Investigations of the Carceral State Precedent Research from the “Re-Imagining Incarceration” Studio at Taubman College with MASS Design Group
Spring 2019
Introduction 7 9
1
11 Images by Jenny Scarborough, Yue Lu and Nishang Wang
17 Introduction
4
Federal Correctional Institution at Milan Alger Maximum Correctional Facility Detroit House of Corrections Ionia Correctional Facility Complexes Kinross & Chippewa Correctional Facilities Marquette Branch Prison Michigan State Prison at Jackson Muskegon: West Shoreline & Earnest G. Brooks Special Alternative Interaction Program, Chelsea St. Louis & Central Michigan Correctional Facilities Thumb Correctional Facility Women’s Huron Valley Correctional Facility
Research
83 Images by Stacy Song, Beiyi Ma, and Maggie Cochrane 89
91 103 111 121 129 137 143 157 175 189 195 203
3
Contributors
Case Studies 19 23 27 33 39 43 49 55 63 69 73 77
2
Foreword by Jeffrey Mansfield
Introduction School-to-Prison Pipeline Design of Courts & Trial Spaces Visitation & Family Separation Treatment of Special Populations Race and Incarceration Temporary Confinement Facilities Detention Facilities Prison Towns E-Carceration Community-Centered Facilities Restorative Justice Abolition & Auxiliary Institutions
Workshop
213 217 219
Images by Rinika Prince and Elizabeth Sinyard
Introduction Drawings from Residents
Afterword
241
Images by Xuanxiao Chen and Xinlu Sun
249
Sources
245
Afterword by the Editors
Introduction
0
5
Foreword represent our goals for pursuing justice? Places designed for recuperation, for restoration, for re-entry, and for reflection? What would an ideal work environment be for officers? And how would a space of healing look instead of a space of violence? If a reimagined facility is understood as a place of healing, could a prison itself be a catalyst in radical de-carceration? Could it lead to a healthier society for all of us? Taking the Propositions Studio as a point of entry into this inquiry, 12 graduate students from the University of Michigan have been immersed in a co-design process with current and formerly incarcerated residents, exploring how we, as architects can leverage agency to build a more sustainable, healthier, and safer built environment for those who are most harmed by it. We are grateful to the students for their efforts, to the Taubman School for offering this platform, and to our colleagues Baz Dreisinger, Heather Ann Thompson, Ashley Lucas, and the University of Michigan’s Prison Creative Arts Project, without whom this urgent endeavor would not be possible. MASS Design Group
Introduction
There is no more obvious an example of a space shaping behavior than in the architecture of prisons. With over 1,800 state and federal prisons in the United States, the prison today is part of a vast architectural landscape that is rarely understood, and even less considered an object of study. But these spaces have been designed, either intentionally or unintentionally, to inflict harm on the people within and around them. Prisons represent our public’s moral character and its moral failings. Today’s crisis of mass incarceration is a moral and a spatial question—one cannot be solved independently of the other. As architects of the built environment and influencers in the social and political systems that define our civic infrastructure, we have been a given unique agency to act. Our present situation is neither inevitable nor sustainable. In recent years, other countries have experimented with systems and facilities that operate according to a different frame that endeavor to a transformative mission. Instead of a system that seeks to punish or exact retribution, places like Germany, the Netherlands, Denmark, Norway, and Finland strive to rehabilitate and reintegrate. What would it mean, in America, to have spaces that
7
Contributors Students
Xuanxiao Chen
Maggie Cochrane
Yaqi Dai
Kemper Fagan
Yue Lu
Beiyi Ma
Rinika Prince
Jenny Scarborough
Elizabeth Sinyard
Yubei Song
Xinlu Sun
Nishang Wang
Michael Murphy
Lesedi Graveline
Fuzhou, China
Zhang jiakou, Hebei, China
Athens, GA, USA
Windham, NH, USA
Yancheng, Jiangsu, China
Shanghai, China
Shanghai, China
Mumbai, MH, India
Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
Clemson, SC, USA
Denver, CO, USA
Shenzhen, DG, China
Instructors
Design Director Studio Co-Instructor
Principal Studio Co-Instructor
Junior Associate Studio Coordinator
Introduction
Jeffrey Mansfield
9
11
This Is America
13
When the Light Comes In...
15
FCI Milan
Alger Maximum Correctional Facility
Women’s Huron Valley
We studied prisons local to our university in the hope of being able to visit them and experience their interiors for ourselves, but the administrations at each prison (except the Federal Prison at Milan) found reasons to claim that we were not permitted to enter.
Case Studies
After producing these drawings, we held a workshop with individuals who had previously resided in these facilities, and we were able to better ascertain what these facilities look like on the inside.
Architectural Examinations of Prisons across Michigan
Prison Case Studies
We began our studies of the carceral state with an examination of twelve prison complexes across the state of Michigan. As no photography is allowed within facilities, much of the plans and sections drawn here are based on educated guesswork. We were able to determine the interiors by narratives from previously incarcerated people, publicly available prison plans, exterior photographs, and Google Maps.
17
Security Level: Low-security Designed Occupancy: Unknown Current Occupancy: 1341
Milan, Michigan
Type of Facility: Men
FCI Milan
Year Built: Opened in 1933
FCI, Milan
Location: Milan, MI
19
Federal Correctional Institution, Milan
Classroom
Classroom
Day Room
Day Room
Kitchen Day Room Dining Room
Medical Service
Day Room Laundry
Day Room
Day Room
Staff Visiting Room
Lobby
Storage Kitchen Dining Room
Multi-Function
Medical Service
Laundry
Staff
Dining Room
Laundry
Staff
FCI Milan
MultiFunction
21
Designed Occupancy: Unknown Current Occupancy: 896 residents The Alger Maximum Correctional Facility situated in Munising, Michigan is a prison town with a total of six housing units of level IV and level II securities. The general population occupies four housing units leaving the other two housing units for segregation. Out of the four housing units, three are maximum secuirty units that consist of the residents housed in cells, the outdoor areas are reinforced with multiple fences and gun towers that keep watch at all times. The fourth unit is a minimum security unit with residents that live in dorm style housing. The facility provides basic amenities for residents such as food services, health care, basic
education and GED courses. The facility overall is divided into these specific zones with levels of security that define the nature of behaviour expected of the residents that occupy them. The diagrams show assumptions based on the levels of exposure provided to the residents in each housing unit, and the freedom with which they can move around. Two fences lined with razor wire, armed guard towers, an electronic detection system at the boundary and routine patrols ensure the people incarcerated stay within the prison. guard station
day room
lobby/security
railway
main entrance
guard station
guard station day room
day room lobby/security
y
railwa
lobby/security
ilway
main entrance
Typical Unit Plan (Hypothetical)
main entrance
Alger County, Michigan
Type of Facility: Adult men Security Level: Maximum and Minimum security
Alger Maximum
Year Built: 1990
Alger Maximum Correctional
industrial park dr.
Location: Alger County, Michigan
23
SECURITY
Alger Maximum Correctional Facility (high)
CAGED COURTYARD
SEGREGATION HOUSING CAGED LEVEL II COURTYARD CAGED HOUSING COURTYARD
(high)
(high)
SECURITY
SECURITY
OPEN GROUND
OPEN GROUND
LEVEL IV HOUSING
OPEN GROUND
LEVEL IV HOUSING LEVEL IV HOUSING
SEGREGATION SEGREGATION VISITING HOUSING
1990
HOUSING
EDUCATION LEVEL IILEVEL II HOUSING HOUSING FOOD SERVICE VISITING HEALTH CARE VISITING
ADMIN OFFICES
1990
1990
EDUCATION
(low)
EDUCATION FOOD SERVICE HEALTH CARE ADMIN FOOD SERVICE HEALTH CARE OFFICES
(open)
ADMIN PARKING OFFICES MAINTAINENCE
(closed)
CONFINEMENT
(low)
GUARD’S BLOCK (closed)
CONFINEMENT
(low)
(open)
CONFINEMENT MAPPING (open) INTER-RELATIONS BETWEEN PROGRAMS (closed) PARKING GUARD’S
(based on levels of security and confinementBLOCK of spaces) MAINTAINENCE PARKING
GUARD’S
MAPPING INTER-RELATIONS BETWEEN PROGRAMS MAINTAINENCE BLOCK (based on levels of security and confinement of spaces)
MAPPING INTER-RELATIONS BETWEEN PROGRAMS (based on levels of security and confinement of spaces)
Security + Surveillance
Security + Surveillance
Security + Surveillance
Minimum sec uri ty
SITE SECTION
le Sty
le Sty
idual/shared cells ndiv it: i n u idual/shared cells ion indiv at unit:
ion at
Adminis AA dm trat iniisntri dm ive sattirva etsive se eg s gr re eg eg g re g
rm Do t:
un i
Minimum sec uri ty
rm Do t:
un i
Minimum sec uri ty
un i
rm Do t:
le Sty
ual/shared cell s divid : in nit u n io at
1998
2010-Present
Minimum security housing unit
1
Admin offices
Segregation housing unit
2
Visiting
Maximum security housing unit
3
Education
Health care 2010-Present 5 Food Service 4
1998
1
Admin offices
Segregation housing unit
2
Visiting
Maximum security housing unit
3
Education
4
Health care
5
Food Service
5
4
Minimum security housing unit
5
4
1
2
3
3
G
IN
RK
1
2
PA
D’S
AR QU
RS
TE
AR GU
G
IN
RK
PA S
ER
ARD GU
ART QU
Auxillary blocks
Housing units
Housing units
’S
Auxillary blocks
cells ual ivid s d l inal cel
um sec un uri ty
Alger Maximum
Maximu ms ecu rity Maxim
Caged c our tya rd
Caged c our tya rd
un
t:u ivid ind it:
25
Security Level: V Designed Occupancy:Unknown Current Occupancy: Unknown The Detroit House of Corrections, opened in 1861, was owned and run by the city of Detroit. When it first opened, it accepted both male and female prisoners. Residents caused little fuss, and the relatively rural location led to general peace. In 1986, ownership was taken over by the state and the complex was renamed the Western Wayne Correctional Facility. After this transfer of ownership, it became an exclusively female facility. In the fall of 2004, the State announced it would be closing the Western Wayne Correctional Facility due to its high operating costs.
Plymouth Township, Michigan
Type of Facility: Women’s Prison
Detroit House of Corrections
Year Built:1861
Detroit House of Corrections
Location: Plymouth Township, MI
27
Detroit House of Corrections Historical Development
Historical Development
The jail had been indicted as a public nuisance Original House of Correction was overcrowded due to the increase of prisoners.
Original House of CorrecThe jail had been indicted tion was like a medieval as a public nuisance castle built in the slum The new DeHoCo became rather Original House of Corarea of Detroit’s Eastern infamous as a terrible rat-infestedrection was overcrowded Market dungeon itself.
Original House of Correction was like a medieval castle built in the slum area of Detroit’s Eastern Market
City looked to expand and bought acreage in Plymouth Township.
City looked to expand and bought acreage in Plymouth Township.
due to the increase of prisoners.
The new DeHoCo became rather infamous as a terrible rat-infested dungeon itself.
Most arrests were related to drunkOvercrowded and disordely conduct.
Most arrests were related to drunk and disordely conduct.
We work while serving sentence.
I want to establish the country’s first indeterminate sentencing Zebulon system Brockway Zebulon Brockway
The site of new prison was started as a farm to house bootlegger.
We work while se sentence.
I want to establish the country’s first indeterminate sentencing system Overcrowded
The site of new was started as a Albert new D house bootlegg
Wrok and Release Wrok and Release
Residents
Residents
Buildings themselves closure of the courts, ding walls are obviate
Section Perspective Section Perspective
Section 1-1
Section 1-1
Maste
The jail had been indicted as a public nuisance
Original House of Correction was like a medieval castle built in the slum area of Detroit’s Eastern Market
Original House of Correction was overcrowded due to the increase of prisoners.
City looked to expand and bought acreage in Plymouth Township.
The new DeHoCo became rather infamous as a terrible rat-infested dungeon itself.
Albert K new De
The site of new prison was started as a farm to house bootlegger.
We work while serving sentence.
I want to establish the country’s first indeterminate sentencing system Overcrowded Zebulon Brockway
Most arrests were related to drunk and disordely conduct.
Albert Kahn designed new DeHoLo.
prison a farm to ger.
Buildings themselves f closure of the courts, w ding walls are obviated
Residents Orginal penal cottage was demolished to make way for modern buildings.
Wrok and Release
Section Perspective
My design aims to preserve the prisoner’s self-respect and impress them with the idea that while they must receive deserved punishment for their mistake.
DeHoCo was immortalized by the art works from the prisoners from there.
The division of new DeHoCo was demolished in favour of new facility on the north.
Drity environment made prisoners ill.
DeHoCo was closed due to its high operating costs.
Maste
erving We suffer from servere healthy problems, both psychologically and physically. Buildings themselves form the enclosure of the courts, which forbidding walls are obviated
Master Plan
Albert Kahn
“I want love and affec- Famale inmates stage tion, not DoHoCo“ a “sit-down“ to peotest the “paternalistic, sexist“ and inhumane condition.
Residents
1:1000
Detroit House of Corrections
Section 1-1
29
1970-present Detroit House of Correction
1970-present Detroit House of Correction
1860-1927 Detroit House of Correction
1931-1970 Detroit House of Correction Church
Administration building Cell block
Industrial Building
1860-1927 Detroit House of Correction
Courtyard
1931-1970 Detroit House of Correction Church
Administration building Cell block
Industrial Building
Courtyard
1/32”=1’
Second Floor Plan
1/32”=1’
Administration building Cell block
Third Floor Plan
1/32”=1’
Detroit House of Corrections
ch
1-1
First Floor Plan
31
RICHARD A HANDLON CORRECTIONAL FACILITY • Security Level II Housing • General population, Adaptive Skills Residential Program, and Residential Treatment Program for residents with disabilities • Prison Services: Vocational Village for skilled trades training, recreational and leisure time programs, religious services, counseling, on-site medical and dental care • Focus academic, vocational, and special education services
IONIA CORRECTIONAL FACILITY • Security Levels II and V Housing • (5) Level V Units (2 for Administrative segregation, 3 General population • (2) Level II Units • Prison Services: classrooms, auditorium, gymnasium, weight room, commissary, barber shop • Food service, dining, healthcare, libraries • Adult Basic Education, Special Education, GED completion, and post GED programs available
MICHIGAN REFORMATORY • Security Levels II (352 beds) and IV (797 beds)Housing • Prisoners serve institutional needs like maintenance, food service and others • Prison Services: Academic education, pre-release preparation, counseling, libraries, hobbycraft, religious services, recreation programs, barbershop • Closed between 2000 and 2007
BELLAMY CREEK CORRECTIONAL FACILITY • Security Levels I, II, and IV Housing • Protective housing and administrative segregation • Prisoners serve institutional needs like maintenance, food service and others • Prison Services: Adult basic education, GED attainment, special education, minimal vocational training, group counseling, religious services, mental health services and therapy • In-reach facility for the Michigan Re-Entry Effort
Ionia Facilities
Ionia, Michigan
Ionia Facilities
Ionia, Michigan is home to four state prison complexes: Michigan Reformatory, Richard A. Handlon Correctional Facility, Ionia Correctional Facility, and Bellamy Creek Correctional Facility. They currently house adult male residents from all over the state. The first prison in Ionia, the Michigan Reformatory was built in the late 19th century and consisted of a radial plan layout. It was built with similar physical characteristics as a church in order to provoke spiritual reformation and repentance in the residents. Over time, it has undergone many additions and alterations, including a warehouse type cell block. This addition, while its exact dates of construction are unknown, is speculated to have been built some time between 1929 and 1933 during the time other prisons with similar designs were being built. The Richard A. Handlon Correctional Facility opened in 1958 and shows the beginning of experimenting with the V-shaped unit buildings that allows for direct supervision. Both Ionia Correctional Facility and Bellamy Creek, which opened in 1987 and 2001 respectively, show the continual use and refinement of the V-shaped units. These two complexes were just a few of the dozens of prisons that were opened in the 80’s to accommodate mass incarcerated populations.
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Michigan Reformatory Location: Ionia, Michigan Year Built: 1878 Type of Facility: Men Security Level: II, IV Designed Occupancy: 1,150 Current Occupancy: Unknown
Plan
Elevation
Precedent for radial prison (Ohio State Reformatory, Mansfield Ohio)
Precedent for radial prison (Ohio State Reformatory, Mansfield Ohio)
Precedent for warehouse addition (Albert Kahn's Detroit House of Corrections)
Section
MICHIGAN REFORMATORY (est. 1878)
Addition
Ionia Facilities
Original Cell Block
35
Richard A. Handlon Correctional Facility Location: Ionia, Michigan Year Built: 1958 Type of Facility: Men Security Level: II Designed Occupancy: Unknown Current Occupancy: Unknown
Bellamy Creek Correctional Facility Location: Ionia, Michigan Year Built: 1958 Type of Facility: Men Security Level: I, II, IV Designed Occupancy: Unknown Current Occupancy: Unknown
Ionia Correctional Facility Location: Ionia, Michigan Year Built: 1987 Type of Facility: Men Security Level: II, V Designed Occupancy: Unknown
Ionia Facilities
Current Occupancy: Unknown
37
Chippewa Correctional Center
Kinross Correctional Center
SITE PLAN
Year Built: 1989 Type of Facility: Men 18+
Type of Facility: Men 18+
Security Level: I, II, IV
Security Level: I, II Designed Occupancy: 1,600
Designed Occupancy: 1,150 on West Side and 1,120 on East Side
This facility is sited on a military base. The buildings on the base were converted to living spaces for residents. In 1989, “Kinross� facility was moved to the previous site of a nearby correctional facility called Hiawatha. Kinross as it stood there closed briefly in 2009, reopening in 2015 on its original site after renovations. Kinross takes advantage of its rural northern location; previously incarcerated residents discussed the ability to cross-country ski around the facility in the winter.
The East side of Chippewa used to be Straits Correctional Facility until the prison was expanded in 1989. Today, the facility has a robust horticulture program and outdoor spaces. A previously incarcerated resident at Chippewa aided some of our guesswork. As a tutor, he worked in the largest central building where programming was hosted. He also mentioned that there are more fences (like one around the perimeter of outdoor recreation) within the prison area that are not visible on Google Maps.
Source: Michigan Department of Corrections, michigan.gov/corrections
Source: Michigan Department of Corrections, michigan.gov/corrections PRISON GARDEN
PROGRAM: CHIPPEWA CORRECTIONAL CENTER
FOOD SERVICES & PROGRAMMING HEALTHCARE
2
WAREHOUSE
2
FOOD SERVICES & PROGRAMMING
2 parking
HEALTHCARE
2 ENTRANCE
1 outdoor sports AD-SEG
parking
DETENTION
Chippewa Correctional Facility & Kinross Correctional Facility
2 2 2
Kincheloe Township, Michigan
Year Built: 1977, Moved 1989-2009, Reopened in this location in 2015
Kinross & Chippewa
Chippewa Correctional Facility Location: Kincheloe Township, MI (Upper Peninsula)
Kinross & Chippewa Correctional Facilities
Kinross Correctional Facility Location: Kincheloe Township, MI (Upper Peninsula)
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Unit Plans Kinross and Chippewa share two common units to house residents. These two units are also repeated at prisons built throughout Michigan in the 1980s. We were unable to discover the architecture firm who designed them.
UNIT A These units are split in half, each half holding 160 residents. Both Chippewa and Kinross have four of these buildings (eight units total). According to a previous resident, the units are dormitory style; a significant change in the section is that the walls pictured in plan do not go up all the way to the ceiling, but are instead knee-walls. AXON
ELEVATION
should be half/knee walls
SECTION
two separate units; therefore should be one continuous dividing wall down the middle
PLAN
UNIT B These units vary in number of residents held though the form is generally the same. Chippewa has six of these buildings. The largest version on the site houses 240 residents, and based on the exterior facade, has one level sunken into the ground. According to a previous resident of Chippewa, the plan below is relatively accurate - the only significant change is the large day room should divided into three separate rooms. AXON
ELEVATION
should be three separate rooms
PLAN
Kinross & Chippewa
SECTION
41
Security Level: Maximum security facility Designed Occupancy:1199 Current Occupancy: Unknown Marquette Branch Prison is a maximum security facility that can house up to 1,119 adult males. The prison houses four level I units located outside of the level V facility. The level V facility consists of three housing units and a segregation unit. Eight armed guard towers and a concrete wall lined with razor wire ensures the level V portion of the facility stays secure. The level I inmates are encased by two fences with electronic monitoring/detection.
Cell Block C
Inmates are provided an adult basic education and the ability to earn a GED. Religious worship services are offered through the chaplains office, and substance abuse treatment is available to all inmates who suffer from drug/ alcohol dependency.
Detention Block G Security The Level V perimeter is protected by a concrete wall, razor-ribbon wire, electronic detection systems, and eight gun towers. Level I is surrounded by two chain link fences and an electronic detection system.
Marquette Township, Michigan
Type of Facility: Adult Men
Marquette Branch Prison
Year Built:1889
Marquette Branch Prison
Location: Marquette, Michigan
43
Marquette Branch prison The original Cell Block A, formerly adjoining the eastern side of the Rotunda, was torn down in 1971 to make room for the present Brooks Center Hospital.
Cell Block A
Brooks Center Hospital
45
Marquette Branch Prison
Marquette Branch prison
Detention Cells
Typical cell plan
Two-bed cell
One-bed cell
Visiting area
Marquette Branch Prison
Incarceration Cells
47
Type of Facility: State Prison Security Level: High Level Designed Occupancy: Nearly 6000 Current Occupancy: Not in use Michigan State Prison or Jackson State Prison, which opened in 1839, was the first prison in Michigan. It not only represents a Utopian form of incarceration, but also a machine, a micro-system that can be self-sufficient. Detached from city and secondary roads, but close to the railroad and a busy road, its location is typical of prisons of its time. Currenly, Cell Block 7 has been transfered as a museum to be a showcase to tell the public about residents' life inside.
1. Cell Block 7
The common point for processing of all male state prisoners about to discharge, parole, or enter a conmmunity conter or the camp program. Cell Block 7 was the largest walled institution in the world, housing over 5,000 inmates with five floors of prison bars and a total of 515 cells.
2. Charles Egeler Reception and Guidance Center The common point of processing for all male state prisoners sentenced to any Michigan prison.
3. Cotton Correctional Facility
Where prisoners can finish their general education.
After 150years, the prison was divided, starting in 1988, into four distinct prisons.
