RMSTEM RMSTEM
RMSTEM TEAM
Editor-in-Chief
Aroush Nasim
Najma Dahir
Kya Ko
Aroush Nasim
Writers
Imogen Adedapo
Mila Hinton
Kate Julius
Swaleha Khan
Alessia McCormick
Leah Robertson
Amy Zheng
Kya Ko
Anja Sticklen
After countless hours of brainstorming, research, and editing, we’re thrilled to finally present the very first edition of RMSTEM Magazine! This magazine is more than just a collection of articles—it’s a platform where RMS students can dive deep into the world of science, going far beyond the boundaries of our regular curriculum.
In this issue, we take you on a journey across the vast landscapes of knowledge. From exploring the cutting-edge advancements in cancer research and the final frontier of space exploration, to understanding how physical activity impacts our bodies, the influence of peer pressure, and the age-old question: Are we alone in the universe?—every article brings a new insight into the way science shapes our world and our lives.
But we don’t stop there. We also take a closer look at some fascinating, lesser-known topics, like the unexpected link between HPV and RSV, and trace the incredible evolution of space travel, from the iconic Apollo missions to the futuristic spacecrafts that are pushing the limits of human exploration.
Whether you're reading cover-to-cover or skipping to the articles that catch your eye, we hope this magazine sparks curiosity, encourages you to think critically, and inspires you to dig deeper into the world of STEM. Who knows? Maybe next time you’ll be the one sharing your discoveries and ideas in the next edition of RMSTEM.
We’re proud to share this first issue with you, and we can’t wait to continue this adventure through the ever-evolving world of science, together.
Your Editor in Chief, Aroush Nasim
Surging Forest Fire Emissions:
A 60% Increase in CO2 Since 2001 Signals Urgent Climate Threats
A new study by the University of East Anglia reveals that global carbon dioxide emissions from forest fires have surged by 60% since 2001, with emissions nearly tripling in northern boreal forests. The research identifies key factors driving this increase, including more frequent fire-favourable weather conditions and higher vegetation growth, both exacerbated by climate change.
While tropical savanna fires have decreased, the rise in forest fire severity poses significant threats to carbon storage and climate goals, highlighting a concerning shift in fire dynamics.
GJ 9827d: The Discovery of a Steam World Beyond Our Solar System
The study emphasises the urgent need for proactive forest management strategies to mitigate wildfire risks and protect vital ecosystems. As these changes impact not only local environments but also global climate efforts, the findings underscore the importance of addressing the root causes of climate change to safeguard forests and their crucial role in carbon sequestration.
Kya Ko
Recent observations with the James Webb Space Telescope have confirmed that the atmosphere of GJ 9827d is primarily made up of water vapour. This discovery builds on earlier findings from the Hubble Space Telescope, which had detected water molecules but couldn't determine their abundance. By integrating data from both telescopes, astronomers have now gathered definitive evidence of a water-rich atmosphere on this exoplanet. With surface temperatures around 340°C, all the water remains in vapour form. This unique composition classifies GJ 9827d as a "steam world" and offers valuable insights into the atmospheric conditions of exoplanets, helping advance future research into potentially habitable worlds.
Kya Ko
Climate Change Tech: Direct Air Capture as of 2024
Direct Air Capture (DAC) is a technology designed to remove carbon dioxide directly from the atmosphere, distinguishing itself from traditional carbon capture methods, which captures CO2 at the point of emission. Once captured, the CO2 can either be stored permanently in deep geological formations or repurposed for a variety of industrial uses.
If scaled successfully, DAC could play a pivotal role in addressing climate change by reducing atmospheric CO2 levels, thus helping to mitigate global warming. By capturing and safely storing or utilising CO2, DAC also has the potential to be a crucial tool in achieving global netzero emissions goals.
However, the main challenge for DAC lies in its cost. Currently, capturing CO2 with DAC technology remains expensive—extracting just 900 kg of CO2 can cost between £300 and £800. Furthermore, the process itself is energy-intensive, requiring significant amounts of power to capture, process, and compress CO2.
A 2024 study by the University of Oxford estimates that we would need to remove 7-9 trillion kilograms of CO2 annually to meet current climate targets. This underscores the urgency of scaling up DAC technology as well as the perspective of how expensive DAC technology would be to have a significant impact.
Governments are beginning to take action, with the U.S. committing £950 million to the development of large-scale DAC hubs as part of a broader climate strategy. While DAC technology has made significant progress over the past 25 years, it remains in the early stages of commercialisation. That said, there is growing optimism for its future. If technological innovations can lower costs and more supportive policies are implemented, DAC could become a cornerstone of global efforts to combat climate change.
Aroush Nasim
CRISPR Advances: Gene Editing for Genetic Diseases
CRISPR is an immune system used by microbes to help protect themselves from invading viruses. CRISPR can be used to recognise and eliminate viruses or other invaders that infects a bacterial cell. The bacterium includes some of the virus's DNA into the genome to be used for future infections.
In the past decade scientists have made rapid advances in CRISPR technology. In the beginning of the 2010’s CRISPR was seen as useful however it was thought to not work on human cells.
In more recent years, CRISPR has enhanced the precision of gene editing. Researchers are now able to make edits with greater accuracy and minimising unintentional changes to the genome. Many more diseases have also begun to be treated with CRISPR throughout the decade such as sickle cell, cystic fibrosis and certain cancers.
As CRISPR continues to develop it is expected to increase the amount of genetic diseases and the range of cancers it can treat. As this occurs clearer ethical guidelines will be outlined especially with gene editing. The use of CRISPR may also expand to genetically modify crops making it more resistant to disease and pests.
Overall CRISPR is a great tool that can be used to combat many problems both within humans and externally with other organisms. However, there are many social and ethical issues that come along with CRISPR technology and these still need to be evaluated.
Najma Dahir
Self-Repairing Materials: A Leap in Engineering
Scientists have recently witnessed pieces of metal cracking and fusing back together without human intervention. This amazing phenomenon could be harnessed and used for self healing materials, revolutionising the engineering industry. This discovery could lead to self healing bridges, engines and aeroplanes which could make them safer and longer lasting.
Tiny fractures in machinery can lead to larger problems. These fractures can be caused by fatigue damage from the constant stress and motion put onto machinery. Therefore these self healing metals could prevent this long term damage.
Self healing polymers have already been discovered and are very promising for the food industry as they could be used for the food packaging sector. The manufacturing of these self healing polymers is very meticulous to ensure the functionality and effectiveness of the self healing properties.
Overall, these self healing materials haven’t yet been put in production for these uses and are still being tested. But once thoroughly examined they could revolutionise many industries and possibly help put a stop to the masses of waste being produced by many companies.
