ENDNOTES
Spirituals: Faithful Voices in the Midst of Oppression African American spirituals emerged with the forced migration of African slaves to North America. These songs represent the cultural syncretism that came alongside the increased interactions between Europeans and Africans, as the enslaved peoples “partly composed under the influence of association with the whites, partly actually imitated from their music.”1 This music style particularly arose in North America because, though brutal, the living conditions and environment in that region enabled slaves to live longer, thus forming strong communities and families with children. Rather than the enslaved populations receiving a constant influx of new migrants, thus maintaining strong ties to their place of origin, the populations in North America slowly developed a unique culture that wasn’t fully African, but also not European, leading to the birth of African American culture and music.2
Kongo cross, solid cast brass, 15001600s, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Fair use.
A crucial step in the development of Black spirituals was the spread of Christianity. The initial introduction of European trade to the African continent also brought the merchants’ religious views and led to the conversion of some regions, particularly in western Africa and along the Congo River. Therefore, Christianity was already prevalent among some of the enslaved peoples and some historians even suggest that the first African slaves brought to North America in 1619 were already believers.3 Peter H. Wood explains that enslaved Africans slowly adopted Christianity as the dominant belief towards the second and third generation because they had less exposure or ties to African religion. However, he argues that, despite its European influences, a distinct black Christianity developed that emphasized the Old Testament stories and Jesus’s role as “a friend of the afflicted and a redeemer of the weak.”4 These themes are reflected in the spirituals’ lyrics which frequently mention the biblical patriarch Jacob, and the Israelites’ exodus from Egypt and eventual entry into the promised land.
The songs were also unique in their blending of European and African music styles. They were performed in a congregational setting, such as in church on Sunday or worship meetings that were facilitated multiple nights of the week on plantations. They were also used as songs of labour to assist slaves in daily work, especially in tasks requiring physical exertion. Several of the melodies mimicked European music, but given the oral tradition of the songs, they often included other original elements.5 A significant characteristic of the spiritual, more African in origin, was improvisation. The leader would begin chanting one line, which the congregation would repeat several times before moving onto the next verse, while the congregation would break out into several harmonies and exaltations added alongside the usual lyrics. This reflects the African tradition of music being a communal activity in which everyone partakes and spontaneously changes the song while also shouting words of encouragement and clapping or dancing along.6 This collaborative approach is described by one observer as the piece was “sung by the entire multitude with
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