LSA Technology report volume 1 by Leicester School of Architecture

Technology 3036 Tech 1 Student Technical Resources Volume 1

Index

Freeform surfaces and systems behind them: Tel Aviv Museum of Art

001

Glulam

015

Materials and Cladding - Guggenheim Museum

036

Low energy typologies - water harvesting

050

Freeform surfaces and the systems behind them - EMP Museum

068

Frank Gehry – 8 Prince Street, New York

081

Brick: Material/Manufacture/Applications

105

Cross Laminated Timber

106

Low energy typologies - Daylight and solar gain

112

Low energy typologies – Thermal mass and air tightness

126

Green walls and roofs

145

Cross Laminated Timber (C.L.T.)

151

Ceramics

169

Steel framing and construction

195

Nordpark Pailway Station

209

Glass

219

IAC building, Frank Gehry

231

Insitu concrete

247

Insulating Concrete Forms (ICF)

269

Kit Houses

287

Kunsthaus Graz - a case study of the friendly alien’s surface

311

Passive envelope - facades and double skin

325

Low energy typologies

335

Concrete

344

Material poetics â&#x20AC;&#x201C; concrete

368

Mechanical ventilation and cooling systems

390

BA3 TECHNOLOGY 3 ARCH 3036

TEL AVIV MUSEYM OF ART Project 1 ‐ Freeform Surfaces + The Systems Behind Them

Avgoustinos Spyrou / P11280799 Konstantinos Venieris / P11247007

001

Contents Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………02 Skyfall…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..03‐04 Frame Structure………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..05 Exterior Façade…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………06 Construction Restrictions ..........................……………………………………………………………………………….07 Materials…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….08‐10 Bibliography……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..11 Appendix…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….12‐13 Page | 1

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The Tel Aviv Museum of Art is located in the heart of the city of Tel Aviv, Israel and is the country’s main art museum which first opened to the public in 1932. The actual museum is located in the Tel Aviv Performing Arts Center building complex with its central buildings being The Helena Rubinstein Pavilion for Contemporary Arts built in 1971. In 2011 a conjoint building extension on the west side of the museum was opened called the Herta and Paul Amir Building. The 55 million dollar structure was designed by architect Preston Scott Cohen and consists of 5 main floors (2 of them to be found underground) and a total of 18,500 m2. The building facilitates a range of different galleries/exhibition spaces, an auditorium, restaurant, offices and a library. The spaces are all arranged around a central complex designed atrium also known as the ‘Lightfall’. This atrium along with the structure’s elaborate exterior design and complicated floor arrangements are the key features that define this building as a contemporary conceptual design.

Fig. 01 Main Tel Aviv Museum building

Fig. 02 Herta and Paul Amir Building

Fig. 03 Site master plan indicating Hetra and Paul Building site

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Skyfall The structure’s intricate design is a result of the original tight triangular shape of the site. Due to the fact that the architect was required to use rectangular spaces for the museum’s galleries, the space had to be developed to serve the proper placement of these galleries. Consequently, twisting geometric surfaces developed between the gallery arrangements which mostly concentrated in the center of the building forming a void that crossed throughout the whole building. Cohen wielded this void converting it into the building’s central atrium which not only provided central circulation for the floors but also refracted natural light from a roof skylight allowing it to penetrate all five floors (two of which located underground), hence receiving the name ‘Lightfall’. The spiraling elaborate atrium spans to a height of 27 meters and manages to coincide with the edges of the surrounding rectangular galleries. The actual shape contains 28 poured‐in‐place concrete hyperbolic paraboloids (also known as ‘hypars’). In mathematics, a paraboloid is a quadric surface of a special kind. There are two kinds of paraboloids: elliptic and hyperbolic. A hyperbolic paraboloid is an infinite surface in three dimension with hyperbolic and parabolic cross‐sections. The term hypar was introduced by architect Heinrich Engel in his 1967 book Structure Systems.

Fig. 05 model and sketch of hyperbolic paraboloid for report

Fig. 04 conceptual 3d image of Lightfall

Fig. 06 building section indicating the Lightfall

The process of casting these forms was accomplished by the use of bent plywood sheets which were placed in the interior of the structure to shape out the inner hull‐like form‐work layers. Steel tubes which were welded together on the exterior of the structure were also placed to shape out and support the paraboloid’s curves. During the pouring of the concrete, contractors would strike the form‐work with hammers attempting to vibrate the concrete mixture in order to avoid any air being trapped. Other measures were taken as well such as a constant monitoring of the procedure of consolidation and speed of hydration of the mixture in order to avoid any damaging or cracking. Page | 3

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Fig. 08 casting panels and metal rods

Fig. 07 Lightfall diagram

Fig. 09 Final concrete finish of Lightfall In the interior of the concrete hypars lie a dense framework of reinforcement bars constituting them even more durable. Hence, this tall vertical complex of adjacent hypars manages to stand alone as a separate structure from the rest of the surrounding building framework allowing it to withstand gravity as well as any seismic loads event though the structure’s concrete thickness does not exceed 180 mm. In some cases though where surface joints occur, the thickness may even reach 400 mm. In other cases, where surfaces created more bowed like corners, in order to avoid applying even thicker layers of concrete, the contractors used steel cages which remained buried within the concrete creating interior voids. This not only decreases the amount of concrete used but also reduces the load upon the structure. Also, this technique allowed the workers to join together the formwork with tie rods. In addition, the structure’s surfaces are finally coated with a white plaster finish which allows the shape to have an even more sense of a continuous geometry and better enabling the refraction of natural light. The atrium’s exterior surfaces which face the surrounding galleries are not coated exposing the concrete along with the imprints of the form‐work.

Fig. 10 Interior image of atrium depicting white coat

Fig. 11 Interior image of atrium without coating 005

Fig. 12 Interior image Page | 4 of atrium

Frame Structure The museum’s main structure consists of a steel frame incorporating a variety of different steel beams which span out to a maximum height of 35 meters. The construction company which manufactured and installed the steel framework is an Israeli based manufacturing company by the name of Minrav Steel Division. The beam that they used predominantly throughout the frame, is a castellated 1300mm beam (model HEM 1000). Due to the high loads and spans of the structure, a system of Vierendeel trusses was also applied throughout the frames of each floor. Even though the design of the exhibition floors of the building seems simpler than the structure of the hyperbolic paraboloids applied in the ‘Lightfall’ atrium, the actual arrangement of the spaces are similarly intricate. By examining the plans of the building one can detect the distinct differences occurring respectively on each floor. Specifically, there is a shifting pattern on the structural system of each floor which occurs through a 22.5o degrees rotation of each floor’s axes in relation to the one below. Thus creating independent sets of plans which are placed one on top of the other connected by a main vertical space in the center (“Lightfall’).

Fig. 13 Conceptual diagrams of floor arrangement

Fig. 14 frame structure diagram

Fig. 15 frame installations on site

Fig. 16 frame installations on site 006

Fig. 17 frame installations on site

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Exterior Façade Covering this complex steel structure, is the façade of the building. A contemporary design consisting of 465 reinforced precast concrete panels. These panels are cast in different forms each shape unique, taking the form of mostly quadrilaterals and triangles. The design created by these interlocking shapes forms a type of continuation of the hyperbolic paraboloids found in the building’s atrium in the interior. Even though the architect’s original intention was to apply the similar shapes and casting techniques as applied in the atrium, due to reasons of expense he compromised with the appliance of these disconnected faceted concrete surfaces. The concrete panels where shaped and cast on site within one of the lower floor galleries of the building, measuring around 130 mm in thickness these slabs weighed up to 9 tons. The architect argues that the onsite casting benefited the project not only cost‐wise but also prevented any possible transportation damages that may had occurred due to the delicate shape of the panels. The process of the pouring of the concrete to shape out the slabs was applied in two layers with an instalment of a steel reinforcing framework in between. This technique enabled the contractors to apply the precise amount of concrete in order to protect the steel frame from the heavy ‘salty’ climate of Tel Aviv. The entire process of the manufacturing of these panels lasted approximately one year and once finalized each slab was mounted up on the existing steel frame with the use of cranes. In order to connect the panels to the facade, steel plates where integrated on the back of each panel providing connection points with the underlying frame which consists of vertical steel beams placed at a distance of 2.5 meters from each other. These vertical beams are then connected to the main Vierendeel structure of the building. Finally, the contractors applied a sealant in order to cover the 20mm joints between the cladding panels creating a smoother and more integrated surface.

Fig. 19 Concrete panels on frame structure

Fig. 20 casting of panels on site gallery

Fig. 18

Fig. 21 detail of concrete cladings 007

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Construction restrictions As a final outcome, the façade expresses a horizontal continuation of the inner geometry created through the ‘Lightfall’ with the use of panels in different dimensions progressively receding or expanding at different axes. Even though this representation achieves the project’s original conceptual intent, the architect admits to the fact that there were several construction complications which eventually effected the final outcome of the design. A relative example was the limitations occurring in the placement of the cranes which mounted the panels. Because of the prior construction of the ‘Lightfall’ atrium in the center of the building, there were difficulties placing the cranes in central positions on the site, hence preventing certain originally intended (by the architect) panel arrangements. Through this example, the architect acknowledges the close relation between the penalization of the curves manifested and the actual construction approach applied.

Fig. 23 Inclined angles of concrete panel positions

Fig. 22 Photo indicating process of panel instalments.

In a lecture Cohen delivered, he states, “The building betrays some of its own principles due to the production constraints of the project”. He also reveals though the significant contribution of 3d software which was used in the representation of the building’s complex forms such as the combination of paraboloids found in the ‘Lightfall’. Without the modern 3d software he admits that the project could have never been implemented as it would have been impossible to depict the contemporary intricate structure and circulation of the building.

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Materials The building comprises of a number of prevailing materials one of which is concrete. Concrete is a distinguishing feature of the building as it not only constitutes the structures interior walls but also defines the museums exterior façade. Contrary to the client’s original preference for a stone cladding, the architect insisted on a concrete exterior which not only gave the building a more contemporary design, but also managed to associate it to Tel Aviv’s reoccurring architectural element of concrete and white stucco buildings found throughout the ‘white’ city. It also allowed additional flexibility in terms of the façade design, as concrete panels could be placed in inclined positions such as under the south side soffits of the building as it is much lighter than any stone cladding. In addition, the fact that it could be precast on site constituted it a more economical option allowing the contractors to cast even larger cladding elements. In the interior of the building concrete remains a predominant material as it forms most of the walls within the galleries. It is also the principal material used for the construction of the central atrium (Lightfall). The architect found it to be most suitable as it allowed him to create and experiment with complex free forms such as the stacked hyperbolic paraboloids. The concrete supplier company was Danyan Minrave which also dealt with the pre‐casting process on site. Concrete, besides from being a modern looking material, also benefits from a lot of other advantages compared to other materials. It has a high durability as it will not rust, rot, burn or bent. Also the thermal mass properties of concrete make it a great selection for this building. Structures that use concrete walls, foundations or floors are highly energy efficient, as they use the concrete’s inherent thermal mass or ability to absorb and retain heat. With Tel Aviv belonging to a Mediterranean climate region, the concrete’s absorbing properties is a fundamental benefit for the structure.

Fig. 24 Photo depicting key materials such as concrete, timber cladding and aluminum railings

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Another noticeable material found throughout the building is glass. It can be detected both on the exterior and interior of the museum used for multiple purposes. The predominant uses are for the window wall openings on the building’s exterior as well as within the gallery spaces. Also it plays a key role in the central atrium as it is used on the roof skylight which allows natural light to penetrate throughout the whole building. Glass is also applied for the museum’s top floor balconies enabling again natural light to pass through illuminating the galleries.

Fig. 25 Glass roof Skylight above Lightfall

Steel is also an important feature of the building even though most of it is hidden within the frame structure. Structural steel is essential for large developments such as the Tel Aviv Museum providing the building with several advantages. Due to the considerable weight of a public building like this, steel is the most preferable structural material that can support such a considerate load. Steel is also highly flexible which enabled the creation of this complex design adapting it with minimal disruption. In the galleries were the most open and vast spaces are found, steel frame is used to create that effect without the need of a single column, and keeping the ceiling from collapsing. Page | 9

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Additional secondary materials applied throughout the building can be detected such as aluminum used for the museums interior and exterior railings, stone flooring applied on the several open gallery spaces as well as the surrounding exterior of the building (supplied by Jerusalem Gardens Stone Works Company) and maple timber found as a main cladding material in the lobby area, and galleries. It was designed and installed by an acoustic design team as it was also used in the auditorium and library areas. The great advantages of maple timber is that It serves as a great sound repelling material which does not allow sound to escape, therefore it up scales and enriches the sound experience in those parts of the museum. The Tel Aviv Museum of Art Herta and Paul Amir Building is a superb example of contemporary design as it depicts Preston Scott Cohen’s intricate conceptual exploratory forms in practice bringing modern architecture to its greatest extent. With the use of modern 3d software as well as the optimum choice of material use and construction process, Cohen manages to bring his complex but aesthetically pleasing structures into life.

Fig. 26 3D diagram of model

Fig. 27 Interior photo of Lightfall

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Bibliography Pearson, Cliffort A., and Joann Gonchar. "Tel Aviv Museum of Art." Architecture Records. N.p., Nov. 2011. Web. 18 Nov. 2014. <http://archrecord.construction.com/projects/portfolio/2011/11/tel‐aviv‐ museum‐of‐art.asp>. Gonchar, Joann. "Tel Aviv Museum of Art." Architecture Records. N.p., Nov. 2011. Web. 18 Nov. 2014. <http://archrecord.construction.com/projects/portfolio/2011/11/Tel‐Aviv‐Museum‐Faceted‐ Facade.asp>. Gonchar, Joann. "Tel Aviv Museum of Art." Architecture Records. N.p., Nov. 2011. Web. 18 Nov. 2014. <http://archrecord.construction.com/projects/portfolio/2011/11/Tel‐Aviv‐Museum‐Spiraling‐ Core.asp>. "Herta and Paul Amir Building at the Tel Aviv Museum of Art." Dezeen Magazine. N.p., 22 Nov. 2011. Web. 18 Nov. 2014. <http://www.dezeen.com/2011/11/22/herta‐and‐paul‐amir‐building‐at‐the‐tel‐ aviv‐museum‐of‐art‐by‐preston‐scott‐cohen/>. Cohen, Preston S., and Nicolai Ouroussoff. "Preston Scott Cohen, "Museum as Genealogy,"" Museum as Genealogy. USA, Boston. 8 Oct. 2014. Youtube. Web. 8 Oct. 2014. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V5Ij6la0MbQ. Pearson, Clifford A., and Joann Gonchar. "Tel Aviv Museum of Art." Architectural Record. N.p., 11 Nov. 2011. Web. 12 Nov. 2014. http://archrecord.construction.com/projects/portfolio/2011/11/Tel‐ Aviv‐Museum‐of‐Art.asp "Projects." Minrav Steel Division. N.p., n.d. Web. 15 Nov. 2014. <http://eng.minravsteel.co.il/>. Cohen, Preston S. "Preston Scott Cohen – Herta and Paul Amir Building, Tel Aviv Museum of Art." Preston Scott Cohen MoMA Lecture. USA, New York. Oct.‐Nov. 2014. Preston Scott Cohen – Vimeo. Web. 17 Oct. 2014. <http://vimeo.com/75836815>. Cohen, Preston S. "Preston Scott Cohen, Harvard University Graduate School of Design, Preston Scott Cohen, Inc." Preston Scott Cohen, Harvard University Lecture. USA, Boston. 17 Oct. 2014. Vimeo. Web. 17 Oct. 2014. <http://vimeo.com/31969515>. http://www.pscohen.com/tel_aviv_museum_of_art.html Page | 11

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Appendix Figure 01: http://www.tamuseum.org.il/Data/Uploads/helena%20M.jpg Figure 02: http://alexandrapevzner.files.wordpress.com/2013/12/tel‐aviv‐museum‐of‐art.jpg Figure 03: http://www.pscohen.com/images/projects/tel_aviv_museum_of_art_SP.png Figure 04: http://archrecord.construction.com/projects/portfolio/2011/11/images/Tel‐Aviv‐ Museum‐8.jpg Figure 05: Student experimentation work (model and sketch) Figure 06: http://thesuperslice.com/2011/07/28/tel‐aviv‐museum‐of‐art‐preston‐scott‐cohen/ Figure 07: http://www.bustler.net/index.php/article_image/tel_aviv_museum_of_art_opens_its_ new_herta_and_paul_amir_building_tomorrow/image/5423 Figure 08: http://archrecord.construction.com/projects/portfolio/2011/11/images/Tel‐Aviv‐ Museum‐17.jpg Figure 09: http://archrecord.construction.com/projects/portfolio/2011/11/images/Tel‐Aviv‐ Museum‐6.jpg Figure 10: http://ad009cdnb.archdaily.net/wp‐content/uploads/2010/11/1289308653‐tama‐core‐ overview.jpg Figure 11: http://img5.adsttc.com/media/images/50b7/f0ce/b3fc/4b23/9a00/01a1/large_jpg/09.jpg?1354232 014 Figure 12: http://img1.adsttc.com/media/images/50b7/f0b0/b3fc/4b23/9a00/0199/large_jpg/01.jpg?1354231 984 Figure 13: http://s124.photobucket.com/user/francojean23/media/preston‐scott‐cohen‐ lightfall.jpg.html Figure 14: http://archrecord.construction.com/projects/portfolio/2011/11/images/Tel‐Aviv‐ Museum‐drawing‐9.jpg Figure 15: http://eng.minravsteel.co.il/showProject.asp?p_id=17 Figure 16: http://ad009cdnb.archdaily.net/wp‐content/uploads/2010/11/1289308623‐copy‐of‐ untitled‐panorama9.jpg Figure 17: http://eng.minravsteel.co.il/showProject.asp?p_id=17 Figure 18: http://archrecord.construction.com/projects/portfolio/2011/11/images/Tel‐Aviv‐ Museum‐drawing‐8.jpg Figure 19: http://imageshack.com/f/81/8809041.jpg Figure 20: http://archrecord.construction.com/projects/portfolio/2011/11/images/Tel‐Aviv‐ Museum‐13.jpg Page | 12

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Figure 21: http://www.bustler.net/index.php/article_image/tel_aviv_museum_of_art_opens_its_new_herta_a nd_paul_amir_building_tomorrow/image/5422 Figure 22: http://archrecord.construction.com/projects/portfolio/2011/11/images/Tel‐Aviv‐ Museum‐FacetedFacade‐650x400.jpg Figure 23: http://www.pscohen.com/images/projects/tel_aviv_museum_of_art_08.png Figure 24: http://cdn.hw.net/UploadedImages/d43f78a0‐19d2‐483e‐8a37‐ 2028b310590c/09451612‐79a5‐45e8‐bb65‐ f6529c4a19ef.jpg?w=730&h=550&mode=crop&404=default Figure 25: http://s3.amazonaws.com/europaconcorsi/project_images/2587410/IMG_0720_ed_full.jpg Figure 26: http://archrecord.construction.com/projects/portfolio/2011/11/images/Tel‐Aviv‐ Museum‐8.jpg Figure 27: http://t3.thpservices.com/fotos/thum4/026/818/viw‐acnh‐0051‐0055.jpg

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TECH Project 1 : Material/ Systems Study GLULAM

ARCH 3036

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Shaukat Patel - P11242092 Pratish Odedra - P1128476X

TECH Project 1 : Material/ Systems Study GLULAM Introduction

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In recent times the demand for a versatile construction material has fueled the blooming success of engineered timber. One in particular which has become ever present is glued laminated timber or otherwise known as Glulam. It is well known for its incredible strength to weight ratio, which makes it exceptionally useful in load bearing structures that have long spans. It is also considered to be far more aesthetically pleasing than much of todayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s conventional building materials. The components of a piece of glued laminated timber (Glulam) are timber boards that are layered on top of one another with the grain parallel to each other. There are also alternative methods that can be used to produce a stronger grade of glulam. By placing the best grade of timber on the outer layers the inner layers are then protected.

Sheffield Winter Garden, Sheffield, England

Gibson Hotel in Point Village, Dublin, Ireland

Leonardo da Vinci Bridge, Oslo, Norway

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Shaukat Patel - P11242092 Pratish Odedra - P1128476X

TECH Project 1 : Material/ Systems Study GLULAM First Use and Initial Success

ARCH 3036

A 1906 German patent signaled the true beginning for the construction method. An early Glulam structure erected in the U.S. was a research facility in Wisconsin. The structure was constructed in 1934 and is currently still standing showing its structural longevity and success. A project even earlier than this was completed in 1911 by Swiss engineering consultants Terner & Chopard. The former Hygiene Institute in Zürich which has now become the main university building still has the Glulam on show in the bell-shaped roof dome. The initial process entailed vertical columns which transitioned into curved glued laminated eaves zones and then becoming sloped rafters all within a single laminated unit. The components bond under pressure which is combined with horizontally arranged laminations. It wasn’t until after the Second World War that Glulam as we know it today began to emerge, following the arrival of powerful synthetic resin adhesives and the impetus of wartime demands for laminated marine and aircraft components. After the moderate success of the process, a major development occurred during 1942. The introduction of fully water resistant phenol-resorcinol adhesive allowed Glulam to be used in exposed exterior environments without having to worry about degradation to the glue line. This was an important development in the materials history as it meant Glulam become a material that could now be used in a variety of ways.

Southamton Registry Office Former King Edward VI College Completed in 1866

University of Zürich Former Hygiene Institute Completed in 1911

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Shaukat Patel - P11242092 Pratish Odedra - P1128476X

TECH Project 1 : Material/ Systems Study GLULAM Case Study 1: Old Precedent - Canteen, Copenhagen

ARCH 3036

A very early example of Glulam structure was this arch which covered a workshop. The arch, with a span of 30m was designed and erected in 1916 in Valby. It is now being used as a canteen. The arch has a cross section with an I-shape. A steel rod is used as a tension member. Lamination thickness is 33 mm with the total depth being 700 mm, the width of the flange 166 mm and the width of the web 95 mm. The Glulam was bonded with casein adhesive. The Glulam system was invented by an engineer by the name Hetzer, who patented it.

Detail at Support

Detail at Web Stiffener

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Shaukat Patel - P11242092 Pratish Odedra - P1128476X

TECH Project 1 : Material/ Systems Study GLULAM Current Usage

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The British industry began to flourish as a new era was heralded by the Festival of Britain. The parabolic entrance arches for the Festival itself were made from Glulam and many of the new geometric forms of the Fifties were Glulam. Glulam was mainly chosen for its aesthetics or its non-corrosive properties hence the Glulam beams in swimming pools and ice hockey stadiums. This began to change in the 1970s. Curved beam techniques improved and modern highvolume plants were laid down throughout Europe to produce straight beams in a wide choice of standard section sizes. Many of these sizes were made available ex-stock through distributors. This revolutionized the availability and cost of Glulam, and gave it almost limitless potential. It transformed Glulam from an aesthetic indulgence or an environmental necessity into a basic structural material with substantial benefits over steel and concrete in a host of applications.Â It has given architects the freedom of choice that is expanding the use of this most attractive material every day.

Visitor Centre, Brockholes, Near Preston, Lancashire

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Shaukat Patel - P11242092 Pratish Odedra - P1128476X

TECH Project 1 : Material/ Systems Study GLULAM Case Study 2: Modern Precedent - Visitor Centre, Brockholes, Preston

ARCH 3036

The new visitor and Education Centre at Brockholes Wetland and Woodland Nature Reserve near Preston is set on a floating ‘island’ on a lake. The structure as explained below is primarily made of Glulam supported by other structural elements. Glulam optimise’s the structural values of a renewable resource - wood. It has been uses due to its sustainable properties compares to other traditional building products, requiring less energy in production and being fully recyclable. Furthermore, the Glulam has excellent thermal properties and is an extremely effective insulating material with very high energy efficiency.

Primary Structure The primary structure is the Glulam portal frame. The Glulam columns are vertical but at the top of each column the Glulam rafters spray out in a V-shape, creating a geometric pattern that belies the complexity of the connection needed to achieve it. Building stability is achieved by stiff connections at the apexes and eaves, where large forces are transferred from the rafters to the columns.

Secondary Structure The secondary structure consists of the structural insulated panels (SIPs) which provide racking resistance to the structure while also giving a high level of insulation and air tightness.

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Tertiary Structure The tertiary structure consists of the bolts that attach to the flitched plates that hold together the Glulam portal frame. Another tertiary structural element is the steel ring which also connects to the flitched plates and is a beam that distributes the high horizontal forces to the sides of the building.

Shaukat Patel - P11242092 Pratish Odedra - P1128476X

TECH Project 1 : Material/ Systems Study GLULAM Structures

ARCH 3036

Three-pinned ‘A’ frame

Simply supported beams

Roof arch with tie rod

Arch fixed to foundation

Monopitched beam

Duopitched beam

Pitched cambered beam

Three-pinned portal

Tied rafters

Portal frame with jointed haunches

Trussed beam

Economy frame

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Shaukat Patel - P11242092 Pratish Odedra - P1128476X

TECH Project 1 : Material/ Systems Study GLULAM Joints

Industrial Portal Frame Apex Connection

Half Lapped Portal Frame Apex Connection

Steep Pitch Portal Frame Apex Concealed Connection

Arch Pinned Apex Connection

Portal Frame Base Shoe

Post Base Flush Fitted Connection

Externally Exposed Arch Base Connection

Concealed Beam to Beam Connection

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Concealed Beam to Post Head Connection

Beam to Wall Connection

Half Check Beam to Post Head Connection

Purlin to Portal Frame Connection

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Beam to wall Connection

Beam to Beam Connection

Double Beam to Composite Post Head Connection

Tied Arch Base Connection

Shaukat Patel - P11242092 Pratish Odedra - P1128476X

TECH Project 1 : Material/ Systems Study GLULAM Various Uses

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Glulam structural members can be used for various elements of design and building including structure, flooring, roofing and cladding. Applications range from one or more small timber beams used as lintels in houses and flats, right up to sports stadiums and leisure centres. Within these structures, clear spans in excess of 67m are possible with glulam. Even larger structures exist in other parts of the world. The 162m diameter dome for the Tacoma Sports and Convention Centre in Washington State, USA, is a good example. Glulam has been used in Britain for over 100 years and, more recently, with the benefit of fully waterproof adhesives for the past 50. Uses include:

Libraries Showrooms Shopping Centres Restaurants Churches Schools Industrial buildings Air terminal Aviation hangars

Residences Hotels Hospitals Swimming Pools Leisure Centres Gymnasium Ice rinks Curling Rinks Bridges

Cladding

Flooring

Bridge

FMO Tapiola is the highest wooden office building in Europe. The exterior facade is clad using 2,200m2Â of split Finnforest Glulam plank.

The Glulam flooring system is a cost effective alternative to traditional mezzanine floors. It has the ability to achieve high fire and insulation ratings.

Glulam bridges are predominantly used in Scandinavian countries due to there versatility and low maintenance cost.

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Shaukat Patel - P11242092 Pratish Odedra - P1128476X

TECH Project 1 : Material/ Systems Study GLULAM Manufacturing Process

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1. Timber is dried and stress graded and stored in controlled conditions.

2. Excessively high moistture timber pieces receive additional kiln drying

3. End are cut to an interlocking profile and the glue is applied

4. After the curing period, the pieces are planed 5. Pieces are fed end to end through a joint pressing and cross cutting machine 6. The laminations are then pulled round a steel jig and cramped

7. Quality checks are made including tests looking at the joints 8. Transported to site and used in construction

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Shaukat Patel - P11242092 Pratish Odedra - P1128476X

TECH Project 1 : Material/ Systems Study GLULAM Other Production Methods

ARCH 3036

Glulam does not require preservative treatment for most uses but certain applications may present environmental conditions which may mean that a treatment is necessary. An area where decay may occur, areas with insects and areas that have long-term or frequent presence of moisture all would require some sort of treatment in order for it to last. Some of these hazards are sometimes controlled through overhangs, flashings, ventilation and proper joint connection details. When these problems cannot be avoided then pressure-preservative-treated or a naturally durable wood species must be used. Indoor uses that normally require treatment include swimming pools, greenhouses and post-and-beam construction in some farm buildings. Outdoor uses preservativetreated Glulam include bridges, marine applications and highway noise barriers. Impregnation is a popular treatment which works by charring the wood. This treated wood utilizes a fire retardant chemical that remains stable in high temperature environments. The fire retardant is applied under pressure at a wood treating plant. The treatment provides a physical barrier to flame spread. The treated wood chars but does not oxidize. Effectively this creates a convective layer that transfers flame heat to the wood in a uniform way which significantly slows the progress of fire to the material. The temperatures can go over 1000째C and the timber will resist heat penetration. As a result of this, a large beam which has been designed to support its design load in even the severest of fires, will maintain its strength.

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Shaukat Patel - P11242092 Pratish Odedra - P1128476X

TECH Project 1 : Material/ Systems Study GLULAM Impregnation Testing

ARCH 3036

Heat was applied to the outer layers of the Glulam till all sides were chared.

Using layers of timber sheets and waterproof adhesive, Glulam was produced.

Testing was carried out with a specimen of non impregnated timber and Impregnated timber

The first test was carried out on the non impregnated timber. It withheld 24 cans of coke which weighed in at 9.6 kg before the timber gave in.

The test on the impregnated timber was much successful. It held a total of 19.2 kg without much warping.

After excessive force of over 70 kg, the timber showed signs of weakness but still remained intact with little visible damage.

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Shaukat Patel - P11242092 Pratish Odedra - P1128476X

TECH Project 1 : Material/ Systems Study GLULAM Adhesives

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With regards to adhesives, The most widely used is phenol-resorcinol-formaldehyde which was formed during the 1940’s when the resin industry had a major development. Resorcinol is produced either by using a natural resin such as a distillate of brazilwood and combining it with potassium hydroxide, or by several synthetic methods. This resorcinol is then further treated to produce the wonder adhesives. Key advantages of the adhesive include: 1) 2) 3)

It is waterproof and has been used for boats for many years. It is one of the few adhesives around that stay strong when wet for extended periods. Outside conditions are not a deterrent for using this glue. It is strong. Currently one of its main use is to put together plywood, laminated support beams and other wooden structural elements. Resorcinol can withstand a wide range of useful temperatures when cured. It does not soften in warm temperatures and doesn’t become brittle in colder temperatures.

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Shaukat Patel - P11242092 Pratish Odedra - P1128476X

TECH Project 1 : Material/ Systems Study GLULAM Benefits

ARCH 3036

Versatility Can be pre-fabricated to almost any shape or size, for example portals, arches, floor beams, columns, â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Aâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; frames, rafters and lintels. Due to the versatility of glulam can be used to span over 50 meters.

Members can be of uniform or varying depth. Can be straight or curved depending on requirements. They can also be designed to accommodate larger loads for structurally efficient designs than can be achieved with straight members

No Cladding Glulam used as structural members requires no protection or cladding this makes it a cost effective material.

Good Strength to weight Ratio Glulam has one of the best strength to weight ratio in comparison to structural steel or concrete. A structural steel beam can be up to 20% heavier whereas reinforced concrete is up to 600% heavier than an equivalent glulam beam that can carry the same load.

Fire Resistance Chars at a considerably low rate of 40mm per hour (European White-Wood). Even under massive pressures at high temperatures glulam is able to maintain it structural integrity. Due to its high thermal insulation properties the charred layer acts as protective layer to the inner layers during a fire. It is because of these thermal characteristics that every individual glulam member in structures burns as a single unit. This is partially also due to the fact that the adhesive used to bond the timber together is also has very high fire resistance. Glulamâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s reliability and performance during fires means that it is easier to predict and design around possible weaknesses a structure may have. This makes it easier for designers to apply changes without having to do expensive testing on structures.

Chemical Resistance Timber in general has notable resistance against chemical attacks and long periods of time in polluted environments. An example of glulam being used in volatile environments is in barns that are used to store salt for de-icing roads. The adhesive used to bond the timber components together in glulam are also significantly resistant to most chemicals.

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TECH Project 1 : Material/ Systems Study GLULAM Disadvantages

ARCH 3036

Chemical Resistance Although it is not totally immune to alkaliâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s, sulphides and oxidizing agents, as a result of these the fibers within the timber can be destroyed and weakened. This can lead to the structural integrity of timber members to become compromised. Although this is a disadvantage for using glulam, it is very rare for these agents to come in contact with the glulam in most public environments.

Extreme Climates Timber shrinks when dried; during this process surface splits can appear although these can look harmful, they generally donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t affect the structural integrity of the member or entire structure. This can be an effect caused by excessive air conditioning as well as internal heating. As a result it is not an ideal material to use in extremely hot climates.

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TECH Project 1 : Material/ Systems Study GLULAM Comparison to Steel

ARCH 3036

Strength Laminated beams are stronger in comparison to natural wood that is used in construction. Glulamâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s strength to weight ratio is stronger than steel. This makes it the logical choice for construction projects. Flexibility The flexibility of Glulam and versatility makes it ideal for use in roofing systems, arches and bridges. These can also be constructed with steel, but the heavy weight of steel makes it inefficient during transport and can often make designs complicated. The appearance of Glulam can be changed for the demands of the clients by using alternative species of timbers. Substitution In most architectural structures the steel beam can be replaced with a Glulam beam. It might not be possible to substitute Glulam for steel in all buildings. The selection of material used can also be dependant on clients needs, costs and availability.

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Shaukat Patel - P11242092 Pratish Odedra - P1128476X

TECH Project 1 : Material/ Systems Study GLULAM Case Study 3: Glulam Comparison - Richmond Olympic Oval, Vancouver

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The Richmond Olympic Oval designed by Cannon Design, is located on a 32 acres of city-owned land along the banks of the Fraser River. The roof of the Richmond Olympic Oval, features one of the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s largest clearspan wooden structures. The roof includes 2,400 cubic metres of Douglas-fir lamstock lumber in glulam beams. A total of 34 yellow-cedar glulam posts support the overhangs where the roof extends beyond the walls.

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Shaukat Patel - P11242092 Pratish Odedra - P1128476X

TECH Project 1 : Material/ Systems Study GLULAM Case Study 3: Glulam Comparison - Richmond Olympic Oval, Vancouver

ARCH 3036

There are numerous notable achievements in the structural design of the Oval, including: • • • •

At a clear span of close to 100 metres, the roof features the longest composite glue- laminated wood/ steel arches in the world. The 2.5 hectare roof structure is one of the largest timber roofs in the world comprising plywood and pine beetle kill wood. The structurally and architecturally distinctive prefabricated ‘Wood Wave Panels’ feature an assembly of simple, curved 2 x 4’s (38 x 89mm standard dimensional lumber) that is unprecedented, and also a world first. The degree of mechanical and electrical integration within the prefabricated arch and panel system is rare if not unprecedented.

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Shaukat Patel - P11242092 Pratish Odedra - P1128476X

TECH Project 1 : Material/ Systems Study GLULAM Case Study 4: Steel Comparison - 2012 Olympics Basketball Arena , London

ARCH 3036

Influenced from the surrounding permanent venues, the arena celebrates both the best of British engineering and the temporary nature of the structure through innovative and economic structural and cladding solutions. Lightweight, simple building components have been used instead of a concrete structure usually found in stadia architecture, allowing the Basketball Arenaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s steel frame and cladding to be constructed in just six weeks. The 30m high rectangular volume is made out of a steel portal frame and wrapped in 20,000 sqm of lightweight phthalate free and recyclable PVC. This translucent bespoke cladding is stretched across minimal steel framing modules that push the fabric out and create an elegant and three dimensional undulating pattern across the facades.

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Shaukat Patel - P11242092 Pratish Odedra - P1128476X

TECH Project 1 : Material/ Systems Study GLULAM Sustainability

ARCH 3036

Timber is called a â&#x20AC;&#x153;plus energyâ&#x20AC;? product in the industry. This is due to fact that more energy can be produced using timber than is required the produce the actual timber itself. This helps to justify the heavy use of timber in todayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s construction. Some of the other benefits of using timber in comparison to other traditional materials is its lightweight and east to transport. Further more the cellular structure of timber makes it a perfect natural insulator as it can trap air inside it cell walls. The sustainability of timber far over powers its alternatives such as concrete and steel. The life span of glulam is thought to be almost unlimited. Although there are some factors such as the species of timber used, type of adhesive and its application methods can all affect the grade of glulam that is produced. With all of these factors taken into account glulam can be produced for even some of the harshest environments. A successful example of it use in a hostile environment can be seen in many indoor swimming pool designs. Glulam has proved to be durable and reliable without regular maintenance. Timber is the only renewable building material, the planting rates in countries such as Scandinavia are higher then the amount harvested. The full potential of Glulam is yet to be explored as it has not yet passed the test of time. Being just over 100 years old and only being applied with fully waterproof adhesives for the past 50, there is still a long way for it to be fully comparable to other conventional construction methods which have been around far longer. The early structures still remain and it is implied that Glulam is almost invincible.

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TECH Project 1 : Material/ Systems Study GLULAM Sources

ARCH 3036

[1] http://www.archdaily.com/49705/winter-olympics-2010-vancouver-skating-richmond- olympic-oval-cannon-design/ [2] http://www.facebook.com/l.php?u=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.germanglulam. com%2Fc5%2Feng%2Fgl-timber-bsh%2Fhistory%2F&h=BAQFd1lM[3] http://www.facebook.com/l.php?u=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.apawood. org%2Fglulam&h=BAQFd1lM[4] http://www.facebook.com/l.php?u=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.kanukaewp. co.nz%2Fhtml%2Fglulam_benefits.html&h=BAQFd1lM[5] http://www.facebook.com/l.php?u=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.glulamsolutions. co.uk%2Fglulam%2F&h=BAQFd1lM[6] http://www.facebook.com/l.php?u=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.glulamsolutions. co.uk%2Fenvironment%2F&h=BAQFd1lM [7] http://www.facebook.com/l.php?u=http%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia. org%2Fwiki%2FGlued_laminated_timber%23cite_note-7&h=BAQFd1lM [8] http://www.facebook.com/l.php?u=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.woodsolutions.com. au%2FWood-Product-Categories%2FGlulam&h=BAQFd1lM[9] http://www.facebook.com/l.php?u=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.keithfarmer. co.uk%2Farchitectural-services%2Fglulam-vs-steel&h=BAQFd1lM[10] http://www.facebook.com/l.php?u=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ehow.com%2Finfo_12176125_ steel-beams-vs-laminate.html&h=BAQFd1lM[11]

Herzog, Thomas. (1941) Timber Construction Manual

[12] Allen, Isabel. (2000) Structure as design: 23 projects that wed structure and interior design [13]

Silver, Pete. (2014) Structural Engineering for Architects: A Handbook

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MATERIALS AND CLADDING REPORT GUGGENHEIM MUSEUM BILBAO, SPAIN FRANK GEHRY BY INGRID ALEXIA SILVERIO FREIRE AND ABDUL ROHAN SAMAD ARCH3036 - TECHNOLOGY- 2014

Word count: 2252

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INTRODUCTION In the 1990s, the city of Bilbao, Spain wanted a change from an industrial community to a high service industry based community. In Spain many urban renewal projects were underway for example the new airport control tower and a suspension bridge by architect Santiago Calatrava. In Bilbao, the Basque Administration decided to convert the Alhondiga, a former wine storage warehouse into a cultural facility. They thought an art museum would be great as a cultural facility; they wanted to partner up with the Solomon R. Guggenheim Foundation for the new museum. The Guggenheim Museum Bilbao was designed by the architect Frank Gehry, and it was inaugurated on October 18, 1997. The style used for this particular building was deconstructivism, and because of the way the building was created it became a symbol of contemporary architecture. Basically, the museum has a total of 24000 square meters, of which 600 are occupied by an auditorium, 1100 by a shop, the restaurant and cafeteria also occupy 1100 square meters, and another 200 occupied by a library. 11000 square meters are occupied by 19 galleries, which ten of those have an almost classical orthogonal look and have stone finishes. The other nine galleries have irregular shapes and titanium finishes, presented in a remarkable look.

Figure 1: Guggenheim Museum Bilbao [Source: PixAchi/Shutterstock.com]

CLADDING/MATERIALS USED Three different types of cladding were used for this building; titanium cladding was used for the galleries, as previously noted in this paper, limestone for the public facilities (e.g.

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restaurants, library and galleries as well) and blue render for the administration sections. Glass was also used not to only look aesthetically pleasing, but to also allow lots of natural light in during the day. Frank Gehry (Bruggen, 1997) said the only new material used in Bilbao was the Titanium. First, they planned to use lead copper, but they had to find out another element that could play with the light without being a toxic material. It was analyzing stainless steel that they found some samples of titanium and we realized that could be a good idea. He said “The titanium is thinner than stainless steel would have been; it is a third of a millimeter thick and it is pillowy, it doesn’t lie flat and a strong wind makes its surface flutter. These are all characteristics we ended up exploiting in the use of the material on the building” (Bruggen, 1997). As noted by Cacace, Nikaki and Stefanidou (2012), in thin sheets of only 0.38 mm, titanium reveals plastic values that allow it to adapt easily and flexibly to the complex surfaces of this radical design. The titanium only had been used previously as a construction material for small areas of roofing in Japan, according to researches (Gonzales, Vaggione and Ackley, 2002). Also, one of the factors they decided this was that at that time titanium was very cheap if it was bought from Russia. “In an extremely fortunate coincidence, the world’s largest titanium manufacturer, Russia, put huge amounts of the product on the market just at this time, causing the price to drop dramatically. A week after the price dropped, all the titanium necessary for the Bilbao Guggenheim had been purchased.” (Gonzales, Vaggione and Ackley, 2002).

Figure 2: Use of titanium at Guggenheim [Source: Amiot, 2011]

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Unlike the free flowing of the titanium in the Guggenheim, the stone was used to represent the more stationary places, Gehry wanted “to avoid, at any cost, the checkerboard effect” (Bruggen, 1997, p. 14) that even slightly different tones of stone can create. Sampling 120 different stones from the Grenada mine, only one would be chosen and it had to have these requirements: “amber colour, high resistance to erosion, possibility of being able to cut pieces of reduced thickness, and high mechanical resistance.” (Bruggen, 1997, p. 14) The survey process was easy, the ones Gehry thought matched his description he would keep, the others he would discard straight away, the several stones left he would look at again until he was left with just the one he wanted. When it came to the tower this was the hardest as they had to find a way to curve the stone into shape, this was done with a stainless steel skeletal frame with thin stone cladding on the outside. This is ironic because the tower existence was often debated since it lacked function, and therefore only limited funds were left for its design and construction. However, due to its final location next to the bridge, the stone installation became of great importance. In order to cut each piece of stone properly, the contractor used a programme called CATIA, which will be described later in this paper. They also used another machine to ensure that each piece was in the proper position. If you look close enough towards the corners and sides of the stone buildings, you can see they do not align; this is because full stone slabs were not used. They were used as stone claddings hooked onto stainless steel anchors, which were held in place by the secondary structure stonewall. The stone cladding is also revealed by a 20 mm gap at the base of the stone cladding, which allows water to escape from behind the stone.

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Figure 3: Use of Stone at the Guggenheim Bilbao [Source: http://europaenfotos.com/vizcaya/pho_bilbao_5.html]

Figure 4: Use of stone [Source: Sullivan, 2005]

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Finally, another material used was the glass. The glass used in the Guggenheim Museum Bilbao is treated to protect the interior against heat and radiation while letting light stream into the entire building. The windows used are called “Natural 62” and these were supplied by IDOM. “Out of the total 2,200 glass panels, 2,000 of them were uniquely shaped, and most of the shapes were quite complex. The AutoCAD drawings of the glass panels were taken to the site, then exact measurements were made to allow for slight deviations in the actual construction.” (Gonzales, Vaggione and Ackley, 2002). These openings where the glass was used provide to the visitor a view of the city.

Figure 5: Complex geometry of the glass walls [Source: Sullivan, 2005] INTERIOR LIGHTING Lam Partners are an architectural lighting company who were developing ways of creating energy efficient strategies to their lighting designs. During the development of the Guggenheim a great amount of energy analysis was being conducted so that Lam

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Partners could determine the amount of natural light that would be entering the museum through the gallery spaces. With the analysis collected they were able to create an efficient electrical system that met the needs as a primary function for the exhibition space in the museum. The natural light that entered the upper floor gallery was redirected to the lower gallery space below. This was done through a funnel in the middle of the upper gallery. This allowed natural light to enter the lower gallery without having to create unnecessary holes in the pre-existing wall design by Gehry. For electrical lightings dimming systems were used to reduce the power of the electrical lights by at least eight percent, this was used on occasional events. Adding to this Gehry also had lightings fitted on the exterior of the Guggenheim.

Figure 6: Interior lightning diagram [Source: STRUCTURE The geometric forms of the museum were the biggest challenge to the engineers. Frank Gehry named each one of these forms: River, Neo, T1000, Cobra, Flower, Fox, Potemkin, Tower S17, Fish, Canopy and boot. According to Gonzales, Vaggione and Ackley, (2002), the construction of the steel structure started in September 1994. The system comprised three layers of steel, each one serving a different function. The structure was connected using high strength bolts.The primary structure was erected in modular, 3-meter square sections with a minimum of wide flange shoring. This allowed all structural members, with the exception of those in the “Boot” and “Tower S17”, to be rectilinear in section. They could achieve the complexity of the external surfaces forms using secondary structures and sheathing.

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Figure 7: Atrium with three-meter, primary structural grid [Source: Gonzales, Vaggione and Ackley, 2002] The secondary structure is formed of horizontal galvanized steel tubes (60mm diameter) at three-meter vertical intervals, and it is responsible for establishing the horizontal curvature of the skin. Finally, the tertiary structure established the vertical curvature. Every element in the secondary and tertiary structures allowed the smooth skin curvature and thermal expansion. (Gonzales, Vaggione and Ackley, 2002)

Figure 8: Tertiary structure attached to secondary structure [Source: Gonzales, Vaggione and Ackley, 2002]

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As shown in the fig. 9 below, the internal structure of metal rods (primary structure) forms grids with triangles. To calculate the number of bars that are necessary to each location, as well its positions and orientations, they used a 3-D design software called CATIA, mentioned before, as noted by Pagnotta (2013). CATIA is used in the airplane industry, and basically consists in digitalization of points on the edges, surfaces, and intersections of Gehry’s hand-built models to construct on-screen models that can then be manipulated. As observed by Glymph (Bruggen, 1997), CATIA deals with polynomial equations instead of polygons, is pretty much capable of defining any surface as an equation. He also noted that the Guggenheim might have been a sketch idea, but they would never be able to build that without the use of the computer. “FOG/A (Frank O. Gehry and Associates) input the forms of their wood and plastic models into CATIA using 3D scanning devices that recorded points on the model into a virtual three-dimensional coordinate system.Once each of the prototypical pieces of the building was completed in CATIA, the computer model containing its face and surface geometry was sent to a machine shop where a scale model was milled out of foam by numerically controlled machinery. Next, the files were sent to IDOM on DAT tapes. The files, each typically larger than 30 megabytes, were too large to send efficiently via email using the currently available connections.” (Razz, 2012). With the help of this software, they were able to shape the titanium as well, which almost every piece has a different shape than the others. Although they cut almost all pieces using the computer model, some of them needed to be done on site to ensure the right size.