Artificial Intelligence - ‘Opportunity or Threat’: Essay Competition
IChemE Thames Valley Members Group are running a competition for students in years 9 -11 to write an essay on how AI will shape the future
“Artificial Intelligence (AI) is one of the most transformative technologies of our time with the potential to revolutionalise our world if used properly. With its use on the rise, there is a perception that it could pose a threat to humanity while to many others, it represents an opportunity for unprecedented growth and progress. What do you think?” IChemE Thames Valley Members Group
“In your own words, please share your thoughts on how you think AI will shape the future - your future! Home in on selected aspects of your everyday life and talk us through what AI represents to you for the future” IChemE Thames Valley Members Group
All Essays Should be a max of 500 Words, the use of pictures to illustrate is also encouraged
Prizes:
£75 Amazon voucher awarded for 1st place
£25 Amazon voucher awarded for 2nd place
Closing Date for Entries: 1st May 2024
Email Entries from each school to: vmgessaycompetition@outlook com
Aroush Nasim
HowCanOurImmune SystemsCureCancer?
Leah Robertson
What is Immunotherapy?
Immunotherapyisatypeofbiologicaltherapythathelpsyourimmunesystemfightcanc thelate1890sbyDrWilliamB.Coley,whodiscoveredthatinfectingcancerpatientswit couldresultintumourreduction
Ibelievethatimmunotherapyisanefficientcancertreatment,asourimmunesystemalreadyknowshowto fightcancer,itjustneedssomesupport.Despitethis,itisn’tyetaswidelyusedaschemotherapy,radiotherapy andfinallysurgeryusedtoremovetumours.
Our Immune System:
Our immune system consists of many white blood cells, such as T-cells, which are programmed to attack any harmful substances, such as viruses and bacteria, which have different DNA to the rest of thecellsinourbody.Therefore,theyshouldbeable to attack cancer cells, but sometimes they don’t. Cancer is first caused by multiple changes in DNA which eventually leads to cells becoming cancerous. Cancerous cells divide rapidly and uncontrollably as theyareunabletorespondtoproteinsthattellthem whentheyneedtodivide
Cancer cells are also able to spread to other parts ofthebodyandinvadedifferenttissuesthroughthe processofmetastasis,whichcancausedamagetoour organs. Scientists have questioned for many years why our immune systems struggle to destroy cancerous cells, as cancerous cells have had changes intheirDNAcausingthemtohavedifferentDNAto ourhealthycells.
There are two main ways in which cancer cells are able to escape the immune system T-cells are white blood cells that help our bodies to fight infection, andintheearly1980s,DrJimAllisondiscoveredthe T-cell antigen receptor, which is like a switch that can turn T-cells on and off These allow T-cells to sense the presence of abnormal cells. Some cancer cells actively suppress these T-cells by expressing proteins (e.g. PDL1), which bind to receptors on Tcells and deactivate them, thereby preventing them from destroying the cancer cells. The other way is thatasatumourdevelops,geneticchangescanoccur which gives some cancerous cells the advantage of producing fewer of the molecules that our immune cells uses to detect them, so our immune cells are unabletolocatethem
There are 5 types of cancer immunotherapy
1 Monoclonalantibodies(MABs)bindtoproteinsoncancer cells,whichcandoanumberofthingsfrompreventing themfromdividing,tohelpingtheimmunesystemdetect them
2.Checkpointinhibitors(themainfocusofthisarticle) aredrugsthatblocktheproteinsthatcancerouscellsuse todeactivateimmunecells.Thisallowstheimmunecellsto successfullydestroythecancerouscells.
3 Cytokinesareproteinsthatworkinseveralways,oneof whichisencouragingcancercellstoproducechemicalsthat attractimmunecellstothem
4 Researchersarealsolookingatvaccinesasapotential cancertreatment Thesevaccinescontaintumour associatedantigens(theproteinsfoundoncancercells, butnotonhealthycells)andtraintheimmunesystemto recogniseanddestroytheseantigensandcancercells.
5.Finally,CART-celltherapy(alsoknownasadoptivecell transfer)involvesaspecialisednursecollectingyourTcellsandsendingthemtoalabwheretheyaremodified intoCAR(chimericantigenreceptor)T-cells Afterafew weeks,thecellsarereintroducedtothebloodstreamviaa drip,andtheyareabletorecogniseandattackthecancer cells However,CART-celltherapyisanincrediblycomplex andspecialisedtreatmentthatcanonlyoccurina registeredCART-celltherapyhospitalwithhealthcare professionals.
As mentioned, T-cells have checkpoints called T-cell antigen receptors that are used to turn the immune system on and off This is important as, if a T-cell remains switched on when there are no infections to fight, it may start to fight our healthy cells Cancer cellsoftenproducehighquantitiesofproteinsthatbind to these T-cell checkpoints, turning them off and preventing them from attacking the tumour, which allows it to grow and develop further. Checkpoint inhibitors are a treatment that can solve this issue by blocking these proteins, they are commonly used for cancerssuchasmelanoma(skincancer)andlungcancer, and are typically named after the proteins that they block e.g. CTLA-4 inhibitors, PD-1 inhibitors, PD-L1 inhibitors Checkpoint inhibitors block the checkpoints, whichmeansthatthecancercellscan’tbindontotheTcellandturnitoff Therefore,theT-celliscapableof destroyingthecancercell
Despite the efficiency of immunotherapy, it unfortunately has many side effects Some of the common side effects of checkpoint inhibitors include digestion problems, fatigue, sickness, rash, and joint pain Therearemoreserioussideeffects,buttheseare rare These include infusion reactions with allergy like symptoms, and autoimmune reactions. Autoimmune reactionsarecommonlyassociatedwithimmunotherapy, as the immune cells are switched on for longer periods of time and given additional support, therefore they maystarttoharmthebody’shealthycells.Fortunately, thesesideeffectsaren’tasbadastheonesassociated with treatments such as chemotherapy and radiotherapy, as these have a higher capability of harmingourhealthycells
Ibelievethatimmunotherapyisveryimportantforthe futureofcancertreatmentasitisamorepleasantdrug for patients than chemotherapy and radiotherapy. Chemotherapy is the use of chemical drugs to stop cancercellsfromreproducing,itdoesthisbytargeting cellsthatgrowanddividerapidly.Therefore,aswellas killingcancercells,chemotherapyalsokillssomeofour healthy cells that grow and divide rapidly e.g. blood cells,skincellsandstomachcells Thisiswhyoneofthe mostcommonsideeffectsofchemotherapyishairloss Other side effects include feeling tired and sick, increased risk of infections, sore skin and digestion problems However, these side effects can be treated easily
Radiotherapyistheuseofradiationtokillcancer cells,butcanalsoharmhealthycellsaswell.However, thehealthycellsharmedcanrecoverquickly.Theside effectsincludesoreskin,tiredness,hairlossinthe areabeingtreatedandsickness Immunotherapy, despitehavingafewsideeffects,causesmuchless harmtoourhealthycellsthanthesetreatments The physicaltreatmentprocessofimmunotherapyisalso muchlessoverwhelming Animmunotherapydrip typicallylastslessthan2hours,whereasa chemotherapydripcanlastseveralhours.Depending onthetreatment,youmayonlyneedtohavean immunotherapydripafewtimesamonth,whereas radiotherapyisoftengiven5daysaweek.Sometimes evenifatumourisdestroyedbychemotherapyor radiotherapy,itmayleaveacancerstemcellbehind. Thesearechemoresistantandradioresistant,meaning thattheycangrowtoformnewtumoursagainafter treatment,causingcancertocomeback However, immunotherapyholdsthepotentialfortargeting thesecancerstemcells
Unfortunately,immunotherapyhassomeeconomicand ethicalcosts.In2021,theaveragedrugcostfora patientundergoingimmunotherapywas$132,582.The averagecostofimmunotherapyis5xgreaterthanthe averagecostofothercancertreatments.VHH antibodies,atypeofmonoclonalantibody,are producedby‘camelidimmunisation’,thisistheprocess ofvaccinatingalpacasandencouragingtheirwhite bloodcellstoproducetheseantibodies Manymay arguethatthisisunethical,asthiscancauseside effectsforthealpacassuchassickness Many researchlabsmayalsokeeptheanimalsininadequate conditions
Insummary,immunotherapyisapromisingcancer treatmentthatinfluencestheimmunesystemto targetcancercellsratherthantheuseofexternal substances,andwillcontinuetodevelopandsavemany livestocome.