4. Parnall Correctional Facility A minimum-security prison.
Gym
Library
Mess Hall Bakery
Auditorium
Shoe Factory
Fower housel
Cotton Correctional Facility
Maint Auto School Paint Shop Store
IND WHSE
Jackson, Michigan
Year Built: 1839
Michigan State Prison
Location: 3455 Cooper St, Jackson, MI
Parnall Correctional Facility Cell Block 11&12
Cell Block 2 Cell Block 3 Cell Block 4
Cell Block 5
Cell Block 6
Cell Block 7
R.G.C Warden Annex
Cell Block 8 Cell Block 9 Cell Block 10
0 160'
Michigan State Prison
Cell Block 1
49
Michigan State Prison, Jackson Urban Context
Buildings
Main Road
Highway
Secondary Road
Railroad
The facade of this facility features huge windows, ornaments. Each cell has a double opening adjacent to a hall on each side
0
80'
Michigan State Prison
Main Entrance
51
Michigan State Prison, Jackson
53
Michigan State Prison
Type of Facility: Male, 18 and older
Year Built: 1987
Visitation
Library
Security Level: II
Type of Facility: Male, 18 and older
Designed Occupancy: 605
Security Level: I
Current Occupancy: unknown
Designed Occupancy: 960 Current Occupancy: closed Quite Dayroom
Earnest C. Brooks Correctional Facility Location:2500 S. Sheridan Drive Muskegon Heights, MI
Dayroom Control Station
Meeting Room
Year Built: 1989
Storage
Type of Facility: Male, 18 and older
Visitation
Library
Security Level: I, II and IV Designed Occupancy: 1224 Current Occupancy: unknown
First Floor
Typical Type A 1/16” = 1’-0”
Muskegon, Michigan
Control Station
Year Built: 1974
West Shoreline Correctional Facility (Closed March 24, 2018) Location: 2500 S. Sheridan Drive Muskegon Heights, MI 49444
Muskegon Facilities
Muskegon Correctional Facility Location: 2400 S Sheridan Dr, Muskegon, MI
Visitation
Dayroom
Dayroom
Storage
Storage
Storage
Storage
Restroom
Typical Type C 1/16” = 1’-0”
Muskegon Facilities
Library Restroom
55
Muskegon Correctional Facilities Muskegon Correctional Facility
Earnes
OPENED: 1974 Muskegon Correctional Facility
Earn
AGE LIMIT: Males, 18 and older Muskegon Muskegon Muskegon Muskegon Correctional Correctional Correctional Facility Facility Facility Facility SECURITY LEVEL: Secure Level IICorrectional SE OPENED: 1974 AGE LIMIT: Males, 18 and older OPENED: OPENED: OPENED: OPENED: 19741974 1974 SECURITY LEVEL: Secure Level II1974 AGE LIMIT: AGEAGE LIMIT: Males, AGE LIMIT: Males, LIMIT: 18Males, and 18Males, older and 18 and older 18older and older SECURITY SECURITY SECURITY LEVEL: SECURITY LEVEL: Secure LEVEL: Secure LEVEL: Level Secure Level IISecure Level II Level II II
OPENED: 1989 AGE LIMIT: Males, 18 and older SECURITY LEVEL: Secure Level I, II, and IV
West Shoreline Correctional Facility Closed March 24, 2018 OPENED: 1987 AGE LIMIT: Males, 18 and older SECURITY LEVEL: Secure Level I
Muskegon Facilities
Earnest C. Brooks Correctional Facility
57
West Shoreline Correctional Facility Control Station
Visitation
Library
Quite Dayroom
Dayroom Control Station
Meeting Room
Storage Visitation
Library
First Floor
Typical Type A 1/16” = 1’-0”
Visitation
Dayroom
Dayroom
Library Restroom
Restroom
Storage
Storage
Storage
Storage
Storage
Stora Storage ge Storage
Control Station
Visitation
Visitation
Control Station
Library
Library
Typical Type B 1/16” = 1’-0”
Muskegon Facilities
Typical Type B 1/16” = 1’-0”
59
Muskegon Correctional Facility
61
Muskegon Facilities
N
Security Level: Unknown Designed Occupancy: Unknown Current Occupancy: Unknown
Women Dorms
Men Dorms
Chelsea, Michigan
Type of Facility: Alternative, Military
Special Alternative Incarceration Facility
Year Built:1988
Special Alternative Incarceration Facility
Location: Chelsea, MI
63
Special Alternative Incarceration Facility
06 ：00
06 ：45
08 ：00
14 ：30 18 ：00
Special Alternative Incarceration Facility
12 ：00 22 ：00
65
Special Alternative Incarceration Facility
67
Special Alternative Incarceration Facility
Security Level: IV Designed Occupancy: 1,176 adult males Current Occupancy: Unknown St. Louis Correctional Facility has seven housing units, six of them are used by the general prison population, one of which is an Adaptive Skills Residential Program Unit. One of the housing unit is used for segregation inmates. Additional amenities provided within the facility are food service, medical and dental care, storage, administration, libraries, barber shops, educational programs, substance-abuse treatment and religious services. Central Michigan Correctional Facility Location: St. Louis, Gratiot County, MI Year Built: Opened in 1990 Type of Facility: Male adults Security Level: I Designed Occupancy: 2,404 adult males Current Occupancy: Unknown Central Michigan Correctional Facility consists of eight housing buildings with two units each. Each housing unit consists of 7-8 bed open bays. There are separate buildings for administration, food service, academic programs, prisoner services and routine medical and dental care.
St. Louis, Gratiot County, Michigan
Type of Facility: Male adults (18 and older)
St. Louis & Central Michigan
Year Built: Opened in 1999
St. Louis & Central Michigan Correctional Facility
St. Louis Correctional Facility Location: St. Louis, Gratiot County, MI
69
St. Louis & Central Michigan Correctional Facilities
Central Michigan Correctional Facility
St. Louis & Central Michigan
St. Louis Correctional Facility
71
Indoor Recreation
Library
Quiet Room
Multi-Purpose
Lapeer, Michigan
Type of Facility: Males, Under 18 Males Security Level: II Designed Occupancy: Unknown Current Occupancy: 1,200 Thumb Correctional Facility has six Level II housing units that include day showers, laundry facilities and staff offices. Four housing units are for adult residents and two housing units are for youthful offenders. There is also one segregation unit with stainless steel sinks and toilets and slotted doors for feeding.
Optional Activities: F Academic, Vocational & Religious Programming F Job at the prison laundry center Medical Care: F On-site medical care F On-site dental care F Emergency Care Hospital : Duane L Waters Health Care (Jackson, MI) approx. 1 hour 35 minutes drive.
1:100
Similar Unit Plans
Youth Diagnostic & Development Center, NM
Mississippi State Penitentiary Unit 29, MS
Kansas State Penitentiary (Phase 1 Addition), KS
Lacy Security Facility (Addition), CA
Jefferson County Jail, AL
Metropolitan Correctional Center, AZ
West Jefferson Correctional Facility, AL
Cochise County Jail, AZ
**Everything shown is a series of assumptions, the actual programming is unknown due to lack of public resources.
Thumb Correctional Facility
Site Plan
Year Built: 1987
Treatment Options Available: F Substance Abuse Counseling F Group Therapy F Clubs and Organizations
Thumb Correctional Facility
Location: Lapeer, MI
73
Thumb Correctional Facility
Mural in the Visitor Room
Laundry Center F Industrial laundry services for state and other nonprofit agencies F Owned by Michigan State Industries
Food Services Building F Prisoner Dining F Staff Dining Prison Services Building F Academic & Vocational Classrooms F Libraries F Barber Shop Administrative Building F Staff Offices F Records F Visiting Rooms F Training for Staff F Hearing Rooms F Institutions Control Center
Elevation - Section Along Path 1/8” = 1’-0”
Thumb Correctional Facility
Security F Triple 12’-0� fence with razor ribbon wire topper F 1 Tower F Electronic perimeter detection system F Perimeter vehicle with armed personnel
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Campus C Level I Security
Campus A Level II Security
Campus B Level IV Security
Center For Forensic Psychiatry
Site Plan Scale: 1� = 150’ Across the three campuses, the facility offers 13 housing units for residents in security levels I, II, and IV as well as those enrolled in Residential Substance Abuse Treatment, Special Alternative Incarceration, Residential Treatment Program, and Dialectical Behavior Therapy programs. Located across the highway and not associated with WHV, is the Center for Forensic Psychiatry.
Type of Facility: Women Security Level: I, II, IV Designed Occupancy: 1,000 Current Occupancy: 2,200 WHV provides Adult Basic Education and General Education Development preparation classes as well as per-release and life skills instruction. Vocational training programs include Auto Mechanics, Building Trades, Business Education Technology, Food Technology, and Horticulture. Residents also have access to religious programs, a general and law library, as well as substance abuse treatment and psychological services. Residents of WHV are provided on-site routine medical and dental care. Pregnant residents receive counseling, parenting classes, and newborn placement planning assistance. **Everything shown is a series of assumptions, the actual programming is unknown due to lack of public resources.
Pittsfield Township, Michigan
Year Built: Re-opened in 2005, original opening unknown
Women’s Huron Valley
Location: Pittsfield Township, MI
Women’s Huron Valley
Women’s Huron Valley
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79
Women’s Huron Valley
Women’s Huron Valley
A B C D E F G H I
• • • • • • • • •
Dormitory Style Units Cafeteria Kitchen Day Room Outdoor Courtyard Classroom Computer Room Reading Room Showers A
I C
I A
B
A
D
I I F A
2005
E E
G
H
D
F
Allenwood FCI • Opened 1993 • Allenwood, PA
Coleman FCC • Opened 1995 • Wildwood, FL
Yazoo FCI • Opened 1996 • Yazoo City, MS
Taft CI • Opened 1997 • Taft, CA
Forrest City FCI • Opened 1997 • Forrest City, AR
Elkton FCI • Opened 1997 • Libson, OH
2019
Women’s Huron Valley
Beaumont FCI • Opened 1998 • Beaumont, TX
81
83
The Prison Industrial Complex
85
Archive of Tradition
87
Endless Institution
Common Threads in Prisons Across America
Carceral State Research
The end goal of this studio is to redesign a New York City prison with compassion for residents as the first priority. Emphasis on robust educational programming is also critical in our redesigns, as education is the leading deterrent of recidivism. In preparation, it was imperative to know as much about the contemporary state of the prison system in America as well as current efforts to improve it.
Carceral State Research
The following twelve research areas represent two weeks of intensive research and production, but we acknowledge that these forays reflect mere tips of icebergs. There is so much that is abhorrent about the current carceral system and so much to learn and know. We as a studio are humbled by this.
89
e.
g.
c.
a.
NO TOLERANCE STRATEGY
INEQUALITY LACK OF RESOURCES
b.
POLICE PRESENCE
d.
Kimberly, a 10thKimberly, grader in aa 10th Miami grader publicinschool a Miami public school was sexually abused was sexually by a teacher/coach. abused by a She teacher/coach. She conveyed her disillusionment conveyed her and disillusionment distrust in the and distrust in the school’s administration school’safter administration it was discovered: after it was discovered: “They mostly tried “They to cover mostly it up. tried Tried to cover to make it up.it Tried to make it seem like it never seem happened, like it never but ithappened, was blasted but it was blasted all over social media.” all over social media.”
“Dontadrian Bruce, “Dontadrian a studentBruce, at Olive a student Branch at High Olive Branch High School in Mississippi, Schoolwas in Mississippi, suspended was for five suspended for five months, most ofmonths, the school most year, of the after school beingyear, after being accused of beingaccused a gangbanger of beingbya school gangbanger adminisby school administrators. The school’s trators. proof? The He school’s flashed proof? “gang He flashed “gang signs” in a picture signs” with in classmates. a picture with Theclassmates. only prob- The only problem was, his supposed lem was, gang his supposed signs was gang him putting signs was him putting up his number on upthe hisschool’s number football on the school’s team—holdfootball team—holding up his thumb, ing forefinger up his thumb, and middle forefinger finger.” and middle finger.”
“‘I don’t [feel safe “‘Iat don’t school]. [feel We safeget at school]. random We get random checks I’d say, every checks month. I’d say, Like every the month. other day Like the other day we were testing we andwere we had testing a random and wecheck had a random check where police brought whereapolice dog and brought they had a dog likeand they had like two guns each. There two guns waseach. no point.’ ThereNo was weapno point.’ No weapons or drugs were onsfound or drugs in the were classroom.” found in the classroom.”
“There’s a lot of “There’s stuff thatawe lotneed of stuff at that school. we need at school. [We] don’t have [We] it because don’t have all they it because talk about allisthey talk about is testing. They justtesting. care about They putting just care theabout stupid putting the stupid school grade up.school They don’t gradecare up. They aboutdon’t what’s care about what’s happening to us.happening They don’ttocare us. They if we’re don’t care if we’re learning or not. But learning we have or not. to pass But we those have to pass those tests.” tests.”
JUSTICE SYSTEM
f.
i.
WHAT NOW? SPATIAL SIMILARITIES
h.
“Krystin Polk, a 13-year-old “Krystin Polk, with a 13-year-old autism, attends with autism, att the Magnolia School the Magnolia for special School education for special education students in DeSoto students County, in DeSoto Miss. After County, Krystin Miss. ranAfter Kry away from the school away from twicethe in one school day,twice Magnolia in one day, Ma staff enlisted school staff resource enlisted school officer resource (SRO)to help officer (SRO) locate her. But when locateheher. caught But when her, the he SRO caught her, the SR placed the little girl placed in handcuffs, the little girl claiming in handcuffs, she claiming s lashed out whenlashed he grabbed out when her arm, he grabbed and wound her arm, and up dragging her up to adragging county detention her to a county facility.detention She facili wounding up spending wounding theup night spending in jail, detained the night in jail, deta for 24 hours.” for 24 hours.”
“In my school, our “Inadministrators my school, ourseem administrators really seem re hostile to us. Like hostile all they to us. do is Like show all they hostility do is but show hosti never try to really never understand try to really howunderstand the studenthow the stud feels. One of myfeels. friends One gotofexpelled my friends from got expelled from school because school a student because was bothering a studenthim was bothering h and he took actions and into he took his own actions hands intoand his he own hands an hit the kid. Theyhit expelled the kid.him They butexpelled not the other him but not the o student who bothered studenthim.” who bothered him.”
“Madeleine lost her “Madeleine temper in lost school her temper and wound in school and w up getting suspended up getting fromsuspended North Miami from Beach North Miami Be Senior High School. Senior HerHigh punishment: School. Her 10 punishment: days at 10 da a Success Center a Success - an alternative Center learning - an alternative center learning set up by the county set up school by thesystem countytoschool replace system to repla simply kicking them simply outkicking school.them Meran, out aschool. senior Meran, a se at the time, wentatfor the one time, day. went When for her oneschool day. When her sch work didn’t showwork up there, didn’t she show didn’t up there, see the she didn’t see th point of going back. point‘Itofwas going justback. ridiculous,’ ‘It was she just ridiculous,’ said. ‘For the nine said. days ‘For remaining, the nine days I justremaining, stayed I just sta home.’ That’s the home.’ very scenario That’s the the very school scenario the school leaders were trying leaders to avoid.” were trying to avoid.”
“Humbert, 10th grader “Humbert, says, 10th ‘I do grader not see says, restor‘I do not see res ative justice in the ative schools. justiceThey in the[teachers] schools. They mostly[teachers] m will write students willupwrite or tell students them toupgoorget tellout them of to go get o the classroom and thethey’ll classroom go to and in-school they’llsuspengo to in-school sus sion or go somewhere. sion or go Restorative somewhere. justice Restorative is justice is finding real solutions finding where real solutions both sideswhere are happy both sides are h and that does not and happen that does at my notschool.” happen at my school.”
School-to-Prison Pipeline
Impact of education and youth facilities on Incarcerated population
School-to-Prison Pipeline
America’s schools, from pre-school through high school, are some of the most formative and influential places on the country’s youth and future generations. The physical environment, opportunity to learn and grow, and the connections and relations to which youth are exposed over these years have a lasting effect on them and their role in society. Unfortunately, mass incarceration which has become prevalent in this country over the past forty years has directly taken its toll on the school system and the students within. The school-to-prison pipeline is a phenomenon that has resulted from many factors that have caused schools to directly and indirectly push out students, primarily minority or disadvantaged students, and into the juvenile detention system. The contributing factors include failing school systems with not enough resources and a no tolerance discipline strategy that has resulted in large rises in school exclusion, including suspension and expulsion, and has increasingly relied on police officers and the justice system for enforcement.
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Demographics and Statistics The School-to-Prison pipeline begins with offenses committed in school, and how educators address these offenses. Sadly, many studies show that minorities have a much greater likelihood of being suspended, expelled, or somehow charged with disciplinary issues. This racial profiling and targeting of youth with disabilities causes them to be much more likely subjects to the pipeline. Johanna Wald and Dan Losen speak to a huge discrepancy in justice in their Defining and Re-Directing a School-to-Prison Pipeline: “In 1998, Black and Latino youth were disproportionately represented in 26 of 29 offense categories documented by the FBI. The same year, they represented 1/3 of the country’s adolescent population, but 2/3 of
all youths confined to detention and correctional placements. Four out of five new juveniles detained between 1983 and 1997 were youths of color. Black youths with no prior criminal records are six times, and Latino youths three times, more likely to be incarcerated than whites for the same offenses.�(Page 4) Research has shown that these tendencies have been unequally targeted towards minorities and disadvantaged students from impoverished families or with disabilities. In 2014, the U.S. Department of Education Office for Civil Rights released the data shown in the diagrams. Additionally, the disciplinary measures taken against a minority student are likely to more severe than those taken against a white student for the same offense.
16% of16% student of student population population
3x greater 3x great exp 16% of16% colored of colored students students are suspended are suspended
27% of27% students of stu
31% of31s
1/3rd 1/3rd expulsion expulsion rate ofrate students of students of color of colo 5% of white 5% ofstudents white students are suspended are suspended
12% of12% suspension of suspension rate forrate women for women of colorofcompa color
INEQUALITY
LACK OF RESOURCES
ater pulsion eater ter 3x expulsion greater expulsion expulsion rateexpulsion than rate rate rate white than than than rate students white white white than students students white students students
LAC RESO
NO TOLERANCE STRATEGY
s7% tudents udents students referred of students referred referred referred to lawreferred to to enforcement to law law law enforcement enforcement toenforcement law enforcement
1% students 1% 31% of ofof students 31% students students subjected of students subjected subjected subjected to school-related subjected to toto school-related school-related school-related to school-related arrest arrest arrest arrestarrest
POLICE PRESENCE
51% of51% 51% 51% 51% student of of student of student enrollment student ofenrollment enrollment student enrollment enrollment
or or olor s of color 41% of41% 41% students 41% of of students of students 41% referred students of students referred referred toreferred law enforcement to to referred to law law law enforcement enforcement enforcement to law enforcement 39% of39% 39% students 39% of of students of students 39% subjected students of students subjected subjected subjected to arrest subjected to to to arrest arrest arrest to arrest
JUSTICE SYSTEM
SPATIAL SIMILARITIES
S
WHAT NOW?
School-to-Prison Pipeline
en or olor rared compared compared ofcompared color to 2%compared for to to to white 2% 2%2% for forgirls for to white white 2% white girls for girls girls white girls
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Lack of Resources & No Tolerance Discipline One of the primary contributors to the flow of the pipeline is the inadequate resources within so many school systems. This includes a lack of classroom space, few experienced and qualified teachers, guidance counselors, special education services, insubstantial supplies and books, and even lack of after school activities, sports, clubs, etc. Children are trapped in inferior learning environments without the proper resources to learn and develop mentally and emotionally resulting in disengagement and distrust of the school system and the authorities within it. This can lead to increased dropout rates and/or delinquency. Furthermore, significant pressure has been placed on school systems in regards to testing and minimum requirements. Initiatives like No Child Left Behind have instigated some negative effects like incentivizing schools to actively push out students with low performance. The US government has only perpetuated this resource problem through its budgetary decisions. Between 1987-2007, they more than doubled the funding for incarceration while merely increasing higher education funding by 21%. (Cole, Nicki Lisa, Ph.D. “Understanding the School-toPrison Pipeline”) Over the past few decades, the adoption of a “No Tolerance” discipline strategy in schools has also had a dramatic and severe affect on school exclusion and the school-to-prison pipeline. School exclusion has dramatically increased with the suspension rate nearly doubling since the 1970’s for all students (more so for black and Hispanic students). This crack-down on discipline in schools began targeting even very minuscule offenses like talking back to teachers or being disobedient, skipping class, or being disruptive. (Libby Nelson and Dara Lind, “The school to prison pipeline, explained”) The Advancement Project discusses this issue further in Education on Lock down: The Schoolhouse to Jail house Track: “While zero tolerance once required suspension or expulsion for a specified list of serious offenses, it is now an overarching approach toward discipline for potential weapons, imaginary weapons, perceived weapons, a smart mouth, headache medicine, tardiness, and spitballs. Punishment through exclusion from the classroom has become the rapid-response to every act of misconduct or perceived misconduct. Research conducted over the past five years has detailed the growing use of suspensions for trivial conduct, much of which is subjectively labeled ‘disrespect,’ ‘disobedience,’ and ‘disruption.’” “While removed from school during a suspension or expulsion, youth are more likely to spend time with others removed for similar reasons, and with those who are already engaged in criminal activity. Rather than being socialized by education-focused peers and educators, students who have been suspended or expelled will be socialized more by peers in similar situations.”(Cole, Nicki Lisa, Ph.D. Understanding the School-to-Prison Pipeline)
NO PERSONAL MEDICATION
DON’T BE LATE
DON’T GET BAD GRADES
NO HAND SYMBO
INEQUALITY
DON’T ARGUE
NOTHING RESEMBLING A GUN SHAPE
NO DISRESPECT
LACK OF RESOURCES
NO TOLERANCE STRATEGY
POLICE PRESENCE
DON’T BRING YOUR OWN SCISSORS JUSTICE
SYSTEM
SPATIAL SIMILARITIES
INEQUALITY INEQUALITY
LACK LACK OFOF RESOURCES RESOURCES NO NO TOLERANCE TOLERANCE STRATEGY STRATEGY
POLICE POLICE PRESENCE PRESENCE
DON’ T BE JUSTICE JUSTICE DISR SYSTEM SYSTEM UPTIVE SPATIAL SPATIAL SIMILARITIES SIMILARITIES
DON’T WHAT NOW? WHATNOW? NOW? TALK BACK WHAT
INEQUALITY
LACK OF LACK OF RESOURCES RESOURCES
INI
LACK LACKO RESOUR RESOU
NO NO TOLERANCE TOLERANCE STRATEGY STRATEGY
POLICE PRESENCE
T
PO P PR PRE
JUSTICE SYSTEM
SPATIAL SIMILARITIES
S SP SIMI SIMIL
WHAT NOW?
School-to-Prison Pipeline
OLS
OK DON’T LO S SUSPICIOU
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Surveillance & Justice System Interaction Since 1998, the presence of police, referred to as School Resource Officers or SRO’s, has increased significantly in schools. After the Columbine shooting, officer presence became a norm around schools in the US. The Advancement Project speaks to this change: “In an attempt to improve safety, schools have beefed up security measures to include: police officers, cameras, metal detectors, tasers, canine units, and biometric hand readers. While these measures produce a perception of safety, there is no evidence that they create safer learning environments or change detrimental behaviors. There is, however, evidence that these tactics unnecessarily thrust more youths into an unforgiving penal system.”(Education on Lockdown, 17) These “safety” measures, while implemented with good intentions, have become increasingly relied upon for enforcing the no-tolerance discipline strategy. Rather than school teachers, counselors or administrators dealing with disrespectful students or minor infractions, it has become the responsibility of the SRO’s on school grounds. This is a dangerous consequence because oftentimes the officers are not adequately trained for this setting and run the risk of overreacting against youth. This lack of training, along with the ambiguity of how and when to enforce no tolerance discipline, has stimulated a large number of tickets and in-school arrests. Even simply the presence of SRO’s in schools impacts students of all ages by introducing exposure to the justice system very early on, projecting an image of criminalization and low expectations onto the students. When police officers conduct disciplinary measures instead of school officials, no matter how minor the offense, the targeted students automatically start a record with the juvenile justice system. Some districts even require a referral to law enforcement/ court for school code violations. (Advancement Project, Education on Lockdown, 8) Along with the established criminal record, this exposure to the justice system for minor offenses increases distrust in authority to appropriately handle matters and mentally impacts students, criminalizing them in their own minds as well as to the justice system. Many students are denied due process protections when being sentenced for offenses and 80% of children who go to court do not have lawyers. (ACLU, School to Prison Pipeline)
y.
“Make our [high school] more like a
school
and less like a prison. They have us on lock down.”
NO ERANCE RATEGY
CE
STICE YSTEM
ES
HAT NOW?
INEQUALITY INEQUALITY
INEQUALITY INEQUALITY
INEQUALITY INEQUALITY
INEQUALITY
-Veronica, 11th grade Denver student LACK LACK OF OF RESOURCES RESOURCES NO NO TOLERANCE TOLERANCE STRATEGY STRATEGY
POLICE POLICE PRESENCE PRESENCE
JUSTICE JUSTICE SYSTEM SYSTEM
SPATIAL SPATIAL SIMILARITIES SIMILARITIES
WHAT NOW? WHAT NOW?
LACK LACKOF OF RESOURCES RESOURCES
NO NO TOLERANCE TOLERANCE STRATEGY STRATEGY
POLICE POLICE PRESENCE PRESENCE
JUSTICE JUSTICE SYSTEM SYSTEM
SPATIAL SPATIAL SIMILARITIES SIMILARITIES
WHAT NOW? WHAT NOW?