Figure 9: CATIA Model of steel frame [Source: Lindsey, 2011]

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Figura 10: Catia renderings [Source: Bruggen, 1997, p. 51] According to e Cacace, Nikaki and Stefanidou (2012), the second structure mentioned before, on top of the primary structure, was necessary to enable the building to be structurally strong while supporting the titanium in a free-floating form. Then, it was installed a layer of 2 mm galvanized sheet on these secondary studs, insulated from the back and waterproofed on the outer edge. Over this waterproof membrane, they installed the panels of titanium. As it is possible to see in the fig. 11 below, the lower edge of each titanium panel is curved around behind the hangers overlapped with another panel. It alleviates dust collection and water run-off. They had to pay special attention to the titanium cladding control of the water flow and runoff from the building. As observed by the same authors, they created weep holes at the base of the titanium panels. This way they could provide an outlet to the water that may accumulate behind the panels. Another solution was creating standing seams to manage water at the seams.

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Figure 11: Panel of Titanium [Source: Adapted from Cacace, Nikaki and Stefanidou (2012)]

Figure 12: Standing seam [Source: Adapted from Cacace, Nikaki and Stefanidou (2012)]

Figure 13: Galvanized steel cladding and Bituthene waterproofing [Source: Gonzales, Vaggione and Ackley, 2002]

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Gonzales, Vaggione and Ackley (2002) observed that the structure performed well under vertical loading, but problems were caused by lateral loads like the wind. Hybrid solutions were developed to reinforce the frame assembly during its completion. They solved this issue by the use of anchoring cables and cranes. Another challenged face was the glass walls. Basically, those walls are made of triangle panels of glass to create the effect of curved surfaces without the additional expense and complexity of making curved glass.

Figure 14: Triangle panels creating the effect of curved surface [Source: Source: Gonzales, Vaggione and Ackley, 2002] Three layers of glass, one on the exterior and two on the interior, were used to insulate the building, both acoustically and thermally. CONCLUSION Looking at the Guggenheim Museum we can see how hard of a project this was, not only was this a project to the people of Spain, but a rescue, a help towards the economy of Bilbao as they were going through a rough patch in their economy with crime rates up and no work for the locals. This created many jobs for them and actually has made Bilbao a tourist attraction bringing in a lot of money and putting them on the map.

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The Guggenheim itself caused a lot of problems for everyone who was a part of the project from the architect to the construction workers. If it wasnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t for the advanced technology none of this would have been possible in its construction time frame, and it would not be what it is now. Studying the materials and the way they were structured together, we can see the difficulty and the simplicity of the way things have been put together. The simple part of the construction was the titanium and the stone as they used simple hanging structures. This helped make the project a lot less complicated than it needed to be saving time and energy. The main concern came down to the glass as it was the most difficult to work with, as energy usage, heating, light and the curve had to be taken in account. Out of the 2,200 pieces of glass used 2,000 of them were different shapes making it harder to put together, but with technology it made it simpler. Any change in this would cause a domino effect changing everything in the process from the energy usage consumed to the way the natural light entered the building. For this project technology was the centerpiece, it is thanks to this everything came out the way it did. The saved using manual labor to cut the pieces bit-by-bit, energy and a lot of money. The final result of the building amazing, one of Gehrys best work, the way the materials sync with each other, its perfect location and views, overall the building is a high standard building which gives the impression of â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;lightâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY CACACE, K., NIKAKI, M., STEFANIDOU, A. (2012) An evaluation of cladding materials. [Online] Cambridge: Harvard University. Available from: http://isites.harvard.edu/fs/docs/icb.topic502069.files/guggenheim.pdf. [Acessed: 8th Oct 2014]. GONZALEZ-PULIDO, F., VAGGIONE, P., ACKLEY, A. (2002) Managing the construction of the Museo Guggenheim Bilbao (B). [Online] Cambridge: Harvard University Graduate School of Design. Available from: http://www.uniroma2.it/didattica/ACALAB2/deposito/case_Guggenheim.pdf. [Acessed: 8th Oct 2014]. BRUGGEN, C. (1997) Frank O. Gehry: Guggenheim Museum Bilbao. New York, NY: Guggenheim Museum Publications. LINDSEY, B. (2001) Digital Gehry. [Online] Basel: Birkh채user. Available from: http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8OOwn_KzkmIC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage& q&f=false. [Acessed: 8th Oct 2014]. PAGNOTTA, B. (2013) AD Classics: The Guggenheim Museum Bilbao / Frank Gehry. [Online] Available from: http://www.archdaily.com/422470/ad-classics-the-guggenheimmuseum-bilbao-frank-gehry/. [Acessed: 8th Oct 2014]. ILLONIEMI, L. (2014) What the Guggenheim Should Consider Before Building in Helsinki. [Online] Available from: http://www.archdaily.com/475322/what-theguggenheim-should-consider-before-building-in-helsinki/. [Acessed: 8th Oct 2014].

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Technology Project 1- Material/ systems study ‘Low Energy typologies’ BA3-ARCH 3036 Technology Project 1

Subject: Water harvesting Report by Adiljit Singh Kahlon [P12203181] Kirtee Kebla [P12227826] 050

Contents

S. No. Topic

Page Number

0 Abstract

1 Introduction

2 Need for water harvesting

3 Historical development

4 Types of water harvesting

5 Uses of water harvesting

6 Average rainfall and heatwave

7 Advantages of water harvesting

9 Design consideration in water harvesting

10 Components of water harvesting

11 Water harvesting potential

12 Cost analysis

13 Effectiveness of technologies

14 Safety considerations

15 Water harvesting thumb rules

16 First ďŹ&#x201A;ush calculations

17 Conclusion

18 Case study (The Florida house learning centre)

19 References Refrences

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Abstract This technical report will focus into one particular area of environmental design, it will mainly compromise of research into the application, problems and possibilities of water harvesting.

The outcome of this report is to evaluate the effectiveness of both rainwater and greywater systems as water conservation measure; and how the implications of such systems could balance existing water supplies with the water demand of a household or premise.

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1 Introduction Water harvesting is a general term for collecting and storing of runoff for future use to meet the demands of human consumption or human activities. Runoff would usually be harvested within the boundaries of a property, from roofs and surrounding ground surfaces. Rainwater use system refers to a water harvesting technique which harvest the runoff of rain or snow from roofs via traditional guttering, pumped and treated down through pipes to be distributed from an above or underground storage tank. Greywater use system refers to the collection of greywater typically generated from baths, showers and sinks. It is disinfected for use as reclaimed water in and around properties from an above or below ground system.

2 The need for water harvesting With growing demands of water from an increasing population in both urban and rural areas, coupled with climate change concerns, it has led to a gradual decline for water availability per capita in many countries over the years. As ground water figure in most areas are starting to deplete, there is a dire need for water harvesting measures and revival of traditional systems.

Fig. 1 South India; Drought prone region where rivers are becoming dry

Fig. 2 Water Consumption: Global average ratios The single largest consumer of water is currently agriculture (see fig. 2)however, industrial and household demand for water faced by both homeowners and businesses has shown rapid growth.

3 Historical development Rainwater collection systems can be dated back to the third millennium BC as one of the oldest means of collecting water for domestic purposes. Simple stone-rubble structures were used for impounding rainwater in India (1997), another common technique of storing harvested water from roofs surfaces was into cisterns with masonry domes.

Rainwater in Western Europe, America and Australia was sourced primarily for drinking water; early filtering technologies used natural materials such as a series of rocks, gravels and sands to effectively purify the rainwater through. (See fig. 3) Meanwhile in other areas, rainwater equally arose to an agricultural necessity in the 1970s and 1980s. As a result, harvesting techniques evolved into relatively sophisticated systems. Water harvesting for household and recharging purposes was also evident as villagers across the world would collect roof water in vessels during rainy days. Fig. 3 Early water filtering system 053 2

4 Types of water harvesting

Fig. 4 Flowchart showing a typical rainwater system

(i) Rainwater harvesting An in-line down-pipe filter prevents leaves and other debris from getting into the storage tank. For water harvested through a pervious pavement, an oil trap separates oil and fuel residuals before the filtering process. The non-potable water may then be disinfected through separate set of pipes. Additional filtration and disinfection of rainwater lessen the potential of oil and animal faeces contamination. The water level in the tank is monitored by the control unit where an automatic trigger tops up the tank with mains water via an AA air gap when insufficient. This prevents back flow of rainwater into the mains to reduce the risk of contaminations. The overflow trap allows excess water to be released when it reaches a certain tank level. The Private Water Supply Regulations 1991 would apply if the rainwater is designated for human consumption or use in a business that produces food and drink.

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Fig. 5 Flowchart showing a typical greywater system

(ii) Greywater harvesting Greywater is coarse-filtered prior to storage to discourage bacterial growth from any build up of debris. This can be processed through sand and carbon filters or membrane filters to provide a more consistent end result. The control panel is often electronic with connections to the mains water supply to automatically supplement to the water levels. The final step involve chemical or ultraviolet disinfection to regulate the quality of the water for use.

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(iii) Application of rain water harvesting The recommended option for harvesting rainwater in domestic buildings is through a direct system (see Fig.6) where the collected water is pumped directly to points of use as it does not involve large distances.

Fig. 6 Direct pumped system

Fig. 7 Indirect pumped system

Some variants pump the rainwater from an underground storage tank to a higher level header tank like in Fig. 7 For larger commercial buildings, the gravity system is more efficient as the collected water collected is pumped to an elevated cistern which flow by the means of gravity to its designated appliances.

(iv) Application of grey water harvesting

Recycled greywater from showers and bathtubs is typically used for flushing toilets and outdoor uses due to source of the water supply.

Although unapproved in the UK, it is possible to make the harvested water suitable for potable uses through appropriate ultraviolet filtering and disinfection.

Fig. 8 Schematic of a greywater system

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5 Uses of Water Harvesting The application of rainwater harvesting in domestic and commercial installations should be used for non-drinking or bathing purposes according to most European jurisdictions. It is used generally for domestic plumbing system, toilet flushing, laundry, car washing, indoor plant watering and for garden irrigation purposes.

Fig. 9 Measured total England and Wales microcomponent use 2009-10 (%)

6 Average rainfall and Heatwave The UK currently experiences on average 550-3000mm of rainfall per year (See Fig. 10) with occasional heatwaves and predicted drier summers. Water UK (March 2007) consider typical daily water use for a single person to be 165 litres. A 50m2 property in south east of UK would collect 22,000 litres of rain a year, supplying around 60 litres daily. A house with a footprint of 100m2 will supply a daily average of 120 litres, which is a significant saving. With an adequate supply, rainwater can meet this demand. In a domestic situation, it would account to 30% of the water demand while as much as 65% for commercial.

Fig. 10 Average rainfall figure in England and Wales

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7 Advantages of Water Harvesting Rainwater and greywater both contribute to sustainable water management and award credits for helping to achieve the Code For Sustainable Homes targets. (i) Rainwater -

Makes use of an alternative water supply Potential to save costs as reduced water bills for households or small businesses Reduces ground water demand on the local community Decreases volume of runoff leading to decreased flooding, erosion and the flow to stormwater drain Benefited by plants and gardens because it had s a balanced ph and chlorine Carbon footprint reduction

(ii) Greywater - Reduces the amount of sewage discharged to ocean or rivers - Reduced energy use and chemical pollution from treatment - Uses nutrients in the water to support plant growth

8 Disadvantages of water harvesting (i) Rainwater -

Unreliable rainfall; limited by the amount of rainfall and size of the catchment area High investment costs Requires separate pipe work to be installed while above ground tanks can be unsightly Importance of maintenance as system can be infiltrated by rodents, algae and insect if not properly cleaned Water quality is vulnerable as it can be affected by animal droppings, dirt and organic matter

(ii) Greywater - Health standards of the water and quality concerns - High initial costs and plumbing requirements - Prolonged use can cause long-term damage to the soil

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9 Design consideration in water harvesting Size Estimating is best finished with a continuous daily simulation show that ascertains runoff captured, overflow and runoff discharged. There is a point of confinement to the rate of spillover decrease RWH can attain. Regardless of how enormous the reservoir is, this limit canâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t be surpassed. Even for destinations where re-utilization demand is more than the yearly overflow volume, expanding reservoir size offers unavoidable losses as a result of the irregularity of precipitation in many areas. Design life Materiality of the project plays a vital role in the life expectancy of the structure. The local conditions and usage of material accordingly is important to prolong the life of the project. It is also important that the cisterns are water tight and have a long life as they will be sealed and leakages can result in damage. The soil conditions of the locality govern the materiality of the cisterns. Structural capacity The size of the cistern can vary from project to project. For a large project they could be under a parking lot or for a smaller one in a green space. Sites with higher ground water levels, buoyancy calculations should be done so that the tank is strapped down well. Installation and handling Softer materials like fibreglass need solid back fills and local soils may not be able to hold them in place. Back fills can increase the cost of the whole project how ever using a local suitable back fill can save costs.

Fig. 11 Showing over all working of water harvesting

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10 Components of water harvesting

Fig. 12

Fig. 13 Metal roof with snow guard

Fig. 14 Showing a grill to keep the debris away

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Fig. 15 Gutter with a gutter guard

Fig. 17 First flush diverter box

Fig. 18 Filter showing different layers for purification

Fig. 19 Gravity mesh to remove finer suspended particles

Fig. 20 Storage tanks above ground

Fig. 16 PVC conduit pipe 061 10

11 Water harvesting potential Parameters identification of water harvesting a) Rainfall There are various factors which need to be studied for the system like number of days in which the rain exceeds the thresh hold rainfall of catchment, Probability and occurrence for mean monthly rainfall and frequency distribution of storms and different specific intensities b) Land use or vegetation cover Vegetation plays an important role in retention and infiltration rates thus decreasing the volume of runoff. c) Topography and terrain profile The type of land form and gradient of slope play a pivotal role in determination of sustainability of the catchment area and over all system. d) Soil type and depth The feasibility of a catchment area depends on mainly (1) surface structure which governs the surface runoff process, (2) Infiltration and percolation rate shows the water movement back into the water table and (3) soil depth determines the capacity of the soil to hold water. e) Hydrology and water resources The flow and storage of water depends on the runoff of the rainfall. The runoff of water depends on the type of catchment are which could be effective if there is direct runoff or ineffective if the water gets evaporated or peculated. Calculating the amount of rainfall which produces runoff for that area is very important. f) Socio economic and infrastructure conditions For planning, designing and implementation of any project it is very important that the inhabitants of the local area involved and find the system useful. g) Environmental and ecological impacts The local area must be studied thoroughly before planning any system as water harvesting systems can interfere with existing natural environment for example can deprive runoff to catchment are which form a lake or change the quality and quantity of water in water bodies around.

Fig. 21 Showing how every house helps in a larger picture

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12 Cost analysis Installing a water harvesting system in a new constructed building is generally lower as opposed to an existing building. Many new of the shared costs can designed to optimise the system. On the whole maximising water capacity and minimising water usage through reuse is very important. With careful planning and designing cost of water harvesting system can be reduced . A good quality domestic system should cost between ÂŁ2,000 and ÂŁ3,000 according to the UK Rainwater Har- vesting Association. In addition, the cost of running the pump is likely to cost around 5 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 10p a week

13 Effectiveness of technologies. Feasibility of water harvesting in certain locality depends on the amount and intensity of the rainfall ,catchment areas and surface. It usually depends on the consumption of the user , as rainfall is irregular throughout the year the method of rainfall collection can supplement the consumption . Harvesting is viable after keeping in mind the quality and quantity of water available from other sources and consumption of the consumer. The decision maker has to keep in mind cost of the project and the economic benefit from the project.

14 Safety Considerations Tank lids should never be left open and should be child proof. Heavy winds can blow the lids thus contaminating the water. The manhole cover should be fixed mechanically so that special mechanism is required to remove it. Gutter mesh systems should be put up so as to prevent leaves and debris to flow with the water and to prevent mosquito breeding habitats.

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15 Water harvesting thumb-rules Collection Calculations

Symbol

Description

Units

Notes

Volume of collection

gal/time

use this to help determine tank size

Precipitation

inches/time

collect this data

Footprint of collection surface

square ft

this is horizontal projected area of the collection surface

EfďŹ ciency of collection surface

unitless

0.75 soil, 0.8 average, 0.95 metal

Conversion from cubic ft to gal 7.48 gal/cubic ft

combine 1ft/12in in conversion for the precipitation data here

US Example A 1900 square foot house with slanted shingle roof in Columbia, Missouri can collect a potential 2500 gallons in the month of March:

March total volume = 2500 gallons for the month

Pipe sizing calculations Too small of pipes will restrict water from flowing through the system fast enough. Rule of thumb: 1cm2 of gutter cross section per 1m2 of roof area. Another method would be to use pipe sizing/friction tables to find an acceptable amount of friction. Example Using rule of thumb: for a 23m2 the minimum pipe size is 23 cm2. Converting to diameter from the equation of

, yields:

Converting to inches, yields:

Therefore a pipe diameter of at least 2.13 inches should be used. The most common size that meets that requirement is 2.5 inch.

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16 First Flush Calculations Because of contamination on the roof the first volume of rain should be diverted from the storage tank. As a rule-ofthumb, contamination is halved for each mm of rainfall flushed away . Calculation: meters squared (roof area) X pollution factor = Litres to be diverted. or Time based rule-of-thumb: Divert the first 10 minutes of rain. Downpour rain per minute * 10 minutes = volume to divert or Area based rule-of-thumb: 0,41 litres for every meter squared of roof OR 10 gallons for ever 1,000 foot squared of roof

Fig. 22 Showing size of rainwater pipe for roof drainage

17 Conclusion Parts of the UK is subjected to severe water stress as global warming disrupts weather patterns. Any sustainable water use strategy such as rainwater or grey water harvesting are solutions to these increasing water shortages and help lower the local demand for non potable water. To conclude, rainwater harvesting systems is likely to show growth in forthcoming years as it becomes more financially viable due to higher water costs from companies. However, the effectiveness of these systems would be dependent on site specific factors and its ability to meet end use preferences.

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18 Case study: The Florida House Learning Centre Project Type: Single-family residential Location: Sarasota, Florida The Florida House Learning Centre introduced both a traditional rainwater and grey water catchment system in response to local water concerns. The area typically gets over 1270mm of rain a year which is harvested to; -

maximises water usage reduce their monthly water bills reduce the storm runoff and associated pollution of waterway postpone the need for costly stormwater infrastructure improvements

The house obtains only 10% of its water supply from the city due water-efficiency measures installed throughout the house. The average water per capita use in Florida has been reduced by almost 40% - from 530 litres to 333 litres per day since the Florida House opened. Some of the other consideration includes: -

kitchen faucet with automatic water sensor dual flush toilet using 3 litres for liquid flushes, 6 litres for solid flushes clothes washing machine using cistern water irrigation water collected in 2500-gallon cistern passive solar 52 litres hot water heater closed-loop hot water re circulating system to bring hot water on demand

All cistern overflow is directed into a pond to recharge back into the ground.

Fig. 23 Standard rainwater catchment system at the Florida House

Fig. 24 Different water harvesting components of the Florida House.

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19 References Shaffer, P., Elliott, C., Reed, J., Holmes,J. and Ward,B. (2004) Model agreements for sustainable water management systems :model agreements for rainwater and greywater use systems. London : CIRIA Case study: Pushard, D. [2004] Action Learning at Florida House: A Rainwater Harvesting Case Study Fig. 1 Available: http://www.thehindu.com/multimedia/dynamic/01173/TY09CAUVERY_1173165f.jpg Fig. 2 Available: http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/water_use/image/pie2.png Fig. 8 Available: http://cabiblog.typepad.com/.a/6a00d834522f2b69e20133f58cfc28970b-pi Fig. 9 Available: http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20140328084622/http:/cdn.environment-agency.gov. uk/geho1110bten-e-e.pdf Fig. 10 Available: http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20140328084622/http:/cdn.environment-agency. gov.uk/geho1110bten-e-e.pdf Fig. 13 Available: http://www.rainwaterconnection.com/rainwater-harvesting/8-rainwater-harvesting/7-rainwater-harvesting-components Fig. 14 Available: http://www.rainwaterharvesting.org/Urban/Components.htm Fig. 15 Available: http://www.rainwaterconnection.com/rainwater-harvesting/8-rainwater-harvesting/7-rainwater-harvesting-components Fig. 16 Available: http://www.rainwaterconnection.com/rainwater-harvesting/8-rainwater-harvesting/7-rainwater-harvesting-components Fig. 17 Available: http://www.rainwaterconnection.com/rainwater-harvesting/8-rainwater-harvesting/7-rainwater-harvesting-components Fig. 19 Available: http://www.whollyh2o.org/rainwater-stormwater/item/56-typical-components-of-a-rainwater-harvesting-system.html Fig. 20 Available: http://www.whollyh2o.org/rainwater-stormwater/item/56-typical-components-of-a-rainwater-harvesting-system.html Fig. 21 Available: http://www.ntnu.no/eit/tio4855 Fig. 22 Available: http://www.appropedia.org/Basic_rainwater_collection_calculations Fig. 23 Available: http://www.harvesth2o.com/floridahouse.shtml#.VGP3eWR_tQP Fig. 24 Available: http://www.sturdyproducts.com/Images/online-shop/products/Rainwater%20Harvesting/Rainwater%20Harvesting%20System%20Gallery%20Image%201.jpg

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ARCH 3036 2014-2015 TECH 3 Project 1: Material/ system study Freeform surfaces+ the systems behind them EMP Museum by Frank Gehry Seattle, Washington 1999 - 2000 Taylor Tugeman Martynas Seskas

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Frank Owen Gehry opened a professional architecture studio in 1962. However 16years later, more or less all at once , he overthrew the canons of his daily professionalism for a new and bold experimentation. In 1986 he began an intense research at a one man show - it launched him into international spotlight. He has the most desirable recognitions that an architect could seek. On both sides of the atlantic many of constructions have followed one another to which some of them commended as works that are symbols of contemporary architecture. Continual experimentation with highly different materials are behind his projects, they play with interior and exterior, space and volumes, atmosphere and material, they are all conceived in a fluid, continuous movement. An underwater, free flowing liquid feeling emerges.

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Gehry starts a project by talking a lot to his client and by drawing. He then moves into models, drawing and models are a way of thinking out loud. This step is crucial for Gehry, it relates the drawing to the 'logic' of construction. His use of the model follows a direct response to work with the client. Models are much easier to understand for those who are not trained to read drawings. His models often have the look of being thrown together or casually made. The models are built, rebuilt, torn apart and modified, often requiring a more elegant one to be made for formal presentation to clients. Despite the important role that computers play in Gehrys process, the early stages consist of playing with very neutral blocks for a long time until the scale is right. As his projects have became larger and more complex, the importance of block models have increased. In the early stage of his process, plans and sections are drawn in autocad that correspond to the block models. These plans allow functional refinements as well as preliminary budget to be generated. The block models are augmented by maps, photographs and surveys that allow for the site to be reconstituted in the office. The numerous models are carefully documented with photographs, this allows the various models to be recaptured when the design goes too far.

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Once the final design model is complete it is translated through digitalization into a digital model. The digitizer produces curves and lines corresponding to points on the model. At the heart of the process is the correspondence between a virtual point in the computer and a physical point. Generally the first stage involves drawing waterlines on the model at equal intervals as if the model is being translated into a topography model. Lines are then traced with the digitizer. Locating the extreme boundary points of the model is another method that is followed by the tracing of the edges of major curves. If a surface can be flattened to form a plane without compressing or stretching, the lines can be traced. The tracing of a grid superimposed on the model is a third method. The intersection points of the grid are then digitized. Ruling lines and edges describe features, and grids and waterlines describe the flow or curve direction. The physical model is translated into a digital model by digitizing both feature and flow. Once the points, which generally describe curves, are established in the digital model, a surface is created that attempts to coincide with the points. Three models are usually produced. A surface model that describes the exterior surface, a Wire frame geometry model that describes the structural grid and organisation, and an interior surface model. To study the patterning of the skin the surface model will be developed. The CATIA master model basis is formed from the wire frame geometry model, this then becomes 'the single source of information' for the project. A specific means of rationalization involves the use of modified Gaussian Analysis. The process evaluates the degree of compound curvature of building components, particularly surface panels and skins, using a set of mathematical functions. The degree of curvature, coupled with a particular materials behavioural properties, can be represented in a three dimensional digital model, allowing problem areas to be identified.

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Digitizing a model from the EMP project into CATIA with FARO digitizer

Gaussian analysis in CATIA for the EMP project, red indicates a problem area

If the analysis shows that the curvature is within the materials limits, buts still highly â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;shapedâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; - a more expensive condition - a determination can be made as to the necessary action. The process of Gaussian analysis, which began with the Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao, was used extensively in the EMP project resulting in a construction contract that stipulated the maximum area of highly shaped areas.

Used in the EMP project to study efficient and aesthetic ways for laying out the aluminium shingles, spatial grammars have the capacity to use the information of the digital model in a way that extends the number of variations that the designer may evaluate.Top: Shape Grammar algorithm panel variations. Middle: front and rear elevations.

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Structure and skin development in CATIA for the EMP project

The digital model helped address several important coordination issues. Using the CATIA model, 'Hiking trails' required by code for roof access, were designed, and developed with the curving landscape-like forms of the building. Furthermore, the panels are not intended to act as waterproofing-the waterproofing is applied to the buildingâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s concrete shell, which lies beneath the skin-but only as a rain screen. Threaded between the skin and the spray concrete shell of the building, the digital model allowed the elements to be coordinated with a high degree of precision. The process is continuous through the digital model, computer aided manufacturing allows the continuity to extend from design through construction.

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CATIA model panel development, CNC plasma cutting of beam flanges

Pre-fabricated skin panels

Pedestals, Rock-n-roll joint

Skin and structure

CNC guided plasma cutters were used to cut the flanges of the curving structural steel members, to which many were over forty feet long. The flanges and an automated trolley were bent using computer rolling machine along the flange, welded the assembly together. Not only are no two of the buildings 239 ribs alike, there no two feet alike. Accurate placement and alignment of the ribs was a difficult task because typical destinations such as wall, roof, beam, and column are blurred. It was accomplished by using laser positioning and surveying equipment. In addition to the manufacture of the structural member in the EMP project, CATIA information was used to produce a developed template of each of the 21,000 stainless steel and aluminium skin shingles, which were assembled into 4,800 prefabricated panels. The curving steel structure of the EMP is punctuated with hundreds of pedestals that resolve the difference in geometry between the structure and the skin. These pedestals vary in length from several inches to eight feet. Splines, which support the roof panels, are attached to the pedestals using a pivoting ball and socket joint reminiscent of the uni-strut connector used in the Bilbao Guggenheim. These connectors became known as the 'rock-n-roll joint'. The 2,700 rock-n-roll joints allowed for the fine-tuning of the skin to the structure assembly. 074

250mb of computer memory was required to define the characteristics of a single panel by the contractor Zahner Sheet Metal Company. Zahner used a process called ZEPPS, this stands for Zahner Engineered Profiled Panel Systems. The outcome of this process is a faรงade with a smooth profile, each panel aligns with the next to leave a total smooth form. Using the ZEPPS Process allowed for complex forms and minimal waste production of both material and human resources. Computer-guided machinery reduces human error and increases efficiency. Waste is carefully sorted and recycled. The pictures above show both the blueprint and the final form for creating a dual-curved twisting form.

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CATIA (Computer Aided Three-dimensional Interactive Application) information was used to produce a developed template of each of the 21,000 stainless steel and aluminium skin shingles, which were assembled into 4,800 prefabricated panels. By reducing the curves to large panelised sections it allowed the building to be pre-engineered and fabricated ready for delivery too site and rapid installation. The metal panels are both decorative and structural, although they are not load-bearing-the head extrusions are bolted to metal hangers and clipped to the pipe girts. A tongue that runs along the bottom of each sill extrusion fits into a slot in the top of each head extrusion. This arrangement keeps the panels from moving in windy conditions, while allowing for thermal expansion and contraction.

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The surface used includes Angel Hair stainless steel, Red interference Coated stainless steel and Fluorocarbon-coated Aluminium. Angel Hair is an innovation that scatters light particles and prevents glaring hot spots, the results of this are muted reflections, ambient colours and a soft gloss. This material is sustainable when properly installed, maintaining the same appearance after decades of weathering. The material is easily cleaned with water when natural pollutants and dirt begin to appear on its finish.

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Typical ZEPPS速 Assemblies are fabricated and assembled at the Zahner Plant. An Export ZEPPS速 Assembly consists of fabricated parts that are crated and shipped to the site. They are then assembled on-site by local workers.

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Experience Music Project, First Generation ZEPPsâ&#x201E;˘ Assembly, CAD.

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Source

Digital Gehry, Bruce Lindsey (Birkhauser; 1 edition (January 1, 2002) http://www.azahner.com/sys_zepps.cfm. Accessed on 2014.10.18. http://www.azahner.com/surfaces_angelhair.cfm. Accessed on 2014.10.18. https://images.google.com/

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Frank Gehry: 8 price street, New York Michael Safo- p12216031 Shreen Shakoori- p11244318

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Generative Sketch.

His sketches showing the primary thought toward the design, giving the scuplture structure . Building Amenities: Children's playroom Concierge Doorman Elevator Gym Live-in Super Swimming Pool Community Recreation Facilities

The New York by Gehry skyscraper on Beekman St. in Manhattan is the tallest residential building in the Western Hemisphere at 870 feet high

It is the tallest residential building in the Western hemisphere at 870 feet high

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An Extraordinary Architectural Vision

Permasteelisa was able to work with the developer, Forest City Ratner Co. and architect, Gehry Partners, at an early stage to implement their faĂ§ade design. Bridging the Gap between conception and executionâ&#x20AC;Ś.

The New York by Frank Gehry was originally known as Beekman Tower and is a 76-story skyscraper, which is located on 8 Spruce Street. It is a few blocks from ground zero and close to other historic structures such as the City of Manhattan. The conceptual design of the building began in late 2003 and between 2004 and 2005, the architects had explored and studied 50 different schemes using scale models.

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A coordinated Extierior Surface modal.

A 3D surface model was created by Gehry Partners as a working document for designing the façade. To control the costs of manufacturing, Permasteelisa and Gehry Partners evaluated the characteristics of these virtual sculpted surfaces A set of rules were agreed upon to most efficiently fabricate the façade: Developable Surfaces are more economical to produce than arbitrary, free-form geometry Cold Forming panels is the most cost effective fabrication method for making curved metal panels Mechanically Forming/Rolling panels were to be confined to specific rules of fabrication

What Are Developable Surfaces?

A Developable Surface or Ruled Surface is one which maps perfectly to a flat plane without distortion. In other words, a developable surface can be “un-rolled” to a flat sheet.

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Glazing Surface Segmentation

Vertically planar condition: Dark Blue : Standared non- planer condition Light Green: Bay windows condition

Floor to Floor non- panel transition

Surface were named toward the coordinated codification Scheme which gave inforomation and further details about each unitized panels. this naming was used as a foundation by PNA (orgernation of engineering. The conclusion is a .unique location .coloumn/spandrel unit. .operable vents . louvers .building location Curtain wall panel are driven parametrically from geometry taken from there modals.

Using automatted process a simple surface modal with emmbedded infomration was used to produce 3d production information. Structural engineers WSP Cantor Seinuk, New York construction management stlwarts Kreisler Borg Florman (KBF) and curtain wall fabricator Permasteelisa North America, all played crucial roles in the design assist phase. The tower was designed using “Digital Project” software developed by Gehry Technologies. This software allowed cost and fabrication information to be automatically shaped for every design repetition which allowed the design team to improve the design quality. The project’s exterior wall was fully documented in 3D. The curtain wall geometries were categorised into three types of geometries: standard flat panels, moderately shaped panels, and highly shaped panels. The drawings were created automatically from the digital model and connected directly to the fabricator’s machinery. Because of this coordination from design to fabrication, there were no change form the contractor on the curtain wall.

The Data is connected to the original wireframe .

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Finish face of stainless steep panel in grey with circle.

Cylnidrical Panels with Consistant curvature.

Stainless Steel Framing - Trimmed â&#x20AC;&#x153; finished faceâ&#x20AC;? panel which shows and gives geometry. within its typical joint size, termination at vertical transitions (bay window, curbs, parapets) panel was created by radious of curvature which was limtted to a minimum geometry to avoid mechnical deformation. panels with small curvature were to be cylindrically shaped with constant knife edge. all panels were to be developable- curved in only one directions.

Glazeing surface segment

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Devlopable surface Frequent collaborataion between Gehry Partners and Permasteelisa was key to the curtain wall design, as Permasteelsia were involved during the design stage of the project, they were able to define parameters for the surface curvature and Frank Gehry adjusted their models accordingly. They would review the models, make notations where the surface wouldnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t fit within their design parameters, and then Gehry would further adjust their models accordingly. In late 2005, the design was finalised into stainless steel facade with windows. The building has a reinforced concrete structural frame, stainless steel panel sub frames that are attached to the curtain wall unit.

window washing track location the track was located using a polyline in the surface modal located toward the extrusion on the facade. a maximum track segment was cordinated in advance.a maximum and minmum distance from the finsh stainless steel was coordinated

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Typical BIM procedure BIM models usuall provides a thought after the accuracy is not 100 % and it will be to late for this programme to be use. . Steel and Concrete are not useful modal for this format of the programme . . Usually a collision is collected by the Bim software but they had to see the struture of the curtain walls. . The the 3d modal provide too much details and is to big for it tto be transfere onto the BIM Software.

Exsiting Bim Modal can be cumbersome when the building envlope does not close or if the proper modulation is not in use.

Gap in the building envelope geometry

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The typical BIM Structure

The Details shows more function for the building to connect within it window and how it fit. Unitized Curtainwalls the Unitized Curtainwalls was design to be installed and perform similary to PNA typical Unitized system. .millions profile were design for vary range of panel segmentation and were located using a automatted software. .Moadal are linked to the wireframe .Curtainwall panel are driven paramaetrically

Production Engineering Using Automatted process, PNA was able to utilized a simple surfaces modals with embedded information to produced production infomation.

Frequent collaborataion between Gehry Partners and Permasteelisa was key to the curtain wall design, as Permasteelsia were involved during the design stage of the project, they were able to define parameters for the surface curvature and Frank Gehry adjusted their models accordingly. They would review the models, make notations where the surface wouldnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t fit within their design parameters, and then Gehry would further adjust their models accordingly. In late 2005, the design was finalised into stainless steel facade with windows. The building has a reinforced concrete structural frame, stainless steel panel sub frames that are attached to the curtain wall unit.

Unitized Curtainwall/ air/water Barrier

Million profile for Varrying Unit-to- Unit segmentation

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Panel Sub-Structure parametically Driven From Gp Surfaces. The Aluminum sub-structure was precisicely manufactured to match the Design surface using internal structre engineering caculation, the sub structure was stiffned and fastneners were added using paramatic rules. efficency was obtained with re-usuability of parametic modals for geometricalley - similar conditions.

Internal parametic- rules located stiffneners and fastners

Panels are precisely manufactured to conform to surface modals. it consist of 3 diffrent parts the curtain wall, expansion joint stainless steel joints.

Concrete Slab Design

With the interior glazing surface defined, the Gehry Partners architects were able to design the concrete sub-structure using 3D models which could be used for faรงade coordination and verification.

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Design of the FaĂ§ade Air/Water Barrier

The vertical mullions were designed as families that allowed the architect to design the interior glazing surface utilizing arbitrary segmentation and bay windows

A typical air-and-water barrier is placed behind the stainless-steel panels, which is used as the buildings rain screen, these sheets were riveted to aluminium rain screen sub-frames, then attached to flat unitized curtain wall panels. Rain screen panels can curve out as much as 6 feet or as little as 6 inches. The stainless steel shapes made up the rain screen were fabricated according to their curve. Soft curves were cold formed and moderate curves were passed through a pyramidal roller and then cold formed, leaving the tightest curve to be formed cyclonic rollers. The curtain wall connections were generally conventional. In case the tight curve section meeting along the curtain wall, caps were used to overcome these. The Stainless-steel panels were fabricated and assembled at a 3rd party site, since they werenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t a typical curtain wall assembly. The Beekman Tower design consisted of curved metal panel rainscreen elements along with the main air/water barrier skeleton system.

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Cold Forming vs. Mechanical Rolling The panels were formed using two different methods: Cold Forming and Mechanically Rolling Cold Forming a panel relied on the elastic flexibility of the material to allow it to take a desired shape and fasteners and sealant to hold it into place Mechanically Rolling/Forming a panel uses machines to yield the material into a desired shape.

Cold Forming: Paperclip in normal use

Mechanically Forming: Bent Paperclip

The size of the stainless-steel sheets, the size of the machines, transportation to the site, water proofing, tolerances of the concrete structure, and lifting the panels to the higher level of the building was taken into consideration. The wind loads, the rolling method to bend the non-uniform curvature of the panels, and the dead load force of the panel itself were also significant design considerations. The average size of a panel usually ranged from 20in to 80in wide. The depth was between 6in (flat panel) to around 60in. The panels were shipped to Permasteelisaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s factory and shop-installed on the curtain wall units. Unit were grouped anywhere from 1 to 3 per crate.

Cold Formed Surfaces The stainless steel sheet metal has a certain degree of flexibility that allows for mechanical fixings to adequately retain a sheet to the desired curvature. Cold Forming allowed for an inexpensive fabrication process as there was no need for labor-intensive forming operations.

For sheet metal panels having a large curvature, the sheet metal needed to be worked in the factory by skilled technicians to obtain the desired shape. This work was only necessary for curvatures as defined by the fabrication facility and the material properties of the stainless steel.

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Surface defining enclosure .

Efficency was obtained with re-usability of paramaetic modals for geomet- 3D surfaces are flattened and edge features and ricalley similar condition manufacturing information was added

More than 10,911 rectangular panels were manufactured but only 1,888 are exactly alike. All panels have interlocking male-female mullions and a mating horizontal stack. 3,746 panels for the cladding of the columns of which 1570 are curved and 2178 were flat and 5177 opaque panels. All glasses are flat, despite the undulated faĂ§ade cladding which makes the observer think that the glazed surfaces are curved as well.

The breakdown of the design

Design is based on the typical PNA unitized system multiple million pairs to accomidate angular range.

- Stainless Steel Panel and Baffle Box Sub-assembly â&#x20AC;&#x201C;Engineered, fabricated and assembled as a separate process â&#x20AC;&#x201C;Attached to unitized curtainwall after units assembled

Transation stack joint used to change vertical planes as a regular floor plan. 093

Some strategies were put in place in the design to reduce energy intake in the tower. All modules of the exterior curtain wall assembly are thermally broken and high-performance insulated glass was used at all glazed openings, minimizing heat loss through the exterior wall system. Light reflecting pavers were used on all roofs to minimise the amount of heat gain to the building and create a thermally protected roof slab. Radiant floor heating is provided in the public spaces to minimize the excessive loading on the mechanical systems and high efficient linear fluorescent light fixture are used through the residential corridors.

094

Plan

095

Technical plan

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Technical Section

097

Transportation The crating and transportation of the panels posed a unique challenge due to their shape and size.

Site Location Due to the location of the job-site and lack of on-site storage, all deliveries had to be carefully coordinated by the project management team.

Installation â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 3D Layout The 3D models created for fabrication allowed the installation team to precisely locate anchoring systems to the concrete sub-structure. The 3D models created for fabrication allowed the installation team to precisely locate anchoring systems to the concrete sub-structure as well as verify the installed location of any panel using a surveying total station.

098

Installation

099

100

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.76 hight storey . placed in new york . designy by Frank Gehry . an brilliant variety of residences with sight of New York Cityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s downtown and midtown skylines, rivers, bridges and landmarks . asymmetrical bay windows . sculptural qualities .organic shape of the exterior . reflecting on the spectacular view window has been fitted with solar shades brushed stainless steel entry door.

Gehryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s design a spreads which past the exterior of the structure and into the centres themselves. Floor plans revenue benefit of the animate shape of the exterior, and, as an outcome, niches have been shaped that offer the prospect for reading, dining, or just reflecting on the outstanding sight. Every window has been fitted with solar shades that filter light and offer privacy without obscuring views.

Interior appearances and fittings have all been designed and selected by Gehry, be-ginning with brushed stainless steel entry door hardware considered by Gehry, in-spired by the organic forms found in wildlife. Custom cabinetry in kitchens and baths is fabricated with vertical grain Douglas Fir, a material whose fine grain and amber color-ing combine to create an effect that is both polished and warm. Tones of light and charcoal gray in brushed stainless steel appliances, chrome fixtures, porcelain tile flooring, and quartz countertops complement this warmth. All elements of the interiors combine to create an aesthetic that is comfortable, light and modern.

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The bathrooms in the top floor apartments come with heated flooring and limestone walls

Panoramic views: The penthouse apartments offer 360 degree views of the Woolworth Building and the Statue of Liberty

High-end: The kitchens in the penthouse are equipped with Miele cooktops and double ovens and marble flooring

Skyline: The company renting out the building pointed out that helicopters fly lower than the windows

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Completed Project

The design-assist collaboration allowed the project to be built at cost and 3D capabilities ensured high quality production engineering and installation.

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The Brick - Material / Manufacture / Applications

Overview The term brick refers to a unit of building material often made from fired clay. Brick is has long been a preferred building material because of its heat retention, ability to withstand corrosion, and resistance to fire, with its low maintenance it last a very long time. The brick is an inherently ideal material for the constriction of standard structures as well as curved designs due to it being only 4 inches wide and twice as long. Bricks can be used for all types of building and can be used structural and/or decoratively. In Britain brick has a common size of 215x65x102.5 With the uses of metals for structural elements being used more often bricks are slowly becoming used for cladding. However bricks do have a potential to be load bearing and therefore can allow for an array of application from homes to towers to bridges.

History The brick is one of the oldest building material used by man, it is known to have been used as early as 7000BC in southern Turkey and Jericho, this backed up by biblical accounts and ancient records amongst which is a popular story of the city of Jericho fortified by a brick wall Bricks can also be defined as a standard unit of block which is easily handled by one man. The Egyptians created bricks with a 4:2;1 size ratio which allow them to be more easily laid. The brick can have a range of different compounds often varying from country to country, where the clay found in ancient Egypt may have a different mineral compound to the clay found in ancient Turkey.

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Cross Laminated Timber (CLT) What is there to know about Cross Laminated Timber (CLT): - What is Cross Laminated Timber? - - - - - - - - P1 - Who are the main manufacturers? - - - - - - - P2 - How is the manufacturing process? - - - - - - P2 - How is it transported? - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - P2

What is Cross Laminated Timber (CLT)? The CLT is a wood building system that complements traditional timber framing construction methods. It consists of sequences of panels made out of lumber, each panel layer positioned crosswise to the other and glued together. It can be a sequence of 3 to 7 layers that form one strong panel. This method provides strength and dimensional stability, making the material apt to assume structural functions, consisting wall, floor and ceiling elements.

- How does the building process works? - - - - P2 - What are the main characteristics? - - - - - - P3 - What are the main advantages? - - - - - - - - P4 - What are the main disadvantages? - - - - - - P4

The sizes can vary according to the manufacturer and transports restrictions, but the panels can be made with customized dimensions. Usually the sizes alter between 4 to 10 feet (1.20 to 3 meters) in width and 16 to 60 feet (4.90 to 18 meters) in length. The thickness is usually between 2 to 12 inches (50.8 to 304.8 millimetres), but can get up to 20 inches (508 millimetres). Key links consulted:

- How much does it costs? - - - - - - - - - - - - - - P4 - Which buildings used this system? - - - - - - - - P5 - Consulted reference - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - P6

Example of panels sections. Scheme from FPInnovations, 2013. CLT handbook: croos-laminated timber.

Example of the lumbers arrangement to compose the panel layers. Scheme from FPInnovations, 2013. CLT handbook: croos-laminated timber.

http://www.greenspec.co.uk/building-design/cross-laminated-ti mber-design/ http://www.klhuk.com/ http://www.naturallywood.com/emerging-trends/cross-laminat ed-timber-clt http://www.rethinkwood.com/masstimber/cross-laminated-tim ber-clt

INSULATION CHARRED LAYER

max 7.5

VENTILATED AND DRAINED CAVITY

CLT PANEL

HEATED WOOD

m STRUCTURALLY SOUND CORE

fire resistance and seismic performance > P3

connections > P3

spans > P3

insulation > P4 Association with other materials to achieve better performance

transport and building > P2

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What is there to know about Cross Laminated Timber (CLT): - What is Cross Laminated Timber? - Who are the main manufacturers? - How is the manufacturing process? - How is it transported? - How does the building process works? - What are the main characteristics? - What are the main advantages? - What are the main disadvantages? - How much does it costs? - Which buildings used this system? - Consulted reference

Main Manufacturers The main manufacturers of CLT in Europe are in Austria, Germany and Sweden. The most significant ones are the KLH (Austria, UK and Sweded) and the Binderholz (Austria). The KLH has a unity in the UK that supplies and ship the CLT panels to the projects in the UK, but the manufacturing factory is located in Austria. The same happens with B & K Structures, another CLT provider in the UK, that have a partnership with the Austrian Binderholz.

http://www.klhuk.com/

http://www.bkstructures.co.uk/

Manufacturing

1. The first step consists in kiln drying the timber boards until reaching the humidity of 12% (Âą2%).

4. The boards are organized lengthwise in a pressure hack to form the layers. Then, glue is applied over the boards and the second layer is arranged crosswise over the previous one and so on.