The tale of the mythical jackalope stems back to the 13th century, when a horned hare was depicted in Persian works Similarly, a horned rabbit was taxonomised as Lepus cornutus and appeared in European illustrations and texts from as early as the 16th century (Branch).
In the early 1930s the tale of the jackalope was repopularised due to the first taxidermy ‘jackalope’ being promoted and sold by hunter brothers Ralph and Douglas Herrick, who embarked on a promising business venture of mounting deer antlers on top of jackrabbit carcasses (“Meet Jack”). Business took off, Douglas Wyoming became the ‘home of the jackalope’, and a scientist by the name of Richard Shope became fascinated with the creature.
Back in his lab, Shope had requested that a jackalope be caught and brought for further research He was intrigued by its infamous anatomy and had underlying suspicions that there were no horns on its head, instead, a tumour (Zimmer 32).
20 years earlier, in 1910, Francis Peyton Rous, a colleague of Shope’s from Rockefeller University, faced a similar mystery, where Plymouth Rock chickens were suffering from protruding growths (Zimmer 32). Following a founder of virology, Beijerinck, and his methods and extensive research on Tobacco Mosaic Virus (Sankaran), Rous extracted a ‘contagious living fluid’ by grinding up the growth, mixing the solid with water and passing it through a fine filter Rous then used this fluid to infect other chickens, who later developed the same growths; upon further microscopic inspection, Rous’ suspicions were confirmed. These growths were tumours.
Inspired by Rous’ previous research, Shope followed his experiment but with a key alteration, further filtering the liquid solution through porcelain Porcelain (Pasteur-Chamberland) filters allow fluids to pass through while holding back bacteria and other microorganisms due to their tiny pores, as viruses are much smaller than bacteria, they can pass through (“Pasteur Chamberland Filter”). Shope gathered a similar result to Rous, where the fluid produced horn-like growths on the heads of rabbits after the solution was applied (Zimmer 33). This proved that the growths not only contained viruses but also that the viruses created these growths.
Shope then passed his research to Rous, who later injected the virus-filled liquid further into rabbits, deep inside tissue. This resulted in the development of aggressive cancers which led to the death of most rabbit subjects affected. Thus allowing Rous to conclude that he had discovered a virus, which acted as a tumour-inducing agent. This virus would become known as the Rous sarcoma virus (RSV), demonstrating that malignant tumours could be generated from infections, leading to research in other tumour-inducing viruses in other creatures such as mice, rabbits, cats and nonhuman primates. Initially Rous’ suggestion that Fowl Sarcoma was caused by a virus was rejected by many scientists, but Francis Peyton Rous would wait 55 years after the publication of his paper, before recognition of his efforts arrived; he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1966 (“100 years of Rous sarcoma virus”)
Rous’ discovery in RSV assisted Shope’s linked idea that there was a tumour-inducing virus spreading among rabbits, resulting in sightings of jackalopes. In 1933, Richard E. Shope described the virus as the first papillomavirus, now known as Shope papillomavirus or Cottontail rabbit papillomavirus (CRPV). (Duch)
Human Papillomavirus (HPV) is the name of a common group of viruses, of which some types may cause genital warts or cancer (“Human papillomavirus (HPV)”) The first description of HPV was provided in 1949 by Strauss, who used electron microscopy to examine aqueous extracts of wart tissues, in 1963 the physical properties of HPV DNA were described in the study by LV Crawford and EM Crawford.It was only in the 1970s that Professor Harald zur Hausen first suggested that HPV played a role in cervical cancer, the ‘Father of HPV Virology’ (Mammas).
In the 1970s, Harald zur Hausen hypothesised that HPV infections could be the main cause of cervical cancer in women, killing around 300,000 women yearly (Zimmer 35). Cervical cancer is where abnormal cells divide uncontrollably to form a tumour on the cervix (“What Is Cervical Cancer?”). Cervical cancer is able to spread to other areas of the body, including the pelvis, abdomen, lymph nodes, liver, lungs and bones, known as metastatic cancer or advanced cancer (“Advanced Cervical Cancer”). There are 2 types of HPV infections, low-risk and high-risk, low-risk HPV infections may cause warts on the mouth, throat, anus and genitals, whereas high-risk HPV infections can lead to the development of cancers. (“HPV and Cancer - NCI”). Harald zur Hausen’s discovery linking human papillomavirus (HPV) to cervical cancer was groundbreaking. Through molecular cloning, zur Hausen and his team were able to show that HPV infections were responsible for most cervical cancers by cloning the genomes of substrains HPV-16 and HPV-18, which were present in the majority of cervical cancer samples studied. There are 12 types of high-risk HPV infections, but types HPV-16 and HPV-18 cause the most HPV related cancers. This is not to say that if you have a HPV infection you will develop cancer, as most HPV infections are controlled and cleared by your immune system within 1-2 years (“HPV and Cancer - NCI”)
Today, we have vaccines, like Gardasil and Cervarix, which protect against HPV-16 and HPV-18, among other strains. These vaccines work by preparing the immune system to recognize and fight the virus if exposed, reducing the risk of developing cervical cancer. HPV infections are spread through intimate skin to skin contact, condoms may reduce the risk of transmission but does not completely prevent it The HPV vaccine is recommended for children aged 11-12 and up to ages 26, it is not routinely recommended from ages 27-45 as people in this age group are likely to have already been exposed to HPV so would not benefit from the HPV vaccination. (“HPV and Cancer - NCI”).
