Technology 3036 Tech 1 Student Technical Resources Volume 2
Index Building Construction – modular buildings
001
Limestone
016
Free-form surfaces
032
Building regulations (Part L) and Passivhaus
073
Precast concrete paneling systems
079
Rammed earth
099
Precast concrete
110
Sheet metal
126
Slate
157
Steel
171
Structurally Insulated Panels (SIP’s)
192
Heyder Aliyev Cultural Center – Zaha Hadid Architects
203
Giant Campus Headquarters by Morphosis Architects
210
ETFE – Ethylene Tetrafluoroethylene
220
Timber
229
Brick
244
Walter Segal Construction method
261
Green panel system
274
Shading, landscape and orientation
291
Stone
304
Cooper Union, New York for the advancement of Science and Art
320
Bio fuel systems and recyclable materials
334
Material Poetics – the use of timber in palfitas
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Material Poetics – Travertine and Portland
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Fabricated timber I beams and columns
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BUILDING CONSTRUCTION MODULAR BUILDINGS
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ANU FAGBEMI : P12234505 NILAM GURUNG : P12198755
VOLUMETRIC : MODULAR BUILDINGS
CONSTRUCTION COMPANIES United Kingdom Yorkon : http://www.yorkon.co.uk/ Portakabin : http://www.portakabin.co.uk/ ModuleCo : http://www.moduleco.com/ Wernick Buildings Ltd : http://www.wernick.co.uk/ USA Modular Buildings : http://www.mspaceholdings.com/ Springfield : http://www.spring-field.co.uk/ Germany Cadolto : http://www.cadolto.com/ WeberHaus : http://www.weberhaus.co.uk/
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MODULAR BUILDINGS Modular Building are pre-fabricated buildings that consist of multiple sections called modules. Building can be constructed using modular part; walls, frames, doors, ceiling and windows or a number of complete pre-fabricated modular building unit. The use of pre-fabrication goes way back over hundred years. In the early 20th Century, pre-fabrication started to become popular. At the end of world-war II, modular market exploded and greatly evolve. Most of the returning soldiers came back from america were looking to buy a house and to start family. The demands for homes was increasing and so led people to look for solutions to increase efficiency and lower the cost of new home construction. Modular building was the solution for all the needs. Once the buildings have been pre-fabricated in the factory, it can be transported to the site.
AIM : The aim of MODULAR BUILDING CONSTRUCTION is to revoultionise the way buildings are procured in the construction industry by adopting the principles successfully used in other areas of manufacturing products ( The products are made in factories in parts and then assembeled where they are going to be used).
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MODULAR BUILDINGS STRUCTURE Factory Production Modular type’s modules typically have a steel, concrete or hybrid primary structure. In the case of framed modules (joisted floors and ceilings and walls). They can be closed – sided or open sided.
Closed sided modules- Normally these modules have perimeter walls on all four sides to create a cellular type spaces designed. A limited cellular space is provided for transportation and installations. The walls provide support to the ceiling and can contribute to the spanning ability of floors by providing additional stiffening. The module manufactures from the 2D series panels, beginning with the floor panels, to which the four floors and ceiling panels are attached by screws. Additional angles may consist in the recessed corner for lifting and improving the stability.
Detail drawings of 4 closed- sided modules Ceiling joists insulation Floor Surface
wall studs
Ceiling joists
Fire- rated plasterboard
Floor Cassette srew fixed to studs in wall panel Recessed corner with angle section
Open- sided Modules- Normally these modules have one or more external wall missing such that it can
be used in conjunction with other similar modules to form large open room for example classroom. The maximum opening is very limited because of the bending resistance and stiffness of the edge. The framework of the module is often in the form of hot rolled steel members, such as Square Hollow Section (SHS) columns and Parallel Flange Channel (PFC) edge beams that are bolted together. Fully open ended modules are not often used for buildings more than three storeys high. Where used, infill walls and partitions within the modules are non-load bearing, except where walls connected to the columns provide in plane bracing. Only one or two storeys are stable for the open- sided modules. Structural frame of a corner supported module- end view
3600 600
3000
External wall
7500
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MODULAR BUILDINGS MANUFACTURING PROCESS
1) Bulk Materials.
2) Walls attached to floor.
3) Ceiling drywalled in spray booth.
4) Roof set in place.
5) Roof shingled and siding installed.
6) Ready for Delivery.
1) Site Foundation Construction.
2) Transportation of Modular Units to Site.
3) Off-loading of Modular Units.
4) Bolting of Modular Units to Site Foundation.
5) Attachment of the other Modules.
6) Finished Building.
CONSTRUCTION PROCESS
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MODULAR BUILDINGS KEY WORDS: Speed, Quality and Flexibility
- Well thought out plan that addresses key issues considering building performence and site condition - Maintenance and operations - Approvals and functions
Speed: Modular building techniques allow factory construction and site preparation to occur simultaneously. There are also no delays in weather complications and the modular practise can be completed in fraction of the time compared to nother structures. Quality: Modular annexes start by quality controlled and monitered factories use modern materials such as microlam beams, kiln dryed lumber and plywood. Underlayment for quality finished flooring is part of the system highly recommended by modular manufacturers. The use of quality building matrials consistance ensures a healthy environment to reduce the incidence of allergies. This provides a indoor air quality; this eual or exceed current codes and ashrae standards. Wall components structured and finished with standard Gibson boards giving painted finish that are easily maintainable. All buildings are engineered for structural integrity to ensure a longer life in your building and including a structural warrantee. Non- combustible roof assemblings consisting of open webs, steel joists and acoustic steel roof decking can help meet code requirements. Membrane roofing products are machanically appreared over rigid insulation by advanced protect against variable weather conditions, heat loss and gain. Overhead ducting users provide superior air patterns while mixing return fresh outdoor air. Energy efficient lightings layout integrate with duct work to support the environment. Fire alarm devices and electrical devices are pre- installed under CSA certification programmes. This achieves environmental separation of the space with tension of the wall and the window system detailing providing weather proofing to meet building envelope requirements. Flexibility: Modular buildings are both customizable and easily relocatable since they are very refined and streamlined. Individual modules are transported to the site and it can be installed any place or time in the year to the minimal disruption.
Advantages: . Speed of construction/faster return on investment . Indoor construction (Assembly is independent of weather, which increases work efficiency and avoids damaged building material) . Favorable pricing from suppliers( Large-scale manufacturers can effectively bargain with suppliers for discounts on materials) . Ability to service remote locations . Low waste . Environmentally friendly construction process . Environmental benefits for used modular buildings (Modular buildings contain 100% reusable components) . Flexibility (Conventional designs can be difficult to extend, however with a modular building you can simply add sections) . Healthier ( Because modular homes are built in a factory, the materials are stored indoors in a controlled environment, eliminating the risk of mold mildew, rust, and sun damage that can often lead to human respiratory problems)
Disadvatages: . Costumisation (With extravigant designs such as the works of architect Zaha Hadid modular construction cant be made into wierd shapes as they are made off site and in factorise with strict ways of construction) . Volumetric (Transporting the completed modular building sections take up a lot of space. This is balanced with the speed of construction once arrived on site) . Flexibility (Due to transport and sometimes manufacturing restrictions, module size can be limited, affecting room sizes. Panelised forms and flat pack versions can provide easier shipment, and most manufacturers have flexibility in their processes to cope with the majority of size requirements.)
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Typical Dimension For Planning in Modular Construction
Typical wall and floor/ ceiling dimension Typical Trench-Fill Foundation Detail for Masonry Cladding Proprietary stainless steel wall ties
Light steel studs 2 layers of plasterboard
Brick outer leaf
Skiriting Vapour control layer Flooring
Sheating board Insulation
Insulation
Breather membrane Telescopic ventilator dpc Sole plate (cement particle board or steel )
Min. 150mm
Damp proof membrane Dense concrete block
Trench fill concrete foundation
Compartment Floor at Junction with External Wall and Compartment Wall External brickwork fixed steel structure using proprietary stainless steel fixings Insulation Cavity free barrier Cement particle board as an alternative floor
Light steel studs
Two layers of plasterboard giving a total thickness of 25mm
Floor boarding 19mm plasterboard
Mineral wool insulating quilt between floor joists Two layers of plasterboard with a combined thickness of at least 30mm with staggered joints
Light steel ceiling joists at 600mm centres sized to suit the span
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MODULAR BUILDINGS YORKON
Location: New La, York, YO32 9PT Manufacturing Time Average: 8 weeks Common Use: Student Accomodation/ Office Buildings Aim: Yorkon provides an exciting and effective alternative to traditional construction. A safer, cleaner building system, faster and more efficient programmes, less disruption and cost and time certainty. They have also pioneered innovative solutions for modular buildings in some of the most challenging situations and in sectors as diverse as supermarkets, offices, hospitals, restaurants, schools and airports. Design Features: No visible Columns The facility to fit almost any building footprint Module lengnths ranging from 6m-18.75m 3 heights options( single storey buildnigs ) 7 different height for ground and intermediate floors All connections between modules carried out from inside the building A system built to enginnering rather than constuction tolerances New wall construction New insulation production system 30 year structural waranty
Projects Riverside School, Barking 200 48 18m long units 14 weeks on site. This scheme was the third project constructed by Yorkon for the London Borough of Barking and Dagenham Council, working with delivery partner Cornerstone Property Assets and follows the successful delivery of additional classrooms at Trinity School and Robert Clack School.
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MODULAR BUILDINGS CADOLTO
Location: Wachendorfer Straße 34, 90556 Cadolzburg, Germany Manufacturing Time Average: 12 weeks Common Use: Healthcare Facilities, Office Buildings
Cadolto is world’s leading spacialist in manufacturing complex, in technically advanced prefabricated building. Cadolto guarantees the hight degree of the industrialised building fabrication, which is becoming increasingly popular around the world. They have innovated and perfected the construction method over many decades. Since 1890 and over 400 qualified employees, they have firmly anchored in the European region of Nuremberg. Internationally, they operate their own distributed sites, production facilities and also the sales advisors and consultants to allow them to supply hospitals, laboratories and office buildings around the world. Cadolto modular construction technolgy allows to complete architectural freedom can be combined with speed, value for money, quality and flexibility. It gives a unique combination of advantages in the construction of hospital and laboratories. In these areas in particular, technical development progresses rapidly, with ever decreasing breathing space in between technological generations, placing increasing functional demands on the architecture. Every manufacturing workflows that are based on tried and tested, standardised proccesses form solid foundations for quality, sustainability and the long life of the building.
Projects
University hospital in Düsseldorf -2005 -3,050 m2
From an architectural, structural and fuctional point of view, the building meet the modern requirements that made a positive responds from doctors, nurse, midwives and patient
Klinikum Fürth" hospital
-2010 -7,250 m2 Cadolto starting work on the prefabrication of the 141 modules required for the building in its factory. The task was to finish the building in mere 180 days. The project, which was worth EUR 16.5 million, was subsidised by the Bavarian state, which contributed EUR 13.5 million.
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ECONOMICAL EVALUATION OF MODULAR BUILDING CONSTRUCTION Commercial Buildings : The cost of a commercial unit strats from about £15,000 per unit and the more units you buy the less amonut of money you pay for the unit, this is why a lot of large scaled project use modular building construction. Residential Buildings : The cost of a home built unit starts from about £24,500, for a one storey house and goes up per module unit. Savings due to use of modular construction in a hotel extension. Basic construction cost £800/m2 Room rate per week (based on 70% occupancy) £5/m2 Time saving in construction 20 weeks Financial benefit £100/m2 Loss of room bookings due to disruption £1.5/m2 (based on 20% loss) Conventional construction period 45 weeks Equivalent saving £70/m2 Total saving £170/m2 Percentage of construction cost 22% TIME EVALUATION OF MODULAR BUILDING CONSTRUCTION Commercial Buildings : Module unit for commercial buildings take about 12 weeks to be manufactured and 6 weeks to be fully installed on site for small projects. The time starts to change when it involves larger project.Weather conditions also determine if the project will take longer. Residential Buildings : The length of time it takes for a home unit to be manufactured takes at least 8 weeks and a week to be constructed on site, these starts to vary with the number of stories in design of the home. Weather conditions also determine if the project will take longer. TRANSPORTATION COST AND TIME EVALUATION Guidance on transportation on major roads is given by the Road Haulage Association, based on the Road Vehicles (Construction and Use) Regulations. The following basic requirements for transportation should be considered when designing the sizes of modular units: Modules exceeding 2.9m external width require 2 days notice to the police Modules exceeding 3.5m width require a driver’s mate and 2 days police notice Modules exceeding 4.3m width require additional speed restrictions and may require police escort. Stricter limits may be required for local roads, particularly in urban areas. In all cases, the maximum height of the load is 4.95m for motorway bridges. Standard container vehicles can deliver one large or two smaller units.
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Bill of Quantities for a typical 4-storey residential building in London.
Comparison of traditional and modular construction in terms of capital cost (as percentage of the total cost).
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CASE STUDY Residential buildings, Murray Grove, Hackney, London Data: Begun: Aug 1998 Completed: Aug 1999 Floor area: 2,150m2 Sector: Residential Total cost: £2.3M Tender date: 1998 Procurement: Negotiated design-and-construct with Client standard amendments negotiated and agreed with Contractor. jct 81 with Contractor’s Design Address: Murray Grove, Hackney, London, N1 7QP, United Kingdom Professional Team: Architect: Cartwright Pickard Project architects: James Pickard, Jeremy Emerson, Peter Cartwright, Umesh Luharia Client: The Peabody Trust M&E engineer: Engineering Design Partnership Structural engineer: Whitby Bird & Partners Cost consultant: MDA Main contractor: Kajima UK Engineering Module manufacturer: Yorkon Suppliers: Steelwork: Advanced Fabrications Precast concrete decks: SCC The Murray Grove housing project in Hackney, London was Designed by architects, Cartwright and Pickard for The Peabody Trust. The client wished to procure a building that was architecturally fascinating and met their necessities in terms of units of accommodation, low maintenance and speed of installation on site. It is a 5-storey building situated on a tight corner site. It comprises Yorkon room-sized modules of 3.2 m width, in which two units made a one-bedroom flat and three units made a two-bedroom flats
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CASE STUDY Residential buildings, Murray Grove, Hackney, London Detailed Drawings
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CASE STUDY Residential buildings, Murray Grove, Hackney, London Detailed Drawings
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FUTURE OF MODULAR BUILDING CONSTRUCTION ADEX is a system for building self-sufficient prefabricated pod houses that are capable of adapting to different sites while meeting the changing needs of their inhabitants. The modular eco houses are constructed from an interlocking system of prefabricated pieces, are capable of gathering renewable resources from their surroundings, and can be installed anywhere with no site-specific requirements.
The thing is that it is just a bizarre modular tower concept for the center of Hong Kong. Y Design Office pictured a Jenga-like 75 story building where residential units are to be rearranged every five years. Plug-in/plug-out mechanical system to provide easy relocation of the steel and concrete units varied in size from XS to XL and in the arrangement of the interior blocks (like kitchen, bathroom, balcony, etc.) in according to the customer’s requirements
A design concept for a home that extends precariously from the side of a cliff was created by an Australian prefab architecture firm. The innovative, five-story home takes advantage of modular design and prefabrication techniques to deliver a series of modules stacked vertically on top of each other, attached to the cliff using engineered steel pins.
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TECH Project 1: Material/ Systems Study. ‘Limestone’
Nelson-Jaja, Senibo p10528355 Oluokun, Wafiq p12229250
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Contents 1 - 2: Type of Stone 1 - Metamorphic Stone, Igneous Stone 2 - Sedimentary Sandstone, Sedimentary Limestone 3: Physical Attributes 4: Where 5: Production Process 6 - 7: Case Study One - Christ Church, Spitalfields 8 - 9: Case Study Two - House at Spanish Cove, Wales 10 - 11: Case Study Three - Bishop Edward king Chapel 12: Evaluation 13: Conclusion 14: Bibliography
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Types of Stone Metamorphic Stone: Metamorphic stone is rock formed from another type of rock under the influence of heat pressure or another agent, liquid is excluded from this list. -Often formed from INTRUSION of volcanic magma Quartzite: Density - 2.6 g/cm3 Compressive Strength - 150-300N/mm2 Thermal Expansion 1.25mm/m 100K Water Absorption 0.2-0.5 masse% Thermal Conductivity - 0
Green Slate
Slate (and meta-siltstone
Igneous Stone: Igneous stone is rock formed from the cooling and solidification of volcanic magma. -Can either be Intrusive or Extrusive. [1] Granite: Density - 2.6-2.8 g/cm3 Compressive Strength 130-270N/mm2 Thermal Expansion 0.8mm/m 100K Water Absorption - 0.10.9% by wt Thermal Conductivity - 1.6-3.4W/mK
Granite
Basalt: Density - 2.9-3.0 g/cm3 Compressive Strength 240-400N/mm2 Thermal Expansion 0.9mm/m 100K Water Absorption - 0.10.3% by wt Thermal Conductivity - 1.2-3.0 W/mK [2]
Rhyolite and Basalt
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Types of Stone Sedimentary Sandstone: Rocks formed from the deposition of materials on the earths surface Carboniferous Sandstone
Sandstone: Density - 2.0-2.7 g/ cm3 Compressive Strength - 30-150N/mm2 Thermal Expansion 1.2mm/m 100K Water Absorption 0.2-10% by wt Thermal Conductivity - 1.2-3.4 W/mK
Old Red Sandstone
Sedimentary Limestone:
Jurassic oolitic limestone
Ordovician limestone
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Physical Attributes Sedimentary Limestone: Definitions: Density - the weight of any oven dry rock without taking into account any porosity. (g/ cm3) Compressive Strength - The resistance of a material to breaking under compression. (N/mm2) Thermal Expansion - The volume of rock which changes with the temperature. (mm/m 100K) Water Absorption - The amount of water absorbed when immersed in water for a length of time based on weight gained (% by vol or wt)
Density: 2.6-2.9g/cm3
Thermal Conductivity - The parameter describing the transmission of heat within a substance. (W/mK)
Water Absorption: 0.1-3% by wt Figure i
Thermal Expansion: 0.75mm/m 100k Compressive strength: 75-240N/mm2 Figure ii Thermal Conductivity: 2.0-3.4w/mK
Index: Figure i:
A - Exterior Moisture B - Condensation C - Moisture passed through
Figure iii
Figure ii:
A - Force of compression B - Potential expansion due to force.
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Where?
This map shows one predominant reason why Limestone is an expensive material, according to the map on the left there is not a lager amount of limestone deposits in the UK. The map above shows the situation gets even worse for limestone as the usable limestone is only about 50% of its actual deposits, and quarry’s are few and far apart. This results in high transport cost more often than not. Not to mention how much mark up the rarity of the material adds to its overall cost.
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Production Process
Machines for operation: 1 - Inter-quarry transportation truck 2 - Aggregate Crusher 3 - Loading Bays 4 - Conveyor belt Process: A - Chunk of Limestone cliff is blasted into mobile pieces B - Mobile pieces are loaded to inter-quarry transportation truck C - Limestone is transported to aggregate crusher D - Limestone is refined into smaller pieces by aggregate crusher. E - Limestone is loaded onto loading bays through a conveyor belt, here the rocks are sorted into different shapes and sizes F - Processed Limestone is then loaded onto transportation trucks and sent to clients.
Fort Wayne Limestone Quarry
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Christ Church, Spitalfields
Christ Church, Spitalfields is a historically significant building in the London borough of tower hamlets facing the city of London. This church was part of a development project by houses of parliament to build fifty new churches to service London’s new neighbourhood settlements of which spitalfields was in the early 18th century. [3]
Architect: Nicholas Hawksmoor Client: Houses of Parliament Year Built: 1714 Location: Spitalfields, London Material Source: Portland (White)
The building is predominantly a limestone structure possibly supported by a wooden frame in the ceiling and roof at-least. We have read through multiple source on the construction detail on this church and have come up short searching for answers so we have had to narrow it down according to Mitchell’s construction handbook. In a building of this grandeur it is typical that the walls will be stuffed with rubble and mortar in its central core then smooth hand cast blocks will then form the exterior of the wall, this is how the wall would be constructed before steel frames begun to be utilised in the 19th century.
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Christ Church, Spitalfields
Looking at the thickness of the walls it is safe to say that the assumption of how the construction detail of the walls are put together in this building are likely to be true. This walls would be needed to span this structure in a time where steel frame and reinforced concrete were not prevailing construction styles. Considering the cost of limestone, it saves the builders capital when they fill up the volume of a wall with cheap easy to access rubble.
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House at Spanish Cove
Architect: Niall McLaughlin Architects Client: Mr and Mrs Robertson Structural engineer: Price & Myers M&E consultant: EDC Engineering Design Consultants Quantity surveyor: AKC Chartered Surveyors Stone consultant: Harrison Goldman Timber consultant: TRADA Lighting consultant: Gary Campbell Landscape architect: Desmond Fitzgerald Architects Main contractor: CHOM Construction Begun: Jun 2007 Completed: Jul 2009 Floor area: 300m2 Sector: House Procurement: RIAI Address: Spanish Cove, Goleen, County Cork, Ireland “Extension to a cottage made up of a serious of angular pavilions on a craggy site on the Irish coast The group of connected linear pavilions step down the fall of the site from the white painted cottage on the west to the living space and sea views to the east. The three self-similar mono-pitched blocks, which are staggered across the site, either nuzzle up against the valley wall or stand back to create semi-enclosed courtyards. At the end of the journey, a larger terrace reveals spectacular views of the cliffs, sea and the islands of West Cork. The existing house is roofed in natural slate with rendered white walls. The new structures are clad in Irish blue limestone, which will weather over time to match the surrounding cliffs.� [4]
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Details Roof tile
Air Gap Insulation 3mm DITRA mat on 2mm adhesive
Anchor
Wall tile
ROOF Limestone
RC
The joint or corner of the limestone cladding is supported by an anchor of the same material, a bolt is not specified in the detailed drawing so i presume some sort of adhesive is used to contribute to weather protection Once again, an unspecified adhesive for weather protection.