2. The second step is the visual or machine strength grading to determine the strength of timber and assign the board its proper Strength Class. The boards with lower strength and the ones with a bad appearance are discarded if necessary.

5. To apply the necessary bonding pressure for the attachment a hydraulic or vacuum process is used.

3. The boards are joined through finger joints to reach the desired length. Then, they go through planing or sanding until reaching the designated thickness.

6. With the panels finished, the necessary openings and other cuts are made with CNC routers and also the installation of insulation can be carried out.

Transport

Schemes from Studiengemeinschaft Holzleimbau e.V.Building with cross laminated timber

The transport can be done by open trucks, the wall elements are arranged on the truck and then covered by a tarpaulin. In the same way, the floor elements are stacked and covered. A forklift or a small crane is used for unload.

The structure can be built with a small crew and the assistance of mobile cranes and light power tools, no tower cranes are needed. The panels are lifted using inserted hooks. For the first pieces to be placed a concrete base must be built on site previous to the delivery of the CLT panels, the walls are placed on top of this base and then fixed, in some cases they can only be fixed after the installation of the ceiling. The connections between the different panels and timber elements of the building are extremely important to the durability and resistance of the whole system. The building can be conduced by vertically integrated companies working on manufacturing, building and supervising, which is the most common case in Europe, or by different and separated companies, in this case the manufacturer just deliver the panels at the construction site.

FPInnovations, 2010.Cross Laminated Timber: a Primer.

http://www.gebco.pl/media/user_files/ETAPY% 20BUDOWY/DSCN04788.JPG

Building An assembly plan must be followed so the panels can be delivered in the correct order and place to follow with the building process. The elements are numbered according to this plan and then sent to be delivered.

FPInnovations, 2010.Cross Laminated Timber: a Primer.

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SUTTON, Andy and BLACK, Daniel (BRE) / WALKER, Pete (Bath). BRE, 2011.

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Besides the strength and dimensional stability, the CLT panels are prefabricated elements which speed up the construction process and provide great accuracy. The panels can get to the site with windows, doors, ducts and other necessary openings described on the project already cut. Also, in some cases, off-site construction can be considered. The system using CLT panels allows spans up to 7.5 meters without beams or columns, but by using folded panels the span can be increased up to 20 meters. Other methods can be used if longer spans are needed, for example the use of cassette floors or the combination of CLT panels plus a layer of reinforced concrete.

Example of folded CLT panels to increase the span without beams or columns. Credit: Courtesy Saucier + Perrotte Architectes / Hughes Condon Marler Architects _ http://www.architectmagazine.com

Brief History As mentioned before, the CLT system complements the traditional light frame and heavy frame timber building systems. Its development is considerably recent, the system was first introduced in Germany and Austria in the beginning of the 1990s. Since then the technology involved on the manufacturing process has been developed and the CLT has been progressively more used in Europe specially since the beginning of the 2000s. Its more popular use is in residential buildings, but the option for the CLT system has also grown in popularity concerning other types of buildings such as schools.

Connections As mentioned before, the connections are a very important part of the building wit CLT system to provide strength, stiffness, stability and ductility and also to guarantee the integrity of the wood elements. Therefore, they must be very carefully designed and executed in site. The most common types of connections on CLT systems are: wall to foundation; wall to wall (straight); wall to wall (junction); floor to floor; wall to roof; . Panel to panel connections are made using splines of engineered wood products. For the connections between wall to floor or roof or wall-to-wall intersections, metal metal brackets, hold-downs and plates are used to transfer the forces. Other types of connections can be used, such as mechanical and carpentry systems, but some of them are still being developed for better performance. An example of innovative connection system is glued-in rods which showed good potential for CLT connections.

Fire resistance Systems built with CLT panels are very resistant to the fire. When burnt the wood char on the outside at a slow and predictable rate, this characteristic is amplified by the kind of adhesive used to assemble the layers together. The charred layer form a protection to the wood below it preserving its resistance and allowing time for the occupants to evacuate the building.

Panel-to-panel

Exemple of connections

Self tapping screws from the exterior Single internal spline

CHARRED LAYER

Wall-to-wall

Half lapped joints

wall-to-floor

HEATED WOOD

Wood profile STRUCTURALLY SOUND CORE

FOUNTAIN, Henry. Wood that reaches new heights. The New York Times. Tuesday, June 5, 2012.

Seismic performance As usual in wood building systems, lighter and more ductile than others, the CLT system also showed great efficiency under seismic activity. The seismic performance proved to be very satisfactory surviving several earthquake resistance tests with a 7 storeys model in the worlds biggest shake table in Japan with minimum damage.

Concealed metal brackets Metal bracket Schemes from FPInnovations, 2013. CLT handbook: croos-laminated timber.

Types of buildings Initially the CLT was used only on low storeys residential buildings, but in the last few years due to improvements on the materials resistance the CLT panels has increasingly been used in higher and larger buildings such as schools and other urban buildings. Being a prefabricated wood system and given its great resistance, the CLT panels can be used in large range of building types and it can also be combined to other building systems such as reinforced concrete as in the building of Earth Sciences of University of British Columbia in Vancouver.

Shaking table test. Photo courtesy of IVALSA. http://continuingeducation.construction.com/ article_print.php?L=312&C=1138

Environmental benefits Life Cycle Assessment studies attest that wood materials are better for the environment compared to others such as concrete and steel when considering embodied energy, air and water pollution, and greenhouse gas emissions. Therefore the option for the CLT systems became more popular since it corroborates to the green building practices, decreasing the carbon footprints of the buildings when compared to traditional systems. Other aspects of CLT that collaborate with green building practices are: the fact that it is made out of renewable materials; the possibility for the manufacturers to get a certification for sustainable forestry management; the fact that CLT is a system based on panels and hence show potential for disassembly and 108 reuse; the considerable thermal mass of the panels, which contributes for a better energy performance; being a prefabricated product, the use of CLT minimises waste at manufacturing and at the construction site. 3/6

Main Advantages - CLT systems can be very resistant and therefore can work as structural elements. - It is a prefabricated product which allows much more accuracy to the elements produced and also makes the building process much faster. - As a wooden system it has very good fire resistance because it burns in a slow and predictable rate, creating a layer of char that protects and insulate the wood underneath it maintaining its structural resistance allowing plenty of time for the occupants to leave the building. - The material showed excellent seismic performance when tested on a seven storey building on the world's largest shake table in Japan. - Also, CLT panels are made from renewable and sustainable resource, which is wood, and have small carbon footprint considering that the panels keep storing the carbon absorbed by the trees wile growing.

Main Disadvantages - Although the material has some insulating capacity, it usually requires an additional insulating layer (which can be added externally or internally), a venting cavity and protection against the rain. - Not Ideal for very high buildings, though the height of buildings based on CLT system is constantly increasing. - It is necessary to have the completed designs before the start of the construction, because everything is prefabricated. - The CLT system must be used above damp-proof level or equivalent. - Being an engineered material, it has relatively high costs, and therefore in some cases it might not be profitable.

Insulation The CLT panels are considered to have average thermal resistance, R-value around R-1.25 per inch (conductivity around = 0.13W/[mÂˇK]). Though, for a better thermal performance is recommended the use of external insulation. Another measure important to guarantee thermal comfort and energy efficiency is to take measures to bar the unwanted air flow from entering through the enclosure. The uncontrolled air flow inside the building will cause unwanted loss or gain of heat, therefore provoking a decline in quality of the buildings energy and thermal comfort performances. Also it can bring unwanted moisture accumulation which might cause the decay of the building and the growth of mould, being prejudicial to the building and the occupants health. In order to protect the building from air leakage is necessary a continuous air barrier system made up of overlapping and sealed materials. It is also necessary to be very careful with the sealing of the joints, for example wall to wall, wall to floor and wall to roof joints. Concerning the additional thermal insulation, the additional layer can be placed internally or externally to the panels. It is mostly recommended that the insulation be placed on the exterior. A few reasons can be pointed out for this: 1. It allows for the insulation to be continuous around all the enclosure, if it was placed internally it might cause some interruptions creating unwanted thermal bridges; 2. The exterior insulation protects the CLT panels from the extreme temperatures and therefore minimise the movement of expansion and contraction inside the panels; 3. It amplifies the benefits of the thermal mass of CLT panels; 4. It can affect the moisture levels increasing the durability of the panels â&#x20AC;&#x201C; for cold weather environments the exterior insulation keeps the wood panels close to the warmer inside ambient keeping its warmth; for hot humid weather environments it keeps the CLT panels close to the dryer inside ambient. Examples of how this additional insulation layer is placed on the panels combined to other weather protections can be found on the images below:

INSULATION VENTILATED AND DRAINED CAVITY

CLT PANEL

mineral/clay/plaster lining board 60mm service zone, insulated 60 x 60mm counter battens

90mm crosslam timber panel

90mm crosslam timber panel timber studs 160mm renewable insulation between studs 60mm render compatible wood fibre insulation

200mm wood fibre insulation board 22mm impregnated wood fibre insulation board timber cladding mineral/clay/plaster lining board 60mm service zone, insulated counter battens 90mm crosslam timber panel timber studs 200mm renewable insulation between studs fixing battens breather membrane timber cladding

Example from FPInnovations, 2013. CLT handbook: croos-laminated timber.

lime render

circa 94mm crosslam timber panel timber I-beams 330 renewable between I-beams fixing battens breather membrane

insulation

timber cladding

Example from http://www.greenspec.co.uk/building-design/crosslam-external-walls/

Costs Studies presented on a FPInnovations publication of 2010 attests that the CLT system can be competitive when compared to certain concrete, masonry and steel building types, saving up to 25% in shell unity costs (walls, floors and partitions). Also, on larger buildings the off-site manufacture and the increase on the construction speed can reduce the relative cost of the material. For buildings much higher than 7-8 storeys the use of CLT is usually not economically viable. Future possibilities for CLT The CLT system has the potential to be increasingly more used as the technology involved in its manufacturing process and building system can still be improved. Today, the costs can be considered elevated, though in most cases it can be compensated by the improvement on the speed and accuracy of the building process. The system allows very precise design specifications because it is a prefabricated product, and also, the prefabricated elements are easy to transport and lift. Besides that, one very attractive characteristic of CTL for contemporary architecture and building is its environmental performance. CLT is a wood based system and therefore has a much less environmental impact when compared to systems such as concrete and steel and hence can be a more suitable option for those interested in green building practices. As possible improvements for CLT in the future these are some to be pointed out: efforts on cheapen the manufacturing process; development of new types of connection systems; to improve the relation between the CLT panels and the insulation layer; possible associations between CLT and other building systems. 109

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UBC University of British Columbia's Earth Sciences Building, Vancouver, Canada An example of the use of CLT and other engineered timber systems on a huge structure and very demanding institutional building. The Earth Sciences building of University of British Columbia in Vancouver, Canada, has an area of 158,000 ft2 big and is five storeys high. It is composed by a laboratory wing made of reinforced concrete, a lecture hall wing and connecting atrium space built with engineered timber as the main structural system. The CLT and other engineered timber systems are combined with concrete on the floors allowing longer spans and with steel on connections, transfer trusses over the lecture theatres and chevron braces. Additional insulation layers are also used associated with the wooden panels.

http://www.stantec.com/our-work/projects/canada-projects/u/university-of-britis h-columbias-earth-science-building.html#.VGbIJPmsVV1

http://www.vancitybuzz.com/2013/02/ubc-campus-in-process-of-complete-transformation/

http://www.eqcanada.com/projects/earth-science-building-esb-at-university-of-british-columbia/

The Graphite Apartments, London, UK The Graphite Apartments is a nine storey building in London. It is among the tallest buildings of structural timber in the world and is the tallest of its kind in the UK. The tower was built in 2009 and used panels up to 150mm thick and 9 meters long manufactured in Austria. Even the staircases and elevator shafts are made with cross laminated panels. http://www.klhuk.com/portfolio/residential/stadthaus,-murray-grove.aspx

http://www.klhuk.com/portfolio/residential/stadthaus,-murray-grove.aspx

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http://www.klhuk.com/portfolio/residential/stadthaus,-murray-grove.aspx

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Consulted references: Cross Laminated Timber (CLT). Consulted on October, 2014. Available online at: http://www.rethinkwood.com/masstimber/cross-laminated-timber-clt Cross Laminated Timber (CLT). Consulted on October, 2014. Available online at: http://www.naturallywood.com/emerging-trends/cross-laminated-timber-clt Facts about CLT. Consulted on October, 2014. Available online at: http://www.storaenso.com/rethink/facts-about-clt Mass timber and fire performance. Consulted on October, 2014. Available online at: http://www.rethinkwood.com/masstimber/mass-timber-and-fire-performance What is cross laminated timber? Consulted on October, 2014. Available online at: http://www.awc.org/helpoutreach/faq/faqFiles/cross_laminated_timber.php Crosslam timber - Performance characteristics. Consulted on October, 2014. Available online at: http://www.greenspec.co.uk/building-design/crosslam-timber-performance-characteristics/ Crosslam timber - External wall cladding examples. Consulted on October, 2014. Available online at: http://www.greenspec.co.uk/building-design/crosslam-external-walls/ MILLER, Gordon. Cross-laminated timber: the sky's the limit. The Guardian. Friday, 13 January, 2012. Consulted on October, 2014. Available online at: http://www.theguardian.com/sustainable-business/cross-laminated-timber-built-environment CLT handbook: croos-laminated timber. Edited by Erol Karacabeyli, Brad Douglas. -- U.S. ed. FPInnovations, 2013. Downloaded from the website www.masstimber.com Cross Laminated Timber: a Primer. Edited by Pablo Crespell & Sylvain Gagnon. FPInnovations, 2010. Building with cross laminated timber: Load-bearing solid wood components for walls, ceilings and roofs. Studiengemeinschaft Holzleimbau e.V. SUTTON, Andy and BLACK, Daniel (BRE) / WALKER, Pete (Bath). Cross-laminated timber: An introduction to low-impact building materials. BRE, 2011. Examples A Mass Timber Case Study: The Earth Systems Science Building, UBC. Video. Consulted on October, 2014. Available online at: http://www.naturallywood.com/emerging-trends/cross-laminated-timber-clt FOUNTAIN, Henry. Wood that reaches new heights. The New York Times. Tuesday, June 5, 2012. Consulted on October, 2014. Downloaded from the website: http://www.waughthistleton.com/press/05june2012nyt.pdf

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! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

Daylight and Solar Gain BA3- ARCH3036 Technology 3 TECHNOLOGY Project 1- Material/Systems Study ‘LOW ENERGY TYPOLOGIES’ Name:

Kalliopi Hartoutsiou , Michele Amorim

Pnumber: P12199534 Date:

! !

P14154052

18th November 2014

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Content:

Page

1. Abstract ……………………………………………………………………………………………...2 2. Daylight and Solar Gain………..………………………................................................3 3. Site Consideration and early design stages………………………….............................4 3.1 Different climates and weathers………………………………………….....................4 3.2 Solar gain ………………………………………………………………………….………...4 3.3 Passive design tools and simulation software ………………………...................5-6 4. Design strategies……………………………………………………………………………….….7 4.1 Building Form ………………………………………………………………………………...7 4.2 Shading…………………………………………………………………………….…….…....9 4.2.1 Overhangs……………………………………………………….….……………...9 4.2.2 Light Shelves………………………………………………………….………...….9 4.2.3 Louvres…………………………………………………………..…………..……10 4.2.4 Innovative mechanisms……………………………………………………..10-11 4.3 Glazing………………………………………………………………………………..…….12 5. Conclusion…………………………………………………………..……………………..…….12 6. References …….……………………………………………………………………….……13-14

1. Abstract The concept of passive daylight design is to create a building aiming to use the sunlight. Through the architecture history, most buildings were usually built in a way to guaranty the visual and thermal comfort without needing any other light mechanism. There are several architectural solutions able to provide a healthy space, and today technology can also be used to prevent energy loss. For that it is important to have a comprehension of daylight principles, measurements and design solutions. The main objective is to present passive design strategies that will be exemplified with different projects. Each project will evidence a different approach to the use of daylight solving, also demonstrating the different materials, building forms and shading devices.

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2. Daylight and Solar Gain First of all is important to comprehend what is daylight. The light beam can be perceived in two categories: direct and diffuse. This sort of light vary along with the sun movement, depending then on time and also season. Usually in a project, shading devices or the form of building are used to avoid or control this incidence of light. However, direct daylight is important for a building during certain seasons since the solar gain is beneficial. In the other hand, the diffuse light is created due to the sky component. The sunbeams, once redirected by the clouds or other physical barriers, lose the unified direction, becoming a multi vector incidence of light. This is the source of light that is more comfortable for day activities and spaces, not causing glare or thermal discomfort. Through different ways of lightning control, a direct light can be turn into diffuse light, but the other way around is not possible.

Diffuse'light!!

Direct'light'beam!!

Fig.!1!Church!of!Light!â&#x20AC;&#x201C;!Tadao!Ando! Fig!2.!Therme!Vals!=!Peter!Zumthor!!!

Fig.!4!Diffuse!light!penetration!

Fig.!3!Direct!light!penetration!

Fig.5!Relation!between!openings!height!and!light.!High!windows!allowing!light!to!penetrate!further! in!the!space.!Itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s!important!that!the!floor!occupied!area!is!within!the!daylight!zone.!

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3. Site Consideration and early design stages

3.1 Different climates and weathers Nowadays, adequate environmental architecture has become a major factor concerning the design strategies in order to adjust it to the different climates. The location of the building has great importance, due to the available and necessary amount of daylight and solar gain. Controlling the daylight in order to gain the right amount of direct and diffuse daylight in different temperature circumstance can be very challenging. In tropical zones where temperature and humidity is very high, the building design has specific requirements. First of all, since incidence the sun is very intense, the solar gain should be reduced, meaning that the direct daylight must be blocked. One of the first steps of succeeding is to orientate the building facing North-South. The windows that are facing the sun path will need shading devices such as horizontal louvres for diffuse daylight. External roof overhangs are also a solution to minimize the direct daylight penetration and solar gain. On the opposite faรงade of the solar path large windows can be applied to illuminate the space. The temperate climates are the most challenging regarding the mixture of weather condition, cold winter and sunny summers. During the summer time the heat gain can be very high causing overheat and discomfort. However the solar gain is necessary during the cold winter when the aim of the building is to gain as much heat as possible. At the north side is where the most of sunlight is penetrating into the building. During the summer the sun is higher, resulting in the necessity of shading systems such as overhangs or louvres. At the North facing site of the building skylight would be a great technique to maximize the natural daylight into the building since North windows are receiving direct daylight only in morning. The best design strategies is to use adjustable shading systems and big windows where during sunny days the shadings will be open to control the solar gain and during cold days the shadings can be closed and the big windows will receive diffuse daylight to illuminate the building. In polar/cold zones the design strategies can be very demanding due to the problems that the weather is causing when is snowing or is heavily raining. Shading systems are not the best solution. First of all, the building must receive as much solar gain as possible. Secondly, shading system would be useful only when there is clear sky and the sunbeam is very intense, even though the snow and the rain may destroy the shadings. During heating times and generous zenithal day, skylights are ideal to bring solar gain into the building but also luminance. The use of horizontal skylights can benefit with the daylight factor values. Moreover, it is important the interior part maintains the thermal mass into the building by using reflecting interior finishes

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3.2

Solar gain

Solar gain is the energy received from the sun, felt as the heat of the daylight in the space. In a building, such energy can be used and controlled from two perspectives. The direct sun energy that enters the space trough openings or glazing is intense and is recommended as a strategy for areas that need heating as well as light. While the indirect solar gain is the energy conveyed through the materials. Each material, such as the brick or wood, has a capacity of holding or passing energy. Therefore, when the goal is to control the solar gain, the opaque facades should consider the amount of energy that each material allows to pass. This way, with a well though orientation and material is possible to reduce the use of energy for heating or cooling environments.

3.3 Passive design tools and simulation software There are several ways to obtain the necessary data concerning the light incidence and energy calculation, from simple graphics and geometric schemes to advanced 3D modelling programs for simulation. Such programs allow us to comprehend the interaction of the project with the environment and the solar energy. By using them, it is possible to calculate amounts of energy, as well as design efficient shading systems. Some of those programs are listed below: â&#x20AC;&#x153;Software being preferred in the EDP (e.g. Ecotect, RETScreen, more specific and complex tools, used more heavily in later stages (e.g. Polysun, PVSol). The most common visualiza-tion software programs were used fairly evenly across the design phases. The most common visualisation tools were Artlantis, V-Ray, RenderWorks and Maxwell Render, while Ecotect, RETScreen, Radiance, Polysun, PVSol, PVsyst were the most common tools for simulation.â&#x20AC;? Tools and methods used by architects for solar design Jouri Kantersa, Miljana

Fig.6!Graphic!of!the!software!used!by!architects!

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-PVSOL : Dynamic simulation pv program with 3D visualization and detailed shading analysis of roof-integrated or mounted grid-connected photovoltaic systems, with storage systems.

Fig.7!and!Fig.!8!PVSOL!programme!simulation!! -Radiance : Lightning simulation tool, for analyses and visualisation of light in a building. Input files specify the scene geometry, materials, luminaires, time, date and sky conditions (for daylight calculations).

Fig.!9,!10!and!11!Radiance!programme!simulation!!

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-Ecotect: The software provides a wide range of simulation and building energy analysis functionality that can improve performance of existing buildings and new building designs.

Fig.!12!and!13!Ecotec!programme!simulation!!

4. Design strategies 4.1

Building Form

In the early design stages the shape of the building is crucial to enhance the use of light or thermal comfort. For instance, in a northern country, during winter, is desirable to allow the maximum of light as well as walls to absorb the heating, such as the City Hall of London (A). Its round shape allows all floors to receive daylight, and the glazing facades show the project intention. While the large business complex built in China improve the solar panels use with the sliced shape of the building (B). To bring light inside of the building skylights are largely used. But, when allied with the space configuration, such as the internal tunnel of the building (C), it enables light to reach all the levels. A

Fig.!14!City!Hall!of!London!light!incidence!!

Fig.!15!Skylight!solution!light!incidence!!

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Fig.!16!Light!incidence!in!solar!panels!! When the opposite effect is desired, such as indirect light irradiance, shadings and facades inclinations are the most welcomed. In the Barcelona Solar House (D), the jumping volumes protect the openings from the direct sunlight, while allows the solar panels to receive the daylight with the best angles possible. In another project, the Beijodromo (E), the shape is thought to avoid direct sunlight, not using glazingâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s, but louvres. D

Fig.!17!and!18!Barcelona!Solar!House!:!light!incidence!and!solar!panels!inclination!!

Fig.!19!and!20!Beijodromo!skylight!mechanism!!

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4.2 Shading Nowadays, there are numerous of shading systems and glazing technologies that can help to minimize the direct daylight. Some of the most commonly used shading systems are the overhangs, light shelves and the louvres.

3.2.1 Overhangs: There is a wide variety of overhangs types that could be applied in order to have a pleasant designed building. The undesirable direct daylight can be blocked from the overhangs and also can reduce the sun's solar energy since overhangs are usually modelled as opaque and non-reflecting surfaces. The overhangs are mostly applied to face the South axis where the sun is stronger, especially during summer time when the sun is higher. The overhangs can be designed in a certain angle and depth where the direct daylight can be blocked and reflected, but during the wintertime daylight could penetrate into the building.

Fig.!21!Overhang!roof!

Fig.!22!Overhangs!sun!protection!during!summer! and!winter.!

4.2.2 Light Shelves: The principle of the light shelves is to be designed horizontally and reflect the direct beam on the top of a room in order to reduce the glare but still allows the light to illuminate the space. Light shelves are ideal for high ceiling buildings because they are better to be applied higher than the eye level to minimize the glare from the sun. However the lower the light shelve is, the greater the light is reflected. There are two ways to apply, either inside a window or at the external of the window. If the light shelves are put in the inside then the daylight within a room is decreased, but it is more evenly distributed. On the other hand, if the light shelves are placed on the exterior, then the room is more illuminated because of the high proportion of light that it allows to penetrate in the building.

Fig.!23!Interior!light!shelve!over!the! window.!

Fig.!24!Daylight!redirection!in!the!building.! 120

4.2.3 Louvres: Works similarly as the overhangs. They are usually applied on the exterior of a building to minimize the direct daylight and create a comfortable environment within the building, reducing the glare and solar gain. The louvres can be installed vertical or horizontal on the exterior depending on the requirements of the building. The horizontal position of the louvres can provide protection during the winter, when the sun's position is low. During summer, when the sun is higher, changing the angle of the louvres allows the diffuse light to be distributed inside the building. The use of horizontal louvres is mostly positioned on the south faรงade of a building.

Fig.!25!Vertical!Louvres!

Fig.!26!Vertical!and!Horizontal!louvres!protection!

4.2.4 Innovative mechanisms: From membranes to opening ceilings, the advancements in the architectural design allow flexible shadings devices. Depending on the amount of light needed, weather or season, those mechanisms control the incidence of light, creating an everchanging space. The Arab institute in Paris has a glazing skin made of metallic devices that works like a camera obturator, creating patterns of light (a). The Al Bahar tower uses an exterior opaque device, located in the most exposed faรงade, and it opens and closes like an umbrella according to the amount of light needed (b). The last example is the Sarah Hospital, an organic opaque building that the only opening is a flower shaped device on top. It works like a skylight, and not only controls the amount of light but also rotate and change the angle of incidence. (c)

(a) Arab institute-Paris

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121 Fig.!27,!28!and!29!!Shading!adjusting!mechanism!

(b) Al Bahar Tower

Fig.!30,!31,!32!and!33!!Shading!adjusting! mechanism!

Fig.!34!and!35!!Skylight!adjusting!flower!mechanism!

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4.3_Glazing There are different types of glazing that are specialised to control the daylight, such as the tinted glazing and the low emissivity glazing.

4.3.1Tinted glazing: This type of glass is usually used in commercial buildings. The tinted glazing reflects the solar beam and also controls the glare. It is better to be placed in areas where the daylight is not very important due to the small amount of light that it allows to penetrate.

4.3.2 Low emissivity glass: It is an energy efficient glass designed to absorb the heat and prevent it to escape the building. It is also ideal for the north and east windows where there is a great proportion of heat loss. The use of that window in south and west faĂ§ades, can cause overheat a room.

5. Conclusion Architects have a key role to play in the future low-energy buildings, since passive design is related to architectural decisions already made in the early design phase. Daylight is one of the major aspects to concern during a buildingâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s design. The use of diffuse and direct daylight is equally important for a building either to illuminate a space or benefit from the solar gain. However, the different approaches for the daylight varies from the different weather conditions, by using the right shading system, glazing window type or even by the form of a building. To help with the design process there are several tools and programs allowing the calculation and simulation. To sum up, daylight creates interesting, dynamic interiors supportive to humanâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s health and activities while energy demands.

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6. References 1. Ridchard Hyde, 'Climate responsive design’, 2000, E&FN Spon 2. Baruch Givoni, 'Climate considerations in building and urban design, 1998, John Wiley & Sons Inc. 3. Efficient Windows Collaborative Tm. (Date of Internet Publication n/a) ‘ Design Considerations: Privide Daylight’, http://www.efficientwindows.org/index.php 4. Edvard Csanyi, (Octomber 13,2012), ‘Differences between Diffuse and Direct Light’ http://electrical-engineering-portal.com/ 5. University of Minesoda (2002, http://www.informedesign.org/_news/mar_v03-p.pdf

2005)

‘Implications’

(pdf)

6. Lars Thomsen Nielsen and Christina Henriksen, (2010) ‘ Daylight in Buildings’ (pdf) http://www.ecbcs.org/docs/ECBCS_Annex_29_PSR.pdf 7. Mike Carter, C.E.T. and Roman Stangl, C.E.T. (November 6th, 2012) 'Considerations of Building Design in Cold Climates’. http://www.wbdg.org/resources/bldgdesigncc.php 8. Andre Potvin and Claude Demers. (July 12th 2007) Passive Environmental Control for Cold Climate’(pdf) http://www.grap.arc.ulaval.ca/attaches/Potvin/ASES-Kruger.pdf

9. Leslie, R. P. , Capturing the daylight dividend in buildings: why and how?, (2003) , Building and Environment 38 381–385 10. Stevanović, Sanja, Optimization of passive solar design strategies: A review (2013), Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 25. Available at SciVerse ScienceDirect 11. A. Zain-Ahmed, K. Sopian, M.Y.H. Othman, A.A.M Sayigh, Daylighting as a passive solar design strategy in tropical buildings: a case study of Malaysia (2002) P.N. Surendran Energy Conversion and Management 43 12. Altan Hasim; Ward, Ian; Mohelnikova, Jitka; Vajkay, František ,Daylight, Solar Gains and Overheating (2008) Studies in a Glazed Office Building Issue 2, Volume 2 13. H.W. Li, Danny, A review of daylight illuminance determinations and energy implications (2010) Applied Energy . Available at ScienceDirect

Figures : Fig 1. http://insomnia-devil.deviantart.com/art/tadao-ando-church-of-light-60067895 Fig. 2 - http://www.remodelista.com/posts/poetry-in-space-vals-thermal-spa-in-switzerland Fig. 6 - Tools and methods used by architects for solar design Jouri Kantersa, Miljana Horvatb, Marie-Claude Dubois Fig. 7 - http://www.valentin-software.com/fr/produits/pvsol

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Fig.8 - http://www.eulinxenergyservices.co.uk/services/renewable-energy/solar-pv-how-dowe-design-your-system Fig.9 – http://www.iaacblog.com/blog/2011/passive-design-strategies/ Fig.10 – http://eetd.lbl.gov/newsletter/nl03/eetd-nl03-6-radiance.html Fig.11 – http://eetd.lbl.gov/newsletter/nl03/eetd-nl03-6-radiance.html Fig.12 – http://mod.crida.net/thesis/S1-2013/author/tun/ Fig.13- http://www.symphysis.net/consulting.htm Fig.14- http://www.fosterandpartners.com/projects/city-hall/ Fig.15 - http://www.urbanbuildings.net/ Fig.16 - http://www.thenewsfunnel.com/blog/top-10-solar-structuresworld#sthash.qjaLvgj1.dpbs Fig.17 - http://sameeraparakkramablogs.blogspot.co.uk/2012/06/form-follows-function-forbarcelonas.html Fig.18 - http://duranvirginia.wordpress.com/2013/04/18/curiosities-11-buildings-withunusual-facades/ Fig.19 - http://piniweb.pini.com.br/construcao/arquitetura/lele-apresenta-projeto-para-omemorial-darcy-ribeiro-139521-1.aspx Fig.20 - http://www.brconfidencial.com/aproveite-que-ainda-nao-comecaram-as-aulas-naunb-e-faca-um-tour-pelo-campus/ Fig.21 - http://www.keywordpicture.com/keyword/overhang%20roof/ Fig.23 - http://louisville.edu/speed/ulrec/sustainable-building.html Fig.25 - http://openbuildings.com/buildings/council-house-2-profile-42594 Fig. 27 – https://arch5541.wordpress.com/2012/10/18/movement-in-architecture/ Fig. 28 - http://theurgetowander.com/2013/09/21/a-hi-tech-mashrabiyya/ Fig. 29 - http://galleryhip.com/arab-world-institute.html Fig. 30 - http://www.skyscraperdictionary.com/?project=shadescraper Fig. 31– http://www.architetturaecosostenibile.it/architettura/progetti/nel-mondo/torri-abudhabi-schermi-solari-150/ Fig. 32 – http://solucionista.es/al-bahar-towers-abu-dhabi/al-bahar-towers-abu-dhabi-7/ Fig. 33 – http://www.pinterest.com/pin/313422455291840720/ Fig. 34 – http://www.metalica.com.br/arquitetura/a-obra-de-lele-e-as-praticas-sustentaveis-nocontexto-da-arquitetura-contemporanea-internacional Fig. 35– http://revista-lacreatura.blogspot.co.uk/2012/02/edificios-que-curan.html

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LOW ENERGY TYPOLOGIES THERMAL MASS AND AIR TIGHTNESS TECHNOLOGY ARCH3036

BILAL HASHMI & USMAN KHALID

126

Thermal Mass & Air Tightness 

Contents

Abstract Introduction……………………………………………………………….………2

Thermal mass What is thermal mass? ……………………………………………………………..3 Thermal mass in summer……………………………………………………………4 Thermal mass in winter………………………………………………………………5 Internal Layout Thermal Mass and Insulation………………………………………………………..6

Air Tightness What is air tightness? Why is air tightness important?....................................................................7 Air leakage……………………………………………………………………………..9,10

Passivhaus…………………………………………………………………………....11, 12 & 13 Case Study Queen’s Building, De Montfort University, Leicester………………………………14, 15, 16

Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………….17 Bibliography…………………………………………………………………………..18

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Abstract To identify and diagnose the feeble application of thermal mass and air tightness within the built environment through a study of the fundamentals of the thermal capacity of construction materials in relation to the seasonal variance. Thermal mass as well as air tightness are two subservient factors that contribute to the internal comfort levels of a building, which in turn determine the successfulness of the design, a diagnosis found in the Passivhaus standard.

Introduction The energy expended for space heating accounts for 20 to 50 per cent of a buildings energy consumption depending on type, and around a third of the carbon emissions from all UK buildings. To reduce this impact, revisions to Part l of the building regulations, along with the introduction of other codes and standards e.g. Passivhaus, have done much to reduce fabric heat loss through requirements for greater levels of insulation and reduced air leakage. These are very effective and well understood measures. Something less well known is that reducing heat loss from a building also enhances the passive performance of thermal mass, helping further decrease the space heating load. This is now accounted for in the Standard Assessment Procedure (SAP) for Part L1 of the Building Regulations and the Fabric Energy Efficiency Standard (FEES) for new dwellings, both of which take some account of thermal mass in the calculation of building performance. With the advent of a warming climate, summertime performance is also a driver for thermal mass. When it is used in combination with good ventilation and shading, it helps buildings adapt to the effects of hotter weather by reducing both the risk of overheating and the cooling load in air conditioned buildings.

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Thermal Mass & Air Tightness 

What is Thermal Mass? Thermal Mass refers to the ability of any material to store heat. Materials that provide beneficial levels of thermal mass are required to have an amalgamation of three basic properties: 1. A high specific heat capacity: to allow the level of heat gained in every kg to be maximized. 2. A high density: the heavier the material, the higher the capacity to store heat. 3. Moderate thermal conductivity- so the rate in which heat flows in and out of the material is in accordance with the daily heating and cooling cycle of the building. Heavyweight construction materials such as brick, stone and concrete all include these properties. They naturally combine a high storage capacity with moderate thermal conductivity. Properties which allow heat to shift between the surface of the material and its interior at a rate corresponding with the daily heating and cooling cycles of the building. In contrast, materials like timber have a high thermal capacity and a low thermal conductivity, resulting in a limited rate of heat absorption during the day and a relatively low rate of heat release at night. Although this can be beneficial in other ways. Steel also has the ability to store heat, but dissimilar to timber it possesses a high rate of thermal conductivity, which means heat is absorbed and released too rapidly to be synchronized with a buildings natural heat flow.

Material

Specific heat capacity (J/kg.K)

Density (kg/m3)

Thermal conductivity (W/m.K)

Effective thermal mass

Timber

1600

500

0.13

Low

Steel

450

7800

50.0

Low

Lightweight aggregate block Precast and in-situ concrete Brick

1000

1400

0.57

Medium-high

1000

2300

1.75

High

1000

1750

0.77

High

Sandstone

1000

2300

1.8

High

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Thermal mass in summer. During summer, the heat gain in heavyweight buildings is absorbed by the thermal mass in the floor and walls, which facilitates a reduced risk of overheating. Consequently this makes naturally ventilated buildings more comfortable and in air-conditioned buildings with thermal mass, the peak cooling load can be lessened and postponed. The fabric of the building allows significant amounts of heat to be absorbed with little increase in the surface temperature. This is an important quality of heavyweight construction as the relatively low surface temperature results in a beneficial radiant cooling effect for the occupants, allowing a slightly higher air temperature to be tolerated.

Figure 1a: Thermal mass in summer (Day).

By allowing cool night-air to ventilate the building, heat that has built up in the fabric during the day is removed. This day heating and cooling cycle works relatively well in the UK as the air temperature at night is typically around 10 degrees less than the peak daytime temperature, so it is an effective medium for drawing heat out of the fabric. This diurnal temperature variation is rarely less than 5 degrees, making night cooling reasonably dependable in the UK.

Figure 1b: Thermal mass in summer (Night).

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Thermal mass in winter By using thermal mass fuel consumption can be significantly reduced during the heating season when applied to a passive solar design. This approach to design seeks to maximize the benefit of solar gain in winter, using the thermal mass to absorb solar gains from south facing windows, along with heat produced internally by cooking, lighting, people and appliances. These acquired gains are then gradually released overnight as the temperature drops, helping to keep the building warm and reducing the need for supplementary heating. By applying simple passive solar design technique, fuel savings of up to 10 percent can be made, increasing to around 30 per cent where more sophisticated passive solar techniques are adopted such as sunspaces.

Figure 2a: Thermal mass in winter (Day).

Figure 2b: Thermal mass in winter (Night).

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Internal Layout Where practicable, the most frequently used rooms should be located on the south side of the dwelling, to ensure they effectively retain the highest levels of solar gain possible during the heating season. Therefore bathrooms, utility room, hallways, stores etc. should be located on the north side of accommodation. Bedrooms comparatively experience slightly lower cooling benefits of thermal mass than the general living spaces. So in southern England where summer temperatures are highest, there may be some benefit in placing bedrooms on the north side. Alternatively through an application of a concrete upper floor can also help achieve cooling, providing the mass remains reasonably accessible, this can improve year- round thermal performance. A further option is to locate south facing bedrooms on the ground floor, so they get full benefit of stack ventilation at night. The stack effect uses the difference in air temperature at high and low level to draw cool night air into ground floor rooms, where it then travels upwards through the building and exits from windows on the upper floor(s), having absorbed heat from the building fabric on route.

Thermal Mass and Insulation Thermal mass is not a substitute for insulation, and a combination of the two is needed to optimize fabric efficiency. The position of the insulation relative to the thermal mass should be located inside the insulated building envelope. For this reason, an outer layer of brick offers little benefit, but can help in other ways. In practical terms, a cavity wall already satisfies the basic rule, as the insulation is located in the cavity, allowing the inner leaf of block work to be exposed to the room. For solid masonry walls the insulation should be located on the outer surface, which is usual practice. The insulation for solid ground floors should ideally be located under the slab, although screed placed on top of insulation will also provide some useful thermal mass.

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Figure 4: Showing the cool air being drawn out and leaving the building with the gathered warmth.

Interior

Exterior

Interior

Exterior

Interior

Exterior

Thermal Mass & Air Tightness 

What is air tightness? Air tightness is a term used to describe permeation of air in or out of a building. This occurs due to cracks, holes and gaps found in the building. Essentially the term means air permeability or air leakage.

Why air tightness is important? Air tightness is a large contributing factor in determining the level of energy efficiency of a building. This is because uncontrolled air leakage affects the energy consumption of the building as more energy is needed to re-cool or re-heat the air. Consequently the production of energy produces carbon emissions – contributing towards global warming. Additionally the excessive use of energy leads to high costs for the building occupiers. Air leakage can also affect comfort levels within the building and can transport moist air from inside the dwelling to cold areas within the structure, triggering condensation. The control of air leakage is now acknowledged as a key factor in achieving energy efficiency and is referred to in national Building Regulations.

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Air leakage There are potentially four main air leakage paths that should be considered; Joints around components, gaps between one element and another, gaps around services passing through the construction and permeable building materials.

a .

Figure 5: Areas of air leakagea. At junctions between main structural elements. b. Around openings such as windows and doors. c. Through gaps in membranes, linings and finishes. d. At service penetrations e. Through permeable materials.

e .

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Thermal Mass & Air Tightness  Figure 6: Air leakage paths

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.

Suspended floors Gaps in and around suspended timber floors Leaky windows or doors Pathways through floor ceiling voids into cavity walls and to the outside Gaps around windows Gaps around ceiling to wall joint at the eaves Gaps in and around electrical fittings in hollow walls Gaps around loft hatches Service penetrations on the ceiling/roof Vents penetrating the ceiling or roof Bathroom wall vents or extract fans Gaps around waste pipes Kitchen wall vents or extractor fans Gaps around floor to wall joints

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Passivhaus

Thermal Mass & Air Tightness 

The primary principles, on which the Passivhaus standard has been developed, is based around a strict criteria that every Passivhaus project must adhere to in order to gain the Passivhaus certification. For example, the primary criteria is:      

Space Heating Demand at 15 kWh/(m²a) Building Heating Load at 10 W/m² Useful Cooling Demand at15kWh/(m²a) Primary Energy Demand at 120 kWh/(m²a) Building Air-tightness at 0.6 ac/h-¹ Excess Temperature at Frequency 10%

In order to achieve these standards, walls, roofs and floor- the components that make up the thermal envelope- need U- values of 0.15W/m2k or better.

Figure 7: A comparative analysis of Passive House heat gains and losses.

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Thermal Mass & Air Tightness  Product

Information

Application

Multi-purpose corner sealing tape for openings and corner joints with multiple release tapes.

Airtightness grommet, ideal for permanently airtight cable and pipe penetrations. Quick installation. The cables and pipes can be still be pulled or pushed without damaging the airtightness.

Multi-purpose joint adhesive which remains permanently flexible combined with high strength and elasticity. Penetrates deep into the substrate.

A special water vapour retardant, non-woven, laminated climate membrane for sealing and moisture protection in light weight and solid construction. Durable elastic, self-adhesive sealant on a roll for creating airtight joint seals.

Tape designed for simple installation of durable airtight joints at edges and corners.

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Thermal Mass & Air Tightness  Passivhaus buildings are dependent on their MVHR system to ensure good indoor air quality. The correct design, installation and functioning of the MVHR system means it will save around five times more energy than it consumes. This allows for effective air control in the building and reduces uncontrollable/ unnecessary air leakages. Passivhaus buildings are dependent on their MVHR system to ensure good indoor air.

Figure 8: Heat recovery system

Figure 9: Typical triple glazed window.

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Case Study-Queen’s Building Project Basics: Location: Leicester, England Building type: Educational/ Laboratory Square footage/stories: 10,000m2 (100,000 s.f.)/ 2-4 stories Completion date: 13 August 1993 Client: De Montfort University Design Team: Architects: Short Ford Associates- Alan Short & Brian Ford Engineers: Max Fordham Associates- Max Fordham & Randall Thomas

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Exposed Mass equating to effectively high thermal performance of building.

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Figure 10: Diagram indicating the cross ventilation existent in the building design, a subservient mechanism to the cooling process.

KEY Ventilation Air Leakage

Figure 11: Diagram indicating existing air leakage paths.

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Close off opened chimneys

Replace current double glazed windows with Triple glazed windows

Have a good quality air tight membrane wrapped around the building.

Heat recovery mechanical systems is an essential addition, this is because the chimneys will be sealed and therefore losing its capacity to provide natural ventilation so an alternative out let is desired. The addition of mechanical ventilation will allows you to control the amount of air coming in and out of the building.

Figure 12: Passivhaus standard applied to Queen’s building.

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Use appropriate and effective application methods in order to correctly airtight areas of concern shown.

Thermal Mass & Air Tightness 

Conclusion Performance requirements for building materials continue to increase, driven by desires to design for higher levels of energy efficiency and other factors such as the effects of climate change. Meeting these challenges requires an approach to design in which the materials, structure and systems work in unison to maximize the overall performance. The thermal mass in concrete and masonry helps to meet this challenge it can both improve energy efficiency in summer and winter, whilst also providing a level of adaptation to our warm climate. Realizing these benefits is not difficult, but does require a basic appreciation of how to use thermal mass, and the way it can work with orientation, solar gain, ventilation and shading to enhance thermal performance in a passive way.

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Bibliography

1. http://greenlightfestival.files.wordpress.com/2010/12/queens_building_1.jpg 2. https://c1.staticflickr.com/1/24/47958154_5b7af0b9eb.jpg 3. Building Research Establishment Ltd.. (2011). The Passivhaus standard. Available: http://www.passivhaus.org.uk/standard.jsp?id=122 . Last accessed 18th Nov 2014. 4. Wilson, L. (). Beyond Efficiency: 5 Key Ingredients for a Sustainable Home (with DataViz) . Available: http://whttp://shrinkthatfootprint.com/beyond-efficiency-sustainable-home . Last accessed 16th Nov 2014. 5. Greenspec. (). pro clima ORCON F. Available: http://www.greenspec.co.uk/green-products/windairtightness-accessories/details/pro-clima-orcon-f/ . Last accessed 17th Nov 2014. 6. AIA CE Provider. (2013). Installing Window Sill Pans: Waterproof, Airtight and Vapor Open. Available: http://foursevenfive.com/installing-window-sill-pans-waterproof-airtight-and-vapor-open/ . Last accessed 17th Nov 2014. 7. Compton, M. (2006). Queen's Building DeMontfort University. Available: www.webpages.uidaho.edu/arch504ukgreenarch/CaseStudies/QueensBldg-DeMontfortU.pdf . Last accessed 14th Nov 2014. 8. http://www.unige.ch/cuepe/idea/_buildings/b_040/plan/_zoom/img/vent_02z.jpg 9. http://www.unige.ch/cuepe/idea/_buildings/b_040/plan/_zoom/img/axo_01z.jpg 10. Department of the Environment (1997). The Queen’s Building DeMontfort University- feedback for designers and clients. Crown copyright. 11. Cool,P ( 1993). Architecture Today 41 12. Multi Comfort Home. The ISOVER System for Airtightness and Moisture Protection. France: Saint Gobain. 13. Concrete Centre (2012). Thermal mass explained. Surrey: Concrete Centre. 14. Dimitroulopoulou, C.et al (2005). Ventilation, airtightness and indoor air quality in new homes. Bracknell: IHS BRE Press. 15. Jaggs, M. and Scivyer, C. (2006). Achieving airtightness: general principles. Bracknell: IHS BRE Press.