ARE ARE ARE WE WE WE
Our Earth is incomprehensibly remarkable and as far as we know, one of its kind It is so far the only confirmed place in the observable universe that hosts life But why? How is it possible that of the 2 trillion solar systems, and the planets within them, we cannot find one which also hosts life, or which shares the same characteristics as our Earth.
Logically, the chances of there being at least one other planet with abundant water and oxygen, rich soil and suitable temperatures amongst the observable universe would presumably be very high… right? The possibility that we are the last or only civilisation to ever exist is something to actually be thoroughly considered, which personally, just creates more questions than potential answers I do find that rather terrifying but simultaneously, it makes me feel appreciative that I am simply here, and that you, the reader, are as well So, are we alone? By the end of this article, you could have your conclusion
To understand the actual chances of life outside of Earth, we must understand why Earth is special in the first place as the factors that make it so are a lot more complex than one may assume Firstly, Earth is what scientists consider an ocean world as water is abundant on its surface which is essential for the support of life as we know it. This is likely because water is an abundant resource in our solar system and beyond; comets are full of it, there is evidence of many moons in our solar system having liquid oceans under their crusts and hydrogen is the most copious element in the universe which is what majorly makes up water molecules. Due to this, we can assume that life requiring water to survive could potentially be a universal prerequisite
So if water is common throughout the universe, on exoplanets and their surrounding moons, why haven't we found life yet?
We must notice that water is only liquid within a small range of temperatures and that the temperature of a planet is impacted by many different atmospheric conditions Earth’s proximity to the sun is optimal for maintaining water’s liquid state, unlike many other exoplanets scientists have discovered, where the water on the surface has either frozen or evaporated like Mars
Speaking of Mars, it used to have an abundance of liquid water on its surface like Earth, however, scientists estimate that billions of years ago Mars lost about 87% of its water. This was due to losing its magnetic field which left it susceptible to solar winds (the constant damaging waves of energy received from the sun) and interferences from space such as magnetic waves With this example, we can see the importance of magnetic fields and how they are another primary characteristic that planets that could host life must have
Lastly, the Earth’s atmosphere is another essential factor that means that it can support life for a number of reasons. Without our atmosphere, liquid water wouldn’t be able to exist on the surface of the Earth as the atmosphere the water is in needs to be a particular pressure or else its molecules just evaporate Our atmosphere also acts as a ‘blanket’ keeping us warm; it’s an insulator that makes Earth habitable by conserving the heat transferred from the sun
E EALONE? ALONE? ALONE?
Imogen Adedapo
Okay, so water needs to be liquid on the surface of a planet for it to be able to host life which is actually a lot more difficult than one would assume.
Maybe we are alone?
Not necessarily Yes, liquid water is a very significant sign of potential life on a planet historically or currently: we hypothesised earlier that it is likely universally essential for life But, scientists have discovered many icy exoplanets and moons in our solar system that could certainly be habitable Sometimes, there are liquid oceans beneath the surfaces of these planets and moons.
Recently, NASA announced that 17 exoplanets they have been researching could have subsurface oceans of liquid water So, despite that when looking for signs of life, scientists tend to look at the Goldilocks Zones of stars, a planet could be far away from this zone and therefore not get access to much heat but still sustain life if it had enough internal heating from its core As for our solar system, the moons of Jupiter, Saturn and Neptune are being widely researched as they show signs of subsurface liquid oceans In particular, Jupiter’s moon Europa is strongly suspected to have a salty ocean beneath its icy exterior and scientists think that it has the potential to have the main ingredients needed for life which are of course, water, energy and essential elements such as carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
R* - stars made in the Milky Way galaxy in one year,
Fp - the fraction of stars that have planets,
Ne - the fraction of those planets where life can exist,
FL - the fraction of those planets where life does exist,
FI - the fraction of those planets where intelligent life exists,
FC - the fraction of those intelligent aliens who develop technology that is able to communicate outside of their own planet,
L - number of years an intelligent, communicating civilization lasts.
The results of the equation can vary depending on individual scientific views however a professor at Harvard university recently estimated that only one in a million of planets in our universe likely has the correct combination of chemicals, temperature and water, etc. to support life as we know it. So scientists are also considering the possibility that we are one of the last intelligent civilisations to exist and that most, if not all other civilisations came before us when most of the planets that we know about were habitable and had magnetic fields
So are we alone…?
Well we now know that just because our observable universe is absolutely massive, it doesn't mean that the chances of there being another earth-like planet are high
Ultimately, any theory could be a possibility
We can clearly see that the factors that go into whether a planet can host life are not at all simple. But how likely is it that a planet can have all of these features in the first place?
In 1961, an astronomer called Frank Drake created an equation to determine the probability of planets in the observable universe that host civilisations. It is calculated by multiplying the variables below based on educated estimations
Maybe we are the first civilisation? Maybe we are the last? Maybe there are other civilisations that are more intelligent than us and do not want to be found?
Yes, these are all still questions that we cannot fully answer but, maybe one day we will get an answer- for better, or maybe for worse
AlessiaMcCormick
Physicalactivityisdefinedasanymovements producedbyskeletalmusclesresultinginenergy expenditure.Physicalactivityisnotonlyenjoyable,but itisalsoanecessityforhealth,asitreducestheriskof manyseverediseases
Itisimportanttoexploretheeffectsofexerciseonthe body,asitenhancesyourphysicalhealththroughthe improvementofcardiovascularfitnessaswellas musclestrength.Inaddition,itcontributestoimproved mentalwell-beingthroughthereductionofstressand anxietylevels.
Takingpartinregularexerciseoftenstrengthensthe heartmuscle,whichallowsthehearttopumpmore bloodefficiently Thisincreaseincardiovascular strengthmeansthattheheartcanpumpalarger volumeofbloodperheartbeat,resultinginareduction ofstrainontheheart Furthermore,exercise encouragesthedevelopmentofnewbloodvessels, whichimprovescirculationandensuresthatoxygenas wellasnutrientsaredeliveredeffectivelytotissues.