Bolt Reinforced screed Limestone
1. 30mm stone flooring 2. 5mm adhesive 3. 3mm ditrA mat on 2mm adhesive 4. 70mm reinforced screed 5. underfloor heating 6. 140mm insulation 7. dPM 8. 200mm rc slab 9. 40mm creggstone honed and flamed irish blue limestone, with varying fossil content 10. 40mm void 11. 130mm insulation 12. 175mm rc wall 13. 50mm void 14. 11mm OSB 15. 12.5mm gypsum board 16. 30mm creggstone honed and flamed irish blue limestone, with varying fossil content 17. 75mm reinforced screed 18. Waterproofing membrane 19. 130mm insulation 20. 210mm rc slab 21. 3mm Sto synthetic render with painted cladding board
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Bishop Edward King Chapel
“Timber chapel for a Church of England theological college near Oxford The elliptical chapel sits on the brow of a hill surrounded by sweet chestnut, beech and cedar trees in the garden of Ripon College as part of a larger expansion of the college’s campus. Exterior cavity walls are of Clipsham stone (a limestone very like that of the original buildings) on the outside, but white-painted (over plaster) brick on the inside. The internal structure is of glulam wood whose tapered columns rise into criss-crossing arched beams. The frame supports a roof that is flat on the outside, but internally takes up the shape of a boat’s keel A slender wooden belfry rises close to the chapel wall, between the sacristy and the sisters’ chapel.” [5]
Architect: Niall McLaughlin Architects Client: Ripon College Structural engineer: Price & Myers M&E contractor: Synergy Consulting Engineers Quantity surveyor: Ridge and Partners Construction Consultant: Richard Bayfield CDM coordinator: HCD Management Acoustic consultant: Gillieron Scott Acoustic Design Main contractor: Beard Construction Begun: Jul 2009 Completed: Feb 2013 Floor area: 280m2 Sector: Religious Total cost: £2M Address: Ripon College, Cuddesdon, Oxford, OX44 9EX, United Kingdom TECH Project 1
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Bishop Edward King Chapel There were many stages to the construction of the chapel. Building the intricate and complex oval chapel required a high level of detailed coordination, design and accuracy in order to successfully achieve its visual qualities. It is a good example highlighting traditional hand crafted masonry skills coupled with modern day techniques. The base consists of an insulated cavity construction wall with an outer leaf of Clipsham ashlar stonework, similar in colour to the original stonework of the existing surrounding buildings. Each limestone block was required to be cut into a specific shape in order to fulfil the requirements of the curve for the oval. [6] Above this consists of a 4m metre high section of cropped walling stone, laid in courses of dog’s-tooth bonding, normally associated with bricklaying. This wall had used 40,000 individual limestone blocks, which were all positioned manually using lime mortar to bind these blocks together. The last 3.5m of the external wall consisted of alternating vertical limestone fins placed directly in front of glazing, designed to create this sense of lightness and elegance both internally and externally. [7]
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Evaluation of Limestone Use Limestone structures of the past were like the skyscrapers of today. They orchestrated the form of urban fabric, so as you can imagine, it has always been an expensive material. Today limestone is not used extensively, partly because of the costs involved which stems from its rarity, extraction and transportation costs. But also because limestone today is used as a cladding material, so it is not necessarily bought in bulk, which would make it cheaper. This is why it is more desirable to have the site within a generous radius of a quarry. So as you can imagine where most modern limestone constructs appear there is quite often a quarry within the vicinity. If you considered only these factors, and you or your client does not have access to large amounts of capital, it is not wise to use limestone. If you look at The House at Spanish Cove, the extension is an example of modern limestone construct. the whole structure is plastered with Irish-blue limestone cladding, including the exterior and interior flooring. This lends from tradition use of limestone where the whole building excluding maybe the ornamentation would be made of the same limestone material, where as usually today you get a combination of materials such as brick, slate, limestone, concrete etc. I imagine that it would prove successful or at least interesting to do this on a larger scale. The Bishop Edward King Chapel provides us with evidence of how traditional techniques have been used in contemporary design; something which limestone permits. The image (x)is a sketched analysis of the ‘dog-tooth’ bonding technique which has been applied to the facade of the Chapel. The dog’s tooth method is commonly attributed to brickwork. This portrays how modern methods and technological advances have paved the way for the better use of limestone. These interesting and creative cladding techniques provide better visualisations and finishes, not normally opted for when using limestone. The limestone blocks are applied in a diagonal pattern, perpendicular to its plane, producing a truly remarkable finish as seen on the Chapel. Another example where traditional methods are the preferred route for limestone, is the application of mortar, as a bonding tool for the stonework. TECH Project 1
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Conclusion The use of Limestone in construction methods and architecture has been widely documented throughout history. However, the methods and application of this material varies throughout this time period and many different cultures. From traditionally stacked or drystone, to a modern clad type application, limestone has proven to be the reliable and convenient choice to opt for time again. The industry of limestone in the UK could benefit extensively from creative thinking like that exhibited on the Bishop Edward King Chapel. On larger buildings, architects should borrow cladding techniques of other materials and implement them using limestone. If this becomes a trend, there will be a higher demand for limestone in the UK in particular, where in past time limestone has been the celebrated material, this can trigger a revival of the use of limestone, architecturally speaking, because then it is open to interpretation for how to clad in limestone. So imagine having limestone clad in the same system as these contemporary designs. We believe that even with the same from two structures of different materiality can never be the same.
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Bibliography 1. Wikipedia; Stone (geology) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock_(geology) 2. Detail Magazine; Concrete, Masonry & Stone 3. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christ_Church,_Spitalfields 4. (http://www.ajbuildingslibrary.co.uk/projects/display/id/5137) 5. (http://www.ajbuildingslibrary.co.uk/projects/display/id/6655) 6. Wareham, Martin; Church Building and Heritage Review; Edward King Chapel Ripon College, pp28-30 7. http://www.szerelmey.com/projects/external-cladding/959-2/ 8. http://www.ihsti.com/CIS/Default.aspx?AuthCode=4dd13f0 9. http://www.gly.uga.edu/railsback/BS-Main.html 10. British Geological Survey
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ARCH 3036-2015-Y Technology 3 Project 1 Free-form Surfaces Tutor Ben Cowd Lian ROCK P1221556X Eda YILDIRIM P12223915
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Contents Page Page number
1.) What is Free-form Surfaces 3 2.) Dalian Conference Center general information 4 3.)
Introduction to the Dalian Conference Center
5
4.)
Project and landscape development
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5.)
Structure of the Dalian Conference Center
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6.)
Construction pictures
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7.)
Reference section cut
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8.)
The skin
1.) What is Rain Screen 11 2.) Rain screen diagram 12 3.) How does the building remain water tight? 13 4.) Panel construction 14 - 15 5.) Design Process 1.) Rhino 16 2.) Manufacturing aluminium rolls /Milling 17 3.) Aluminium Perforation 18 4.) Process of anodizing aluminium 19 9.) Roof Structure 20 10.) The building sustainability 21 - 23 11.) Price comparison to another building 24 12.) Appendix
1.) Detailed sections in accordance to relative application 2.) BMW Welt Munich
13.) Bibliography
25 - 37 38 - 40 41
Word Count =2114 (Excluding headings, minor diagram caption and Appendix)
033
Free-form Surfaces Defined Free-form surfaces can be defined as an abstract architectural form which breaks away from the ideology of predominantly linear forms and instead draws from the conceptual imagination to take a literal form i.e. a building in the shape of an apple. The demand for buildings of a free-form context has risen making its mark in contemporary architecture especially with the advances in the technologies employed to effectively and economically create these sculptural forms. The essential questions would be ‘how are these complexed forms created?’ and ‘how it is possible for buildings of a much greater geometrically complex design to be constructed for less exuberant costs than that of one of a more standardized form?’ Questions directed towards the building of study which will address within this report.
Examples of free-form surfaces (http://lgg.epfl.ch/) Examples of Free-form architecture
Kunsthaus graz
Heydar Aliyev Centre
The advantages of creating free-form structures are that they can be constructed with an array of materials with the use of moulds, structural grid and panelling systems. With the implementation of moulds forms can be created and replicated a number of times for repetitive designs especially in the case of curved panel fabrication as seen in the building above. Less wastage and the reduction in building cost whilst achieving an aesthetic quality of panel layout and surface smoothness is the result.
Hungerburgbahn
Salvador dali museum 034 3
All four images have been taken from google images
Dalian Conference Centre
Architects: Coop Himmelb(l)au Location: Dalian, China Design Principal: Wolf D. Prix Project Partner: Paul Kath (until 2010), Wolfgang Reicht Project Architect: Wolfgang Reicht Design Architect: Alexander Ott Design Team: Quirin Krumbholz, Eva Wolf, Victoria Coaloa Area: 117,650 sqm Year: 2012 Photographs: Duccio Malagamba
Both images from coop-himmelblau.at
3 D Visualization: Isochrom.com, Vienna; Jens Mehlan & Jörg Hugo, Vienna Local Partners: DADRI Dalian Institute of Architecture Design and Research Co. LTD; UD Studio; J&A Interior Design Structural Engineering: B+G Ingenieure, Bollinger Grohmann Schneider ZT-GmbH, Vienna, Austria DADRI Dalian Institute of Architecture Design and Research Co. LTD, Dalian, P.R China Acoustics: Müller-BBM, Planegg, Germany: Dr. Eckard Mommerz Stage Design: BSEDI Beijing Special Engineering Design and Research Institute, Beijing, P.R. China Lighting Design: a•g Licht, Wilfried Kramb, Bonn, Germany Audio & Video: CRFTG Radio, Film and Television Design & Research Institute, Beijing, P.R. China Climatic Design: Prof. Brian Cody, Berlin, Germany Hvac, Sprinkler: Reinhold A. Bacher, Vienna, Austria; DADRI Dalian Institute of Architecture Design and Research Co. LTD, Dalian, P.R. China Façade: Meinhardt Facade Technology Ltd. Beijing Branch Office, Beijing, P.R. China General Contractor: China Construction Eight Engineering Division, Dalian, P.R. China Client: Dalian Municipal People’s Government, P.R. China Project Team: Nico Boyer, Liisi Salumaa, Anja Sorger, Vanessa Castro Vélez, Lei Feng, Reinhard Hacker, Jan Brosch, Veronika Janovska, Manfred Yuen, Matthias Niemeyer, Matt Kirkham, Peter Rose, Markus Wings, Ariane Marx, Wendy Fok, Reinhard Platzl, Debora Creel, Hui-Cheng, Jessie Chen, Simon Diesendruck, Yue Chen, Thomas Hindelang, Pola Dietrich, Moritz Keitel, Ian Robertson, Keigo Fukugaki, Gaspar Gonzalez Melero, Giacomo Tinari, Alice Gong Model Building: Nam La-Chi, Paul Hoszowski, Taylor Clayton, Matthias Bornhofer, Katsyua Arai, Zhu Juankang, Lukas Allner, Phillip Reiner, Moritz Heinrath, Olivia Wimmer, Silja Wiener, Katrin Ertle, Maria Zagallo, Logan Yuen, André Nakonz, Arihan Senocak, Rashmi Jois, Sachin Thorat, Marc Werner
035 4
Introduction to the Dalian Conference Centre Location: The city of Dalian is located in the southernmost part of the Liaodon Peninsula in the Chinese Liaoning Province and is known as an important center of port, industry, commerce and tourism in North China. The DCC was one of several developments taking place to change the face of the city. Other Key Developments taking place in the area: •Dislocation of container port away from the dense city are. •Establishment of international port for cruise ships. •New development of a CBD- “Central Business District” on reclaimed land. •Bridge over the sea to connect with the special economic zone.
The Overview As a part of a greater urban development project where by the city’s coastal area is undergoing a major transformation which will change the face of the entire city within the next decade, the Dalian Conference Centre has been strategically located in the southernmost part of China along a waterfront site. The design concept was conceived to be a landmark which would immediately be noticed as a focal point where the two major axes meet at the seaside in front of the building’s main entrance. As a result the building footprint is arranged in relation to the two major axis which intersect in the front of the building. The alignment of the façade geometry is further articulated by the shape of the conference rooms which cantilevers outwards penetrating the surface creating a multi-surfaced body. As a means of assuring good spatial orientation and atmospheric variety a balanced level of daylight input is controlled via the implementation of a cone-shaped rain-screen which over arches the theatre and the conference rooms.
The Progam A public zone is created on the ground level of the conference centre; this enables access for groups of users. Situated above the entrance hall is the performance and conference space and at the core of the building the grand theatre is located, holding 1600 seats and a stage tower. Adjacent to the grand theatre is the flexible conference hall, with a capacity of 2500 seats.
Images have been taken from http://www.gefoebau.de/media/Bauseminare/15.Bauseminar/10_Brosch.pdf 036 5
Project and Landscape Development
Carving out facade due to the criteria of urban outdoor space
Melting cone faรงade
The intergrated program popouts
Melting the popouts with the volume
Development of Landscape Images have been taken from http://www.gefoebau.de/media/Bauseminare/15.Bauseminar/10_Brosch.pdf 6037
Structure Dalian Conference Center is a hybrid composition of a combination of space frames, columns and beams which collectively create complex knots which play a seemingly internally unstructured experience. As a result of the structure not being dominant the layered aluminium is able to define the volume of the building while behaving independent of the structure. The structure is comprised of two elements; the “table” and the “roof”, both of which are steel space frames with varying depth ranging between 5 and 8 meters. These two elements are connected through the “double ruled facade structure” creating a load bearing shell structure. With the support of 14 vertically placed composite steel and concrete cores the structure is elevated by 7 meters from the ground level upwards. Over 40,000 tons of steel was used in order to create a span of more than 85 meters, and also to create a 40 meter cantilever. The manipulation of these massive steel plates to create a seemingly pliable form was done through employing techniques used by local shipbuilders to bend large steel plates.
Cores and Columns Vertical steel concrete bond
Table Spatial steel framework
Main Auditorium Spatial steel framework
Conference Boxes Spatial steel framework
Roof structure
Facade Twisted spatial steel framework Images have been taken from http://www.gefoebau.de/media/Bauseminare/15.Bauseminar/10_Brosch.pdf 038 7
Construction
039 8
All images have been taken from coop-himmelblau.at
Construction
040 9
All images have been taken from coop-himmelblau.at
Reference Section Cut
041 10
Technical drawing was obtained from the architects
The Skin
The skin consist of a combination of anodized aluminium perforated metal panels and quadro-clad panels. The building has doubled facade with the perforated layer acting as a rain screen allowing a degree of sunlight air and moisture into the second layer which is predominately glazed.
Pressure-Equalized Rainscreen Positive pressure on a facade created by wind pressure creates negative pressure in the cavity. By providing space for the pressure to equalize a flow is created that keeps air and water moving through cavity.
Moisture protection from humidity inside air achieved by the vapour barrier just inside the interior finish.
Distributed flow “open” Cladding is installed W/A space that is too large for capillary action. These spaces allow pressure equalization.
Insulation
Majority of water/wind and UV dealt with mechanically by exterior cladding. However inside this is the waterproof layer which operates as a full waterproofing layer. Includes taped seams and continuous membrane, which operates as primary wind/leakage barrier as well.
Image from coop-himmelblau.at
Moisture protection from humidity inside air achieved by the vapour barrier just inside the interior finish.
Insulation on outside face of sheathing creates a continuous and insulated building envelope, which minimizes cold bridging.
Own drawing
Diagram is taken from http://www.gefoebau.de/media/Bauseminare/15.Bauseminar/10_Brosch.pdf
Benefits of a rain Screen are: •Weather-resistant barrier support mechanism keeps moisture away from the wall construction •Water vapour behind cladding and insulation can escape by means of evaporation, reducing the potential for mold •Helps reduce hot and cold air and thermal movement through the wall, reducing energy costs •Promotes water drainage by channelling moisture to the outside of the wall assembly by means of flashing and the force of gravity •Air space between exterior cladding and drainage plane helps drainage and facilitates drying •Provides great design flexibility, works with numerous cladding options for simplified detailing and transitioning between cladding materials •Reduction in the buildings dead load by use of lightweight cladding options versus traditional building materials (i.e. brick veneer, etc.) Information sourced from http://building.dow.com/na/en/dowknightsolutions/rain-screen/ 042 11
Rain Screen Primary Bearing Steel Structure
Metal Panel Cladding Perforated Aluminium 3mm (Anodised, Hair-Line Coil Finish)
Section highlighting water tight boundary of building
043 12
Technical drawing was obtained from the architects
How does the building remain watertight
Behind the layer of perforated panels and supporting structure there is the linear water tight form of the spaces. Based on sourced information quadro-clad panels have been applied to both internal and external surfaces, as a result it will be assumed that it has been applied to the area of this cross examination highlighted in red based on the composition.
Elements of ventilated facade Quadro-clad clad panel Air cavity for insulation and prevention of capillary action Open joint to allow pressure equalization
Metal
Moisture barrier
Pre-engineered structure
Insulation barrier
Own drawing
Detailed Section of the ceiling composition. 044 13
Technical drawings was obtained from the architects
The Skin
The diagrams indicate the variation in panel layout of the building distinguished as So1, So2 and So3. •So1 indicates the areas where panels will lay flat against the frame. •So2 indicates the flared/ louvered panel location •So3 indicates the location of the panels that would be arranged in a cone shape. The image below highlights the variation of framework employed to accomplish the shape for the panel indicate above. Pink-So1 Yellow-So2
Diagrams are taken from http://www.gefoebau.de/media/Bauseminare/15.Bauseminar/10_Brosch.pdf
04514
Image from coop-himmelblau.at, with own colour drawing on top
The Skin
Based observation and information source it can be concluded that all the panels are flat and attached to the frames by welding. Group dimension and location are identified via name So1, So2 and So3.
So1 Panelling with Secondary Frame
So3 Panelling
So2 Panelling
Images are taken from http://www.gefoebau.de/media/Bauseminare/15.Bauseminar/10_Brosch.pdf
046 15
From Design to Application 3D modelling soft ware Rhino, Grass Hopper
Manufactures
To site for application
(Anodising) Further Processing
Design Process This is a simple replication of how complex forms may be developed with a 3d digital soft wear.
With the form established a mesh can be applied to shape the irregular figure.
Accompanying panels produce in a flat format for labelling and etching for the manufacture. See appendix page 40 for similar production.
047 16
Manufacturing Aluminium Rolls Milling Process
1.)The slabs are heated in slab furnaces to the correct rolling temperature of about 1,250’C.
2.) In the roughing mill, the slab thickness of 220 mm is reduced to 30 mm. The steel is coiled and increases in length from 11m to a coil with 80m of heavy plate.
3.)The plate is cleaned to remove mill scale in several stages during hot rolling.
4.) The hot rolling mill can roll the whole width of the slab in one pass. Extreme forces are applied to the rolls that roll the steel to a thickness between 16 mm and 1.8 mm. Rolling speed is 120 km/h. If a sheet is rolled down to 2 mm, a sheet of 80 m will be 1,300 m.
13.) Annealing and quenching can also be carried out in the metal coating lines. In hot-dip galvanizing, the strip then passes through a molten zinc bath at a temperature 455’C before being cooled.
7.)Cold rolled sheet from 6 mm thick can be made thinner and smoother by cold rolling. Cold rolling takes place in a tandem mill.
8.)Sheet steel can be rolled down to 0.3 mm thick.
9.)Cold rolled sheet becomes harder and more brittle. It must be annealed to restore its formability.
6.)Hot rolled sheet steel is sold in coils or cut to lengths.
14.)Hot-dip galvanizing sheet can be after treated by painting before it is delivered to customers for further processing.
10.)In order to harden the sheet, it is quenched at a rate of 1,000’C per second.
048 17
5.)The sheet is cooled before it is coiled onto a coil. The material temperature during coiling may be 600’C or below.
11.) After quenching, the sheet is usually tempered at a lower temperature than annealing, in order to make the hardened steel tougher.
12.)Cold rolled sheet is sold on coils or cut to length.
Diagram and information are from http://www.ssab.com/
Process of perforation, Leveling, plate shearing and folding
Wide Press
Sectional Press
Automatic Punching/Nibbling Machine
Wide press is the quickest and the most economical procedure. This process works in strokes, one or numerous punches occur in a row creating up to 1000 punches simultaneously perforating the plate passing through the machine in a step by step process.
The sectional press is less expensive tool then the wide press, it produces less punches and therefore has a slower process. Due to the use of high quality punch materials and fewer punches, this press could punch plates which are up to 20 mm thick.
This process is similar to the sectional process; it is also an economical way of producing various perforations. The tools automatically change and the contours are nibbled or even finished off if necessary.
Leveler
Plate Shear
Folding Press
Through the levelling procedure, the unavoidable stress and distortion that occurs on the plates after the punching procedure could be reassured and flattened.
The most precise cutting will be produced through this procedure called the plate shear. This procedure takes into account the technical difficulties faced with other procedures; example being “the pattern and the position of the holes� do not always meet one another.
Bending and edging perforated plates could be produced through this folding press
Diagrams and photograph is from http://www.andritz.com/ 049 18
Process of anodizing aluminium The cladding of the Dalian Conference Centre is formed by 3mm thick coil-anodized aluminium from the Novelis aluminium company. The aluminium is rolled and therefore can be used immediately. The following page will be explaining the process of how aluminium has been anodized. Anodizing process is as follows:
Casting
Sawing/Milling
SLT/CTL
Cold Rolling
Preheating/Homogenization
Hot Rolling
There are two different ways of manufacturing chemicals; batch processing and continuous processing. Continuous Anodizing
Batch Anodizing
A chemical that is needed in a large amount is usually made by a continuous process. Production goes on all the time. Ammonia is made by a continuous process called the Haber process.
A chemical that is needed in a small amount or only as needed (a speciality chemical) is usually made by a batch process. Production does not go on all the time. Pharmaceutical drugs (medicines) are made by batch processes.