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Green Walls and Roofs Edward Hobbs (P12200626), Phoebe Kent (P12203960)

Clockwise from left: Image 1.1, 1.2, 1.3

Introduction

Green walls and roofs are architectural design principles that were first developed in the late 1960s but have seen a huge surge in popularity and exposure in recent years with 93% of all green wall installations dated from no earlier than 2007. They can be constructed indoors or outdoors and can be freestanding or attached to an existing structure. Green walls and roofs can be built to almost any size meaning they can be implemented on almost any building ranging from garden sheds to international airports. Most green walls and roofs contain soil or a similar growing medium and often feature an integrated irrigation system. Both principles are designed to improve air quality in their surroundings as well as minimising the urban heat island effect whilst also being aesthetically pleasing and offering a new addition to building design. Green walls can be constructed in any hospitable environment in almost any climate. Successful green walls contain plants which are well suited to the environment in which they are placed be it hot and humid or cold and wet. Numerous plant varieties can be placed into them from the size of sedums up to small shrubs. Green walls offer a new and aesthetically pleasing approach to faĂ§ade design and are often used as part of regeneration projects within cities. Additionally, given specific plant types are included, they can be one of the most effective ways to reduce air pollutants from urban areas. They are also particularly effective at slowing the progress of water reaching the ground during prolonged rainfall therefore lowering the flood risk in the vicinity. Green roofs come in two forms, extensive and intensive. Extensive green roofs consist of a thin layer of plant material such as sedum which require minimal structure is as the weight is low. Intensive green roofs on the other hand require additional structure and growing medium enabling larger plants to be grown as well as trees while also able to support the weight of people walking on it. The benefits of an intensive design is that the plants donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t have to be engineered and can be similar to the nature around the roof but the more structure needed increases the cost and material volume of the design. Both options are great insulators and allow plant matter to photosynthesise more effectively than in conventional conditions. Passive cooling techniques can be used with green roofs which stop solar energy from reaching the building below. This report looks at four case studies, two for green walls and two for green roofs, and seeks to discover the benefits they can bring to a project as well as any potential disadvantages in order to discover whether they are a cost efficient addition to a building.

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Green Walls Case Study 1: Edgware Road Underground Station

In 2011, Transport for London commissioned a 180m2 section of south-facing wall at Edgware Road Underground Station to become a green wall test site in order to assess the system’s ability to remove PM2.5-10 and NO2 pollutants from the air. The project was funded by the government’s Clean Air Fund who worked in partnership with Imperial College London to monitor the effectiveness of the chosen plant varieties to remove particulate matter from the air.

Image 2.1

The wall holds approximately 14,000 plants of 15 different varieties, which were specifically chosen by botanists for their small leaves in a variety of shapes and textures which it was hoped would allow them to work best as air filters. The plants were pre-grown off site to ensure their suitability to a vertical wall before being inserted into modular hydroponic system fitted to the substructure. This allows for nutrients to be provided through horizontal irrigation channels ensuring long-term stable conditions for the plants whilst also minimizing pest hazards. The diagram to the left gives an indication as to how plants were laid out in each modular panel. This was altered as necessary to achieve the desired pattern in the design. Each unit measures 600mm x 455mm, containing 20 plants and contains a capillary break to control water flow. This means water usage for the panels is as little as 1 litre per 1m2 where, by comparison, the traditional flower bed requires between 3-4 litres per m2. As a result, the average water bill for the wall is less than £125 per annum. With regards to the wall’s effectiveness at reducing PM2.5-10 and NO2 particles from the atmosphere, Imperial College London are yet to publish their final report, however an initial report was released in August of 2014 establishing the wall’s effectiveness thus far. It was concluded that plants with a high density of Image 2.2 hairs on small leaves were best at intercepting pollutants, however during prolonged spells of dry weather, the plants can reach a saturation point leading to a less efficient particulate capture. As a result, the initial conclusion was that green walls should be used as a supplementary method to reducing air pollution and should be implemented along with additional, stringent emission reduction policies. However the report also stated that urban greening strategies should be “viewed in the context of their wider benefits” with regards to their aesthetic appeal and visual regeneration of an area. The green wall’s substructure comprises a series of stainless steel angle brackets attached to the existing wall which hold a series of 50mm depth vertical timber cladding rails. A 20mm waterproof backing board (EcoSheet) is then attached to the rails followed by a 5mm layer of drainage geocomposite (Geoflow). On top of this, sits a 100mm thick BioTecture panel complete with integrated irrigation system and Grodan grow cubes. Plants are added into this panel at the final stage to avoid any potential damage caused to them during the construction works. The overall construction cost of a green wall is approximately £600-£800 per m2.

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Case Study 2: Ushuaia Beach Hotel, Ibiza

Situated in one of Ibiza’s most known resort complexes, the green wall found at the Ushuaia Beach Hotel functions both as solar shading to an outdoor café area as well being a sound barrier to protect the surrounding apartments from the resort’s synonymous club nights. The project was completed in 2011 following a joint collaboration between Spanish design firms Urbanarbolismo and Alijardín to create a new type of green wall entitled eco.bin.

Image 3.1 (L), 3.2 (R)

The wall consists of a series of modular ceramic cells within which the plants are grown. Each ceramic cell is inclined 10° from horizontal towards the sky and is covered in a hydrophilic film that facilitates the uptake of water vapour allowing it to collect at the rear of the cell. This is particularly effective given the project’s beach front location providing a near constant supply of sea spray and mist. This is further enhanced by the teracotta’s porosity and as a result the plants require minimal additional watering and the wall as a whole needs little ongoing maintenance. As the sea breeze blows through the hollow cells, evapotranspiration (when water vapour is released from the plants in the wall) cools the surrounding air and helps to lower the temperature of the courtyard which the wall surrounds. The hollow cells also act as an anechoic unit making a sound absorption barrier. Sprinkler System

Stainless Steel Anchor Water Pool

Wall Base Polyurethane Mortar Hydrophilic Membrane Polyurethane Sedum Species Specific Aerator Substrate

The plants chosen for the wall are well adapted to Ibiza’s semi-arid climate. They are all relatively hardy and require a minimal amount of growing medium. Some of the plants are even able to absorb most of the water and nutrients they require from the atmosphere therefore removing the need for a mechanical irrigation system. Among the species of plants chosen are aeonium, crassula, echeveria, euphorbia, kalanchoe, sedeveria, and sedum. The plants have carefully been arranged to ensure that as the wall matures a rainbow pattern of colours and textures will emerge with different plants blooming throughout the year. It is possible to construct the eco.bin wall against an existing wall, however for a more effective output, it is recommended to be built from scratch. The section to the left details the major components included in the wall’s construction. Laboratory tests by Urbanarbolismo show that the components remain effective at any temperature between -40°C to 80°C and are predicted to have a lifespan of upwards of thirty years. The overall cost of the eco.bin wall is approximately £400 per m2.

Image 3.3 147

Green Roofs Case Study 1: Vancouver Convention Center, Canada

A great example of a green roof is the 2009 Vancouver Convention Center by LMN Architects, Musson Cattell Partnership and DA Architects & Planners. The building is host to a 6 acre living roof which makes it the largest in Canada and awarded LEED (Leadership in Energy & Environmental Design) Platinum, the highest award for US sustainable buildings. The construction of the roof is reverse to how a normal multi-layered roof would be designed to ensure protection from moisture although the medium that the plants grow in also provide extra insulation. Composition of the roof occurs above the metal roof deck, where a rubber membrane is applied as a hot Image 4.1 liquid that then sets after which a protection layer and drain mat are installed. The drain mat allows water to filter into drains to be collected for use elsewhere. 10cm of rigid insulation with a U-value of 0.05 K·m2/W, is then topped with another protective layer to remove all risks of the insulation being damaged by moisture. The last layer is 15-20cm of engineered soil made up from sand dredged from the nearby Fraser River, garden waste and lava rock, this combination weighs 18kg per sf when saturated with water to ensure the roof can support that much weight normally and when covered in snow. Into this medium plant plugs, seeds and bulbs were planted to provide a vast natural habitat for birds, bees and insects from the local area and further. These 400,000 indigenous plants and grasses from the Gulf Island’s decrease the amount of unnatural irrigation due to complementing the local climate.

Image 4.2

As well as being a home for animals that come and settle there on their own, a colony of 240,000 locally established honeybees reside in one of four hives that help pollinate the flowering plant species and produce a product that is sold in the shop and cafe. A major benefit of a green roof is the improved insulation provided by the thickness of the over system and the living organisms that top the roof. The VCC calculated that the projected reduction of heat gains in summer were up to 95% and in winter up to 26% less heat was lost. The overall systems create 6155kWh. Cooling the building is also aided by using the constant low temperature of the adjacent sea water and through evaporative cooling. This design of roof also collects the majority of gray water used in the building providing about 80% of water needed to flush all the toilets in the building and thus reducing portable water use by 72%. Water collected is also used to irrigate the roof in the few instances during the height of the summer. To maintain the roof, a few specialist workers mow the roof in the autumn to allow for the next year’s growth. The roofs design also helps with stormwater management, heat-island effect where the urban area is significantly warmer that the rural areas surrounding the location is common with standard design of local roofs.

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Case Study 2: Matzdorf House, London

Matzdorf House is a small house that due to planning restrictions had to be one storey at the west end and two storey at the east end. To solve this problem a curved roof was installed and gardening enthusiast owner has used the curved roof to experiment with a 100mm soil depth intensive green roof. The challenges with the environment created was the different climates of the roof as areas get more sun and others more rain. The shallow soil reduced what could be grown but Matzdorf, the building’s owner, has experimented with different plants and adjusted the height of them and climates they are native to. An issue he encountered was superseded by weeds. He is still trying to get the optimum collection of plants so that they thrive in the UK climate but he hasn’t experience an extreme winter yet so has been unable to determine how they survive then.

Image 5.1 (L), 5.2 (R)

How Climate Affects Green Walls and Roofs Green roofs have different advantages depending on the climate of their location. In areas of varied climate such as Canada, where the summers are hot and the winters are very cold, intensive green roofs are good at controlling the internal temperature of the building as well as having environmental advantages by increasing biodiversity and purifying the air. In more stable climates such as the UK where temperature only differs by about 25°C, the extra thickness and protection an intensive green roof provides is not worth the added cost and structure. With this said, the environmental and aesthetic benefits are something strived for at the moment when sustainability is at the forefront of design and the looks of a building under more scrutiny than ever. In the UK, lightweight sedum roofs are more popular that the intensive designs. On small structures such as sheds and cabins, an Image 5.3 increased structure is used for the roof with simple grass on top to reduce the risk of weathering and making the structure look more natural. Green walls also need to be properly adapted to the environment in which they are constructed. The most successful green walls contain plants which are native to the country of construction. Attention must also be paid to the site’s surroundings and planting options must be adjusted accordingly, i.e. sedums for coastal areas, pollutant hardy for urban areas, snow hardy for mountainous areas etc. The construction of green walls may also differ depending on the climate and purpose. This can be seen in the Ushuaia Beach Hotel where the wall is freestanding and acts as a natural air cooling unit by allowing the sea breeze to pass through it. In comparison, the green wall at London’s Edgware Road Tube Station is attached to an existing wall meaning air cannot travel through. However given it had an entirely different purpose of reducing air pollutants, which the Ushuaia green wall was not designed for, this is entirely expected.

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Advantages and Disadvantages of Green Walls and Roofs Advantages

Disadvantages

Aesthetics

High cost

Easily maintained

Additional structure often needed

Reduces heat island effect

Can damage existing structure if poorly fitted

Removes pollutants from air

Harder to resolve any issues

Sound barrier

Requires additional drainage systems

Increases biodiversity

Requires specialist contractors to fit it

Reduces storm water runoff

If plants are not adapted to climate, plants may die

Increases fire resistance Lessens UV ray damage to roof membrane Helps control internal temperature of buildings

Conclusions From looking at our case studies, we have come to the conclusion that green walls and roofs are very beneficial for both environmental and aesthetic reasons. The primary reason that more new buildings do not include them is due to the significant cost involved in constructing them; the average green roof costs 10 times that of a standard roof. At this moment in time, either a client either needs to have a lot of extra money to fund the project or be able to take advantage of government initiatives and grants, an example of which is the UK governmentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Green Deal scheme. For uptake to increase, building costs would need to be reduced or subsidies increased.

Image Bibliography 1.1 1.2 1.3 21. 2.2 3.1 3.2 3.3 4.1 4.2 5.1 5.2 5.3

http://www.eauc.org.uk/shop/mms_single_event.php?event_id=2790 http://www2.epa.gov/region8/green-roof-images http://www.solarchoice.uk.com/green-roofs.php http://www.greenbuildnews.co.uk/features-details/Cleaning-Londons-air/469 http://www.architectsjournal.co.uk/home/footprint/footprint-blog/green-sky-thinking-tfls-green-wall-in-centrallondon/8636486.article http://blog.lightopiaonline.com/lighting-articles/hotel-ushuaias-noise-reducing-eco-vertical-garden/ http://blog.lightopiaonline.com/lighting-articles/hotel-ushuaias-noise-reducing-eco-vertical-garden/ Own Work http://inhabitat.com/leed-platinum-vancouver-convention-center-has-north-americas-largest-green-roof/vcc13/?extend=1 Own work https://www.flickr.com/photos/otrops/sets/72157605494325824/ http://livingroofs.org/mexican-hillside-green-roof-london http://www.green-roofing.co.uk/extensive-sedum-roofs?id=10

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1. Introduction History of ceramic tiles 2. Properties 4.

Advantages & Disadvantages Manufacturing Process

6. Construction Examples of use: 8. - Fa誰ence - Roof Tiles - Cladding 12. Case Study: - Sydney Opera House 14.

Section Drawings

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Roof Design of Sydney Opera House

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Ceramic Roof Tiles

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Roof Section

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Axonometric

24. Bibliography

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INTRODUCTION

Ceramics are one of the oldest set of materials to be used in the world. Ceramics can be defined as inorganic, non-metallic materials that are typically produced using clays and other minerals from the earth or chemically processed powders. Examples include Tiles, bricks, plates, glass and toilets. These are all around us and are essential to our daily lifestyle. Ceramics are generally made by the combination of clay, earthen elements, powders and water. After shaping the clay into desired form it is then placed in a Kiln and becomes permanently hardened. Generally ceramics display excellent strength however they are often brittle in nature. Depending on their method of formation, ceramics can be dense or lightweight.

The word Ceramic itself, is derived from a Greek word ‘Keramos’ meaning ‘potter’ or ‘pottery’. Ceramic tiles has been made by man for about 4000 years. The Egyptians used tiles for decorating their houses with blue tile bricks. The glazed bricks were also very common in Mesopotamia, a fine example of its application is the ‘Ishtar gate of Babylon’ (figure 1). Islamic Empires discovered the use of ceramic tile as a wall covering in order to create drawings from stone on walls. An example is taken from the Palace of Persepolis, Iran (518 BC), this shows glazed bricks relief tile wall (figure 3). Another example of this is the ‘Shad-I Mulk Aga Mausoleum’ in Iran- Pierced Glazed Tile, Seljuk Inspired (figure 2) This deeply carved surface was seen all over Europe and was later employed by many ceramists of the modern world. Ceramics were mainly used in Europe for decorative purposes. Figure 4 shows Portuguese hand painted fine ceramic tiles azulejos BLUE BAROQUE STYLE. In south America they used tiles because they were easy to wash and reflected in the sun - providing good thermal environment when used on the façades.

Figure 1

Figure 2

Figure 3

Figure 4

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PROPERTIES Ceramic products are usually divided into four sectors; these are shown below with some examples: - Structural, including bricks, pipes, floor and roof tiles - Refractories, such as kiln linings, gas fire radiants, steel and glass making crucibles - White wares, including tableware, cookware, wall tiles, pottery products and sanitary ware - Technical, is also known as engineering, advanced, special, and in Japan, fine ceramics. Such items include tiles used in the Space Shuttle program, gas burner nozzles, ballistic protection, nuclear fuel uranium oxide pellets, biomedical implants, coatings of jet engine turbine blades, ceramic disk brake, missile nose cones, bearing (mechanical),etc. Frequently, the raw materials do not include clays.

Chemical: Industrial ceramics are primarily oxides (compounds of oxygen), but some are carbides (compounds of carbon and heavy metals), nitrides (compounds of nitrogen), borides (compounds of boron), and silicides (compounds of silicon). Primary components, such as the oxides, can also be chemically combined to form complex compounds that are the main ingredient of a ceramic. Ceramics are more resistant to corrosion than plastics and metals are. Ceramics generally do not react with most liquids, gases, alkalies, and acids. Most ceramics have very high melting points, and certain ceramics can be used up to temperatures approaching their melting points. Ceramics also remain stable over long time properties

Electrical: Certain ceramics conduct electricity. Chromium dioxide, for example, conducts electricity as well as most metals do. Other ceramics, such as silicon carbide, do not conduct electricity as well, but may still act as semiconductors. (A semiconductor is a material with greater electrical conductivity than an insulator has but with less than that of a good conductor.) Other types of ceramics, such as aluminium oxide, do not conduct electricity at all. These ceramics are used as insulators窶電evices used to separate elements in an electrical circuit to keep the current on the desired pathway. Certain ceramics, such as porcelain, act as insulators at lower temperatures but conduct electricity at higher temperatures.

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Thermal Most ceramics have high melting points, meaning that even at high temperatures, these materials resist deformation and retain strength under pressure. Silicon carbide and silicon nitride, for example, withstand temperature changes better than most metals do. Large and sudden changes in temperature, however, can weaken ceramics. Materials that undergo less expansion or contraction per degree of temperature change can withstand sudden changes in temperature better than materials that undergo greater deformation. Silicon carbide and silicon nitride expand and contract less during temperature changes than most other ceramics do. These materials are therefore often used to make parts, such as turbine rotors used in jet engines, that can withstand extreme variations in temperature.

Physical Most industrial ceramics are compounds of oxygen, carbon, or nitrogen with lighter metals or semimetals. Thus, ceramics are less dense than most metals. As a result, a light ceramic part may be just as strong as a heavier metal part. Ceramics are also extremely hard, resisting wear and abrasion. The hardest known substance is diamond, followed by boron nitride in cubic-crystal form. Aluminium oxide and silicon carbide are also extremely hard materials and are often used to cut, grind, sand, and polish metals and other hard materials.

Mechanical Ceramics are extremely strong, showing considerable stiffness under compression and bending. Bend strength, the amount of pressure required to bend a material, is often used to determine the strength of a ceramic. One of the strongest ceramics, zirconium dioxide, has a bend strength similar to that of steel. Zirconias (ZrO2) retain their strength up to temperatures of 900째 C, while silicon carbides and silicon nitrides retain their strength up to temperatures of 1400째 C . silicon materials are used in high-temperature applications, such as to make parts for gas-turbine engines. Although ceramics are strong, temperature-resistant, and resilient, these materials are brittle and may break when dropped or when quickly heated and cooled.

Magnetic Ceramics containing iron oxide (Fe2O3) can have magnetic properties similar to those of iron, nickel, and cobalt magnets (see Magnetism). These iron oxide-based ceramics are called ferrites. Other magnetic ceramics include oxides of nickel, manganese, and barium. Ceramic magnets, used in electric motors and electronic circuits, can be manufactured with high resistance to demagnetization. When electrons become highly aligned, as they do in ceramic magnets, they create a powerful magnetic field which is more difficult to disrupt (demagnetize) by breaking the alignment of the electrons.

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Advantages

Disadvantages

Easily Available

Can crack when hit (only by heavy items)

Inexpensive

Poor ahock resistance

Extreme Hardness

Weak in tension

Low density

Dimensional tolerances difficult to control during processing

Glazed ceramic doesnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t stain Harder than conventional structure metals Extreamly high melting point Low coefficient of friction Ceramic Tiles Industrial ceramics are produced from powders that have been tightly squeezed and then heated to high temperatures. Traditional ceramics, such as porcelain, tiles, and pottery, are formed from powders made from minerals such as clay, talc, silica, and feldspar. Most industrial ceramics, however, are formed from highly pure powders of specialty chemicals such as silicon carbide, alumina, and barium titanate. The solution is then mixed together by the process of wedging, this is done in order to ensure there are no air bubbles. Batching: In creating tiles, the body composition is determined by the amount and type of raw materials. The raw materials also determine the colour of the tile body, which can be red or white in colour, depending on the amount of iron-containing raw materials used. Batch calculations are done, and must take into consideration both physical properties and chemical compositions of the raw materials. Once the appropriate weight of each raw material is determined, the raw materials must be mixed together. Mixing and Grinding: After weighing, they are added together into a shell mixer, ribbon mixer, or intensive mixer. A shell mixer consists of two cylinders joined into a V, which rotates to tumble and mix the material. A ribbon mixer uses helical vanes, and an intensive mixer uses rapidly revolving plows. If necessary, water is added to improve the mixing of a multiple-ingredient batch as well as to achieve fine grinding. This process is called wet milling and is often performed using a ball mill.

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Spray Drying: If wet milling is first used, the excess water is usually removed via spray drying. This involves pumping the slurry to an atomizer consisting of a rapidly rotating disk or nozzle. Droplets of the slip are dried as they are heated by a rising hot air column, forming small, free flowing granules that result in a powder suitable for forming.

Forming: Most tiles are formed by dry pressing. In this method, the free flowing powderâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;containing organic binder or a low percentage of moistureâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;flows from a hopper into the forming die. The material is compressed in a steel cavity by steel plungers and is then ejected by the bottom plunger. Automated presses are used with pressures as high as 2,500 tons.

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Drying: Ceramic tile usually must be dried (at high relative humidity) after forming, especially if a wet method is used. Drying, which can take several days, removes the water at a slow enough rate to prevent shrinkage cracks Continuous or tunnel driers are used that are heated using gas or oil, infrared lamps, or microwave energy Thiner tiles are better dried using an infrared drier, whereas microwave drying works better for thicker tile. Another method, impulse drying, uses pulses of hot air flowing in the transverse direction instead of continuously in the material flow direction.

Glazing: To prepare the glaze, similar methods are used as for the tile body. After a batch formulation is calculated, the raw materials are weighed, mixed and dry or wet milled. Many methods: Centrifugal glazing or discing - the glaze is fed through a rotating disc that flings or throws the glaze onto the tile. The bell/waterfall method- a stream of glaze falls onto the tile as it passes on a conveyor underneath. Sometimes, the glaze is simply sprayed on. For multiple glaze applications, screen printing on, under, or between tile that have been wet glazed is used. In this process, glaze is forced through a screen by a rubber squeegee or other device.

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Firing: After glazing, the tile must be heated intensely to strengthen it and give it the desired porosity. After forming, the file is dried slowly (for several days) and at high humidity, to prevent cracking and shrinkage. For some wall tiles, the tile goes through a low-temperature firing called bisque firing before glazing. This step removes the volatiles from the material and most or all of the shrinkage. The body and glaze are then fired together in a process called glost firing.

CONSTRUCTION

This is called ‘spacers’ and is used during construction.

wall stud Moisture resistant drywall Tile Thin set mortar

Grout

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EXAMPLES OF ITS USES - FAIENCE

Some believe ceramic facades went out of fashion in the early 20th-century because purist modernist architects were besotted with glass, concrete and steel. However, several mid-century architects who favoured an organic, sculptural aesthetic rediscovered ceramic façades. Antoni Gaudi’s reflects and individualized and distinctive style, he introduced a new way to use materials- such as trencadis which used waste ceramic pieces. This is an example of Gaudi work. Park Guell, Barcelona,1914, the public square is at the center of the park. Brightly colored broken tiles and faience create mosaic designs--a technique called trencadis. Sources differ on its attribution. Some say that some patterns are by Gaudí as well as the workmen who created the park. Others say that Josep Maria Jujol, a specialist in ceramic art, signed and claimed the bench as his own, although it has always been attributed to Gaudí until recently. Technically the bench mosaics could also be described as collage (predating the “invention” of collage by the Cubists) since cups, bottles, plates, etc. are incorporated into the design.

Today’s architects who create ceramic façades are aware of these traditions. But their versions differ from Art Nouveau buildings in that they marry the potentially decorative quality of ceramic tiles with a contemporary, relatively minimalist aesthetic and boldly sculptural, abstract forms. This is another example of Gaudi’s remarkable faïence work. Casa Batlló, Barcelona. redesigned by Gaudi in 1904 and has been refurbished several times after that. Gaudi decorated the entire building with colorful mosaic tiles in shades of orange, green and blue so that it appears almost as if the entire building is underwater. The Casa Batlló is topped by numerous whimsical chimneys that add to its almost surreal look.

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EXAMPLES OF ITS USES - ROOF TILES

Mentioned previously, Ceramic is a hard-wearing material and for this reason, it is used for most roof tiles. Here are some examples of roof tiles: Acme Single Camber- this is a quality cost effective clay tile with a lower pitch

Creasing tiles- these are single cambered, nibless clay plain tiles and can be used for cappings or copings to walls and sills. Their wheatherproof properties make them ideal for external walls.

Maxima Double Roman Clay Tile-similar to the Melodie clay this is a low pitch double Roman clay tile with an open gauge.

Melodie Clay Single Interlocking Pantilethis is a low pitch sungle pantile with a flexable guage

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EXAMPLES OF ITS USES - CLADDING

Lisbon Extension Aquarium, Lisbon Portugal, Campos Costa Arquitectos, 2011 A range of Seven subtle shades of white ceramic tiles were used for the façade of this building, utilizing over five thousand ceramic tiles which resembles fish scales or the rippling surface of water touched by sunlight. The opened and closed elements allowed passive ventilation as well as solar shading.

Barcelona’s Santa Caterina Market, EMBT, 1997-2005 Ceramic manufacturer - Toni Cumella The wave-like roof is covered with 325,00 colourful hexagonal ceramic tiles lifted on writhin, and intertwining, steel columns. Many describe the roof as a magic carpet floating of the activity. EMBT picked up on the very Spanish tradition of ceramics but did so on a much bigger scale and with a pattern that doesn’t repeat.

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10.

Herzog De Meuron, New roof to Basel museum This museum was originally designed in 1849 by Melchior Berri, with an extension added by architects Vischer & Söhne in 1917. The museum required more space, Herzog & de Meuron, crowned it with a new, double-height gallery floor. The cantilevered roof is cladded in a striking, virtually windowless carapace of hexagonal, ceramic tiles in a stormy grey shade reminiscent of the inside of mussel shells. Its convex, concave and flat tiles – supplied by German architectural ceramics specialist Agrob Buchtal – create a 3D surface.

Mestura Arquitectes, martinet primary school, Barcelona, Spain The images show hollow and colorful shell informing both the interior and exterior spaces. Set at right angles, the organic tiles slightly protrude and recess, generating a sense of movement and divergence on the static surface. On the sides that receive the most exposure the stoneware ceramic tiles have been glazed in a gradient of colors – ‘spring’ colors onthe east side and ‘autumn’ colors on the west – that unveil and adapt depending on the viewers location. The exterior skin is covered with more than 5,000 ceramic pieces distinguished by slight variations in color.

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11.

SYDNEY OPERA HOUSE Architect: Jorn Utzon Location: Sydney, Australia Date Designed: 1957-1973 Purpose: Designed for community, serves as opera house, Multi-venue performing arts centre and other facilities. Consists Of: The Concert Hall, with 2,679 seats The Joan Sutherland Theatre, The Drama Theatre, The Playhouse, The Studio, The Utzon Room The Forecourt Other areas (for example the northern and western foyers) are also used for performances on an occasional basis. Venues are also used for conferences, ceremonies and social functions.

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12.

Location: The opera house is on the south or city side. Running down Bennelong ridge to the point roughly at right angles, the civic and poilitical axis of government, Macquarie street finishes at the front of the Opera House. Through the design of the Sydney Opera house, sea charts were used as study from these it was used to measure distances to access the height and the surroundings to develop a feel for the landscape.

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13.

Longitudinal section through Concert Hall.

Longitudinal section through Theatre Hall

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14.

DESIGNING THE ROOF:

Sydney Opera house composition is based on a simple opposition of three groups of interlocking shell vaults and a heavy terrace platform. Plainly put, the Sydney Opera House is a massive and imposing base with graceful shells placed on top, separated by glass walls. Each main vault was constructed by gluing together large pre-cast rig segments with two part epoxy, the ribs radiate from the podium and become wider up the vault. The cross section of each rib varies from a T at the pedestal to a solid and then an open Y at its uppermost.

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15.

The roof geometry is composition of spherical planes from the same common sphere. so they appear to be free sculptural shapes but they are part of a large sphere. The major hall roof surface comes from the sphere of 75m radius. The shapes are pushed up and out to create the form for the opera house.

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DEVELOPMENT OF ROOF WITH TILES: The Sydney Opera house has a vertical pattern made a chevron shaped tile which is laid on top of the precast concrete roof. The tiles themselves have a pattern shaped like a diamond. These tiles were designed by the Swedish tile makers, Höganäs. The tiles are 120mm square and made of clay, (similar to the process mentioned previously) but before they’re fired they’re covered with a fine mesh and brushed over with more of the clay, this time containing a small amount of crushed stone, giving them a granular texture and stops excessive glare in the harsh Australian sunlight. Over one million tiles were cast into precast concrete lids on the ground, and then bonded onto the ribbed superstructure of the shells

Cream and white tiles

Laid in a chevron pattern

Create the ceramic tile pattern

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Jorn Utzon built 26 chevron shaped 'tile beds' under the monumental steps to hold the 4228 chevron tiles. These were essentially beds made to the exact measurements of various ribs the finished shells. The tiles were laid face down in these beds, in the right pattern of cream and white. Grooves were provided (to drain condensate) and the joints partially filled with heated animal glue to prevent grout penetration to the surface of the tiles. Their backs were then covered with galvanised steel mesh and mortar. They were steam cured for several hours. Finally, they were cleaned before being stored. Special moulds were made to cater for warped surface requirements on the side shells.

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1. Inter- rib boundary 2. stiffening ribs 3. phosor bronze rag bolt 4. bronze sleeve

1. 3.

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Laying the tiles in tile bed

Applying mortar over mesh

Cleaning tiles after curing

In placing the tiles, they swung up into place by tower cranes and assembled in the air. Each tile lid was screwed on to the appropriate concrete rib using a spigot and socket system. This provided a vacuum between the tiles and the concrete structure, thereby overcoming the problem of attaching tiles onto concrete.

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1. Tile surface forming 246ft 8 1/2 in radius spherical surface 2. Mesh reinforced sand cement backing to tiles 3. Polyurethane foam insulation 4. Reinforced concrete rib to tile lid 5. Acrylic resin joint sealant 6. Cable ducts for temporary stressing 7. Cable ducts for temporary stressing 8. Precast concrete cross bracing 9. Precast concrete rib segment 10. Mild steel reinforcing bars to rib segment

1:500 scale

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Bibliography: Website links: http://autocww.colorado.edu/~toldy3/E64ContentFiles/Construction/Ceramics.html http://web.utk.edu/~prack/mse201/Chapter%2013%20Structures%20and%20 Properties%20of%20 Ceramics.pdf http://www.xaar.com/en/media-centre/world-leading-ceramic-tile-printermanufacturers-deliv-er-big-impact-at-tecnargilla-with-the-xaar-gs40-printhead http://www.madehow.com/Volume-1/Ceramic-Tile.html https://apetcher.wordpress.com/2013/08/17/catalonia-barcelona-and-antoni-gaudi/ http://www.designboom.com/history/tiles_history.html http://www.euromkii.com/content/2154-portuguese-hand-painted- ine-ceramic-tiles-azule-jos-blue-baroque-style-xvii-xviii http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casa_Batll%C3%B3 http://www.barcelona.ie/historic-sites/casa-batllo/#more-1348 http://cargocollective.com/klink/Lisbon-Aquariumhttp://investigator.records. nsw.gov.au/Entity.aspx?Path=%5CImage%5C10918&format=print http://facadescon idential.blogspot.co.uk/2012/05/sydney-opera-house-decoding-glasswalls.html http://www.google.co.uk/imgres?imgurl=&imgrefurl=http%3A%2F%2Fcommons.wikimedia. org%2Fwiki%2FFile%3ASydney_Opera_House_Night. jpg&h=0&w=0&tbnid=UX6sYQ4sCMf- 69M&zoom=1&tbnh=183&tbnw=276&docid=eT7esm2vIvDp0M&tbm=isch&ei=DPBkVMisF5X-masGYgbgK&ved=0CAQQsCUoAA http://wall.alphacoders.com/by_sub_category.php?id=177407 https://amanderings.wordpress.com/2012/09/: http://www.davidmoorephotography.com.au/soh1to10.html http://www.yukiba.com/upl/server/uploads/1265384710-Sydney-Austral ia-Oceania-Sydney. JPG http://www.sydneycloseup.com/sydney-opera-house-facts.html Books: Phillip Drew (1995). Sydney Opera House. London: Phaidon Press Ltd. Bender, W. and F. Handle, eds. Brick and Tile Making: Procedures and Operating Practices in the Heavy Clay Industries. Bauverlag GmbH, 1982 .

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Technology Report Arch 3036 Tech 1 project Steel Framing Construction Liam Coyles & Tom Cox

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The Era of Iron

At high temperatures, iron begins to absorb carbon. The carbon within the iron causes the melting point to decrease, the resulting iron is 2.5% to 4.5% Carbon and is known as cast iron. The development of blast furnaces, first used by the chinese in the 6th century BC. It was more widely known by Europeans in the Middle Ages. Molten iron ran out of the blast furnace and cooled in a primary channel with adjoining smaller moulds. Because of the look of the cooling channels this process became known as pig iron referring to a little of piglets suckling from a sow. The cast iron is strong, but suffers from brittleness due to its carbon content this makes it difficult to work and shape once cast. As metallurgists became more aware that the high carbon content in iron was central to the problem of brittleness. At very high temperatures, iron begins to absorb carbon, which lowers the melting point of the metal, resulting in cast iron (2.5 to 4.5% carbon). By the late 18th century, ironmakers learned how to transform cast pig iron into a low-carbon content wrought iron using puddling furnaces (developed by Henry Cort in 1784). The furnaces heated molten iron, which had to be stirred by puddlers using a long oar-shaped tools, allowing oxygen to combine with and slowly remove carbon. As the carbon content decreases, ironâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s melting point increases, so masses of iron would agglomerate in the furnace. These masses would be removed and worked with a forge hammer by the puddler before being rolled into sheets or rails. By 1860, there were over 3000 puddling furnaces in Britain, but the process remained hindered by its labor and fuel intensiveness.

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The Bessemer process

The use of steel within the construction of buildings was initially quite slow however the introduction of the Bessemer process in 1855 made steel production far more efficient. It was named after its inventor Henry Bessemer who patented the process in 1855. The Bessemer process was the first inexpensive industrial process for the mass-production of steel from molten pig iron. Related decarburizing with air process had been in use outside of Europe for hundreds of years just not on an industrial scale. The main Principle of the Bessemer process is the removal of impurities via oxidisation. This happens by Hot air being blown through tuyeres into the molten iron thus removing the carbon, at the same time the oxidisation raises the temperature and aids in keeping the iron in its molten state. The problem with with this process is that is failed to remove phosphorus from its end product, which is a deleterious impurity that causes steels brittleness. This limited the possible ores that could be used to Sweden and wales as they were phosphorus â&#x20AC;&#x201C; free. A solution wasnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t derived until in 1876 when Sidney Gilchrist Thomas came up with the idea of adding a chemically basic flux â&#x20AC;&#x201C; limestone. The limestone drew phosphorus from the pig iron into the slag, allowing the removal of the troubling element. 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7)

Molten pig iron Hot air piped in Hot air enters furnace through tuyeres Fire clay brick Steel lining Slag Carbon monoxide

This innovation meant that, iron ore from around the world could be sourced to make steel. Not surprisingly, steel production costs began decreasing rapidly. Prices for steel rail dropped around 80% between 1867 and 1884, as a result of the new steel producing techniques the growth of the world steel industry began (2)

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Why use steel

1 Multi storey residential 2 Mixed uses buildings i.e basement car parks 3 Residential housing in urban and suburban context 4 Student residents 5 Hotels 6 Retail, car parks 7 Residential extensions

1 2

Speed of construction increases Steel is lightweight construction which will minimise the load on the foundation 3 Steel is strong and light so, using the this framing construction will cut the cost of substructure cost 4 Modular construction easy to use as it has set out dimensions 5 Efficiency of the build- lot of steel framing manufacturing is off site 6 Completely load bearing, its allows the facade to be any style 7 It can be used in any context (brown field sites, sub urban, urban, rural) 8 Environmental benefits are steel is 100% recyclable 9 Complies with the sustainable home code

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Typical spans and sizes and how it’s constructed

1 2 3 4 5 6

Typical Dimensions for residential housing span from 3.5 to 5.5m Urban housing - Often used for multi storey housing on a small footprint In terrace housing steel construction is very similar to timber construction, in the plan of the houses -The stair openings are the only alteration to a simple post and beam system. Trimmers are used to support where the opening start the stairs meet the first floor. Detached and semi detached housing The floor spanning depends on the plan form of the design, but usually between 3.5 to 5.5m Steel framing uses post and beam similar to the timber framing, but normally has an infill of lattice steel framing Middlesbrough housing by Metek Building systems Housing built over the top of a car park Slab of concrete, supporting steel posts holding a composite floor for the residential use. Residential building in urban areas- for flat blocks. Normal spans between 5 and 7m Typically floor depth are from 600mm down to 400mm, depending on what the materials are. Slimdek provide a great acoustic insulation and fire resistance with depth of 400mm.

`U’ Track

`C’ Stud

`U’ Track and `C’ Stud Window frame

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Flooring systems

Section of the Floor Primary steel beam Concrete flooring slabs layered over secondary steel Services holes

Axonometric of the steel framing structure Column Slabs spanning between secondary beam Primary beam Secondary beam Foundations

Plan of the Steel and concrete flooring the dimensions between the columns here for example are 12meters width and 9 meters length primary and secondary beams are supporting the pre cast composit slabs Sizes vary depends on how the beams are ste up. Pre cast slabs vary between 6- 8meters span length and width varies between 2.5- 3 meters

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Steel vs Traditional materials

Overview of timber frame houses Timber framing is the predominant method of framing a new home in the United States. The walls, floor, and ceiling are constructed of wood, with sheets of plywood or a similar material affixed to act as platforms. The timbers are held together with wood or nails. The corners are made of several beams fixed together, with joists bearing the weight of the roof and upper floors. Advantages of timber frame houses •Timber frames adjust to shifts in temperature far better than steel. •Timber framed houses are strong and can withstand extreme temperatures and weather in a wide variety of climates. •A great deal of timber comes from environmentally- conscious sources, so it is often a greener material than steel. Overview of steel frame houses Steel framing is frequently used in apartment buildings and prefabricated homes, as it is quicker to assemble and transport than timber. In steel frame construction, beams are spaced 40cm / 16 inches apart and affixed to spans in the floor and ceiling. Drywall and steel electrical boxes are affixed to this frame with nuts and bolts. However Steel framing is still less common in new home construction than timber framing. Advantages and disadvantages of steel frame houses • The main two advantages of steel are its strength and simplicity of use. •Wiring and piping can be laid in without the need for pathes and holes to be laid. •Steel is resistant to burning and termites, however steel will melt and extremely hot temperatures. •Steel-framed buildings are used in areas prone to earthquakes, as steel holds up better against seismic activity. •Steels main disadvantage is that it does not have the thermal properties of wood, this the buildings are more prone to temperature shifts.

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Problems

1 2

Corrosion- in history a common problem. Steel melts in fire, although fire proof materails for flooring and walls, which can hold off the fire for a period of time. 3 Electricity is a problem as it a conducted by the steel frame making the frame live- shorting. 4 Condensation is a problem in the more insulated building Condensation turns to water this is when corrosion occurs ventilation need improving.

The corrosion of structural steel is an electrochemical process that requires the simultaneous presence of moisture and oxygen. Essentially, the iron in the steel is oxidised to produce rust, which occupies approximately six times the volume of the original material. The rate at which the corrosion process progresses depends on a number of factors, but principally the â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;micro-climateâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; immediately surrounding the structure.

Avoid entrapped dust and water

Encourage air movement

Breaks prevent the retention of dirt and water

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Cladding

Steel framed brick facade

Steel framed insulated screed facade

Steel framed paneling facade

Steel framed timber cladding

Insulation with 50mm gap then the brick facade Brick ties channel to house brick ties

Insulation with bedding mortar. Decorative render to finish

Insulation. Vertical carry rail to hold the rainscreen support. rainscreen cladding to finish

Insulation. Timber post and beams to support the timber cladding

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Steel Framing Precedents

Wokingham Medical Centre The existing office block was substantially extended to create a 1,600m2 medical centre that houses 16 doctors, five nurses, a pharmacy and a dental suite. As well as extending the steel-frame building to the front the interior was remodelled and a new third floor added to the building. The main entrance has been moved and a large canopy reflecting the existing curved stair tower added. Opening out onto a terrace, the third storey houses a pavilion for meeting and conference space and is set back from the north-east elevation. Remodelling and extension to a 1950s suburban detached house A single storey extension has been added to the rear and side of the existing house along with the rebuilding of the second floor changing the roofscape from double hip to gable in order to obtain more useable floor area. Planning restrictions dictated the size, form and materials of the dormer. The rear extension, built off a beam and block floor, opens onto a new large patio which is flush with the ground floor of the house with steps that lead down to the large garden. A band of glazing running up the wall and across the roof delineates the extension from the existing main house and allows light into the centre of the ground floor. Soudai ‘Soudai’ was constructed using a house frame made from TRUECORE® steel due to its durability, protection against termites and, importantly, its great spanning capabilities. With a high strength to weight ratio, steel house frames allow builders and designers great design flexibility, especially when creating the large, open plan living spaces popular amongst homeowners today.

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Costing for steel framed buildings

Office building Case studyThis is an eight-storey city-centre office with a GIFA of about 16,500m2. The clear floor-to-ceiling height is 3m, with a structural grid of 7.5m x 15m.

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Conclusion

To conclude from the research we have collected, there any many reasons why steel will be the favoured building frame material for the near future. Below are some of the many possitives for the choice or steel framing over its rivals. Flexibility of Space - doesnt require supporting coloms. Fire Resistant - When a steel roof is added to the frame, you have a greater possibility of avoiding the total loss of the building to fire. Energy Efficient - Another aspect of using steel in construction is that it is much easier to insulate such a building than it is to insulate a wood frame structure. Faster to Build - Skeletal frames come in kit form, easily errected on site. Less Costly - Steel buildings cost up to 7 percent less than concrete buildings and have cost less for the last 30 years. The cost of a steel building rose about 68 percent since 1980 while the cost of a concrete building went up 114 percent since 1980. Easy to Design - Current engineers love to design with steel and the sophistication of the new technology for designing with steel reflects that. In the past 20 years, the consumption of stainless steel has grown by a growth rate of <5%. This can be in part put due to the fast construction growth rates in China. Approximetly four million tons went into construction applications in 2006. Steel and steel framing is clearly gaining favor in new applications and will continue to do so in to the near future. As more people recognize its incredible hygienic properties and durability, they will continue to use the popular material to swerve around problems its alternative materials would create.

ďżźďżźďżź

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Bibliography

Steel framed vs traditionhttp://www.ehow.co.uk/info_8600798_steel-vs-timber-frame-houses.html Constructionhttp://www.steelconstruction.info/Residential_and_mixed-use_buildings#Acoustic_performance Steel Framinghttp://www.metsec.com/steel-framing/systems/ Flooringhttp://www.tatasteelconstruction.com/en/reference/teaching-resources/architectural-teaching-resource/design/choice-of-structural-systems/floor-systems Problemshttp://www.ehow.co.uk/info_8600798_steel-vs-timber-frame-houses.html Steel construction and cladding- http://www.kingspanprofiles.com Steel framed precedents- http://www.ajbuildingslibrary.co.uk/projects Costinghttp://www.bdonline.co.uk/putting-steel-frames-on-a-firm-footing/5058496.article

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ZAHA HADID NORDPARK RAILWAY

NordPark Railway Station Zaha Hadid’s

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STEEL STRUCTURE

ALEXANDER WAITHE - CONNOR SMITH

‘Steel Ribs’

Löwenhaus Station

Steel is one of the main materials that are used adjacent with the cladding of thermo formed glass. Although it can be seen that the steel is majority used for the frame; in which case cannot be seen and is not totally for aesthetics. The skin is wrapped around parallel steel rips which are individually spaces at 1.25 metres intermissions. As the glass could not be riveted to the steel ribs to produce the double curved shape they had to make up a series of ‘rigid panels’ that at the same spacing dimension of 1.25 metres. However now the glass panels had to be moulded correctly and precisely to fit the steel ribs. The moulds were made out of steel rods which were made precisely to the double curved shape of each glass panel. Zaha Hadid had designed to what was known as a ‘secret fixing system’ which can only be described as a bonded adhesive much like a resin or a poly resin that held each panel so that they would project slightly from the edges. The polyethylene that had been made by the CNC milling machine, and the exterior projecting steel cleats were screwed into polymer buffer. Then the gaps in between the panels which are 25mm they were filled with black silicone and this then disguised the steel cleats (the frame that cannot be noticed) and the screw heads as well to that matter. Construction Process Once the steel columns and horizontal l-beams have been delivered to site; the steel frame is constructed and erected. Pneumatically-driven fasteners, powder-actuated fasteners, crimping and riveting, even air guns that penetrate the steel with nail; are all types of connections that are widely used to construct the steel columns and beams. One main advantage to the construction process of steel frames is; that it has a practically quick erect time from delivery to construct, it can be quickly constructed up to two week’s time. Delivery of Material The sheets and bars of steel get delivered by large good vehicle that are strapped down by material cable tires. In which they are delivered to site and ready to construct together. Cost Using a steel frame can lower construction costs by a significant amount. For a low rise or short span building the cost of a steel frame can be from £75-£90m2. There are long term saving costs using a steel frame because; steel is resistant to rot and infestation unlike timber. However even if a reinforced concrete building it still includes steel, as it will have 40kg to 50kg of steel per square metre, as a steel framed building is around 60kg. As the steel is used to strengthen the durability of the concrete. Steel has many environmental benefits such as; • It is 100% recyclable • dust-free construction process • Minimal site wastage • ‘Cradle to grave’ 210

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Material - Concrete Plinths “L

”

ightweight organic roof structures float on concrete plinths

Zaha Hadid had designed Nord Park railway in such a magnificent technique, only her materials had to much the spectacular design the team had come up with. For this; glass and concrete were at the hierarchy. The glass forms can be seen ‘floating’ on top of the concrete plinths. Zaha has decided to use concrete in the plinths to support the thermoformed glass above. The plinths are used on all four stations she has designed, as well as the stations concrete is also used on the bridge and the pylons; which supporting steel cables are hung. They are all assembled in their situ reinforced concrete. The concrete is exposed to show the texturing of the ‘timber shuttering boards’, as the plinths have flat surfaces with curved corners. Construction Process Concrete plinths can be easily made by mixing building concrete into a pre made mould at any size. Once the concrete is mixed and poured, then left to dry the mould can be broken and the casted concrete is revealed. They are made for small residential garden decoration to larger scale design, much like Zaha Hadid has made in Nord Park Railway. Delivery of Material The large prefab concrete plinths will be cast in a warehouse and delivered on large goods vehicle where it will be assembled on site. Some types of concrete can be made up on site and be delivered at ready mixed concret. However this depends on the size of the concrete, and or it can be pumped up hundreds of metres high if the floor of a skyscraper needs to be concrete.