LACKOF OF LACK RESOURCES RESOURCES
NO NO TOLERANCE TOLERANCE STRATEGY STRATEGY
POLICE POLICE PRESENCE PRESENCE
JUSTICE JUSTICE SYSTEM SYSTEM
SPATIAL SPATIAL SIMILARITIES SIMILARITIES
WHAT WHATNOW? NOW?
LACK OF RESOURCES
LAC LACK RESO RESOU
NO TOLERANCE STRATEGY
POLICE POLICE PRESENCE PRESENCE
PP
JUSTICE JUSTICE SYSTEM SYSTEM
SPATIAL SIMILARITIES
SS SIM SIM
WHAT NOW?
School-to-Prison Pipeline
ALITY
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Spacial Similarities The correlation between schools and prisons goes beyond the movement of students between them. The physical environments themselves have disturbingly come to resemble each other. With safety measures implemented like metal detectors, surveillance cameras, and officers stationed throughout, the youth in America are all helping “redefine troubled children as potential lawbreakers.� (Crawley and Hirschfield, Examining the School-to-Prison Pipeline Metaphor)
F ES
NO OLERANCE STRATEGY
CE ENCE
JUSTICE SYSTEM
AL ITIES
WHAT NOW?
INEQUALITY
LACK OF RESOURCES
NO TOLERANCE STRATEGY
POLICE PRESENCE
JUSTICE SYSTEM
SPATIAL SIMILARITIES
WHAT NOW?
INEQUALITY
LACK OF RESOURCES
NO TOLERANCE STRATEGY
POLICE PRESENCE
JUSTICE SYSTEM
SPATIAL SIMILARITIES
WHAT NOW?
INEQUALITY
LACK OF RESOURCES
NO TOLERANCE STRATEGY
POLICE PRESENCE
JUSTICE SYSTEM
SPATIAL SIMILARITIES
WHAT NOW?
INEQUALITY
LACK OF RESOURCES
LACK RESOU
NO TOLERANCE STRATEGY
POLICE PRESENCE
P
JUSTICE SYSTEM
SPATIAL SIMILARITIES
S SIM
WHAT NOW?
School-to-Prison Pipeline
QUALITY
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Looking Forward: The Prison-to-School Pipeline The Underground Scholars Initiative at UC Berkeley hopes to create a prison-to-school pipeline through integrated higher education programs. A grassroots effort, the organization is devoted to empowering incarcerated or formerly incarcerated individuals find academic pathways. Ultimately, the group aims to change stigmas around those previously incarcerated and help them on the road to their diploma and to job opportunities. Sadly, within the prison system, funding is often cut from programs for resident education. Of programs that continue, there is little to no consistency when it comes to academic sequencing. Sometimes class sizes are limited, so wardens threaten to take away class time as a punishment. Education in prison is incredibly important - study after study shows that it reduces rates of recidivism (the most effective method, in fact, according to author Christopher Zoukis) and improves future job options. A UCLA study found that “[a one-million dollar investment] in education will prevent more than 600 crimes (Anthamatten 1). To keep incarcerated people form receiving an education is to ignore evidence of its benefits, and it is negligent to the needs and futures of those still inside. Hopefully, organizations like the Underground Scholars Initiative can turn the tide and lead to positive change in prison education.
cc.
dd.
Restorative Justice
QUALITY
INEQUALITY
INEQUALITY
INEQUALITY
In Oakland, California, a restorative justice system has been in place for the past decade. Their program includes three levels of restorative justice. The first occurs in each classroom where LACK OF LACK their OF concerns. This is intended students all talk about to prevent ES RESOURCES RESOURCES future misbehavior or offenses. The second level involves smaller groups discussing specific events, and the third level is dedicated to reintegrating students after they have been suspended. As a NO NOdecreased and graduation NO result, chronic absenteeism has rates LERANCE TOLERANCE TOLERANCE have increased. STRATEGY STRATEGY
LACK OF RESOURCES
NO TOLERANCE STRATEGY
TRATEGY
This program requires systematic changes in schools and requires thorough planning. However, the results have been positive, and hopefully more schools will choose this policy over zero-tolerance. POLICE ICE POLICE ENCE PRESENCE PRESENCE
JUSTICE SYSTEM
IAL RITIES
JUSTICE SYSTEM
SPATIAL SIMILARITIES
JUSTICE SYSTEM
WHAT NOW?
JUSTICE SYSTEM
SPATIAL SIMILARITIES
SPATIAL SIMILARITIES
ee.
WHAT NOW?
POLICE PRESENCE
ff.
WHAT NOW?
WHAT NOW?
INEQUALITY
LACK OF RESOURCES
NO TOLERANCE STRATEGY
POLICE PRESENCE
JUSTICE SYSTEM
SPATIAL SIMILARITIES
WHAT NOW?
School-to-Prison Pipeline
Restorative Justice is a growing movement across the US where students who misbehave are encouraged to talk their problems out with those they have offended and with a counselor, rather than being suspended or expelled. Often, the offender and the victim sit together with a teacher or counselor nearby who poses questions about why the offense occurred, and how the perpetrator might feel had the offense happened to them. While some remain skeptical about this seeming lack of traditional punishment, most schools that have implemented this approach have seen positive results.
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Arrest
Release
Court Hearing
Community Bail Trial
Remand Pre-trial
Judgement Parole Process Not guilty
guilty
Sentencing
Minimum time served Life
Parole
Short Term
Conditional Release
Long Term
End of Sentence
New Sentence
Community Sentence
Court of Appeal
Release
Court Process
Prison
Community
Design of Courts, Pre-Trial Detention, prisons, and re-entry facilities Re-Image Incarceration
Criminal justice is a process, involving a series of steps beginning with a criminal investigation and ending with the release of a convicted offender from correctional supervision. Throughout the whole justice process, there are physical spaces which do not meet the needs of those who use them, and which could ultimately be redesigned for better experiences.
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Pre-trial Detention Facilities
Nemaha County Jail
Madison County Jail And Justice Center Reno County Jail
Courts
Seatte Justice Center
Elgin County Court House
Re-Image Incarceration
Bronx County Hall of Justice
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Prison Space Type
The Clerkenwell House of Detention
HM Prison Cold Bath Fields
West of Farringdon Prison
Re-Entry Facilities Space Type
Fox Lake Correctional Institution
Green Bay Correction Institution
New Lisbon Correctional Institution
Re-Image Incarceration
Kettle Moraine Correctional Institution
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Space Transition Pre-Trial Pre-trial Detention Detention
Centralised
Courts Court
Cluster
Radial
Re-entry
Grid
Re-Image Incarceration
Prison
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1. Long distance
2. Transportation
3. Lack of funding
4. Poor space design
Four Main Problems
50 miles 50 -100 miles 100 -500 miles 500 -1000 miles More than1000 miles
Research and Re-imagine the visit experience
- Percent visited last moth
Visitation Spaces
- Proportion of people
Locking people up far from their homes has the unfortunate but strong effect of discouraging visits. Among incarcerated people locked up less than 50 miles from home, half receive a visit in a month, but the proportion of incarcerated people receiving visits decreases as the distance from home increases.
Re-Image Incarceration
Long Distances & Transportation
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Current Design Code Non-contact Visiting The code suggests that there should be enough width to comfortably accommodate more than one visitor seeing an inmate at the same time. There should be enough depth to allow the visitors to: - sit rather than stand, - have adequate privacy screening on either side of the space, - move comfortably around and behind the space, It recommends that the depth be sufficient to accommodate a small counter surface for leaning or writing. It must determine whether each individual visiting station is a fully enclosed space or shares space with a series of other visiting stations. The dimensions should be sufficient to allow access by disabled inmates or visitors, particularly those in wheelchairs.
Contact Visiting Contact visiting tends to be limited to attorneys, counselors, and other “official” visitors; contact visits with family are usually limited to lowsecurity inmates such as inmate workers or to others for special occasions at the discretion of jail officials. In some jurisdictions, contact visiting is accommodated in outdoor recreation yards. Many varied spaces are needed for visiting, including: - visiting facilities that accommodate the disabled; - a visitor reception desk in or adjacent to the public lobby; - a visitor waiting area, with public restrooms, telephone; - a storage area for visitors’ personal property; - an area for occasional searches of visitors; - a means for “telephone visiting” from the day room to visitors Contact visiting spaces should be sized on the basis of the number of users and types of activities. They should be fully enclosed and private if possible. In most cases, two users are involved: the inmate and the visitor. A desk surface and chairs are also required.
- Visitors - Wardens - Residents
Two Visit Flows
Moving the inmate to the visitor (customary) This system usually requires significant staff time since inmates must be taken from their living areas to a visiting area near the public lobby, unless movement can be achieved without an escort by properly locating staff posts and/or CCTV cameras.
Secure Visitor Corridor
Re-Image Incarceration
The second, secure visitor corridor must be created to ensure that the jail’s security envelope is not violated. This is frequently achieved by constructing a second corridor above the primary inmate corridor. There are no penetrations in this corridor that allow access to inmate areas. Egress from this corridor should be down a secure set of stairs or through a secure exit that does nor involve the security envelope of the jail.
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Secure Visitor Corridor
- Visitors - Wardens - Residents
Control Center
Re-Image Incarceration
Individual Cells
115
Visitation Spaces
Cook Inlet Pre-Trial Facility 1983 Alaska
Cochise County Jail 1985 Arizona
Pima County Main Jail 1984 Arizona
Contra Costa County Detention 1980 California
Pre-Trial Detention Facility 1981 California
Santa Cruz County Jail 1981 California
Shawnee Correctional Center 1985 Illinois
Marion County Jail 1985 Indiana
Knox County Jail 1984 Kentucky
Jackson County Detention 1983 Missouri
Lewis and Clark County Facility 1985 Montana
Clark County Detention 1984 Nevada
Alameda County Detention 1984 California
Rock Island County Jail 1985 Illinois
Erie County Correctional Facility 1986 New York
Ottawa County Detention 1981 Ohio
Lycoming County Prison 1985 Pennsylvania
Re-Image Incarceration
Jackson County Adult Detention 1979 Mississippi
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WHO ARE WE?
OLD OFFENDER
Age @ 1st Incarceration: 50+ Sentence Length: 20 yrs or more # of Terms: 1st prison term Crimes Committed: murder or sex crimes
REPEATERS
Age @ 1st Incarceration: < 50 Sentence Length: 20+ years # of Terms: 2nd or more Crimes Committed: burglary, theft, drug possession
YOUNG LONG-TERM Age @ 1st Incarceration: < 50 Sentence Length: Varies # of Terms: Either 1st term or repeat Crimes Committed: murder, armed robbery, rape, repeat drug offenses
YOUNG SHORT-TERM Age @ 1st Incarceration: < 50 Sentence Length: < 20 years # of Terms: 1st Crimes Committed: burglary, theft, drug possession
The Disadvantaged and Disabled
Special Populations
Special Populations: those in the incarceration system who may need additional resources, aid or accommodations to ensure the individuals basic needs are being tended to and the resident is able to live a humane life while incarcerated.
Special Populations
Some programs for these affected individuals are already in place but are not being utilized at their full potential while others lack any structured program at all. How do we address these smaller populations of residents with specific needs in a larger, disorganized prison system?
119
Elderly & Hospice Care There are currently 246,600 elderly people (defined by people 55 and older) in prisons in the United States. This is partially because of the truth-in-sentencing guidelines and the “three strikes” laws. Know About Compassionate Release Policy The compassionate release policy allows individuals who are elderly and considered non-threatening and have a very low risk of recidivism to be released based on grounds of compassion, usually because of a terminal illness. The unfortunate reality is that this policy is hardly ever used to aid in the 65+ individuals inside our prisons. Know Your Options Hospice care is an option within the prison system. Angola Prison actually has one of the most well known Hospice programs. The program was started with five goals in mind: 1. Provide quality end of life care regardless of criminal charges. 2. Address the patients needs. 3. Honor the patients support system, including family and relatives. 4. Assist with activities considered life-affirming. 5. Maintain an end of life care system that is consistent with “free world” standards. The prison system as a whole should adopt some of these ways of thinking. The goal is to make sure the person feels as comfortable as possible
Intellectual Disabilities Incarcerated individuals who suffer from intellectual disabilities are some of the most vulnerable people in the entire justice system, who are often unable able to determine the consequences of their actions in prison. These people are often targets of the more intellectually savvy residents because of how easily they can be manipulated. The prison system is not equipped to take care of individuals. The unfortunate results of this are that many intellectually disabled residents end up in solitary confinement which leads to more suffering and further psychological damage.
How do these people end up in the criminal justice system? If a person with an intellectual disability has committed a crime and is convicted in court, the sentence will be that of one considered to have an average IQ. While the judge is able to decide whether to sentence to the fullest extent or not, the resident will still enter the criminal justice system and be subjected to being manipulated. This can lead to more time being added on to the actual time served or the chance of parole being taken away. A good judge will understand the possible repercussions of such an individual entering into a normal prison, and make sure they are housed in a specialized state facility, separate from the general population.
inside the prison as they are accepting death. Know The Cost The current average cost to house an inmate in prison who is over the age of 50 is $68,270 per year. This is money which states are responsible for, not the federal government. Why is it so much more expensive to hold this population than the younger ones? The biggest factor is related to medical care. Elderly people have more health problems and require more medical care. This also means they require longer and more frequent hospitalizations. Alongside the hospitalizations, most of the care needed by these people has to be given outside of the prison system (72%) and is more expensive. If we were to re-implement medical parole, we could start to reduce these costs.
DISCLAIMER:
Most people convicted of a crime are never given an IQ test to determine if they need support in this way. Below you will find ways in which prison can aid in those with intellectual disabilities as well as those with low IQs.
A resident with an intellectual disability may need help with:
conceptual skills
language & literacy
social skills
money, time & number concepts
self-direction
70 75
IQ scores below
and as high as
indicate limitations in intellectual functioning
interpersonal skills
social responsibility
self-esteem
gullibility
naïveté (wariness)
ability to follow rules/obey laws and to avoid being victimized
social problem solving
daily living activities(personal care)
healthcare
travel/transportation
schedules/routines
safety
using money
using a telephone
occupational skills
practical skills
Gang Members “Prison gangs work like airplanes. As long as they maintain space between each other, they’re much less likely to have problems.” -Thor Benson
gangs, there is a group to manage instead of individuals each with their own agenda. Mass incarceration is one of the main causes of overcrowding, and therefore also plays a role in this increase in organized prison violence.
Two arguments have been made: Mass incarceration leads to more prison gangs, and prison gangs lead to more people being incarcerated. Which is to be held more accountable, and what should be resolved first? Do prison gangs hold any blame in the disorderly state of the incarceration system or are they responsible for creating a base level of order in an overcrowded and poorly managed prison system?
Why do residents join prison gangs? Being a lone ranger can be a dangerous choice for many residents. Prison is a place that is meant to make you feel vulnerable, and turning to a gang is one way many incarcerated people choose to protect themselves. Unfortunately, gang membership does not end once your prison sentence is over. Prison gang members are more likely to end up back in prison after they are released. This also means they most likely reenter prison with a larger enemy list (a list of other people in the prison who may want to hurt the resident) than when they left. Between being affiliated with a prison gang, and a residents potentially long enemy list, it can be harder to place individuals in prisons. Staff want to make sure they do not place the individual in a cell where they will be surrounded by people who want to of inmates are affiliated hurt them but they also don’t want to encourage gangwith activities prison gangs by putting an entire gang together in a cell block. The solution staff often turn to in this situation is to place the resident in restrictive housing, a resolution that typically does more harm than good.
74%
to commit serious disciplinary violations
Prison Gangs are known as “Security Threat Groups” to prison staff.
55-67% of prisons use restrictive housing to deal with gang members
200,000
Insight taken from How Prison Gangs Affect Inmates, 2015 by Thor Benson
Since the 1990s, most prisons have managed gangs by identifying high level gang members (a process called validation) and consolidating them to one central prison. The resident is then placed in the Security Housing Unit (SHU) under levels of surveillance and restriction far beyond what many other incarcerated persons face. The reasoning behind this cruel and unusual punishment to residents is that it will keep the other incarcerated persons safer and reduce the amount of criminal activity inside the prison. However, this does not deter gang activity from occurring inside the facilities. Instead, the hard-core gang members are subjected to watching television with the audio disabled and a featureless concrete room for daily solitary exercises, increasing the chances that they will commit violent acts after they are released from the SHU.
Special Populations
What is the role of prison gangs in the incarceration system? Organized chaos is better than chaos alone and, according to some, prison gangs aid in keeping the chaos organized. In prison, gangs pretty much control how the system operates. They regulate the social and economic affairs, including the underground economy. If gangs are allowed space to operate, studies show they actually decrease the number of chaotic and spontaneous acts of violence. The problem is that prisons are so overcrowded that gangs are trying to operate on top of gang are one another, leading to members more confrontation and conflict. This violence is usually thought-out and pre-planned. At least with
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Gang Members “Now watch what they do,” says Christopher Acosta ... At first, we seem to be watching a sullen but semi-random parade of terrifying men - heavily tattooed murderers, t hieves, and d rug dealers walking past one o f five casual but a lert guards ... T he f irst H ispanic inmate t o put h is c lothes back o n walks about 50 yards to a concrete picnic table, sits down, and waits. The first black inmate foes to a small workout area and stares at the yard intently. A white guy walks directly to the third spot, closer to the basketball court. Another Hispanic claims another picnic table. S lowly it becomes obvious t hat t hey have been m oving t actically: each has staked out a rallying point for his group and its affiliates. Once each gang has achieved a critical mass - about five men - it sends off a pair of scouts. T wo H ispanics a t the original concrete picnic table begin a long, winding stroll. “They’ll walk around, get within earshot of the other groups, and try to figure out what’s going down in the yard,” Acosta says. Then they can come back to their base and say who’s going to attack who, who’s selling what.” Eventually, about 50 inmates are in the yard, and the guards have stepped back and congregated at their own rallying point, backs to the fence, with Acosta. The men’s movements around t he yard are so s mooth and o rganized, t hey seem coordinated b y invisible traffic lights. A nd t hat’s a good t hing. “ There’s like 30 knives out there right know,” Acosta says. -Excerpt from How Gangs Took Over Prisons by Graeme Wood
Ñeta
12,000 members in U.S. & Puerto Rico
Mexican Mafia +/- 900 members
Black Guerrilla Family +/-50,000 members
N
Nazi Lowriders +/-5,000 members
Aryan Brotherhood +/-20,000 members
Neustra Familia >1,000 members
Green = Northern Hispanics Pink = Southern Hispanics Blue = Blacks White = Whites Yellow = Others (Native Americans, Mexican Nationals, Laotians, Eskimos)
Special Populations
The six main prison gangs in California (seen above) are one of the biggest problems at Pelican Bay. One way the guards address the issue is by assigning each gang and/or race a correlating color of identity card. These plastic identity cards are used to identify gang members by name and photo on the outside of each residentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s door.
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Chemically Dependent The Hard Evidence Mass incarceration, the epidemic that is putting 7.1 million adults worldwide under some sort of criminal justice supervision, can be linked directly to the change in tougher laws and penalties for drug offenses in the past 20 years. It is estimated that half of all incarcerated people meet the criteria for a diagnosis of drug abuse or drug dependence. However, most of the residents (up to 85%) who would benefit greatly from drug abuse treatment are not receiving it. Scientific studies have revealed that addiction is a brain disorder that also has a strong genetic component, yet we are not using this information to help treat more of the incarcerated individuals who suffer from this disease. The Help Available Behavioral treatments are the most common interventions used to address substance use disorders. This includes evidence-based behavioral interventions such as cognitive therapies (teaches coping and decision-making skills), contingency management therapies (reinforces behavioral changes associated with abstinence), and motivational therapies (enhances motivations to participate in treatment and non-drug related activities). Therapeutic communities can be extremely beneficial to residential treatment programs. Alcoholics Anonymous and SMART Recovery are also valuable assets to those searching for drug treatment. The Money Needed Not only does the individual benefit from drug treatment programs inside the prison, but the community at large can also save money by getting these residents the help they deserve. Economic analyses prove the cost-effectiveness of treating drug-involved incarcerated people. Letâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s do the math:
$22,000 = the cost of one month of incarceration $4,000 the cost of one month of methadone
+
$0 the cost of one volunteerled self-help organizations
$4
-
the amount of incarceration and health care costs saved per dollar spent in drug court
$3,990
$2-$6
-
the amount prison-based drug/alcohol treatment services save
=
the cost of one month of more-effective drug/alcohol treatment than incarceration
The Steps Required We have to stop accepting drug education as drug treatment in the criminal justice system. We also need to understand that postincarceration treatment is just as important as the services provided within the system. Continuity of service is essential to reduce the risk of recidivism, relapse, and mortality due to overdose. It will take the both the criminal justice system, which is organized to punish the incarcerated, and the drug abuse treatment system, which are organized to help the addicted individual, to support these people who suffer and choose addiction over participating in society as a non-incarcerated individual.
only 11% of incarcerated individuals get treatment
60-80%
of incarcerated people are chemically dependent
33%
state
25%
federal
17% of state residents are incarcerated for a drug offense
48% of federal residents are incarcerated for a drug offense Percentage of inmates under the influence of drugs and/or alcohol at the time of their offense
77%
of parole and probation violation offenses involve drugs and alcohol
people are under the influence of drugs and/or alcohol at the time of their offense but do not meet the medical criteria for abuse and therefore treatment
Special Populations
83% of residents in drug treatment programs were not convicted of another offense
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Sex Offenders Michigan’s Laws Affecting Sex Offenders Registrants cannot live or work withing 1,000 ft of a school Registrants cannot loiter within 1,000 ft of a school including attending children’s school activities Registrants must adhere to these rules even if their crime was not related to children
Areas of Concern 1. Almost 50% of Grand Rapids is off-limits to registrants 2. Exclusion zones don’t work because they block offenders from being able to find housing, employment, treatment, stability and supportive networks they need to successfully re-enter society 3. Michigan has the third highest per-capita registration rate of any state 4. The registry includes children as young as 14 years old 5. Michigan has the fourth largest state registry in the country Radius around schools in downtown Detroit where regiestered sex offenders are not allowed to live
Detroit, MI
thief
murderer
sex offender
This map showcases the difficulty of finding a place to live in a city after having to register as a sex offender. The areas in red are all the locations registered persons cannot live.
Artwork provided through Prison Activist Resource Center
Registered sex offenders are often treated the most poorly in the prison system. Not only are they singled out while they are incarcerated, but their sentences usually follow them afterwards and have significant affects on their quality of life outside of prison. Within The Prison Inside high and medium security prison walls, sex offenders often end up in solitary confinement or the special housing unit (SHU). This is seen as a safety measure to the staff, ensuring a lower risk of assault to the resident. Sometimes the offender may even request to go into protective custody, which in most facilities is basically the SHU as well. If a sex offender is lucky, they may be able to get by with only being ostracized and excluded. This is their best case scenario outside of being transferred to a SOMP (Sex Offender Management Program) facility. These institutions consist of a population that is made up of 40-60% of sex offenders. Usually this is the best way for a registered offender to serve their time because the stigma of the crime is significantly reduced.
Post-Release Affects Not only are individuals convicted of sex crimes prosecuted to the fullest and most severe extent, but they also have some of the worst consequences after being released from prison. These individuals have a legal obligation to register in the system of sex offenders for their crime. In Michigan, no matter how minor the offense, the crime must stay on the registry list of sex crimes for at least fifteen years. This means that even the most minor offenders may be restricted to living in certain areas for many years after their time has been served. Currently, most of the people serving time for sex crimes were convicted of possession, receipt, and production of child pornography and 93% of child sex abuse cases are committed by family members or acquaintances, not strangers. The risk of re-offending is drastically reduced after 5 years even with the medium-to-high risk offenders. The registration list does nothing to prohibit or aid in the reduction of sex crimes based on this information.
Sex Offender Management Program Institutions FCI Elkton Low Elkton, OH
FMC Devens Admin.