Information and diagram is from http://www.thebig5.ae/files/solutions_for_anodized_aluminium_faades.pdf Continuous and batch anodizing definitions are from online. 050 19
The Roof Structure Solar Panel Exhaust Louvers
Metal Cladding
Skylight Roof Glass
Structural Shell
Ceiling Surface
Roof structure diagram is from http://www.archdaily.com/
Roof layered composition
Section through roof showing photovoltaic solar panel exhaust louvers please refer to the appendix page 36
photovoltaic solar panel composition
Photovoltaic solar panel Section through roof showing photovoltaic solar panel please refer to the appendix page 37 20 051
Panel images from google images
The Building Sustainability Dalian Conference Center (DCC) was not only designed to be a distinctive figure within its context but also aimed at fulfilling the concept of sustainability and a result would drive the focus of the design. Within DDC a number of technological system where employed to take full advantage of the environment and its natural resources through integration responding to heating, cooling ventilation and even powering. With the implementation of said systems the building is able to: •Cool the building during the summer while heating the space during the winter by using the thermal energy of the seawater filtered through heat pumps.
Sea water Cooling •Employ the use of displacement ventilation to treat large volumes of individual areas
Displacement of ventilation systems •Maintain a constant temperature throughout the building through the activation of the concrete core as a thermal mass in combination with the general low temperature systems for heating.
Floor heating/Cooling 052 21
Diagrams are from http://www.archdaily.com/
The Building Sustainability
•Naturally ventilate large volumes of air within the building through several specifically placed air intake and raised extraction ducts. This constant circulation of air help to regulate temperatures and minimises the application of the heating and cooling mechanical ventilation apparatus resulting in the reduction of utility cost. The atrium is conceived as a naturally ventilated area and solar heated.
Displacement of ventilation systems
•Produce a greater degree of self-sustainable power harvested through the photovoltaic solar panels
Solar energy/ PV cells
•Encourage a high degree of natural lighting by installing large glazed area as a second skin behind the perforated panelled louvers resulting in the reduction of the over use of artificial lighting minimizing energy consumption levels and effectively cost.
Natural light/ Shadering 053 22
Diagrams are from http://www.archdaily.com/
Price comparison Based on lack of information the following has been formulated based on educational guess, to present the price comparison of a contemporary building to a traditional building.
Conventionial building
Dalian Conference Center
$
$ Light weight Metal Equivalant volume
Concrete Equivalant volume
• New technologies create the opportunities for more economical builds and as a result lower CO2 emissions are produced contrary to conventional builds which employ standard technologies to just about meet compliance regulations to build. • Material use is thoroughly considered • Less Material wastage • Shorter Construction Period • Easier to design more complex structure for less.
• Higher CO2 Emissions based on material choice and technologies. • Standard Technologies • Longer construction Period • Excess Wastage of Material
054 23
Appendix
055 24
Detailed Section in accordance to relative Application
056 25
Technical drawings was obtained from the architects
Detailed Section in accordance to relative Application
057 26
Technical drawings was obtained from the architects
Detailed Section in accordance to relative Application
058 27
Technical drawings was obtained from the architects
Detailed Section in accordance to relative Application
059 28
Technical drawings was obtained from the architects
Detailed Section in accordance to relative Application
060 29
Technical drawings was obtained from the architects
Detailed Section in accordance to relative Application
061 30
Technical drawings was obtained from the architects
Detailed Section in accordance to relative Application
062 31
Technical drawings was obtained from the architects
Detailed Section in accordance to relative Application
063 32
Technical drawings was obtained from the architects
Detailed Section in accordance to relative Application
064 33
Technical drawings was obtained from the architects
Detailed Section in accordance to relative Application
065 34
Technical drawings was obtained from the architects
Detailed Section in accordance to relative Application
066 35
Technical drawings was obtained from the architects
Detailed Section in accordance to relative Application
067 36
Technical drawings was obtained from the architects
Detailed Section in accordance to relative Application
068 37
Technical drawings was obtained from the architects
BMW Welt Munich
069 38
Photographs from google images
BMW Welt Munich
The BMW Welt Munich has been introduced as a precedence to make reference to the panel construction of the Dalian Conference Centre. Through observation it can be seen that the panelling sytem are very similar and is therefor good example for futher understanding. BMW Welt Munich is located Germany and is used as a museum for BMW. The BMW museum required 400 tons of steel in order to construct. Nearly a quarter of the steel was used for the double cone structure alone. Every individual steel section was manufactured own its own with a special template. Each of these sections was also used for ducts for key data cables. The double cone structure which seems to symbolize a tornado twist travels upwards forming a floating roof structure, whilst also acting as a main bearing for the 16,000m² roof construction. In order to create this floating roof appearance only eleven support columns had to been placed.
Flow of forces from the roof into the Double Cone concept for taking the weight of the roof in the area of the double cone. The cone is both a vertical load-bearing element and responsible for horizontal rigidity.
Structure of the Double Cone steel construction, design above: structure of the Double Cone, special proposal with annular bearing structure and suspended basket.
Axonometric depiction of the steel construction as executed; for fire safety reasons, the lower part of the double cone was given an F-30 coating.
070 39
Diagrams and explainations obtained from Dynamic Forces by Kristin Feiress
BMW Welt Munich
Left: Axonometric depiction of the glass surfaces of the double cone the steel construction had always to be oriented axially to the faceted outer structure. This leads to complex spatial overlaps of the individual steel profile elements in the nodes. Right: View of the double cone with SHEV slipstream openings. Below: Development of the glass surfaces in the double cone.
Development of the stainless-steel panels in the double cone. They serve chiefly as a sunshade. In the lower zone, the intermediate space is accessible for maintenance purpose. Right: Double cone by night. The stainless-steel cladding comes across as solid or transparent depending on the light. Diagrams and explainations obtained from Dynamic Forces by Kristin Feiress 071 40
Bibliography Anon., 2013. Arch Daily. [Online] Available at: http://www.archdaily.com/405787/dalian-international-conference-center-coop-himmelb-l-au/ [Accessed 10 11 2014]. Anon., 2013. Dezeen. [Online] Available at: http://www.dezeen.com/2013/03/20/dalian-conference-center-by-coop-himmelblau/ [Accessed 25 10 2014]. Anon., n.d. Aluscope. [Online] Available at: http://www.aleris.com/sites/default/files/Aluscope%20201202_engl_DC_2013_02_01_web.pdf [Accessed 16 11 2014]. Anon., n.d. BBC Bitesize. [Online] Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/science/add_ocr_gateway/chemical_economics/batchcontinuousrev1. shtml [Accessed 10 11 2014]. Anon., n.d. CoopHimmel(L)AU. [Online] Available at: http://www.coop-himmelblau.at/architecture/projects/dalian-international-conference-center [Accessed 3 10 2014]. Anon., n.d. Novelis. [Online] Available at: http://www.thebig5.ae/files/solutions_for_anodized_aluminium_faades.pdf [Accessed 15 10 2014]. Anon., n.d. Parametrisches Entwerfen. [Online] Available at: http://www.gefoebau.de/media/Bauseminare/15.Bauseminar/10_Brosch.pdf [Accessed 17 11 2014]. Anon., n.d. Perforations in Metal. [Online] Available at: http://www.andritz.com/pp-pw-pertec-pim.pdf [Accessed 17 11 2014]. Anon., n.d. Quadra clad facade. [Online] Available at: http://assets.hunterdouglascontract.com/documents/facades/facades_brochure.pdf [Accessed 16 11 2014]. Anon., n.d. SSAB Sheet Steel. [Online] Available at: http://www.ssab.com/en/Products--Services/About-SSAB/Steel-making-process/Processing/Sheet-steel/ [Accessed 17 11 2014]. Anon., n.d. What is a rain Screen. [Online] Available at: http://building.dow.com/na/en/dowknightsolutions/rain-screen/ [Accessed 11 11 2014]. FEIREISS, K., 2007 . Dynamic Forces: COOP Himmelb(l)au, BMW WELT Munich. s.l.:Prestel Publishing (September 2007). Giovannini, J., 2013 . Architect Magazine. [Online] Available at: http://www.architectmagazine.com/cultural-projects/dalian-international-conference-center.aspx [Accessed 17 11 2014].
072 41
BA3 Architecture Technology ARCH3036-2015-Y Low Energy Typologies Report: Building Regulations (part L) and Passivhaus Tuesday 18th November 2014
Student names:
Matthew Jordan - p12202982
Bradley Lowe
073
- p12228315
As designers, we are responsible for ensuring that we create a design that is both aesthetically pleasing and comfortable for the inhabitant. However we must also create a design that is considerate of its environmental impact through its usage of power and fuel which would contribute to its carbon footprint; these factors now make up Part L of the United Kingdom building regulations along with schemes such as Passivhaus The essential idea of building control is set out on a series of rules and guidelines which are formulated to create a higher standard of design and construction. Much of the developed and developing world use a combination of local and national regulations which most building projects must adhere to, with a rejection of construction or penalty otherwise. These are generally created in the interest of safety, comfort, ease of access and using more environmentally friendly practices. It is here where we look at Part L of the building regulations which concerns itself with the conservation of fuel and power alongside schemes such as the Passivhaus Standard and BREEAM which follow a similar stance. A number architects and developers have discovered that creating efficient environmentally respectful designs can have immense cost benefits. By choosing to spend more on the build stage on better components, considerable savings can be made in the occupancy stage, this can also lead to a more comfortable environment within the structure. Because of this, schemes such as the German Passivhaus standard have become increasingly popular, although questions have been raised about whether or not it compromises design quality. Considering these factors, we as architects must choose which path to take when we design. Passivhaus is a building standard devised in Germany with almost unrivalled energy efficiency and occupant comfort, these results are achieved through using the most appropriate and efficient components when designing and constructing the building. Achieving the standard when building usually costs more than conventional structures, however this remedies itself through the savings made in the long term through its energy efficiency as well as creating a more comfortable space. The standard is defined as; “a building in which thermal comfort can be achieved solely by post-heating or post-cooling the fresh air flow required for a good indoor air quality, without the need for additional recirculation of air�.1 To date there has been around 30,000 buildings constructed to Passivhaus standards worldwide with that number continually rising, the first of which was constructed in 1991. The designs should in theory work in all climates, not just the temperate ones seen in central and northern Europe. Passivhaus is sometimes guilty of putting so much emphasis on component quality and energy efficiency that design quality can often be compromised, to encourage high quality design in Passivhaus structures through the Passivhaus design awards in the United Kingdom. We must also however be realistic from what we expect in the design, in the United Kingdom, there are very few buildings of the standard that are not dwellings, whilst this number is increasing it is still comparatively small. Many Passivhaus designs are intended to be mass housing schemes, which can often prioritise cost ahead of design. Whilst few Passivhaus schemes can be deemed ugly, they are very rarely revolutionary enough in their design gain mainstream attention for the aesthetics.
1
passivhaus.org.uk
074
The Passivhaus Standard
Information on diagram sourced from issuu.com/passivhaus_trust The above diagram shows the components and attributes which conform to the Passivhaus Standard. The section which represents a generic building illustrates the additions made to ensure thermal comfort and sufficient ventilation throughout is achieved. Note how there is a continuous envelope aided by thick insulation and Standard PH triple glazed windows and doors. Because of this the building is essentially air tight, here is where a Heat Recovery Ventilation (HRV) system is set in place to provide fresh air at a relevant temperature throughout the interior. As well as this the building is designed to harness solar gains in the winter and vice versa during the summer helping to sustain consistent conditions within. To fully appreciate the quality of a Passivhaus build, a visit was arranged to Interserve Leicester, a 2011 build by Nottingham based CPMG architects. An exceptionally efficient build that has achieved a -2 on its (DEC), with the later addition of Photovoltaic panels to the roof, the design is now so efficient it is carbon negative and actually makes the company money by selling power back to the National Grid. However whilst the building is not ugly, it does appear that minimal thought was given to the structure which is incredibly simple, two stories of timber clad panelling lead up to a very conventional pitched roof, all situated on a rectangular footprint with 20 triple glazed windows brightening the south faรงade.. It sits reasonably well within its surroundings; however form has undoubtedly followed function and cost.
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In addition to the buildings heightened energy efficiency, the new building has seen a 13% reduction in staff absence which is attributed to staff being more comfortable in the new building. This has evidently resulted from the HRV ventilation system which uses passively heated and cooled fresh air being well circulated with 6 air changes per hour. With good air quality the spread of illness within the workplace is reduced. Why not BREEAM? Building Research Establishment Environmental Assessment was launched in 1990, at a similar time to Passivhaus Standard and is also far more widely used, with more than over 8 times the buildings of Passivhaus (250,000+). It also, unlike Passivhaus’ pass or fail certification, BREEAM features a scale including 5 different outcomes; pass, good, very good, excellent and outstanding. However, the Passivhaus and BREEAM standards are optional in the United Kingdom where Part L exists as a set of compulsory requirements for all building projects. Part L is set out in one of the approved documents which divide into L1 for dwellings and L2 for buildings other than dwellings. These are again divided into parts A for new builds and part B for existing builds. Like other sections of the building regulations, the documents deliver practical guidance on how to meet the requirements set out by the building regulations themselves. With this, guidance is given on each of the technical parts relating to the corresponding regulation. It is worth noting that these four approved documents differ from the building compliance guides, which detail the each of the building service components. There are two distinctive applications of building control, the first where the outcome is the only definitive requirement: ‘there is no obligation to adopt any particular solution contained in the approved document. If you prefer to meet a relevant requirement in some other way than described in an approved document, you should discuss this with the relevant building control body’ The second approach is where a provision must be followed through by means of a pre tested and calculated method of construction. The differences between these applications can be seen through achieving a defined U-value; the construction of a building fabric will vary depending on chosen materials but all will be constructed to give the same figure, depending on which building control the building falls under. With regard to Part L and Passivhaus controls, all buildings must achieve or fall within a set of figures relating to environmentally friendly design. For part L, the primary basis has now changed from calculated U-values to CO2 emissions through a Target CO2 Emission Rate (TER) in which the actual Dwelling Emission Rate (DER) and Building 076
Emission Rate (BER) are required to meet. These quantify the minimum energy performance required for both domestic and non-domestic buildings where the DER and BER must not exceed the TER. 2 The TER is expressed through the equivalent mass of CO 2 emitted per year per square metre of the total useful floor area. This is primarily calculated through Simplified Building Energy Model (SBEM), a computer programme developed by BRE that models and determines a buildings energy consumption support of the National Calculation Methodology (NCM). This is essentially achieved through combining predetermined data sets with notional building descriptions such as: - Building type. - Building geometry. - Construction. - Use. - Heating, ventilation and air-conditioning (HVAC). - Lighting equipment. With this, a report of the new building must be made within 5 days of completion in which test will be made on air permeability and workmanship in order to ensure a continuous envelope is achieved with minimal thermal bridges. 3
Building Regulations Part L
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Passivhaus Standard
Building Regulations (part L) No. Name 1 Brickwork (outer leaf) 2 Cavity (well ventilated) 3 PU foam board 4 AAC block Mortar 5 Plasterboard
Thickness (mm) 100 25 47.5 100 100 13
Cond (W/mK) 0.77 0 0.023 0.18 0.88 0.21
Res (m2K/W) 0.13 0.04 2.065 0.556 0.114 0.062
% U 100 100 100 93 7 100
Passive House Standard No. Name 1 Brickwork (outer leaf) 2 Concrete plank 3 PU foam board 4 Concrete plank 5 Plaster (ins. 600kg/m sq.)
Thickness (mm) 103 50 142.5 50 15
Cond (W/mK) 0.77 1.13 0.023 1.13 0.18
Res (m2K/W) 0.134 0.044 6.196 0.044 0.083
% U 100 100 100 100 100
planningportal.gov.uk designingbuildings.co.uk
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The resulting figure is given in kgCO2/m 2 per year which is issued in an energy performance certificate which combines energy usage and systems into a graded table. It is worth noting that the standards of Part L are periodically being increased making it more difficult to achieve the requirements set out; this is largely due to the government’s target stating that all new buildings both domestic and non-domestic must be carbon neutral by 2019. Comparing these regulations to that of Passivhaus and BREEAM we can see that Part L focuses far more on the direct and indirect CO2 emissions with its procedures where Passivhaus and BREEAM place attention to the interior comfort and lowered energy costs for the occupant(s). A 2010 article in Architecture Today raises the question; can we actually compare these initiatives as they have such different goals? Building regulations have been complied by the government to target zero emission structures primarily through the installation of renewables and energy efficient design, they are far broader and consider impact of materials, recycling, building management, water consumption and considerably more. In contrast, Passivhaus has been created by people who seek to improve architecture’s environmental impact, it is far more specific and in the United Kingdom is entirely optional, and it encourages sensible design decisions to create a far more environmentally friendly design. It is entirely possible to pass Passivhaus standard and fail building regulations and vice versa. To calculate heat loss, in Building regulations, Standard Assessment Procedure (SAP) is used although its accuracy is far less than that of the Passivhaus Planning Package (PHPP). In application there has been great variation in the results achieved by SAP and PHPP. Passivhaus design has proven that by choosing the correct materials in construction, great results can be achieved both environmentally and financially; going a considerable way to combat fuel poverty, However SAP which will accept conventional building techniques with the implementation of renewables regularly falls short of its expectations.4 5 We must adhere to planning regulations to ensure a structure in the United Kingdom is legal, so they obviously taken priority over following the Passivhaus standard for design, however there are clear problems with Part L. Planning regulation are far broader than Passivhaus or BREEAM, however the issues such as the inaccurate predictions of Standard Assessment Procedure and the ability to allow a relatively inefficient design to pass through considerable use of renewables. However, Passivhaus also has its flaws, we could attribute the under ambitious designs of Passivhaus certified structures to the relatively modest budgets of the projects, or that is nowhere near as popular as BREEAM or compulsory like Part L. Although to pass the Passivhaus standard a building must be meticulously planned and edited to ensure efficiency and technical design quality, this rigorous process can often lead to form largely following function and thus compromise the aesthetic integrity of the design. So where do we as designers go from here? Many practices are seeing the potential of using the Passivhaus standard but we as architects should not design around it. A lot can be gained from using standards such as BREEAM and Passivhaus, the emphasis on spending money on better components such as triple glazed windows rather than single or double glazed, better materials and better insulation as well as sensible design decisions such as not compromising the air tightness of a space by attaching fittings to the floor rather than exterior walls. All of these decisions should enable the owner to see a financial and environmental benefit in the long term. The solution is a Part L/Passivhaus hybrid that promotes sensible design with the usage of renewables such as photovoltaic panels without compromising the aesthetic integrity of the design.
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ecodesign.com architecturetoday.co.uk
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Precast concrete panelling systems
Andrea Constantinou Riccardo Fregoni Mohammed Mumin
Leicester School of Architecture
ARCH3036 – Technology project 1 Report BA3 - Tuesday 18th November 2014-2015
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CONTENTS: Concrete composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Eco-Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Precast Concrete Panelling Systems: characteristics, advantages and disadvantages: -Single wall panel -Double wall panel -Sandwich wall panel -Lattice girder floors Production process from the factory to the assembly on the construction site . . . . . . . Structural Details and components (junctions) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Thermal envelope example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Connections for precast concrete systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Future prospects for precast concrete panelling systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Manufacture companies and references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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p.1 p.2 p.3 p.4 p.5 p.6 p.7-12 p.13 p.14 p.15-16 p.17 p.18
Concrete composition Concrete is a composite material made of water, aggregate, and cement. It is possible to include additives and reinforcements to achieve the desired physical properties of the finished material. When these ingredients are mixed together, they form a fluid mass that is easily moulded into shape. There are many types of concrete available, created by varying the proportions of the main ingredients below: “Aggregate” consists of large chunks of material in a concrete mix, generally a coarse gravel or crushed rocks such as limestone, or granite, along with finer materials such as sand. “Cement” is a fundamental material for the creation of concrete, It is a substance that sets and hardens having the ability to bind other materials together. Cement consists of a mixture of oxides of calcium, silicon and aluminium. Portland cement is the most commonly used and similar materials are made by heating limestone (a source of calcium) with clay and grinding this product (clinker) with a source of sulphate (mostly gypsum). “Water” is mixed with the dry composite, which produces a semiliquid, fluid enough in order to fill the desired shape correctly. The concrete solidifies and hardens through a chemical process called hydration. The water reacts with the cement, which bonds the other components together, creating a robust stone-like material. “Chemical admixtures” can be added to achieve varied properties. These ingredients may speed or slow down the rate at which the concrete hardens, and impart many other useful properties including increased tensile or compressive strength and water resistance. “Reinforcements” are often added to concrete in order to compensate the lower tensile strength of this material. For this reason concrete is usually reinforced with materials that are strong in tension like steel. “Mineral admixtures” The use of recycled materials as concrete ingredients has been gaining popularity because of increasingly stringent environmental legislation, and the discovery that such materials often have complementary and valuable properties. The most conspicuous of these are fly ash, a by-product of coal-fired power plants, and silica fume, a by-product of industrial electric arc furnaces. The use of these materials in concrete reduces the amount of resources required, as the ash and fume act as a cement replacement. The mix design depends on the type of structure being built, how the concrete is mixed and delivered, and how it is placed to form the desired structure. Concrete is roughly comprised of the following ingredients in the approximate amounts: - Cement - 15% - Stone - 45% - Sand - 33% - Water - 8-10% - Admixtures or chemicals - less than 1%
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Eco concrete Eco concrete is relatively new development of a way to form concrete and lower carbon foot print. This product was research and developed for many years and went through serious of trails to meet the industry standard in performance and strength. This product is sustainable and is designed to replace the use of Portland cement (the traditional concrete). By replacing Portland cement, the CO2 level is reduced substantially in the production process. Eco concrete consist of blending reactive magnesium oxide with conventional cements. Magnesium Oxide is then add with water and then carbonate to form. There are number of different ways of using aggregate to form the concrete. According to Hanson Heidelberg cement group: ‘producing 100m3 of conventional concrete typically uses 32 tonnes of cement’ in comparison to ‘ producing 100m3 Ecoplus concrete replacing 50% of the cement with Regan, save 13.53 tonnes of CO2. Alongside this Eco-concrete excides traditional Portland concrete in performance and durability, and will last longer even in aggressive environments. Nowadays concrete is the most commonly used construction material because its malleability, plasticity, strength and durability. Many studies reveal that in the last decade there has been an incredible demand increase for green building trends and sustainable construction materials. The “Hempcrete” is one type of Eco-Concrete. It is a mixture of hemp stalk (woody core) with natural hydraulic lime or cement. This material has the advantage of a great breathability, avoiding moisture to end up in mold in the walls. On the other hand this mixture is not suited for structural elements. It has really good thermal qualities, with a conductivity of λ = 0.06W/mK. It has a great acoustic absorption coefficient of 0.69 NRC.