Physical activity also has a huge impact on lung capacity and the intake of oxygen, predominantly, through the increase of respiratory efficiency When taking part in aerobic activities such as; running, swimming and cycling, the body needs more oxygen whichisusedtofuelthemusclesforrespiration.This increaseindemandforoxygencausestherespiratory systemtoadapt,whichleadstoimprovementsinlung function.
Statisticsdemonstratethatregularexercise significantlyreducestherisksofdevelopingheart disease AccordingtotheAmericanHeartAssociation, individualswhotakepartinatleast150minutesof moderateintensityaerobicexerciseeveryweekcan lowertheriskofheartdiseaseby30-40%.Moreover,a studypublishedintheJournaloftheAmericanCollege ofCardiologydiscoveredthatpeoplewhoare physicallyactivehavea20-30%lowerriskof developingcoronaryheartdiseaseincomparisonto thosewhoareinactive.
AccordingtotheAmericanLungAssociation,"Regular aerobicexercisestrengthenstherespiratorymuscles, increaseslungcapacity,andimprovesoveralllung function."Aspeopletakepartinphysicalactivities, theirlungsbecomemoreefficientatexchanging oxygenandcarbondioxide,whichthenimproves enduranceandtheiroverallphysicalperformance.
Furthermore,astudypublishedintheJournalof AppliedPhysiologystates,"Aerobictrainingcanleadto anincreaseintidalvolume,allowingforgreater oxygenuptake."Thismeansthatduetotakingpartin consistentaerobicexercise,thelungscantakeinmore airwitheachbreath,thereforeincreasingtheamount ofoxygenavailableforthebody
Takingpartinweight-bearingexercisesiscrucialfor increasingbonedensityanditcanreducetheriskof osteoporosis(brittlebones).Theseincludeactivities thatforceyourbodytoworkagainstgravity,suchas; walking,running,dancing,andweightlifting The mechanicalstressonbonesthroughoutthese activitiesstimulateboneformationandalsoprompts increasedbonestrength.
Researchindicatesastrongcorrelationbetween physicalactivityandbonehealth.TheRoyal OsteoporosisSocietypublishedthat:individualswho engageinregularweight-bearingexerciseduringtheir youthandthroughouttheirlivescansignificantly enhancetheirpeakbonemassandmaintainbone densityastheyage.Forexample,astudyfromthe JournalofBoneandMineralResearchfoundthat peoplewhoparticipatedinweight-bearingactivities hada20-30%higherbonedensityincomparisonto thosewholeadsedentarylifestyles
Additionally,researchwhichwaspublishedinthe BritishJournalofSportsMedicineshowedthat individualswhoperformedweight-bearingexercisesat leastthreetimesaweekhada25%lowerriskof developingosteoporosiswhencomparedtothosewho didnottakepartinregularexercise.Thisdataclearly emphasisestheimportanceofincorporatingweightbearingactivitiesintodailylifetopromotelong-term bonehealth.
Exercisealsopromotesmanypsychologicalbenefits, whichincludestressreduction,andmood enhancement.Thekeyfactorinthisisthereleaseof endorphinsduringphysicalactivity.Endorphinsare neurotransmitterswhichhelptorelievepainand produceafeelingofpleasure.
Whenanindividualtakespartinphysicalactivity, specificallyaerobicactivities,thebodyresponds throughreleasingendorphinsintothebloodstream Thisreleasecanleadtowhatisoftenreferredtoasthe " runner ' shigh,"astateofeuphoriathatcanhelpto limitfeelingsofstressandanxiety.
Moreover,regularexercisehasbeenusedto demonstrateimprovementsinoverallmood.Exercise canbeaneffectivetreatmentfordepressionand anxietydisorders.Accordingtoresearchpublishedin theJournalofClinicalPsychiatry,exercisecanbeas effectiveasmedicationforsomeindividualssuffering frommildtomoderatedepression.
Furthermore,engaginginphysicalactivitycanalso boostself-esteemandconfidence,asachievingfitness goalscanprovideasenseofaccomplishment.Itcan alsoserveasahealthyoutletforcopingwithstress, providingadistractionandawaytochannelnegative emotionsintosomethingpositive.
Theimportanceofmaintaininganactivelifestyle cannotbeunderstated.Itisabundantlyclearthat regularphysicalactivityisessentialnotonlyfor physicalhealthbutalsoformentalandemotionalwellbeing Transitioningintoanactivelifestylecontributes significantlytooverallhealth,whichenhancesthe qualityoflifeandalsolongevity.
Peer Pressure and its Influence on Decision Making in Adolesence
THERE ARE MANY MISCONCEPTIONS WHEN IT COMES TO PEER PRESSURE AND ITS EFFECTS. ALMOST EVERYONE HAS LEARNT ABOUT IT AT SOME POINT IN THEIR LIFE, WHETHER IT WAS THROUGH SCHOOL, PERSONAL EXPERIENCES OR ONLINE. HOWEVER, MANY ADOLESCENT STUDENTS UNDERESTIMATE THE SEVERITY OF PEER PRESSURE AND THE EFFECTS IT CAN HAVE ON THE YOUTH, AS SOME OFTEN MISTAKE IT FOR A CONCEPT THAT SHOULD ALWAYS BE PREVENTED.
THE TEENAGE YEARS ARE A CRUCIAL TIME IN A PERSON’S LIFE AS THIS IS A TIME WHEN YOU GO THROUGH YOUR FIRST SERIOUS EXAMINATIONS WHILST TRYING TO NAVIGATE WHO YOU'RE AND YOUR FUNDAMENTAL CHARACTERISTICS. AS A TEEN YOU ALSO SPEND MOST OF YOUR FREE TIME WITH YOUR PEERS, MEANING ADOLESCENTS ARE MORE LIKELY TO TAKE RISKS WHEN IT COMES TO DRUGS, ALCOHOL, RECKLESS DRIVING AND EVEN CRIMES WHETHER THEY ARE VIOLENT OR NONVIOLENT AS YOU CAN BE EASILY PERSUADED IN YOUR YOUTH. THESE SUBSTANCES AND SITUATIONS CAN BE SOME OF THE MOST DANGEROUS EXPERIENCES YOU WILL ENDURE THROUGHOUT LIFE.