Cost Concrete is in constant competition with steel for construction at the moment in time. Especially with steel being used so frequently can lead to a shortage. Thus the prices of concrete are at a peak of £375 per tonne on average, and as the price of reinforced steel is predicted to get to £450 per tonne.

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Design Process Tecnical Process 1

Zaha Hadid has premeditated another whimsical architectural embellishment within Austria,The NordPark Railway never seizes to beguile its audience with its twists and turns; double skinned glass façade and its eccentric colour; miming the glaciers colour of the river water beside the Löwenhaus station. Zaha purposefully looked at the topography and the adjacent urban context, which then was brought forward to design the iconic sculptural forms. The stations Zaha Hadid has created are for a purpose to connect the city centre to Hungerburg, which is a village up high in the mountains.

Zaha Hadid has created four unique individual stations and a bridge which is shaped like the curving topography of the urban context engineered by ILF Beratende Ingenieure ZT. the first station which is the congress station is the beginning of the journey which is underground and has a very eccentric feeling this may be because minimal daylight is drawn into the underground station, the second station is called LowenHaus which is located just before the bridge, as you approach the bridge you find yourself admiring the landscape and the suspension construction technique used on the bridge, the next station is Alpenzoo station which is located half way up the mountain, Ongoing you reach your final destination which is Hungerburg station, where the views will leave its audience astonished as one gets a view of the entire city.

The construction process of the NordPark Railway Station is a fascinating yet new process, when designing a building in such climates. There are factors that have to be taken into account such as the snow, Zaha has used a double skinned glass which the back of the glass is painted in opaque white epoxy, the front of the glass is slightly tinted green, VIETZKE (Architect on the design team at Zaha Hadid) compares it to an iPod ‘Its similar to the colour of some buildings in Innsbruck’ he says and points to the similarity in colour to ‘glacier milk’- mineral - rich water that flows from melting glaciers and runs through the fast-flowing river in’’. The recess guttering of Nord Park Railway is hidden between each slab to keep the viewers hoodwinked and also to keep the streamlined form. The glass panels almost seem as if they are floating along the concrete structure, how the double glass skinned panels are joined to the frame FIG 4, 5 and 6 is a technique called CNC – milled Carbon fibre profiles which are screwed to steel fixings glued to the back of each individual panels as Zaha describes it as a secret fixing system. CNC – Milling is a new technique to the design industry, fig 2 is showing how a programme called Rhino is incorporated to the design. The Architect has used this programme to gain knowledge of the curvature of the steel carbon fibre rods as you can tell from fig 2, how each curve and rod is designed to fit the double skinned glass panels. Looking at fig 1 and 3 is also as design process which was produced in Rhino, if you look carefully you can see how each panel is twisting and turning to fit the steel rods, each panel on each of the 4 stations are carefully designed using Rhino. The peculiar aspect of Zaha’s design is how not one panel is matched the same shape or dimensions as the next panel running throughout the design, this was down to being able to separate the panels on Rhino fig1 and 2. When designing within Rhino you gain a sense of the dimensions and the curvature of each individual panel, after finishing the design in Rhino the Architect can then send a DWG or DXF file to a CNC machine in order to create a mould, a mould is necessary for each panel so one can begin to imagine how many moulds where needed for this construction costing just over £33 million, after all the moulds are CNC MILLED, they were then sent off to a thermoforming factory where the glass is carefully placed over each individual mould and formed within a thermoforming machine to create a perfect shaped panel which is then carefully placed in its correct position on steel structure of the design. 212

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Congress Station

PROJECT START DATE: Dec 2004 START ON SITE DATE: Dec 2005 DATE OF COMPLETION: Dec 2007 FORM OF CONTRACT: Public Private Partnership TOTAL COST: Undisclosed TOTAL ROOF SURFACE AREA (ALL STATIONS): 2,500M2 CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS: BASE – Reinforced Concrete; STRUCTURE – Steel; CLADDING – Thermoformed Glass CLIENT: INKB (Innsbrucker Nordkettenbahnen GmbH) Public Private Partnership What is Thermoforming? Thermoforming is a process which makes standard 2D flat thermoplastic sheets into three dimensional shapes through the process. It can be concerted by; vacuum forming, pressure forming, or twin sheet processing. Sizing of thermoformed glass can be formed in near any shape, and if extra large too big for large thermoform ovens they can be put ogether in puzzle pieces. Pricing for thermoglass can cost anything from round £200-£400 per square metre. Shapes can be created by heat sculpting and numerous shapes and forms. The designers explored the way in which Nordpark being a heavy form to look ‘light’. The idea behind this was to introduce cantilevered wings with narrowing legs that sits upon the ‘concrete plinths’. Which relates back to the idea of the ‘floating roof structure’. As Zaha described the structure similar materials from car bodies, yachts and aero plane wings. This design pushing the boundaries of design and construction with these fantastic glacial ‘moraines’ and ice movements to develop a fluid style of architecture. The train that gets you to the top of the structure is phenomenal. You can get from the centre of Innsbruck to the top of an alp in 25 mins. However the ervice itself isn’t very rapid at a top speed of 13mph. However you have a great view over the river, and it the angle of 55 degrees you would think you were travelling vertical. A quote from Zaha Hadid herself explains the design; “We studied natural phenomena such as glacial moraines and ice movements – as we wanted each station to use the fluid language of natural ice formations, like a frozen stream on the mountainside.” - Zaha Hadid.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

ALEXANDER WAITHE - CONNOR SMITH

http://www.evolo.us/architecture/shell-and-shadow-for-nordpark-railway-stations-in-innsbruck-austria-zaha-hadid-architects/ http://www.ajbuildingslibrary.co.uk/projects/display/id/664 http://www.e-architect.co.uk/austria/nordpark-zaha-hadid http://www.arcspace.com/features/zaha-hadid-architects/nordpark-cable-railway/ http://www.mimoa.eu/projects/Austria/Innsbruck/Nordpark%20Cable%20Railway http://www.building.co.uk/innsbruck-cable-car-stations-zaha-hadid-lifts-the-spirits/3100491.article s://thomasmayerarchive.de/categories.php?l=English http://openbuildings.com/buildings/nordpark-railway-stations-profile-37/media?group=drawing#!buildings-media/18

Alpenzoo Station

Congress Station

Lรถwenhaus Station

Bridge

4 3

hungerburg

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ARCH 3035 TECH 3 2014-15 Project 1: Material/systems studies

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History of Glass

Glass is a combination of sand and other minerals, such as soda ash and limestone, that are fused together at very high temperatures to form a material that is ideal for a wide range of uses from windows in buildings and cars to packaging and more advanced methods such as construction to fibre optics. Glass is generally a hard brittle substance, which is typically transparent or translucent, and as it can be made translucent it is a very useful material, especially in buildings. Glass is an amorphous solid material that exhibits a â&#x20AC;&#x153;glass transitionâ&#x20AC;? property, which means that its state is reversible, from a molten state to its solid state and from its solid state to back its molten state. At higher temperatures glass gradually becomes softer and more like a liquid. It is this latter property, which allows glass to be poured, blown, pressed and moulded into such a variety of shapes.

Glass making is an ancient art which has taken place for thousands of years. Archaeological evidence suggests that the first true piece of glass was produced in north Syria as glass making was traced back to 3500 BC in Mesopotamia. The first uses of glass were vessels, beads and was used in jewellery. Volcanic glass, Obsidian, is a naturally occurring glass. During the stone age glass was considered a rarity and was traded vastly throughout the world as it was lucrative material, it was mainly used in the making of sharp tools. Extensive glass production was taking place by the 15 century, Western Asia as well as Crete and Egypt, the techniques and raw materials for the production of glass were a closely guarded secret reserved for powerful states making it a luxury material in these times as glass workers in other regions depended on imports.

Material Glass Composition Reason for Adding Sand 72.6 Soda Ash 13.0 Easier melting Limestone 8.4 Durability Dolomite 4.0 Working & weathering properties 1.0 Alumina Others 1.0 -

George Ravens croft was an English business man who specialised in the glass making trade, he became famous in the mid 1600â&#x20AC;&#x2122;s as he was the creator of clear lead crystal glass. He did this by adding lead oxide to molten glass which improved its appearance making it clearer and easier to melt and form, this was a huge step in the technological advance in glass making which ultimately made England have the leading glass industry. Glass making has evolved extensively and with new modern methods being adopted, glass-making process and can make many different types of glass in infinitely varied colours formed into a wide range of products. 3 220

Manufacturing 5

Pilkington Group Limited is one of the leading glass manufacturing companies in the world. It was founded in 1826, it has been a leading glass manufacturer since 1957 when the company invented a revolutionary method of glass production, the float glass process. This new method produces very high quality smooth flat glass much quicker and cheaper than previous methods.

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Laminated Glass Laminated glass is a common combination alongside toughened glass which increases its strength further and allows it to crack however not crumble away and leave glass pieces. Laminated glass is made of two or more layers of glass with one or more â&#x20AC;&#x153;interlayerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;sâ&#x20AC;? of polymeric material bonded between the glass layers.

Coated Glass Glass is coated to modify its appearance and properties. Solar control is another application which has increased due to its significance advantages. 8

With the increased use of glass in architecture today makes it imperative to consider the comfort of occupants and Solar controlling glass is an example of this. It is an attractive feature of a building whilst at the same time minimising, or even eliminating the need for an air conditioning system, reducing running costs of the building and saving energy. In hot climates, solar control glass can be used to minimise solar heat gain and help control glare, this is crucial in hot climates were buildings mostly compromise of glass. Controlling heat and light will allow building to control the temperature inside, keeping the building warm in winter to ensure comfort. It is manufactured through coating several layers of metal oxides on to the glass by the means of vacuum magnetism control and cathodic sputtering this technological process of coating assures the firmness and wear resistance of films.

Types of glass and its applications Glass is a very versatile and commonly used material, there are many different types of glass which results in it having many different functions and specific uses.

Annealed Glass Annealing is a process of slowly cooling glass to relieve internal stresses after it was formed and ensure it maintains a strong structural integraty. The process may be carried out in a temperature controlled kiln. Glass which has not been annealed is more likely to crack or shatter when subjected to a relatively high temperature change or shock. Annealing glass is critical to its durability, if glass is not annealed it will retain many of the thermal stresses caused by quenching and significantly decrease the overall strength of the glass. This process is definitive and is always used in the production of glass. Annealed glass is commonly found in household windows and is the beginning stages of alternative methods to treat glass.

Vacuum magnetism control and cathodic sputtering

Thermal control

Toughened Glass Also known as tempered glass it is a type of safety glass which is considerably stronger than regular glass. Its properties allow it to have many applications. Unlike regular glass when broken the glass crumbles into granular chunks unlike sharp glass shards, this is a key feature which makes it safer compared to regular glass. Toughened glass is commonly used in car windows, frameless glass doors and large high rise windows. Toughened glass is made by heating the glass at high temperatures and then rapidly cooling it, this puts the outer surfaces into compression and the inner surfaces into tension increasing its strength. It also can be combined with other methods to improve its durability.

Fritting Fitting is a type of coating which is applied onto glass, to help control heat gain and diffuse light, the fritting applied is usually ceramic but other materials can also be used. Mirrored fritting can be used to make the glass seem one way from a distance increasing the privacy behind the glass. 222

Double Glazing The double glazed window was invented in the 1930's, Double glazing or insulating glass is the most common type of glass used in buildings as windows as they are efficient and long lasting. The unit is made by having two panes of glass separated by a 'spacer' which is most efficient using a space of 16-19mm and it is usually made from structural foam as it doesn't conduct heat making the unit more efficient. These double glazing units are constructed by applying an adhesive sealant such as polyisobutylene (PIB) to each side of the spacer then the glass panels are pressed against this spacer, the unit is then sealed on the edge side with a silicone sealant. The air is either removed from the space between the panes and replaced with Argon, this is to eliminate the build up of condensation between the two panes and to increase the thermal performance of the unit as it has 67% of the thermal conductivity of air. Double glazing has good heat insulating properties and the effectiveness of the windows are measured by the heat loss of the unit can be shown as a U-value, the lower the more efficient, a standard double glazing unit can have a U-value of up to 3.1 m2•K/W compared to single glazing which has 4.8 m2•K/W. This can be improved by using different gas and by coating the individual panes which can improve the U-value to 1.7 m2•K/W. Double glazing also has acoustic insulating properties the larger the space between t he panes the more efficient the unit is at providing noise insulation.

Triple Glazing Triple glazing is very similar to double glazing except it has another pane of glass in the unit which improves on the qualities of double glazing. It is more thermally efficient as well as having better acoustic insulation, the U-value of triple glazing can be as low as 0.65 m2•K/W, however it is very expensive and heavy which is why it is less commonly used.

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Structual Glazing Systems

THE GHERKIN The Gherkin uses a framed construction method for the glass panels to be slotted within the frame. This is a common method used in construction as it is quick to assemble with little risk. Glass panes are fitted into the framework and then sealed into place with a sealant, this allows it to be weather tight and secure the glass pane. Address: 30 St Mary Axe, London, EC3A 8EP Construction started: 2001 Architecture firm: Foster and Partners Height: 180 m CTBUH Architects: Norman Foster, Ken Shuttleworth Owners: Evans Randall Ltd., IVG Immobilien Architectural styles: Sustainable architecture, Hightech architecture, Structural Expressionism

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The Spider connection is a modern solution for exterior bolted glass assemblies, which secures the glazing to a support structure by means of point-fixings The high-grade stainless steel fixings are designed to absorb all static and dynamic loads (i.e. the dead weight of the glass, wind loading, snow loads and differential expansion due to temperature difference) and distribute them to the support structure.

Galeo Bouygues

Design principles: -The size of the supporting structure must be adequate to take the weight of the glass and the wind load conditions so it does not put any strain on the glass itself.

Immobilier Headquarter Location:Galeo, Dueo Trieo 3, boulevard Gallieni 92130 Issy-les-Moulineaux Architect:Christian de Portzamparc

-The glass needs to withstand the wind loads and imposed dead loads. -There must be a gap between the two panes of glass to avoid transmitting stresses and to allow space for the mastic weather seal. -Various types of support structures are possible. 225

OPTICAL GLASS HOUSE

This Optical Glass House, in Japan, was built by a busy road but despite this the architect wanted to create a private oasis where the residents were still connected to the movements of people and traffic. This private oasis can be seen from every room and provides the house with its own garden that feels public as it connects to its surroundings, but still remains private as it is set one story up so passersby canâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t see straight in.

18 18

Project name: Optical Glass House Main purpose: Housing Design: Hiroshi Nakamura & NAP Co.,Ltd. Structure design: Yasushi Moribe Contractor: Imai Corporation Location: Naka-ku, Hiroshima-shi, Hitroshima, Japan Site area: 243.73m2 Total Floor area: 363.51m2 Completion year: October,2012 Structure: R.C.structure

This house sits among tall buildings in downtown Hiroshima overlooking a busy street and to obtain tranquillity and privacy a garden was placed overlooking the street with an optical glass facade. As the garden can be seen from all rooms the tranquillity passes through the house.

18 226

Optical Glass FaĂ§ade The optical glass facade is made up of 6,000 pure-glass blocks measuring at 50mm x 235mm x 50mm creating a two story high wall 8.6m x 8.6 m weighing 13 tons. These glass bricks effectively insulate the garden from sound and creates a peaceful garden that connects to its surroundings. To produce this special facade glass of extremely high transparency was made from borosilicate, which is the raw material for optical glass. The process of casting these bricks was very difficult as it required high dimensional accuracy and slow cooling to reduce residual stress from within the glass. However even then the bricks still had some surface imperfections but the affect this caused was welcomed as unexpected optical illusions where produced in the interior space. The glass facade couldnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t stand independently as the rows of glass blocks were just 50mm deep, a concrete frame would have to be of massive size to support the facade therefore each block was punctured with holes and strung on 75 steel bolts suspended from the beam above the facade which concrete was cast around to minimize the frames size. However as this structure would be prone to lateral stress so stainless steel flat bars (40mm x 4mm) were placed at 10cm intervals along the blocks, the bars are between the blocks and they appear invisible as a 6mm sealing joint was used thus hiding these lateral bars.

1 2 3 4 5

metal coping 1 metal coping optical glass blocks 2 optical glass blocks suspended bolts 3 suspended bolts pre-tensioned4steelpre-tensioned steel steel mullion 5 steel mullion

1 E

detailed section detailed EE through section glassEE bricks through glass bricks

horizontal detailed horizontal section detailed DD section DD

5 E

horizontal detailed horizontal section detailed CC section CC

This results in a transparent facade appearing to flow downwards like a waterfall, sunlight from the east refracts through the glass scattering the light creating beautiful patterns. The house makes good use of light as it filters through the garden trees flickering on the living room floor. Although this house is located in a city it allows the residents to experience and enjoy the changing light and city moods as the day passes. 18 detailed wall section detailed wall section

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horizontal detailed horizontal section detailed BB section BB

Ground Floor plan

First Floor plan

Section

Second Floor plan

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Exploded Axonometric PRODUCED BY AN AUTODESK EDUCATIONAL PRODUCT PRODUCED BY AN AUTODESK EDUCATIONAL PRODUCT PRODUCED BY AN AUTODESK EDUCATIONAL PRODUCT

Optical glass block

235mm

Steel rods

Steel flat bar (40m x 4mm)

A section of the Glass block facade

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PRODUCED BY AN AUTODESK EDUCATIONAL PRODUCT

Secondary Steel frame

PRODUCED BY AN AUTODESK EDUCATIONAL PRODUCT

Glass block

50mm

Primary Steel frame

PRODUCED BY AN AUTODESK EDUCATIONAL PRODUCT

50mm

Glass block facade PRODUCED BY AN AUTODESK EDUCATIONAL PRODUCT

Punctured holes

References 1-http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-g72hkZQH9pw/UEdw7cHoDVI/AAAAAAAACBQ/xWV0SRviLpo/s1600/BlackandWhiteGlassArchitecture-long+goodbye.png 2-http://s3.amazonaws.com/estock/fspid9/10/61/15/6/obsidian-igneous-volcanic-1061156-o.jpg 3-http://www.christchurchraleigh.org/editor/images/users_images/gwfreeman.jpg 4-http://goodlogo.com/images/logos/pilkington_logo_3629.gif 5-http://blog.specifinder.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/04/Pilkington-float-glass-production-today.jpg 6-http://www.pilkington.com/pilkington2004/both/images/productdirectory/pl-pl/products/glasssystems1. jpg 7-http://media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/236x/54/b7/c8/54b7c8fd850ea94db567139cdc1069bf.jpg 8-http://no.wallpaperpics.net/wallpapers/2013/06/Byen-Skyskrapere-vindu-glass-1920x2560.jpg 9-http://yazdanistudioresearch.files.wordpress.com/2011/02/adaptive-frit1.jpg 10-http://archicg.name/projects/Gherkin/Gherkin_1200.jpg 11-http://www.arch.ttu.edu/courses/2013/fall/5334/Students/Zuefeldt/Presentation02/Default02.htm 12-http://cdn.lightgalleries.net/4ce15e0cbb307/images/Corp26-1.jpg 13-http://we-aggregate.org/media/files/86862bbe67ae8d2a1182093ae993dad7.jpg 14-http://www.constructionphotography.com/ImageThumbs/A012-00599/3/A012-00599_The_Gherkin_ Swiss_Re_Headquarters_under_construction_The_building_is_a_new_landmark_in_the_London_Sk.jpg 15-http://www.bouygues-immobilier.com/sites/default/files/styles/article_informer_view_full_intro_image/public/content/article_reference/galeo_a.jpg 16-http://www.sadev.com/wp-content/blogs.dir/1/files/siege-bouygues-immobilier/zoom_fixation_sadev_ bouygues.jpg 17-http://www.sadev.com/wp-content/blogs.dir/1/files/siege-bouygues-immobilier/bouygues_immo_ zoom_ecailles_facade.jpg 18-http://www.dezeen.com/2013/01/27/optical-glass-house-by-hiroshi-nakamura-nap/ 19-http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass 20-http://www.glassforeurope.com/en/products/main-types-of-glass.php 21-http://www.pilkington.com/ 230

Material and System Study

231

By Alison Sangolana and Tais Sujuki

Contents Material/System Study

North view

Northwest view

IAC Building Construction Team Base Building Design Architect: Gehry Partners, LLC Interior Architect: STUDIOS Architecture Executive Architect, Base Building: Adamson Associates Graphic Design and Building ID: Bruce Mau Design Audio Visual Integrator: Mccann Systems LLC Architectural Lighting Designers: Brandston Partnership Inc. IT and Security Consultants: TM Technology Partners Inc. Construction Management: Turner Construction Structural Engineer: DeSimone Consulting Engineers Mechanical Electrical and Plumbing Engineers: Cosentini Associates Geotechnical Engineer: Langan Engineering and Environmental Services Curtainwall Glass Consultant: Israel Berger & Associates, Inc. Curtainwall Manufacturer: Permasteelisa Group

Southwest view

1. IAC building, Frank Gehry: Material: glass curtain wall 2.Video Projection mapping -Shading system -Construction and Manufacturing of glass curtain wall 3.Construction and Manufacturing of glass curtain wall 4.Glass curtain wall system 5.Glass meeting ground 6.Assembling on site 7. The structure -Roof stystem -Wind anaylsis 8.Wind anaylsis diagrams 9. Rhino drawings 10.Technical drawings 11.Technical drawings 12.Construction process:conrete -Construction process: Glass curtain wall 13. Cost comparison with University of Aberdeen Library

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IAC building, Frank Gehry

The IAC Building, which was built in 2007 and design by Frank Gehry. The building attracts attention against the heavy, industrial structures surrounding it in the Manhattan neighborhood. This ten-storey milky-white skin and faceted curved building is an Internet company founded by Hollywood mogul Barry Diller. Both the client and the architect intended to suggest the sails of a ship, as well as they would have like to build the IAC right on the water, thought it was impossible because of the zoning. However, the building is adjacent Hudson River. It’s shiny white glass; it looks like more an iceberg during the day time. The $62 million building occupies 202,000 sq. ft. with the floor area.

Architect: Gehry Partners, LLP Client: InterActiveCorp Location: New York, 11th Avenue Total area: 130,000 ft2 Cost: $62 million (£40 million)

Image 2. This is a more “traditional” Gehry design with the use of the crumpled facade that he as used in buildings such as the Walt Disney Concert hall.

Image 3. This is similar to the final design but has the reflective glass cladding that the client disaproved because “It had connotation of a cheap building”.

Image 4. This model is far from the final model design by Gehry and the designer but hair a glass exterior.

Image 5. This model is similar to the final design but has flat metal sheets that were separated by metal mullions.

Material: glass curtain wall In design process of the IAC building Frank Gehry used physical models in conjunction with computer generated models. Digital project developed from CATIA, a 3D computer modeling software, by Gehry Technology,inc was used to rationalize the fabrication and construction process. One of his earlier models for this building included an envelope of mirror-reflective glass that would mollify the solar the solar heat gain issue. The client Barry Diller rejected this idea as he saw it as cheap and a generic design for office buildings. Other cladding material options that were explored included stone, stainless steel and titanium panels (images.2-6). However Barry Diller insisted on an all-glass building reportedly for reasons based more on innovation as Gehry had never done this before. As Frank Gehry had decide to go with a skin that was transparent in appearance the type of glass that was being used was crucial due to the New York City’s restriction on energy code. Due to the poor performance of glass in terms of thermal insulation and solar heat gain, a skin that was completely transparent was not an option even though this was the effect that Frank Gehry wanted to create.

Image 6. The final design beening white in colour came alsmost by accident, “the earliest mod233 and Barry decided he liked it and that was that”, says Gehry. els just happen to be white

Eventually a double-glazed insulating glass with a low emittance coating that would improve the thermal performance, which is a major issue in using glass, was chosen by the designers. An Additional white coloured sun-shading coat was added (image.7). This was baked on ceramic dot- pattern, which reflect light, reduce glare and gives the building its white gradient look. The fritted glass enhances the buildings environmental by acting as an integrated sunscreen and stills allows for views into and out of the building. The subtlety of the fading pattern on the fritted glass is more apparent from the interior, where one can experience up close the parallactic effects of the gradient.

uous ceilings that is applied through the building enhances the open office aesthetic and helps draw daylight into the building.

Video Projection mapping The glass curtain wall was the perfect canvas for the video projection mapping that happened in 2007.As part of the Vimeo Festival + Awards, it was transformed into a multi-storey canvas with real-time 3D content projected and aligned to the curvy facade (image 10-11).

Image 10-11. Video-projection

Shading system

Image 9. IAC Building during the day the facade has a milky white colour

The outcome is a building envelope with a visually indeterminate exterior character that seems to shift with environmental conditions: opaque under intense sun, translucent under overcast skies, nearly transparent at night when illuminated from within. The open floor plan allows hundred percent of the work spaces to be exposed to natural light. Also the contig-

Permasteelisa who were the building envelope engineer/manufacturer of the building collaborated using a centralized 3D computer model to the design and fabrication of its panel shapes to the positioning of its anchoring system. As the building had slight curve it meant that skinning it required a variety of glass panel shapes of these shapes 1,150 were unique in shape and degree of twist and a total of 1,450 glasses wee used. The glass that was used for this building was custom engineered by Permasteelisa and fabricated in Italy. The facade incorporates double glazed, 12’x5’ glass panels. The designers determined the shape of each panel base on the 3D model and then the data was fed directly into an automated fabrication process that cut the aluminium and glass (image13-15).

At night, the glass curtain wall becomes transparent as the Interior lights are turn on; alcove lighting wraps around the perimeter of each floor which allows the concrete skeleton of the building to appear (images 8--9). Alcove lighting wraps around the perimeter of each floor which allows this affect to be displayed. Frank Gehry says he is working on a way to fine-tune the lighting so that the building looks as soft and alluring at night as it does by day.

Image 8. IAC Building at night time a transparent effect is created

Construction and Manufacturing of glass curtain wall

There is also a collection of 1,400 sun-blocking MechoShades, which was specially designed for the 1,150 different curvature wall. The Whispershade® is a motorized shading system that has several benefits to the building and the users, as it improves comfort and reduces energy cost. Its design to maximize natural daylight using a radiometer that helps increase energy efficiency as it collects real-time sky data which allows the SolarTrac® and SunDialer® to seamlessly work together to create the auto mated-shade system, that has five pre-set user-defined solar penetration levels (image 12).

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Each of the two panes of glass is 10 millimetres thick, with one laminated and one monolithic, separated by air space of 12 millimetres. The ceramic frit is a ceramic-based paint that would be silkscreened onto the glass and then baked to fuse the paint with the pattern surface on to the glass. In the case of the IAC building it had a gradient effect pattern that transitioned from full-coverage at the floor and ceiling of each level to a zone roughly at eye level for a person standing on the inside, where it gradually reduce in denseness reaching a band of transparency. The gradient effect of the dots is only legible within one or two meters from the glass as each dot is 1.5millimeters in diameter. From a distance greater than this a smooth blend is seen with different degrees of translucency. This effect has been done In other buildings such as the B3 office by Norman Foster where in this case a solid coating of white frit is used to conceal the floor plates and a more successful unified façade is achieved, at the IAC the transparent zone is too wide and fade too fast, resulting in a high-contrast expression of stripes.

Image 7. close-up exterior veiw of ceramic frit pattern on th curtain wall glass.

Automation • Seamless integration with SolarTrac® and SunDialer® automated-shade systems. • Maximize natural daylight, SolarTrac increases energy efficiency while providing with a comfortable environment for occupants and views to the outside.

Image 12. Shading system

As the fabrication of curved glass is an extremely expensive process, it meant that this process was not a suitable option as nearly every piece of glass would have to be bent to a unique radius to achieve the overall building form. Instead, the curtain wall units were prefabricated in the factory as flat units, incorporating the aluminium edge-frames and the glass sheets, bent into the required warped shapes during their installation on site. This process helps minimise the number of unique panel types as well as reduce the number of pre-curved panels. This building was actually the world’s first glass curtain wall to be cold-wrapped. According to president and CEO of cladding supplier Permasteelisa, the cold-warping idea came from his work on Gehry’s Walt Disney Concert Hall, which has cold-warped stainless-steel panels, and from observing glass handled in the shop and in curtain-wall mockups. The collaboration between Architects, engineers and fabricator meant that the calculation of each panel was

Image 13 -14. 3D computer model

accurate which was key. The dimensions of each curtain-wall unit are about 1.5 meters by the height of one story, ranging from about 4 to 4.6 meters (image.16). Permasteelisa, working with Gehry’s office and the façade consultant Israel Berger and Associates worked together to verify an adequate range calculated the degree of bending for each glass unit. The calculated limit of about 10 centimeter of warpage per panel because when glass in bent shrinkage happen but because of the 10-centimeter shrinkage is uniform and it just simply becomes smaller. The warpage was determined not by the breaking point of the glass, which surprisingly in sheet form are relatively flexible but rather the tensile strength of the silicone adhesive anchoring the fourth corner of each sheet of glass to the curtain-wall frame that determined a maximum torque, which was important for this particular type of building as curves were a key part of it (image 17).

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The use of digital model was essential to determine the correlating “unbent” dimensions for each flat panel that would translate to the correct shape after cold-wrapping on site. The data were exported straight to the automated fabrication equipment that cut each piece of glass and aluminum to the needed size. Each individual curtain-wall unit is framed on all sides by mullions of extruded aluminum, in this case about 75 millimeters wide by 200 deep to which glass panels glazed with silicone sealant. The mullions are shaped in cross-section to interlock with the frames of adjacent units, providing additional structural stability and sealing joint against water and air infiltration. Before construction began, as the curtain wall was a new and innovation design it was laboratory tested to ensure its environmental and structural durability also to determine if there was going to be any leakage. A turbo prop engine blowing hurricane force winds against the glass wall was done to test this (image 18).

Image 15. Manufacturing of glass

Glass curtain wall system

400 cm

150

a b

c d

Laminated insulating glass unit with custom-patterned ceramic frit 0

Extruded aluminum unit frame

Reinforced concrete floor slab Adjustable curtain-wall anchor

Image 16. Curtain-wall system

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silicone sealant and neoprene guides

Glass meeting ground

allow for shims to accomodate structure tolerance

Image 17.silicone adhesive

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Image 18. Turbo prop engine

Assembling on site The angled columns posed a chalenging engineering task. However the contractors usedLaser guided surveying equipment to help get the exact positioning of the structuctral componets Permasteelisa designed a special anchoring system that could absorb tolerances between frame and curtain wall. To find the connection point, Permasteelisaas survey team used the 3D model in conjunction with a GPS system and lasers to triangulate the exact location. Composed of horizontal and vertical aluminum brackets, the anchors bolt to the slab edge and can slide three dimensionally until the connection point is reached. To find the connection point, Permasteelisaas survey team used the 3D model in conjunction with a GPS system and lasers to triangulate the exact location. Each unit is individually anchored to the buildings concrete floor slab with adjustable aluminum brackets that can accommodate the allowance tolerances of the site-cast concrete frame. The panels were manufactured flat, but once on site, bent them into place. To achieve cold bending, worker partially installed each unit, connected three cor

Images 22. Anchoring system

Images 20-21.The typical Male and Female joint

Image 19. Fitting scheme of anchoring system

ners of each unit first; anchoring it at the bottom corner and one upper then physically pulled the fourth corner into place, connecting it to the sab to hold it in the final position, literally contorting the glass and metal and giving IAC its whimsical design. De Gobbi, the president of Permasteelisa, decided not to use the typical set of male/female joints. Each unit of glass is double-glazed, so it was difficult to bend each unit on site; the perimeter seal, which is made of silicon, is put under stress. The anchoring system designed would accommodate construction tolerances and conduct a rigorous survey of the structure to perfectly place each bracket, absorbing tolerances between frame and curtain wall. This is possible because the anchors bolt to the slab edge and can slide three dimensionally until the connection point is reached (image 19-22)

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Image 23. Concrete structure

Image 24. The structure and the glass

The structure

Roof System

The engineer chose a 12 Inch flat-plate concrete system because of its simplicity, the highly articulated slab edges and the high steel prices of the time. A 5,000 psi cast-in-place concrete was used throughout the structure. Gehry’s 3D model was used to conceptualize the structure but not document the project, because the local contracting community would not want to use a 3D solid model for dimensional control.

The material that composed the roof is a 5000-psi concrete with 14” thick. There are columns with twenty-inch diameter that support the roof along the perimeter, and intermittently positioned, there are 14x14 inch posts that help to support the mechanical equipment existing on the roof.

About the perimeter columns, most of them tilted at different angles up to 20°, within a floor and floor to floor. Only three column lines are continuous. The perimeter columns are in the same location relative to each floor, but floors were different relative to one another. Connecting the dots resulted in leaning columns were a more pure solution than transferring out columns at every floor. But the problem is that all the columns slope in a counterclockwise direction that introduced a horizontal twisting force that exceeded the wind and seismic forces (images 23-25).

The mechanical equipment includes a large window-washing unit to service the entire building façade and other materials not specified (image 26). In order to provide additional reinforcement for the roof level, there are HSS 10x10x1/2” square tubes along the perimeter of the building, located on the eleventh floor, which is a mechanical mezzanine level. On this floor, there are also a CMU masonry wall and steel W-shapes that helps to support the mechanical equipment too.

Wind Analysis For the structure design, the IAC Headquarters building was based on the NYC Building Code. Because of this the wind pressure designed for the IAC

Image 26. Roof-top, showing mechanical and windw-washing equipment

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Image 25. Concrete structure details

was the same that the others buildings in the city, independent of the surrounding conditions like the location and the existing buildings. It means only 20 psf for the first 100 feet and 25 psf for 100 to 300 feet. However, the NYC Building Code was changed in July 2008, in order to adopt more of the concepts from International Building Code (IBC), included the ASCE 7 (American Society for Civil Engineers), which will be used in this analysis. The following comparison is about the wind pressures and story forces, considering both the NYC Building Code and the ASCE 7, after the change, which is much more detailed than the earlier used. Analysing the diagrams on the next page (images 27-29), it is possible to realize the variation of the values for the wind pressures on the two versions. At the top of the building, the wind pressure is about 20% less using the ASCE 7 instead the NYC Building Code.

Wind anaylsis diagrams

Image 27. Wind Diagram using NYC Building Code

Image 28.Wind Diagram using ASCE7 - In North/South wind direction

Image 29.Wind Diagram using ASCE7 - In East/West 240 wind direction

Rhino tests of the form

Top View

Front view (north)

Northwest View

Notheast View

North View

Separated Volums

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Technical drawings Floor plans

Site plan

Roof plan

1. Lobby 2. Media wall 3. Terrace 4. Kitchennete 5. Open offices 6. Private office 7. Conference 8. C.E.O. suite 9. Boardroom

First floor

Sixth floor

Second floor

Seventh floor

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As we can see on the plans, each floor of the IAC building is different, which result in a challenge for interior designs who needs to harbour up to 500 employees.

Images from Architectural Record and Architecture Design Journals

Longitudinal section

Detail of west facade

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Images from Architectural Record and Architecture Design Journals

Construction process Concrete structure

Glass curtain wall

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Cost comparison with University of Aberdeen Library

Begun: Sep 2009 Completed: Sep 2011 Floor area: 137,000m2 Sectors: Education, Civic Total cost: £57M

The library is an eight storey building with a clean cut exterior profile. The building is also designed to meet the highest sustainable standards, minimising long term. Consisting of an irregular pattern of insulated panels and high performance glazing, the façade not only allows plenty of daylight to penetrate into the building. Compared to the IAC building in terms of material both use glass however they are used in completely different ways, in term of their form. One will assume that the IAC building would be more expensive as it has a more intricate and complex shape, however this is not the case as the University of Aberdeen New Library is more expensive. The precise precision of the IAC building from the design process to construction meant that exceeding the budget was kept to a minimal. Additional the new method developed by Permasteelisa meant that a significant amount was saved from not using the traditional way of bending the glass which requires heat. To conclude freeform building can be successfully made and reasonable price if accuracy from the very beginning is takes place to minimise wastage and new methods of technology is adopted in terms of construction. In addition 3D software has allowed for freedom to experiment and test a wide range of designs.

Images from www.ajbuildingslibrary.co.uk

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Cost: $62 million (£40 million) Total area: 130,000 ft2

References Websites www.mechoshade.com/WhisperShadeIQ/whispershadeiq.pdf www.vanityfair.com www.engr.psu.edu/ae/thesis/portfolios/2009/rac281/tech1-pdf.pdf www.bluffton.edu/sullivanm/newyork/newyorkcity/gehry/iac.html www.iachq.com/interactive/content.html www.siny.org/media/projects/iacnhny.pdf www.enr.construction.com/features/buildings/archives/070108.asp www.archpaper.com/news/articles.asp?id=185 www.ajbuildingslibrary.co.uk

Books Murray,Scott.New york:Translucent Building Skins-Material Innovations in Modern and Contemporary Architecture, Routledge. 2013

Journals Frank Gehry’s first building in New York City, the IAC headquarters, pioneers a new neighbourhood, eliciting positive and negative reactions Architectural record vol. 195, no. 10, 2007 Oct., p. 112-119. Interior eye. Foster & Partners’ Hearst Tower and Gehry Partners’ IAC Building Architectural design vol. 77, no. 5, 2007 Sept./Oct., p. 112-117.

Illustrations by Alison and Tais Image Image Image Image Image Image Image Image Image Image

16 17 19 20 21 22 24 27 28 29

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IN SITU CONCRETE

TECH Project 1: Material/Systems Study LSA THIRD YEAR TECHONOLOGY 2014.2015 BA HONS ARCHITECTURE Isabel Bezerra e Paula Alvarenga 1|In Situ Concrete 247

Contents Description of in situ concrete................................................................................................ 3 History of material ................................................................................................................... 5 Manufacture ............................................................................................................................. 6 Description of uses .................................................................................................................... 8 Examples of material in use ................................................................................................... 9 CASE STUDY .............................................................................................................................. 13 Sesc PompĂŠia ......................................................................................................................... 13 REFERENCES .............................................................................................................................. 22

2|In Situ Concrete 248

Description of in situ concrete Concrete is a material made up of three basic components: water, aggregate (rock, sand or gravel) and cement. REINFORCEMENT It may also contain chemical additives in order to improve or modify their basic properties. Cement, usually in powder form, act as a binding agent when mixed with water and aggregates. This combination, or concrete mix, will be poured and harden into the durable material. There are two methods of fabricating reinforced concrete. The first is pre-fabricated components made of concrete, called precast concrete. The other one is to pour the paste into forms at the building site, and that is called in situ concrete. In situ concrete is the traditional form in which concrete was first used in construction, it is deposited and cured in place, it hardens as part of the structure. In situ concrete can be seen in the work of Le Corbusier, Louis Kahn, Tadao Ando and others.

3|In Situ Concrete 249

4|In Situ Concrete 250

History of material Reinforced concrete is a new material. Until the late nineteenth century, the constructive systems was made of wood and masonry, but, because of wood’s problems like less durability and tendency to combustion, rock´s masonry or by bricks was the structural system employed in the most important

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and after that, some mud mortar more

pure limestone.

durable and firm. In that, moment starts the

was

lighthouse

far to

The big step to

history of quicklime, cement and concrete.

develop

the

The ancient Romans was a pragmatic people,

cement stars in

with an open and receptive mind. Because of

1756

this mentality has resulted in the emergence

Smeaton, who

of a powerful construction industry, with a

achieved

specific law to regularize some aspects of

obtain a high

construction and norms

facing labor´s

resistant product made by soft limestone and

services. They established too specifics rules

clay. In 1818, Vicat obtained results very

to control quality of materials, because of

similar with Smeaton, mixing clayey and

that,

calcareous components. He is regarded as

they

achieved

the

construction

techniques in whole empire.

with to

the inventor of artificial cement. In 1824, the English constructor Joseph Aspdin burned jointly limestone and clay stones, turning them into a fine powder. He realized that, after dry, the mix turned out as rigid as stones used in civil construction. The mixture did not dissolve in water and was patented by the manufacturer in the same year, under the name of Portland cement.

5|In Situ Concrete 251

modern

times,

researchers

have

properties, such as higher strength, electrical

experimented with the addition of other

conductivity,

materials to create concrete with improved

through spillage.

resistance

damages

Manufacture The first step in making concrete is to prepare the cement. One type of cement, Portland cement, is considered superior to natural cement because it is stronger, more durable, and

consistent

quality.

Next, it is transfered to the work site and placed. During placing, segregation of the various ingredients must be avoided so that full compaction—elimination of air bubbles—can be achieved.

To make it, the raw materials are crushed and ground into a fine powder and mixed

together. Next, the material

undergoes two heating steps—calcining and burning. In calcining, the materials are heated to a high temperature but do not fuse together. In burning, however, the materials partially fuse together, forming a substance known as "clinker." Pumping transports large quantities of

The clinker is then ground in a ball mill—

concrete over large distances through

a rotating steel drum filled with steel balls

pipelines using a system consisting of a

that pulverize the material.

hopper, a pump, and the pipes. Pumps After the Portland cement is prepared, it

come in several types – the horizontal

is mixed with aggregates such as sand or

piston pump with semi- rotary valves and

gravel, admixtures, fibers, and water.

small portable pumps called squeeze 6|In Situ Concrete 252

pumps. A vacuum provides a continuous

compaction should be equal; the latter is

flow of concrete, with two rotating rollers

usually accomplished using internal or

squeezing a flexible pipe to move the

external vibrators. An internal vibrator

concrete into the delivery pipe.

uses a poker housing a motor-driven shaft. When the poker is inserted into the concrete, controlled vibration occurs to compact the concrete. External vibrators are used for precast or thin in situ sections having a shape or thickness unsuitable for internal vibrators. These type of vibrators are rigidly clamped to the formwork, which rests on an elastic support. Both the form and the concrete are vibrated. Vibrating tables are also used, where a table produces vertical vibration by using two shafts rotating in opposite directions. Once it is placed and compacted, the

Once at the site, the concrete must be

concrete must cured before it is finished

placed and compacted. These two

to make sure that it doesn't dry too

operations

almost

quickly. Concrete's strength is influenced

simultaneously. Placing must be done so

by its moisture level during the hardening

that

process: as the cement solidifies, the

are

segregation

ingredients

compactionâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;with

performed of

the

avoided all

air

various and

full

concrete

bubbles

shrinks.

site

constraints

prevent the concrete from contracting,

eliminatedâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;can be achieved.

tensile stresses will develop, weakening the concrete. To minimize this problem, concrete must be kept damp during the several days it requires to set and harden. Concrete is widely used for making

Whether chutes or buggies are used,

architectural

structures,

foundations,

brick/block

walls,

pavements,

bridges/overpasses, highways, runways,

position is important in achieving these

parking

goals. The rates of placing and of

structures,

pools/reservoirs,

pipes,

dams, footings

for

7|In Situ Concrete 253

gates, fences and poles and even boats. Concrete is used in large quantities almost everywhere humankind has a need for infrastructure. Concrete is also the basis of a large commercial industry. Globally,

the

ready-mix

concrete

industry, the largest segment of the concrete market, is projected to exceed $100 billion in revenue by 2015.

Description of uses The cement, usually in powder formÂš, act as a binding agent when mixed with water and aggregates and creates the concrete paste that hardens into the stone like form of the concrete.

Â˛ Aggregates can be fine (like sand) or coarse (like gravel).

Although most drinking water is suitable for mixing concrete, aggregates are chosen carefully. AggregatesÂ˛ comprise 60 to 75 percent of the total volume of concrete. The type and size of aggregate used depends on the thickness and purpose of the final concrete product. The additions (fly ash, pozzolan, silica fume etc.) and chemical may be added in order to improve or modify its basic properties additives. To obtain a tough, durable, economical and good concrete aspect, one should study the properties of each material used and the factors that can alter them. The correct proportioning and careful execution of the mixture, also its transportation and release in the molds, are fundamental to the proper hardening of the paste. After poured into place,

8|In Situ Concrete 254

the concrete must remain hydrated for the correct amount of time, thatâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s called the cure of the concrete. One of the major disadvantages of in situ is the space requirement for storing and working with the formwork and reinforcement. The concrete is a material with high resistance to compressive forces, but with a low traction strength. Therefore, it is imperative to join the concrete with a material with high traction strength - the reinforcement. The reinforcement is made of steel, and it is placed before the pouring of the concrete.

Examples of material in use The reasons for the widespread use of such concrete are: the ease with which concrete structural elements may be performed in a variety of shapes and sizes; cheaper and more readily available at the construction site. There are innumerous structural elements in which concrete can be found, like slabs, beams, pillars, in the foundation and even in more detailed and artistic structures.

The slabs exist in various types, such as solid, ribbed, smooth, etc., as described the following.

9|In Situ Concrete 255

Beams and pillars casted in place.

Some trends in architecture also spread the

A lot of architects are known for using

use of concrete, like the modernism and

concrete in their designs and using the

brutalism.

material to create forms and structures that

characterized by the use of reinforced

wouldnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t be possible without reinforced

concrete left apparent, highlighting the

concrete.

design printed by molds natural wood.

architect, and is highly regarded for his

The

brutalist

architecture

Tadao

Ando

Japanese

unparalleled work with concrete.