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Pre-cast Concrete Panelling Systems: Typology, characteristics, costs, advantages and disadvantages Single wall panel Single panels are prefabricated, monolithic concrete slabs which are then placed vertically on site. They are bolted one to another serving as the bearing load structure. Once the structure is connected together, a external insulation is added to create a continuous thermal envelope by avoiding the interruption of the insulation. The thermal envelope is fixed on the structure with the use of special plastic connectors, preventing thermal bridges. After this process is complete one can cover the building with the preferred cladding. The advantage of using a single panel system is that costs less than any other panelling system, being as well the fastest to produce. On the other hand it requires further labour on site to add all the necessary insulation and the eventual cladding. As a consequence the transportation costs are lower because of the reduced weight. Single wall panel with insulation and cladding integration The architectural cladding panel is like the sandwich type, a three-layered concrete wall panel with interior core insulation. The exterior concrete face is formed in various architectural surface variants. Different colours with a variety of finishes such as exposed aggregate, ground or polished surfaces are possible. Furthermore, practically all designs and finishes may be realized using pallet liners or by applying facing materials. This option is very efficient in term of cutting costs and time on the construction site, but clearly it has a higher production cost.
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Double Wall Panel The precast concrete double wall panel has been used in Europe for the last few decades. Originally the double-wall design consisted of two panels of reinforced concrete separated by an interior void, these two panels were held together with embedded steel trusses. It has been recognized that using steel trusses creates some weaknesses in the efficiency of the building. For example the steel trusses create "thermal bridges" that degrades the thermal performance. The steel trusses respond to the variation of temperature, this causes their micro-expansion and compression. The fact that steel does not have the same thermal expansion coefficient as concrete, as the wall heats and cools any steel that is not embedded in the concrete can create thermal stresses that cause cracking. To achieve a better thermal performance, insulation was added in the void (Insulated double wall), and in many applications today the steel trusses have been replaced by composite connection systems (fibreglass, plastic, etc.). These systems, which are especially developed for this purpose, eliminate the thermal expansion problem present in the use of steel trusses. The best thermal performance is achieved when the insulation is continuous throughout the wall section. Using continuous insulation and modern composite connection systems, one could achieve better thermal resistance and efficiency of a structure. The so-called „thermal wall“ consists of two finished concrete skins that are connected with reinforcement. The core insulation is affixed to the interior of the outer skin off site. As with double walls, following installation the wall cavity is poured in situ.
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Sandwich wall panel Precast concrete sandwich wall panels have been used on virtually every type of building, either private or public. Although typically considered part of a building's enclosure or "envelope," they can be designed to additionally serve as part of the building's structural system, eliminating the need for beams and columns on the building perimeter. Besides their energy efficiency and aesthetic versatility, they also provide excellent noise attenuation, outstanding durability (resistant to rot, mould, etc.), and rapid construction. Another important aspect of this construction method is the recycling possibilities; combining these methods with eco-concrete will result as a very eco-friendly and efficient way of construction. Concrete sandwich panels are storey-high load-bearing insulated external walls. The wall panel has the following structure: room side smooth solid concrete – then the insulation in compliance with thermal insulation regulations – and outside a solid concrete facade. Thanks to their integrated insulation, the wall panels require no further processing after fitting, resulting in considerable reduction in building time. The overall thickness of sandwich wall panels in commercial applications is typically 20 cm, but their designs are often customized to the application. In a typical 20 cm wall panel the concrete wythes are each 5-8/20 cm thick), sandwiching 2.5-10 cm of high R-value insulating foam. The interior and exterior wythes of concrete are held together (through the insulation) with some form of connecting system that is able to provide the needed structural integrity. Sandwich wall panels can be fabricated to length and width desired, within practical limits dictated by the fabrication system, the stresses of lifting and handling, and shipping constraints. Panels of 2.75m clear height are common, but heights up to 3.65m can be found. The fabrication process for precast concrete sandwich wall panels allows the production of finished surfaces on both sides. Such finishes can be very smooth, with the surfaces painted, stained, or left natural; for interior surfaces, the finish is comparable to drywall in smoothness and can be finished using the same prime and paint procedure as is common for conventional drywall construction. If desired, the concrete can be given an architectural finish, where the concrete itself is coloured and/or textured. Colours and textures can provide the appearance of brick, stone, wood, or other patterns through the use of reusable form liners, or, in the most sophisticated applications, actual brick, stone, glass, or other materials can be cast into the concrete surface. General Advantages and Disadvantages The concrete panelling systems offer some very considerable advantages in their use and construction procedure. Window and door openings are cast into the walls at the manufacturing plant as part of the fabrication process. In many applications, electrical and telecommunication conduits and boxes are cast directly into the panels in the specified locations. In some applications, utilities, plumbing, and even heating components have been cast into the panels to reduce on-site construction time. The disadvantage is that because the point of this technique is just to assembly the parts, if a mistake has been made in the design process it will raise the cost and the time of construction to modify the panel (or to buy a new one) on site.
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Lattice girder floors Lattice girder floors or half-slabs comprise a thin reinforced precast concrete slab with cast in lattice girders and which are provided with an in-situ concrete topping. This most frequently used reinforced floor type is used for all applications in residential and commercial construction. The fundamental benefits are amongst other things a high-quality product at a reasonable price, extreme dimensioning versatility and rapid on site installation.
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Production process from the factory to the assembly on the construction site The process of production of precast panelling systems take place in different ways depending on each company, in particular it changes in an effective manner according to the target area of the product, whether the destination is industrial or residential. We selected the Ebawe because this company is one of the manufacturers that produce adapted machinery for the creation of concrete panels. It gives the possibility to construction industries to take care of the entire planning, development and installation of their carrousel or specific system - from concrete preparation to the removal of the manufactured precast concrete products. This way of production is fast and compact, and because the system can be customised, It ensures the possibility of producing panels with the desired characteristics to the highest technical standards for the fabrication of precast concrete products. This company offers a vast selection of specialized machinery for the achievement of different products and design preferences.
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1) Pallet cleaning and release agent spraying device The quality of the concrete surface is significantly determined by the pallet surface. For first-class results, a clean pallet surface with a thin film of release agent is indispensable. The pallets pass through cleaning equipment in the carrousel system. The pallet surface and the side shuttering are automatically cleaned by a brushing system. Subsequently, the spraying equipment provides the pallet surface with release agent.
2) Plotter, shuttering and stripping robot The product contours generated from CAD data are marked out full size by the plotter on the pallet surface. To increase the level of automation, a robot can be employed to not only place but also strip shuttering. The shuttering robot selects the required shutters from a store and places these precisely on the pallet surface. Special, non-standardised shuttering is placed manually on the pallet surface at additional workstations. The stripping robot identifies the shutters by scanning the pallet and then removes them automatically.
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3) Mesh welding plants Unlike industrial mesh plants, which are designed to produce large volumes of the same mesh type in long production runs, evolution has been conceived for the just in time CAD-controlled fabrication of made to measure mesh, with line and cross-wires at variable centres in any combination of diameters, in irregular shapes and with block-outs for doors and windows if required. Modular system for perfect customisation: -fully automated plants with various output levels -elimination of scrap, no expensive, time-consuming modification of standard fabric -extremely low connected loads through inverter welding technique -variable centres -variable line and crosswire diameters from 4 – 20 mm -mesh labelling if required -customised mesh handling systems -automatic stacking equipment -handling systems for the placing of mesh in carrousel production pallets
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4) WIRE CENTER – AUTOMATION OF REINFORCEMENT Modern carrousel systems for the fabrication of precast concrete products require automation concepts for the preparation of reinforcement. Wire centre produces reinforcement off coil and automatically places cross-wires fitted with spacers. The line wires and the lattice girders are destinated to the CAD-CAM. This modern robot technology improves production output, optimises processes, enhances accuracy and contributes to error minimisation.
5) Concrete distributor A concrete spreader is employed to cast concrete into the shuttered pallet. A special pouring system doses the concrete uniformly within the required product contours and at the correct thickness. Depending on the required level of automation, the concrete spreader is available in both manual and automatic versions.
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6) Turning equipment The fabrication of wall panels with two skins requires the inversion of the cured top skin by 180째 and its placing on the freshly-poured bottom skin. Turning equipment is used for this operation. The turning equipment can be designed to turn either the entire pallet with contents or the previously demoulded concrete panel using vacuum technology.
7) Pallet stacker Pallets containing freshly-poured products are transferred to rack units for curing. The racks are serviced by a fully automatic, computer-controlled stacker. To ensure optimum use of factory floor space, the pallets are stacked vertically. The stacker is shifted to the appropriate bay and stacks and destacks the pallets. To meet customers' specific requirements there are various versions of the stacker and, if required, the rack units can be equipped with heating systems.
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8) Floating equipment With the floating equipment excellent surface quality of the visible face of the precast concrete product can be achieved. The floating equipment is available in the following versions: -Fine smoothing equipment with helicopter -Fine smoothing equipment with levelling beam The helicopter fine floating equipment is composed of a floating disk, for initial smoothing and then a blade float for fineer smoothing. External vibrators fitted to the levelling beam are used to effect the compacting of the concrete to the required depth.
9) Tilting equipment The tilting equipment is designed to incline the cured wall panels vertically to facilitate subsequent transportation in their installation position. If required, the tilting equipment can be designed to be bypassed at the rear.
10) Run-off carriage The run-off carriage is designed to transport the wall panels and floors which have been demoulded from the production pallets. The panels and floors can either be transported individually or they could grouped together as showed in the images below, then they are stored in the stock yard.
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Structural Details and components
Roof-Wall
Wall-Floor
Ground floor-WallFoundations
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Precast concrete panelling system example This is a building made with single concrete panels. It was selected as an example to illustrate how to insulate a building correctly. The peculiarity of this example is that the thermal envelope has been applied in the wrong way. The red arrows show the thermal bridges and the black dashed lines show where the insulation should have been placed to create a continuous thermal envelope.
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Connections for precast concrete systems As far as it regards the junction for concrete panelling systems, every company has its own methods but generally very similar to each other. In order to explore and understand some of the main connection systems, the Halfen company was selected as an example. The images below illustrate panel anchors that make quick and easy the installation of concrete panels on concrete or steel structural frames. The officially approved system consists of a mounting element that is cast into the facade panel, an installation element consisting of a punched strip and threaded rod, and a clamp bracket/shell component to be anchored into the structural frame. The clamp bracket/shell component comes in 5 different designs, which are especially suitable for the anchoring in walls. All system components are made of stainless steel. The facade panel anchor system is available in load levels from 5.0 to 56 kN and is distinguished by its excellent adjustability in all directions. It is advisable to use a type-tested pressure screw to transfer the compressive forces and to adjust the distance to the wall. This range of products is further supplemented by wind restraint anchors made of plastic or stainless steel, coupling plates, turnbuckles and adjustable restraints.
The parapet corbels shown below are used to fix pre-cast parapet panels to reinforced concrete slabs, balconies or wide columns. They are cast into the pre-cast parapets and transported to site. To ensure a uniform distribution of the load, 2 anchors can be used per parapet. The resistances of the design are confirmed by a type test for detecting vertical and horizontal loads (e.g. own weight, beam pressure and wind load). When fixing them to cast-in, the anchors can be moved horizontally in two directions. They can also be adjusted vertically by shimming. The parapet corbels are also available with adjustable bolts to simplify the vertical adjustment.
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Wire Sandwich Panel Anchors (SPA) There are three different systems for anchoring the facing layer of sandwich panels to the supporting shell. These include MVA sleeve sandwich panel anchors, FA flat anchors, and SPA sandwich panel anchors. In all systems the support armature transfers the dead weight of the front panel, and a proportion of horizontal forces from the effects of wind and temperature into the structural layer. Usually two SPA anchors installed in every load-bearing direction symmetrical to the fulcrum are sufficient for this purpose. To absorb additional loads during transport and installation, another SPA bearing anchor should be inserted as a horizontal anchor, perpendicular to the main direction.
MVA Sleeve Sandwich Panel Anchors and Flat Anchors If using two FA anchors, they should be symmetrical to the fulcrum in every direction. Another bearing anchor should be inserted as a horizontal anchor, perpendicular to the main direction of the load. When using the MVA and FA, the cylindrical anchor is placed in the anchoring centre, and the FA on the same fulcrum. With this combination, the FA simultaneously assumes the function of the torsion anchor.
Betojuster (HBJ-W) The Betojuster is an adjustment device for aligning precast concrete wall elements. It provides the building contractor with an easy and therefore a safe method for precise vertical adjustment of walls, whilst simultaneously avoiding injuries and preventing tool damage to the concrete elements. The adjustment process is done with standard tools requiring little effort.
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Future prospects for precast concrete panelling systems Since this technology has made its way into the construction business, we have seen a gradual improvement according with the technological advances. In respect to when this construction methods have been firstly created, now we have reached a point where these machinery can respond more or less to every design proposal, thanks to specialized machines. However the construction industry always ask for more, and soon architects will probably be able to have customize panels, design completely by themselves and produce through the use of a “Concrete 3D printer�. Moreover precast panelling system offers to the architects the freedom to combine other construction technologies with it, in order to achieve their design and at the same time saving construction times and costs. Still today, the final result of a building project depends on how much the labour hired is specialized in both the phases of production and construction. In the future, because of the orderliness of the precast panels construction process, it will be possible to let make the whole process sophisticated robots. It is already subject of study a very efficient way to recycle concrete. These robots will not produce the waste associated with the current crushing machines and hydro-demolition systems.
Concrete panel example to show the possibilities of the 3D printers in the future
ERO Concrete Recycling Robot design
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Precast concrete panelling systems companies
References http://www.oranprecast.ie/ http://www.creaghconcrete.com/home.html http://kerkstra.com/ http://floodprecast.co.uk/ http://www.concastprecast.co.uk/index.php http://www.ductal-lafarge.com/wps/portal/ductal/HomePage http://www.heringinternational.com/en/ http://www.metalcrete.com/index.html http://www.cornishconcrete.co.uk/ http://www.halfen.com/en/ http://www.ancon.co.nz/products http://www.ebawe.de/en/ http://www.fumagallieco.it/index.html http://www.csm-uk.co.uk/ http://www.homeenergypoint.com/ http://www.forumforthefuture.org/
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ARCH 3036 Technology 3 Perrinpal Nandhra P12210210
TECH Project 1: Material study. Rammed Earth (this report was required to be a minimum of 1000 rather than 2000 words as instructed by geraldene as I was not working in a pair)
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Introduction
Rammed Earth
The use of rammed earth is a technique used to build walls using the natural raw materials earth, lime, gravel or chalk, all being sustainable and found naturally. Walls made from this substance are often simple to build and have a very high thermal capacity. Unfortunalty if the finished material is not properly maintained and protected it can be susceptable to water damage resulting in non sustainability,
Kagbeni old town, Mustang, constructed from rammed earth
Borough House plantation, 1820
Evidence suggests that entire cities were constructed of rammed earth and mug brick, dating back over 10 000 years ago, inparticularly great civilisations in the middle east such as Assynia, Babylon, Persia and Sumeria. Early uses of rammed earth can be seen in china dating back to 5000 BCE, in the Neolithic archaelogical sites of the Yangshao and longshan cultures. Kabeni is still an active community today but most people liev across the river in a newer part of the village. whats interesting about this town is that the village is designed to be fortified and the homes make up the village walls. By 2000 BCE this material became much more widely used for walls and foundations in other parts of china and then by the 1800s rammed earth became popular in the united states were it was used to contruct the borough house plantation
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Why build with rammed earth?
Performance and Strength
- “The Thermal Flywheel Effect� Throughout the day, compacted rammed earth can itself gather and retain solar heat, while keeping the inside cool and airy. This solar energy then gets released throughout the night into the night, keeping the shelter cool in the day, and warm at night. The walls hold in thermal heat and exude it about 12 hours later. If properly implimented this can greatly reduce heating and cooling bills showing that the application of this material is relatively cheap through the reduction in bills as a result of the material. This is beneficial to hot and cold climate temperatures as the thermal mass responds to both temperatues but is most effective for hot climates.
Nighttime flushing showing the heat being exuded back out throughout the night about 12 hours later
Daytime Absorption showing the walls retaining the solar heat (orange arrows)
- Indoor air quality. different to wood buildings, rammed earth doesnt emit hazardous fumes, this is because after being covered with natural and organic finishings with no toxins being offgassed, allowing the building to breath and ventilate, it provides a very clean air quality inside the building.
- Long lasting, durable and low maintenance. The Tschudi Palace in Chan Chan, Peru has been around for over 2,000 years. While still having to be only minimally maintained, the durability of the construction is impressive. With the addition of modern stabilizers, such as concrete foundations, and steel reinforcing, it is very possible for rammed earth housing to last for many centuries.
Tschudi Palace, Chan Chan Peru
- Fire and insect resistance. The thick walls and blocks of rammed earth homes are extremely fire-resistant because there are no flammable components within the earth mixture. A 300mm wall is capable of providing fire resistance of at least 90 minutes. In addition to this is the air tightness, everything has been packed so tightly that there’s little chance of combustion, its also resistant to damage from termites and insects as the walls are load bearing and have no cavities giving the pests no where to live.This also helps with maintaining and the longevity of the buildings. Rammed Earth blocks, strong, Air tight and dense
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Environment & energy efficient · Environmental responsibility. - Since an earth walled building saves construction and energy resources such as heating and cooling methods, doesn’t pollute, and lasts practically forever is a wise investment in the future of our planet.
When you approach a rammed earth building, you might notice faint lines on the outside. These lines display where each level of earth was rammed. You also might notice that the exterior is not just one colour either, so there might be some slightly lighter or darker patches on the wall. The owner could cover up this imperfect wall with stucco or tile.
When you step inside a rammed earth building, you'll probably notice how thick the walls are; rammed earth walls usually run between 18 inches and 24 inches (46 cm and 61 cm) [source: Easton]. The thick walls add to the home's general feeling of quiet and comfort, the thick and dense walls create quiet atmospheres through the noise reduction and also providing excellect protection for extremes in climates through thermal mass Nk’Mip Desert Cultural Centre in the South Okanagan Valley in Osoyoos, British Columbia, Canada.
Copper House Las Vagas, Nevada
But this is not entirely the walls' doing. Rammed earth home design factors in natural elements that affect warming and cooling properties of the home. Passive solar design takes into account the sun's positions during the year. e.g, in the winter, south-facing windows welcome the sun, while overhangs will shade the windows in the summer. When done correctly, a rammed earth home will use just one-third as much energy as a conventional home, saving on energy bills. In cold climates, insulation can be added to rammed earth walls to improve
Disadvantages of rammed earth construction - Not all soil types are appropriate. - Few modern examples exist in the UK – relatively untested in UK climate - High clay content can cause moisture movement. Structures may need to accommodate this. - Many of the issues associated with the durability of rammed earth (primarily external surface protection, water resistance, shrinkage and strength) can be improved by the addition of a stabiliser such as a cement stabiliser but doing this compromises environmental values and properties that stand without the stabiliser.,
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Standard Rammed earth construction
This involves erecting wood forms and compacting the prepared soil into these molds, which are removed after the walls are completed. Rammed earth is essentially manmade sedimentary rock. Rather than being compressed for thousands of years under deep layers of soil, instead it is formed in minutes by mechanically compacting properly prepared dirt. The compaction is done manually with a hammer-like tool, mechanically with a lever-operated brick-making press, or with an air-driven tamping tool. Dynamic compaction using manual or power tampers compresses the soil, but also vibrates the individual dirt particles, shifting them into the most tightly packed arrangement possible. When finished, rammed earth is about as strong as concrete.
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Tire Method - In the tire method, a line of used vehicle tires is simply laid atop the concrete footing, perhaps centered around steel reinforcing bars that extend out of the footing. - The tires are then filled with soil. About 1,000 tires would be needed to build the walls of a 2,000 sq ft 1609.6 sq m) house. - The prepared soil goes into these molds, which are removed after the walls are completed. The rammed-earth tire method is a commonly used alternative
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Earth Wall Section From my research and understanding I have shown Typical Rammed earth wall section drawing with labelled components
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Dunn Cabin Location: Salt Spring Island, British Columbia
Architect / Designer: Tom Kundig
Builder: Terra Firma Builders
Custom Features The Core Ten steel was selected to encourage natural weathering. Compact design with a very high degree of attention to detail. Passive solar design. Virtually Fireproof and Seismically stable. Technical Details The Structural building materials used- glass, steel, and SIREWALL. All inorganic materials. A large steel shutter slides open and closed in front of the south window. The steel doors are 800# and the steel roof is 10,000#. The siding is 3/8″ Steel. The 24″ SIREWALL makes for an R33 wall.
Borough House plantation In 1821, maryland native, Dr. William W. Anderson used the rammed earth technique to rebuild the wings of the Borough House Plantation, which was the main building at his Hill Crest Plantation.