FCI Englewood Low
Ayers, MA
Littleton, CO
USP Marion Medium Marion, IL
FMC Carswell Admin. Fort Worth, TX
FCI Petersburg Medium Petersburg, VA
FCI Tucson Medium & USP Tucson High Tucson, AZ
FCI Marianna Medium Marianna, FL
FCI Seagoville Low Seagoville, TX
6.1%
of federal inmates are sex offfenders
11,699 the number of people incarcerated for federal sex offenses
Residential Non-Residential Sex Offender Sex Offender Treatment Prison Treatment Prison high intensity residential housing unit for offenders with an elevated risk of reoffending
9-12 months
2-3 days a week moderate intensity outpatient groups for offenders with a low to moderate risk of reoffending
“A prisoner who is repeatedly tortured by guards is held in a separate segregation unit. Because he is a convicted sex offender of a child, the guards feel anything they do to him is justified. No one takes into account that this man himself was sexually abused by his own father for at least 7 years when he was a child. This is a classic profile of some sex offenders. He was subjected to pain, harassment, and extreme sleep deprivation continuously for 8 days. He was strip searched and placed in ‘excessive restraints,’ including two pairs of handcuffs, a security box with a chain and padlock for the handcuffs, and leg shackles. His cell was tossed and strewn about each time this happened and it happened 170 times in those 8 days (that’s once an hour!).” Account provided through Prison Activist Resource Center
Special Populations
12-18 months
5 days a week
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The Most Common Problem in Prison and Its Future Race & Incarceration
Race & Incarceration
Racial discrimination is a common issue in the prison system of the United State, dating back to slavery. Though there have been a lot of campaigns against this injustice situation, the race problem persists in our society. Looking at the â&#x20AC;&#x153;Stop-and-Friskâ&#x20AC;&#x153; policies, we aim to gain clarity on how racial discrimination continue to persist.
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Race & Incarceration
Black/white incarceration ratios Data Sources: United States Department of Justice. Office of Justice Programs. Bureau of Justice Statistics. National Prisoner Statistics, 1978-2014. Bibliographic Citation: ICPSR36281-v1. Ann Arbor, MI: Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research [distributor], 2015-10-09; U.S. Census Bureau (2013). 2013 Population Estimates. Annual estimates of resident population by sex, race, and Hispanic origin for the United States, states and counties: April 1, 2010 to July 1, 2013. Washington, DC: U.S. Census Bureau.
Hispanic/white incarceration ratios Data Sources: United States Department of Justice. Office of Justice Programs. Bureau of Justice Statistics. National Prisoner Statistics, 1978-2014. Bibliographic Citation: ICPSR36281-v1. Ann Arbor, MI: Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research [distributor], 2015-10-09; U.S. Census Bureau (2013). 2013 Population Estimates. Annual estimates of resident population by sex, race, and Hispanic origin for the United States, states and counties: April 1, 2010 to July 1, 2013. Washington, DC: U.S. Census Bureau. Data were not provided for Alabama, Maryland, Montana, and Vermont.
What’s the situation? Growing awareness of America’s failed experiment with mass incarceration has prompted changes at the state and federal level that aim to reduce the scale of imprisonment. Lawmakers and practitioners are proposing “smart on crime” approaches to public safety that favor alternatives to incarceration and reduce odds of recidivism. As a result of strategic reforms across the criminal justice spectrum, combined with steadily declining crime rates since the mid-1990s, prison populations have begun to stabilize and even decline slightly after decades of unprecedented growth. In states such as New Jersey, New York, Rhode Island, and California, prison depopulation has been substantial, declining by 20-30%.1) Still, America maintains its distinction as the world leader in its use of incarceration, including more than 1.3 million people held in state prisons around the country. Truly meaningful reforms to the criminal justice system cannot be accomplished without acknowledgment of racial and ethnic disparities in the prison system, and focused attention on reduction of disparities. Since the majority of people in prison are sentenced at the state level rather than the federal level,
it is critical to understand the variation in racial and ethnic composition across states, the policies and the day-to-day practices that contribute to this variance. Incarceration creates a host of collateral consequences that include restricted employment prospects, housing instability, family disruption, stigma, and disenfranchisement. These consequences set individuals back by imposing new punishments after prison. Collateral consequences are felt disproportionately by people of color, and because of concentrations of poverty and imprisonment in certain jurisdictions, it is now the case that entire communities experience these negative effects. Evidence suggests that some individuals are incarcerated not solely because of their crime, but because of racially disparate policies, beliefs, and practices, rendering these collateral consequences all the more troubling. An unwarranted level of incarceration that worsens racial disparities is problematic not only for the impacted group, but for society as whole, weakening the justice system’s potential and undermining perceptions of justice.
Key Findings 1. African Americans are incarcerated in state prisons at a rate that is 5.1 times the imprisonment of whites. In five states (Iowa, Minnesota, New Jersey, Vermont, and Wisconsin), the disparity is more than 10 to 1. 2. In twelve states, more than half of the prison population is black: Alabama, Delaware, Georgia, Illinois, Louisiana, Maryland, Michigan, Mississippi, New Jersey, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Virginia. Maryland, whose prison population is 72% African American, tops the nation. 3. In eleven states, at least 1 in 20 adult black males is in prison. 4. In Oklahoma, the state with the highest overall black incarceration rate, 1 in 15 black males ages 18 and older is in prison. 5. States exhibit substantial variation in the range of racial disparity, from a black/white ratio of 12.2:1 in New Jersey to 2.4:1 in Hawaii.
Race & Incarceration
6. Latinos are imprisoned at a rate that is 1.4 times the rate of whites. Hispanic/white ethnic disparities are particularly high in states such as Massachusetts (4.3:1), Connecticut (3.9:1), Pennsylvania (3.3:1), and New York (3.1:1).
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Race & Incarceration
WHY DO RACIAL DISPARITIES STILL EXIST?
A multitude of factors contribute to Black Americans being vulnerable to incarceration. The most common reasons include persistent stereotypes, poverty, and policy. Statistical imbalances are heavily skewed against people of the color, suggesting that deeply rooted systemic issues are at play, including policing techniques such as “Stop and Frisk.”
“Stop & Frisk” “Stop and frisk” is a policing method carried out by the New York Police Department (NYPD) based on what is called “reasonable suspicion” of criminal activity - others call it racial profiling. In 2011, 84% of those stopped by the NYPD were black or Latino yet they only make up 23% and 29% of the general population respectively. Multiple class action suit have been filed in response to this obvious racial profiling. A January, 2013 court ruling deemed elements of “stop and frisk” to be a violation of the Fourth Amendment. The poster on the right was created for the Silent March, held in June, 2012, when thousands marched to demand an end to the criminalization of their communities. This silent and peaceful procession ended when NYPD officers pushed and corralled protesters for not complying with an order to disperse.
133
Race & Incarceration
Race & Incarceration Where are people stopped?
The precincts doing the most stops tend to be in Brooklyn â&#x20AC;&#x201D; particularly East New York, Starret City, Brownsville and Ocean Hill, but also Bed-Stuy, Bushwick and Flatbush â&#x20AC;&#x201D; and the Bronx, with a few in Staten Island, Jamaica in Queens and Harlem thrown in for good measure. By contrast, the areas with the least stops tend to be ones with lots of white people: Midtown, Little Italy, Chelsea and Central Park in Manhattan, and Greenpoint in Brooklyn.
How many stops result in arrests or tickets?
Race & Incarceration
NYPD stops by race, 2004-2012
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Temporary Confinement
In the United States, incarceration is the most common form of punishment for a crime. There are different types of facilities designed for different levels of crime. Usually when we discuss incarceration, we talk about peopleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s long-term sentences in prisons. However, some other temporary confinement facilities, like jail, also hold large numbers of inmates in United States. We will generally show what these temporary confinement facilities look like, where they are often located, and how they are different from prisons, through several examples.
Jails & Pre-trial Detention Spaces
Temporary Confinement Facilities
cover image goes on top half of page
137
The Evolution of the Jail Jail and Prison
The essential difference between jail and prison is the length of incarceration. Normally, residents in jails are sentenced to stay no more than a year. Those in prison, on the other hand, will spend much longer time in these facilities. Jail is a place that holds people waiting for trial and for transport to other facilities after conviction. In the United States, Jails are run by local governments like the county sheriff’s department, while prisons are run by states or Federal Bureau of Prisons.
Prison Populations
As indicated by the table on the right, the number of incarcerated Americans in jails is roughly half of those in prisons. But jails have a much broader reach - jails have almost nineteen times the number of annual admissions in comparison to prisons. Based on the incarcerated population of jails and prisons, it is reasonable to compare the total amount of jail and prison. We are curious about the population density of prisons - we were unable to find information about comparative overcrowding and overall floor area comparisons. wwvb a maximum security prison with 6,300 prisoners. In comparison, the largest jail, Men’s Central Jail along with the Twin Towers Correctional Facility in Los Angeles, holds more than 19,000 prisoners. Since residents in jails are always sentenced to stay supervised for no longer than one year, the population structure of jails are metabolic, increasing difficulty of management and the level of confusion at the same time.
History
Jails and prisons have both appeared historically since the Colonial period, and over time the two produced the modern prison in America. At first, jails were merely used for the detention of those accused of crime pending their trial and for the confinement of debtors and religious and political offenders. 1 Definitions and sentence lengths in jails have since become blurred. After certain amounts of time, there occurred what was called a “goal delivery”, when the jail was practically emptied of its population, only to be filled again during the interval between the delivery and the next session of the court. Only political and religious offenders, debtors, and the few criminals who had received the rare penalty of imprisonment remained in the jails or prisons longer than the period which elapsed between successive sessions of the courts. 2 Before transitioning to a new imprisonment system in eighteenth century, corporal punishment, like whipping and mutilating, was a common form of punishment in colonial
American jails. The structure of the colonial jails were also different from today’s United States Prisons. Colonial jailers ran their institutions on a “familial” model and resided in an apartment attached to the jail, sometimes with a family of their own. 3 The design of colonial jails are much more like the normal residential buildings. The revolution of the prison system was closely related to the American Revolution. In the post-revolutionary period, the idea of prohibiting corporal punishment became popular and Americans began to think about the humanity of incarcerated people. However, 4during the Jacksonian Era, contemporary notions of criminality continued to shift. Jacksonian-era reformers realized that it was rapid population growth and the social mobility which led to the chaos of society. They turned to moral education, deciding that this was the key to reducing crime. Beginning in 1790, Pennsylvania became the first prison in the United States to institute solitary confinement for incarcerated people. 5
Walnut Street Jail
The Walnut Street Jail was originally built as a conventional jail and converted into a penitentiary house in 1790. It played a key role in the history of penology since large numbers of inmates did not need to stay in an overcrowded, dirty, shared room. The concept of solitary confinement, inspired by monks’ living quarters, resulted in the invention of the prison cell, 7 and the modern prison system was born.
RIKERS ISLAND
LOS ANGELES COUNTY
HARRIS COUNTY JAIL
COOK COUNTY JAIL
MIAMI-DADE COUNTY PRE-TRIAL DETENTION
Temporary Confinement
ORANGE COUNTY JAIL
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Rikers Island Population: 13,849
Los Angeles County
Men's Central Jail and Twin Towers Jail facilities Population: 19,836
Harris County Jail Population: 10,000
Cook County Jail Population: 9,900
Orange County Jail Population: 6,000
Miami-Dade County Pre-trial Detention
Temporary Confinement
Population: 4,000- 4,200
141
detention
different
from
Detention Facilities
What makes incarceration?
Exploring Immigration Detention Centers
Detention Facilities
â&#x20AC;&#x153;The staff treated us like animals. We faced lock-downs for at least 20 hours daily. During lock-down I had no ability to leave the small cell I shared with another detainee. The cell had a toilet inside, and during lock-down we were forced to go without showers and eat our meals in the same place we went to the bathroom. I truly believe the food was not meant for human consumption. If we complained about the conditions, we faced punishment of lock-down for 72 hours.â&#x20AC;?
143
Introduction
What detention? Whatisisimmigration Immigration detention?
When are are people detained? When people detained?
Immigration detention is the deprivation Immigration is the deprivation of liberty for detention migration-related reasons. Inof liberty for migration-related reasons. In most countries, most countries, immigration authorities have immigration authorities have the power the power to hold non-citizens on grounds to hold non-citizens on grounds toThis a personâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s relating to a personâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s migrationrelating situation. situation. is that an administrative or ismigration an administrative or civilThis power operates civil powertothat separately to the powers separately theoperates powers given to the police givencriminal to the police courts. In contrast, and courts.and In criminal contrast, criminal incarceration is the deprivation of liberty ofofa liberty of criminal incarceration is the deprivation citizen or non-citizen duedue to criminal charges a citizen or non-citizen to criminal charges or or convictions.Immigration Immigrationdetention detentioncan canoccur at convictions. occur at different can occur when different times. Ittimes. can Itoccur when migration migration authorities first come contact with a authorities first come in in to tocontact with a person they areunable unable to person andand they are toestablish establish their their identity valid migration status. This firstThis first identity ororvalid migration status. contact at aatborder point,point, such such as contactmay mayoccur occur a border as in in an airport or sea port, or it may occur when an airport or sea port, or it may occur when authorities a raid otherwise come come authoritiesconduct conduct a or raid or otherwise across in in thethe community whowho doesdoes not acrossa aperson person community not havethe the necessary documentation. Some Some have necessary documentation. governments detain a person in theseinsituations governments detain a person these situations while their identity is verified or while the while their identity is verified or whilenature the nature of of theirclaims claims to to enter in the their enterororremain remain in country the country are are established. established.
According to international human rights According to should international rights standards, detention only occurhuman in standards, detention should only occur in circumstances where alternatives have been circumstances where alternatives have been assessed as insufficient, only as a last resort as not sufficient, andassessed for the shortest possible period. only as a last resort andgovernments for the shortest period. Most detainpossible refugees, asylum Mostandgovernments asylum seekers migrants in somedetain or morerefugees, of the seekers and migrants in some or more of the following situations: 1. upon entry into the country following situations: 2. pending a final decision in their applications 1. upon entry into the country for 2. asylum or other requests to remain in the pending a final decision in their applications country for asylum or other requests to remain in the 3. pending their final removal when they are no country longer remain in the country when they no 3. permitted pending totheir final removal
longer permitted to remain in the country
Men, women, children.
Men, women, children. The elderly, people with disabilities. Elderly, people with disabilities. They are held against their will in removal They arecenters, held against their will in removal centers, immigration detention centers, jails, immigration detention centers, jails, prisons, prisons, police stations, airports, hotels, ships police and stations, airports, shipsin their and containers pending ahotels, final decision containers pending a final decision in their cases cases or removal from the country. Although or removal from Althougha crime, many they may many maythe havecountry. never committed are often detained along with criminals. have never commiteed a crime, they areIt takes often years once a decision hasmonths been made detainedmonths along or with criminals. It takes or to be taken into effect, people wait to in years once a decision haswhile been made overcrowded andwait unhygienic conditions. and effect, while people in overcrowded Several governments around the world host unhygienic conditions. refugee populations Several large governments around the and worldoften host place large limitsand on movement of the resident refugee significant populations often place significant Forofexample, often refugees. refugees must limits onrefugees. movement the resident For obtain a permit to leave a camp; can only example, often refugees must obtainthey a permit to a certain and travel for a certain time leave atravel camp; they distance can only a certain of the if they fail to comply distanceoutside and for a camp; certainand, time outside of the with the terms thecomply permit, with they risk camp; and, if they failofto thearrest termsand of imprisonment, for years. They may the permit, they risksometimes arrest and imprisonment, be required to live in these without the sometimes for years. They maycamps be required to right to move for years. In fact, some live in these camps without the right tochildren move and grandchildren born children in these camps for years. In fact, are some and without ever having the right to leave them. grandchildren are born in these camps without ever having the right to leave them.
What thecost cost of What is isthe ofdetention? detention? In financial terms, immigration detention is very
In financial terms, immigration detention is very expensive. Alternatives to detention are much expensive. Alternatives to detention are much more cost-effective. Under an alternative morescheme, cost-effective. Under an alternative scheme, refugees could be self-sufficient refugees could be self-sufficient and and contribute to the economy of contribute their host to the economy of their hostthiscountry. In closed country. In closed camps, is impossible. camps, this isrefugees impossible. Further, who have been de-skilled Further, refugees“warehousing” who have policies been de-skilled by effective lose their by economic capacity at great expense lose to theirtheir effective “warehousing” policies currentcapacity and futureathuman This to costtheir economic greatpotential. expense is borne by the human country of asylum ifThis they cost are is current and future potential. to country return tooftheir country of origin or borneunable by the asylum if they are unable to beto resettled in a third country. Years of to return their country of origin or to be resettled enforced idlenessYears also undermine their idleness ability in a third country. of enforced successfullytheir re-integrate home also toundermine ability in to their successfully countries, should conditions improve, to re-integrate in their home countries, orshould integrate in countries of resettlement. conditions improve, or to integrate in countries of resettlement.
Detention Facilities
is detained andwhere? where? Who Who is detained and
145
Types ofFamily Detention Detention Centers Centers
Minor Detention
Family detention centers restrictions on everyday life
mostly consiting of mothers and children ill treatment by officers difficulty in seeking counsel for mothers
ter
en
c ion
nt
ete
d ily
m
Fa
These centers mostly consist of mothers and their children. They are made to wear prison like uniforms, jumpsuits and are made to live in poor, unhygienic cells and common areas. The families are subjected to uniforms highly restricted These centers mostly consist of mothers and their children. They are made to wear prison-like or jumpsuits and are made movement and threatened with family to live in poor, unhygienic cells and common areas. The families are subjected to highly restricted movement and threatened with separation if the child cries or misbehaves.
family separation if their children cry or misbehave.
Minor detention centers
Minor Detention Centers large dorm like arrangement poor ventilation
ill treatment by officers
r
nte
ce
ter
en
nt
ete
d or
c ion
n
Mi
An average of 45 migrant children are ripped onsist of mothers and from their families per day and placed in ade to wear prison like detention centers. The “zero-tolerance” are made to live in d common areas. The immigration policy by the Trump administration An average of 45 migrant children are ripped from their families perintended day and placed criminal in detention centers. The “zero-tolerance” to highly restricted was to ramp-up prosecution atened with family of unauthorised immigrant parentsprosecution travelling immigration policy put in place by the Trump administration was intended to increase criminal of unauthorized immigrant es or misbehaves. with their childern. The adults were separated parents traveling with their children. The adults are separated from from theirtheir children and kept in isolation in separate detention centers. children and kept in isolation in these detention centers.
c e f s . r . e s t
wired fence partitions, easy installation wired fence partitions, easy installation
poor/no mental health care for inmates poor/no mental health care for inmates
modelled on the idea of on replication modelled the idea of replication
Detention centers are based on similar functional principles as the prison system but are designed less deliberately. The elements used for the construction of these centers Detention centers on the other hand work on seem temporary in the way theyas come similar functional principles thetogether. prison Detention centers on the other hand work on Most of these detention centers have beenThe built system but are designed less deliberately. similar functional principles as the prison elements for the construction ofThe these rapidly to meet needs quickly. They are located system but areused designed less deliberately. are intentional, but seem temporary in a elements used for the of these of in centers remote areas, and construction having a advantage the way they comebut together. Most of these centers are intentional, seem temporary in vast expanse around them, they work on the centers have been rapidly the dentention way they come together. Most built of these objective ‘replication’. The units are arrayed over veryof less time. Theybeen are located in remote dentention centers have built rapidly with a lot of ease. These units do not consist having a They advantage of a vast expanseof overareas, very less time. are located in remote around them, they work on the objective properhaving sanitation/insulation areas, a advantage of afacilities. vast expanse of ‘replication’. The units are arrayed lot of around them, they work on the of Detention centers in most casesobjective dowith notaprovide ease. These units are do arrayed not consist oflotproper ‘replication’. The units with a of access to health care/trauma counseling. sanitation/insulation ease. These units do facilities. not consist of proper Detention centers in most cases do not sanitation/insulation facilities. provide centers for access to health Detention in most cases care/trauma do not counselling. provide for access to health care/trauma counselling.
Detention Facilities
e e r f e n t
rapid construction rapid construction
147
The Early Years
Early Years
Executive Order 9066: Executive Order 9066: Ten weeks after the Japanese bombed Pearl Harbor, Ten weeks after the Japanese bombed Pearl Harbor, the orderthe order authorizedthethe Army to evacuate any persons they considered a authorized Army to evacuate any persons they considered a threat to tonational nationalsecurity. security. a result, 120,000 Japanese threat As As a result, over over 120,000 Japanese Americanswere wereforced forcedtotorelocate relocate oneof often tendifferent different internment Americans to toone camps around United States. internment campsthe around the United States. Pres. Franklin D. Roosevelt
Image: The Granada Internment Camp in Colorado
These centers were located in remote
These located infairgrounds remote areas,and areas,centers often were reconfigured often reconfigured fairgrounds and racetracks featuring buildings racetracks not meant featuring buildings not like meant for stalls humanor for human habitation, horse habitation, like horse stalls or cow sheds, thatfor cow sheds, that had been converted had been converted for that purpose.
that purpose.
an atmosphere atmosphere of of World World War War IIIIhysteria, hysteria,President PresidentRoosevelt, Roosevelt, InInan encouraged by officials at all levels of the federal government, encouraged by officials at all levels of the federal government, authorized the the internment internmentofoftens tens ofof thousands thousands of of American American authorized citizens citizens ofofJapanese Japanese ancestry ancestry and and resident resident aliens aliens from fromJapan. Japan. Roosevelt’s Roosevelt’s Executive Executive Order Order9066, 9066,dated datedFebruary February19, 19,1942, 1942, gave the military broad powers to ban any citizen from a fiftygave the military broad powers to ban any citizen from a fifty-toto sixty-mile-wide sixty-mile-widecoastal coastalarea areastretching stretchingfrom fromWashington Washingtonstate statetoto California and extending inland into southern Arizona. The order California and extending inland into southern Arizona. also authorized transporting these citizens to assembly centers hastily set up and governed by the military in California, Arizona, Washington state, and Oregon. Although it is not well known, the
Although it is notorder well known, thewar-time same executive orderrestrictions) (and other same executive (and other orders and war-time orders and restrictions) were also applied to United smaller were also applied to smaller numbers of residents of the numbers of were residents of theorUnited States who were of Italian States who of Italian German descent. For example, 3,200 resident aliensYet of while Italianthese background were and or German descent. individuals (andarrested others from more 300suffered of them were interned. German those than groups) grievous violationsAbout of their11,000 civil liberties, the residents—including some naturalized citizens—were arrested war-time measures applied to Japanese Americans were worse and more sweeping, than 5000uprooting were interned. while these individuals and more entire Yet communities and targeting (and others from those groups) suffered grievous violations of citizens as well as resident aliens. their civil liberties, the war-time measures applied to Japanese Americans were worse and more sweeping, uprooting entire communities and targeting citizens as well as resident aliens.
Detention Facilities
Anyone at least 1/16th Japanese was was Anyone whowho waswas at least 1/16th Japanese evacuated, including 17,000children children under under 10, 10, as as evacuated, including 17,000 well as several thousand elderly and handicapped. well as several thousand elderly and handicapped.