STATISTICS HAVE SHOWN THAT A TOTAL OF 3296 ADOLESCENTS AGED 10 TO 19 YEARS, HAVE DIED OF AN UNINTENTIONAL DRUG OVERDOSE IN THE UNITED STATES BETWEEN 2015 TO 2019. SOME OF THESE WOULD HAVE MOST LIKELY BEEN A RESULT OF PEER PRESSURE. WOULD HAVE MOST LIKELY BEEN A RESULT OF PEER PRESSURE. A TEENAGER SPENDS, ON AVERAGE, 11-12 HOURS WITH THEIR PEERS OR FRIENDS, AROUND 8 HOURS ASLEEP AND ONLY ABOUT 4 HOURS WITH THEIR PARENTS OR GUARDIANS AT HOME. SO, THEY SPEND MOST OF THEIR ACTIVE HOURS WITH PEERS WHICH CAUSES THEM TO TRY TO FIT INTO GROUPS BY CHANGING THEIR BEHAVIOUR, ATTITUDE, ACTIVITIES AND SOMETIMES THEIR MORALS. IN ORDER TO BE A PART OF A GROUP OR TO GET PEER CONFORMITY, THEY MAY TAKE PART IN DANGEROUS ACTIVITIES WHICH CAN NOT ONLY ENDANGER AND JEOPARDISE THEIR PRESENT AND FUTURE BUT CAN EVEN CAUSE HARM TO THEIR PARENTS OR GUARDIANS.
RESEARCH HAS BEEN CARRIED OUT OVER MANY YEARS TO DETERMINE WHY TEENAGERS TAKE MORE RISKS. SOME RESEARCHERS WANTED TO DISCOVER WHETHER ADOLESCENTS’ CAPACITY TO PROCESS FUNDAMENTAL COMPONENTS OF RISK INFORMATION WERE DIFFERENT TO ADULTS BUT, THE RESEARCH PROVED THAT THEY WERE JUST AS COMPETENT. THIS POSED THE QUESTION: “WHY ARE TEENAGERS SO MUCH MORE RISKY IN THE REAL WORLD COMPARED TO THE LAB?” THE CONCLUSION WAS FORMED THAT IF ADOLESCENTS MADE ALL OF THEIR DECISIONS REGARDING DRINKING, DRUGS, DRIVING, MONEY ETC. IN A LABORATORY AND ALONE, THEIR DECISIONS WOULD BE LESS RISKY AND AT A SIMILAR LEVEL TO ADULTS. HOWEVER, LIFE IS NOT LIKE THIS AT ALL AND TEENS SPEND A LOT OF TIME AROUND THEIR PEERS. BEING IN AND AROUND TEENAGERS CAN COMPLETELY ALTER THE WAY ANOTHER TEEN CALCULATES RISK TAKING, WHICH IS HIGHLY DANGEROUS, AND CAN LEAD TO MANY ISSUES SUCH AS ADDICTION, ACCIDENTS AND INJURY.
Mila Hinton
OBSERVATIONAL DATA SUGGESTS THAT PEER INFLUENCES ARE THE PRIMARY FACTOR CONTRIBUTING TO ADOLESCENTS’ TENDENCY TO MAKE RISKY DECISIONS. FOR EXAMPLE, CRIME RATES SHOW THAT TEENAGERS MOST COMMONLY COMMIT OFFENCES IN GROUPS, WHEREAS ADULTS MOSTLY COMMIT CRIMES ALONE. AS WELL AS THIS, ONE OF THE MOST RELIABLE WAYS TO PREDICT CRIMINAL BEHAVIOUR IN A TEENAGER IS IF THEY ARE ASSOCIATED OR SPEND TIME WITH DELINQUENT TEENAGERS. THIS HIGHLIGHTS THE EXTREME ROLE PEER PRESSURE CAN PLAY IN A TEENAGER’S LIFE AND HOW IT CAN ALTER THE COURSE OF THEIR LIVES AS WELL AS OTHERS.
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH HAS BEEN CONDUCTED TO COMPARE THE BEHAVIOUR OF ADOLESCENTS AND ADULTS WHEN MAKING DECISIONS EITHER ALONE OR IN THE PRESENCE OF THEIR PEERS. IN THE FIRST STUDY, YOUNG TEENS (AROUND 14 YEARS OLD), OLDER TEENS (AROUND 19 YEARS OLD) AND ADULTS (AROUND 37 YEARS OLD) WERE TESTED USING A GAME CALLED ‘THE CHICKEN GAME’ WHICH INVOLVES THE DRIVER HAVING TO DRIVE A VEHICLE AS FAR AS POSSIBLE ON THE DRIVING COURSE, WHILE AVOIDING CRASHING INTO A WALL THAT COULD APPEAR, WITHOUT WARNING, AT ANY POINT ON THE COURSE. THE PARTICIPANTS WERE TESTED ALONE AND IN A GROUP. EACH PARTICIPANT WAS ASSIGNED TWO PEERS AROUND THEIR AGE TO BE IN THE ROOM WITH THEM DURING THE TEST. WHEN TESTED ALONE, THE PARTICIPANTS FROM EACH OF THE THREE AGE GROUPS ALL ENGAGED IN A COMPARABLE AMOUNT OF RISK TAKING. IN CONTRAST, YOUNG TEENS SCORED TWICE AS HIGH ON A SCALE OF RISKY DRIVING WHEN TESTED WITH THEIR PEERS IN THE ROOM THAN WHEN ALONE, WHEREAS OLDER TEENS WERE AROUND 50% RISKIER IN GROUPS, AND ADULTS SHOWED NO DIFFERENCE IN RISKY DRIVING WHEN IN GROUPS. THIS AGAIN SHOWS THE DRASTIC IMPACT PEER PRESSURE HAS ON THE YOUTH AND HOW IT CAN PUT THEM AND OTHERS IN DANGER.
UNLIKE ADULTS, ADOLESCENTS’ PERSONALITIES AND BEHAVIOUR IS HEAVILY INFLUENCED BY THEIR FRIENDS AS TEENAGERS LOOK TO THEM FOR EXAMPLES ON HOW TO ACT AND INTERACT WITH OTHERS. THIS MAKES PEER PRESSURE A WORRY FOR MANY PARENTS BECAUSE IT IS ASSOCIATED WITH AND TAUGHT AS A NEGATIVE CONCEPT THAT NEEDS TO BE AVOIDED BUT, THERE ARE ACTUALLY MANY POSITIVE EFFECTS OF PEER PRESSURE ON TEENAGERS.