The doctors Office 106
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Copper House Las Vagas, Nevada Architects: assemblageSTUDIO Location: Las Vegas, Nevada, USA Landscape architect: Attanasio Landscape Architecture Project area: 8,000 sq. f.t Project year: 2009
This Building sits alongside a golfcourse at the Red Rock mountains with a view of the Las Vegas Strip, the site has a dramatic level change which runs from the front to the back of the site, and the design fits in the berm which allows daylight to all levels. the design shows connections throughout its exterier by vast perspectives within the internal environment. Roof decking allows unrestricted views to the mountains. The upper Level is supported on rammed earth walls grounding the design
(Case study from archdailey.com) 108
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PRECAST CONCRETE
ARCH3035
2014-2015
TECH Project 1: Material/Systems Study 110 By Brooke Avery (P1218751x) and Olivia Jarvis (P1218502x)
Introduction Off site construction methods, such as precast concrete are found to be extremely advantageous. Otherwise referred to as Modern Methods of Construction (MMC), off site construction reduces material waste, while still providing quality precast components within efficient time scales. Precast factories today work to decrease the negative effect the manufacturing process has on the environment by decreasing the demand on natural resources. This is achieved by reusing moulds and recycling unused materials, therefore limiting the amount of waste being sent to landfill sites. The manufacturing process consists of concrete being cast in reusable forms, before being cured in a controlled factory environment with accurate control methods. The final fabricated components are then transported on to site and pieced together using appropriate, pre planned connection methods. Precast concrete in terms of its properties increases strength and durability of the form. Its versatility means it can either be mass produced or crafted to unique specifications, depending on the proposed outcome. In its simplest form, concrete is a mixture of water, cement, sand and aggregates. A chemical process known as hydration takes place when the water and cement within the mixture react with one another. The raw materials used to make cement are compounds containing some of the earth’s most abundant elements such as calcium, silicon, aluminium, oxygen and iron. Water is fundamental in hydration. Initially the chemical reaction between the water and cement is relatively instant, causing the concrete to stiffen, and become hard. Once set, concrete continues to harden (cure) and becomes stronger over a long period of time, sometimes years. The strength of the concrete is determined by the water to cement ratio and the curing conditions. - A high water to cement ratio will produce a low strength concrete. - A low water to cement ratio results in high strength but low workability. Although the concrete will be strong, the lack of a ‘porous’ consistancy will make it difficult to evenly distribute the concrete mixture with in the precast moulds. - Most concrete is made with a water to cement ratio ranging from 0.35 to 0.6. Unreacted Cement
30% Reacted
70% Reacted
Fig 1. Break down of the cement mixture during the hydration process. To further enhance the strength of concrete, reinforcements (often in the form of steel rods) can be added to any concrete form. Components within the concrete mixture itself such as admixtures and aggregates can also be modified to ensure additional strength. Precast concrete is malleable when newly mixed but strong and durable once hardened. This undeniable strength has enabled precast concrete to be used extensively throughout the construction industry. From foundations and bearing frames to bridges and roads, concrete is predominantly considered a structural component. With this being said, its porous qualities, allowing it to be cast into any desired form has inspired architects and designers to take advantage of its ornamental possibilities.
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Brief History Concrete was initially discovered in Ancient Rome. At this time concrete was applied using the in-situ method whereby the concrete is formed and cured in place, on site. Concrete was ‘precast’ in the way that a form was pre-determined but not prefabricated within a controlled factory environment as it is today. Naturally concrete hardens in water therefore further improving its tensile strength. Due to this aqueducts and roads benefited greatly from the discovery of concrete. Although, concrete was extremely underdeveloped in Ancient Rome the Pantheon, which was built in c.126AD still stands to this day as the worlds largest unreinforced concrete dome. (Fig 2and 3) After the rapid decline of the Roman empire concrete construction became a rarity in construction until it’s practical qualities were reestablished in the late eighteenth century. By the nineteenth century architects and engineers were keen to experiment and develop the properties of concrete, mainly through reinforcement.
Fig 2.
Fig 3.
Aggregates and Admixtures Concretes extreme versatility, both through its aesthetic and physical properties, makes it a popular construction material. In relation to the physical properties of concrete, aggregates and admixtures have a great impact. Aggregates typically make up 60 to 80 percent of a concrete mixtures volume and 75 to 85 percent of its overall weight. Not only are aggregates used because cement is hugely costly but also because they help create thermal and elastic properties within concrete. The compressive strength, shape and texture of aggregates helps determine what type of aggregate should be used; fine or course. Depending on the desired outcome, admixtures are used to control and enhance the quality of concrete, both in its initial wet and later hardened state. There are four main groups of admixtures, all of which are classed as chemical admixtures:
Water-reducing admixtures - Commonly used in precast concrete, water-reducing admixtures are used to reduce the water content therefore increasing enhancing durability, quality and accelerated the strength of the concrete.
Retarders - Have been developed to allow for longer working times with minimal effect on the final cure strength. Retarders provide a better finish and higher quality of concrete if changes in temperature were to occur within the factory.
Air-entraining agents - Not only do air-entraining admixtures improve the durability and workability of con crete but they are also used to improve the freezing and thawing resistance of concrete.
Accelerators - Have been developed to initiate the cement hydration process much earlier in low temperatures. 112
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Manufacturing Process Although there is a specific manufacturing process that needs to be followed to ensure precast components are made correctly, the vast variety of different products produced by independent manufacturers means that this conventional process is often altered depending on the desired outcome. The manufacturing process described here is specific to how precast concrete products should be manufactured through the commonly used wet casting method. ‘Wet cast means that the concrete has a water-cement ratio of about 0.4 or higher’.1 To avoid problems occurring during and after the fabrication process, all architectural and engineering drawings must be agreed by the production team before the process can go ahead. These detailed drawings must include; dimensions of each component, centre of gravity, weight and concrete volume, reinforced steel, cast-in connectors, lifting and bracing locations, location of service conduits, blackouts, recesses, openings (windows) and jointing details between the separate components.
1) Depending on the scope of the project,
the moulds in which the concrete will be cast in need to be assembled. Wood, steel, synthetic rubber and polyester are likely to be used to create the moulds, the choice of which will depend on the complexity and number of pieces that are being cast. It is fundamental that each individual mould is precise in dimensions, completely watertight and undeniably strong in order to prevent deformation.
Fig 4. An overview of the manufacturing process.
2) It is important that each mould is individually cleaned free of debris and old mortars in order to ensure a workable surface area. A form oil or mould release agent is then applied evenly over the entire surface. Before progressing the bolting of each mould is checked to ensure they are appropriately secured and intact.
3) Reinforcement techniques and other design components are applied at this stage; including, fixing of rebars, cast in items, prestressing strands and reinforcement rods. While quality control during the whole manufacturing process is important, it is fundamental at this stage. Placement of any component added to the mould at this stage must be exact in order to ensure the concrete which is later poured into the mould will be able to completely cover all areas of the reinforced rods ect in order to protect the reinforcements against corrosion (because they are metal). Not doing this could have a large impact on the structural sustainability of the building.
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4) The predetermined components that make up the desired concrete mixture are combined and prepared for application. The concrete is then poured from no more than 1m in height away from the mould. Casting begins with manual labour used to distribute the concrete evenly along the mould while compaction is mechanically achieved with the use of high frequency vibration motors. - around congested areas. A power trowel, a piece of construction equipment, is then used smooth the surface area of the concrete component.
5) Once cast, depending on time and environmental conditions the concrete components are moved to a curing chamber to harden. The hydration process takes place during curing. The curing process must be able to maintain a satisfactory moisture content and temperature in freshly cast concrete over a fixed period of time, straight after placement.
6) Before the demoulding process can take place confirma-
tion that the concretes minimal strength has been achieved must be taken at 28 days. Demoulding involves disassemble the concrete component from its mould and must be carried out with the greatest care. Once all bolts are loosened and removed, suction and friction forces (equipment) are used to lift the concrete from the moulds.
Final inspection of the concrete components are carried out before being transferred to storage. Only when the concrete components have reached 75% of their initial design strength can they be transported on to site and installed using pre planned connection methods. Using precast concrete improves the speed of construction, enclosing the envelope on site quickly so other constructors can work.
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Precast Concrete REINFORCEMENT Techniques Reinforced concrete
Concrete is extremely strong in compression however very weak in tension (tensile strength), usually 1/10th of its compressive strength. Because of this, plain concrete cracks and breaks apart as soon as its tensile stress reaches its low tensile strength. It is inevitable that reinforced concrete will crack, prestressed concrete can be used to combat this.
Load bearing ‘plain’ concrete beam Compressive Stress
Tensile Stress To combat this problem reinforced steel is introduced into the tensile region (bottom) of the concrete beam. When the weight of the load begins to cause cracking in the concrete all the tensile stress is transferred and supported by the reinforced steel. Now working alongside the steel, the compression is still supported by the concrete. Load bearing reinforced concrete beam Compressive Stress in Concrete
Tensile Stress in Reinforced Steel Reinforced Steel
Hill Top House by Adrian James Architects, Oxford.
Deformed bars (Fig 5.) are most commonly used within reinforced concrete structures as their rigid shapes have a better bond with the concrete.
Fig 5. Fibre reinforced polymer and steel rods can be used however fibre rods can be brittle and cannot provide the strength that steel can.
Built in 2011, precast concrete panelling is explored in this design. 115
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Prestressed Concrete
Prestressed concrete is the concrete in which internal compressive stresses of a suitable magnitude and distribution are introduced so that stresses resulting from external loads are counteracted. Steel wires (prestressing tendons) are anchored to each end of the form prior to concrete application. Once hardened the wires are cut. When cut, the wires attempt to regain their original shape. External Load
Compressive Stresses Prestressing Wire An upward deflection (camber) is formed; compression pressure is created within the concrete. The compressive stresses now built into the concrete work to counteract the tensile stresses from the external load, preventing cracking and unplanned deflection. Camber As a reinforcement technique prestressed concrete is advantageous: - more economical for long span structures - cracking is delayed - the use of high strength steel and concrete can create lighter and more slender members And, disadvantageous: - for normal building structures costs can be high, however for long span bridges and high rise buildings it can be cost effective loss of prestress due to anchorage slip (when wire is cut) will weaken the prestressing force - Design and construction is more challenging
An example of a wedge anchor.
Pretensioned Prestressed Concrete
Prestressed concrete members can be ‘pretensioned’ in a precast construction environment. This involves prestressing the tendons before being cast in concrete. Although heavy, expensive casting beds are required, there is no need for permanent anchorage. To ensure a tight bond, only a small tendon diameter is required. The bond between concrete and steel transfers the force to the concrete.
Pretensioning tendons in casting bed Concrete is cast over the pretensioned tendons Prestressing force116 is released
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The Pont du Diable
by Architect Rudy Ricciotti and Engineer Romain Ricciotti.
Found in HĂŠrault, France this prestressed concrete footbridge has a single span structure; 70m long and 1.80m wide.
Self Compacting Concrete
A superplasticiser and stabiliser are added to self compacting concrete mixtures in order to increase the workability and rate in which the concrete flows into placement. Due to its unique properties self compacting concrete consolidates under its own weight, therefore eliminating reliance on vibration and manual labour when it comes to distributing the concrete. It is fundamental that all form work is able to resist the higher hydraulic pressure, than traditional concrete, as a result of the increased rate of concrete placement. - Can be affectively placed in difficult situations such as in the presence of congested reinforcement - Noise pollution is significantly reduced - Fast speed of placing (must be constant) - Unique forms can be achieved
Fig 6. Self compacting concrete being poured and consolidating under its own weight.
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Precast Concrete Precedents
Sheikh Zayed Bridge, Abu Dhabi by Zaha Hadid Architects. The bridge deck was cast in self compacting concrete.
Bold Haus, Germany by Thomas Bendel.
The tubular shell wrapping around the front and side of the house is made from precast concrete.
Landmark Tower, Abu Dhabi by CĂŠsar Pelli.
The foundations were constructed using self compacting concrete. It is the largest single concrete pour and would not have been achieved using any other type
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Case Study Maggie Centre, Swansea
Maggie Centre- Swansea
Location: Singleton Hospital, Sketty Lane, Swansea, SA2 8QL, United Kingdom Architect: Kisho Kurokawa, Garbers & James Architects Structural engineer: Arup Cost: £2.3Million Floor Area: 302m2 Use: Healthcare M+E Engineer: KJ Tait Landscape Architect: Kim Wilkie with Terra Firma Precast Concrete Supplier: Thorp Precast
‘Caring for those with cancer through counselling, relaxation, information and mutual support.’ In 2007, Thore Garbers met Kisho Kurokawa, who asked Garbers & James to realise the concept of a project that he had gifted as a token of his personal friendship for Maggie Keswick-Jencks. Garbers & James subsequently developed the design, produced all requisite construction documentation and led the wider design team to complete the architectural project.
The content of this case study are only to be used within De Monfort University, as both the images and detailed drawings where provided by both the Architect and Pre-cast concrete Supplier and is a request from both firms.
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Foundations
A single layer of concrete, typically several inches thick. The slab is poured thicker at the edges, to form an integral footing anchoring the foudations in place, preventing movement; reinforcing rods strengthen the thickened edge. The slab normally rests on a bed of crushed gravel to improve drainage.
Slab on grade foundations
Typical Slab on Grade formation. Cement board or Parging
Finished flooring Moisture barrier Gravel
Slab on grade foundations
Rigid insulation
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S t r u c t u r e . PRIMARY STRUCTURE
In-situ reinforced-concrete frame comprising columns and a ring beam at first-floor level. Reinforced concrete is a composite material in which concrete’s relatively low tensile strength and ductility are counteracted by the inclusion of reinforcement having higher tensile strength and ductility. Self compacting Concrete was used on the building not only because of the structural benefits it holds but also because it compacts the concrete making it denser than normal concrete also enhansing the passive solar gain the building has.
By having the columns in line with on and other this allows the tension to be transferred straight down the structure making the structure a lot stronger. Concrete, while quite strong in compression, fails quickly in tension by cracking. The transfer of tension from the horizontal beams to the vertical beams.
Compressional tensions is being pushed down through the columns and into the ground.
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Cladding The curving wall panels vary first in height – from over 4m to less than 1m high. They also vary in that some are convex and some concave. In addition, the top of each panel features a cornice that runs along the top edge of the walls, this cornice changes in profile, becoming slimmer as the panels reduce in size towards the end of the building’s “dragons’ tails”. Instead of creating more than 50 bespoke moulds, two master moulds where used – one to produce the panels for the two concave walls, the other to produce panels for the two longer, convex walls. The building’s symmetry meant that each panel was cast twice. To Achieve the different heights required to make the walls taper down, a former at the base of the mould was used, and once two panels had been cast this would be moved 200mm to produce the next two, slightly shorter, panels. The cornice had first to be cut from a plywood grid using a computer controlled (CNC) router. Thin strips of plywood were then attached to this framework to create the subtle curve of the cornice.
Cornice
Standing-seam zinc roof
Bright zinc was chosen for its rawness and ability to give a living feeling as it weathers and patinates. The surface of the material will change dramatically as it goes through this weathering process. The long tubular steel spine runs from the end of one dragon’s tail to the other via an elliptical loop, which supports the roof around a central circular rooflight. Timber rafters come off this spine like fishbones, and these were covered by a plywood ‘stress skin’ before the zinc cladding was applied. They then blew particle insulation into the voids between the rafters through specially drilled temporary holes.
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Cladding Many of the window openings which span across two adjacent panels and where big enough to compromise the structural integrity of an individual panel. To prevent breakage they cast in sacrificial jambs which were removed when the panels were firmly fixed into position on site. This technique involves creating thinner, less reinforced shapes within the panel which can be easily cut out on site to create the windows. The walls are enhanced and highlighted through the incorporation of sparkling platelets of titanium, embedded and framed within the concrete’s perfectly smooth surface. CNC polypropylene mould formers were used for each of the titanium platelets, accuratley postitioned and locatef in the correct orientation with the use of water jet cut platic templates.
Windows spanning two panels Sacrificial jambs
Sample’s of the titanium finish set flush into the concrete.
To make the concrete in the panels self compacting an addmixture of MP25 which is a liquid admixture for concrete which is used as an accelerating high range water reducer/superplasticiser. The concrete panels are reinforced with rebars ( reinforcement bars) these are set into the concrete with a coverage of 30MM using a mix of both 18MM and 8MM bars. Although the information can not be found the most common distribution of the reinforcement bars are a gird formations, where the bars are overlayed with on and other both vertically and horizontally, ( we could assume that the 18MM bars go in on direction and the 8MM bars go in the other) although we can not be certain. 123
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E x p l o d e d P r e c a s t Wa l l Pa n e l
Reinforcement bars.
Concrete columns and beams (primary structure)
300MM Ridgid insluation
Zinc Plates flush with the concrete
Timber Stub column
Precast concrete pannel
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Bibliography Pages One to Nine 1 - http://www.concretenetwork.com/precast-concrete/wet-cast.html http://www.bca.gov.sg/professionals/iquas/others/precastfabrication.pdf https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l9JybDuHcG4 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=azWhTo83eK4 http://www.sustainableprecast.ca/production_precast_concrete/precast_sustainability/canada/index.do http://matse1.matse.illinois.edu/concrete/prin.html http://www.cement.org/cement-concrete-basics/how-concrete-is-made http://www.engr.psu.edu/ce/courses/ce584/concrete/library/materials/Aggregate/Aggregatesmain.htm http://www.wrap.org.uk/sites/files/wrap/Pre-cast%20concrete%20-%20Full%20case%20study1.pdf http://www.aboutcivil.org/concrete-technology-admixtures.html http://www.theconcreteportal.com/scc.html https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e0SFbcWi5OM
Images Fig 1 - http://iti.northwestern.edu/cement/monograph/Monograph5_1.html Fig 2 - http://www.pinterest.com/pin/303993043572012780/ Fig 3 - http://www.pinterest.com/pin/498844096200121148/ Fig 4 - http://www.wrap.org.uk/sites/files/wrap/Precast%20REAP%20October%202013_0.pdf Fig 5 - http://www.tpub.com/engbas/7-4.htm Fig 6 - http://www.indiamart.com/icomat/testing-services.html - self compacting concrete Additional Images http://www.bca.gov.sg/professionals/iquas/others/precastfabrication.pdf https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=azWhTo83eK4 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l9JybDuHcG4
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Sheet Metal Arch 3035 November 2014 Project 1: Materials/System Studies Report Esther Akanni P12185979
Bennifer Atie P12187386
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Contents 3 Sheet Metal
19
3
Introduction
4
History
5 6 7 8 9
Sheet Metal Processes i. Punching Process ii. Blanking Process iii. Bending Process iv. Deep Drawing Process
10
Copper
11
Aluminium
12
Lead
13
Steel
14
Zinc
16
Metal Sheet Library
Case Study: Riverside Museum 21
The Site
22
Rheinzink
24
Structure
28
Materiality
29
Axonometric of Building Envelope
30 References 127
Introduction
Sheet Metal Leaf
Sheet Metal Plate
Many applications today incorporate sheet metal in one way or the other. It is used for roofing, window ledges, cladding, furniture, car bodies, aircraft ie. airplane wings and signs.
desirable to the eye, easy to work and more expensive. Examples of this type includes aluminium, copper, lead, brass, silver and lead. They create a protective oxide layer on their surface to prevent excessive corrosion.
Sheet metal is metal that has been formed into thin and flat pieces creating a light weight sheet. Its thin and light weight characteristics make it ideal for bending, shaping, folding and cutting. Burke, A. (2014) There are 2 types of metals - ferrous and non-ferrous metals. Ferrous Metals contain iron; these include steel, cast iron and wrought iron. They are seen as the strongest metals however they tend to oxidise easily. Non-ferrous metals are
Sheet metal varies in thickness, and is measured in thickness or gauge. The higher the gauge, the thinner the metal. Extremely thin sheet metal is considered a “leaf” and sheet metal thicker than six millimetres is a “plate.” Sheet metal is available in a variety of materials including aluminium, steel, copper, zinc, tin, bronze, titanium, brass and nickel.
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History
Sketch of a Rolling Mill. Leonardo da Vinci 1485
Rolling Mill used to roll sheets of lead
During prehistoric times, metal sheets were used to make swords, canons and the armour of soldiers. The introduction of the rolling mill was the turning point in sheet metal production; the first rolling mill was attributed by Leonardo da Vinci in 1480. In the sixteenth century there were two reports of the rolling mill being used as finishing devices rather than reducing the thickness of the metal. Gorgazzi, G. (2014). Towards the last half of the sixteenth century the cold rolling of metal, mainly with lead, began to become more important and was used for roofing and other applications like organ pipes.
Casting Machine
The most pricey buildings, during the eighteenth century, were the only ones that made use of sheet metal roofing. During the eighteenth century more complex shapes were rolled, including round and square shapes, double T-beams etc. By the beginning of the nineteenth century, the rolling mill structure became an essential. New rolling methods made sheet metal less expensive, which made it become a common roofing material especially in the cities. In the twentieth century steel sheet roofs became widespread. Prelaq. (2014).
End of the rolling train where the finished strip is wound into large coils.
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Rolling of metal sheets
Esther Akanni P12185979 Bennifer Atie P12187386
Sheet Metal Processes
There is a variety of sheet metal manufacturing processes, majority can be placed into two categories - forming and cutting. Custom Part. (2009). upper shear blade
(movable) workholding
length
workpiece
fracture
lower shear blade
(stationary) Figure 1: Shearing Process
Cutting processes is where the force that has been applied causes the material to fail and separate, allowing the material to be cut or removed. Majority of the cutting processes use an adequate shearing force to separate the material, referred to as the shearing process. Custom Part. (2009). Sheet metal cutting with a shear includes shearing, blanking and punching. Shearing is the cutting process that is used to cut a straight line on a flat metal piece (see Figure 1), this is typically used for separation of large sheets. An upper and lower blade are forced past each other with space between them, designated by an offset. Generally one of the blades stays stationary. It is able to cut small lengths of material because the shearing blades can be mounted at an angle, reducing the shearing force that was necessary. Normally the upper shear blade is fixed at an angle to the lower shear blade that is usually fixed horizontally. Aluminium, brass, bronze, stainless steel are metals commonly sheared. Advantage Fabricated Materials. (2009).
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Punching Process
Punching Operations
Cutoff
Notching
Parting
Perforating
Piercing
Slitting
punch
workpiece
clearance
Slotting die
scrap
Figure 2: Punching Process Punching is where the material is removed, named slug becomes scrap each time the punch enters the punching die (see Figure 2). This process leaves a hole in the metal sheet and is able to quickly produce holes of various shapes. The diameter of the punch determines the size of the hole created in the workpiece. Advantage Fabricated Materials. (2009).
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Trimming
Esther Akanni P12185979 Bennifer Atie P12187386
Blanking Process
parent stock
punch
of workpiece
Blanking is where the blank is removed from the primary metal sheet once punched (see Figure 3), this can be used to cut out parts and multiple sheets can be blanked in one single operation. It is able to make straight line cuts on a flat sheet stock and quickly produce holes of various shapes. The common materials used for blanking include aluminium, brass, bronze and stainless steel. Advantage Fabricated Materials. (2009).
part burr
die
Fine Blanking fracture
Fine blanking is a type of blanking process that compresses and shears the metal sheet simultaneously in order to reduce the amount of tearing along the edge, producing blanks with smooth edges. Custom Part. (2009).