149
Immigration Reform and Control Act
20,251
“militarization” of the southern border
shortage of detention sp
2007
2006
2001
9,011 1996
The Reagan Years
1994
6,785
prime focus on “crime and drugs”
22,975
30,295
(INS) Immigration and Naturalization Service
Antiterrorism an Penalty Act (AE
detention of hundreds of thousands of undocumented aliens in the case of an unspecified national
Illegal Immigrati Immigrant Resp
Oklahoma City bombings
38,106 28,449
multiplicity
vastness
pace seclusion 2017
2015
unknown
mass rapid building of detention centers by private organisations
nd Effective Death EDPA)
ion Reform and ponsibility Act (IIRIRA)
expanded categories of “crimes”; leading to mandatory detention/deportation
Mexico (42%) Northern Traingle (46%)
where do they come from?
administration signed into law the Anti terrorism and Death Penalty
Detention Facilities
The Reagan years (since 1980) brought the “militarization” of Act (AEDPA) and the Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant
The years (since brought the “militarization” the Death Penalty Act Act(IIRIRA). (AEDPA)These andlaws theexpanded Illegal Immigration theReagan southern border and1980) of immigration enforcement in of general. Responsibility the categories southern border and of immigration enforcement in general. The Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act (IIRIRA). These The federal government worked out a “contingency plan” for the of crimes for which immigrants had become legal residents were federal government worked out a “contingency plan” for the laws drastically expanded the categoris of crimes for which “detention hundreds of thousands of undocumented “deportable” “mandatory The new “detention of of hundresd of thousands of undocumented aliensaliens in immigrants whoand hadsubject becometolegal residentsdetention.” were “deportable” in the case of an unspecified national emergency” and of “aliens laws eliminated the INS’s discretion to release certain aliens the case of an unspecified national emergency” and of “aliens and subject to “mandatory detention.” In other words, the newand whoare arenot notininconformity conformitywith withtheir theirimmigration immigration status.” Hence,laws required that itthe detain large numberstoofrelease legal resident who status.” Hence, eliminated INS’s discretion certain aliens alineswithout and therewas wasa ashortage shortageofofdetention detention space.The Themain mainenforcement enforcementrequired a bond. that The laws mandated asylum aliens seekers, there space. it detain largeincreased numbersdetention of legal of resident strategy and Service (INS) was a bond.‘expedited The lawsremoval’, also mandated detention strategyofofthe theImmigration Immigration andNaturalization Naturalization Service (INS) waswithout and through allowedincreased immigration officersofthe heavily influenced by the rhetorical and political focus on crime aslyum seekers and through ‘expedited removal’, heavily influenced by the rhetorical and political focus on crime authority to return asylum seekers to where they came allowed from after and theOklahoma Oklahoma City bombings (1995), The immigration the authority to return asylum seekers anddrugs.Post drugs. Post the City bombings (1995), The Clinton encountersofficers at the various entry points. Clinton administration signed into law the Antiterrorism and ecoutered at the various entry points.
151
The Present Day Detention Facility Locations boundaries that are meant to exist at the borders, now exist throughout; at the levels of the state, city
family detention centers government, contract and service detention centers top five states in terms of the number of facilities
Every state in the United States has at least one port of entry and one facility that ICE used to detain individuals as of 2015. The Every state in the United States has at least one port of entry and top five states in terms of the detainee population were Texas, one facility that ICE used to detain individuals in fiscal year 2015. California, Arizona, andtheNew Mexico. ICE useswere the The top five statesLouisiana, in terms of detainee population term “facility” in detention data to refer a range of locations Texas, California, Arizona, Louisiana, and to New Mexico. ICE uses that ICE uses to indetain individuals.Data Applying coding the term “facility” the Detention to referTRAC’s to a range of thatfacility ICE used to we detain individuals. oflocations detention types, found that ICEApplying used allTRAC’s of the coding of detention facility facilities, types, wecontract found that ICE used all of following types of detention detention facilities, the following types of detention facilities, contract detention holding/staging facilities, CE service processing centers, facilities facilities, holding/staging facilities, CE service processing under intergovernmental service agreements with the federal centers, facilities under intergovernmental service agreements government, juvenile facilities,juvenile and other facilities such as facilities Federal with the federal government, facilities, and other Bureau of Prisons facilities, medical facilities, U.S. Marshall Service such as Federal Bureau of Prisons facilities, medical facilities, facilities, and motels or hotels. Theseand facilities areorfurther classified U.S. Marshals Service facilities, motels hotels. These asfacilities to whether were operatedif bythey non-governmental, are they furtherclassified were operated forby non-governmental, or publicly profit companies orfor-profit publiclycompanies owned. Most of theowned. facilitiesMost are of the facilities privately ownedoutside and areoflocated outside areas. of the privately ownedare and are located metropolitan metropolitan area (urban area). Most detainees are moved to a Most detainees are moved to a privately owned facility at least privately oned facility atleast once. once.
The US Customs and Border Protection is the largest federal law enforcement agency of the United States Department of The US Customs and Border Protection is the largest federal law Homeland Security, and is the country’s primary border control enforcement agency of the United States Department of organization. The officers the nationality and identity Homeland Security, and isdetermine the country's primary border control of each applicant for admission andthe fornationality preventing theidentity entry of of organization. The officers determine and ineligible aliens, criminals, terrorists, others. each applicant for admission anddrug for traffickers, preventingamong the entry of ineligible aliens, criminals, drug port traffickers, among This agency is active at everyterrorists, possible entry to the country others. This is active every possible the including roadbody check points,atairports, and sea entry ports.port Thetofocus country. such as road check points, airports, ports. The focus of of the laws shifted gears after the terrorist attacks of September the laws shifted gears majorly post the terrorist attacks of 11, 2001. Funding requests and enforcement proposals were September 11, 2001. Funding requests and enforcement reconsidered as reconsidered lawmakers began reassessing how reassessing the nation’s proposals were as lawmakers began borders must be monitored and protected. The modernization how our nation's borders must be monitored and protected.The of border patrolofadvanced a dizzyingatrate as newrate generations modernization the Patrolatadvances a dizzying as new of agents developed ways to integrate generations of agentsinnovative develop innovative ways tocontemporary integrate the contemporary technology intoNew fieldandoperations. New and technology into field operations. specialized technology specialized technology is being created within the Border is currently under development by the Border Patrol whichPatrol holds that holds potential increasing to assist agents in mission. fulfilling their increasing to potential assist agents in fulfilling their mission.
Historically, the immigrants entered through any of the immigrant stations along the country shores, the most famous one of which was New York.
The hardships faced by the detainees are significantly higher in privately operated facilities and in remotely located facilities. These conditions of confinement have generated several concerns across many facilities. Notably, the Detention Reporting and Information Line (DRIL) is the only mechanism through which the detainees and community members can report grievances related to these facilities. Additionally, a personâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s detention to a privately-owned, remotely located center seems strategic and systematically linked to longer detention periods. For example,
telephone calls are more expensive in these facilities, and visitation becomes more difficult for locations outside of major urban areas. Detainees face challenges in obtaining legal counsel or getting materials necessary for their court hearings. As a result, we can expect detainees in such facilities to seek court continuances at higher rates, leading to longer detention. The majority of the grievances involved also include issues relating to access to legal counsel and basic immigration case information.
Detention Facilities
US Customs and Borders Protection
153
Blurred Lines ...between criminal enforcement and immigration control
...the blurred lines between criminal enforcement and immigration control
Ownership
Level of security, underlying functioning
networks.
Migrants and family members see important similarities in the policy of choice for immigration law infractions. As Malik Ndaula Migrants and family members see important similarities in the succinctly explained after his release from ICE custody, “they call policy of choice for immigration law infractions. As Malik Ndaula immigration detentionafter civilhis confinement, is prison no succinctly explained release frombut ICEprison custody, “they call matter what label you use, and prison breaks people’s souls, hearts, immigration detention civil confinement, but prison is prison no matter what label and even Instead of analyzing civiland immigration you use, andminds.” prison breaks people’s souls, hearts, even minds.”detention Instead of separately criminal confinement, I argued “viewingI analyzing civilfrom immigration detention separately from criminalthat confinement, argued that “viewing the practice of locking migrants as a single, the practice of locking up migrants as a up single, multi-stranded multi-stranded phenomenon of immigration imprisonment better reflects the the phenomenon of immigration imprisonment better reflects reality of immigration law enforcement today.” reality of immigration law enforcement today.” Whether acting under the authority of civil or criminal law, law Whether acting under the authority of civil or criminal law, law enforcement officials at every level of government regularly take enforcement officials at every level of government regularly take into custody people who are thought to have violated immigration people into custody areindividuals thought toare have violated immigration laws. Many of thesewho same then subjected to civil laws. Many of these same individuals are then subjected civil enforcement actions and criminal prosecutions that turn onto those enforcement actionslaw andviolations. criminal prosecutions that onnature those alleged immigration Regardless of theturn legal of the prosecutions, they frequently involve confinement. alleged immigration law violations. Regardless of the legal nature of the prosecutions, they frequently involve confinement.
Detention Facilities
Management in prisons and immigration detentions more or less share similar qualities in ways of their ownership and underlying Criminal enforcement in prisons and immigration detentions more levels of security and functioning. Most detention center or less share similar qualities in ways of their ownership and its constructions areofundertaken by functioning. private, for-profit underlying levels security and Most ofcontractors. the prison Their work is attributable to relatively large capacitybyfacilities. and detention center constructions are undertaken private, Another prominent feature of the current U.S. for-profit contractors. Their work is attributable to system relativelyrelates large to the location—or more precisely, relative remoteness—of capacity facilities. Another prominentthe feature of the current U.S. system relates to thefacilities. location—or more precisely, thebecause relative many of the detention Remoteness is of concern remoteness—of many of the detention facilities. Remoteness is confinement in remote locations that are distant from urban areas of concern because confinement in remote locations that are can separate detainees from their families, and community and outside of and distant from urban areas can separate detainees legal support networks that may be critical to their well-being and from their families, and community and legal support networks chances of achieving favorable case outcomes. About 58 percent that may be critical to their well-being and chances of achieving of individuals were detained about at least58 once in a facility that was more favorable case outcomes. percent of individuals were than 30 miles away (in terms of driving distance) from the30nearest detained at least once in a facility that was more than miles nonprofit immigration attorney who practiced removal nonprofit defense. away (in terms of driving distance) from the nearest immigration attorney who practiced Results Results indicate that many detainees removal were helddefense. in locations that indicate that many detainees held in structures locations that were relatively far from basic were community and were legal relatively networks. far from basic community structures and legal-services services
155
Prison Towns
We define prison towns here as rural communities where the local economy has come to depend on a nearby prison, whether the prison existed before the 1980s correctional center boom or whether it was part of this movement. Some prison towns have airports nearby for transporting residents to and from. Some have distinct amenities that have sprung up as a result of economic gains from the prison. All prison towns are different - this is why we chose to focus on case studies to examine the statistics, amenities, successes, and failures of rural communities dependent on prisons across the United States, and what this means for the prisoners they contain.
The False Promise of Economic Growth
Prison Towns Prisons are considered “L.U.L.U.’s - “locally unwanted land uses.” Between 1970 and 2000, the number of prisons in America grew 300%. The majority of these prisons are run by respective states, with federal prisons and privately-owned prisons throughout. 70% of America’s prisons today exist in rural areas, while only 20% of the country’s population lives in these communities. Rural towns were promised an economic upturn if they built a prison, and at the outset, immediately creating an average of 280 new jobs [Eason] and reaping property taxes from prisons was a huge incentive. Studies have shown that these hopes have not always come to fruition, but so-called “Prison Towns” are now established across the nation.
157
History & Statistics
The Prison Boom
Problematic Incentives to Build
Before 1970, there were only 511 prisons in the United States. By 2000, there were 1,663. Professors Derek Neal and Armin Rick “found that a broad shift toward more punitive sentences for every category of crime—combined with a higher probability that those who were arrested would serve prison time—did indeed drive the surge in U.S. prison population over the past three decades” [Roche1]. Naturally, a call for more prisons meant a need for more locations. Most prisons in the United States are state-run, and rural communities stepped up in hopes that a prison would be built in their town in order to improve the local economy. While more jobs and tax benefits seemed beneficial, they promoted inherent flaws, and ultimately made little difference.
Prisons were marketed as “recession-proof” entities to rural communities which would provide jobs and tax benefits no matter the situation of the country’s economy. This in itself perpetuates problems inherent in the ideology behind the U.S. carceral system. Suggesting that prisons are recession-proof is to suggest that there will always be crime. This is comparable to the idea that a health services as an industry is secure, because people will always be sick. Contracting an illness can be prevented, but much of the time it is out of a person’s control, and therefore there will always be illness. It is true to that being incarcerated is also out of a person’s control, but this is due to problems inherent in the system rather than a rise in crime. Studies show that we have more people in prison not because more crime is being committed, but rather because more offenses have become criminalized. Once prisons are in place, there is an economic incentive to fill them, further tipping the scales against someone who may have committed a minor offense. Furthermore, while these promises seemed foolproof, studies have shown that the economic impact of a prison is not as positive as prison towns had hoped.
Las Aminas, CO
Dannemora, NY
Rush City, MN
Susanville, CA
N
0
1 mile
Roadway Town Boundary Prison Boundary
Forrest City, AR
Sayre, OK
Prison Towns
Prison Town Case Studies
159
History & Statistics While rural communities have been promised economic gain, most studies find that there is little to no long-term difference in economic growth between counties and towns with a prison vs. without. Any economic gains are often shortterm ones. These studies show that even though prisons were advertised as huge economic boons for a town, they have not proved to follow through in a significant way.*
32
prisons across whole state
number of prisons
51% 44% 42%
unemployment
1982
per capita income
CASE STUDY: NEW YORK CITY
Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit, sed diam nonummy nibh euismod tincidunt ut laoreet dolore magna aliquam erat volutpat. Ut wisi enim ad minim veniam, quis nostrud exerci tation ullamcorper suscipit lobortis nisl ut aliquip ex ea commodo consequat. Duis autem vel eum iriure dolor in hendrerit in vulputate velit esse molestie consequat, vel illum dolore eu feugiat nulla facilisis at vero eros et accumsan et iusto odio dignissim qui blandit praesent * On the other hand, perhaps having a prison in a town or county resulted in that community keeping up with general trends rather than falling farther behind. We could not find data to support this.
70
prisons across whole state
43%
drop across whole state
drop across whole state
38%
drop in counties without prisons
drop in counties without prisons
41%
drop in counties hosting prisons
55%
rise in counties without prisons
64%
rise in counties hosting prisons
160%
rise across whole state
141%
drop in counties without prisons
132%
drop in counties hosting prisons
Chart showing different economic trends across counties in the state of New York over time. Note that counties with prisons are subject to the same economic fluctuations as those without.
Prison Towns
rise across whole state
2001
105%
1992
1988
drop in counties hosting prisons
161
Prison Town Case Studies While prison towns might share similarities in rural location and economic need, all prison towns are different. Some towns experience short-term economic gain with new businesses existing as a result of money gained from the prison. When residents are interviewed in these towns, reviews are often mixed. There is a lot of shame that comes with residing in a prison town. Yet, while overarching trends show little difference between counties with vs. without prisons, individuals within towns report that prison revenue has made huge economic impact, from building new structures to funding better school supplies. In some towns though, we see little to no improvement from the beginning. In many cases, local businesses are crushed and all local industry turns to serving the prison. A few have airports nearby for transporting prisoners from out of state. These six prison towns were selected for this publication because they all have populations under 20,000 people and are particularly remote, and several have been the focus of literature and film about the prison town phenomenon.
DANNEMORA, NY
RUSH CITY, MN SUSANVILLE, CA LAS ANIMAS, CO
SAYRE, OK FORREST CITY, AR
Dannemora, NY
Rush City, MN
Susanville, CA
Pop. 4,898
Pop. 7,561
Pop.15,326
Clinton Correctional Facility in Dannemora was first opened in 1845, making Dannemora the earliest established of these prison town case studies. The town has always been small and its economy has relied on the prison. Originally residents worked in the mines nearby. It used to house death row for men in New York. The prison is somewhat notorious for riots and escapes, the most recent attempt taking place in 2015.
Rush City is a small town with a regional airport for bringing in out-of-state prisoners. People moved to the town for agriculture and because of business from the rail line during the late 1800s, but these industries have been less and less lucrative through the years. The town gained the prison in 2000.
This town was the subject of the 2007 PBS documentary â&#x20AC;&#x153;Prison Town USA.â&#x20AC;? California Correctional Center opened in 1963 before the prison boom, and since then two other prisons have been constructed - High Desert State Prison in 1995, and the Federal Correctional Institution in 2001. The town originally grew from logging and mining industries.
Sayre, OK
Forrest City, AR
Pop. 2,207
Pop. 4,490
Pop. 14,291
Located in an area of Colorado with extreme temperature shifts across seasons, Las Animas struggles to maintain water supply throughout the town. This town is economically almost entirely dependent upon the nearby prison. Built in 1993, Bent County Correctional Facility is privately owned by the CCA and is just east of the town.
North Fork Correctional Facility opened in 1997 and houses 1,440 residents. The tax revenue from the prison has allowed the town to update municipal equipment, build new homes and businesses, and give jobs to people in need, but the gains may be short-lived and come with many unintended consequences. Interestingly, all inmates in this prison are diverted here from Wisconsin.
Forrest City is the subject of several case studies on prison towns. The town has experienced economic gains from the construction of the Federal Correctional Institution in 1997. Forrest City has a history of lynching and struggles with racism. The town had a high concentration of poverty, but they view the prison as a way of reputation management. So far, the prisonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s revenue has been a great success, and it is viewed favorably by residents. Prison Towns
Las Animas, CO
163
Typical Features
N 0
0.5
1 mile
RUSH CITY, MN
THE PRISON may be inside or just outside town boundaries. It is usually towards the outskirts of town, but in some cases (like Dannemora) the town grew around the central prison itself. This prison was opened in 2000; it holds 1,000 level 4 prisoners.
AN AIRPORT may present, especially useful in the case of private prisons whose funding depends on the number of residents. Residents can be flown in from out-of-state, making it difficult or impossible for families to visit.
THE ORIGINAL DOWNTOWN may have formed as a result of another industry, like agriculture. In the case of Rush City, the railroad running through and resulting business led to a gridded town center.
NEW BUSINESSES do come to exist from income gained by the prison. Prisons have to pay taxes to the town, and communities will put this money towards new industries. Often times this could be economic retardants like big box stores. In Rush City, theyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;ve created an outpost for the Plastech corporation, as well as a large motorcycle parts store.
Prison Towns
NEW HOUSING DEVELOPMENTS pop up as a result of the influx of prison laborers. In 2000, the population of Rush City actually decreased from the year 1999, but this is the last time this occurred. Since 2000, the population each year has only increased.
165
Local Impacts
rrest City, AK
Susanville, CA
N
1 mile 0 Located along Route 66, Sayre Oklahoma is known as the “Gateway to the West” by locals. Peter T. Kilborn examines this town in-depth in his 2001 New York Times article. While the prison provided 270 new jobs, enough funding for a new 60Roadway unit apartment complex, a new truck plaza, and various municipal Town Boundary equipment. Prison Boundary In his article, Kilborn points out how economic growth and an increase in population seems to follow the construction of prisons in rural places. Allegedly, a prison is a more stable “industry” than a manufacturing plant or a big box store. Before the prison, the town was surviving on federal crop support, and had to turn off every other light on Main Street because they could not afford to light them. The prison changed all of this. The city’s budget increased from $755,000 in 1996 to $1,250,000 in 2001, a huge impact for this small town. However, the stigma of being a “prison town” has led other potential businesses to seek locations elsewhere. Likewise, the prison and the industries it requires (like food sourcing and linen cleaning) have discouraged other small businesses or drawn all of their business to working with the prison. The local Texaco, the closest business to the prison, has received a lot more customers and income since the prison opened. However, there have also been more bad checks, and most of them have come from prison guards.
Prison Town Case Studies Sayre, OK
“The prison is super positive for us, but it’s a life raft, an inner tube. We’re still on the ocean. We’re not going down, but we’re not really going up either.” -Mayor Jack Ivester
SAYRE, OK
SUSANVILLE, CA Susanville is the subject of the 2007 documentary, “Prison Town USA.” Three prisons are located in Susanville (one federal and two state-run), and half of the town’s working population are employed by the prison. A total of 11,000 people are incarcerated here. Before the prisons, the town depended on logging and mining industries. In search of new jobs, the town turned to building a prison. However, as general trends have suggested, the outcomes were not exactly what the townspeople were hoping for. The jobs were minimum wage, and the stigma of being a prison town drove away other businesses. Likewise, businesses that the town had depended upon for generations had to fold, and workers with families established in town had little choice but to work for the prison. Other businesses like the local dairy company have come to depend on the prison for the majority of their sales. Even so, because of the prison, more people lost their jobs than there were new jobs available. In the documentary, an incarcerated man’s wife offers an interesting perspective. She notes that she is uncomfortable going out around town in case a prison guard sees her and misinterprets something. The guard could tell her husband, and she’s worried about how he might feel. Newberry, MI
Rush City, MN
Susanville, CA
N
0
Prison Towns
Las Aminas, CO
167
1 mile
â&#x20AC;&#x153;Not many places where a single woman can make $30,000 a year.â&#x20AC;?
Photocollage by the authors
Prison Towns
-Leroy Hagerman referring to his daughter, who became one of six captains at North Fork Correctional Facility in Sayre, Oklahoma.
169
How to Move Forward The fact of the matter is that prison towns are prevalent all over the country, so, in the case of operating prisons, what can be done to make the situation better for both town and prison residents and families? In the case of towns facing prison closures, what can be done to help the town recover and move forward? Anna Clark in her article Redesigning a Prison Town poses the questions, “How do you detach a community from its dependency on the prison economy, without doing undue harm to local citizens? Is it even possible to wholly extract these forbidding fortresses from their intended purpose? After all, they were designed to be a place that nobody wants to be in. Puzzling out a way to find a new use, especially in rural areas and small towns, is a critical challenge for 21st-century planners.” Osborne Association, Growing Change, the people of Warwick, New York, and The Prison Public Memory Project are just a few of the organizations working to make positive movements towards answering these questions.
Mid-Orange Correctional Facility Re-Imagined “On June 30, 2011, Gov. Andrew Cuomo advised the Town of Warwick that the State of New York was closing the MidOrange Correctional Facility. This was a devastating blow for the community which had for decades enjoyed employment opportunities provided by the prison and its predecessor, the New York State Training School for Boys. But more than that, the Warwick community had benefited from a positive and personal relationship with many of the State employees who became dedicated community members and volunteers as well... Under the leadership of Town Supervisor, Michael P. Sweeton, the Town quickly embarked on a path to make the best out of the situation, and figure out how the Town could play a major role in the future development of the site.” (Preface) A committee was appointed and held countless meetings to explore options for revitalizing the prison complex. The findings and conceptual plans that resulted were published in a final report in March of 2012.
Osborne Association “The Osborne Association offers a wide range of direct services to justice system-involved people and their children and families. They developed a New York Initiative for Children of Incarcerated Parents and are also in the process of redeveloping a former prison in the Bronx into a community reentry center offering transitional housing for people coming home from prison and jail.” “The Sing Sing children’s center allows kids to interact with their daddies. They play games, color, read, and even make special projects during the holidays! My husband took Osborne’s parenting classes which helped his relationship with our babies. He has more patience, less anger, and he is the loving man he was prior to what led to his incarceration.” Jennifer L. Fulton Community Reentry Center
Growing Change
Prison Towns
Youth Posing with the produce they grew
GrowingChange is a youth empowered, nonprofit organization that is designed to address several tough problems that challenge North Carolina including the numbers of young people entering the penal system, a county with no locally grown, sustainable produced food, joblessness, decreasing numbers of small farms and independent farmers, abandoned Brownfield properties, and declining health outcomes among the rural poor. GrowingChange salvages places and people that have been abandoned by converting a defunct prison site into a sustainable farm and education center. This is done by repurposing a decaying Brown-fields site into an expansive, year-round farm and education center. Young people on the edge of the criminal justice system will be redirected toward an engagement that gives them life skills and job training while providing clinical support therapy. The existing watershed of the scenic Lumber River that has been compromised from years of neglect will be restored. Returning veterans at a loss for job opportunities will take on leadership roles and help guide the program’s youth while learning sustainable farming techniques while working toward a university degree in environmental science and sustainable agriculture.
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The Prison Public Memory Project
Prison Towns
Prison closures not only have great economic impacts on a prison town, they have cultural impacts on the population as well. Tracy Huling, a New York resident, founded the Prison Public Memory Project to help revitalize and empower prison town communities and seek to explore how to “‘help people change their culture, when forcing a change in industry can be very painful and disruptive and even create some war within the community?’”(Anna Clark, Redesigning a Prison Town) “It is designed to use culture to change culture. It is a vehicle for documenting and interpreting the history of prison towns, in partnership with local residents, ‘so that their history is not ripped away from them with no acknowledgment that there was anything good that might have come from their work.’ Indeed, while this work is about a community grappling with its own dark histories, it is also about acknowledging positive outcomes, whether it was staff members who were able to pay off their mortgages with their stable jobs or people who, while in prison, learned how to read. ‘We acknowledge the suffering, but we also need to acknowledge that people make meaning out of that,’ Huling says.” “They have begun with Hudson, New York, where a very old local prison has served, variously, as a reformatory for women, a detention center for girls and a men’s prison. Because of its age, it is on the shortlist for closure, and Huling was interested in beginning the memory project before the community absorbs the shock. Local people were hired to begin with archival research and oral histories. Programming, from illustrated lectures to community photo shoots to story sharing at the library, invites residents into the conversation.” (Anna Clark, Redesigning a Prison Town) The Prison Public Memory Project received funding after three years to both build a permanent memory site in Hudson as well as work to help other prison towns across the country. https://www.prisonpublicmemory.org/
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“It decreases you…your personality…
According to a survey UC Berkley professor Kate Weisburd conducted,
It takes a whole lifetime to build a character and it 50 percent of youth tethered only takes one second to to the device have violated shatter it and everybody looks at program rules. 19
you and says he really was a bad kid.”