FOR EXAMPLE, SOME TYPES OF PEER PRESSURE CAN LEAD TEENAGERS TO MAKE BETTER CHOICES, ADOPT HEALTHY BEHAVIOURS AND DEVELOP FURTHER EMOTIONALLY AND SOCIALLY. AS WELL AS THIS, HAVING PEERS WHO ARE COMMITTED TO SUCCEEDING IN SCHOOL OR TO DOING THEIR BEST IN A SPORT CAN INFLUENCE TEENAGERS TO BE MORE GOAL-ORIENTED AS WELL. HOWEVER, THIS RELIES ON ADOLESCENTS SPENDING TIME WITH PEERS WHO PROVIDE POSITIVE INFLUENCE RATHER THAN DELINQUENTS WHO CAN CAUSE A TEENAGER TO BE LED ASTRAY. THE GREAT THING IS THAT TEENS DON’T HAVE TO PERSONALLY KNOW A PEER TO BE INFLUENCED, THEY CAN BE INSPIRED BY OLYMPIANS, INFLUENCERS AND MUSICIANS THEIR AGE TO PURSUE THEIR GOALS. OFTEN ADOLESCENTS ARE TAUGHT ABOUT THE DANGERS OF PEER PRESSURE IN PERSON AND ON SOCIAL MEDIA AND ITS POTENTIAL THREATS BUT MANY TEENAGERS CAN ALSO LEARN NEW SKILLS AND BECOME MOTIVATED TO ACHIEVE THEIR TARGETS THROUGH POSITIVE PEER PRESSURE. OVERALL, IT IS CLEAR THAT PEER PRESSURE HAS DRASTIC EFFECTS ON THE LIVES AND BRAINS OF DEVELOPING TEENAGERS WHICH CAN ALTER THE COURSE OF THEIR FUTURES. THERE IS SIGNIFICANT EVIDENCE STATING THAT PEER PRESSURE CAN HAVE EXTREME EFFECTS ON THE DECISION MAKING OF ADOLESCENTS POSING A MAJOR RISK TO THEMSELVES AND OTHERS. HOWEVER, THIS DOES NOT MEAN THAT PEER PRESSURE IS ENTIRELY NEGATIVE AS IT IS ALSO CLEAR THAT IT CAN HAVE AMAZING ADVANTAGES AND CAN REALLY HELP TEENAGERS TO STRIVE FOR GREATNESS AND SUCCESS IN LIFE IF THEY HAVE A GOOD ROLE MODEL TO INFLUENCE THEM POSITIVELY.
THE EVOLUTIO THE EVOLUTIO THE EVOLUTIO EXPLOR EXPLOR EXPLOR
For centuries, humans have gazed up at the night sky, wondering about distant galaxies, the possibility of life beyond Earth, and what is out there beyond our blue planet Space exploration is like the ultimate adventure novel, filled with groundbreaking discoveries and incredible technology that makes it all possible. But how did we go from myths and legends about constellations to sending people to the Moon and beyond and launching rovers to mars?
Early Ideas About Space
Long before rockets and space agencies, when people didn’t know that the moon wasn’t made of light, and thought the Earth was the centre of the universe, early civilisations devised explanations for what was seen. Two particularly interesting figures are Ptolemy and Eratosthenes.
Firstly, Ptolemy (circa 100 CE-170 CE), the Egyptian astronomer believed that the planets known at the time, as well as the Sun and the Moon, orbited a stationary Earth. However it was not solely Ptolemy who came up with this idea, he built upon the ideas of other earlier philosophers such as Aristotle. To us, the idea of a geocentric model might sound strange, but in Ptolemy’s time, this model seemed intuitive; so much so, it stuck around for nearly 1,500 years
To me, the idea of measuring the circumference of the Earth with modern technology is confusing, but to think that in 240 BCE someone calculated it to within -6% and +30% (depending on conversions of old measurements into modern day units) of the actual value is astounding. The earliest recorded measurement to this accuracy was made by Eratosthenes
Eratosthenes lived in the city Alexandria, in Egypt, but had heard of a unique phenomenon in Syene (now known as Aswan, Egypt) In Syene, at noon on the day of the summer solstice, the sun casts no shadow. This meant that the Sun's rays hit the ground at a 90 degree angle. However on this day and time in Alexandria, objects did cast a shadow This is how he realised that the Earth must be curved, as the angle of sunlight was different in different places. On the day of the summer solstice, Eratosthenes measured the angle of a shadow cast in Alexandria He did this by placing a stick vertically in the ground and observing the length of the shadow at noon. Using geometry, he calculated that the angle of the shadow was 7.2 degrees (or a 1/50th of a circle) He then used existing knowledge about the distance between the two cities.
Eratosthenes then only needed to use a simple equation using these two values to calculate that the Earth’s circumference was 250,000 stadia, a unit of measurement used at his time, that equates to somewhere between 150m and 210m (the true value is still debated today, however a commonly used value is 160m). The true circumference of the Earth around the equator is 40,075 kilometres. Using the idea that one stadia is equal to 160m, that puts Eratothenes’s value at 40,000km This is ridiculously close to the actual circumference and it’s incredible to think that using just sticks, shadows and simple maths he was able to estimate the size of the Earth to such incredible accuracy
The Dawn of the Space Age & The Space Race
Skipping a lot further forward in time, we arrive at the dawn of the space age It is widely agreed that it all started with a small and shiny satellite called Sputnik 1. It was the Soviet Union who launched Sputnik 1 in 1957, and became the first to put the first artificial satellite into orbit This metal ball, less than 60cm in diameter, without cameras or fancy gadgets, simply sending radio signals back to Earth, marked the beginning of the Space Age.
This milestone not only shocked the world, but it spurred the US to accelerate its own space program and commit to exploration beyond Earth. At this point, rockets had already been around for a while, however they were mostly used for warfare during World War II, however now these rockets were being designed for a completely different purpose: exploration. After Sputnik, things advanced quickly.
The Soviet Union sent another satellite to space, this time carrying a passenger: Laika, a dog This proved to the world that space travel was possible for living beings, and opened up a whole new door to human space flight. This is when the real race began: sending people to space A few short years later the Soviet Union became the first to put a human in space. In April 1961 Yuri Gagarin took to space in Vostok 1 for 108 minutes. Not to be outdone, the United States responded by sending Alan Shepard to space only a few weeks later Interestingly, unlike early U.S human spaceflight programs, when Vostok 1 landed, Gagarin was not inside, instead he ejected from the spacecraft and landed by parachute
ON OF SPACE ON OF SPACE ON OF SPACE RATION RATION RATION
Kate Julius
Either way, it proved that humans could survive in space. The dawn of the Space Age changed the world in ways that couldn’t have been predicted It brought about a cascade of technological advancements like the GPS, satellite television, the internet, weather forecasting and more. Even everyday items such as memory foam, scratch resistant lenses (used in glasses), cell phone cameras, and more were developed specifically for use in space Not only did it bring about all these inventions, but space exploration also raised a numerous amount of challenges and questions, such as, “Could we live on a different planet?” or “Is there life beyond Earth?”