Figure 3: Blanking Process
Blanking Process By Hand
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Bending Process
Bending is where the metal sheet is strained around a straight axis to take a permanent bend. The bend interior side is compressed and the exterior side is stretched. Advantage Fabricated Materials. (2009). Straight Flanging
Stretch Flanging
There are two commonly used bending processes: v-bending and edge bending, additional bending processes include flanging, hemming, seaming and curling. V-bending is operated with a v-shaped punch and die, the sheet metal blank is bent in between the punch and die (see Figure 4). V-dies are simple and inexpensive making it useful for low production. Edge bending operates by compressing the sheet metal between two flat dies and the punch is used to bend an extended portion of the sheet over the lower corner of the wiping die (see Figure 5). This operation is common for high production. Tooling U-SME. (2014). Flanging bends the edge of a part to add stiffness, majority of the time it creates a 90째 bend in the metal sheet. Tooling U-SME. (2014). Hemming bends and folds the edge of the sheet metal back upon itself, this operation hides the sharp edge of the sheet metal. Tooling U-SME. (2014).
Shrink Flanging
Seaming joins the interlocking edges of two separate metal sheets together by folding them over one another. Tooling U-SME. (2014).
punch
pressure pad punch
Hemming stock stock
Seaming die
Figure 3: V-Bending Process
die
Figure 5: Edge Bending Process
Forming Equipment
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Deep Drawing Process
drawing force
blank
drawn part
Figure 6: Deep Drawing Process
punch pressure
Deep drawing is where the sheet metal blank is placed over a shaped die and the metal is pressed into the die with a punch in order to create convex or concave shapes (see Figure 6). The sheet metal piece can be formed to make a cylindrical or box-shape and any other complex-curved with straight or tapered sides or a combination of tapered, curved or straight sides. The punch provides a great enough force in order for the sheet metal that is drawn over the edge of the die opening to flow into the die. An example from this drawing process is automobile body panels and beverage cans. Advantage Fabricated Materials. (2009).
pad blank
die
stripping workpiece
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action
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Copper
Sauna Pavilion, Artifact Design Copper Facts: - High thermal and electrical conductivity. Melting point of 1,220 °F - Can be easily joined by soldering or brazing. - Easy to alloy especially with tin, zinc and lead. These combinations create a range of brasses. - Tough – Tensile Strength 29.0ksi (200Mpa) - Color – Golden Red, high reflectivity when new. - U Value – 0.09 W/m2K - Low Fabrication & Insulation cost.
Weathering Process
Copper is a common metal that can be created into sheet metal. It is used for roofing, cladding, decorative purposes, wiring and water and heating systems. It has a high thermal and electrical conductivity and is corrosion resistant, tough and recyclable. Copper can be easily joined by soldering or brazing and is easy to alloy, for example it is able to alloyed with tin, zinc and lead in order to form a range of brasses. It is non-magnetic making it ideal for small electrical devices. When copper is new it is a golden red colour and highly reflective however when it’s weathered it becomes a green colour. Copper has several finishes natural weathering, chemical colouring, clear coatings, opaque coatings and lead coating. Natural weathering changes from natural salmon pink colour through series of russet brown shades to light and dark chocolate browns and finally to the ultimate blue-green or green-grey patina. Clear coatings act as a weather barrier preventing further oxidation of copper, brass and bronze surfaces. Copper Development Association Inc.. (2014). Copper can not be placed with any other material unless positioned in a way that water flowing from another material does not come into contact with it. This is because certain materials such as cedar are chemically incompatible. Direct contact can cause the copper to deteriorate prematurely.
Copper Weathering Process
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Aluminum
Aluminum Facts: - Flexibility in surface finishes - Low maintenance - Low cost in use - Natural built in durability but most aluminum products are treated or coated - High reflectivity - Fire safety: doesn’t burn - Medium reflectivity - Medium grey when new, does not weather - Cost of Fabrication & Insulation is low - U Value – 0.23 W/m2K - Can be recycled easily and
Empire State Building, William F. Lamb
Aluminium is one of the most common metals that can be created into sheet metal. Only discovered over two hundred years ago, until after the beginning of the twentieth century aluminium was unavailable at a reasonable cost or in sufficient quantities for architectural use. Its use increased in the 1920s, mainly for decorative detailing, roofing, gutters, wall panels and many more applications. Its first extensive use in construction was in the Empire State Building, designed by William F. Lamb; the tower portion, entrances, elevator doors, ornamental trims, window spandrels are all made from aluminium. The Aluminium Association . (2014). Aluminium is used for flashings, sills, long span roof systems because the live loads are compared with dead loads and it covers large span areas like halls, shopping centres, stadiums and auditoriums. Aluminium is used with structures located in accessible places e.g. electrical transmission towers and structures in corrosive or humid environment e.g. swimming pools and river bridges.
Aluminium has a natural built in durability because it is made from alloys making it weather-proof and corrosion resistant. It is strong at a low temperature and increases tensile strength, retaining its toughness. It is flexible in surface finishes - the most common finishes are in anodising and painting in any colour. Aluminium doesn’t burn, industrial roofs and external walls are increasingly made from thin aluminium cladding panels that are intended to melt during a major fire allowing heat and smoke to escape minimising damage.
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Lead
Kresge Auditorium, Eero Saarinen and Associates Lead Facts: - Low melting point - Low tensile strength - Low reflectivity - Originally dark grey however weathers into grey/black after 10 years -Low fabrication cost - Medium insulation cost - One of the most weather resistant materials
Lead is a soft, heavy metal that can be easily formed into sheet metal. Mars Metal. (2014). It has been around the longest. It has a bright bluish white lustre when cut but changes to a dull grey once exposed to air. Leads properties make it useful for a wide range of applications, it is easily alloyed with other metals which helps strengthens lead as it has a low tensile strength. It is toxic, ductile and a poor conductor of electricity. Lead is resistant to corrosion, that’s why lead pipes are still being used as drains from baths; additionally it is good for roofing because of its resistance to acid rain. It is waterproof and commonly used as the waterproof barrier beneath fountains and shower stall bases. Mars Metal. (2014). It requires low maintenance. Lead sheet is used in chemical industries as well as construction for roofing, flashing, cladding, flooring, soundproofing and vibration damping.
Mining Archives, Von Gerkan, Marg and Partners
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Zinc
Princess Alexandra Auditorium, Associated Architects LLP Zinc Facts: - Low melting point: 788° F - High Strength - Low cost, medium cost to install - High Strength : 4.0 – 12.0 ksi (110 – 200 Mpa) - Recyclable - Lightweight - Hard and Brittle - High reflectivity - Corrodes easily
Zinc was discovered in the sixteenth century, used to create distinctive long lasting architectural buildings and is primarily used to galvanize iron and steel in order to protect corrosion. Metal Sheets. (2014). It is compatible with aluminium and stainless steel and is hard and brittle. It has a low melting point and nobility, low cost and is high strength. It is able to resist corrosion because of its good barrier protection Zinc is a bluish grey metal that reacts readily with oxygen; it has a natural weathering finish bright zinc sheet roofing develops to a light grey patina within six months to two years depending on the atmosphere. Zinc is used for flashings and roofing, gutter line products, table tops and is also used in alloys like brass, nickel, silver and aluminium.
Zinc clad roof.
Weathering Process
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upper flexible belt open pool
cooling
strip
coolant
lower
units
flexible belt
installation
stand mills
continuous strip casting machine
Zinc transportation, must always be protected as it corrodes easily
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Steel
Steel Facts: - High Luster: shiny metal with an attractive finish - High Melting point 2,640° F – 2,780 ° F - Transfers heat and electricity - Steel be rolled into thin sheets, rod, bar or beams. Roofing and structural - Steel has a low cost of fabrication & instillation cost. - High Reflectivity - U Value – 0.12 W/m2K
Navvies Bridge
Steel is one of the most popular metals. Within sheet metal it comes in different grades - carbon steel, alloy steel, stainless steel and tool steel. Steel is a combination of different metals, mostly tin. It is an alloy of iron and carbon and is commonly used because of its hardness and tensile strength. Steel has a good conductivity as it is able to transfer heat and electricity and has good durability. It is a flexible material as it can be rolled into thin sheets, bar or beams, which is good for roofing and structures. Steel is tough making it very strong and resistant to fracture. It is used for roofing, bridge deck plates, sports stadiums and stations.
Sudwestmetal Reutlinger, Allmann Sattler Wappner
Weathering Process
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Metal Sheet Library Zinc Sheet Metal Pre weathered zinc - Undergoes a pre-patination process in order to get its color. Pr-weathered zinc will not weather once installed as its already weathered.
Tinted Zinc
Unfinished Zinc - Natural unaltered.
Steel Sheet Metal Galvanized Steel - A zinc coating has been applied in order to prevent rusting.
Steel Cor-Ten - Steel which has already weathered and forms a rust like appearance.
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Sudwestmetal Reutlinger, Allmann Sattler Wappner
Aluminum Sheet Metal Embossed Aluminum - Sheet metal is passed through patterned rollers.
Expanded Aluminum - The metal sheet has been slit and stretched to make openings in various patterns and sizes.
Hydro Forming Aluminum - A high pressured hydraulic liquid is used with a mold to shape the sheet metal into its desired shape.
Zita Kern
Aluminum Foam
Anodized Aluminum
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Bronze & Copper Sheet Metal Embossed Bronze | Copper
Milled Bronze | Copper
Stainless Sheet Metal Embossed Stainless Steel
Expanded | Weaved Stainless Steel
Stainless Steel
Sprintecture H
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Case Study Zaha Hadid Architects Riverside Museum, Glasgow
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Zaha Hadid Architects Riverside Museum, Glasgow, Scotland, UK Climate: Oceanic Climate Highest Temperature: 36°C Lowest Temperature: -12.5 °C Client: Glasgow City Council Year Project Begun: 2004 Year Project Completed: 2011 Total Cost: £60m Floor Area: 11,300m2 Building Type: Public Building - Arts & Culture Engineer: Buro Happold Structural Engineer: Buro Happold
Steel Frame
Riverside Museum is a transport museum located in Glasgow. It is situated along the industrial waterfront of the River Clyde. It houses various transport artifacts which showcase Glasgow’s rich past from maritime to the early mid 20th century. Glasgow Life. (2014)The concept of the Riverside Museum originated from its surrounding context, the idea was to create a structure that looks like its flowing from the city to the river. The relationship of the river and the city is showcased within the plan of this structure as exhibits have been placed to connect with large spaces. Visitors get a sense of the surrounding context as they flow from exhibit to exhibit. Zaha Hadid Architects are known for making buildings, which construe its surrounding context.
connections. These cans were welded vertical but at slopes on the ridges and valley these cans were adapted to accommodate the angle between rafters. Due to the complex shape of the structure parts of the structure had to be prefabricated. Complex rafters were assembled using EDM setting systems and shop jigs this enabled the building process to be quick as well as precise. This process also helps position critical splice connection holes. T.J.M. Kennie, G. Petrie. (2010). Virtual wires were allowed to be added in order to check its end position. The beauty of this building comes from the shape and materials used. The fabricated zinc known as Rheinzink reflects the waterside surroundings. This 0.8mm metal sheet cladding follows the contours of the façade and roof, which is seen as the fifth elevation.
This tunnel like structure is open at both ends zig zaging along a linear path. Structural mullions located at both ends of the structure support the roof but also support the glazed facades. This means that there is no need for a secondary form of support. The flowing roof is held up by a steel structure, which form the folds within the roof. The roof is formed from a sequence of ridges and valleys that change in height and width from each gable. This means none of the structural members (rafters) will be symmetrically the same. Dezeen. (2011)The rafters have also not straight in plan view. They are a sequence of facets that change direction within each valley. A facet is a face of a column, which has been cut in a polygonal form. Dictionary. (2008) Cylindrical cans were used to connect bracing and other structural members this was done to adapt to the change in line and to aid these
Zinc Facts: Has a low melting point of 788 °F Tensile strength 4.0-12.o ksi Least noble sheet metal. Low Fabrication Cost Medium Instillation Cost High reflectivity when it hasn’t been per-weathered.
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The Site
Plans & Sections of Riverside Museum. 1. External building envelope and cladding by Rheinzink 2. Glass-fibre reinforced gypsum fillet 3.Internal plasterboard lining on supporting structure 4. Horizontal continuous fire break in wall cavity. 5. Air plenum in wall cavity 6. Acoustic lining 7. 175mm polished concrete screed 8. Structural slab 9. Glass-fibre reinforced gypsum service strip to conceal services 10. 700mm structural zone 11. Ceiling lining on contractor- designed substructure
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Rheinzink To create zinc, zinc ore is crushed into particles. The zinc is then crushed into particles and concentrated by flotation. The zinc is then cast on a continuous rotating cylinder and then rolled using pressure rollers to a specific thickness. This process also increases its tensile strength. Copper and titanium alloys are added in the furnace in order to strengthen the material. This is how Rheinzink is also formed. Rheinzink is a trade name for titanium zinc. Rheinzink strips are produced from liquid metal in the form of a coil using a continuous process. This process has been illustrated in the diagram to the right. The Rheinzink requires no maintenance as it has a long life span of over a century. As metal cladding is exposed to different weather conditions, patina is formed which further protects the cladding from corrosion. In this case the zinc cladding used has undergone a per-weathering process this means that the colour will change and will not change again once installed. This process does not affect its protective properties. Rheinzink . (2013)
Within the roof structure the deep valleys have become the gutters. Water flows to the downpipes which are located within the mullions located on the north facade. The use of this gutter system means there are no requirement for external gutters. Parnell, S. (2011).
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This specific pre weathered Rheinzink was used due to the situation of the building as well as the weather conditions within that area. If non-pre weathered zinc was used this would of resulted to a build up and excessive water retention, which can cause damage to the structure in the long term. American Galvanizers Association. (2014). This diagram demonstrates how zinc reacts to compounds in the atmosphere. Hamilton, L. (2013). Zinc reacts with carbon dioxide, which develops into zinc carbonate. As mentioned previously this process does not affects its structural integrity but forms a blue-grayish patina in order to protect the material. It does not affect the structural integrity because the film of zinc carbonate limits the
amount of oxygen to the surface. Depending on pollution mainly in industrial environments this protective film can be washed away because the sulfurous and sulfuric acid turn zinc carbonate into zinc sulphate which is soluble. Bell, V Rand, P. (2006). With other metal materials they form rust this is why a protective layer of zinc is added to protects its structural integrity.
1. 0.8 Rheinzink paneling on adjustable cladding rails. 2. 25 mm standing seam 3. Polythene separating layer/breather membrane 4.200mm non-combustible mineral wool 5. Vapor Barrier 6. Trapezoidal section metal sheeting 140mm deep 7. Steel Structure 8. Ceiling
Rheinzink is available in a range of colors. It is also available per-weathered. To get its colour the zinc metal sheets are coated with PVDF paint finish. This does not affects its quality. Despite the color change it is UV resistant and 100% recyclable. The diagram above displays what is added to sheet metal in order to give it its colour and protect it.
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Structure
Tertiary Structure has been highlighted in yellow. The tertiary structure has been made up of the ceiling hangers and trays. The primary structure has been highlighted in orange the primary structure is made up of a steel frame. The foundation (sub structure) has been highlighted in red. The substructure is a concrete slab which supports the building and helps to transmit the load of the structure to the underlying soil.
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Tertiary Structure Primary Structure Substructure
Sandwich Insulating Panel
1. Steel Structure 2. Wooden insulation panel 3. Separating membrane 4. Stand Seam Cladding
This method of insulation can be used on timber structures as well as steel. Wooden panel is used in order to support the sheet metal cladding. This often done with delicate metals.
Primary Structure The primary structure is made up of the concrete slab, steel frame and steel trays. It can also be argued that the double layer of mineral wool is apart of the primary structure as it is rigid and the zinc cladding rest upon this for support. Secondary Structure The secondary structure is made up from the cladding and the concrete floor.
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The double standing seam was purposely used as it is watertight. It is often used within pitched roofs. To create this seam it can be done by hand or machine. The angles seam is very similar to the double standing seam the broad appearance of the seam increases its optical effect. This seam is only folded once. This seam is only used for pitches more than 25 degrees. In this case this seam was used for the facade. The metal cladding covers the facade and roof so seamlessly it appears as if fabric has been draped over the profile.
Double Standing Seam
Angled Standing Seam
Staggered Joint Cladding
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This structure was created to house various transport artifacts as well as this the aim was to have a U-Value of 0.20 W/m2K. This was seen as a challenge due to the size of the structure, roof specialist contractor Varla began to hunt for a material which meets the specification. A double Knauf Insulation’s FactoryClad 32 was used because of its properties it being flexible which was an extremely important factor due to the form of the roof and light weight. It has high tear strength and a thermal conductivity of 0.032 W/mK. Kalzip. (2014).
The building envelope is the physical separator which separates the conditioned and unconditioned environment. This includes the structures resistance to air, water, heat, light and noise. In order to measure the effectiveness of a building envelope I would need to evaluate how efficient the structure is from weathering.
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Materiality
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Axonometric of Building Envelope
1
2
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1, Standing seam Rheinzink cladding (pre-weathered blue-grey) to 375mm cladding zone and secondary support structure. 2. Primary steel structure from standard sections (700mm zone) 3. Glass reinforced gypsum ceiling lining (125mm zone) on MF suspension system 4. Recessed cold cathode lighting 5. Service grille (powder coated) concealing ventilation and emergency lighting 6. Acoustic wall lining from BG Rigitone board and bespoke GRG elelments, 7. Vertical movement joints expressing architectural concept of pleated movement 8. Power floated slab with cast in floor boxes 9. Structural Slab 10. Under slab fully accessible super-trenches connecting building areas to plant rooms 11. Recessed skirting detail including sockets 12. Ducts and air plenum in wall cavity to service exhibition space 13.Vertical fire break in wall cavity 14. Vesda smoke detection system hidden in gable jointline.
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References Print used: T.J.M. Kennie, G. Petrie. (2010). EDM Instruments and Applications. In: T.J.M. Kennie, G. Petrie Engineering Surveying Technology. Oxon: CRC Press. 24-25. Bell, V Rand, P. (2006). Metals. In: Tennent, S Materials for Architectural Design. London: Laurence King Publishing. 145 - 157. Websites used: Advantage Fabricated Materials. (2009). Blanking. Available: http://www.advantagefabricatedmetals.com/blanking-process.html. Last accessed 13 November 2014. Advantage Fabricated Materials. (2014). Shearing. Available: http://www.advantagefabricatedmetals.com/shearing-process.html. Last accessed 13 November 2014. Burke, A. How Is Sheet Metal Produced?. Available: http://www.ehow.com/how-does_4964225_how-sheet-metalproduced.html. Last accessed 11 October 2014. Copper Development Association Inc.. (2014). Finishes. Available: http://www.copper.org/applications/architecture/ arch_dhb/additional/finishes/. Last accessed 14 November 2014. Custom Part. (2009). Sheet Metal Cutting (Shearing). Available: http://www.custompartnet.com/wu/sheet-metal-shearing. Last accessed 13 November 2014. Custom Part. (2009). Sheet Metal Forming. Available: http://www.custompartnet.com/wu/sheet-metal-forming. Last accessed 13 November 2014. Dezeen. (2011). Riverside Museum by Zaha Hadid Architects. Available: http://www.dezeen.com/2011/06/10/riverside-museum-by-zaha-hadid-architects/. Last accessed 14thNov 2014 Dictionary. (2008). Facet. Available: http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/facet. Last accessed 14th Nov 2014. Efunda. (2014). Bending: Introduction. Available: http://www.efunda.com/processes/metal_processing/bending.cfm. Last accessed 13 November 2014. erican Galvanizers Association. (2014). Physical Properties. Available: http://archive.galvanizeit.org/about-hot-dip-galvanizing/what-is-hot-dip-galvanizing/the-hdg-coating/physical-properties/. Last accessed 14th Nov 2014. Glasgow Life. (2014). About Riverside Museum. Available: http://www.glasgowlife.org.uk/museums/riverside/about/ Pages/default.aspx. Last accessed 14th Nov 2014 Gorgazzi, G. (2014). A Short Sheet Metal History. Available: http://www.metalworkingworldmagazine.com/a-shortsheet-metal-history/. Last accessed 9 November 2014. International Training Institute. (2013). What is Sheet Metal?.Available: https://www.sheetmetal-iti.org/about/what_is_ sheetmetal.shtml. Last accessed 8 October 2014. Kalzip. (2014). Folding types for roofs. Available: http://www.kalzip.com/kalzip/uk/products/foldables_Falzarten.html. Last accessed 15th Nov 2014. Knauf. (2014). Case Study: River Museum. Available: http://www.knaufinsulation.co.uk/en-gb/case-studies/all-casestudies/glasgow-museum-of-transport.aspx#axzz3J5JcT8fX. Last accessed 15th Nov 2014. Library of Manufacturing. Sheet Metal Forming Basics.Available: http://thelibraryofmanufacturing.com/sheetmetal_basics.html. Last accessed 13 November 2014.