Gottfried BĂśhm's Mariendom, in Neviges, Germany Tadao Andoâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Church on the Water Because of its extensive use in various forms, the in situ concrete is utilized by many great names in architecture, suh as Louis Kahn, Zaha Hadid and Oscar Niemeyer

Ronchamp Church, in France, Le Courbusier

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http://vejasp.abril.com.br/blogs/morar-em-sp/2013/06/fotos-de-arquitetura-no-tomieohtake/ 12 | I n S i t u C o n c r e t e 258

CASE STUDY Sesc PompĂŠia Building project by Brazilian architect, Lina Bo Bardi, in 1977 in SĂŁo Paulo, Brazil. This building is part of a requalification project of a sheds well of factory, turning this into a complex of leisure, sports and cultural activities. Three prismatic volumes of exposed concrete compose the project, implanted next to the old factory sheds:

Cylinder with 8 meters in diameter and 70 meters us height

Rectangular prism with 30x40 meters in its base and 45 meters in height.

Rectangular prism with 14x16 meter in its base and 52 meters in height

The biggest prism is composed by five floors with 8,60 meters in height between floors. Presents just bearing perimeter walls, which sizes 35 centimeters in thickness and none additional internal structure. The walls was framed with horizontal wood planks. The prestressed ribbed slab measure one-meter total height.

13 | I n S i t u C o n c r e t e 259

The windows was located in smaller, east and

bridges were made of reinforced concrete.

west faces. Each floor presents a similar

Which

arrangement with four windows per floor.

however, they follow the same rule: depart

They configure irregular openings, made by

from the same opening in the lower prism

polystyrene

during

and branch leading to two symmetrical

concreting. The polystyreneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s marks are as

openings in higher prism. The first catwalk,

noticeable as the wood marks. Interment was

from below, a perfect V shape. The second

used rectangular shapes of plastic, which are

also form a perfect V and takes a bit more

noticeable as well.

centralized than the openings of the 1st

shapes

embedded

bridge

has

different

design;

catwalk, setting up a V tighter than the lower. The third prism is a cylinder made of systematic concrete rings seventy-one meters high each. The last prism is closely akin with the prims through the metal bridge. The shape, which made the rings of the third prism, had truncated cones format, in other words, have the external faces inclined to The smallest prism is composed by 12 floors,

inside. This allows that forms cash inflow in

which matches with every two floors of the

the lower ring to concreting of the next higher

biggest one, and thus, have 4, 30 meters in

ring. This concreting condition had, as a

height between floors. The last two floors

consequence, that the inferior limit of which

have 3, 60 meters in height. The external

ring being imperfect, making an irregular

faces was shaped by horizontal wooden

line with thickness above the rings.

surface as well. The windows are rectangular and smaller than the pool shaped from the other prism, however, they are not aligned austerely, and they are placed in many coordinates. There

are

four

levels of bridges join

the

together.

prims These

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15 | I n S i t u C o n c r e t e 261

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SECTION 1:500 18 | I n S i t u C o n c r e t e 264

19 | I n S i t u C o n c r e t e 265

http://www.revistabrasileiros.com.br/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/blahculturalcidadela2.jpg

20 | I n S i t u C o n c r e t e 266

http://www.archdaily.com.br/br/01-90002/arte-e-arquitetura-croquis

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REFERENCES http://www.ccanz.org.nz/page/In-Situ-Concrete.aspx http://www.guiadaobra.net/ http://ewbucin.blogspot.co.uk/2012/08/second-burere-implementation-trip.html http://www.yatzer.com/living-laboratory-richard-pare-le-corbusier-konstantin-melnikov https://www.flickr.com/photos/scottnorsworthy/4854485471/in/photostream/ http://arcoweb.com.br/projetodesign-assinantes/memoria/sesc-pompeia-20-anosprojeto-tornou-se-31-07-2002 http://linabobarditogether.com/pt/ SANTOS. Paulo - FUNDAMENTOS DO CONCRETO ARMADO. . UNESP. SP

22 | I n S i t u C o n c r e t e 268

269

SUMARY 1. INTRODUCTION 2. MAIN BODY 2.1.Definition and History 2.2.Components, Production and Application 2.3.U value 2.4.Scope 2.5.Creative Design 2.6.Exposed Concrete Face 2.7.Basements and Pools 2.8.Examples 2.9.Benefits 3. CONCLUSION 4. REFERENCES

270

INTRODUCTION This work is related to discipline Arch 3036 TECH 1 and aims to present and analyze a material/structure called Insulated Concrete Formwork or ICF. The ICF is one of the most innovative and modern methods of construction currently. Common in United States and now in Europe. Is a block construction system of isocret are molds in EPS for reinforced concrete structures, a form of practical application and rapid influence on the speed of the project by reducing its costs. With this benefits anyone who designs (builds and anyone who buys) since the system does not require skilled labor and the procedures are the same as conventional construction.

271

Definition and History

Insulating Concrete Formwork (ICF) is an energy building method which creates insulated structural walls for residential and/or commercial buildings. These type of structures are made by forms used to hold fresh concrete that remain in place permanently to provide insulation for the structure they enclose. Insulating Concrete Formwork Association (ICFA) was established in 1992 to promote the use of ICF in the UK.

In 1967, Werner Gregori patented the first ICF in North America. Working as a general contractor, building apartments (in Southern Ontario), he thought about those foam plastic coolers to keep the drink cold and saw kids on the beach playing with the sand, realizing that if concrete blocks could be formed using that foam plastic, many construction costs and hours of labor could be eliminated (ICF BUILDER, 2010).

Within a year, he had converted his foam cooler epiphany into the first ICF. Called "Foam Form," each block measured 16 inches high by 48 inches long with a tongue-and-groove interlock, metal ties, and a waffle-grid core. The biggest challenge faced trying to get Foam Form to market was just getting the product accepted as a legitimate alternative. First of all, It was really difficult to change the way that the contractor was used to building and also some problems to get the product accepted by the fire codes and insurance companies. What won all these difficulties over was the ease of installation.

The design remained unchanged for the next 15 years. The patent was officially submitted in Canada on March 22, 1966, and the U.S. patent application granted October 24, 1968. Europeans

were

developing

similar

products

around

the

same

time.

In the 1980s and 1990s, some American companies got involved in the technology, manufacturing blocks and panels or planks.

272

The first ICF structure built in North America was a home on Lakeshore Drive (Oakville, Ontario). The home attracted extensive publicity, from all the types of professional media and interested onlookers.

The new companies developed variations and innovations to discerne one system from another. During

the

years,

some

ICF

manufacturers

consolidated, leading to a smaller number of larger companies. The first target market was high end home construction, because of the system’s performance and the costs of the construct. As word of ICFs grew and innovations reduced manufacturing and installation costs, builders began using the forms for mid-pricerange homes. Some production builders now create entire large developments using insulating concrete forms.

Components - Production - Application

Insulating concrete forms systems can vary in their design. It can be find the “Flat” systems, the wall produced by “grid” systems and the “Post and Beam” systems. The first one provides a continuous thickness of concrete, like a conventionally poured wall. The “Grid” systems has a waffle pattern where the concrete is thicker at some points than others, while the "Post and beam" systems just have the discrete horizontal and vertical columns of concrete that are completely

273

encapsulated in foam insulation. Whatever their differences, all major ICF systems are engineer-designed, code-accepted, and field-proven.

FLAT

GRID

POST AND BEAM

The two insulating faces are separated by some type of connector or web. Large preassembled blocks stack quickly on site. Panels or planks ship more compactly, but must be assembled into formwork on the job. According to the company Americaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Cement Manufacturers (2010), foam is most used with expanded polystyrene (EPS). It can be extruded polystyrene (XPS), which is stronger, but also more costly.

Top plan view

274

Elevational view/web structure

The ties that interconnect the two layers of insulated forming material can be plastic, metal, or additional projections of the insulation. Each type of material has your own advantage, but one current trend adopts hinges into the ties that offer preassembled forms to fold flat for easy, less costly shipping.

Building Process 1 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Because of the lightness of the material, they come flatpacked, without the necessity of a mechanical handling equipment. The walls are normally placed on a monolithic slab with embedded rebar dowels connecting the walls to the foundation. 2 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Put the first blocks at fixed points and insert the webs into the pre-formed channels.

3 - Stacking forms and creating openings.

275

4 - The concrete is poured. When the concrete wall is set the system became a high strength frame of concrete and the formwork remains in place as thermal insulation.

5 - Concrete flooring is poured.

U Value

A major consideration when choosing a walling system will be its thermal performance or energy efficiency. This factor is very important to determinate the running costs of a residential/commercial structure, so it is interesting to maximise thermal performance and to improve on the minimum standards required. The current maximum elemental U-value for external walls in England and Wales is 0.30W/m2K. By 2016, when new homes will have to achieve â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Zero Carbonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; standard it is expected to be 0.10W/m2K.

For 383mm (Classic polystyrene block system - ICF):

Consists of: 20mm brick slips (which give the appearance of brickwork) (1); 350mm EPS expanded polystyrene insulation formwork (210mm of EPS insulation) (2) filled with steel-reinforced concrete (3); 12.5mm dry-lining (4)

Finished Wall U-value: 0.15W/m2K

276

Scope Indicated to home construction in the beginning, today the ICF market is much broader, and this system can be used to build residential, commercial, industrial and institutional buildings to any shape and size. We can see homes, apartments, hotels, commercial units, basements, pools, among others. This material became common by uniting the speed of construction with the ease and freedom of design and form.

140,000-square-foot Armed Forces Reserve Center in Tampa, Florida. Construction of Waterside condominiums in Ft. Myers, Florida

IFC-built home on lot deemed â&#x20AC;&#x153;unbuildableâ&#x20AC;? by builder, John Vogstrum in Minnesota Best Western hotel in Fort Lauderdale, Florida.

42,632 square-foot Hampton Inn hotel in Horseheads, New York.

277

Creative Design

The Insulation Concrete Form is a modular structure with a small number of components and is a system that gives to the architect freedom to design an innovative shape as expressive curves at any scale, from small domestic to large buildings and multi-storey as schools, hospitals and hotels without having to worry about the construction problems it would cause with common construction systems like the limitation of timber or conventional brick and block construction. Is easy to create design beautiful, artistic, structures with curves and arches and big varying angles. Furthermore, this type of construction system can receive a wide variety of external finishes like stone, brick, colors and textures or even exposed concrete face. It is a modern and innovative building system fast and sustainable construction, which has been a very important topic nowadays. The ICF system make it possible: 

Design flexibility



Quicker build times



Cost effectiveness



The variety of finishes available



Higher building performance terms of sustainability and energy efficiency.

278

The ICF system provides to the building: 

Comfort (buildings constructed with ICF walls have a more even temperature throughout the day and night)



Solidity



Durability



Resistance to natural disasters and fire



Quietness (due the sound insulation)

The versatility of this system can be seen here at this concrete curve stair outside of the building. AJ when York used the ICF cause he wanted to eliminate the weight and pressure that this stairs, built with conventional systems, could make on the building.

279

After determining the exact form and the angle of the curve, the ICFs have been installed and the concrete was dumped at the forms, and insulated by them hardened slower than exposed concrete would, achieving a harder, more durable concrete quality.

Exposed Concrete Face Wood strips are fitted between webs and inside the plastic strips, formwork is then ready for concrete. After sufficient curing time the plywood and plastic strips are stuck off leaving the â&#x20AC;&#x153;Exposed Concrete Faceâ&#x20AC;?.

280

Basements and Pools Some ICF systems are fully insulated and waterproof, so it is very common in the construction of basements and swimming pools. What happens is that a mix is added to the base concrete formwork, providing a non-crystalline salt formation that seals the concrete against any ingress of water or liquids.

281

EXAMPLES Example 1: This house was built by Brady Contracting and Developing with Insulation Concrete Form system near Boulder, Colorado in the Valleys. In September 2010, the area where it was built suffered forest fires and on that account have been devastated neighborhoods and that many buildings were destroyed, the house remained full, the owner has positioned with garden hoses and techniques used to mitigate fire protect your home. Conceived with the principles of sustainability, the house also has features like photovoltaic panels.

Photos of building with ICF system:

282

Finished photos:

Example 2: This architect Simon Corbett design this ICF house in 2011 in School Lane a village of Rowberrow, near to Bristol. The existing building at the site was demolish giving to the architect the freedom to build a home as your client wish, with big open spaces between inside and outside of the building. The height was one restriction at the time, and the solution for build a big program as a five bedrooms house was create a basement for the sleeping area.

283

Benefits The ICF having an equivalent or lower cost than current construction systems, provides a number of benefits over conventional systems such as: 

Structure and Concurrent Sealing: As a modular monolithic structural system and the implementation of the structure and sealing is simultaneous not requiring pillars and beams even on multiple floors.



Construction Time Reduction: Being an extremely fast system and does not require skilled labor, production times are reduced on average by half, resulting in a drastic reduction of hand labor.



Increased Energy Efficiency: The inner and outer lining of the walls in EPS means less dependence on cooling systems (in summer) and heating (in winter ), causing a significant reduction in electricity bills.



Sustainable Product: Despite being a derivative of oil is sustainable because the amount of surplus in the work is minimal and this surplus is likely to recycling.



Constructive Quality: free of moisture, dust mites, fungi and bacteria. Fire resistant.

284

CONCLUSION The knowledge of the techniques, processes and materials to be used for a more sustainable construction with its time of work reduction and energy efficiency are becoming increasingly essential to society. The Insulating Concrete Formwork has the potential to accord all these requirements and is occupying your space at the same time that the market is gaining more confidence.

285

REFERENCES

TAHA,

Nabil.

Insulated

Concrete

Forming

Systems:

Disponível

em:

<http://www.greenhomebuilding.com/icf.htm>. Acesso em: 05 nov. 2014.

Energy Efficiency Software Article. Green Builder Magazine. 2013. Disponível em: <http://www.rogershaw.com/products/dietrichs/energy-efficiency-software-article/>. Acesso em: 07 nov. 2014.

American`s Cement Manufactures. ICF (Insulating Concrete Forms): Insulating Concrete Forms (ICFs). Disponível em: <http://www.cement.org/think-harder-concrete-/homes/buildingsystems/insulated-concrete-forms>. Acesso em: 07 nov. 2014.

Icf

Builder

Magazine.

History

ICF.

Disponível

em:

<http://www.icfmag.com/articles/features/history_of_icfs.html>. Acesso em: 10 nov. 2014.

Concrete Thinking. ICF (Insulating Concrete Forms): Flexible, integrated wall construction. Disponível

em:

<http://www.concretethinker.com/applications/ICF-Insulating-Concrete-

Forms.aspx>. Acesso em: 10 nov. 2014.

Home

Building.

Build

Systems

Explained.

Disponível

em:

<http://www.homebuilding.co.uk/advice/key-choices/structural/build-systems-explained>. Acesso em: 07 nov. 2014.

286

1 287

â&#x20AC;&#x153;Kit Housesâ&#x20AC;?

Fernanda Fontana De Gasperin. Pnumber: 13006329 Lina Hafizi. Pnumber: 10505339 Architecture 2 288

Techonlogy 3 Professor: Christopher Jones Date: CONTENTS

Abstract ............................................................................................................................................................................... 4 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................... 5 System History ................................................................................................................................................................ 6 Definition ........................................................................................................................................................................... 8 Advantages and disadvantages......................................................................................................................... 9 Huf Haus ......................................................................................................................................................................... 9 Facit homes..................................................................................................................................................................10 Development and Manufacture ...........................................................................................................................13 PROJECT AND Manufacturing..........................................................................................................................13 Building PROCESS .................................................................................................................................................14 Foundation and basis ..........................................................................................................................................15 Application ......................................................................................................................................................................16 Performance ...................................................................................................................................................................17 Huf haus ........................................................................................................................................................................17 Facit homes..................................................................................................................................................................18 Specification ...................................................................................................................................................................19 Huf Haus ...................................................................................................................................................................19 FACIT HOMES .............................................................................................................................................................20 Comparasion between usual system and Kit houses ................................................................................21 Future .................................................................................................................................................................................22 Reference List .................................................................................................................................................................23

3 289

ABSTRACT

This research is going to cover the kind of building called kit houses or kit homes. The History and origin, until the most famous companies nowadays and a comparison between them.

4 290

INTRODUCTION

Kit Houses or Kit Homes can be simply defined as a kind of pre-fabricates house. This, in specific was created to become faster the production of refugees. Nowadays this characteristic still is searched, in most of cases: the faster production in comparison of the normal building process, usually with bricks. More than this characteristic the cleanness of the site when building the house and high quality of a pre-fabricated house are other strong advantages of building this way. In the world, as in United Kingdom, different companies becomes part of this market of pre-fabricated houses, which gives for the customer many options when choosing their kit house. Even with many advantages and different options of kit houses, this building process still are not the most popular way to build a house. This study are going to present firstly the history and definition of a kit house, secondly two examples of kit homes are their process of project, building and some specification and finally a comparison between the two companies and the normal process, where is going to discuss why kit houses still are not a popular construction system.

5 291

SYSTEM HISTORY The idea of Kit Houses or Demountable Houses began with the French architect Jean Prouvé. His idea was also project affordable houses. He has designed a series of Demountable Houses back in the 40s that could be mass-produced to shelter refugees after a war. One of these dwellings, Maison 8x8 (1948) is currently on display for the first time in Miami. The architect Jean Prouvé .

The model of demountable house and a section sketched.

Jean

Prouvé’s

Demountable Houses were designed according to the principles of prefabrication, flexibility and mobility, as well as 6 292

functionality and rational fabrication. His main achievement was transferring manufacturing technology from industry to architecture without compromising aesthetics. Prouvé, together with Le Corbusier, was part of The French Union of Modern Artists and a he was a master of metalworking – a craft he used in his demountable shelters.

The building process of Jean Prouvé model

One of Prouvé’s Demountable Houses, Maison 8×8, is an 8 square meter dwelling made from durable metal frames with a wooden roof and floor beams. 64 square meters provides an acceptable amount of living space while allowing the project to be quickly and easily constructed. Prouvé used one of these shelters as his own office — now a monument — and if you are in Miami you can check out Maison 8×8 at Galerie Patrick Seguin during Design Miami 2013.

7 293

DEFINITION

Kit house are a kind of building process, which all structure and framing are produced on the factory and are delivered to the site where it is assembled. They are also known as: Mill-cut houses, pre-cut houses, Ready-cut houses, Mail order homes, or even catalog homes. Back in the days kit house were the type of housing that was popular in United States and Canada in the first half of the 20th century. The manufacture Kit house sold so many houses in many different plans and styles, from a simple bungalows to magnificent Colonials. This was a fixed price for all the materials that was needed for the construction of a particular house, but normally this is excluded the brick, concrete, or masonry (which would be needed for laying a foundation, which the customer would have to arrange to have done locally). Over 100,000 kit homes were built in the United States between 1908 and 1940. The largest kit home seller is in Canada in the Canadian headquarters which were located in the Canadian Pacific building, in Toronto. They functioned across the whole of Canada, from 1905 to 1952. 8 294

At United Kingdom are different factories that produce this kind of house and also some are imported from other countries, such as Germany and Sweden. Some examples are: Huf houses, Ikea, Blok lok, Facit homes, Scotframe and Scandinavian. This research are going to discuss and explain two different brands of kit homes that has different manufacturing and building process. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

The Advantages of Kit House: •

Reduced manufacture times.

•

Improved quality.

•

Labour reductions.

•

Fast on site construction.

•

Reduced production costs.

•

Reduction in weather delays.

Disadvantages of Kit Houses: •

Less design flexibility (although this is not always the case).

•

Last minute changes are difficult.

HUF HAUS Huf

Haus is

a German company based

Hartenfels

the Westerwald region

that

manufactures prefabricated houses. In 1912, Johann Huf founded a carpentry workshop in the

small

village

of Krümmel in

the

Westerwald. A year later, the enterprise moved to Hartenfels. In 1948 his son Franz Huf took over management of the enterprise, and enlarged it to a supra-regional provider of carpenter's works, e. g. churches in the Rhineland, the large post administration office

Bonn.

The

so-called

"Huf

Fachwerkhaus 2000" was designed in 1972 together with the architect Manfred Adams.The principles of this construction are still the standard in all Huf houses. 9 295

A model of Huf Haus on 1960â&#x20AC;&#x2122;s

Huf Haus is the world's leading company in selling houses and the design is based on a classic architecture, what makes the design more familiar and acceptable for the customers. The construction allows individual floor plans, including for office buildings.

A model of a Huf Haus

Basically is a personalized timber and glass house, with windows on all sides, this is to maximising the outside environment. The post and beam design means that there are no loadbearing on the walls, so the interior is truly open plan. This is achieved through their signature timber post and beam structure which removes the need for load bearing walls allowing tremendous design flexibility and the infilling of external walls with generous amounts of glazing.

Considered to be a design classic. They are built to a very high standard and are extremely energy efficient,

incorporating sustainably sourced materials, high-end insulation techniques, toxin-free paints, and utilising solar energy and rainwater recycling. FACIT HOMES

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Facit Homes probably is the first company in the world to digitally fabricate a bespoke home on-site. The company has developed a process (D-Process) whereby it delivers a compact mobile production facility (MPF) to the construction site, equipped with all the materials and machinery required to transform a 3D digital design into a physical building. They bring their compact high-tech machine to site and make it there and then.

A scale model showing how the machine work in the site

The process begins with designing the house using a 3D computer model, which contains every aspect from its orientation, material quantities, even down to the position of individual plug sockets. The patented â&#x20AC;&#x153;D-Processâ&#x20AC;? then transforms the 3D digital designs into the homeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s exact physical building components, using a computer controlled cutter. These components are usually made from engineered spruce ply and are light and easy enough to then be assembled together on site. Since the components are produced on demand, costs are kept to a minimum and

lead

times

are

eradicated.

The panels and the house being builded

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The company Facit home, is leaded by one designer and one architect, and others that coordinate the production, management and 3D architectural.

Different interior shapes

The basic ideia of the company is how to make better buildings where the construction costs can be predicted and turn the process quicker and easier for the customer. The answer founded is to design all details on computer, cute all parts of the building with a CNC machine and also use lightweight blocks where less people can do the entire job.

A Facit Home model finished

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DEVELOPMENT AND MANUFACTURE

The two kinds of pre-fabricated houses uses different ways to build and have different needs. In this section, we will talk about the differences between the manufacturing process and the building process needs. PROJECT AND MANUFACTURING The project conception of each company has some differences, in the same time that Facit Homes allows the customer to start the project from scratch, Huf Haus has some pre-defined projects, which can be adapted but has more limitations than the Facit. Because of this reason, the time spent on Facitâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s projects are bigger than the Huf Haus. The both donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t say anything about limits of floors or area, but supposes that the building can have any areas since it respect the modules pre-defined by the brands.

The production of Facit home, the machine cutting panels the site and blocks being build.

The biggest difference between Facit Homes and Huf Haus is where and when the parts of the building are produced. The frames production of Huf Haus happens on the industry and the panels and structure are shipped to houses ready to be build. In the other hand, Facit Homes frames and structure are printed in the site, using rapid prototyping technology or 3D printing, called

D-

process by the company. This technology was

patented

the

company.

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The production of Huf Haus at the factory..

BUILDING PROCESS The difference between the materials of the both system is a consequence of how each one is erected. Facit homes are made of small wood panels, which donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t make necessary heavy machinery or large labour force. In the other hand, Huf Haus need some machines to help the erecting of the house. The reason is that the pieces come almost done and are made of materials such as metal in some structures and also glazing panels.

Above, the Facit home building process and behing the Huf Haus building process.

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FOUNDATION AND BASIS The basis of the systems also has some differences. The Huf Haus system need a concrete foundation, that is done by the company but the groundwork should be done the costumer. Different from Facit homes, that donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t need any concrete slab or walls, because the building is builded in metal screwpile foundations that also reduce the needs of excavations because it adapts to the site.

The pictures above, illustrate the foundation process of Facit homes, when the metal foundations are being sited and then the timber structure is placed above.

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The basement needed of Huf Haus is more complex. It needs a concrete base that demands more land changes.

APPLICATION Usually for individual homes, duplex homes, flat buildings and also commercial constructions. Following examples of each building of the three brands: Huf Haus

Facit Homes

House

Two stories house

Apartment building

Circular house

Commercial construction

One story house

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PERFORMANCE

HUF HAUS Despite the substantial use of glass within the design of Huf Haus houses it requires only a 2

heating rate of 34 W/m (at Hartenfels, Germany). The main reasons are: •

All of constructional wood elements are fitted with a heat-insulation layer put together at the factory - this reduces thermal bridges.

•

The already well-insulated walls have been redesigned. The walls are thicker now and their depth can be varied depending on the climatic region. The material used is tailored to the location, so that an adequate heat insulation is achieved.

•

The glass walls have 51 mm triple glazing with a heat transfer amount (U-value) of 0.6 2

W/m K. •

Home technology is based on a heat pump , electronically regulated heating systems, under floor heating pipes laid very closely together, a highly efficient ventilation system and independent domestic hot water pumps, so that the independent heating system can be switched off during the summer months.

•

A large photovoltaic system across nearly the whole roof.

HUF HAUS have constantly developed the energy efficiency in many homes. One of the milestones of this development is the green[r]evolution design which it promptly become prepareD for innovative along with energy-efficient in timbered building. 17 303

It is proven that each and every one of the HUF house construction achieves the efficiency grading of ‘House 55’ KFW-classification. The diagram shows the improvement throughout from 1980 to 2013, how much the efficiency has changed over time.

FACIT HOMES Facit Homes use the same ‘design for assembly’ technique as the manufacturing industry. This means each home is designed in a way that will make it easier to assemble later on, saving time and keeping costs down. Facit homes has a High-performance. The Facit design comes with energy efficiency built in together. You will get a long-term security against rising energy prices, while you doing your bit to combat global warming. It is found that Facit Homes are the best-performing homes that manufacture in the UK. They offer the lowest possible bills with the Highest levels of comfort. Each home meets the same high international level of performance as the German. The efficiency is built in the Facit designs which follow the fabric-first approach to energy efficiency: super-thick insulation, absolute air-tightness and south-facing windows that help capture a free and almost everlasting energy source: the sun. The result is Simple: and you use less energy and save more money. The Facit Chassis allows for the neat separation of electrics, insulation and plumbing into different cavities. This creates flexibility for our construction team, and helps avoid any delays. Facit Homes follow some steps to energy efficiency: thick insulation, air-tightness and south-facing windows that help capture a free

and almost everlasting energy source: the sun.

They have Mechanical Heat Recovery Ventilation. This system brings in fresh air whilst recovering the waste heat that would normally be lost. In short, the features of Facit Homes sustainable design are: 1. Insulated to twice current Part L of the building regulations.

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2. Improved air-tightness through design and control of all service penetrations. 3. All materials speci ed to minimize environmental impact, e.g. Warmcell insulation,FSC certi ed plywood. 4. Minimal wastage through the design of all cutting patterns. 5. Reduced transportation with local fabrication. 6. Grey water recycling system integrated into the environmental design. 7. Heat recovery heating system, minimizes heating requirement. 8. Solar water heating utilizes renewable energy resources. 9. All the building services are integrated into the design allowing for future eligibility.

SPECIFICATION HUF HAUS The first step in the design process is to becoming familiar with the client. Generally, the first meeting is always held in the business office, where the client has the opportunity to meet the architect, as well as to review examples of the projects that we have designed. The meeting usually takes about an hour and there is no charge for the initial meeting. The first thing that we do is to answer the question: “Where is this client in the design process?” The Professionals at Space Design Architecture are here to listen and understand what the client’s vision and potential are for the new dwelling, and to record the possible needs that our firm can best serve. This is depending on the difficulty of the project and where the prospective client may be, however this step may take up to 1 month to come to a conclusion. 2.

Initial Design

The second step is to analyze what we have discussed from the first few session that they had with the client. The professionals will then carefully consider what the project’s needs are, and which services are most appropriate for accomplishing the client’s objective. From this analysis, then our designer will draft and present a proposal to the client this is to outlining the understanding of the project’s possibility, parameters, and requirements, as well as the professional services and fees. All of these will take another to be completed. 3. Tendering project Step three is about to bring our clients attention to our company. Our architects will talk more about the company’s advantages, such as the projects that we have done in the past and the benefits that we have and the offers that we do, for instance we can recommend the client to certain contractors to see and that we have worked with and are happy about. This process will take 1 month for the client to accept the bid. 4. Survey 19 305

The architect and the measured survey guy will both go to the site to measure the area and to take photographs. Then the measured survey man will give the designer a pdf file with the plan, section and elevation with the measurements on . Then the architecture assistance will put it on Cad and model it 3D on the existing proposed site. The process will take almost a month to get the measurements of the site and to model it as well as to put it together in the cad. 5. Pre app planning design Stage five is when all the measurements of the site is put together. And then the initial design is send to the pre app planning for acceptance. This stage will take 2 weeks for the results to come back. Either apply for full planning or revised design What happens in this stage is if the initial design has been accepted the pre app planning then the client will then need to send the design for full planning permission, and by any possibility if the design was not successful then it will need to get revised before sending it for full planning. However this roughly takes about 6-8 months. 7. Finalize details Stage seven is when the full planning has been accepted. In this stage we also finalize the building regs. This is to check every interior detail of the design to see everything is done well and is in the interest of the client. This takes another couple of weeks 1 month before it is send it to the contactors. 8. Giving the design to the contractor to build This is the final step, where the drawings is given to the contractors to start building the design. The building process will take up to one year to be completed. Between this one year, the architect will go to the site several times to check walk with the client all the way through each stages of the project, making sure that if any appropriate changes and progress will take place, the client will be informed about it. This means that the client is constantly informed, in advance, of any challenges that will encounter, or any other additional charges that may be needed to complete the project. 9. Completion The hand in over the keys will take another 2 weeks. This is to inspect the whole house for the final time before hand in the keys to the owner. 10. Hand over the keys FACIT HOMES Four stages for the Facit home to be build. 1) Design it all on computer (every last screw hole)

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2) Cut all the parts of the building using a computer controlled cutter. 3) Assemble into lightweight blocks in the workshop that one or twopeople at most can pick up un aided. 4) Assemble rapidly on site like big blocks of lego

COMPARASION BETWEEN USUAL SYSTEM AND KIT HOUSES House

Construction time

Price/m2

Huf House

6 Weeks

£511.84

Facit House

5 Weeks

£250.00

Normal house

6 months- 1 year

£460,00

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In the table “Index of UK property market costs”, we can see a comparison of time of construction and prices per square meters, what still gives a good advantage to any kind of kit house between the normal house construction processes. The value that keeps always the same is the land cost. In the graph behind, we can see how the prices that account on the full building cost between the years 1983

until

2007.

The

difference

between land and all others is very significantly.

Being

the

land

something necessary to build the house, probably will influence in any kind of building process cost, what maybe can answer the question “Why kit house are not popular?”. The cost of the land can turn the any kind of building expensive, so to buy an old house or already build more available than build it at all.

Another possibly reason of the unpopular fame of kit house, is that the client cannot chose how the house is going to be and in the most of times cannot participate of the project process. The feeling of housing or dwelling can be damnified because of the non-participation of the project process. It can be faced for the customer like a home that was not especially for him but for much more people, and he is just another user of the same model.

FUTURE

As it was created to build refugees faster than usually it was done, this kind of house cannot just be applied as a way to build homes, but can be a solution for some problems such as national disaster devastation or to social housing. As already said on the earlier paragraph, the feeling of dwelling can be damaged when the projects are unified, but when the customer or the user (in cases of natural disaster or social housing) participates of the building process this feeling can be stronger that would be when participating of the project process. The unskilled workforce of the user should be considered as problem, but if the structures and frames of the house would be projected for the easy building which allows most of people selfbuild their own house, this can be a good solution for the both problems. Where the workforce 22 308

will costs anything, the feeling of dwelling will be kept and the technical knowledge of the workforce would not be a problem.

REFERENCE LIST

Low energy living â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Facit homes. Available at: http://facit-homes.com/made-withintelligence/low-energy-living. Last acces: 17/11/14 QUIRK, Vanessa. Villa asserbo: a sustainable, printed house that snaps together. Available at: http://www.archdaily.com/264572/villa-asserbo-a-sustainable-printed-house-that-snapstogether/. Last access: 17/11/14

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Self-build guide. Huf haus. Available at: http://www.the-self-build-guide.co.uk/huf-haus.html. Last access: 17/11/14. Huf Haus. Available at: http://www.huf-haus.com/en/home.html. Last access: 17/11/14. Sacrower allee huf haus. Available at: http://sacrowerallee.blogspot.co.uk/2008_05_01_archive.html. Last access: 17/11/14. Facit: an overview. https://dl.dropboxusercontent.com/u/741421/Facit%20info.pdf. Last access:17/11/14. Design to improve life. Print your own 3D-printed home. Available at: http://designtoimprovelife.dk/the-d-process/. Last access: 17/11/14. FITZGERALD, Jaclyn. What is kit home?. Available at: http://www.homeimprovementpages.com.au/article/what_is_a_kit_home. Last access: 17/11/14. LISA, Ana. Jean Prouve's Maison 8x8 Pioneered Affordable Prefab Design Way Back in 1948. Available at: http://inhabitat.com/jean-prouves-maison-8x8-pioneered-affordable-prefabdesign-way-back-in-1948/. Last access: 17/11/14. BORGOBELLO, Bridget. Facit homes claims to build world’s first “digitally fabricated” house. Available at: http://www.gizmag.com/digitally-fabricated-homes-facit/23844/. Last access: 17/11/14

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Kunsthaus Graz:

A study of the Friendly Alien’s surface _____

TECHNOLOGY 3 MODULE _ TERM 1 Tutor Ben Cowd ____ 18 November 2014

DENNIS SOARES FLOR JAMIE VELLA

311

Kunsthaus Graz: A study of the Friendly Alienâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s surface

Figure 1 - Kunsthaus Graz museum inserted in the urban context

Kunsthaus Graz (Fig. 1) is an exhibition museum that specialises in contemporary art located in Graz, Austria, it is characterised by its geometrically and "blob" like shape . The building was built as a celebration of Graz's title of European Capital of Culture in 2003. The main architects of the building Colin Fournier and Peter Cook, who were then Bartlett professors, won the competition (much to their surprise) for this art museum in 1999. The latter is of the 1960s avant-grade Archigram fame, which sought architecture to embrace a more a fun, technological and machine age approach. This philosophy can clearly be seen in the Kunsthaus Graz. In fact many architects refer to the Kunsthaus as the first Archigram building that has actually been built. This radical, exploratory structure was delivered on time and on the 28 million Euro budget and opened in September 2003. At its opening Fournier labelled the building "the friendly alien" to the media. The building consists of 11100 mÂ˛ of useable space, with delivery area, various depots, workshops, and an underground car park with space for 146 vehicles. As an arts venue it contains large volumes of space - space for art, space for performance, space for indeterminate activity. The building connects with an important historic building, the first cast-iron framed building in Europe, the Eisner Haus, this listed 1848 building provides the main entrance, gallery and museum administration for the Kunsthaus. On entering you traverse the old building and go through the new building.

312

The concept â&#x20AC;&#x153;the architecture blobâ&#x20AC;? is a reflection of the technological developments of the 1990s. The significant shaping forces in this case are the buildingâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s functionality together with the process of digital production. The 3D curvilinear nature of the blob form is an expression of totality of these digital design processes. Digital blob modelling techniques are based on B-spline surface modelling technology, which allows complex forms to be precisely modelled. Kunsthaus Graz has began to be modelled as a sphere, which was being distorted under controlled parameters in Rhinoceros 3D program points, having its final result determined by considering execution and structural conditions. B-spline is now common in CAD software and is referred to as NURBS (non-uniform rational B-splines). The information needed for the fabrication of the curved elements was obtained by further detailing the topographical 3D model. In this ways, 3D CAD tools were essential to numerically seize and manipulate data, working as a basis for all the communication among the specialized parts during the design realisation.

Figure 2.1 - Form generated in Rhinoceros

Figure 2.2 - Insertion of guidelines for structure

Figure 2.3 - Final steel frame structure

Figure 2.4 - Scheme of the whole final structure

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The design of the Kunsthaus was predominantly and outside-in process. Initial project planning centered on the master geometry of the structural 3D model developed by the engineers. Once a structural form had been established in consultation with the architects, architectural planning could then proceed in more detail. 2D plan drawings were derived from 3D models by slicing through the blob form as and when required. The main load bearing structure is simply two reinforced concrete tables, one above the other. The lower table supported the blob, span the ground floor and serve as an exhibition level. The upper table was to be a second exhibition level inside the blob. The lower table was designed as a solid steel framework needing only five supports. Two bean shaped concrete cores with space for access and infrastructure were to serve as reinforcement. A 40m long, inclined travelator was selected as the means of linear access from below. A steel-grid skeleton was then perched atop this concrete structure, to give the building its basic â&#x20AC;&#x153;blobâ&#x20AC;? form.

Figure 3 - Integration among the concrete structure and the skin

Niels Jonkhanz, who is co-founder of Spacelab/UK and projector architect for the Kunsthaus Graz, states that the surface of the museum was designed to function as a thermal layer and yet allow natural light in and views out. Besides, it should incorporate all the supporting structure and appliances required for cooling and heating as well as support the displayed artwork. (Jonkhanz, n.d.)

314

Figure 4 - Scheme of layers present in the whole structure

The total thickness of the roof measures 90cm and is filled with different layers. The primary structure is consisted of polygonal and rectangular steel box girders, arranged parallel to each other. Between them, standard square were structured in a triangular formation, transforming the load-bearing (two tables) into a shell. On the inside the steel girders were covered with a fire-resistant coating, and the was closed off from the outside with steel sandwich panels and then insulated and sealed. Above this a air 70cm gap was created with sprinklers attached and finally the acrylic panels are placed and clamped together. This 70cm gap and the installation of sprinklers (Figure 5) was due to that fact that as a material acrylic is highly flammable.

Figure 5 - The projection of a sprinkler over the acrylic panels

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The insulation and sealed panels are composed of FOAMGLAS® inorganic cellular glass insulation system for the protection of the interior. This provides high resistance to uplift and loads and can be easily cut into square, triangular or trapezoidal shapes (Fig. 6.1) of different thicknesses (60 to 120 mm) by simple tools, such as sawing tool, to fit in the non-orthogonal surface. Irregularities in the insulation layer could be smoothed by the use of planning tools (Fig. 6.3). Fixed through z-profile fixing elements (Fig. 6.2), the insulation system is applied over the triangulated steel structure composed of triangles of variable sizes which are linked by a metal cladding, forming then a solid shape which necessarily had to be high compressive strong and deformation-free as prerequisites for the installation of FOAMGLAS® layer. Furthermore, in order to avoid the raises of temperature in the perspex clad, a outer envelope - a white polyolefin waterproof adhesive (Fig. 6.5) - was applied as a sealing system. According to technical recommendations, a layer of bituminous waterproofing with specific fire-safety fibre reinforcement (Fig. 6.4) was required under the white adhesive because of its nonprovided fire-safety lamination. The tubes projecting from the roof were designed to fix the outer skin cladding. (FOAMGLAS®, 2004)

Figure 6.1 - Applying the material

Figure 6.2 - Fixing element

Figure 6.4 - Bituminous waterproofing over the FOAMGLAS

316

Figure 6.3 – Jointing

Figure 6.5 - Polyolefin waterproof adhesive

The acrylic material used for the panels is a thermoplastic most commonly used for skylights, light fixtures, and other glazing applications. It most valuable characteristic is its transparency allowing for as much as 92% overall light transmission with many varying levels of opaqueness and transmission below this. An acrylic sheet is eight to ten times stronger than glass of the same thickness, though acrylic can scratch more easily than glass. Acrylic is easily fabricated and machined and when heated can be formed into different shapes. It has good resistance to weather, heat, and chemicals; however it is combustible. Acrylic sheet is light weight â&#x20AC;&#x201C; usually less than half the weight of a piece of glass â&#x20AC;&#x201C; and has moderate resistance to shrinkage and dimensional instability. The acrylic sheets (Fig. 7 and Fig. 8) are made out of Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) which is a thermoplastic polymer that can be semi rigid to rigid depending on the thickness. The material is also very lightweight and inexpensive, mildew resistant, and can be as a good gas and moisture barrier. It is naturally colorless but can be coloured in this case dark green. Like all polymers, ultraviolet degradation and low fire resistance are two of PETâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s disadvantages. Due to this hazardous disadvantage the sheets were coated with flame retarders in the form of chemical additives since the sheets are extremely close to the electrical configuration of the BIX lighting system and configuration. The ability of this plastic material with being able to take modifiers and additives is one of the massive advantages of the material, thus as modifiers and fillers are added to the base plastic allowing for one to produce optimum properties in the finished product. As is the case with the Kunsthaus Graz building.

Figure 7 - Acrylic panels composing the outer layer of the building

317

Figure 8 - Imperfections in the fitting of parts not compromise the quality of the project

The acrylic panels manufacturing process consists basically of three main stages. Firstly, a large rectangular block is cut by a five axis milling cutter through computer aided sets. Secondly, a standardized 4.0 x 3.0m flat panel is heated to the point of elasticity, and then placed upon a mold and, then, gravity begin to act on it. Finally, after the panel has its final shape, it starts being cooled slowly on the mold in order to avoid tensions and deformations. In total, the skin comprises 1068 acrylic panels 20mm thick molded from two basic rectangular templates - 2.0 x 3.0m and 3.0 x 4.0m - composing the 7,200 mÂ˛ surface and, owing to these standards, the form had to suffer adjustments to accommodate the panelization layout. (Lubczynski, 2010)

Figure 9 - Acrylic panels in the nozzles

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The curved blue skin is peppered with strange "nozzles" (Fig. 9); in fact these are roof lights, one which focuses on Graz's famous clock tower, half a mile away on a hill. One nozzle serves as a smoke extract, one provides a view of the landmark clock tower (Fig. 10.3 and Fig. 10.4), and the remaining 14 area arranged to give daylight to the upper exhibition level. Nozzles are inclined to the North to provide natural daylight. Microphones placed around nozzles pick up ambient urban sounds, which are then mixed and projected back into the city from speakers that sit atop of the needle, creating a low-frequency sound cloud. The nozzles frames are independent structures (Fig. 10.1 and Fig. 10.2) mounted separately and added to the set when the whole steel frame is done, only then the outer layers can be built.

Figure 10.1 - Nozzles as independent structure

Figure 10.2 - Installation

Figure 10.3 - Nozzle providing natural illumination

Figure 10.4 - View for the Clock Tower

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Figure 11.1 - BIX prototype

Figure 11.2 - Communicative facade

The BIX media façade is a unique feature of the Kunsthaus that integrates media technology with architecture. BIX lighting technology (Fig. 11.1) was developed specifically for the Kunsthaus Graz by the company Realities-United. These network consist of 930 conventional circular flourescent light tubes with adjustable brightness from 0 to 100 and a frequency of 20 frames/sec. The giant low resolution screen surface can display simple image sequences and varying text streams. Each ring of light functions as a pixel which can be centrally controlled, thus making the skin of the Kunsthaus an innovative medium for digitally presenting art and other information (Fig. 11.2), establishing a communication with the city. The BIX media façade is also a part of the structure of the building, and therefore an architectural element as much as other parts, composing 900m² of the total skin. The media façade functions as a membrane between interior exhibitions and events and the exterior public realm.

Figure 11.3 - Scheme of BIX technology in the design of Kunsthaus Graz

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The Kunsthaus Graz project explores not only dynamic responses to the surrounding environment, but also reacts with it. This is a step beyond the environmental responses of intelligent buildings in terms of lighting, heating, ventilation and shading. Architecture up to this point has been traditionally a two dimensional trade, one can argue that this one of the key buildings that broke away from the â&#x20AC;&#x153;conventionalâ&#x20AC;? 600 year old architecture drafting method of simple 2D drawings of plans, sections and elevations. Its need to utilise 3D software for its construction maked a new era in architectural design and construction - both for the Architect and the engineer. The two professions are intertwined into one. For now a join 3D model is created, complete with all the information needed to execute the building. Moreover, this project is an example of building in which an non-impeccable finishing does not represent an impasse for the good quality of a design neither when it is viewed as isolated nor as a whole. Kunsthaus Graz appears as an icon of contemporary architecture which connects different technical solutions into a revolutionary design, making it an important element for the city, and for the whole of the architectural world.