Mars…
Before anything is said, I want to put into perspective the distance between Earth and Mars. If you were to hop into a car and travel at 100 miles per hour constantly, it would take 40+ to reach Mars. However rockets that have been sent to the moon have an average speed of 3,333 mph, so using the fact that Mars could be about 140 million miles away depending where each planet is in orbit, it would take nearly 5 years if a similar model was used Compared to the 3 days it would take to travel to the moon at that speed
When thinking about putting humans on Mars, you also have to think about the food and water and air required to sustain the journey This possibility for humans on Mars might seem crazy, but knowing how fast technology is developing, it could be right around the corner. 10 years ago would you have thought that AI would be a reality or that we could look back 13 5 billion years ago (more on that to come), so just imagine how the world could change within our lifetimes, or 10 more years, or 50 or 100 Scientists believe that Mars had liquid water on it billions of years ago, lakes, rivers and ocean that was a mile deep This idea presents the question of whether life may have existed there too. If humans were able to explore Mars up close, they might uncover clues about the past The frozen water that is now on Mars could be used to discover so much more about Mars. On Earth, scientists have used ice cores to discover various things about the Earth's early atmosphere by studying the air bubbles that were trapped in the ice when it formed
If this were to be made possible on Mars, we could learn so much more about Mars’s history. Apart from its past, Mars presently has the resources that could support life For example, the frozen water and materials that could be used to make oxygen. Some scientists genuinely believe that humans could build colonies on Mars despite the harsh conditions and see viable ways to terraform Mars to make it habitable A great video to watch if you want to learn more about life on Mars is Dr. Joel Levine’s Ted Talk titled “The Exploration and Colonisation of Mars: Why Mars? Why Humans?”
Telescopes: Unlocking the Secrets of the Universe
Telescopes have revolutionised the ability to explore the universe. From the most basic telescopes used by Galileo in the 1600s to the most advanced telescopes today.
With modern telescopes, it is possible to see planets orbiting different stars in solar systems beyond the Milky Way You have probably heard of the Hubble Space Telescope, which is still in space today, and also the newest and most powerful telescope: the James Webb Space Telescope What makes it so special is its infrared vision, allowing astronomers to look past thick clouds of gas and dust that would have obscured distant galaxies and stars. As well as this the telescope is capable of providing information about distant planets’s atmospheres for signs of water, methane and other chemicals that could hint to the presence of life. This could possibly lead to the discovery of life on other planets and would be a groundbreaking discovery, proving that we are not alone in the universe Not only this but the James Webb telescope is even capable of studying stars as they are born, and things such as tracking the formation of black holes All these incredible things that the telescope can do proves how fast technology is developing and how much more there is to explore. I would really recommend watching the “Horizon” episodes on BBC iplayer about space if you are interested in space exploration and learning about the future of it.
The journey is only just beginning, and the future of space exploration holds limitless possibilities.
We’ve all heard about NASA’s profound and ingenious Apollo missions, but if truth be told, did they really influence the future and our lives?
Well, to understand this we have to travel all the way back to May 25th, 1961. It’s a beautiful and happy spring’s day - but not so much for the NASA workforce. Today, president Kennedy has successfully proposed a crewed moon landing to the Congress by 1970. The limited technology and research on this area placed immense pressure on NASA to achieve these goals to save the US's reputation.
This time period was known as the “Space Race” nation- states i.e. the USA and the Soviet Union competed in a non-violent way to prove who was more dominant. They did this by having major aeronautical advances to conquer the unexplored territory of space, to put it simply, they launched many spacecraft one after the other to outshine their competitors. In 1957, the Soviet Union had seemed to bag the win by sending Yuri Gargarin to space (the first person in space) but the USA came back swinging by announcing their goal to land a man on the moon. Now you’re all caught up, did these missions serve any other purpose apart from saving the US’s face?
I like to think that they did, due to the immense technological and social consequences they had.
From a technological point of view, these missions led to revolutionary work that invented mobile phones and laptops. You see, prior to 1973 and 1981 they didn’t exist as we never thought that it would be possible for small devices to accommodate technology. But how did the Apollo missions reach this conclusion?
For spacecraft, especially those which will travel long distances, mass is really important. One of the main principles of physics is that the more mass an object has the more gravity pulls it down. This is a major negative in the aerospace industry because spacecrafts consist of various heavy machinery that end up weighing them down significantly.Consequently, they require more thrust (push) to lift off the surface of the Earth (because they need more energy to defy gravity).
Swaleha Khan
In order to sustain the crew in the shuttle NASA would need several large systems which would weigh quite a bit. So, in order to move past this issue and decrease the total mass as much as possible, they reduced the sizes of the systems and designed technology which would fit into smaller places. As simple as this may sound it really wasn’t. NASA conducted 3 test flightsApollo 4,5 and 6 to reach a final design. Unfortunately tragedy struck on September 11th, 1967 when the AS- 204 crew’s lives were lost due to a flash fire in their capsule. As tribute, this mission was renamed as Apollo 1. However, they tackled these problems by 1968 and Apollo 7 was successful. Therefore, technologically these missions designed initial compact technology which influenced the progression to the devices our current society so heavily relies on laptops and mobile phones. We can reach these conclusions as these inventions followed soon after the successes of the Apollo missions.
The post WW2 world was largely dominated by sexism, racism and other prejudice. However, the Apollo missions greatly contributed to the West’s journey toward a more inclusive society. At the time, supercomputers and other large number crunching systems were not so prevalent. So we turned to people who were fittingly called “human computers” because of the complex mathematical problems they solved so efficiently and resiliently. The majority of these mathematicians were women, which at the time was incredibly revolutionary as women weren’t usually regarded to have such intelligence, but they went against this prejudice and ultimately led to an increase in respect for women in society. I don’t know about you but I think that was pretty amazing!
Unfortunately to this day many of the major contributions made by African American people are still not widely recognised. But in 2016, the release of the movie “Hidden Figures” which reflected the struggles of women during the space race, brought to light the imperative roles of 3 African- American women; Katherine Goble (Johnson), Mary Jackson and Dorothy Vaughan. Additionally, this movie also shed light on the struggles faced by other African - American women. (Needless to say it’s a great movie!) Accordingly, I believe that the Apollo missions led to vital and remarkable social changes in the US and shaped the future society’s opinions and views greatly.
Regardless of the Apollo missions initial point being political, they brought long- awaited critical changes as well as visionary technological inventions. So, yes, in my opinion the Apollo missions were significant because they laid the foundation of our society’s values and generated the technology we so heavily rely on.
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RM EM RM EM