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Mars Metal. (2014). Sheet Lead Overview. Available: http://marsmetal.com/sheet-lead/sheet-lead-overview/. Last accessed 14 November 2014. Metal Sheets. (2014). Zinc Sheet. Available: http://www.metalsheets.co.uk/pages/zinc-sheets. Last accessed 14 November 2014. Parnell, S. (2011). Zaha Hadid Architects’ Riverside museum in Glasgow. Available: http://www.bdonline. co.uk/5020256.article. Last accessed 14th Nov 2014. Prelaq. (2014). History of Sheet Steel. Available: http://www.ssab.com/en/Brands/Prelaq/Products/What-is-Prelaq/ Brief-history-of-sheet-steel/. Last accessed 13 November 2014. Rheinzink . (2013). Patina Line. Available: http://www.rheinzink.co.uk/fileadmin/inhalt/bilder/ebooks/62320192951551491d2dc2/index_en.html. Last accessed 14th Nov 2014. Schumann M; Simoes D. (2001). Choosing a Lubricant for Deep Drawing. Available: http://www.thefabricator.com/ article/stamping/choosing-a-lubricant-for-deep-drawing. Last accessed 13 November 2014. Sheet Metal Workers’ Local 36. (2009). Sheet Metal History - Centuries of Craftmanship. Available: https://www. sheetmetal36.org/about_history.html. Last accessed 10 October 2014. SheetMetalMe. (2011). Sheet Metal Hems. Available: http://sheetmetal.me/sheet-metal-hems/. Last accessed 13 November 2014. St Ann’s Sheet Metal. (2014). Blanking - Metal Processes. Available: http://www.sheetmetal.uk.com/processes/blanking-metal-process.htm. Last accessed 13 November 2014. The Aluminium Association . (2014). Building & Construction. Available: http://www.aluminum.org/product-markets/ building-construction. Last accessed 14 November 2014. Tooling U-SME. (2014). Punch and Die Operations 120. Available: http://www.toolingu.com/class-400120-punch-anddie-operations-120.html. Last accessed 13 November 2014. Ulbrich. (2014). The Mechanics of Rolling Metal & Leonardo da Vinci?.Available: http://www.ulbrich.com/ulbrichstainless-steels-and-special-metals-blog/entry/the-mechanics-of-rolling-metal-leonardo-da-vinci. Last accessed 6 November 2014 . W Fundamentals of Zinc Roofing. Available: http://www.wadearch.com/author/ssd/page/7/. Last accessed 14th Nov 2014.
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SLATE
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OLUWADAMILOLA ODIAHI & STEPHEN OSHO
FORMATIION Slate is a fine-grained, foliated, homogeneous metamorphic rock derived from an original shale-type sedimentary rock composed of clay or volcanic ash through low-grade regional metamorphism. Sedimentary rocks are formed through the deposition and solidification of sediment, transported by rivers, lakes, oceans, glaciers and wind. Sedimentary rocks are often deposited in layers. Shale is a fine-grained sedimentary rock that forms from the compaction of silt and clay-size mineral particles that we commonly call "mud". The foliation of slate does not coincide with the layering or foliation of the original shale. Foliation in regionally metamorphosed sediments runs perpendicular to the direction of the forces of metamorphism. Slate is the finest grained foliated metamorphic rock. Slate is found worldwide in geologic settings where the continental crust is compacted and folded by the collision of two continental plates. Worldwide, significant slate occurrences are found in Wales, England, Italy, Portugal, Germany, Brazil, USA and China.
During metamorphosis, the molecules align such that the resulting rock exhibits perfectly cleaved layers that are both broad and thin, a characteristic known as slaty cleavage. This attribute of slate gives it its two lines of breakability: cleavage and grain, which make it possible to split the stone into thin sheets. When broken, slate retains a natural appearance while remaining relatively flat and easily stackable.
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HISTORY WALES Slate has been recognized as a building and roofing material since the Roman Period. Roman forts used slates for its roofs and floors. During the mediaeval period, there were small scale quarries. Between 1831 and 1882 the population of England and Wales increased from 8.8 million in 1801 to 29.9 million in 1881, meaning an industrial boom, leading into a vast increase in the production of slate. The introduction of the railway and private companies also connecting quarries to the coast, meant a reduction in freight charges, and the development of ports. In the 1880’s there was a depression in the building trade, the value of slate fell and there were many industrial disputes amongst the trade. With competition growing smaller companies were forced to close or sell to bigger companies. The amount of exporting to foreign countries also fell, added to this was the increase in importing of cheaper slates to the UK from other European countries and the USA. The Great War saw the closure of many quarries and in 1917, slate quarrying was declared a non-essential industry. Quarries continued to make a loss during the 1920’s and 30’s, and roofing tiles were used more by the building industry. The 1930’s saw an increase in the building industry but this did not mean an increase for the slate industry. In 1935 the production of roofing tiles was 1,200,000 tons compared to 271000 for slate. With another was in 1939 the demand for slate fell further. By 1940 around 4600 men had left the industry for the armed forces. The bombing of towns did lead to a increase in demand for repairs, but skilled labour was scarce. There was even an order for the repair of war-damaged houses. The main problem was the price of slate compared to other materials like concrete tiles. Modern machinery was put in place to make the industry more cost effective but it could not stop the decline of the Wales Slate Industry. ENGLAND The most significant quarries in England are in Devon and Cornwall. The slate was of fair quality and was mainly used for walling and flooring. Quarrying was also significant in the Starvton area on the bank of the river Dart. This quarry dates back to 1338 when slate from the area was used to roof the building Darlington Hall. Notably Delabole slates date back to the 17th Century till today without a break in production. Today there are only 5 workers but modern techniques are used.
SCOTLAND Scottish slate came into common use by the late 1600's. Slate quarrying in Scotland ceased in the 1950’s due to the reject of traditional building materials for modern materials. However the conservation movement helped to revive interest for restorations and some new builds. This though is a contradiction, as there is no longer slate quarrying in Scotland the slates being used are second hand, from the very buildings they hoped to preserve. IRELAND The Irish slate industry only started in earnest by the 1830's. Quarrying at Portroe resumed in 1923 after the Troubles until 159 for architectural purposes and for the tourist trade rather than 1956. Production was resumed in 1991 with slate being produced for roofing specifically.
OVERBURDEN REMOVAL
TRANSPORTATION TO STORAGE
EXTRACTION
After the face of the deposit is exposed, the stone is removed from the quarry in layers or slabs. Extraction is accomplished by introducing a small explosive charge to the deposit or cutting through the stone with a diamond belt saw.
The first step in quarrying is to gain access to the slate deposit. It is achieved by removing the layer of earth, vegetation, and rock unsuitable for product— collectively referred to as overburden—with heavy equipment and transferring to onsite storage for potential use in later reclamation of the site.
QUARRYING BACKFILLING
SCRAP STONE
PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM FOR SLATE QUARRYING OPERATIONS
TRANSPORTING TO PROCESSING FACILITY
Once the slabs are secured on the heavy machinery, they are transferred to an inspection area for grading, temporary storage, and eventual shipment from the site.
PRIMARY CUTTING/ PRODUCT SHAPING
This is often done using a circular blade saw, but a diamond wire saw, splitter, or steelshot-blade system can also be implemented.
TRANSPORTATION & STORAGE
Once the slabs are secured on the heavy machinery, they are transferred to an inspection area for grading, temporary storage, and eventual shipment from the site.
SPLITTING
FINISHING
Splitting can be accomplished manually with the use of chisels and hammers or with automatic and semi-automatic splitting machines. Naturalfaced products such as roofing, may be completed with this step.
SECONDARY CUTTING/ PRODUCT SHAPING
PACKAGING
A secondary shaping may be necessary if the product includes any feature or custom size or shapes. Power drills, punchers and trimmers are mostly utilised here.
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TRANSPORTATION TO STORAGE
QUARRYING BACKFILLING
TRANSPORTATION & STORAGE
SCRAP STONE
PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM FOR SLATE PROCESSING OPERATIONS
CRUSHING AT CRUSHING FACILITY
CRUSHING AT CRUSHING FACILITY
APPLICATION Slate has been used for the following applications walling, roofing, damp proofing, cladding, flooring, garden décor, electric switchboards and relay controls for large electric motors (early 20th century), and for blackboards and billiard table tops (18th and 19th century). As a building material slate is most commonly used as tiles on roofs, but not exclusively. It can also be used for walling, cladding, flooring, and used in the past as a damp proof course. DAMP PROOFING From 1870 onwards Victorian homes, used slate as a damp proof course. Moisture can enter walls from 3 directions; the soil upwards, from rain, and from humidity. Being one of the most durable materials around, slate was an effective choice in controlling damp. The method involved applying a double layer of slate between bricks low to the foundation, with the second layer offset from the first and covering the cracks between the pieces.
FLOORING As a flooring material slate can be used both indoor and outdoor. It is imperious to sunlight, water staining, fire and heavy wear. It Is also extremely durable and slip resistant and provides a natural appearance for contemporary and traditional designs.
WALLING Slate has also been used infrequently as a walling material, stacked as a dry stone wall without mortar and with mortar. Though the dry stone method can usually only be found in the medieval period on dwellings. Today there are some examples of it in ruins, and hedges. There are also few examples of the more reliable method of using mortar, typically limestone is used as the mortar a specialist claimed ‘it is the most breathable’, this quality comes into use top help control moisture flow. The use of mortar gives obvious advantages over the dry stone wall, though the finish on the wall is an important aspect. Some projects aim to recreate the dry stone effect but still using mortar, slightly extruding the stone on the wall gives the effect of gaps in between the slate blocks, giving that appearance of a dry stone wall. Another method to create the appearance of the dry stone wall is to use a black coloured mortar, this also gives the appearance of gaps in between the blocks of slate; a famous example is the Wales Millennium Centre in Wales. There are also other desired effects used when using slate a waling material, some projects choose to go for a rustic look, using random, hand split or natural pieces of slate, layered without a general order. Where as some projects aim to achieve a more polished and square effect, accurately sawing slate into blocks, and layering them in a precise brick like fashion.
Dry slate wall
‘Dry slate effect’ wall (using mortar)
Rustic effect (using mortar)
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Sawn all sides (using mortar)
ROOFING The most common use of slate has been in the roofing industry, due to its waterproof ability, and ability to be cut into thin tiles to be layered on angled roofs. Before relatively modern compound materials such a concrete tiles, slate was one of the best natural materials to use for roofing. The technique used for applying slate roofing tiles has not changed much over the centuries. Firstly the roof needs to be prepared either by wooden boards or battens, and an underlay. Then the slate tiles are simply nailed to the battens or boards. The nail holes are normally punched between 20 and 25mm from the edge of the tile. Some modern slates can be purchased pre-holed. The most common way of layering the slates in Britain is called the ‘double lap’, simply for every tile to be overlapped twice. Slates a layered from bottom to top in a ‘brick-like’ fashion. The British Standard is set out in BS680: Part 2: 1971 This requires: ‘Roofing slates shall be of reasonably straight cleavage and shall ring true when struck. The slates shall be rectangular, but the head corners may be shouldered within one-quarter of the width and one-quarter of the length. The grain shall run longitudinally and not transversely. They may contain naturally ingrained stripes. The surface shall be such as to permit of proper laying of the slates.’
Boarded Roofs
Boarded Roofs
Open Rafters
In addition to the British Standard slates are required to be subject to three tests: Clause 6.2.1 Water absorption test Clause 6.2.2 Wetting & drying test Clause 6.2.3 Sulphuric acid immersion test Technical Terms Face - The upper side of the slate when laid. Bed - The underside of the slate when laid. Tail - The lower edge of the width of the slate when fixed to the roof. Pitch – The angle of the roof slope between the ceiling joist and the rafter. Margin – The area of exposed slate when laid on the roof. Lap – The distance by which the tails of the slates in one course overlaps the heads of slates in the next course but one below. Bond – The horizontal distance between the side of a slate and the side of the slate immediately above it. Gauge - The vertical distance between the tail of one slate, and the tail of the slate in the course immediately above it. Gauge=(length of slate – lap)/2 Holing Gauge – The distance between the tail of the slate and the nail hole. Holing Gauge=Gauge=Lap=15mm
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TRADITIONAL SLATE ROOFING TECHNIQUE
MODERN SLATE ROOFING TECHNIQUE
TEXTURE Slates from the UK, Spain, Canada and China are produced from metamorphic deposits. These seams can contain twists produced by geological activity, and part of the skill of production is in making the best finished slates from that seam. x
CHINESE SLATE
MELBOURN INTERLOCKING SLATE
SCOTTISH SLATE
BRAZILIAN SLATE Brazilian slate is actually a sedimentary rock or mudstone. It cleaves very cleanly, and all rock deposits are naturally very flat. This gives a very consistent appearance, but mudstone is significantly more brittle than metamorphic rock. This it can SPANISH SLATE CANADIAN SLATE only be cut or holed with The Spanish slate leaves Canadian slate is renowned power tools, and can suffer a more attractive finish but for its ruggedness and higher breakage rates in use, comes at a higher price, durability. It maintains its particularly if the roof is there are other slates integrity in wet climates and in trafficked after installation. similar to the Spanish all temperatures, from the Water absorbency can also slate such as the Brazilian hottest to the coldest be higher than with slate, Canadian trinity and temperatures. These qualities metamorphic rock, so there Chinese roofing slate. lend themselves to practical can be a long-term risk of and durable uses. frost damage. However, Brazilian material continues to be seen as an economical slate despite the differences in use. we recommend that Slate has a variety of textures which range in different colours, finishes and coarseness the slate is split no thinner than 7mm
Walling Stone Finish: Uneven / Riven/ Natural Price per m2: ÂŁ104.00
Donegal Slate Walling
Slate from North Wales can be found in many shades of grey, from pale to dark, and may also be purple, green or cyan.
Alpina Grey/Green
Alpina Graphite
Contessa Blue/Black
163 Montleon
Welsh
Duquesa Grey
Glendyne Grey
TEGRAL MELBOURN INTERLOCKING SLATE The Tegral Melbourn reconstituted slate has been developed to provide a lightweight product that closely resembles natural slate in composition and appearance. It is the fastest slate fixing method, and therefore has the cheapest installation costs. Melbourn Interlocking Roof Slate £2.70
Penrhyn Welsh Slate £3.47
Formation of Tegral slate
COMPOSITION AND MANUFACTURE The slates are manufactured from resin-bonded slate granules and powders, together with other fillers, glass fibre and resin. A small amount of pigment is used in the composition to darken the granules and achieve a homogeneous colour with the highest possible colour stability. The product is manufactured in sharply defined cavity moulds under high temperature and pressure in a purpose-built factory. The accurate appearance of indigenous natural slates is ensured by the high quality of the pressing tools. Melbourn slate is unaffected by moisture and frost. It does not delaminate, has a high resistance to fire, lightens slightly in sunlight with a durability age in excess of 60 years. VERTICAL-SLATING
The principles of vertical slating as opposed to the traditional horizontal arrangement are similar to those of roof slating generally, although substantially fewer slates are required per square metre, as headlaps can be reduced to 50mm and sidelaps can also be reduced. Installation is made quick and easy by using stainless steel 164 nail hooks rather than nails to fix the slates. By using shaped slates or slates having different colours or textures, striking decorative finishes can be created on the façade.
WALES MILLENNIUM CENTRE, Cardiff, Wales 2004 The slate wall was constructed using waste slate collected from quarries in North Wales. The slate it is “laid in coloured ‘strata’ depicting the different stone layers seen in sea cliffs;”
1. 2. 3. 4.
Penhryn.
5. 6. 7. 8.
Existing slate screen wall retained with modified structure and additional waterproofing and insulation Cavity (typical 50mm) Rigid insulation Wall ties ( spacing 900mm horizontal, 450mm vertical) Concrete masonry unit inner leaf Vapour check 25mm service cavity 12.5mm plasterboard internal finish
Nantlle. Llechwedd. Cwt-y-Bugail. Corris.
WALES MILLENNIUM CENTRE
The map pinpoints the various quarries the different layers of slate are from.
The walls were built by stone and walling specialists GH James Cyf, whose normal work consists of repairing old dry stone slate walls bordering walls in North Wales, though for the Wales Millennium Centre a black lime-water mortar was used; the lime water for its breathable qualities, and the black colour in introduced to give the appearance of a dry stone wall. In total 2,500 tonnes of slate was laid, some with sawn faces, and some with natural pillared faces to give contrasting faces. Sir Robert McAlpine on site “For the cladding, the slate walls had to be built using a technique borrowed from road 165 building. This involved creating a cavity between the slate block and the main, retaining wall which is then filled with insulation and concrete.”
Welsh Assembly Government Building Llandudno Junction, N Wales Austin-Smith Lord 2010 The building was designed as offices for the Welsh government. The building uses ‘fine rubbed & flamed textured Penrhyn Heather Grey slate slabs, applied using a rainscreen method. It is believed this is the first time a high finish slate has been used for this method. Its resistance to weathering and chemicals, and water absorption resistance makes it a extremely durable cladding. Each slab is secured using 4 undercut anchor bolts to an aluminium frame. A rainscreen façade is a cladding applied during primary construction or as an over cladding. Rainscreen cladding consists of an outer weather-resistant decorative skin fixed to an underlying structure by means of a supporting grid, which maintains a ventilated and drained cavity between the façade and the structure. Rainscreen façades are not normally sealed and a ventilation cavity of at least 25mm is allowed immediately behind the cladding panel. Insulation can be positioned within the cavity and openings at the top and bottom of clad areas allow for evaporation of moisture vapour and ventilation/drainage. A ventilated rainscreen incorporating insulation will allow the building fabric to breathe without the risk of interstitial condensation or structural decay.
30 x 25mm aluminium glazing channel on intermittent packers to allow rainwater flow
119 * 22mm iroko boards screwed to 50 x 25mm treated sw battens at 450mm crs
40mm-thick slate panel as rainscreen fixed back to structure with proprietary fixing system
existing structural wall breather membrane proprietary aluminium framework fixed to wall insulation air gap terracotta panel rainscreen 166 TYPICAL RAINSCREEN CLADDING STRUCTURE
MOUNTAIN RESCUE Languedoc, France Blee Halligan 2010
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.
An existing ruined outhouse, dug into the slate hillside, is patched up and a new timber bedroom, bathroom and dressing room are constructed within the rugged stone walls and covered internally with cedar strips. This serves as an annexe to a mill house. From the outside, the building still presents itself as a ruin except for the main Douglas Fir window, which replaces a collapsed external wall. The timber frame was built into the existing slate ruins which made it difficult to in-fit the concrete pile and load bearer into the ground to form a solid foundation. In order to achieve this, the slate stones at the foundation were expertly separated and removed to prevent the stones from caving in on itself before the framing was installed and then the stones were returned to their original positions.
Slate ruins Cavity (typical 25mm, min 12mm) Water barrier (building paper of breather) External grade plywood sheathing board Timber frame with insulation infill Rigid insulation Vapour check 25mm service cavity 12.5mm plasterboard internal finish Wall ties ( spacing 900mm horizontal, 450mm vertical)
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1 2
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.
3 4
Slate ruins Cavity (typical 25mm, min 12mm) Water barrier (building paper of breather) External grade plywood sheathing board Timber frame with insulation infill Rigid insulation Vapour check 25mm service cavity 12.5mm plasterboard internal finish
To prevent the tiles from tipping over or falling out, tile ties are used the keep them in place.
5 6 7 8 9
MOUNTAIN BIKING CENTRE Gwynedd, Wales Donald Insall Associates June 2013 The building was inspired by, and built entirely from, its industrial setting within Llechwedd Quarry. To reduce costs and minimise environmental impact, Nearby slate waste was reclaimed and used for the wall cladding, substructure, and landscaping.
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TY-HEDFAN Brecon Beacons, Wales Featherstone Young 2010 Ty-Hedfan, occupies a sloping site at the conference of two rivers in the Brecon Beacons. To take full advantage of the site the main living area is cantilevered towards the river, a move necessitated by a statutory 6m no-build zone along the river bank. The internal space is split into two wings, each clad with stone and slate respectively. The main house, which contains the cantilevered living room, a double height kitchen and dining space and two bedrooms, is a hybrid timber and steel frame structure clad with traditional slate and locally sourced stone.
1 2 3 4
5
6 7 8 9
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
Slate ruins Cavity (typical 25mm, min 12mm) Rigid insulation External grade plywood sheathing board steel frame with insulation infill Vapour check 25mm service cavity 12.5mm plasterboard internal finish
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Conclusion With the rapid up-rise of new, contemporary building materials, it can be fairly difficult to see the use of slate either as a cladding sheet or as a structural material but it remains very popular for roofing.
It is rare to find slate use other than for roofing outside a few mile radii of a slate quarry. This is due to the convenience of extraction and application. We can infer from this that location is also a major factor other than obvious costs in comparison to alternatives. Long distance exporting has its challenges in terms of costs, availability, carbon footprint, luggage limits and even architectural context preferences. Despite all of this slate remains a good choice of material, it could once again become a sort after mater in the near future. . But with the creation of artificial slate i.e. Melbourn Interlocking Slate(fibre ‘slate’), it is obvious that slate is a precious material but most cannot afford it but would rather have a recreation of its strong characteristics but there will be no comparison to the finish of natural slate.
Just as it with other materials, alternate options will be substituted for slate provided they can demonstrate similar aesthetical and structural quality. One of the major factor in the survival of slate is its versatility. Its physical properties make it workable and a capable in terms of its uses in the building trade, as a roofing material, walling material and decoration. Its range of shades and tones make it a material sort after for both its traditional character, and its ability to adapt into a modern environment. Statistics show the use of the material declined very rapidly and remained low in use in the UK, from the quarrying, to the manufacture and the application. Though some cases have seen it being reused due to it relatively long life. The reasons shown through history show political event are responsible for its oscillating declines and booms in the 19th and 20th centuries. It cannot how ever explain its steep decline and minimal use in most recent times. Like other stones cost the cost of slate is relatively high. Materials that can be taken from the ground and used without major physical reconstruction have always been deemed precious to mankind..
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ARCH 3035 TECH-3 2014-15 PROJECT 1: MATERIALS/ SYSTEMS STUDIES
STEEL
Fig 1: Sage Gateshead / Foster + Partners – Gateshead, UK
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1
INTRODUCTION
Fig. 2: Sydney Harbour Bridge / John Bradfield, Thomas S. Tait, Ralph Freeman – Sydney, Australia
Fig. 3: Air Force Academy Cadet Chapel/ Walter Netsch, Jr. - USA
Fig. 4: Glass and steel
Skidmore, Owings and Merrill- London
Steel is the world's most important engineering and construction material. It is an alloy of iron and carbon that is widely used in construction and other applications because of its hardness, tensile strength, beauty, design freedom and efficiency. The material was only introduced for architectural and structural purposes on the second half of 19th century, with the Industrial Revolution, and it is responsible for the construction of tall structures, skyscrapers, towers, long-span structures like bridges and space covered by domes, shells and space trusses. The development of construction methods in iron and steel was the most important innovation in architecture since ancient times. These methods provide far stronger and taller structures with less expenditure of material than stone, brick, or wood and can produce greater unsupported spans over openings and interior or exterior spaces. Exemples: The world's first iron structure was the Iron Bridge, built in 1781 by Thomas Farnolls Pritchard at Coalbrookdale; The Clifton Suspension Bridge, by William Henry Barlow and John Hawkshaw, based on an earlier design by Isambard Kingdom Brunel, in1864; The train shed at St Pancras Station, in London, completed in 1868 by the engineer William Henry Barlow, was the largest single-span structure built up to that time . In 1889 Gustav Eiffel designed the exhibition tower for Paris made of steel to provide the publicity of the material. The "invention" of the skyscraper lies with George A. Fuller. He built the Tacoma Building in 1889, the first structure ever built where the outside walls did not carrying the weight of the building using Bessemer steel beams. The Flatiron Building was one of New York City's first skyscrapers, built in 1902 by Fuller's building company.