Figure 12 - View of the interior with nozzles in the roof

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REFERENCES: 1. Texts: COOK, P. et al. (2004) Friendly Alien. [Paperback]. Ostfildern: Hatje Cantz. FOAMGLAS® (2004). Project building Info. Available from: http://www.foamglas.se/__/frontend/handler/document.php?id=284&type=42 [Accessed 08/11/2014]. JONKHANZ, N. (n.d.) ‘A Friendly Alien’ - Kunsthaus Graz. Available from: https://dl.dropboxusercontent.com/u/5460303/KunsthausData/Blurring%20the%20lines%20-%20Artikel%20%C2%A9NIELS%20JONKHANS.pdf [Accessed 08/11/2014]. KALTENBACH, F. (2004). Detail Practice: Translucent Materials: Glass, Plastics, Metals In: Detail Practice Series. [Paperback]. Munich: Birkhauser. LUBCZYNSKI, S. (2010). Advanced Construction Case Study: Kunsthaus Graz. Available from: http://issuu.com/sebastianlubczynski/docs/construction_case_study_project_2 [Accessed 08/11/2014]. SELF, R. (2014) The Architecture of Art Museums: A Decade of Design: 2000 - 2010. [Paperback] New York: Routledge. 2. Images: Figure 1 - OPEN BUILDINGS (2012). Kunsthaus Graz. [Online image] Available from: http://openbuildings.com/buildings/kunsthaus-graz-profile-38574 [Accessed 10/11/2014] Figure 2.1 - STANGL, G. (n.d.) Kunsthaus Graz. [Online image] Available from: http://gernot.xarch.at/kunsthaus_graz/___03sep30_nurbsflaeche_skin_pers_ohne.html [Accessed 10/11/2014] Figure 2.2 - STANGL, G. (n.d.) Kunsthaus Graz. [Online image] Available from: http://gernot.xarch.at/kunsthaus_graz/___03sep30_nurbsflaeche_skin_top_metall.html [Accessed 02/11/2014] Figure 2.3 - STANGL, G. (n.d.) Kunsthaus Graz. [Online image] Available from: http://gernot.xarch.at/kunsthaus_graz/___01sep11_stahlrohre.html [Accessed 02/11/2014] Figure 2.4 - STANGL, G. (n.d.) Kunsthaus Graz. [Online image] Available from: http://gernot.xarch.at/kunsthaus_graz/___02okt11_Skin_Stahlbau_Kastentraeger_schrae goben_Perspekt.html [Accessed 10/11/2014] 322

Figure 3 - SELF, R. (2014) The Architecture of Art Museums: A Decade of Design: 2000 - 2010. [Image] New York: Routledge. Figure 4 - WU-LAW, D. (n.d.) Kunsthaus Graz. [Online image] Available from: http://www.diegowulaw.com/KUNSTHAUS-graz [Accessed 02/11/2014] Figure 5 - UCL (n.d.) Kunsthaus Graz. [Online image] Available from: https://www.bartlett.ucl.ac.uk/architecture/research/projects/kunsthaus-graz [Accessed 02/11/2014] Figure 6.1 - FOAMGLAS® (2004). Project building Info. [Eletronic print] Available from: http://www.foamglas.se/__/frontend/handler/document.php?id=284&type=42 [Accessed 02/11/2014] Figure 6.2 - FOAMGLAS® (2004). Project building Info. [Eletronic print] Available from: http://www.foamglas.se/__/frontend/handler/document.php?id=284&type=42 [Accessed 02/11/2014] Figure 6.3 - FOAMGLAS® (2004). Project building Info. [Eletronic print] Available from: http://www.foamglas.se/__/frontend/handler/document.php?id=284&type=42 [Accessed 02/11/2014] Figure 6.4 - FOAMGLAS® (2004). Project building Info. [Eletronic print] Available from: http://www.foamglas.se/__/frontend/handler/document.php?id=284&type=42 [Accessed 02/11/2014] Figure 6.5 - FOAMGLAS® (2004). Project building Info. [Eletronic print] Available from: http://www.foamglas.se/__/frontend/handler/document.php?id=284&type=42 [Accessed 02/11/2014] Figure 7 - LEE, K. (2007) Kunsthaus Graz, Austria. [Eletronic print] Available from: https://www.flickr.com/photos/kenlee2010/6667213867/in/pool-conarch%7Ckenlee2010 [Accessed 02/11/2014] Figure 8 - BUSINESS INSIDER. (2013) Undulating 'Blobitecture' Is The Latest Trend In Building Design. [Online image] Available from: http://www.businessinsider.com/emporis-blobitecture-buildings-trend-201310?op=1&IR=T [Accessed 02/11/2014] Figure 9 - DETAIL ONLINE (n.d.) Kunsthaus Graz. [Online image] Available from: http://detailonline.com/inspiration/sites/inspiration_detail_de/uploads/imagesResized/projects/560_9 92-10294-downloadansichten-Kunsthaus_Graz_01.jpg [Accessed 02/11/2014] Figure 10.1 - SELF, R. (2014) The Architecture of Art Museums: A Decade of Design: 2000 - 2010. [Image] New York: Routledge.

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Figure 10.2 - WU-LAW, D. (n.d.) Kunsthaus Graz. [Online image] Available from: http://www.diegowulaw.com/KUNSTHAUS-graz [Accessed 02/11/2014] Figure 10.3 - FRANK’S TRAVELBOX. (2013) Kunsthaus Graz [Online image] Available from: http://franks-travelbox.com/images/uploads/1/d/2/1511890/Europa-Osterreich-Graz-Durch-einen-nach-Osten-gerichteten-Nozzle-Duse-fallt-der-Blick-im-Kunsthausdirekt-auf-den-beruhmten-Grazer-Uhrturm-der-quasi-so-ebenfalls-als-Exponat-zu-sehenist-Osterreich-tbx_002_1388410184685996.jpg [Accessed 02/11/2014] Figure 10.4 - ARCSPACE (2004). Kunsthaus Graz. [Online image] Available from: http://www.arcspace.com/features/spacelab-cook-fournier/kunsthaus-graz/ [Accessed 02/11/2014] Figure 11.1 - ARCHDAILY. (2010) BIX Light and Media Façade at MoMA [Online image] Available from: http://www.archdaily.com/89408/bix-light-and-media-facade-at-moma/ [Accessed 02/11/2014] Figure 11.2 - UCL. (2004) Bartlett alumni inspired. [Online image] Available from: http://www.ucl.ac.uk/news/news-articles/0411/bartlett-inspired [Accessed 02/11/2014] Figure 11.3 - PERFORMATIVE ARCHITECTURE. (n.d.) Kunsthaus Graz Museum. [Online image] Available from: http://performativearc.wordpress.com/kunsthaus-grazmuseum/ [Accessed 02/11/2014] Figure 12 - STRANGE BUILDINGS. (2011) Kunsthaus Graz, Graz, Austria. [Online image] Available from: http://www.strangebuildings.thegrumpyoldlimey.com/2011/08/kunsthaus-graz-grazaustria.html [Accessed 02/11/2014]

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DE MONTFORT UNIVERSITY FACULTY OF ART, DESIGN AND HUMANITIES LEICESTER SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE ARCH 3036 TECHNOLOGY REPORT Group Members: Alexandra Kardakou, P12203423 Lia Beatriz Bezerra, P14153057 Submission Term 1, 2014

Title:

Passive Envelope, Facades and Double Skin

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Summary

The report talks about passive envelope, facades and double skin. It starts explaining the origin and meaning of â&#x20AC;&#x153;passiveâ&#x20AC;?, then talks more about facades and double skin. Explaining how to control the daylight energy transfer to the interior of a building, it discourses a little about the process of energy transferring. Keeping the subject it clarifies how the passive heating and cooling works giving some examples of techniques. In the end of the report, we displayed four projects in order to illustrate how architects have used these kind of techniques. All of them are followed by many images for better comprehension.

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Origin of “Passive”

The meaning of the passive envelope of a house is the natural, mechanic –free energy gaining, and the way to achieve that is by optimizing the construction of the building, focusing on the facades. So, when a building is described as passive, it is referred to the energy gaining that does not need extra mechanical support for being effective, therefore it is not “active”. Most passive houses are ventilated by heat recovery system, which provides fresh air anytime of the year.

Facades and Double Skin

The aim of a well- constructed envelope is to reduce heating loss, keep thermal comfort, gain as much solar light as needed, and keep the air exchange to a balance. The double skin façade is one of the famous, nowadays, ways to achieve this. By natural ventilation, controlling sunlight and thermal heating or cooling, it is possible to keep energy exchanges under control. As a start, the origin of double skin, is a façade which consists of two layers of skin, working as one. The two layers of skin have a gap of 0.20 - 2m between them, which can be ventilated naturally, mechanically, or by fans. The type that is chosen for the cavity to be ventilated, the climate, the location, the type and the hours of use of the building, affects the destination and origin of the air inside the cavity. As far as the materials are concerned, glass and metal sheets are the most common. Inside the cavity, solar shading devices can be placed for extra heating, or mechanisms which help with heat exchange, thermal controls and ventilation ducts. It was William Lescaze, who tried to understand double skin facades within his investigation at the 20th century, as well as Le Corbusier. Another experiment was the Occidental Chemical Building by Cannon Design in New York, on late 80ʼs

Figure 1: Double Skin Facades.

Process of Energy Transferring

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It is quite easy to control the daylight energy transferred to the interior of the building. By extending the daylight inside the space for lightning and ambient, while at the same time there is access to mechanisms that allow to control it, the use of artificial illumination is automatically reduced. Additionally, the transparency and translucency of the material that the layer is made of, the window to wall ratios, the size of each window, the solar heat gain coefficient, the visible transmittance, and the use of spectrally advanced films, play a huge role of controlling the level of light transmission and energy performance. Furthermore, for keeping in balance the solar to heat energy, solar shading devices are used, like fixed or movable awnings, shades and blinds.

Passive Heating & Cooling

As a conclusion of the above, the location of a building, the access to sun, water, air, vegetation, get to play an important role on heat gaining and cooling. The orientation of a home as well can prevent extreme temperatures, as long as the layout of it. During the winter, the heat from the interior living area is gone. Furthermore, the southern faรงade is heated inside the cavity, and this heat is used to offset the heating load for the building. During the summer, the cooled air is also gone from the interior living area. The exterior air is moving from the northern faรงade to the southern. So, during the summer, the way to condition the building is from the north to south faรงade, and during the winter, from the south to north. If the area has got a hot climate, daylight transmission needs to be increased by keeping in balance the luminance and energy levels, which could happen by cancelling any shading device in use. Additionally, the cavity can be conditioned in a way that helps cooling instead of heating the interior. Obviously, all the heating inputs should be turned down, so with open vents and windows, and flushing out the hot air of the interior during the night, cooling can be achieved. Also, the air flushing can be done by solar chimneys in the north facing faรงade, which draw air from the bottom of the cavity. Insulation needs to be proper as well for keeping the interior cool, or preventing heat loss. However, if the climate is cooler, the use of double skin facades is quite more effective on increasing solar heat gain. This is similar to the greenhouse phenomenon, as the solar rays are transmitted inside the cavity and they are converted to heat energy. So, captured in between the two layers of glass, the amount of heat that is already available for thermal comfort is increased, as it protects the inside temperature from extreme exterior temperatures. If the air in the cavity is kept at rest, then it is working as a thermal blanket. However, if it is not in rest, this has a lot of advantages regarding energy saving. The heat can be moved at the top of the room or to ducts, for distribution. This air movement enhances the storage, collection and subsequent diffusion of heat energy, and it can be reinforced by using thermal chimneys, dark coloured surfaces and metal absorbers. This form of convection is called thermosyphoning. The trapped energy within the cavity can be transferred to storage devices which are connected with other areas of the building, or can be extracted by heat recovery units. Additionally, it is not necessary for the exterior layer to be glass as well. It could be changed to dark metal sheets, as dark colours attract solar energy, so the metal will be heated, and it will bring heat inside the cavity.

Figure 2: Thermosyphoning Another technique for passive heating that is worth being mentioned is the trombe wall. Buildings that follow this philosophy, are constructed with a double skin faรงade on the winter sun side, with the external layer to be made of glass, and a high heat capacity internal layer. The sunlight passes through the glass unobstructed, and then it is absorbed by the interior layer, which re- radiates back the heating energy that cannot escape through the glass. So, the heat stays in the cavity and it is heating the inside of the building. This system is mostly used for absorbing the heat during sunlit in the winter, and then release it during the night. This is a technique used to greenhouses as well.

Figure 3:328 Trombe Wall

1. Business Promotion Centre (Duisburg) - Norman Foster

Figure 4: Plan The project can be summarized this way: transparent envelope + energy saving = triple-skin facade triple-skin facade: planar glazing (outer layer) *metal blinds (200mm) double-glazed window system (further inside) *why not external shading? As external shading tends to be affected by the wind and weather and needs to be cleaned frequently

Even though the facade appears to be curved, the glass panels used are flat and faceted with a 46m radius and a degree difference between them. Figure 5: Facade

Figure 6: Section 1. 12mm single-pane toughned glass 2. vertical aluminium mullion with location channels each side for Planar bolts 3. continuous slot to receive fishtail joint in slab 4. Planar bolt supporting glass 5. 50mm perforated aluminium blind with electonic control 6. air channel 7. double glazed windows. The blinds are made of: 50mm wide aluminium slats with perforations which gives a factor of 7% openness and are controlled by BMS (Building Management System). Double-glazed window made of: 6mm Pilkington K 8mm Kappafloat Plus 16mm Sealed Argon 329

Figure 7: Section2 Some key facts: -> The air is used just for fresh air supply and the water is the agent for heating and cooling. -> For safety reasons, some convector heating was installed. -> Electricity is produced through a gas-fired power station in summer, hot water and photo-voltaic collectors, located on the roof, provide an alternative sources of heat for absorption/cooling (the higher the temperature, the greater is the cooling capacity)

2. Marks and Spencer Financial Services (Chester) - Aukett Associates The project uses a silicone glazing structure not only on the facade, but on the pitched roof trusses as well. Structural silicone glazing is also used between the towers in order to provide a flush facade and take advantage of the magnificent views of Welsh hills. Although it is possible to use granite with this kind of glazing, the spandrel panel material chosen was GRC considering its light weight. To achieve a flush translucent facade, the glazed units are securely fixed by structural silicone adhesives to an aluminum grid, a 驶receptor frame始 of mullions and transoms, stabilizes in the back of the glass. The GRC spandrel panels are held up by mild steel galvanized truss fixed onto the receptor grid. Both support systems are designed to endure diverse thermal expansion coefficents. Figure 8: A closeup of the Planar facade.

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Figure 9: Section trough facade 1. top aluminium section with integrated air outlet 2. 12mm single-pane toughened glass 3. ss angle bolted to 300x300mm steel box beam 4. ss bolts for suspension of Planar aluminium mullion 5. 50mm perforated aluminium blind with electronic control 6. Planar bolt for glass support 7. aluminium facing 8. continuous vertical aluminium mullion with location channel for Planar bolt 9. aluminiumsection at base of Planar, taking up changes in lenght due to thermal movement 10. air channel 11. double glazed windows 12. screed finish 13. air outlet 14. suspended ceiling 15. 300x300mm steel box ring beam (not concrete as shown)

3. Dragon Air Office (Hong Kong) - Wong Tung & Partners Ltd (WTPL) The double-skin cavity wall system was adopted in this project because of the aircraft noise as it provides 60dBa of sound attenuation. A gap of 800mm separates the 19mm massive outer layer of fully-tempered glass and the internal layer, which is an insulated low E covered unit. The cavity wall system responds the acoustic engineers' requirements with three layers of glass with a 200mm gap between two of them, at least. Furthermore, it avoids condensation problems as it uses acoustic baffles in order to ventilate the system. The cavity simplifies the maintenance and increases the building始s performance in thermal aspect. Figure 10: Dragonair facade

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Figure 11: Dragonair facade transition

It was needed to add fire dampers to the double-skin facade, this way the DSF cannot benefit from the stack effect in part of it. The 4.2 m by 1.5 m laminated glass panels are bolt-fixed to a system of steel outriggers which are supported in turn by the prestressed mast structures at 4.5 m centres

Figure 12: Dragonair elevation

4. Living light - Prototype from the University of Tennessee Figure 13: Internal view

Both south and north facades of the living light house operates as double-skin envelopes. They are made of a external layer of single-pane glass and an internal of 2-inch quadruple-paned insulated glazing. The internal unit has two layers inside it made of mylar film and three argon-filled cavities which has a thermal resistance value of 11. Enclosed by the two layers of single and quadruple glass there is a solar shading device which can be set up for optimal seasonal operations. The energy recovery ventilator (ERV) combined with the operation of its air exchange are the component keys for the facade始s performance. The ERV captures heat energy for adequate reuse during the winter and summer. But the innovation consists in the capture of energy from both the main living space and the north and south cavities of DSF. In summer time, the cool air from the conditioned interior is recovered and during the winter the same occurs with the heat. Still during the winter, inside the cavity of the southern facade the air is preheated and this free thermal energy 332 is used to offset the heating task for the building.

In the other hand, during the summer, the ambient exterior air is made to go from the colder northern facade to the warmer southern facade being exhausted through it. Thus, the ventilation mode for the summer is from the north façade to the south; and for the winter is from the south to the north facade.

Figure 15: Facade

Figure 14: 3D Section

References Bibliography

Trubiano, F. (2013) Design and Construction of High - Performance Homes. London: Routlege. Szokolay, V., S. (2004) Introduction to Architectural Science - The basis of Sustainability Design. Oxford: Architectural Press

Other References

Architectʼs Journal (2003) Theme: cladding and curtain walling. Weblog [Online] n. d. Available from: http://www.architectsjournal.co.uk/home/theme-cladding-and-curtain-walling/654550.article [Accessed 20. 10. 2014] Architectural Journal (1993) Theme: Glazing and Curtain Walling. London: AJ Focus Building.hk (2000) Classical Symmetry. Weblog [Online] n. d Available from: http://www.building.hk/feature/11_00dragon.htm#top [Accessed 10. 11. 2014] Mingotti, N. (2011) Natural ventilation of double-skin facades. [WWW] Available from: http://www.breathingbuildings.com/media/129499/2%20nicola%20mingotti.pdf [Accessed 02. 11. 2014] Haase, M., Wong, F, Amato, A. (2007) Double–Skin Facades for Hong Kong. [WWW] Available from: http://www.hkis.org.hk/ufiles/200712-matthias.pdf [Accessed 13. 10. 2014] Figure 1: Smart Buildings & Infrastructure (2012 -14) Double Skin Façade Mass Dampers. [WWW] Available from: http://smartbuildings.unh.edu/?page_id=78 [Accessed 10. 11. 2014] Figure 2: Delaney, M. D. (2007) Larkinʼs Thermosyphon Solar Air Heater. [WWW] Available from: http://davidmdelaney.com/larkin/larkin-tap-1.html [Accessed 05. 11. 2014] Figure 3: CTBUH (n. d) Sowwah Square, Abu Dhabi. [WWW] Available from: http://www.ctbuh.org/TallBuildings/FeaturedTallBuildings/FeaturedTallBuildingArchive2013/SowwahSquareAbuDhabi/tabid/6065/language/en-US/Default.aspx [Accessed 06. 11. 2014] 333

Figure 4: Architectural Journal (1993) Theme: Glazing and Curtain Walling. London: AJ Focus Figure 5: Solar Design (n. d) Business Promotion Centre and the Euro-Gate Norman Foster in Duisburg [WWW] Available from: http://members.xoom.virgilio.it/solardesign/plans.html [Accessed 11. 11. 2014] Figure 6: Architectural Journal (1993) Theme: Glazing and Curtain Walling. London: AJ Focus Figure 7: Architectural Journal (1993) Theme: Glazing and Curtain Walling. London: AJ Focus Figure 8: Architectural Journal (1993) Theme: Glazing and Curtain Walling. London: AJ Focus Figure 9: Architectural Journal (1993) Theme: Glazing and Curtain Walling. London: AJ Focus Figure 10: Building.hk (2000) Classical Symmetry. Weblog [Online] n. d Available from: http://www.building.hk/plibrary/Dragonair/dragonair.html [Accessed 10. 11. 2014] Figure 11: Building.hk (2000) Classical Symmetry. Weblog [Online] n. d Available from: http://www.building.hk/plibrary/Dragonair/dragonair.html [Accessed 10. 11. 2014] Figure 12: Building.hk (2000) Classical Symmetry. Weblog [Online] n. d Available from: http://www.building.hk/plibrary/Dragonair/dragonair.html [Accessed 10. 11. 2014] Figure 13: Szokolay, V., S. (2004) Introduction to Architectural Science - The basis of Sustainability Design. Oxford: Architectural Press Figure 14: Szokolay, V., S. (2004) Introduction to Architectural Science - The basis of Sustainability Design. Oxford: Architectural Press Figure 15: Szokolay, V., S. (2004) Introduction to Architectural Science - The basis of Sustainability Design. Oxford: Architectural Press

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Low Energy Typologies Renewable Technology Report Jonathan McCool – P12208130 Muneeb Lokasher – P12206481 De Montfort University Arch3036-2015-Y Technology 3 Tuesday 18th November 2014

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Arch3036-2015-Y Technology 3 Jonathan McCool Muneeb Lokasher

Low Energy Typologies Renewable Technology Report Abstract: This report aims to discuss the most widely used renewable technologies throughout the world. We will do this in reference to case studies to demonstrate the uses and effectiveness of the main technologies out there today.

Key Words: Renewable, Technologies, Photovoltaics, Wind-Energy, Technical, Analysis

Introduction: Renewable technology (RT) has very quickly become an important part of our world today. The fairly long age of fossil fuels is now coming to an end and a revival in the use of renewable energy is starting to resurface again. Now more than ever there is a need for new ways and techniques that can help extract renewable energy from the 3 main sources which are sun, wind and water. Although renewable technologies have been around for some time, the first real and major worldwide push to support the use of these systems started in the time of the first and Second World War. This was the prime time to push this agenda forward because the different sides of the war aimed to expand their energy supply and concoct technical solutions in order to try and gain the advantage in battle. E.g. Germany in the world war made good use of wind turbines to generate electricity. However, at the exact same time the growth of the oil industry was accelerating at an alarmingly fast pace too. Some countries switched from the use of coal to oil so that the ships could be smaller, faster and travel for much longer. Immediately after the war the prices of non-renewable resources plummeted which resulted in a disinterest for RT, as it generally was more expensive. But around 1970 there was an oil crisis that meant that the prices of non-renewables skyrocketed, naturally resulting in a rekindled interest in RT again. At this time, the U.S and various countries within Europe decided to invest in research and development programs for wind turbines and photovoltaic cell systems. Their goal was to lessen their dependence upon Middle Eastern oil suppliers and protect their economy from turmoil oil prices. The whole world was shaken up because of the possibility of its finite resources running out. Following this, the next biggest concern that was being brought to the forefront was climate change that primarily started growing in and around the year 1996. This concern primarily arose and took centre stage at the Kyoto Conference, in which most of the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s developed countries came together to devote their time and effort into reducing greenhouse gas emissions.

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This finally leads us to the present day where climate change is still a pressing issue and is very much the principal motivator of interest in energy conservation and in RT as a suitable alternative to non-renewable sources. The U.K Government has set a long-term goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by at least 80% by 2050. This said, the government are offering incentives to anyone willing to invest in RT as it helps towards this objective. The main renewable energy systems used in the UK are listed below:     

Photovoltaic system Solar thermal Wind turbines Heat Pumps Hydropower

Integrated Case Study – Beaufort Court, Hertfordshire: Beaufort Court is the innovative, lowcarbon headquarters of the ‘Renewable Energy Systems’ Group. Originally this was a poultry farm from the 1930’s and converted into a 2,665m2 sustainable office solution. A ‘horseshoe’ shaped barn, a coach house and seven hectares of land was all part of the original farm. Fundamentally all the existing buildings have been

Fig 1: A labeled diagram showing all of the renewable energies in Beaufort Court with a key that is assigned to a letter showing all the processes and all the different equipment needed to execute the task - http://www.maxfordham.com/projects/beaufort-court

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kept in their original state, with the addition of a ground floor extension, built with a steel frame. The development is fully self-sufficient due to the usage of sustainable building techniques, renewable technologies that provide all of the heating, cooling and power needs for the offices. Beaufort Court is able to do this due to its renewable energy installations that consist of Solar panels, Wind energy as well as energy crops.

Photovoltaic Cells - PV System: A PV cell collects sun light energy and converts it into electricity; this is a process that was discovered in 1839 by Edmund Becquerel. Today PV cells are mostly made of crystalline silicon, which is a good choice of material as it has semi conductive qualities. These can be used on building facades as well as roofs.Beaufort Court has a total of 22 solar panels fitted, covering a total of 170m2 that collect enough heat energy to provide hot water consistently all year round. The thermal collection transfers its heat from the collector to the copper pipes, which therefore heats the water. The collected heat can be stored if not used straight away, and any unused water can be returned. The heat collected has a peak thermal output of 100kW, approximately. Every year it generates approximately 69MWh. The amount of energy generated through the solar panels would depend on every case individually, and will also largely depend on what panels are installed and what are there ratings. To demonstrate this, a mid-range panel has an input of around 1000 W/m2 however the amount of electricity gained would be about 20% efficiency, maximum. A solar panel that measured one square meter in size would generate approximately 200W, in good sunlight conditions.

Month January February March April May June July August September October November December

Daily Peak Sun Hours 2 3 4 6 6 7 7 6 5 4 3 2

Fig 2: A table to show the average sun hours by months that has been calculated by the UK Met Office. All of the information is based on averaged data within a ten-year gap, from 2000 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 2010.

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Fig 3: A diagram highlighting the process of how Solar Panels and Wind Turbine works as well as showing how much electricity both types of renewable energy have produced since 2004

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The seven panels out of the total 22 equate to 54m2 and are Hybrid PV Thermal panels. These panels have an electrical capacity of 75W, and a peak output of 5.25kW, resulting in 4.5MWh of electricity every year if enough solar energy is available to the system. There is no average or optimum figure of how much sunlight is provided at a time, however one can calculate the peak sun hours, this is the hour in which the intensity of the sunlight averages out to 1000 W/m2. This does not mean that the solar panel receives this amount of sunlight due to the distance of the sun and the fact that other objects or radiation interferes.

Wind Energy: Wind energy is generated by the use of a wind turbine. The process into how electricity is generated begins with the wind causing the turbine to turn. This turns the low speed shaft, followed by the high speed shaft which spins within a static magnet inside the generator resulting in electricity. The limits of the generator are determined by a device called an anemometer. This device measures the wind speed and determines when the generator starts and stops. Beaufort Court has only one turbine, standing at 36 metres high, 29 metres in diameter and originally manufactured in 1995. The wind turbine produces twice the amount of energy required for the site, with a power output of 225 kW, the excess electricity is wired back to the National Grid. The turbine is fitted with variable pitch blades that can be tweaked depending upon the weather conditions; for example, when the wind speed is low they can adjust the pitch of the variable blades to maximize the wind energy that is collected. The blades are adjusted to pitch out of the wind when the turbine is off. The National gridâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s frequency which is 50Hz limits the speed of the generator, however if the wind speed is increased this does not necessarily mean that turbine blades turn faster but instead means that more torque is exerted onto the generator shaft which ultimately results into a much greater electrical output. The generator is enough to supply electricity to 30-40 houses, with a speed of 760 1000rpm. Beaufort Courtâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s wind turbine will generate electricity around 80% of the time, for as long as 25 years. . Fig 4: A graph to show the difference between how much electricity was generated through the wind turbine during 2004 to 2013 - http://www.beaufortcourt.com/live-energy-data/energycomparison-charts#

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Biomass Energy: Biomass materials have five basic categories: virgin wood, energy crops, agricultural residues, food waste and industrial waste. These materials can be used as an extremely low carbon fuel. For example when trees and plants grow they absorb carbon dioxide from the environment, and when the trees are burnt the same amount of carbon dioxide is released, so in essence no additional carbon dioxide enters the atmosphere. The benefits of this procedure is highlighted when you compare it to fossil fuels, when they are burnt they also release carbon dioxide, that was absorbed a long time ago and release a lot more carbon dioxide, therefore directly affecting the climate. Recently biomass boilers have been proven to be reliable and cost-effective. Beaufort Court has a biomass boiler too, which burns wood fuel to heat up the buildings. The boiler sends the hot water to three plant rooms on the site that warms up the incoming air that is then circulated around the building. Beaufort court uses pellets to fuel the Boiler although wood chips can also be used. At least one month’s fuel, wood pellets are held within Beaufort court,

Borehole Cooling: Due to the fact that the majority of the new stores widely use traditional forms of air conditioning which causes them to have a very high intensity refrigeration plant, and this can eat half of the buildings energy consumption and air pollution. In Beaufort Court the principle of natural ventilation has been used to execute the Borehole Cooling method within the design, such as encouraging air to flow through the bottom of the building, right through to the top. A 75m deep borehole is where naturally cool water is pumped out. The London Basin sits on a layer of chalk that has been saturated in the water. Twelve degrees is the constant temperature of the water whilst it’s being held, this water can be extracted by using the Borehole and a pump and then distributed around the building through underground copper pipes. In Beaufort Court a 200mm wide Borehole was drilled to a depth of 75 metres that goes through different types of rock. This is done with a hollow metal tube that is consistently dug into the ground, almost like drilling a hole into a wall. With the borehole cooling, the water is pumped out at five litres per second and the water level in the aquifer is hardly affected due to the extraction. The Air Handling Units dehumidify and cool the incoming air and then travels via floor vents to cool the building, the water is transported at around 15ºC through the beams around the buildings that then cools the air inside. When the water is pumped out of the building, it makes its way to the energy crop growing into the fields nearby. The ‘run-off’ water from the car park also makes its way to the crops. The temperature within each office is centrally controlled by an innovative building management system, which can be manually set or automatically.

Fig 5: A diagram showing how the space heating system works in Beaufort Court, the stored water is heated from the Solar Panels and used when required

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Conclusion:

Fig 6: A comparison of graphs between 2004 & 2013 to show the difference between how much electricity was generated by all the renewal technologies used within Beaufort Court- http://www.beaufortcourt.com/live-energy-data/combined-energy-production

As you can see here these are two monthly energy output graphs for Beaufort Court. This shows how much energy is produced now in comparison to around 10 years ago. The wind turbine has always been the system that has generated the most output all year round. The other two systems that have contributed at different times in the year are the Biomass Boiler and the Solar thermal. The solar thermal is obviously more effective during the summer as well as the Borehole cooling. Overall they all contribute majorly towards the U.K goal and there are massive savings and benefits that have been achieved. Borehole Cooling and solar thermal energy isnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t correctly highlighted in the graph as they are only used when requires, i.e. cooling summer and heating in winter. In conclusion, all of the technologies that were here all have their own pros and cons. The right choice of technology for a particular site is dependent upon the resources available and various circumstances surrounding it. To have a clean sustainable building renewable technology needs to be integrated in the very early stages of the design. Simply adding renewable technology unto a building doesnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t necessarily make it sustainable. There needs to be a deep consideration of cost, functionality and long-term (lifetime) benefits in order for it to be effective in your design.

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Bibliography 1.

EHM. (2014). History of Renewable Energy. Available: http://www.energy-hypermarket.org/history-ofrenewable-energy/. Last accessed 18th November 2014. 2. Meagan Clark. (2014). The Changing Rationale Behind Renewable Energy Technology: A Short History. Available: http://www.ibtimes.com/changing-rationale-behind-renewable-energy-technology-shorthistory-1553726. Last accessed 18th November 2014. 3. UCSUSA. (2013). Benefits of Renewable Energy Use. Available: http://www.ucsusa.org/clean_energy/our-energy-choices/renewable-energy/public-benefits-ofrenewable.html#.VGqOVIfVvzJ. Last accessed 18th November 2014. 4. CAT. (2014). How much will a wind turbine earn?. Available: http://info.cat.org.uk/questions/wind/how-much-will-wind-turbine-earn. Last accessed 18th November 2014. 5. EST. (2014). Wind turbines. Available: http://www.energysavingtrust.org.uk/domestic/content/wind-turbines. Last accessed 18th November 2014. 6. EST. (2014). Solar Panels. Available: http://www.energysavingtrust.org.uk/domestic/content/solarpanels. Last accessed 18th November 2014. 7. Beaufort Court. (2000-2014). Live Energy Data. Available: http://www.beaufortcourt.com. Last accessed 18th November 2014. 8. Michael Cockram . (2008). Rebuilding Beaufort. Available: http://www.architectureweek.com/2008/0116/environment_1-2.html. Last accessed 18th November 2014. 9. MaxFordham. (2014). BEAUFORT COURT. Available: http://www.maxfordham.com/projects/beaufort-court. Last accessed 18th November 2014. 10. GM Renewables. (2014). Solar panels 01189 111 412. Available: http://www.gmrenewables.co.uk/solar.html. Last accessed 18th November 2014. 11. Electrocity. (2014). Where Our Numbers Come From. Available: https://www.ecotricity.co.uk/ourgreen-energy/our-green-electricity/from-the-wind/where-our-numbers-come-from. Last accessed 18th November 2014. 12. Zatirostami. (2011). Environmental and Technical Analysis of Photovoltaic Systems. Available: http://www.idosi.org/mejsr/mejsr8(2)11/31.pdf. Last accessed 18th November 2014th November 2014.

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BA3 Submission 2014-15 Tuesday 18th Nov 2014

CONCRETE Authored by : Luke Robinson Syed .A.R Nasir

p12215479 Tutor: Ashley Clayton p13234258 Tutor : Chris Jones

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The History of concrete From the earliest moments in our history, builders have tried to find materials that could cement together stones or bricks. Builders of the time were aware that this mode of construction would provide greater flexibility in construction as their methods relied on carefully setting stone blocks one above the other. The earliest cementing materials readily available was mud, this would be mixed with straw to bind the dried bricks together. However this method of construction is only suitable for dryer climates, as the unburnt bricks and clay have no resistance to water. The Great Mosque of DjennĂŠ was built in 1907, The mosque stands as the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s largest mudbrick structure. The mudbrick is called Banco which is a mixture of mud and grain husks, fermented, and either formed into bricks or applied on surfaces as a plaster. This plaster must be annually reapplied.

Non- hydraulic cements Calcareous materials were used first by the ancient Egyptians, the Egyptians used gypsum mortars in the construction of the pyramid of cheops (300bc); gypsum is formed through calcining impure gypsum. Water is then added which causes a chemical reaction where the calcined gypsum is recombined with the water of the chrystalisation which was driven off during the burning process. This material is preferred due to its low burning temperature (1300c) , gypsum mortars are non hydraulic which means that hardening will not take place under the water due to gypsum being soluble. This has negative effects in construction when used in countries without a very dry climate. More recently, gypsum was used to rebuild much of the city of Paris, which gave the name Plaster of Paris, as a result of the natural gypsum deposits found under the district of Monmartre. Subsequently, gysum was withdrawn from the market as many of the existing historic sites in Paris, that were originally built with gypsum mortar now suffer badly from damp and deterioration.

When gypsum is mixed with small quantitys of water the setting of this material is due to the recombination of the calcined gypsum which was driven off during the burning process.

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chemical reaction: calcining limestone

Chemical reaction: Carbonation of lime mortar

(A)

(B)

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Hydraulic Limes Greeks & Romans produced hydraulic limes by calcining limestones containing argillaceous (clayey) impurities therefore displaying there knowledge of volcanic deposits. Upon these volcanic deposits being mixed with lime and sand the mortars became stronger with water resistant qualities. one of the greatest examples of hydraulic mortars is the pantheon , dating from the second century A.D. The dome.141 ft 6 i. in diameter was constructed by pouring concrete into sections and letting it set. John smeaton (civil Engineer) recognised the mortars performed best with clayey materials. this was the first recognition of the factors that control the formation of hydraulic lime.

structure becomes lighter towards top

20 ft drum

Aggregates Aggregates can be obtained from many different types of materials although the use of natural material and common rocks are used mostly. The materials are separated into fine and coarse fractions. Cement can also be formulated in similar way as different chemicals can be mixed. Cement is a generic that can used for all binders. Therefore, the term Portland cement will often be used in conjunction to the construction industry.

(a)

Uniform size The volume of the voids between roughly spherical aggregate particles is greatest when the particles are uniform size. the smaller particles can pack between the larger, thus decreasing the void space and lowering paste requirements.

(b)

(c)

continuous grading

(d)

(e)

replacement of small sizes by large sizes gap graded aggregate

Oven dry

Air dry

Saturated surface dry

no fines grading

wet

Absorption capacity effective absorption

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surface moisture

Advantages and Disadvantages of concrete as a construction material Advantages

Disadvantages

Ability to be cast economical durable fire resistant energy efficient on- site fabrication aesthetic properties

Low tensile strength low ductility volume instability low strength-toweight ratio

Precast concrete Concrete can be adapted to factory controlled production, precast concrete building elements are used heavily in Europe and parts of America. The precast concrete pipe is widely used in drainage, sewage, and water supply projects. precast, pre stressed concrete beams, girders and panels in various configurations are used increasingly in many structures. Precast concrete can be produced with more accuracy with much smaller tolerences compared to concrete cast on site, but requires the use of more sophisticated equipment and a more skilled workforce. Good quality concrete is a very desirable material and can remain maintenance free for many years when it has been properly designed for its conditions. Concrete differs from structural steel as no protective coating is required except in very corrosive environments. Concrete also happens to be fire resistant, however can become damaged upon exposure to extreme temperatures for prolonged periods. In this this scenario concrete would perform better than steel as damages would be irreplaceable. Precast architectural panels are also used to clad all or part of a building facade free-standing walls used for landscaping, soundproofing, and security walls, and some can be Prestressed concrete structural elements. Stormwater drainage, water and sewage pipes, and tunnels make use of precast concrete units

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Falsework is a temporary structure used in construction to support spanning or arched structures in order to hold the component in place until it can support itself. European codes and regulations for concrete. through successful technical planning and experimentation and maturity in practical application, goals were set to reduce the unit density and improve the thermal insulation properties of concrete. normal concrete density (2350kg/m3 )can be reduced to (1600 kg/ m3 )whilst maintaining strength levels.

Casting concrete in- situ Concrete can be cast to any desired shape and configuration. Often concrete is produced to create soaring arches and columns, complex hyperbolic shells, monolithic sections used in dams, piers and abutments. On site construction means that local materials can be included in construction thus keeping costs low. Moreover, by fabricating the concrete on site the properties can be tailored for the specific application. Concrete can be made with unsophisticated equipment meaning that the workers can be semi skilled, thereby keeping costs down.

Formwork is the temporary or permanent mold which concrete or similar materials are poured.

Roof level

Third pour

Second pour

First pour

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Manufacture of portland cement Cement, is a mixture of compounds made by burning limestone and clay together at very high temperatures ranging from 1400 to 1600 degrees. The production of portland cement begins with the quarrying of limestone, CaCO3. Huge crushers break the blasted limestone into small pieces. The crushed limestone is then mixed with clay, sand, and iron ore and ground together to form a homogeneous powder. The mixture is heated in kilns that are long rotating steel cylinders on an incline. The mixture of raw materials enters at the high end of the cylinder and slowly moves along the length of the kiln. At the low end of the kiln, a fuel is injected and burned, thus providing the heat necessary to make the materials react. Four stages of transformation >free water in the powder is lost by evaporation. >decomposition occurs from the loss of bound water and carbon dioxide (calcination). >Through clinkering the calcium silicates are formed. >Cooling. Water water is the key ingredient, which when mixed with cement, forms a paste that binds the aggregate together. The water causes the hardening of concrete through a process called hydration. Hydration is a chemical reaction in which the major compounds in cement form chemical bonds with water molecules and become hydrates or hydration products. The water needs to be pure in order to prevent side reactions from occurring which may weaken the concrete. Cement ratio Too much water reduces concrete strength, while too little will make the concrete unworkable. Concrete needs to be workable so that it may be shaped into different forms . 350

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The architectural minister went against the advice of english heritage in order to grade list the Hayward gallery and the queen elizabeth hall in Londons brutalism south bank centre. 20th century society- â&#x20AC;&#x153;Bitterly disapointingâ&#x20AC;?. In 2012 The world monument society placed it on their watchlist for endangered brutalist buildings. The Hayward gallery also applied for immunity from future listing attempts which means that the centre can be clearer on how they intend to plan for the future as planning permission can last for months and upto years leaving the centre with vivid parameters on the work can be done.

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21 acre site displaying south bank centre site marked with a red line. The Queen Elizabeth Hall was designed for a completly different use to how some of the spaces are used now. As the programme has developed, the buildings have changed. Building services such as electrics, ventilation and plumbing are dated old - in some cases over 45 years old and are starting to create damage to the building. The comfort cooling and air ventilation systems need to be replaced not only to meet needs of the public but to the standards of a major international arts complex. Thus also improving their performance to reduce carbon emissions and running costs. The Hayward Gallery also doesnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t have adequate temperature or humidity controls to meet modern standards.Thus the ventilation and cooling systems need to be upgraded. The gallery has had to create a false ceiling as the artwork would face possible damage as a result of leaking.

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Release Agents >chemical release agents >solid release wax coating >neat oils with surfactants

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Limitations of concrete Concretes limitations should be allowed for upon designing structures as it is limited in some applications. Concrete is brittle with low tensile strength, therefore concrete shouldnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t be loaded in tension ( except for minor bending stresses in the use if unreinforced slabs) and reinforcing steel shouldnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t be used to carry tensile loads; inadvertent tensile loading causes cracking. Concrete has low ductility, which means that concrete lacks impact strength and toughness compared to metals. Upon compression concrete has relatively low strength to weight ratio, and a high load capacity requires comparatively large masses of concrete, although, since concrete is low in cost it is feasible. Energy costs Concrete requires less energy to produce than it does steel. This is due to steel being made by high temperate processes ( 300GJM3), where as in the production of concrete, the cement undergoes pyro processing ( 22 GJ/M3). The energy costs are in the production of cement and reinforced steel, however the energy consumption of an equivalent steel structure element can be greater. Secondly, concrete buildings can be more energy efficient to operate because of the thermal mass properties of concrete. Concrete, conducts heat slowly and is able to store considerable amounts of heat from the environment which can be expelled during cool periods. ConcludingConcrete also has many aesthetic possibilities which can be expressed through the use of colur, texture and shape, this versatility makes concrete a very adaptable building material. Design considerations position of the insulation within the construction affects the use of the thermal mass of the thermal mass of concrete and its contribution to night time cooling. continuity of thermal insulation is important to the interface of concrete with glazed openings and doors inorder to avoid thermal bridging. 355

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Condensation intergration of floor elements with reinforced concrete frames brings the risk of cold bridgingat the periphery.

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If our topic of discussion is concrete we cannot overlook the immense use of exposed concrete in ‘Brutalist architecture’. Brutalist Architecture was a movement from the 1950-1970’s, it gained popularity among the government and educational buildings. The raw form of concrete was surely not comfortable and easy looking but was appreciated by the younger generation as a reaction to early 1930-40’s architecture. One of the building we want to discuss is the National Theatre London, it is one of the iconic buildings and great representation of Brutalist Architecture.

It was designed by Sir Deny Lasdun and opened in 1976. It is formed from two towers which rise above the layered horizontal terraces that wrap around the whole structure. Basically comprising of three theatres; the Proscenium arched Lyttleton Theatre, Highly adaptable Cottesloe Theatre and the Thrust staged Olivier Theatre. The building also comprises of backstage area, a couple of bars, foyer space and one restaurant Front of the house. Olivier theatre is the biggest of them it was designed with an open thrust stage having a capacity of eleven hundred and the thrust stage opens into a fan shaped auditorium.

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Section National Theatre of London The Dorfman theatre was created out on an unplanned space in the building opened in 1977, originally it was a small oblong space and was quite open, and the crowd could be seated on either end or even around it. With having a capacity of four-hundred people it was much appreciated by the audience and the crowd. Unfortunately it was closed for reconstruction in 2013. After closing of this there was a temporary theatre called as a ‘Shed Theatre’ was opened it was supposed to be temporary but after its success its license was extended till 2017 and the name was changed to ‘The Temporary Theatre’.

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Hayward Gallery London

Noticing Southand Bank London quite rich - Built the by Higgs HillArea and of opened on its 9 July 1968 in Brutalist Architecture apartuse from Theatre - Its massing and extensive of National exposed concrete London it also has and Hayward construction areQueen typicalElizabeth of BrutalistHall architecture Gallery. Gallery is two an art gallery near -ThereThe areHayward ve gallery spaces, levels of indoor river Thamesand onthree southoutdoor bank ofsculpture London. courts The architects galleries (the massive concrete trays at theHill upper in order to of this building are Higgs and andlevel) was opened house ArtsThe Council collection in 9th Julythe 1968. strong and bold use of concrete --The two levels of the gallery openThe to the public are represents the Brutalist architecture. building linked by pairgallery of castspaces, concrete staircases. comprises of afive there two levels of These staircases are accommodated in a concrete indoor galleries and three outdoor sculpture courts boxare in between theineastern western parts of the which quite huge size in and order to entertain the indoor galleries art exhibition. There are two levels of gallery open to public which are connected to by cast concrete staircases, one of the staircase runs down to level zero as well but only to be used in case of emergency.

Hayward Gallery London

- Built by Higgs and Hill and opened on 9 July 1968 - Its massing and extensive use of exposed concrete construction are typical of Brutalist architecture -There are ve gallery spaces, two levels of indoor galleries and three outdoor sculpture courts (the massive concrete trays at the upper level) in order to house the Arts Council collection --The two levels of the gallery open to the public are linked by a pair of cast concrete staircases. -These staircases are accommodated in a concrete box in between the eastern and western parts of the indoor galleries

-The building originally had a very small main foyer area with cast aluminium doors similar to those of the Queen Elizabeth Hall. In 2003, the foyer of the building was remodelled with a larger glass-fronted foyer, designed by the Haworth Tompkins architectural practice. and including a new oval shaped glass pavilion designed by Dan Graham above a new cafe in the projecting former oﬃce space at the east end. -A shop had been added earlier inside the north-west end of the lower gallery. -The two upper galleries can use heavily ltered natural light from the glass pyramids on their at roofs. -Three concrete towers run vertically through the middle of the structure and contain the passenger lift, service lift and service duct. -The kinetic light sculpture, which responds to wind force, on the roof of the passenger lift tower, was retained from an exhibition in 1971. -The walkway above Belvedere Road with access from Waterloo Bridge widens to the west, - The angled plan shape of the concrete sculpture court in the south corner reeects the change in angle of the site between Waterloo Bridge and Festival Square. - In this way, despite its seemingly uncompromising form, the building responds to its site.

National Theatre of London is the most divisive building and was liked and dislike by many people. Mark Giraud commented on it as “Aesthetic of Broken Forms” Prince Charles once described it as a “Nuclear power station.” This building gained its grade two listing just after 18 years it was made in 1994.The construction was mainly in situ concrete as we can witness the wooden plank prints on the walls of the building and the free form rising above the horizontal plates. 361

-The south-west corner of the building at street level is occupied by an electrical switch room. -A car park occupies most of the lower ground level. A plant room occupies the lower level, with a great concrete exhaust stack by Waterloo Bridge. -In 2011, the Hayward Gallery was added to the protected list by the World Monuments Fund, despite being refused listed building status in the UK

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Conclusion: Concrete is one of the oldest building materials and has travelled a long way, during this it had a lot of changes to improve its durability, strength, life and composite. There were a lot of new ways introduced as well in which it can be used in a more effective way. The technological advancements also played its roll to improve the better-finished product of concrete. Its quality of being strong and fire resistant made it prior to other materials most of the time. Overall concrete going with any other building material is can easily contrast with them. This material can provide you with numerous fine finishesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; depending upon what you need.

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MATERIAL POETS CONCRETE ARCH3036

Malgorzata Persa (P12213191) Yesmeen Mohammad Sanusi (P12209167)

Leicester School of Architecture 18th November 2014

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MATERIAL POETS: CONCRETE WHAT IS CONCRETE

Concrete is a building material made with use of water, aggregate, and cement. To achieve the desired physical properties of material, frequantly reinforcements and additivies are included in the mixture. Aftre mixing all ingredients together we receive a fluid substance that is easily molded into desired form. With time, it hardens to become a very hard and solid material which lasts for very long.

