 04, 2018. https://www.klbjfm.com/blogs/cjsblog/walk-down-rainey-street-then-and-now. Fig 14: Jing’an refreshes the “Shanghai shopping” experience will welcome the commercial upgrade of Shanghai brand capital construction and promotion service platform. Accessed December 04, 2018. http://shbrand. jfdaily.com/lianliankan/201808/t20180808_2568912.html.

Singapore Urban Redevelopment Authority (URA). Conservation Guideline [Z]. Singapore: The Urban Redevelopment Authority (URA),2017 Marc, A, Rosen. Measuring the Externality Effects of Commercial Land Use on Residential Land Value: A Case Study of Seoul[D]. Seoul,Korea:Hee Jin Yang, Jihoon Song and Mack Joong Choi 3, 2016. Bureau, Stedelijke, Planning, B, V, Klein, Amerika, 18, Gouda. Mixed-use Development: Theory and Practice in Amsterdam’s Eastern Docklands[J]. European Planning Studies, 2004, 13(7): 15-32 Elmira, Gur. Regeneration of The Historical Urban Center and Changing Housing Market Dynamics: “Fener-Balat”[D]. Istanbul Technical University:Elmira Gur, 2015. Gur E. Regeneration of the historical urban center and changing housing market dynamics: ‘Fener-Balat’[J]. ArchNet-IJAR, 2015, 9(1):232-246. Qiu Jianhua. The Enlightenment of the “Gentlemanization Movement” to the Renewal of Old City in China[J]. , 2002, 22(2): 125-129 Zhang Yiqi. Research on the Gentlemanization Phenomenon in Urban Renewal[J]. City Architecture, 2016(32):360-361. Zhang Xu. Research on Spatial Diversity Design Strategy of Traditional Streets [D]. Architecture of Hunan University, 2012

Fang Wei. Singapore’s Historical Street Protection Strategy——Taking Chinatown Historic District as an Example[J]. Planner, 2011, 27(9): 120 Yurtoğlu, Nadir. “Http://www.historystudies.net/dergi//birinci-dunya-savasin a-bir-asayis-sorunu-sebinkarahisar-ermeni-isyani20181092a4a8f.pdf.” History Studies International Journal of History10, no. 7 (2018): 241-64. doi:10.9737/hist.2018.658.Lin, Yanliu & Meulder, Bruno & Wang, Shifu. (2011). Understanding the ‘Village in the City’ in Guangzhou. Urban Studies. 48. 3583-3598.10.1177/0042098010396239. Yanliu Lin, Bruno De Meulder, Shifu Wang, Understanding the ‘Village in the City’ in Guangzhou, DOI: 10.1177/0042098010396239 ,2011 Total Population by Country 2018. Accessed November 21, 2018. http:// worldpopulationreview.com/states/ “Brief History of Austin.” Austin Public Library. Accessed November 21, 2018. http://library.austintexas.gov/ahc/brief-history-austin. Barnes, Michael. “The Puzzlement of Austin’s Original City Plan.” Statesman. September 25, 2018. Accessed November 21, 2018. https://www statesman.com/article/20150829/NEWS/308299748. “The Ghost of Developers Past - The Austin Chronicle.” Accessed November 20, 2018. https://www.austinchronicle.com/food/2012-05-25/the-ghost- of-developers-past/.http://www.kut.org/post/texas-austin-suburbs-lead- nation-population-growth-again “Rainey Street History in the Making | Community Impact ...” Accessed November 20, 2018. https://communityimpact.com/austin/developmentconstruction/2015/03/24/rainey-street-history-in-the-making/. “Priced Out in the Shadow of Downtown Austin.” The Texas Observer. May 10, 2018. Accessed November 21, 2018. https://www.texasobserver.org/ priced-out-in-the-shadow-of-downtown-austin/. Mashhood, Farzad. “To Slow Influx of Bars on Rainey Street, Austin City Council Considers New Rules.” Statesman. September 26, 2018. Accessed November 21, 2018. https://www.statesman.com/ news/20130228/to-slow-influx-of-bars-on-rainey-street-austin-city- council-considers-new-rules.