10
The officer would point at the computer and show me every time the GPS said I wasn’t home on time. I’d laugh or deny it, and they’d take out their handcuffs again and threaten me with jail and say, “You think this is funny?” This
one judge joked about how often he was seeing me. It made me wonder, Is this who I am? Or is it just being a teenager? 7
The monitor was “like
holding something over a dog’s nose, teasing him with food…like hitting the lottery and losing the ticket. You are still incarcerated, no matter how you look at it.” 14
detained on 10 different occasions, not because he had committed a new offense, but he because
Ramon was
he had violated one of the dozens of rules associated with the GPS device on his ankle.17
While Kathy regularly called her probation officer, she failed to obtain permission to go to a prenatal appointment and bring her grandmother to the doctor. Both instances were deemed violations, and Kathy was
forced to spend five days in juvenile hall; afterwards, she was placed back on the electronic monitor. 19
“We’d do well to remember that at the end of the day, the law doesn’t defend us; we defend the law. And when it becomes contrary to our morals, we have both the right and the responsibility to re-balance it toward just ends.” Edward Snowden
E-Carceration
E-Carceration is the use of technology to deprive and individual of their liberty. Electronic monitors combined with house arrest are the most common form of E-Carceration. Activist groups across the country resist the use of these monitors as there is no telling just how penetrative they are within the prison system and the public lives. E-Carceration includes monitoring beyond the justice system such as license plate readers, facial recognition software, and certain algorithms. What exactly is electronic monitoring, why is it being used, who is effected, when did this all start, where is it being used? The topic of E-Carceration is one which must be addressed before prisons are exchanged for our homes and communities.
Challenging Electronic Monitoring
E-Carceration
Image by: Lauren Walker
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The 5 W’s What
Who
Electronic monitors (“EM”) are GPS (global positioning systems) or RF (radio frequency) enabled ankle “bracelets” that assist law enforcement officers with the supervision of individuals awaiting trial or individuals who were recently released. Individuals’ locations are transmitted real time and alert law enforcement of any unauthorized movements. Other electronic monitors keep track of the individual’s alcohol use.
Within the justice system in the United States, those who are eligible to wear an electronic monitor include: juveniles, individuals on parole, immigrants, individuals awaiting trial, offenders deemed unsafe for communities.22
When
Electronic monitors were first developed in the 1960s by a small group of professors from Harvard University. However, it was not until 1983 when a New Mexico judge first officially sanctioned the use of electronic monitors.2
Why The cost of housing an individual in prison both financially and physically has increased since the mass incarceration epidemic began. Electronic monitoring has enabled governments to supervise the movement of convicted and pre-trial individuals at a lesser expense than keeping them in prisons.
Where The use of electronic monitors has been adopted by countries around the world, however they are most commonly used in the United States. Individuals given an electronic monitor are restricted to certain areas given their individual convictions. This can include an area as small as an apartment or house to as large as a specific city.
Number of Active Electronic Offender Monitoring Devices Per Year8 20k 40k 60k 80k 100k 120k 140k
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
88,172
100k 90k 80k 70k
50,132
60k 50k 37,706 40k 30k 20k
2,879
10k
E-Carceration
GPS versus RF Electronic Monitor Use in the United States8
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Two Sides Pro Electronic Monitoring
• Communities’ Financial Savings Electronic monitors save tax-payers and detention facilities money. An EM can cost anywhere between $5.50 to $10 per day while detention centers cost between $100 to $160 per day. • Decreased Recidivism: Various reports announce that EM programs improve the chances of a successful rehabilitation by allowing people to remain at home and live a more normalized life. On average, EM reduces arrests by 24 percent for program participants. • Monitoring Location in Real Time The EM monitors use GPS to pinpoint the offender’s location in real time which allows law enforcement to ensure offenders are adhering to the terms and conditions of their release. The monitoring system, while alerting law enforcement of their movements, also allows the offender to receive crisis intervention services 27/7 if needed. • Provides Offenders with an “Out” According to a PEW research study, individuals reported that the electronic monitors gave them an excuse to not run with the wrong crowd or get involved in situations they should not be.20
Images by: ChallengingECarceration.org
Con Electronic Monitoring
• Offenders’ Financial Burden Most of the offenders who elect to the EM programs have to pay for the daily use of the electronic monitor. These payments are very strict and in some instances if a payment is not made within 3 days, the person can end up back in prison. Often times these systems also require a land-line phone connection to activate and maintain the monitor. • Violations and False Positives There have been countless instances of EMs reporting false movement or tampering resulting in violations and actions taken against the offender. • Emotional Effects Many professionals worry about the social and psychological impact of wearing a visible electronic monitoring systems which carries a stigma in society. This often causes people to rebel against the system, either tampering with the EM, running away, or participating in criminal activity. • Data Collection: Due to the large number of alerts that flood monitoring centers, alerts will often be overlooked and can lead to offenders getting into bad situations. Large amounts of data is collected from these monitors and there is no regulation of how the data is used. • Private Businesses All of the electronic monitors are manufactured and leased by for-profit companies. “If [the legality of these practices] were ever challenged in court, it would be struck down immediately.” (**See information on business revenues on next page)
E-Carceration
• Interference with Medical Procedures Medical procedures such as MRIs, mammograms, x-rays, and CT scans cannot be conducted when the monitor is on the individual due to interference with machines. Most states have no policy that allows for the bracelet to be removed in these situations and insist the bracelet must be worn during procedures. 11
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Finances of Electronic Monitoring Cost to the Offenders
Cost to the Prisons
Each offender must pay for his or her electronic monitoring device and all costs associated with it in majority of the United States. In the event an offender cannot pay the rent for the monitor, he or she may end up back in prison. According to a report submitted to the U.S. Department of Justice, of 61% offenders who were ordered to pay, 53% were not paying each month when the average cost was $64. “When asked about the financial impact of EM, 63% of offenders said they have a difficult time paying for it.”3 There have been instances where when given the choice of living at home with an electronic monitor versus going to prison, the offender will choose prison due to the financial burden of the monitor. “Cherise Burdeen, executive director of the Pretrial Justice Institute, agreed, saying that “charging of offenders for their supervision conditions, whether that’s electronic monitoring -- all of that is unconstitutional and illegal.”18
As the number of incarcerated people in the United States increases, as does the amount of space and resources needed to house the offenders. Since the development of the electronic monitoring systems, these devices have been used more and more across the country for financial reasons. On average, it costs $55.09 per day to house one offender or $20,108 per year (this does not include the cost of constructing new prisons or expanding existing facilities). In comparison to the daily cost of an offender in a prison, it costs between $3 and $25 per day depending on the type of electric monitor. “Another way to compare the cost of EM relative to incarceration is that six offenders could be placed on active GPS or 28 offenders could be places on RF for one year for the same cost of housing one inmate in a correctional facility for one year.”3 By avoiding the cost of annual operating expenses of housing offenders and the construction of new prisons, policy makers may save public dollars.
Image by: Jared Rodriguez
Fees Associated with Electronic Monitoring1 Yes
Yes, with caveats
No
In Idaho, Iowa, New Jersey, New Mexico, New York, Rhode Island and Vermont, a "supervision" fee goes toward electronic monitoring costs. In Oregon, Pennsylvania and Wyoming, electronic monitoring fees are charged by counties rather than the state.
Industry Company Name
Owner
States Where They Contract with DOC
Bi Incorporated
GEO Group Private prison operator
AK, IL, ME, MO, MT, NM, NC, OR, RI, UT, WI
83.9 mn (BI Only) $2.26 bn (GEO Group 2017)
Satellite Tracking of People (STOP)
Securus Technologies
AR, CA, HI, ME, MO, MT, NE, ND, OR, RI, SD, TN, UT
$404 mn (Securus 2015)
Sentinel Offender Services
Robert Contestabile
CT, LA, MS, NV, WA
$103.9 mn
Attenti (formerly 3M)
Apax Partners
AK, MI, IA, MA, OH, VT, WA, WV
$95 mn (Attenti) $305 mn (Apax 2016)
Center for Media Justice15
Annual Revenue
E-Carceration
Businesses are consistently creating new markets for the electronic monitors to be used such as alcohol use, offenders with histories of mental instability, lifetime monitoring, etc. which only increases the use of their monitors. “We’re at peak incarceration as a society. A lot of these companies are devoting extraordinary efforts to shift their business model and profit off of that growing surveillance and supervision.”18
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Problems with Electronic Monitoring Technology Development The first electronic monitoring system was developed in the 1960s, nearly 60 years ago. The first monitors used radio frequencies, typically called “curfew monitors;” when a bracelet comes within range of a unit, it sends a signal to the monitoring center. Years later, GPS was incorporated into the bracelets which works in a similar way but with more accuracy. Despite the technological advancements, there are still consistent problems with electronic monitors.2
False Positives There have been countless reports of false positives, both by offenders and unit testers. Majority of these problems occur when the GPS enabled bracelets lose connection with the satellite. In dense urban areas and large buildings, the offender must walk to an area for approximately 15 minutes to retrieve the single. These problems are difficult to fix however, due to the inherent limitations of GPS technologies. Additionally, bracelet’s can send alerts when offenders are putting on long pants, socks, or high-top shoes. According to a report submitted to the U.S. Department of Justice, almost a third (29.75) of offenders claimed they have two or fewer signal loss alerts in a typical week, while over half reported five or fewer and 9.9% reported 30 or more. On average, offenders claim they have 11.9 alerts per week.3
Large Buildings/Malls.............................. 41.8%
Various Places......................................... 7.6% Locations Where EM Signals Are Lost3
A Flood of Data These bracelets send so many reports, they overload the monitoring centers so that officers cannot carefully look over each alert. In fact, a center in Denver was flooded with so many alerts, a man was able to remove his bracelet. While the police received an alert when the device was removed, it took them days to respond during which time the man murdered the state corrections chief. “A 2012 Tennessee audit examined 68 offenders monitored by GPS and found that officers with the state’s Board of Probation and Parole failed to clear or confirm 80 percent of the 11,347 alerts those offenders generated in a 10-month period, the AP report showed.”5
Home...................................... 21.5%
Bad Weather...........................................3.8%
Inside........................................ 3.8%
At Work.................................... 3.8%
Garage....................................................2.5%
Other Locations...................... 15.2%
“After a couple of weeks, his device kept losing the satellite signal the GPS
efforts to restore the signal failed, his parole officer told him he would have to find a new place to live within 24 hours. Maurice had to scram-
ble and move in with an aunt who quickly let him know she didn’t want him around. Soon he had to relocate again.”14
E-Carceration
needed in order to track his movements. When
183
A Day In The Life: Immigrants Fresvinda Ponce ...a 41-year-old mother from Camayagua, Honduras, doesn't know when she'll get her ankle monitor off. She's living at a women's shelter in downtown Houston with her two teenage daughters while she awaits resolution of her asylum request. "Sure, it's better to have an ankle monitor," she replies when asked about her release from the family confinement center. "I was desperate when we were detained. Every day my girls would come home from school and go into the room and cry. 'When can we leave this place?' they asked. It impacted all of us." She reaches down and pulls up her white slacks to reveal the bulky black device strapped to her ankle, above her sandaled foot.
Sandra ...who asked that her full name not be published so as not to jeopardize her asylum case — said she left La Union el Pozo Sayaxche in northern Guatemala with her 12-year-old son, Juan Carlos, on May 12. She said she fled because she faced discrimination because of her dark skin, but that she also was attacked sexually by a man who threatened to kill her if she went to the police. The pair walked through the night and turned themselves into U.S. authorities about three weeks later. They were held in different Texas detention centers for nearly two months, then reunited and released — but not before she got an ankle monitor. They now live in New Jersey, where she’s required to meet regularly with an immigration official.
"Right now I feel free, but at the same time I think that I'm still not free," Ponce continues. "As long as I wear this shackle, I'm not happy. I feel like I'm still a prisoner."4
“I feel tortured,” Sandra said. “I’m not in one of those detention centers, thank God, but I still feel like I’m a prisoner.”16
Image by: John Burnett
Image by: Kristen Luce
Patricia Meza
Carmen Garcia
...31, said she had owned an Internet cafe in El Salvador. After a gang demanded that she pay $500 a month as a form of tax, she closed the business, traveling through Mexico on the top of a train with her two daughters, one of them 10 years old and the other 10 months.
...said that she was not told why she had to wear the bracelet. She had lived in the United States from 1989 to 1998, but had never been arrested or deported, she said.
Leaving her appointment not long ago with a tracking device strapped to her leg, Ms. Meza hugged her daughters and sipped a soda offered by a friend. “It’s just part of the process,” she said. “My life begins from here.”16
Image by: Kristen Luce
If she crosses state lines it will emit a continuous beep and deliver a message telling her to turn back to her allowed zone, a federal immigration official said. In a bedroom at a friend’s home in Queens, Ms. Garcia sat with her leg tethered to a wall socket. She and her son Alexander fled El Salvador after she witnessed the murder of her nephew, she said, adding that the killers had threatened their lives.24
Image by: Suzanne Kreiter
E-Carceration
After being caught near the border, they spent two nights in federal custody in Texas. Then they were allowed to stay with Ms. Meza’s mother in New York, as long as they appeared at a Manhattan immigration office.
Her ankle monitor must be plugged into the wall for at least two hours each day to be recharged. She said her bracelet was hot, itchy and unnecessary to ensure that she appears in court.
185
Dystopian Futures A Reccurring Fear The idea of surveillance has been around for generations. The development of technologies combined with the government and corporations, conspiracy, and distrust promote speculations of privacy and where to draw the line. George Orwell’s 1984 is the most commonly read book that deals with surveillance; a figure called Big Brother seemingly watches every move of the public to ensure the safety and prosperity of everyone while simultaneously causing citizens to live in a state of paranoia. Recent shows such as Black Mirror depict similar ideas, but with technologies that appear to be eerily possible. An episode from season three of the series called Ark Angel shows a 3 year old girl being implanted with a system that allows her mother to see and censor her daughter’s vision. Electronic monitoring devices are more widely recognized and have a stigma about them when in public, however if the development of monitoring devices continues, how long will it be before the public is being watched without their knowledge. Society fears being controlled and watched, yet vwe continuously welcome technologies into our lives that constantly monitor our behaviors and movements. As Snowden already revealed, the United States government has been walking this precarious line for some time.
“Under observation, we act less free, which means we effectively are less free.” Edward Snowden
187
E-Carceration
Design for returning to society
Community-Centered Facilities
Life inside prison should mirror life outside. Residents ought to learn how to live in society rather than how to live in prison. When life in prison is drastically different from that of outside world, release can bring on a variety of problems that often shock and overwhelm. Community centers are public locations where members of a community tend to gather for group activities, social support, public information, public programming, and other purposes. They may sometimes be open to the whole community, or for a specialized group
within the greater community. Community centers can be religious in nature, or can be secular, like youth clubs.
Community-centered facilities are buildings which have another primary purpose, but which programmatically include community center functions. Examples include substance abuse housing, halfway houses, homeless shelters, schools, libraries, and so on. However, when it comes to facilities of incarceration, it is more difficult to imagine how to integrate communitycentered functions due to of security and public perception. We want to explore the possibilities of incorporating “prison“ into the community environment.
Community-Centered Facilities
“Design for punishment” or “Design for reuniting with society”?
189
Facility Comparisons ...from Super Max Prison to Community College Super Max - â&#x20AC;&#x153;ADXâ&#x20AC;? Location: Rural United States Openness: Extremely Closed Capacity:420 residents Type: Maximum-Security Prison
Halden Prison Location: Suburban Norway Openness: Closed Capacity: 250 residents Type: Maximum-Security Prison
Leoben Centre of Justice Location: Edge of City in Austria Openness: Open Capacity: 205 residents Type: Multi-Secured Judicial Institution
Macomb Community College Location: Urban United States Openness: Totally Open Capacity: 59,000 annually Type: Community College
191
Community-Centered Facilities
Prison-School Combinations Similarity between facility and school
Both prisons and schools function similarly in the sense that they both have an authoritative figure responsible for a group of people/ students.
The Corridor within prisons and schools share similar traits in that the cellular programs like the prison cell and classrooms are attached to it, providing an internal circulation.
Although a prison and school share similarities in function, society views them as complete opposite ends of the spectrum.
Prison
School
Combined with school To help address the issue of “Not in my backyard,” the PreSchool will contain programs that give back to the community in terms of various gathering spaces. Community programs can be like: recording studio, library, Day care , Community Garden, Dance Studio, Basketball Courts, Café ….
Community-Centered Facilities
The Future Vision
193
INTEGRATION PARDON
PERSONAL SECURITY
E EDUCATION TIC US EJ TIV RA COMMUNITY SAFETY STO RE
COMMUNICATION ACCOUNTABLILITY
CE TI US
EJ TIV RA STO RE
MENTAL HEALING
Bringing Peaceful Healing to Offenders, Victims and the Community Restorative Justice
Restorative Justice
Restorative Justice involves peacefully bringing together three elementsâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;the offenders, their victims, and the community. These three elements are also principle parts of the justice system. This kind of justice can provide new thinking methods different from traditional practices and have more positive impacts. This system is derived from a small case but with much effort, it is slowly becoming popular worldwide. It not only solves problems between the individuals involved but also provides possibilities to handle social issues.
195
Definition and Principle
Co
y nc t ete en mp pm Co velo De
mm Sa un fty ity
Community
Accountability
Victim
Restorative justice is an approach to justice in which the response to a crime is to organize a mediation between the victim and the offender, and sometimes with representatives of a wider community as well. The goal is to negotiate for a resolution to the satisfaction of all participants. This may include a restitution to be given from the offender to the victim, or to take steps to prevent the offender from causing future harm.
Offender
TRADITIONAL CRIMINAL JUSTICE ASKS
RESTORATIVE JUSTICE ASKS
· What law or rule was broken?
· Who has been hurt?
· Who broke it?
· What are their needs?
· What consequences or punishment do they deserve?
· Whose obligations are these? · What are the causes? · Who has a stake in the situation? · What is the appropriate process to in volve stakeholders in an effort to address causes and put things right?
2. Zehr, Howard. Changing Lenses – A New Focus for Crime and Justice. Scottdale PA: 2005 (3rd ed), 271.
Development Theory
The victims’ rights movement
1974
First case of restorative justice
1980
A number of experimental restorative justice programs are initiated and become larger in several jurisdictions in North America and Europe.
1994
The American Bar Association endorses victimoffender mediation, making restorative justice become mainstream.
2008
The American Bar Association begins offering grants to develop restorative justice initiatives in criminal law settings.
1990
The expression “restorative justice” becomes popular.
1995
The expression “restorative justice” emerges into widespread usage.
2006
5.Van Ness, Daniel W., Karen Heetderks Strong. Restoring Justice – An Introduction to Restorative Justice. 4th ed. New Province, N.J.: Matthew Bender & Co., Inc., 2010: 24.
1970
6. Marilyn Armour, “Restorative Justice: Some Facts and History“, Charter For Compassion, https:// charterforcompassion.org/restorative-justice/restorativejustice-some-facts-and-history
Restorative Justice
Changing Lenses–A New Focus for Crime and Justice, one of the first to articulate a theory of restorative justice.
Practice
197
Life after re-entering
Problem Description Prison ought to be a method of resolution for social safety and security. However, one issue that is also important but usually ignored is treatment for people recently released from prison. They might have no skills for a job, or still donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t have the right attitude towards the community. Being percieved as a previously incarcerated person affects their perception by others. In these cases, they have no access to take hold of their living situation and often turn back to crime. The community also faces the problem that previous offenders who canâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t find a job might be dangerous elements to themselves and other residents. There are fewer spaces and programs focusing on them, and this is a complex social issue.
CASE 3 RESTORE OAKLAND
Client: Restore Oakland LLC Team: Shelley Davis Roberts, Kacper Bigosinski, Kyle Rawlins, Deanna Van Buren Status: Under Construction! Website: restoreoakland.org
8. Designing Justice+Designing Space, http://designing justice.org/restore-oakland-phase-i/
Restorative Justice
Located in east Oakland, Restore will be the first center for restorative justice and restorative economics in the country. Restaurant Opportunities Centers United will have their first Oakland restaurant on the ground floor where they will train and host low-income communities of color to get front-of-house jobs and start their own food enterprise. In addition, Restore will serve as a hub for the Ella Baker Center’s initiatives to end mass incarceration and provide a local space to “break bread” with a restorative justice approach to addressing crime. Here, victims will feel heard and supported, conflicts will be resolved, and communities will be strengthened.
199
SYCA M R AL O PRO E TREE JECT
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SYCAMORE TR EE PROJECT COMMUNITIES OF RESTORATION
PA PU G A
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NE W
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E T SY A R EE CA ND APR MO R O JE E CT
Offender Feeling Fair
78%
89%
Offender Healing
78% 87%
Victim Feeling Fair
62% 83%
Victim Healing
56% 79%
Restorative Justice M U U N TO NIT GA RA IES R TI O Y O F N R ES -
H
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M
ST AU A
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Traditional Justice Restorative Justice
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Eliminating the Need for Prisons
Abolition+Auxiliary Institutions
Abolition+Auxillary Institutions
What would a world without prisons look like? What if the needs which our current punitive prison system is not meeting were taken on by other institutions like schools, mental health facilities, and halfway houses? The isolation which many prisons face allows deplorable conditions to be hidden away, but there are initiatives and organizations attempting to bring these injustices to light. Hopefully, we are slowly but surely transitioning to a more humane system of justince.
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Introduction
Abolition+Auxillary Institutions
Angela Davis: "Mass incarceration is not a solution to unemployment, nor is it a solution to the vast array of social problems that are hidden away in a rapidly growing network of prisons and jails. However, the great majority of people have been tricked into believing in the efficacy of imprisonment, even though the historical record clearly demonstrates that prisons do not work." [1]
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Prison Industrial Complex The Prison Industrial Complex (PIC) is a term referring to the parallel interests of industry and the government which utilize control, surveillance, unbalanced power dynamics, and policing as the answers to problems of criminality. People who maintain their power through privalege lean on systems which have long been in place and which keep significant demographics at a disadvantage.
Human Rights in Prison
Although prisoners have modified constitutional rights, prisoners are supposed to have rights to speech and religion, to the extent these rights do not interfere with their status as residents of a prison. Other basic human rights are listed below, and many of them are denied by living conditions and by poor management systems of prisons and policing.
Residents have the right to: - not be punished cruelly or unusually - due processes - administrative appeals - access the parole process (denied to those incarcerated in the Federal System) - practice religion freely - equal protection (Fourteenth Amendment) - be notified of all charges against them - receive a written statement explaining evidence used in reaching a disposition - file a civil suit against another person - medical treatment (both long and short term) - treatment that is both adequate and appropriate - a hearing upon being relocated to the mental health facility. - personal property such as: cigarettes, stationary, a watch, cosmetics, and snack food - visitation - privacy - food that would sustain an average person adequately. - bathe (for sanitation and health reasons).
Abolition+Auxillary Institutions
[2]
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Alternatives Angela Davis: "To reiterate, rather than try to imagine one single alternative to the existing system of incarceration, we might envision an array of alternatives that will require radical transformations of many aspects of our society."
Mental Health Clinic
Community Center
Homeless Shelter
Library
Job Training Center
Job Training Center
Ionia Correctional Facility
Michigan Training Facility Richard A. Handlon Correctional Facility
Bellamy Creek Industries
Bellamy Correctional Facility
This program includes 180 of the more than 1,200 residents at the Richard A. Handlon Correctional Facility. They are trained in building trades and carpentry, automotive repair, welding, CNC machining, plumbing and electric trades, and they all receive what is referred to as "soft skills" training, including resume writing and personal finance, before they're released. The Vocational Village program mimics a typical work day, with residents attending classes or work training programs during the day. Upon completion of the program, residents can receive certificate credentials that are recognized in their fields of employment.