Properties: Concrete outperforms wood as a construction material, it is versatile, long-lasting, durable, and cost-effective, its a sustainable material for both residential and commercial buildings. * Durability: Concrete is a building material that gains strength over time. Concrete’s 100-year service life conserves resources by reducing the need for reconstruction, it can resist weathering, erosion and natural disasters and over time only little maintenance with few repairs is needed for a concrete structure. * Economical: Operational energy requirements typically represent 85% of the total energy a building uses over its service life. Concrete provides one of the most efficient and cost-effective means of constructing energy-efficient structures. * Versatility: Concrete is used in buildings, bridges, dams, tunnels, sewerage systems pavements, runways and even roads.

Pic. Mixture of concrete

* Low maintenance: Concrete, being inert, compact and non-porous, does not attract mould or lose its key properties over time. * Affordability: Compared to other comparable building materials, concrete is less costly to produce and remains extremely affordable. * Fire-resistance: Being naturally fire-resistant concrete forms a highly effective barrier to fire spread. * Locally produced and used: The weight of the material limits concrete sales to within 300km of a plant site. Very little cement and concrete is traded and transported internationally. This saves significantly on transport emissions of CO2 that would otherwise occur.

Pic. Colosseum (www.geo.de)

* Albedo effect: The high “albedo” (reflective qualities) of concrete used in pavements and building walls means more. Light is reflected and less heat is absorbed, resulting in cooler temperatures. This reduces the “urban heat island” effect prevalent in cities today, and hence reduces energy use for e.g. air-conditioning. * Low life-cycle CO2 emissions: 80% of a buildings CO2 emissions are generated not by the production of the materials used in its construction, but in the electric utilities of the building over its life-cycle (e.g. lighting, heating, air-conditioning. Pic. TWA Terminal (workbreaktravel.com)

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MATERIAL POETS: CONCRETE HISTORY

History of concrete reaches back over 3,000 years. First concrete floors were found in the royal palace of Tiryns in Greece, which dates 1400-1200 BC. The Assyrian Jerwan Aqueduct (688 BC) used waterproof concrete. Concrete revolution took place in Ancient Rome. For ancient Romans concrete was new and revolutionary material. However, they developed use of concrete during 700 year, commonly known as Roman concrete. It was made from quicklime, pozzolana and an aggregate of pumice. It has been widely used in many structures, like bridges, aqueducts, arches, vaults and domes. Many of them is still visible these days, like Pantheon or Baths of Caracalla. Concrete as a building material has been forgotten for few centuries. It gradually came back use in 16th century. One of the example is Canal du Midi in France from 1670. In late 18th century British engineer John Smeaton used a hydraulic lime.

Pic. National Congress of Brazil (www.yampu.com)

Pic. The Assyrian Jerwan Aqueduct Pic. Chandigarh India (www.theguardian.com)

18th and 19th centuries were fruitful period in concrete technology. In 1824 Joseph Aspdin patented a method for producting Portland cement. In 1848 Jean-Louis Lambot as first one used reinforcing in concrete. He constructed several small rowboats of concrete, which he reinforced with iron bars and wire mesh. Cocrete was widely used in post war architecture. Many buildings were destroyed during war so people had to build quickly and economically. Concrete was perfect for it. It is widely available and cheap. Many architects of that times used it commonly. Le Corbusier, Robert Vnturi and Oscar Niemeyer are one of best known. These days concrete is widely used. Technology of this material rised rapidly. It is used both in heavy structures and light, organic forms.

Use of concrete

Pic. Pantheon

Time

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Pic. Use of concrete over years

MATERIAL POETS: CONCRETE

WHAT MAKES CONCRETE A SUSTAINABLE BUILDING MATERIAL

A sustainable concrete building can yield life cycle savings of more than 20% of total construction cost. Much of the savings come from concrete’s thermal mass, which can harvest natural energy sources such as the sun, and can also capture thermal energy from lighting fixtures and other equipment in the building. Sustainable: Environmentally-conscious builders look for durable building materials that leave the smallest environmental footprint. Produced from locally available, abundant materials, concrete’s long lifespan helps make it the most responsible choice for a sustainable future. In concrete’s life cycle, recycling is present from start to finish. Many wastes and industrial byproducts that would end up in landfills are used in the cement kiln or can be added to concrete mixes to provide desirable characteristics. Used concrete is recyclable and serves as aggregate in roadbeds or as granular material in new concrete.

According to portland cement association and the environmental council of concrete organizations: * Resource efficiency: The predominant raw material for the cement in concrete is limestone, the most abundant mineral on earth. Concrete can also be made with fly ash, slag cement, and silica fume, all waste byproducts from power plants, steel mills, and other manufacturing facilities. * Durability: Concrete builds durable, long-lasting structures that will not rust, rot, or burn. Life spans for concrete building products can be double or triple those of other common building materials. * Thermal mass: Homes built with concrete walls, foundations, and floors are highly energy efficient because they take advantage of concretes inherent thermal massor ability to absorb and retain heat. This means homeowners can significantly cut their heating and cooling bills and install smaller-capacity HVAC equipment. * Reflectivity: Concrete minimizes the effects that produce urban heat islands. Light-colored concrete pavements and roofs absorb less heat and reflect more solar radiation than dark-colored materials, such as asphalt, reducing air conditioning demands in the summer. * Ability to retain stormwater: Paved surfaces tend to be impervious and can block natural water infiltration into the soil. This creates an imbalance in the natural ecosystem and leads to problems such as erosion, flash floods, water table depletion, and pollution. Pervious concrete is a special type of structural concrete with a sponge-like network of voids that water passes through readily. When used for driveways, sidewalks, parking lots, and other pavements, pervious concrete can help to retain stormwater runoff and replenish local water supplies.

Pic. Recycling potential of concrete (www.clemson.edu)

* Minimal waste: Concrete can be produced in the quantities needed for each project, reducing waste. After a concrete structure has served its original purpose, the concrete can be crushed and recycled into aggregate for use in new concrete pavements or as backfill or road base.

Pic. Infrastructure life cycle system (www.sitemaker.umich.edu) 371

MATERIAL POETS: CONCRETE ADDITIVES

Concrete as a mixture of only water, cement and agregates is as durable as one with different addings. Ancient Romans were adding horse hair, straws and blood to concrete to make it sronger, durable for bending, cracking . Nowadays, there is more methods to achieve desired features of concrete. One of them is adding different additives, like fly ash, slag cement or silica fume.

Another interesting aspect of additivies in concrete is obtaining different colours of concrete. Good example of use coloured concrete is a Casa Das Historias Paula Rego. It was designed by Eduardo Souto de Moura. It is recognised thanks to its two pyramid-shaped towers and the red-coloured concrete used in its construction.

* Fly ash: the most commonly used pozzolan in concrete, is a by-product of thermal power generating stations. Commercially available fly ash is a finely divided residue that results from the combustion of pulverized coal and is carried from the combustion chamber of the furnace by exhaust gases. * Slag Cement: formerly referred to as ground, granulated blast-furnace slag, is a glassy, granular material formed when molten, iron blast-furnace slag is rapidly chilled - typically by water sprays or immersion in water - and subsequently ground to cement fineness. Slag cement is hydraulic and can be added to cement as an SCM.

Pic. Casa das Histórias Paula Rego (www.archdaily.com)

* Silica fume: also called condensed silica fume or microsilica, is a finely divided residue resulting from the production of elemental silicon or ferro-silicon alloys that is carried from the furnace by the exhaust gases. Silica fume, with or without fly ash or slag, is often used to make high-strength concrete.

Pic. Casa das Histórias Paula Rego (www.dezeen.com)

Pic. Supplementary cementitious materials (www.clemson.edu)

Uses of supplementary cementitious materials: • When a portion of Portland cement is replaced in the mixture, It reduces the overall carbon footprint because the materials replacing it are gotten from the production of other materials. • It has the ability to replace up to 40% or more of cement • Improve Properties of Plastic (Fresh) and Hardened Concrete

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Benefits/Cautions of uses of supplementary cementitious materials: • It uses up a lower amount of water • It improves the working ability of the concrete • It reduces the chances of water in the concrete mixture from rising to the surface after being placed, this is known as bleeding • When this materials are added to a concrete mixture, it increases the concretes setting time. • The concrete gains more strength over a long term • The concretes ability to be permeable is reduced • It lowers the reaction between Alkali-Silica

MATERIAL POETS: CONCRETE

STRUCTURES THAT USE SUPPLEMENTARY CEMENTING MATERIALS

This materials are used a lot in Canada, buildings like the Winnipeg’s Manitoba Hydro Head Office drawn below and the Confederation Bridge below. This materials are often added to concrete to make concrete mixtures more economical, reduce permeability, increase strength, or influence other concrete properties.

Pic. Winnipeg’s Manitoba Hydro Head Office

Pic. Confederation Bridge www.confederationbridge.com 373

MATERIAL POETS: CONCRETE REINFORCEMENTS

Very helpful solution is use of reinforcement. Use of steel rods pushed technology of concrete much forward. Reinforcements are making concrete much more durable and control cracking. Not only steel is used as a reinforcement. One of the examples is use of bamboo (look at diagram below).

There are two methods of fabricating reinforced concrete. The first is in-situ concrete. In this method the liquide material is poured into forms at the building site. The other method is called precast concrete, in which building components are manufactured in a central plant and later brought to the building site for assembly. The components of concrete are portland cement, coarse aggregates.

Pic. Wall underconstruction with use of in-situ concrete and bamboo reinforcement Pic. Reinforced concrete element in contact with Eart. Pic. Reinforcements in concrete in different parts of the building

374

MATERIAL POETS: CONCRETE IN-SITU AND PRECAST CONCRETE

IN-SITU CONCRETE

PRECAST CONCRETE

Pic. Fitting concrete sheets on the site (www.nexus.globalquakemodel.org)

Pic.Pouring lequid concrete into the form (www.constructionphotography. com)

As mention before, reinforced precast concrete in made in factory. It is still using steel rods to strenghten concrete. It is fabricated off site. In production process steel rods are placed into forms (mostly made of timber). Then liquide is pour into it. It is done layer by layer. The reason is to make sure there is no air gaps between reinforcements. When consistance harden, formwork is removed. Surface of the concrete is smoothen if necessery. Ready blocks of precast concrete are storeged usually outside (considering their amount and size).

In few words, in-situ concrete is made on site. Previously prepared concrete, on site or in factury, is pour into the formwork. That gives more freedom to the design as it allows to create large scale buildings. Only limitation is man imagination. Reinfored concrete produced with in-situ method is made the same way as precast concrete. Steel cages and mats are placed in right possition. Then they are surrended with formwork where liquid is poured partly.

Big adventage of precast concrete is the fact that it can be fabricated ignoring bad weather conditions. Next, we can reuse the same formwork to crete lots of the same shapes. This method is very useful in p-roduction of concrete cladding.

Main adventage of in-situ method is ability to build large scale building. They can take different forms. Light, shell structers are not the exceptation. Next, there is no problem with transporting ready parts to the site as they are produced on the side.

There is a few disadventages of this method. Firstly, produced items have to be storaged. Secondly, big size items can not be produced as it will be difficult to transport it to the site. Thirdly, fixing concrete sheets is fabrious as they are heavy.

Same as precast method, in-situ has also few defects. Firstly, builders can not work in bad weather condition, that means this method can be used only in certain times. Secondly, fixing reinforcement in vertical plane is difficult and time-consuming.

Pic. Concrete Home With Stunning Sea Views By 3SK (www.interiordesi gnarticle.com)

Pic. Abstract Building With Concrete Wave (www.tutorialchip.com) 375

MATERIAL POETS: CONCRETE PRODUCTION PROCESS OF REINFORCD IN-SITU CONCRETE

A. Extractation and transportation

B. Screening of punice gravel

C. Materials for concrete: gravel, cement, water

D. Mixing by hand or in a mixing machine

E. Forming reinforcement

F. Applying formwork

G. Pouring liquid into formwork

H. Removing formwork

376

MATERIAL POETS: CONCRETE CASE STUDY: PANTHEON

Pantheon is one of the best preserved builing of Ancient Rome. It was commissioned by Marcus Agrippa during the reign of Augustus (27 BC - 14 AD) and rebuilt by the emperor Hadrian about 126 AD. It has the biggest in the world concrete dome.

Why use concrete? There is probably a few answers to that question. The most relevant might be properties of concrete. Most of ancient Rome city was destroyed by fire. At that point builders and planners wanted to use material that is fireproof, durable, economical. These desires pushed use of concrete much forward. Pic.Pantheon (romeonsegway.com)

As mentioned before, Pantheon possess the biggest concrete dome. How was it possible to achieve such a great construction that is standing over 2,000 years? There is a couple of factores that allowed that. Firstly, concrete is thinner at the top of the dome and thicker to its base. Secondly, concrete next to the oculus has smaller density than the one near base. It was achieved by using different aggregates: heavy granite stones and lightweight volcanic stones. Thirdly, counterbalance is used by building brickwork on the bottom of the dome. Then, structure of dome is lightened by adding cofferings. Finally, weight of the dome is reduced by placing an oculus on the top. Pic.Pantheon (www.thinglink.com)

Pic. Pantheon- section through the dome 377

MATERIAL POETS: CONCRETE CASE STUDY: PANTHEON- HOW WAS IT BUILD?

There is very little information about domeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s construction and how was it build. However, there is a few speculation. The best one is that the dome was constructed by erecting a huge wooden hemisphere with wooden negatives of the coffers placed appropriately around it. Successive rings of concrete were poured, interspersed with poured concrete ribs for more strength. The wooden hemisphere was supported by scaffolding, which were removed when material was molded. It is confirmed that stability of the concrete structure was achieved without use of metallic reinforcement.

378

MATERIAL POETS: CONCRETE CASE STUDY: NOTRE DAME DU HAUT

Location: Ronchamp, Haute-Saone, France Architect: Le Corbusier Materials: Concrete and stone Completed: 1954 The site influenced the use of materials, being on a slope, access to the site was limited, the stone used for reinforcing the concrete shell was from the former chapel which was destroyed by a series of bombings during world war II. The roof which is insulted and water-tight with an exterior aluminum cladding is not supported by the walls themselves but by reinforced concrete frames inserted in the walls, it was designed to slope toward the back so to drain rainfall onto the raised, slanted concrete structure, creating a fountain. The texture of the roof is left in its natural form after the framework was taken out.

Reinforced concrete frame embedded inside the wall which supports the roof of the building

Open space between the wall and roof to let daylight in

Windows with coloured glass and clear glass

Inside Two concrete membranes set 2.26 meters apart covered with gunite

Pic. Notre Dame du Haut, detailed south wall

379

MATERIAL POETS: CONCRETE CASE STUDY: NOTRE DAME DU HAUT

Reinforced concrete frames which bears the weight of the roof enclosed by concrete shell and stone ruins.

Stone ruins from the 4th century chapel was used to build this wall, the chapel was on the site before it was destroyed by the World War II bombings

Pic. The old chapel made out of stone that stood on the site before World War II (www.en.wikipedia. org).

Concrete shell made with gunite, both inner and outer walls are then covered in white paster.

Window frame

Pic. Notre Dame du Haut, A vertical section through the south wall showing materials

Pic. This diagram shows how the roof is not resting on the wall but on the reinforced concrete frame inserted in the walls, and also shows opens on the wall. The construction of the tower above the roof was out of stone masonry and the dome of cement. 380

MATERIAL POETS: CONCRETE CASE STUDY: NOTRE DAME DU HAUT- STRUCTURE

Pic. Buttresses are not present in the walls, so to make the rough masonry stable, curved forms have been added to the plan as seen below. Diagram showing the structure of the wall. Cocrete columns with steel reinforcement supporting roof structure

381

MATERIAL POETS: CONCRETE CASE STUDY: NOTRE DAME DU HAUT- STRUCTURE

Pic. A large scale diagram showing a cut through of the concrete wall components in plan.

Pic. Diagram showing how the roof truss rests on the wall reinforcement.

Pic. Section and detail of roof trusses. 382

MATERIAL POETS: CONCRETE

CASE STUDY: NOTRE DAME DU HAUT- HOW WAS IT BUILD

A. Stone ruins from the old chapel already on site.

B. The foundation is laid, concrete reinforcement frames are placed

C. Roof is constructed

D. The mixture of concrete occurs

E. The concrete is the applied to the wall using concrete gun

F. The framework comes off 383

MATERIAL POETS: CONCRETE

CASE STUDY: AMERICAN AIR MUSEUM

Professional Team Architect: Foster + Partners Client: Imperial War Museum Main contractor: J Sisk and Sons Quantity surveyor: Davis Langdon Transport engineer: Rutherford Consultants Environmental engineer: Roger Preston Groundworks Construction: O’Rourke Structural engineer: Arup

American Air Museum is one of the greatest examples of shell structure building. It is using both in-situ and precast concrete. Design of the museum was inspired by B-52 aircraft. That resulted in curve shape building. There is a few other features that shaped the building and decide on the construction details. Most important one is the fact that roof has to support a variety of suspended aircraft. ‘Design solution combines structural elegance with cost-effective building’ (ref. ).

Pic. American Air Museum (www.s374444733.websitehome.co uk; www. commons.wikimedia org). Pic. . Concept sketch (www.ajbuildingslibrary.co.uk) 384

MATERIAL POETS: CONCRETE

CASE STUDY: AMERICAN AIR MUSEUM- WHY WAS CONCRETE USE

The roof surface has a principal radius of 278m and a minor radius of 64m. The building is made with use of both precast and in-situ concrete. While precast parts were manufactured, in-situ concrete beams were made on the site. It is also using steel reinforcement to make concrete structure more durable. Why concrete? Two main reasons are that client wanted to obtain organic form, but at the same time have a strong structure that can support exposed aircrafts. Cocrete was a perfect material for this specific project. The roof shell is 1m deep and is build of two 100mm precastconcrete slabs, interconnected by 250mm deep concrete ribs at 2m centers. The roof has been built up in-situ by stitching together T-shape unites.

Pic 4. American Air Museum (photos from â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Concrete quarterly, summer 1996â&#x20AC;&#x2122;, p. 2-3). Pic. . Detail section (www.ajbuildingslibrary.co.uk)

385

MATERIAL POETS: CONCRETE

CASE STUDY: AMERICAN AIR MUSEUM- HOW WAS IT BUILD

Shellâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s crown begun the roof construction. This meant the roof could be erected before the substructure and also alowed the falsework to be balanced. That created more stable structure. Tolerance was disipable exiciently and any movement creep was taken by 25 mm joints between the units themselves. The roof seems to float above the buildingâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s solid substructure through 34 supporting steel arms. They are set behind a continuous glazed strip at the base of the roof. They are collecting all the forces from the roof, via an upper ring beam. Then transfer them to a further ring beam and next, to the A-frame in-situ concrete abutments. The key to success of the construction programme a continuous cycle of fundation construction, falsework erection and roof-unit placement. T-shape units were lifted with use of the machanisms and placed on the roof. As a client did not want to compromise the quality finish of the exposed units, the falsework was fixed to the units using the same sockets that will suspend the aircraft exhibition. Bolt shoes on timber bearing blocks were screwed into the sockets to support the roof. The bearing block is cut as a wedge to allow the supporting beam to be horizontal and so take the lateral load. Even though, the falsework was relatively easy to assemble, the lack of headroom means that initially it was dismanted by hand. This process was done slowly as lowering the falsework too quickly could result in the roof failing to take its own weight, and overload of the temporary supports or preventing the jacks from unwinding. Then, jacks were taken progressively in 5mm steps across the roof structure. The removal of the falsework created open-plan, calm exhibition space.

Pic 4. T-shape precast concrete units

386

MATERIAL POETS: CONCRETE

CASE STUDY: AMERICAN AIR MUSEUM- HOW WAS IT BUILD

A. Installing shell crown and framework

B. Placing precast unites on in-situ edge strips

C. Slowly removing framework

D. Placing glazing on front elevation 387

MATERIAL POETS: CONCRETE CONCLUSIONS

Concrete has a long tale of history and is one of the oldest materials used in architecture. It was widely used by ancient Romans and some of those structures are still standing till date, examples of those long standing structures still amazes us today by standing for over 2,000 years now. Concrete was widely used during the modernist movement, here we start to see how it can be manipulated in to different forms creating all sorts of possibilities that are astonishing everyone. It has different properties which have been developed over time that allow it to create great complex forms, like massive load bearing structures, organic forms that could proof difficult using other material, and very thin sheets of concrete can be made. It has a lot of advantages over other materials and now a lot of effort in put in to making it a more sustainable and an even stronger and long lasting material than before. Todays technology is able to improve and enhance the use of this material. It can make it even more sustainable and easy to use. All this brings us to a point that concrete as a building material has a great future and can revolutionize tomorrowâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s architecture.

388

MATERIAL POETS: CONCRETE REFERENCES

1. Adrian Forty, ‘Concrete and culture. A material history’, Reaktion Books Ltd, London, 2012. 2. Catherine Croft, ‘Concrete architecture’, Laurence King Publishing Ltd, London, 2004. 3. ‘Concrete quarterly, summer 1996’, p. 2-3. 4. David Phillips, Megumi Yamashita, ‘Detail in contemporary concrete architecture’, Laurence King Publishing Ltd, London 2012. 5. Le Corbusier, ‘Le Corbusier: Architect of the century’, 1987. 6. Le Corbusier, ‘ Le Corbusier: Oeuvre Complete (1952 - 1957)’. 7. Le Corbusier, ‘ Le Corbusier: 1946 - 1952’. 8.L. J. Murdok, K. M. Brook, J. D. Dewer, ‘Concrete materials and practice’, London, 1991. 9. www.ajbuildingslibrary.co.uk, accessed in October- November 2014. 10. www.aleckassociates.co.uk, accessed on 17th October 2014. 11. www.archdaily.com, accessed in October- November 2014. 12. www.concretenetwork.com/concrete/greenbuildinginformation/what_makes.html, accessed on 20th October 2014. 13. www.dezeen.com, accessed in October- November 2014. 14. www.en.wikipedia.org, accessed in October- November 2014. 15. www.madehow.com, accessed on 18th October 2014. 16. www.sustainableprecast.ca/scm/precast_sustainability/canada/index.do, accessed on 29th October 2014.

389

Tech Project 1 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Material/System Study ARCH 3036 Report on

Mechanical Ventilation and Cooling Systems By Abdullah Iqbal, P12201649 De Montfort University November 18th, 2014

390

Table of Contents Abstract 1. Introduction 2. Definition Mechanical Ventilation Mechanical Cooling Mechanical Ventilation and Cooling 3. Types of Mechanical Ventilation Extract only Systems Supply only Systems Supply and Extract Systems 4. Performance and Specification Ductwork Filters Diffusers Fans 5. Selection of Ventilation Strategy 6. Natural or Mechanical 7. Low Energy Mechanical Cooling Systems Natural Sources of Cooling Night Ventilation Delivery of Cooling to Treated Spaces Chilled Ceilings and Beams 8. PassivHaus Ventilation and Cooling for PassivHaus PassivHaus Case Studies

Page 1 Page 1 Page 1-2 Page 2 Page 3 Page 3 Page 3-5 Page 6-7 Page 8-9 Page 9 Page 9 Page 9-10 Page 10 Page 10-11 Page 11-12 Page 12-13 Page 13 Page 13 Page 13-14 Page 14 Page 14 Page 14-15 Page 15 Page 15-17

Bibliography

Page 18

391

Executive Summary/Abstract This report will focus on the various types of mechanical ventilation systems and will look at each type through case studies and existing reports/documents to thoroughly examine what they are about and the best methods to ventilate. The Second part of the report will consider Mechanical Cooling systems â&#x20AC;&#x201C; in particular low energy variants of the suggested â&#x20AC;&#x201C; and will look at the various methods applied through PassivHaus case studies. The conclusions from the report will allow the reader to understand the methods of mechanical ventilation they need to use for their specific building and will give them the necessary material to assess the various types and decide on their own accord.

392

Report on Mechanical Ventilation and Cooling Systems 1. Introduction It was during the Industrial Revolution that physicians primarily began to associate the polluted external air to be the cause of so many chronic conditions at the time. By the end of the 19th century technology had been developed to excel the use of mechanical ventilation to assist with these problems and the comprehensive text titled “The Principles of Ventilation and Heating and Their Practical Application” was written giving us the standards and specifications (Billings, 1889). Prior to this publication, the Roman architect Vitruvius – author of De architectura (The Ten Books on Architecture) – proclaimed “architecture is an imitation of nature”, suggesting the need to construct through natural mediums (Morgan, 1960). Fast forward to the present day, the material choices on offer are far more substantial and the need to “imitate” nature is now done through the use of technology and mechanical systems, incidentally ignoring the natural elements. The Purpose of this report is to examine the various types of Mechanical Ventilation and low energy Cooling Systems with a focus on the system history, development and manufacture, application, performance and specifications. 2. Definition The term “Ventilation” relates to “the exchange of outdoor air for the purpose of diluting contaminants and maintaining acceptable indoor air quality” (Gail et al. 2011). Ventilation can be provided through many forms however this report will focus only upon the mechanically induced methods.

Fig 1. Shows the location of Ventilation inlets for both Mechanical and Natural Ventilation. 2.1 Mechanical Ventilation Mechanical Ventilation refers to the above stated exchange of air however this is now done via some sort of mechanically powered equipment e.g. through the use of a fan.

Fig 2. A simplified example of mechanically assisted Ventilation. 393

Fig 3. Main components of a mechanical ventilation system. 2.2 Mechanical Cooling The method of mechanical cooling concerns removing heat from a space through the means of a chilled entity, usually through air or water which is formed by some external energy.

Fig 4. Examples of Mechanical Cooling systems â&#x20AC;&#x201C; a) Ground water cooling b) Evaporative indirect cooling c) Earth-to-water heat exchanger. 394

2.3 Mechanical Ventilation and Cooling Both systems can be either found as one unit, combining both the ventilation and cooling however they can also exist as single units independent of each other. Rarely, buildings use mechanical ventilation without mechanical cooling due to the available reliance upon natural cooling as an alternative approach. Below the varying types of mechanical ventilation and cooling systems will be discussed alongside the advantages and disadvantages of each being highlighted and conclusions drawn regarding the most appropriate in varying situations. 3. Types of Mechanical Ventilation Systems The 3 main categories of mechanical ventilation are:   

Extract only systems, Supply only systems, Supply and Extract systems.

Depending on certain issues, each type of system is suitable for a wide range of situations with both having several benefits and limitations.

Extract only system

Supply only system

Supply and Extract system

Supply and Extract – with Heat Recovery

Fig 5. Diagrams showing how the 3 main types of mechanical ventilation work and an example of one with heat recovery. 3.1 Extract only systems This type of MV can be found in environments where there is a consistent contamination of the air through the means of an external activity/process. Preferable method of ventilation over natural ventilation due to the constant and predictable ventilation rate.

395

Fig 6. Extract Ventilation found in Kitchens to filter out smoke and air.

Fig 7. An example of a typical Extract Ventilation system and its components.

Fig 8. Extract Ventilation systems showing external motors fitted to the ceiling, wall and in roof space. 3.1.1

Advantages

Benefits of extract ventilation include: ď&#x201A;ˇ

The certainty that the contaminated air of the internal space is certified to be removed, 4 396



Having a single point of extraction limits the potential of neighbouring rooms/areas of being affected by the pollutant.

3.1.2

Disadvantages

Limitations of extract ventilation include:  

The air entering the space cannot be heated or filtered questioning the cleanliness of the air, Not much control of air flow/movement in the occupied space.

3.1.3

Application

Extract only systems are usually found in places which are difficult to naturally ventilate e.g. underground car parks where a mechanical source of ventilation is required to remove harmful vapours and fumes including carbon monoxide. They are also found in factories where the frequency of dust and warm air is high due to the locality of a high number of people in a concealed space.

Fig 9. Workings of Extract Ventilation within an underground car park.

Fig 10. Image showing the inner workings of a car park and the location of ducts and extractors. 397

3.2 Supply only systems In comparison with extract ventilation, supply ventilation is more suitable to spaces that are occupied for longer periods. This is due to the ability to be able to not only heat but also control the circulation of air provided.

Fig 11. Diagrammatic look at how Supply Ventilation functions within a building.

Fig 12. Supply Ventilation and the filtration possibilities compared with Extract Ventilation. 3.2.1

Advantages

Benefits of supply ventilation include: ď&#x201A;ˇ ď&#x201A;ˇ

Ability to filter and heat the outside air, Supplies a sufficient and adequate amount of outside air, 398



Gives occupants the power to control the movement of incoming stream.

3.2.2

Disadvantages

Limitations of supply ventilation include:   

Zero control over what air is extracted from the individual spaces, Inability to recover heat from the exhausted air to improve energy efficiency, Areas where the air exits the building will be sources of draughts and will attract noise pollution.

3.2.3

Application

Although limited with its applications, supply ventilation can be found in roof-mounted warm air units which are used in high volume industrial buildings with large floor to ceiling heights to provide fresh and re-circulated warm air. Another prominent example of this type of ventilation is unitary perimeter fan-coil units which draw outside air through an opening in the wall and deliver it to the space through the means of a fan.

Fig 13. Supply Ventilation through Roof- mounted warm-air units found in commercial buildings.

Fig 14. Unitary perimeter fan-coil unit with direct fresh air supply, variant of Supply Ventilation. 399

3.3 Supply and Extract systems The combination of supply and extract systems consist of a central air handling unit (AHU) which contains separate supply and extract fans. It also comprises of extract fans and/or a heating coil which is linked with the building boiler system to provide it with hot water whilst using a ductwork system top extract air from around the building. Some AHU’s contain a heat recovery device which takes heat from exhaust air and transfers it to the supply air unit without mixing the two.

Fig 15. Double deck air handling unit with re-circulation showing the basics of Supply and Extract Ventilation. 3.3.1

Advantages

Benefits of Supply and extract systems include:    

Reliable and continuous flow of ventilation, Air exiting and entering the building can be controlled whilst also recovering the heat from the air that is leaving will result in good energy efficiency, Automatic and manual strategies to control ventilation effectiveness, Air movement can be manipulated to ensure even distribution.

3.3.2

Disadvantages

Limitations of supply and extract systems include:   

Fans within the AHU consume a substantial amount of energy and can warm air stream inconsistently, AHU and ductwork take up valuable space and will often require potentially expensive maintenance, Under this ventilation system people have less control over their own environment compared with natural ventilation.

3.3.3

Application

There is no specific building type which use this ventilation strategy however it is most frequently found in medical institutes due to the potential to recirculate a proportion of extract air. This is specifically important in medical applications due to the necessity that contaminated air must not be reintroduced into the space.

Fig 16. Roof AHU (air handling units) containing all the parts needed for a Supply and Extract variant of Ventilation. 400

Fig 17. Ductwork workings in a typical building for supply, return and extract air delivery. 4. Performance and Specification Mechanical systems of Ventilation are made up of many unique components however they can be condensed into 4 individual categories which make up the most essential parts. These are:    

Ductwork – the “transporter” of air through the building, acts as the distributor, Filters – a porous device installed to remove impurities or solid particles from the air that passes through it, Diffusers – used to deliver the clean air to desired areas either at a high or low level, Fans – a device that creates current to accelerate the flow of air either out or into the building.

Each individual element varies extensively and there are numerous options to choose from. Consideration will only focus on the most recognisable and the performance issues found with each. 4.1 Ductwork Ductwork/Ducts refer to the parts of MV that work on the delivery and removal of air. The flows it mainly deals with are supply air, return air and extract air, as such; they are vital in achieving acceptable thermal comfort and indoor air quality. Ducts can be made from many materials but the two most common are steel and aluminium due to them being lightweight and easy to install. As it is found in many industrial buildings, ductwork has developed into a variety of forms in order to fit in architecturally with its surroundings, which results in further benefits and limitations.

Fig 18. Inner workings of steel ductwork. 4.2 Filters The three main categories of filters (air filtration) are primary filters, secondary filters and high efficiency filters with each being developed for its own specific application and each having varying types of success. Primary filters are used for protecting ventilation, secondary filters used for trapping bacteria/dust and high efficiency filters are normally found in medical rooms due to their high rates of efficiency.

9 401

Fig 19. Example of a type of filter used for air filtration inside the Ventilation system. 4.3 Diffusers This element serves multiple purposes but the most important is to deliver (diffuse) the conditioning and ventilating air into the desired directions. They also help with recirculating the warm air that is leaving to improve energy efficiency of a dwelling.

Fig 20. Examples of various types of diffusers that each distribute the entering air differently. 4.4 Fans The two most common fan types identified with MV are axial and centrifugal. Axial fans consist of a number of blades attached to an impeller that is all contained within a cylindrical casing. Similar to what is found on an aircraft, these fans are suitable for high and medium volume duties and can be fitted in series to excel what is trying to be achieved. Centrifugal fans differ as the impeller rotates within a case and air is blown at right angles to the intake via deflection or centrifugal force. Advantage to the latter over the former is the lack of noise produced, essential in working environments where they are found most.

Fig 21. Axial fan. 402

Fig 22. Centrifugal fan. 5. Selection of Ventilation Strategy Selecting whether mechanical ventilation is the most suitable approach for a building to use takes much consideration. Fortunately the CIBSE (Chartered Institution of Building Service Engineers) gives guidelines on how appropriate each form of ventilation is and the suggested ventilation rates required for differing environments. This is not a conclusive decision and often many approaches will apply to any number of scenarios regarding whether mechanical or natural is most applicable. Issue Location

Pollution Orientation

Form

Infiltration Shading

Window choice

Glazing Thermal mass

Comments Large adjacent buildings can adversely affect wind patterns and imply greater opening areas are required. The proximity of external sources of pollution can influence the feasibility of natural ventilation. The proximity of external sources of noise can impact on the feasibility of natural ventilation. Local levels of air pollution may limit the opportunity for natural ventilation. It may not be possible to provide air inlets at positions suitable for natural ventilation given the inability to filter the incoming air successfully. Buildings with their main facades facing north and south are much easier to protect from excessive solar gain in summer as the north side will be in shade and shading can easily be provided on the southside, as the sun will be high during the hottest part of the day. At building depths greater than 15 m the ventilation strategy becomes more complex; the limit for daylighting and single sided natural ventilation is often taken as 6 m. (But is probably higher.) Adequate floor to ceiling heights are required for displacement ventilation and buoyancy driven natural ventilation; a minimum floor to ceiling height of 2.7 m is recommended. Ventilation strategies and the whole low-energy approach, whether natural or mechanically driven, depend on the building fabric being appropriately airtight. The appropriate use of external planting or other features can reduce solar gain. These need to be external, not internal and it is important to consider making the windows smaller rather than relying on shading as this will also reduce heat losses. Openable areas must be controllable in both summer and winter, e.g. large openings for still summer days and trickle ventilation for the winter time. Window shape can affect ventilation performance: Single sided ventilation provided by top or bottom hung windows is rarely effective except in domestic situations where gains and occupancy levels are low. In high gain situations, maximise the height difference between the top and bottom of the window, or better have a high and a low opening (if at all possible use double sided ventilation).Windows need to be easy to useâ&#x20AC;&#x201D; remember large triple glazed units are heavy and can be difficult to open if sited too high. Total solar heat transmission through window glazing can vary over a six fold range, depending on the combination of glass and shading mechanisms selected. Figure 5 shows the relative effectiveness of eight glazing and shading systems. Thermal mass is used to reduce peak cooling demands and stabilise internal air temperatures. In winter it can be used to store excess heat for the next dayâ&#x20AC;&#x201D; however for this to be effective in energy terms insulation and infiltration levels need to be improved to ensure the heat is retained.

Table 1. Issue that influence the choice of Ventilation Strategy to be utilised. 403

Building sector Assembly halls Music studios Call centres Catering (inc. commercial kitchens) Communal residential buildings Computer rooms Court rooms Dwellings Factories and warehouses High-rise (non-domestic) buildings 4–6 ACH for office areas; up to 10 ACH for meeting spaces Hospitals and health care buildings Hotels Industrial ventilation Laboratories Museums, libraries and art galleries Offices Schools and educational buildings Shops and retail premises Sports centre halls Swimming pools Toilets

Transportation buildings (inc. car parks)

Recommendation (ac/hr, unless otherwise stated) 3-4 air changes per hour (but pay particular attention for the potential to overheat). 6–10 (but heat gain should be assessed) 4–6 (but heat gain should be assessed) 30–40 0.5–1 Positively pressurised to 1 ac/hr to prevent local build-up of heat and contamination for external air. However unless active cooling is used much higher rates are typical. As for typical naturally ventilated buildings 0.5–1 highly dependent on use

6-10 toilets and bathrooms, 10 (minimum) isolation rooms, 15 recovery rooms, 6 (minimum) treatment rooms. There are usually filtration requirements for hospitals and hence most of these will be supplied via a mechanical systems. 10–15 minimum for guest rooms with en-suite bathrooms Sufficient to minimise airborne contamination 6-15, likely to be mechanical (allowance must be made for fume cupboards) Depends on nature of exhibits 1.8 l/s/p if seated quietly; 5.6 l/s/p if light work teaching areas: 3 l/s/p minimum 5–8 l/s/p 8-12 l/s/p 4-6 or 8-10 if extensive water features Regulations usually apply; opening windows of area 1/20th. of floor area or mechanical ventilation at 6 litres/s per WC or 3 minimum for non-domestic buildings; opening windows of area 1/20th. of floor area (1/30th. in Scotland) or mechanical extract at 6 litres/s (3 ACH in Scotland) minimum for dwellings 6 for car parks (normal operation) 10 (fire conditions)

Table 2. Summary of recommended air changes per hour in differing environments. 6. Natural or Mechanical Defining the energy philosophy and layout of any building starts through establishing the ventilation techniques to be used. Natural and mechanical ventilation both excel in certain situations and although they are both considered independent, the combination of both often results in the best results. For example, during summer opening windows would provide ventilation, something which mechanically operated buildings cannot do. However in areas where there is a high level of noise pollution this would not be feasible suggesting the need for MV all year round. This would result in the need for larger systems to cover the excessive amount of ventilation rates needed in summer for cooling. It is worth considering the use of MVHR (mechanical ventilation with heat recovery), which is becoming more common throughout Europe and solves majority of the problems. Natural Advantages Easy to operate Reduce size of plant room.

Disadvantages Hard to use night time cooling Ingress of external noise in some environments

Mechanical with heat recovery Advantages Much more energy efficient in winter. Easy to use for night time cooling

Disadvantages Higher maintenance cost. Higher electrical load (because of fans)

12 404

User control

Can not recover heat from ventilated air.

Low maintenance costs (unless automatic openers used) No fan energy

Risk of draughts

A greater physical and psychological connection to the outdoor realm.

Difficult to achieve night time cooling without the use of louvered systems and these may prove to no be airtight, or be left open in winter. Ventilation rate is likely to be at its lowest in summer, just when it need to be at its greatest Cannot deal with highly polluted environments

Predicable performance: will still work in summer if needed Better control of external noise

Larger plant room

Ability to deal with highly polluted environments

Potential for noise and higher room-to-room sound transmission

Need to leave room for ductwork

Risk of draughts with some systems, although these should be easy to engineer out User control: normally little and adds cost Potential for fan noise as moving elements age. Again, good engineering can reduce this

Table 3. Advantages and Disadvantages of Mechanical and Natural Ventilation. 7. Low Energy Mechanical Cooling Systems Mechanical cooling systems are becoming more prominent in European commercial buildings due to the use of auxiliary equipment resulting in greenhouse emissions increasing as most of these systems are electrically powered. To reduce the CO2 emissions whilst achieving the correct amount of thermal comfort, low energy cooling techniques are being used in conjunction with mechanical cooling to satisfy both parties by making use of ambient air and ground or surface water. These methods of cooling can be divided into two separate groups; one of each will be developed below. 7.1 Natural Sources of Cooling The first group of low energy cooling techniques include:   

Night Ventilation – Uses night ventilation to lower the temperature of the buildings thermal mass, Evaporative Cooling – Sensible heat is absorbed as latent heat to evaporate water, Ground Cooling – Utilisation of groundwater (aquifer) cooling to cool the air via the ground.

7.1.1

Night Ventilation

This method passes the cooled night air through the building and as a consequence of this heat that has accumulated throughout the day is removed. The fabric of the building is cooled and more heat can be absorbed the following day, a constant working cycle that controls temperature increases. This free cooling reduces energy consumption from mechanical cooling and ventilation leading to cost savings.

Fig 23. First use of Night Cooling – showing principle Night Cooling techniques - in an office building in Prague (1998-2002). 405

Fig 24. Diagram showing how Night Ventilation works throughout the day and night. 7.2 Delivery of Cooling to Treated Spaces The second group of low energy cooling techniques includes:   

Slab Cooling – The mass of the slab is cooled by air or water, Chilled Ceilings and Beams – Panels or beams in the ceiling is cooled, Displacement Ventilation – conditioned air is emitted at very low levels.

7.2.1

Chilled Ceilings and Beams

These cooling units are integrated with suspended ceilings and work by circulating water at about 16oc through the units. The chilled beams rely on convective air movement to provide cooling whilst the chilled ceiling method transfers cool air through the means of radiation and convection as it is a flat panelled unit. Although favourable due to its compatibility with low energy sources of cooling, chilled beams and ceilings require adequate space for all the cooling elements which need to be considered during the design stage to make sure it will function well.

Fig 25. Diagrammatic example of the way Chilled Beams and Ceilings work as a Cooling method. 8. PassivHaus PassivHaus refers to the standard for energy efficiency within a dwelling in order to reduce the ecological footprint. Low energy cooling (and heating) techniques therefore apply extensively to such builds as strict standards are set that must be adhered to (15kWh/m2 per year cooling energy) to achieve PassivHaus standards. The thermal mass and air tightness of the building must be exceptional in order for the energy to operate all the required purposes including heating, cooling, hot water etc. PassivHaus is officially defined as: 406

“A Passivhaus is a building in which thermal comfort can be achieved solely by post-heating or post-cooling the fresh air flow required for a good indoor air quality, without the need for additional recirculation of air.” (PassivHaus official definition) 8.1 Ventilation and Cooling for PassivHaus Essential to reach PassivHaus standards is the use of a mechanical Ventilation system with heat recovery which supplies cooling in the winter. This has recently come into consideration due to the damage being caused to the natural environment and the need to reduce the use of fossil fuels for energy efficiency. Below is a series of case studies that achieve the PassivHaus standards and the Ventilation/Cooling strategies that have been used to do this. 8.2 PassivHaus case studies Variety of PassivHaus case studies and the strategies they implement in concern with Ventilation and Cooling:

Project Name: Carnegie Village Building Type: New Build Location: Leeds Status: Certified Building Use: Student Residential Construction Time: 14 Months U–Value Performance of Roof: 0.06 W/m2.K U–Value Performance of External Walls: 0.15 W/m2.K U–Value Performance of Ground Floor: 0.12 W/m2.K Air Tightness: 0.5 m3/hr/m2 at 50 Pa

Ventilation strategy In order to provide the essential ventilation to the air–tight units, a heat recovery unit was fitted. The ducting systems are largely concealed within the walls and floors in order to maximise space within the rooms. Heating/Cooling strategy Heating and domestic hot water within the units are provided using an A– rated condensing gas boiler, in the case of the heating system this boiler provides water to radiators within the rooms. When necessary additional heating can also be supplied to the properties via a small heat exchanger located within the supply air ductwork of the ventilation system. Results _ Estimated Primary Heating Demand – 14 kWh/m2/yr. _ Estimated Primary Energy Demand – 63 kWh/m2/yr. _ As one of the highest scoring BREEAM buildings of 2010 with an overall development score of 76.10%, the Carnegie Village Development was also awarded the 2010 BREEAM Multi–Residential Award.

407

Project Name: Cropthorne Autonomous House Building Type: New Build Location: Worcestershire Status: Under construction, Intending certification Building Use: Private Residential Construction Time: 26 months U–Value Performance of Roof: 0.08 W/m2.K U–Value Performance of External Walls: 0.09 W/m2.K U–Value Performance of Ground Floor: 0.09 W/m2.K

Ventilation Strategy An MVHR unit was fitted within the basement of the property to provide ventilation. The decision from home owners Mike Coe and Lizzie Stoodley to dispense with any space heating system within the property meant that the design had to be highly air–tight even by Passivhaus standards. This made the role of the MVHR unit even more vital than usual both in terms of ensuring a flow of fresh air within the property, and retaining as much heat as possible. Additionally the MVHR unit was also responsible for ventilating the composting toilet chamber to keep the house free from odours. Heat generated by the composting process is thus also reclaimed in the MVHR unit. Solar panels fitted on the roof provide the house with domestic hot water, and a ground–mounted photovoltaic array generates more power than the house consumes, averaged over a year.

Project Name: Lena Gardens

Building Type: Retrofit Location: London Status: Certified Building Use: Private Residential Construction Time: 10 Months U–Value Performance of Roof: 0.14 W/m2.K U–Value Performance of External Walls: 0.10 W/m2.K U–Value Performance of Ground Floor: 0.11 W/m2.K Air Tightness: 0.49 m3/hr/m2 at 50 Pa

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Ventilation Strategy Good ventilation is essential in very airtight construction. Ventilation within the property was provided via a Genex Combi 185L unit, featuring a heat recovery efficiency of 76%, which was installed within the basement. A metal spiral ductwork system was then installed throughout the house to provide ventilation. Internal intrusion within the house from the ductwork system was minimised by using floor and ceiling grids and keeping the ductwork within floor voids and stud walls where possible. Heating/Cooling Strategy Heat supply within the house is provided via the use of an air–to– air pump within the Genex Combi Unit. Further heating is provided, when necessary, via the use of a direct electric heating coil within the spring ductwork system. The ground–to–air heat exchanger fitted beneath the basement floor provides additional winter pre–heating and summer cooling, along with frost protection, to the building. Water is primarily heated by the 3– panel solar thermal array installed on the roof. When this proves insufficient, the air source pump within the Combi Unit is capable of functioning as an air–to–water heater, providing additional hot water.

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Ching D.k. Francis (2008) Building Construction Illustrated, 4th Edition, Canada: John Willey and Sons

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[7[

http://www.kingspaninsulation.co.uk/getattachment/9d9ef282-25c4-442a-9668-2db738d3e90d/PassivhausBuildings--Case-Studies.aspx - Passive House Case Studies,

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