Mental Health Center Woodland Center Correctional Facility Warden Jodi DeAngelo-Kipp 9036 E. M-36 Whitmore Lake, MI 48189
Programming Phase II includes programs such as: Violence Prevention Program, Prisoner Observation Aid training, Live-In Aide training, Alcoholics Anonymous, Cage Your Rage, ACT Work Keys, Psychoeducational Group, Self-Esteem Group, Basic Social Skills, Relaxation Therapy, Anger Management, Managing Negative Emotions, ADL Training, Cognitive Skills Group, Developing Tolerance, Discharge Planning, EMU Theater, Feeding Group, Movie Discussion, Music Listening, Recreation Therapy, Stress Management, Therapeutic Games, and Therapeutic Reading.
Abolition+Auxillary Institutions
Phase I: Substance Abuse Education.
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Alternatives Library
Folsom State Prison, Prison Road, Represa, CA This prison has an impressive library overseen by the the California Department of Corrections. Boasting a law library and materials focused on educating residents, the Folsom State Prison Library also offers a vocational-intern program to prepare certain residents for the working world outside of jail. The law library has a Paralegal Studies Program which trains residents in research skills and helps them find forms and legal resources around the library.
Homeless Shelter
New Wapato Jail, Portland, OR Wapato is a 155,400-square foot, minimum-security detention center in North Portland dedicated in July 2004. Surprisingly, the facility has never been used as a jail and has largely remained vacant since its completion.
Abolition+Auxillary Institutions
Wapato jail is now owned by developer Jordan Schnitzer. Schnitzer gave a tour of the facility to media outlets Friday, May 11, 2018. He wants anyone with an idea to turn it into a homeless shelter to come forward. This is an exciting opportunity for designers to make an impact with their work.
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The Prison Palimpsest
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#ThemToo
FCI Milan Workshop
*sadly, a last-minute arbitrary rule change hampered our success. Two days before the workshop, we were informed that the warden decided to deny entry to non-U.S. citizens, barring eight out of twelve students in the studio from attending the workshop. This enraged us as a studio. We experienced the frustration which those who constantly fight this apathetic system feel.
A Unique Opportunity to Discuss Incarceration Architecture with Residents
Workshop: FCI Milan
In mid-March 2019, several students* and coordinators had the opportunity to host an architecture workshop at the Federal Corrections Institution at Milan, the only federal prison in Michigan. Residents took part in three exercises. One in which they determined stakeholders in the current prison system, from residents themselves to their family members to the wider community. The second involved determining spatial qualities of current carceral spaces, as well as ideal spatial qualities (which usually do not occur in facilities like prisons). The third looked specifically at programming spaces, both existing and ideal. Finally, all the residents were asked to sketch out aspects of their ideal living environments. Some of these sketches are included on the following pages.
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Spatial Conversations
Spatial Thinking Group | Milan FCI Visit Led by: Jeff Mansfield and Jenny Scarborough Spacing
• central air • sufficient eating space • semi-private study booths • meditation/prayer room (open through the week) • hand sanitizers placed throughout • public and private lavatories in living areas • sufficient shelf and storage space in living areas • healthy food in commissary • better options for vegetarians
1) Merit and or seniority based single inmate room housing. 2) Larger spaces for two men room with more privacy for times inmates must remain in rooms together
- A.C. - More space in shower area - More space in rooms - Better lighting - Better ventilation
Mattress Pillows Clothing Better Air Better Food - other than junk food...
Quiet areas to study Larger areas to study at Healthy food choices
(Room Size): They are not big enough for two people (Heat): Its cold in winter (AC unit): Hot in summer
Class room design (conducive to learning) Better H/C 1. Round tables 2. 7 classes (size) 3. Library (inviting)
Better AC/Heat More seating in kitchen More phones Better food grades Better mattress/pillows
Openness for all spaces to be open with enough CD’s A/C Fans= $ of running AC
• Natural/Artificial lighting indirect where possible • Reasonable space per person • Balanced air quality temp/humidity • Open space, common areas with sound dampening/wrapping • Storage (Public/Private) • Operable energy efficient windows • Heat lamps for commissary waiting line area • Large outdoor rec space - hilly/multiple elevations • Workout areas near track (multiple) • Quiet areas for studying/reading • Outdoor visitation areas • Less utilitarian look, more functional spaces
1.) Cell one person 2.) AC. / Heating 3.) Big food serving area / seating area 4.) Big commissary area inside for sitting 5.) Rec yard weights inside/ outside or have it where you can go out to work out or stay in
Spacing 1 I been to spots where they were forcing 3 bunks in a cell that is inhumane Bob did not care it’s all about the money so they cram everything up.
• Adequate Heating + Air Conditioning • Culinary Arts Spaces + Kitchen VT •Larger Living Quarters (bedding, table, bathroom area)
1. Curtains inside rooms for privacy 2. air condition AC when I was at Fort Dix low it was hot as Hell there in the summer time. 3. need more space due to over crowding.
Openness (goal) Healing Therapeutic
Single Rooms More lighting Storage spaces Good ventilation Bigger space
- Dimmi - Indirec (shadows - Open c
-Video “ - Exterio outdoor
- Outdo -Workou - Proper - Softbal - Stairs i - 4’ x 8’Multiple
- E-read rental wi common - Facetim - Update - Microw - Sound - Air con - Proper - Energy - Larger 48”-60” for stora each inm - Larger - More a - Separa - Larger
- 480V - Dining 60” vest condition then exit - Washer
- Open y mezzanin
The above list w
g AC
ir
+ Kitchen
(bedding,
- Exterior lighting for rec yard. proper lighting levels to allow year-round outdoor use, even in the evening - Outdoor sitting areas -Workout areas around the track (push-up, pull-up, dips) - Proper track with walking and running lanes, wider is better, proper drainage - Softball field(s), basketball court(s), tennis, sand volleyball court(s) - Stairs in workout area - 4’ x 8’-10” deep walk in showers with room for changing and shower. Multiple line-up of showers - E-reader tablets with possibility to get Netflix/Hulu/Prime Amazon. Video rental with charging/downloading/revalidation station in each room and in common areas - Facetime/Skype phone system with family and friends - Updated email/music (mp3)/bulletin system - Microwave/kitchen area/ice machine/hot water dispenser - Sound quality improvement to lower dB levels - Air conditioning throughout campus - Proper HVAC system balanced throughout - Energy efficient dual/triple pane windows (operable) with screens - Larger 2-man cells with adequate locker space (30”-36” wide, 18” deep, 48”-60” height) wardrobe bar for hanging clothes open shelf space for storage/clothing/books. Indirect lighting and multi-level lighting. Desk for each inmate with wall mounted luminaire. - Larger visitation rooms with outdoor space - More available vending options (healthier) - Separate inmate restrooms, multiple visitor restrooms. - Larger storage/supplies for cleaning - 480V electrical system
Lighting Storage Space Technology Food Air Education Outdoor Spaces Privacy Health Energy Saving Other
- Dining hall large enough (seating) to accommodate 85% of population. 40”60” vestibule running perpendicular to entry to minimize cold/hot outdoor conditions. Efficient layout for tray pick-up, drinks, seating, tray drop-off, then exit - Washers and dryers in units - Open year-round gym with pool tables, dart boards, yoga area with mezzanine area for TV viewing and card tables. The above list was compiled by an incarcerated individual prior to the meeting with us.
FCI Milan Workshop
to be
- Dimming wall switches in room (energy saving) - Indirect lighting where possible (gym, common areas) for less glare/gloomy (shadows) - Open ceiling plans (less hiding spots) -Video “rental” with viewing stations like in Unit A
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Educational Spaces
FCI Milan Workshop
Educational Spaces
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FCI Milan Workshop
Educational Spaces
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FCI Milan Workshop
Master Plans
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FCI Milan Workshop
Recreational Spaces
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FCI Milan Workshop
Residential Spaces
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FCI Milan Workshop
Residential Spaces
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FCI Milan Workshop
Residential Spaces
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FCI Milan Workshop
Writing
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FCI Milan Workshop
Residents and Participants of the FCI Milan Workshop James Faulds Harshinder Bhatia Lester Moore Don Mann Steve Brooks Jermaine Countryman Chris Nikonchuk Jerome Carson John Favor James Harper Darren Jones Barney everett Kwame Tate Darryl Sarsent Daniel Simpson Antoiwen Gibson Demetrius Taylor Antonio Casey Demond Walker Shatondi Rice
FCI Milan Workshop
Jorge L. Fontanez-Masso Daniel Thody Keith Flowers Amir Mcglown Jerry Jones Kenneth Hunter Hal Coates George Harvey JoHnny Oxendine Ismal Gomez Jr. Jeremy Schroeder David Gese Michael Muller Robert Dobberfin Rochard Fleming Gary Beals Ramsey Fakhouri Marcell Grey James Burkhead James McGinity Catariao Cruz
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Empty Cell, Never Used
ENTRY
REGULATION
ISOLATION
SOLITUDE
REHABILITATED Arch 562 / Xuanxiao Chen (Penny) Assignment1: Interpret Incarceration in America
Re-Imaging Incarceration
HIERACHY
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January 13 Prison Creative Arts Project training workshop; learning best practices for hosting workshops in prisons.
January 16 U of M Carceral State Project Lecture Series #1 Visions of the Carceral State Images Due
February 5 Case Studies and Research Topic Chapters Due
February 13 U of M Carceral State Project Lecture Series #2
February 14-16 Studio trip to NYC - visiting Queensboro Correctional Facility to research for our final project (redesiging this facility for the future of the carceral state).
March 13 U of M Carceral State Project Lecture Series #3 Studio Workshop at FCI Milan
April 8
Publication sent to print
April 10 U of M Carceral State Project Lecture Series #4
May 1 Final Review of Queensboro Redesigned Projects
Afterword Upon balloting this studio last December, none of us anticipated the journey that was to come and continues today. Having little experience with the carceral state prior to this architecture studio, we have been shocked by the overwhelming injustice within our “justice” system, and the little attention it is given. Learning firsthand the intricacies and arbitrary nature of prison systems, we found that for every piece of information denied to us, there exists another method of discovery. Lack of available architectural drawings impeded us from understanding the already poorly designed facilitates. However, listening to stories from formerly incarcerated persons who lived within those walls offered more insight than ink on paper ever would. Upon researching each theme of incarceration, we uncovered biases in sources: framed statistics, sources with malintent, or language meant to demean those effected by the system. In learning from each other and cross-referencing our information, we were able to develop a breadth and depth of knowledge we all benefited from and we hope others will too. Finding solutions to the problems we have identified depends upon Us: as students, as previously incarcerated people, as families, as lawmakers, as society. Re-designing one facility in New York City will not change our broken systems. Neither will the pages of twelve case studies and research topics. It takes more than that. It takes communities coming together to interrupt the conversation and shift perceptions. We hope that in reading through this publication
you might consider joining this worthwhile endeavor. Whether it is calling your senator, monitoring prison-related legislation, or finding opportunities to volunteer in a facility, there are numerous ways to make a difference. Begin with yourself; a small change is to change your language. Consider using “residents”, rather than “inmates”, or “criminals”, or “prisoners.” We are all people. As author Jim Lewis states in his New York Times article Behind Bars... Sort Of, “we punish people with architecture. The building is the method.” As true as the existence of punishing through architecture may be, we know as a studio and next generation of architects that it is possible to change. A building can be a method to promote change, growth, rehabilitation, and positive reflections of society. We aim for our final exploration of re-imagining incarceration within Queensboro to offers a glimmer of hope that change is possible. Thank you all who dedicated their time to meeting with us throughout the semester. Your insight and guidance were invaluable to the research and design of our projects. Specifically, the PCAP organization, Ashley Luccas, the residents at FCI Milan, Fortune Society, and Queensboro Correctional Facility.
Thank you for reading our publication. It has been an honor to be a part of this studio, work with MASS Design Group, and meet all the individuals who have been affected by the system.
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Image Descriptions 1. This is America
A collection of the US Federal Prison campus maps organized by the date it was built beginning in the top left corner with USP Atlanta in 1902 and ending with FCI Hazelton in 2015 in the bottom right. There are a total of 121 federal prisons, correctional facilities, and medical facilities represented in the image. -Jenny Scarborough
4. The Prison Industrial Complex
The image shows a section through the prisonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s industrial complex. In this complex, the bottom level is seen as a large water tank that signifies no means of escape. The image tries to capture the levels within the complex that help bring out the essence of what we give importance to in our lives. The individual cells, the factory and the â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;bio-labâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;, the law enforcement and the jails, the shopping mall are the four levels seen in the image the run vertically upwards in describing our concerns through this complex system. -Yubei Song
2. When the Light Comes In...
Darkness is common theme in prisons. Violence, isolation, gender and race issues exist in almost every prison. Hard edges isolate the incarcerated people from the outside world. Harsh realities in the prison system are visible only on the surface. The image tries to show the vicious cycle within the prison system. If the general understanding of prison remains a dark punitive space where others make a profit, it will always remain that way. -Yue Lu
3.
Prisons work like factories: incarcerated people do the same things everyday, just as the workers on assembly lines. All behaviors within the high walls are actually exposed to the authority,since they map out the daily life of the criminals. The walls are only used for preventing criminals from escaping. Eyes are everywhere. -Nishang Wang
5. Archive of Tradition
Prison is a facility where residents live and engage in many activities. Their behavior could be classified and managed by administrative groups. This image describes the main interior scene of a prison, showing great contradiction. Students gather together but cannot communicate with each other. Patients are cured but restricted in a small space. Things seem to have two sides. - Beiyi Ma
6. Endless Institution
Schools, factories, prisons, hospitals contemporarily and historically, they all tend to share common forms and layouts. To some extent, they are physical manifestations of efficient ways of organizing public places. However, it is far too easy for them to become barren, emotionless, desolate, and uncomfortable. They all have the potential to look and feel the worst version of the same. In examining institutions, we as designers have the potential to improve these barren spaces and help them serve the public in the specific ways they were meant to. -Maggie Cochrane
7. The Prison Palimpsest
The image tries to bring out the journey of the person incarcerated, confined within these walls for a long, long time. He spends all his time trying to reflect himself onto the walls with posters, family pictures, words engraved on the wall surfaces as he patiently waits to go back to his family someday.
9. Empty Cell, Never Used
Imagine an empty prison facility one day. What do you think about a never-used prison? The system has been abolished? The residents are on vacation? Or? -Xinlu Sun
-Rinika Prince
8. #ThemToo This axon looking into a sample prison calls attention to the individual stories of some of the female residents in the facility. Through our many interactions with previously incarcerated men and women as well as research into the current incarceration conditions, we came across a multitude of horrifying and saddening stories about the inhumane conditions within the prisons. The residents arenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t the only ones affected by the system. It equally affects the staff, guards, friends and family of the person incarcerated. These stories written in the form of human figures highlight some of the specific stories we encountered. This representation is designed to help bring light to the many injustices happening in the carceral system and to try and humanize the many people affected by the current situation through a small phrase or quote from their individual experiences.
10. Re-Imaging Incarceration
The idea of my work is to reframe mass incarceration in an honest way. Every resident is confined to modular boxes. Similar to mass production, the incarceration system acts like a huge factory to control residentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; behaviors and spirits. The incarceration system focuses on discipline rather than re-inhabitation, which is inhumane. I drew this image trying to point out the negative impact prison system imposes on residents. -Xuanxiao Chen
Image Descriptions
-Elizabeth Sinyard
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Sources Chapter Authors: Beiyi Ma and Yubei Song
1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Restorative_justice 2. Zehr, Howard. Changing Lenses – A New Focus for Crime and Justice. Scottdale PA: 2005 (3rd ed), 271. 3. “Recognizing Mark Yantzi”, Correctional Service Canada, https://www.lte-ene.ca/en/features/recognizing-mark-yantzi,(as sessed November 21, 2016) 4. The opening two paragraphs are adapted from “Perspectives on Restorative Justice”, produced by theConflict Resolution Network Canada, based at the Institute of Peace and Conflict Studies at Conrad Grebel University College, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, N2L 3G6 5.Van Ness, Daniel W., Karen Heetderks Strong. Restoring Justice – An Introduction to Restorative Justice. 4th ed. New Province, N.J.: Matthew Bender & Co., Inc., 2010: 24. 6. Marilyn Armour, “Restorative Justice: Some Facts and History“, Charter For Compassion, https://charterforcompassion.org/ restorative-justice/restorative-justice-some-facts-and-history 7. Designing Justice+Designing Space, http://designing justice.org/womens-resource-bus-2/ 8. Designing Justice+Designing Space, http://designing justice.org/restore-oakland-phase-i/
Chapter Authors: Jenny Scarborough and Kemper Fagan
Sex Offenders 1. https://www.prisonerresource.com/prison-survival-guide/special-tactics/how-sex-offenders-survive/ 2. http://automatingosint.com/blog/2015/06/mapping-sex-offenders/ 3. http://www.icrimewatch.net/results. 4. http://www.aclumich.org/article/basic-facts-about-michigans-sex-offender-registry Gang Members 5. https://archive.attn.com/stories/2602/effects-of-prison-gangs 6. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/1478601042000314883?src=recsys 7. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/003288559107100206 8. https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2014/10/how-gangs-took-over-prisons/379330/ 9. https://www.prisonactivist.org/projects/prisoner-describes-his-torture Intellectually Disabled 10. http://aaidd.org/intellectual-disability/definition Physically Disabled 11. https://www.prisonpolicy.org/blog/2017/08/23/disability/ 12. https://cdn.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/15103130/CriminalJusticeDisability-report.pdf Chemically Dependent 13. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2681083/
Chapter Authors: Xuanxiao Chen and Rinika Prince
1. Morenoff, Jeffrey D, and David J Harding. “Incarceration, Prisoner Reentry, and Communities.” Annu Rev Sociol 40 (June 16, 2014): 411-29. doi:10.1146/annurev-soc-071811-145511. 2. “Probation and Parole Systems Marked by High Stakes, Missed Opportunities.” The Pew Charitable Trusts. Accessed September 5, 2018. https://www.pewtrusts.org/research-and-analysis/issue-briefs/2018/09/probation-and-parole-systems-marked-byhigh-stakes-missed-opportunities. 3. Wagner, Peter, and Wendy Sawyer. “Mass Incarceration: The Whole Pie 2018.” Mass Incarceration: The Whole Pie 2018 | Prison Policy Initiative. Accessed April 01, 2019. https://www.prisonpolicy.org/reports/pie2018.html. 4. “Alaska Department of Corrections.” Reentry | Alaska Department of Corrections. http://www.correct.state.ak.us/rehabilitationreentry. 5. “Pre-trial Detention: The Issue.” Penal Reform International. https://www.penalreform.org/priorities/pre-trial-justice/issue/. 6. “The Proceedings of the Old Bailey.” Crime and Justice - Trial Procedures - Central Criminal Court. https://www.oldbaileyonline. org/static/Trial-procedures.jsp.
Chapter Authors: Nishang Wang and Xinlu Sun
1. Harry Elmer Barnes, Historial Origin of the Prison System in America, 12 J. Am. Inst. Crim. L. & Criminology 35 (May 1921 to February 1922) 2. Harry Elmer Barnes, Historial Origin of the Prison System in America, 12 J. Am. Inst. Crim. L. & Criminology 35 (May 1921 to February 1922) 3. Christianson, Scott (1998), With Liberty for Some: 500 Years of Imprisonment in America, Boston, pp 61. 4. Rothman, David J. (2011), The Discovery of the Asylum: Social Order and Disorder in the New Republic, New Brunswick. pp 61. 5. Rothman, David J. (2011), The Discovery of the Asylum: Social Order and Disorder in the New Republic, New Brunswick. pp 62-78. 6. Hirsch, Adam J. (1992), The Rise of the Penitentiary: Prisons and Punishment in Early America, New Haven. pp 59. 7. Skidmore, Rex J., Penological Pioneering in the Walnut Street Jail, 1789-1799, Journal of Criminal Law & Criminology, Vol. 35, no. 2, p. 167, 1948-1949. 8. Ram Subramanian et al. Incarceration’s Front Door: The Misuse of Jail in America. New York, NY: Vera Institute of Justice, 2015. 10.Ram Subramanian et al. Incarceration’s Front Door: The Misuse of Jail in America. New York, NY: Vera Institute of Justice, 2015. 11. Ram Subramanian et al. Incarceration’s Front Door: The Misuse of Jail in America. New York, NY: Vera Institute of Justice, 2015. 12. Ram Subramanian et al. Incarceration’s Front Door: The Misuse of Jail in America. New York, NY: Vera Institute of Justice, 2015. 13. Vera Institute of Justice, Los Angeles County Jail Overcrowding Reduction Project: Final Report(New York, NY: Vera Institute of Justice, 2011). 14. Will Dobbie, Jacob Goldin, Crystal S. Yang, The Effects of Pretrial Detention on Conviction, Future Crime, and Employment: Evidence from Randomly Assigned Judges, American Economic Review 2018, 108(2), pp 203. 15. Will Dobbie, Jacob Goldin, Crystal S. Yang, The Effects of Pretrial Detention on Conviction, Future Crime, and Employment: Evidence from Randomly Assigned Judges, American Economic Review 2018, 108(2), pp 204. 16. Will Dobbie, Jacob Goldin, Crystal S. Yang, The Effects of Pretrial Detention on Conviction, Future Crime, and Employment: Evidence from Randomly Assigned Judges, American Economic Review 2018, 108(2), pp 208. 17. Mayor’s Task Force on Behavioral Health and the Criminal Justice System, Action Plan (City of New York: Mayor Bill de Blasio, 2014), 6, http://nyc.gov/BHTF. 18. Ram Subramanian et al. Incarceration’s Front Door: The Misuse of Jail in America. New York, NY: Vera Institute of Justice, 2015. 19. https://www.888bailbond.com/lacounty/twin-towers-mcj-jail 20. https://nationalmortgageprofessional.com/news/60985/next-housing-market-rikers-island 21. https://www.harriscountyso.org/Departments/HCSO_BureauJusticeHousing701.aspx 22. Vera Institute of Justice, Los Angeles County Jail Overcrowding Reduction Project: Final Report(New York, NY: Vera Institute of Justice, 2011).
Chapter Authors: Xinlu Sun
[1]. Davis, Angela Y. Are Prisons Obsolete?: an Open Media Book. Seven Stories Press, 2010. [2]. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prisoner_rights_in_the_United_States [3]. https://lsa.umich.edu/pcap/programs.html [4]. https://www.crainsdetroit.com/article/20160715/BLOG020/160719855/job-training-program-at-state-prison-aims-tohelp-inmates-find-work [5]. https://www.oregonlivae.com/politics/index.ssf/2018/06/a_new_idea_for_wapato_jail_fro.html
Sources Chapter Authors: Yubei Song and Beiyi Ma
1. Collateral Cost: Incarceration’s Effect on Econoic Mobility. The PEW Charitable Trusts, 2010. 2. Indicators of Mental Health Problems Reported by Prisoners and Jail Inmates, 2011-12. U.S. Department of Justice, June 2017. Special Report, NCJ250612. 3. Incarcerated Parents and Their Children Trends 1991-2007, February 2009, The Sentencing Project. 4. Bureau of Justice Statistics Special Repaor: Incarcerated Parents and their Children, U.S. Department of Justice, August 2000, NCJ 182335. 5. Jail Design Guide Third Edition, National Institute of Corrections, U.S. Department of Justices, March 2011, NIC 024806. 6. Prisoners in 2014, E. Ann Carson, Ph.D., BJS Statistician, U.S. Department of Justice, September 2015, NCJ 248955. 7. Parents in Prison and Their Minor Children, Lauren E. Glaze and Laura M. Maruschak, BJS Statisticians, U.S. Department of Justice, August 2008, NCJ 222984. 8. Survey of State Prison Inmates, 1991, Bureau of Justic Statistics, U.S. Department of Justice, March 1993, NCJ-136949.
Chapter Authors: Maggie Cochrane & Elizabeth Sinyard Clark, Anna. Redesigning a Prison Town. https://nextcity.org/daily/entry/closing-prison-towns-economy-jobs-red-sign Corrections Corporation of America. “Adding Value for Tax Payers.” CorrectionsCorp.com. 2013. Accessed 4 February 2019. http:// www.correctionscorp.com/adding-value-for-taxpayers Criminal Justice Programs. “Pros and Cons of Private Prisons.” CriminalJusticePrograms.com. 2010. Accessed 2 February 2019. Hooks, Gregory et. al. “Revisiting the Impact of Prison Building on Job Growth: Education, Incarceration, and County-Level Employment, 1976 - 2004.” Social Science Quarterly vol. 91, no. 1, March 2010. Eason, John. “Mapping Prison Proliferation: Region, Rurality, Race and Disadvantage in Prison Placement.” Social Science Research vol 39. 14 October 2008. Eason, John. “Why Prison Building will Continue Booming in Rural America.” TheConversation.com. 12 March 2017. Accessed 2 Feburary 2019. https://theconversation.com/why-prison-building-will-continue-booming-in-rural-america-71920 Kilborn, Peter T. “Rural Towns Turn to Prisons to Reignite their Economies.” The New York Times.com. 1 August 2001. Accessed 3 February 2019. https://www.nytimes.com/2001/08/01/us/rural-towns-turn-to-prisons-to-reignite-their-economies.html King, Ryan S., Mark Mauer, & Tracy Huling. “Big Prisons, Small Towns: Prison Economics in Rural America.” The Sentencing Project. February 2003. Osborne Association Website. http://www.osborneny.org/ Growing Change Website. http://www.growingchange.org/reclaim-attain-sustain/ Mid-Orange Advisory Committee. Final Report, March 7, 2012. http://www.townofwarwick.org/news/notices/MOAC_FinalReport_ Print_rd.pdf Misra, Tanvi. “The Economics of Prison Boomtowns.” Citylab.com. 2 May 2017. Accessed 28 March 2019. https://www.citylab. com/equity/2017/05/the-economics-of-prison-boomtowns/524364/ Prison Public Memory Project Website. https://www.prisonpublicmemory.org/ Roche, Jennifer. “The Policies Behind the Prison Boom: Economists’ Careful Data Analysis Reveals Impact of Punitive Sentencing.” Becker Friedman Institute for Economics at the University of Chicago. 31 December 2015. Accessed 2 February 2019. https://bfi. uchicago.edu/news/feature-story/policies-behind-prison-boom Whitfield, Dexter. “Economic Impact of Prisons in Rural Areas: A Literature Review.” European Services Strategy Unit. September 2008. Images: 1. Clark, Anna. Redesigning a Prison Town. https://nextcity.org/daily/entry/closing-prison-towns-economy-jobs-red sign 2. Osborne Association Website. http://www.osborneny.org/ 3. Growing Change Website. http://www.growingchange.org/reclaim-attain-sustain/ 4. Mid-Orange Advisory Committee. Final Report, March 7, 2012. http://www.townofwarwick.org/news/notices/ MOAC_FinalReport_Print_rd.pdf 5. Prison Public Memory Project Website. https://www.prisonpublicmemory.org/
Chapter Authors: Yaqi Dai and Yue Lu
Text 1. Moraff, Christopher. “Can Community-Centered Reentry Be the Key to Reducing Recidivism?” NEXT CITY. July 24, 2015. https://nextcity.org/daily/entry/can-community-centered-reentry-be-the-key-to-reducing-recidivism. 2. Bottos, Shauna. 2007. Profile of Offenders in Administrative Segregation: A Review of the Literature. Research Report No. B-39. Ottawa: Research Branch, Correctional Service of Canada. 3. Arrigo, Bruce A.; Bullock, Jennifer Leslie (19 November 2007). “The Psychological Effects of Solitary Confinement on Prisoners in Supermax Units”. International Journal of Offender Therapy & Comparative Criminology. 52 (6): 622–640. 4. Sterbenz, Christina. “What It’s like inside the ‘Alcatraz of the Rockies,’ America’s Toughest Prison.” BUSUNESS UNSUDER. March 31, 2015. Accessed February 31, 2019. https://www.businessinsider.com/photos-of-adx-americas-toughest-prison-2015-3. 5. “Abuse Of The Human Rights Of Prisoners In The United States: Solitary Confinement.” American Civil Liberties Union. Accessed February 31, 2019. https://www.aclu.org/other/abuse-human-rights-prisoners-united-states-solitary-confinement.\\ 6. Travis, Jeremy. But They All Come Back: Rethinking Prisoner Reentry. Washington, DC: U.S. Dept. of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, National Institute of Justice, 2000. 7. Montaldo, Charles. “ADX Supermax-Maximum Security Federal Prison.” ThoughtCo. January 18, 2019. Accessed February 31, 2019. https://www.thoughtco.com/adx-supermax-overview-972970. 8. Byron Christopher. “Life in the Supermax.” Byron Christopher. February 22, 2019. Accessed February 31, 2019. https:// byronchristopher.org/2017/08/30/inside-the-supermax/. 9. Sanchez, Ray, and Alexandra Field. “What’s Life like in Supermax Prison?” CNN. June 26, 2015. Accessed February 31, 2019. https://www.cnn.com/2015/06/25/us/dzhokhar-tsarnaev-supermax-prison/index.html. 10. “Justizzentrum Leoben Hohensinn Architektur.” World-architects. Accessed February 31, 2019. https://www.world-architects. com/en/hohensinn-architektur-graz/project/justizzentrum-leoben. 11. Ugc. “Justizzentrum Leoben.” Atlas Obscura. October 18, 2011. Accessed February 31, 2019. https://www.atlasobscura.com/ places/justizzentrum-leoben. 12. Sterbenz, Christina. “Take A Tour Of Norway’s Unbelievably Luxurious Prison.” Business Insider. February 29, 2014. Accessed March 31, 2019. https://www.businessinsider.com/tour-of-halden-prison-2014-10#this-building-is-unit-c-where-84residents-live-the-windows-dont-have-bars-because-the-prison-wants-residents-to-have-a-good-view-of-nature-5. Images: 1. Paul Ott, https://www.world-architects.com/en/hohensinn-architektur-graz/project/justizzentrum-leoben 2. Urban Institute, https://nextcity.org/daily/entry/can-community-centered-reentry-be-the-key-to-reducing-recidivism 3. Paul Ott, https://www.world-architects.com/en/hohensinn-architektur-graz/project/justizzentrum-leoben 4. Amnesty International, https://www.businessinsider.com/photos-of-adx-americas-toughest-prison-2015-3#another-angleof-the-cell-2 5. Trond Isaksen / Statsbygg, https://www.businessinsider.com/tour-of-halden-prison-2014-10#the-halls-look-more-like-acollege-dormitory-than-a-prison-6 Text 1. Moraff, Christopher. “Can Community-Centered Reentry Be the Key to Reducing Recidivism?” NEXT CITY. July 24, 2015. https://nextcity.org/daily/entry/can-community-centered-reentry-be-the-key-to-reducing-recidivism. 2. Bottos, Shauna. 2007. Profile of Offenders in Administrative Segregation: A Review of the Literature. Research Report No. B-39. Ottawa: Research Branch, Correctional Service of Canada. 3. Arrigo, Bruce A.; Bullock, Jennifer Leslie (19 November 2007). “The Psychological Effects of Solitary Confinement on Prisoners in Supermax Units”. International Journal of Offender Therapy & Comparative Criminology. 52 (6): 622–640. 4. Sterbenz, Christina. “What It’s like inside the ‘Alcatraz of the Rockies,’ America’s Toughest Prison.” BUSUNESS UNSUDER. March 31, 2015. Accessed February 31, 2019. https://www.businessinsider.com/photos-of-adx-americas-toughest-prison-2015-3. 5. “Abuse Of The Human Rights Of Prisoners In The United States: Solitary Confinement.” American Civil Liberties Union. Accessed February 31, 2019. https://www.aclu.org/other/abuse-human-rights-prisoners-united-states-solitary-confinement.\\ 6. Travis, Jeremy. But They All Come Back: Rethinking Prisoner Reentry. Washington, DC: U.S. Dept. of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, National Institute of Justice, 2000. 7. Montaldo, Charles. “ADX Supermax-Maximum Security Federal Prison.” ThoughtCo. January 18, 2019. Accessed February 31,
Sources 2019. https://www.thoughtco.com/adx-supermax-overview-972970. 8. Byron Christopher. “Life in the Supermax.” Byron Christopher. February 22, 2019. Accessed February 31, 2019. https:// byronchristopher.org/2017/08/30/inside-the-supermax/. 9. Sanchez, Ray, and Alexandra Field. “What’s Life like in Supermax Prison?” CNN. June 26, 2015. Accessed February 31, 2019. https://www.cnn.com/2015/06/25/us/dzhokhar-tsarnaev-supermax-prison/index.html. 10. “Justizzentrum Leoben Hohensinn Architektur.” World-architects. Accessed February 31, 2019. https://www.world-architects. com/en/hohensinn-architektur-graz/project/justizzentrum-leoben. 11. Ugc. “Justizzentrum Leoben.” Atlas Obscura. October 18, 2011. Accessed February 31, 2019. https://www.atlasobscura.com/ places/justizzentrum-leoben. 12. Sterbenz, Christina. “Take A Tour Of Norway’s Unbelievably Luxurious Prison.” Business Insider. February 29, 2014. Accessed March 31, 2019. https://www.businessinsider.com/tour-of-halden-prison-2014-10#this-building-is-unit-c-where-84residents-live-the-windows-dont-have-bars-because-the-prison-wants-residents-to-have-a-good-view-of-nature-5. Images: 1. Paul Ott, https://www.world-architects.com/en/hohensinn-architektur-graz/project/justizzentrum-leoben 2. Urban Institute, https://nextcity.org/daily/entry/can-community-centered-reentry-be-the-key-to-reducing-recidivism 3. Paul Ott, https://www.world-architects.com/en/hohensinn-architektur-graz/project/justizzentrum-leoben 4. Amnesty International, https://www.businessinsider.com/photos-of-adx-americas-toughest-prison-2015-3#another-angleof-the-cell-2 5. Trond Isaksen / Statsbygg, https://www.businessinsider.com/tour-of-halden-prison-2014-10#the-halls-look-more-like-acollege-dormitory-than-a-prison-6
Chapter Authors: Elizabeth Sinyard and Maggie Cochrane
Image Sources: a. Stamford Public School System 2018, https://www.stamfordpublicschools.org/hart-elementary-school/bulletins/hart-magnetelementary-school b. AP Photo, Jose F. Moreno, https://www.thenation.com/article/14-disturbing-stats-about-racial-inequality-american-publicschools/ c. Educational Pursuit, http://educationalpursuit.net/college-admissions/college-essays-resume-prep/ d. The Fix, Britni de la Cretaz, https://www.thefix.com/mental-health-needs-black-children-often-fly-under-radar e. Good School Hunting, https://goodschoolhunting.org/2017/11/find-middle-ground-school-discipline-debate-ask-students. html f. Kevin Fujii, Chronicle, https://www.chron.com/news/houston-texas/article/Defense-assails-pipe-attack-witnesses-1907349. php g. Justine Miller, https://www.charlotteobserver.com/news/local/article134505674.html h. Fairfield Center, https://www.fairfieldcenter.org/restorative-justice/ i. Babak Farrokhi, Flickr, https://www.flickr.com/photos/farrokhi/8581541767 j. Teentix, https://www.teentix.org/calendar/event/panel-discussion-standardized-testing-in-our-public-schools k. KCAW, https://www.kcaw.org/2016/07/05/morning-interview-draft-6/high-school-fine-arts-camp_dsc43151000x500_c/ m. McGraw Hill, https://medium.com/inspired-ideas-prek-12/resources-for-essa-357095fba80 n. Catholic University of America, https://lis.catholic.edu/academics/courses-of-study/school-library-media/index.html o. Harvest Christian Academy, https://hcaguam.org/athletics/middle-school/ms-bball-4th/ p. University of Denver, Molly Jordan, https://morgridge.du.edu/mean-school-counselor/ q. 214 Jacobs Management Center Classroom, http://mgt.buffalo.edu/internal/it-services/schedule-resources.html r. Community of Peace Academy, https://www.cpapk12.org/high-school/high-school-clubs-and-activities/ s. John Rosales, neaToday, http://neatoday.org/2015/02/01/school-counselors-are-more-indispensable-than-ever/ t. Steven Bollman, Oakland School of the Arts, https://edsource.org/2014/effort-to-revive-arts-programs-in-schools-gainsmomentum/63507 u. Queen Anne’s Caversham, http://www.qas.org.uk/latest-news/sports-day-2017/ v. Munyaradzi Mlambo, https://www.munyamlambo.com/single-post/2018/01/19/Let%E2%80%99s-prioritise-technical-
vocational-training-technology-upgrade w. All Education Schools.com, https://www.alleducationschools.com/teaching-careers/school-librarian/ x. Gulf Coast State College, Gulfcoast.edu y. Paul John Higgins, Chicago Reader, https://www.chicagoreader.com/chicago/police-public-schools-cpd-cps-misconducttraining/Content?oid=25347810 z. Health Care Toolbox, https://www.healthcaretoolbox.org/for-child-welfare-professionals/transition-to-adulthood-healthcare-issues.html aa. MiiFotos, https://www.miifotos.com/im%C3%A1genes/warehouse-outside-f7.html bb. Black Organizing Project, http://blackorganizingproject.org/oakland-parents-want-present-students-questioned-police/ cc. Prison Education, https://prisoneducation.com/prison-education-news/real-reform-only-possible-through-prisoneducation/ dd. Robert Galbraith, Reuters, https://www.theatlantic.com/education/archive/2015/07/incarceration-educationemancipation/398162/ ff. Restorative Resources, https://www.restorativeresources.org/restorative-practices-in-schools.html Other Sources: Cole, Nicki Lisa, Ph.D. “Understanding the School-to-Prison Pipeline.” ThoughtCo, Jan. 25, 2019, thoughtco.com/school-toprison-pipeline-4136170. U.S. Department of Education Office for Civil Rights, Civil Rights Data Collection, Data Snapshot: School Discipline. https://www2. ed.gov/about/offices/list/ocr/docs/crdc-discipline-snapshot.pdf Crawley and Hirschfield, Examining the School-to-Prison Pipeline Metaphor. http://oxfordre.com/criminolo gy/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190264079.001.0001/acrefore-9780190264079-e-346 Wald and Losen, Defining and Re-directing a School to Prison Pipeline. Advancement Project, Education on Lockdown: The Schoolhouse to Jailhouse Track. https://b.3cdn.net/advance ment/5351180e24cb166d02_mlbrqgxlh.pdf American Civil LIberties Union, School-to-Prison Pipeline. https://www.aclu.org/issues/juvenile-justice/school-prison-pipeline Nelson and Lind, The school to prison pipeline, explained. http://www.justicepolicy.org/news/8775 Student stories: Miami-Dade County Public Schools: The Hidden Truth, October 2017 https://atlantablackstar.com/2014/11/17/5-horrible-examples-school-prison-pipeline/ Anthamatten, Eric. “Incarceration, Education, Emancipation.” The Atlantic. 13 July 2015. https://www.theatlantic.com/education/ archive/2015/07/incarceration-education-emancipation/398162/ Berkeley Underground Scholars. https://undergroundscholars.berkeley.edu/ Davis, Matt. “Restorative Justice: Resources for Schools.” Edutopia.com, 4 October 2013. https://www.edutopia.org/blog/re storative-justice-resources-matt-davis O’Donnell, Patrick. “The Ins and Outs of ‘Restorative Justice’ in Schools.” Education Writers Association.com, 12 April 2018. https://www.ewa.org/blog-educated-reporter/ins-and-outs-restorative-justice-schools “The Prison To School Pipeline, Explained.” Vox. 11 January 2016. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HoKkasEyDOI Zoukis, Christopher. “Real reform only possible through prison education.” PrisonEducation.com, 21 January 2016.https://pris oneducation.com/prison-education-news/real-reform-only-possible-through-prison-education/
Chapter Authors: Jenny Scarborough and Kemper Fagen
1 Anderson, Emma, et al. “State-By-State Court Fees.” NPR, NPR, 19 May 2014, www.npr.org/2014/05/19/312455680/stateby-state-court-fees. 2 Anderson, Emma. “The Evolution Of Electronic Monitoring Devices.” NPR, NPR, 24 May 2014, www.npr. org/2014/05/22/314874232/the-history-of-electronic-monitoring-devices. 3 Bales, William, et al. “A Quantitative and Qualitative Assessment of Electronic Monitoring.” National Criminal Justice Reference Service, NCJRS, May 2010, www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/grants/230530.pdf. 4 Burnett, John. “As Asylum Seekers Swap Prison Beds For Ankle Bracelets, Same Firm Profits.” NPR, NPR, 13 Nov. 2015, www. npr.org/2015/11/13/455790454/as-asylum-seekers-swap-prison-beds-for-ankle-bracelets-same-firm-profits. 5 Castle, Kevin. “More Law Enforcement Agencies Turning to Electronic Monitoring.” HeraldCourier.com, 6 Apr. 2014, www.
heraldcourier.com/news/local/more-law-enforcement-agencies-turning-to-electronic-monitoring/article_ad7b3182-bd3511e3-a455-0017a43b2370.html. 6 Challenging E-Carceration. “Electronic Monitoring-FAQs.” Challenging E-Carceration, 10 July 2017, www.challengingecarceration. org/electronic-monitoring-faqs/. 7 Christopher, and Eli Hager. “What It’s Like to Wear an Ankle Monitor Throughout Your Teenage Years.” The Marshall Project, The Marshall Project, 30 Nov. 2017, www.themarshallproject.org/2017/11/30/adolescence-with-an-ankle-bracelet. 8 Fahy, Stephanie, et al. “Use of Electronic Offender-Tracking Devices Expands Sharply.” The Pew Charitable Trusts, 30 Sept. 2016, www.pewtrusts.org/en/research-and-analysis/issue-briefs/2016/09/use-of-electronic-offender-tracking-devices-expandssharply. 9 Hennessy-Fiske, Molly. “Immigrants Object to Growing Use of Ankle Monitors after Detention.” Los Angeles Times, Los Angeles Times, 2 Aug. 2015, www.latimes.com/nation/immigration/la-na-immigrant-ankle-monitors-20150802-story.html. 10 Kilgore, James q. “L A Youth and the Monitor.” Challenging E-Carceration, 18 June 2017, www.challengingecarceration. org/2014/12/09/276/. 11 Kilgore, James, and Emmet Sanders. “Ankle Monitors Sound Like a Great Alternative to Prison. They’re Not. Here’s What You Don’t Know.” Wired, Conde Nast, 4 Aug. 2018, www.wired.com/story/opinion-ankle-monitors-are-another-kind-of-jail/. 12 Kilgore, James. “‘You’re Still in Jail’: How Electronic Monitoring Is a Shackle on the Movement for Decarceration.” Truthout, Truthout, 22 Oct. 2017, truthout.org/articles/you-re-still-in-jail-how-electronic-monitoring-is-a-shackle-on-the-movement-fordecarceration/. 13 Kilgore, James. “An Ankle Shackle Is No Cure for Mental Illness – #NoDigitalPrisons – Medium.” Medium.com, Medium, 23 May 2018, medium.com/nodigitalprisons/an-ankle-shackle-is-no-cure-for-mental-illness-887f6fed97f4. 14 Kilgore, James. “E-Carceration: The Problematic World of Being On an Electronic Monitor.” Alternet, Alternet.org, 1 Nov. 2016, www.alternet.org/2016/10/electronic-monitoring-restrictive-and-wrong/. 15 Kilgore, James. “No More Shackles.” Center for Media Justice , Center for Media Justice , Nov. 2018, centerformediajustice. org/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/NoMoreShackles_ParoleReport_UPDATED.pdf. 16 Long, Colleen, et al. “Ankle Monitors for Immigrants Almost Universally Disliked.” The Denver Post, The Denver Post, 25 Aug. 2018, www.denverpost.com/2018/08/25/ice-issuing-immigrant-ankle-monitors/. 17 Loudenback, Jeremy. “Report Raises Alarm About GPS Monitors for Probation Youth.” The Chronicle of Social Change, 14 July 2017, chronicleofsocialchange.org/news-2/report-raises-alarm-gps-monitors-probation-youth/27548. 18 Markowitz, Eric. “Chain Gang 2.0: If You Can’t Afford This GPS Ankle Bracelet, You Get Thrown In Jail.” International Business Times, 22 Sept. 2015, www.ibtimes.com/chain-gang-20-if-you-cant-afford-gps-ankle-bracelet-you-get-thrown-jail-2065283. 19 Morse, Julie. “Electronic Monitoring Might Be Worse Than Jail Time.” Pacific Standard, Pacific Standard, 15 Dec. 2015, psmag. com/news/wearing-an-electronic-monitoring-device-might-be-worse-than-jail-time. 20 PEW. “Examining Electronic Monitoring Technologies.” The Pew Charitable Trusts, PEW, 19 Nov. 2015, www.pewtrusts.org/en/ research-and-analysis/articles/2015/11/examining-electronic-monitoring-technologies. 21 Pre-Trial Justice Institute. “Electronic Monitoring: Proceed with Caution.” Pretrial Justice Institute, 22 May 2018, www.pretrial. org/electronic-monitoring-proceed-caution/. 22 Sklaver, Stacey L. 2010 “The Pros and Cons of Electronic Monitoring.” Studylib.net, ABA House of Delegate, studylib.net/ doc/7301782/the-pros-and-cons-of-electronic-monitoring. 23 Torres, Augie. “Looking for a Job While Shackled – #NoDigitalPrisons – Medium.” Medium.com, Medium, 11 Oct. 2018, medium. com/nodigitalprisons/looking-for-a-job-while-shackled-ad2e8503af48. 24 Turkewitz, Julie. “Immigrant Mothers Released From Holding Centers, but With Ankle Monitors.” The New York Times, The New York Times, 20 Dec. 2017, www.nytimes.com/2014/07/30/nyregion/immigrant-mothers-released-from-holding-centers-butwith-ankle-monitors.html?emc=eta1&_r=0.
Chapter Authors: Rinika Prince and Xuanmiao Chen
1. International Detention Coalition https://idcoalition.org/about/what-is-detention/#1496021129419-5d4087e8-02fb 2. Immigrant detention in the US: 4 essential reads https://theconversation.com/immigrant-detention-in-the-us-4-essential-reads-103190 3. Immigration Detention 101: Information for Detainees’ Family and Friends https://www.nolo.com/legal-encyclopedia/immigration-detention-101-information-detainees-family-friends.html 4. The ‘Family-Friendly’ Myths of Family Detention Facilities https://www.aclu.org/blog/speakeasy/family-friendly-myths-familydetention-facilities 5. The Atlantic: Photos: A Tent City for Detained Children in Texas https://www.theatlantic.com/photo/2018/06/photos-a-tentcity-for-detained-children-in-texas/563147/ 6. What to know about the Detention centers for immigrant children along the US-Mexico border https://www.thecut.com/2018/06/immigrant-children-detention-center-separated-parents.html 7. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immigration_detention 8. Juvenile in Justice http://richardross.net/juvenile-in-justice 9. American Gulag: Inside U.S. Immigration Prisons https://books.google.com/books?id=ut9tiOqtKaoC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ navlinks_s#v=onepage&q=Clinton&f=false 10. Facts about Family detention http://grassrootsleadership.org/facts-about-family-detention 11. Detention Watch Network: Family Detention http://grassrootsleadership.org/sites/default/files/uploads/Family%20Detention%20Backgrounder.pdf 12. Profiting from Enforcement: The Role of Private Prisons in U.S. Immigration Detention https://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/profiting-enforcement-role-private-prisons-us-immigration-detention 13. Detention, deportation, devolution and immigrant incapacitation in the US, post 9/11 https://www.jstor.org/stable/41238043?seq=2#metadata_info_tab_contents 14. Center for Law and Social Science: A National Study of Immigration Detention in the United States https://poseidon01.ssrn.com/delivery.php?ID