Fig. 5: Iron Bridge / Thomas Farnolls Pritchard – Coalbrookdale
Fig. 6: The Suspension Bridge / William Henry Barlow and John Hawkshaw – Bristol 172
Fig. 7: St Pancras International station / William Henry Barlow – London
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Fig. 8: Eiffel Tower / Gustav Eiffel – Paris
Fig. 9: Tacoma Building / George A. Fuller– New York City
Liam Bright
Fig. 10: Flatiron Building / George A. Fuller‘s company – New York City
Fig. 11: Burj Khalifa / Adrian Smith, William Frazier Baker, Marshall Stabala and George J. Efstathiou - Dubai
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DESCRIPTION
Fig. 12-13: Steel, steel finish
Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon containing less than 2% carbon and 1% manganese and small amounts of other elements. Higher amounts of carbon make the steel more fluid and castable, and lower amounts make it purer for specialized purposes such as electrical steel and stainless steel. Plain carbon steel is referred to the steel that has no other material present. Alloy steels have additions to modify their properties and make them suitable for various purposes. The properties of the steel are important so we can select it properly for the different kinds of application. These properties are established by the alloys added to steel and by the methods used in its manufacture: I. II. III. IV. V. VI. VII. VIII.
Lustre: it is a shiny metal with a very attractive finish; Malleability: it can be rolled into thin sheets, rod, bar or beams (roofing, structural) or forged into different shapes (gears, tools); Strength: It is a very strong and resistant to fracture (building frames, security doors, trains, ships); Alloying: adding another chemicals can change steel’s properties and create new types of steel, such as stainless steel; Conductivity: it transfers heat and electricity; Ductility: it can be stretched and drawn out into thin wires or pressed into different shapes; Durability: it is a long lasting material and resistant to wear; Coating: it can be coated with different substances to create different types of metal, such as zincalume steel that has protection from the weather.
Used to make almost everything from skyscraper girders, automobiles, and appliances to paper clips, steel is one of the world's most vital materials. Perhaps the most well-known alloy steel is stainless steel. It more resistant to stains, corrosion, and rust than ordinary steel. It also has high sustainability rating -since the reflective nature allows to bring natural light into the building and help reduce energy consumption.
Liam Bright
Fig. 14-18: JDS Architects’ Holmenkollen Ski Jump in Oslo, the winner of the 2011 ECCS Structural Steel Design Award. Fernanda Nunes 174
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MANUFACTURE
Fig. 19-20: Steel manufacture
Basic oxygen steelmaking
Iron oxides can come to the blast furnace plant in the form of raw ore, pellets or sinter. After passed through the iromaking process, the hot metal and steel scrap are put together inside a converter, where high-purity oxygen is blown on to the metal at very high pressure, producing heat and refining the steel. When finished, samples are taken to check temperature and composition, the converter is tilted and the steel is tapped into a ladle. The Electric Arc Furnace It consists of a circular bath with a movable roof, through which three graphite electrodes can be raised or lowered. The steel scrap is charged into the furnace and electrodes are lowered into it, passing a powerful electric current through the charge. An arc is created, and the heat generated melts the scrap; oxygen is blown into the melt. When finished, samples of the steel are taken and analysed and the furnace is tapped rapidly into a ladle. Continuous Casting It is a process in which molten steel at 1,600째C is converted into slabs of manageable size. The ladle with molten steel is placed in a holder. From the ladle, the steel is tapped into the tundish. Continuous casting takes place through a mould where the Intensive water cooling gives the hot melt a hard shell of solidified steel. The cooled steel shrinks in volume as it is withdrawn from the underside of the mould in a long strand that is continuously cooled on its arc-shaped path down to the cutting station. At this stage, the steel sufficiently solid to enable the strand to be cut with movable oxygen lances into pieces up to 11 meters long. With this process, it is possible to create steel billets, blooms and slabs, with variably length, width and thickness.
Fig. 21: Overview of the steelmaking process
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USES
Design by double-id.com / Cover photo: ThyssenKrupp Steel / Tubes photo: Salzgitter. The process shown above is illustrative only and is not designed to show the steelmaking process in detail. Not all steel plants produce all of the products shown in this diagram.
Fig. 23-24: Example of steel roofing and finish
Fig. 22: King’s Cross Station / John McAslan + Partners - London
Bridges Steel dominates the markets for long span bridges, railway bridges, footbridges, and medium span highway bridges. It is now increasingly the choice for shorter span highway structures as well. I.
Multi-beam/Composite deck
Multi-beam steel composite decks are very competitive for highway bridges in the span range of 15-100m. They comprise a reinforced concrete deck slab on top of several girders. The steel girders are connected to the concrete slab by shear connectors and the two act compositely together.
Fig. 25: Composite Deck
II.
Fig. 26: Thelwall viaduct, UK
Fig. 27: A69 Haltwhistle, UK
Box girder bridges
Box girders are a particular form of plate girder, with two webs joined by common top and bottom flanges. Box girders with a steel top flange will give a minimum weight solution, and so are generally used on long span bridges. It has great torsional rigidity, which makes it ideal for bridges that are highly curved in plan. In addition, they are widely used as the deck elements of cable-stayed and suspension bridges, where the torsional stiffness of a box is important for the dynamics of such long span bridges.
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Fig. 28: A9 Pitlochry, UK
III.
Fig. 29: Structure drawing
Truss bridges
A truss is a triangulated framework of elements that act primarily in tension and compression. It is a light-weight yet very stiff form of construction. Truss girders were common in early steel bridge construction as welding had yet to be developed and rolled sections and plate sizes were of a limited range.
Fig. 30: The Borneo Sporenburg Bridge / West 8 Amsterdam
IV.
Fig. 31: Akashi-Kaikyo Bridge, Japan
Arch bridges
In the traditional form, a steel arch has a similar structural action to old masonry arch bridges. The arch springs from the foundations and exerts horizontal thrusts on them. The arch elements act primarily in compression. The deck may either be supported on struts, resting on arch below, or it may be suspended on hangers from the arch above. Steel arches in one form or another have been used for spans ranging from 30m to 500m.
Fig. 32-33: Arch bridge in Terni, Italy
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V.
Cable-stayed bridges
Cable-stayed bridges are a recent adaptation of the suspension bridge principle. The deck structure is supported by tension stays sloping from one or more towers. There may be either a single plane of stays down the centre of the bridge, or two planes; one on each side of the bridge. The towers act in compression and can have a variety of forms (A-frame, H-frame or columns). The deck girders sustain compression forces as well as bending forces.
Fig. 34: Samuel Beckett Bridge by Santiago Calatrava, Dublin, Irland
VI.
Fig. 35: Arthur Ravenel Jr Bridge, USA
Fig. 36: Pasco-Kennewick Bridge, Clover Island
Suspension bridges
The deck of a suspension bridge is supported by vertical tension hangers, which are supported in turn by large tension cables extending over two towers from anchorage to anchorage. A stiffening girder running the full length of each span is an essential part of a suspension bridge. It distributes the concentrated traffic loads and provides stiffness against bending, twisting and oscillation.
Fig. 37-38; San Francisco's Golden Gate Bridge
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Roofing The advantages of stainless steel in roofing are related to three aspects: maximum life expectation, minimum maintenance and low weight. Due to those aspects, even though the initial cost of the material may be higher than other metallic materials, the life cost for the stainless option can be significantly lower than other materials, such as galvanised.
Fig. 39-41: Universum Science Centre by Thomas Klumpp- Bremen, Germany
With these characteristics along with its material properties, it shows lots of possibilities for design, including varies surfaces finishes, and are excellent underlay for green roofs.
Fig. 42-43: Steel finishes for roofing
Liam Bright
Fig. 44-45: Steel green roof details
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Façades Due to the combination of high strength, excellent corrosion resistance, workability and modern progressive image, stainless steel provide an excellent external waterproof component and its use has only increased.
Fig. 46-48: Zolhof by BM+P Beucker Maschianka+Partner GbR – Dusseldof, Germany
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Structure
Fig. 50: Tee (T-shaped cross-section)
Fig. 49: I-beam
Fig. 52: Z-Shape
Fig. 53: C-beam
Fig. 56: Bar Rod
Fig. 54: Hollow structural section (HSS-Shape)
Fig. 57: Plate
Fig. 55: Rail profile (asymmetrical I-beam)
Fig. 58: Open web steel joist
Fig. 60-61: Steel frame
Fig. 59: Steel frame – Pavillion by Desai/Chia Architecture, NY Liam Bright
Fig. 51: Angle (L-shaped cross-section)
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Fittings and fitting systems Concrete rebar Balustrades Stairs Balconies Elevators & escalators
Fig. 62-68: Examples of other uses of steel in architecture Liam Bright
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TATA STEEL
Tata Steel manufactures a wide scope of high quality products, ranging from hot-rolled to metallic coated, pre-finished steels, alloy steels, profiles and construction systems. Their products showcase how versatile steel can be, by using a variety of different hot and cold techniques, they can resolve a plethora design needs, across various different applications.
Fig. 69-74: Examples of Tata steel products Liam Bright
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CASE STUDY
Sage Gateshead Foster + Partners 2004 ÂŁ70 Million Steel Frame and Cladding
Liam Bright
Fig. 75-79: elevation, interior, structure and constructions of the building
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Created by Foster + Partners, Sage Gateshead is a concert venue and a centre for musical education, located in Gateshead, Newcastle, in the North East of England. The building is comprised of 3 primary performance spaces with a variety of cafe’s, bars, and shops, all contained within a steel toroidal shell roof. Originally the auditoriums were each a free standing structure, but due to the windswept nature of the site, the complex was then designed to be sheltered beneath protective shell. The three internal buildings contain a 1,700-seat, a 450-seat, and a smaller rehearsal and performance hall. The rest of the building was designed around these three spaces to allow for high performance acoustic qualities. The structures within are primarily in-situ concrete, with the performance spaces being fitted with internal timber cladding for better acoustic properties. The three separate buildings are also insulated from each other to prevent noise and vibration travelling between them. These three buildings are enclosed (but not touched) by a toroidal shaped shell roof, clad in steel and partly glazed along the waterfront. The four main roof arches of the shell are formed from curved steel beam sections, with perpendicular secondary curved steel beams spanning between the four main arches, at approximately 4m intervals. Solid steel cross bracing rods stiffen the roof and allow smaller steel sections to be used. The sections were created with each component in mind, allowing them to be bolted together seamlessly, which is much more economical than welding.
Fig. 80: Construction of the building beginning
The various shaped and sized steel sections create a net like quality to the shell, allowing the insulation and cladding to be easily placed directly on the frame. Rods protrude from Liam Bright
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the frame at 2 meter intervals that hold the steel cladding above the insulation and protective membrane, creating an air gap for rain water to run down and into the guttering. The major part of the roof is clad with stainless steel panels over a built-up roof system. It consists of a trapezium shaped steel deck, rigid insulation and single ply membrane, clad with stainless steel panels. Rainwater drains through joints in the panels to the membrane below and follows the slope of the roof to its valleys, where a gutter directs it into downpipes. Steel panels weather less than timber. and weigh less than other substitute metals. Steel’s strength and versatility lend itself to structures such as this. Beams and sections are fabricated off site to precise specifications. This in turn allows the entire frame to be assembled on site in a fraction of the time compared to materials such as bricks or even a timber frame, where beams would be cut to fit on site. the adaptability of steel allows fluid shapes such as this to be realised, with little or no compromise to the form in favour of structural integrity. This is not to say the shell is not strong, as the slotted and fixed sections with crossbracing is one of the strongest structures possible, without being a solid block. Materials such as timber would not suit a shape such as this, as it does not have the un-aided strength steel possesses. The timber would have to be reinforced at this size, which would render the timber redundant, as the reinforcement itself would be steel.
Liam Bright
Fig. 81: Construction of the building finalization
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Fig. 82-87: Technical drawings and sketch
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Fig. 88: Part of the faรงade
Fig. 89: Technical section
Fig. 90: Exploded roof: Steel Frame, Rigid insulation, Steel cladding
Steel cladding
Steel cladding Single Ply Membrane
Rigid Insulation Thin Membrane Trapezoidal Steel Deck
Primary Steel I-Beam
Fig. 91: Steel cladding Liam Bright
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Exploded Roof Detail
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REFERENCES Figures Fig. 1 [http://www.northernsoul.me.uk/sage-gateshead-northern-soul-talks-to-the-boss/] Fig. 2 [http://www.industrytap.com/automated-robots-cleaning-the-entire-sydneyharbour-bridge/11310] Fig. 3 [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Air_Force_Academy_Cadet_Chapel] Fig. 4 [http://www.featurepics.com/online/Modern-Architecture-Glass-Steel848982.aspx] Fig. 5 [http://www.mathsinthecity.com/sites/iron-bridge-shropshire] Fig. 6 [http://www.ikbrunel.org.uk/clifton-suspension-bridge] Fig. 7 [http://openbuildings.com/buildings/st-pancras-international-station-profile-3328] Fig. 8 [http://news.buzzbuzzhome.com/2013/07/iconic-buildings-underconstruction.html] Fig. 9 [http://thebottomoftheironingbasket.blogspot.co.uk/2012/10/new-york-cityflatiron-building.html] Fig. 10 [http://preservationresearch.com/2010/10/the-good-fortune-of-the-chemicalbuilding/] Fig. 11 [http://www.thebrazilianpost.com.br/burj-khalifa-o-edificio-mais-alto-domundo/] Fig. 12 [http://www.risleysteelservices.ca/en/] Fig. 13 [http://www.bk-lohaphan.com/products/stainless-steel/] Fig. 14 [http://www.topboxdesign.com/holmenkollen-ski-jump-in-oslonorway/holmenkollen-ski-jump-by-jds-architects/] Fig. 15 [http://collabcubed.com/2012/07/12/holmenkollen-ski-jump-jds-architects/] Fig. 16-17 [http://www.dezeen.com/2011/02/24/holmenkollen-ski-jump-by-jdsarchitects-completed/] Fig. 18 [http://urbanlabglobalcities.blogspot.co.uk/2010/12/ongoing-projectholmenkollen-skijump-by.html] Fig. 19 [http://www.chinasteelholding.com/en/] Fig. 20 [http://ssindustries.net.in/] Fig. 21 [https://www.worldsteel.org/dms/internetDocumentList/bookshop/Steelmakingposter/document/Overview%20of%20the%20steelmaking%20process.pdf] Fig. 22 [http://www.bbc.co.uk/newsround/17291191] Fig. 23 [http://financialuproar.com/2012/04/13/why-dont-more-people-get-a-metalroof/] Fig. 24 [http://www.euro-inox.org/pdf/build/roofing/Roofing_EN.pdf] Fig. 25 [http://www.steel-bridges.com/highway-bridge-composite-beam.htm] Fig. 26 [http://www.28dayslater.co.uk/forums/showthread.php/43566-Thelwall-ViaductWarrington-Sept-09] Fig. 27 [http://www.steelconstruction.info/Ladder_deck_composite_bridges] Fig. 28 [http://www.steelconstruction.info/Box_girder_bridges] Fig. 29 [http://happypontist.blogspot.co.uk/2010/09/castleford-bridge.html] Fig. 30 [http://www.paintsquare.com/news/?fuseaction=view&id=6940] Fig. 31 [http://www.japan-guide.com/e/e3559.html] Fig. 32 – 33 [http://www.euro-inox.org/pdf/build/bridges/Bridges_EN.pdf] Fig. 34 [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santiago_Calatrava] Fig. 35 [http://www.desktopwallpapers4.me/world/arthur-ravenel-jr-bridge-at-night16716/] Fig. 36 [http://www.tricityblog.com/2011/02/11/what-are-you-doing-this-weekend/] Fig. 37-38 [http://oceanscoolleanring.blogspot.co.uk/2011/05/bridges.html] Fig. 39 – 45 [http://www.euro-inox.org/pdf/build/roofing/Roofing_EN.pdf] Fig. 46- 48 [http://www.euro-inox.org/pdf/case/facades/Facades_EN.pdf] Fig. 49 [http://wasatchsteel.blogspot.co.uk/2013/03/steel-beams.html] Liam Bright
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Fig. 50 [http://www.gunungsteel.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=71&It emid=243] Fig. 51 [http://www.unisales99.com/mild-steel-products.htm] Fig. 52 [http://www.metal-sheet.hu/eng/Z-profile.html] Fig. 53 [http://www.metal-sheet.hu/eng/C-profile.html] Fig. 54 [http://yvy4.myblog.arts.ac.uk/2013/02/19/cross-sectional-shapes-for-steelbeams-and-columns/] Fig. 55 [http://yvy4.myblog.arts.ac.uk/2013/02/19/cross-sectional-shapes-for-steelbeams-and-columns/] Fig. 56 [http://www.tjbtty.com/products.asp?menuid=115] Fig. 57 [http://www.plustenstainless.com/products/stainless-steel-plate/416] 58 [http://www.protonwelding.com/open_web_steel_joists.html] Fig. 59 [http://construtoradiamante.com.br/site/casas-en-steel-frame-construcao-emaco/] Fig. 60 [http://allsteelhouseframes.com.au/steel-frame-construction] Fig. 61 [http://www.yossawat.com/2013/06/lm-guest-house-by-desaichia-architects/] Fig. 62 [http://www.respiratorysolutionsaustralia.com.au/products/compressed-airpipework/europress-press-fit-system/] Fig.063 [http://www.northfultonmetals.com/portfolio_item/rebar/] Fig. 64 [http://toppandco.com/stairs-and-balustrades/contemporary-steel-balustrade] Fig. 65 [http://www.caliperstudio.com/fabrication/project-types/stairs/genetic-stair] Fig. 66 [http://www.custommade.com/design-ideas/danish-bungalow-balcony/] Fig. 67 [http://www.forms-surfaces.com/projects/waterfront-pearl] Fig. 68 [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copenhagen_Metro] Fig. 69-74 [http://www.tatasteeleurope.com/] Fig. 75-90 [http://www.fosterandpartners.com/projects/the-sage-gateshead/] Sites [http://www.euro-inox.org/pdf/build/roofing/RoofingTech_EN.pdf] [http://www.euro-inox.org/pdf/build/bridges/Bridges_EN.pdf] [http://www.euro-inox.org/pdf/build/roofing/Roofing_EN.pdf] [http://www.euro-inox.org/pdf/case/facades/Facades_EN.pdf] [http://www.euro-inox.org/pdf/build/Cleaning_EN.pdf] [http://www.constructalia.com/repository/Publications/Stainless%20Bridges%20and%20F ootbridges/stainlesssteelbridges_EN.pdf] [http://hcgl.eng.ohio-state.edu/~ceg532/pdf_files/chap1.pdf] [http://www.euro-inox.org/pdf/build/bridges/Bridges_EN.pdf] [http://www.euro-inox.org/pdf/build/roofing/Roofing_EN.pdf] [http://www.aisc.org/uploadedFiles/Steel_Solutions_Center/Conceptual/My_Project/Fil es/ArchitectsGuide.pdf] [https://www.gov.mb.ca/mit/contracts/pdf/manual/1070.pdf] [https://www.bluescopesteel.com/media/10530/Properties%20of%20Steel.pdf] [http://www.worldcoal.org/coal/uses-of-coal/coal-steel/] [http://www.steel.org/Making%20Steel/How%20Its%20Made/Processes/How%20A%20Bl ast%20Furnace%20Works%20larry%20says%20to%20delete.aspx] [http://www.steelconstruction.info/Steel_manufacture] [http://www.ssab.com/en/Investor--Media/About-SSAB/Steel-making-process/Themetallurgical-process/Continuous-casting/] [http://www.steelconstruction.info/Steel_material_properties#Weldability] [http://www.worldsteel.org/faq/about-steel.html] [http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-steel.htm] [http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/steel.html] [http://www.acier.org/en/steel/what-is-the-steel.html] [http://www.knifecenter.com/info/knife-blade-materials] Liam Bright
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[http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-alloy-steel.htm] [http://www.chemistryexplained.com/St-Te/Steel.html] [http://resources.schoolscience.co.uk/Corus/14-16/steel/msch3pg1.html] [http://www.outokumpu.com/en/stainlesssteel/industries/architecture/pages/default.aspx] [http://www.archdaily.com/171470/2011-eccs-structural-steel-design-award-jdsarchitects/] [http://www.worldsteel.org/steel-by-topic/construction/bridge-types.html] [http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-alloy-steel.htm] [http://www.chemistryexplained.com/St-Te/Steel.html] [http://www.visual-arts-cork.com/history-of-art/nineteenth-century-architecture.htm] [http://inventors.about.com/library/inventors/blskyscapers.htm] [http://www.bbc.co.uk/london/content/articles/2007/10/10/history_stpancras_feature.s html] [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/32876/architecture/31830/Iron-andsteel] [http://www.northernsoul.me.uk/sage-gateshead-northern-soul-talks-to-the-boss/ [http://www.fosterandpartners.com/projects/the-sage-gateshead/] [http://www.tatasteeleurope.com/]
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Structurally Insulated Panels (SIP’s) Sip’s (Structurally Insulated Panels) are pre-fabricated panels that can be used for walls, floors and roofs. They are generally chosen for their speed of construction, once the panels have been delivered onto site they can take just days to construct, they are also incredibly high performance and lightweight.
Links to manufacturers http://www.kingspantek.co.uk/ https://sipsecopanels.co.uk/ http://www.sipbuildingsystems.co.uk/
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Contents
1. History of SIP panels
2. How SIP’s work
3. Precedents
4. Constraints and possibilities
5. The future of SIPs
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The History of the Structurally Insulated Panel Although foam-core panels gained attention in the 1970s, the idea of using stress skinned panels for construction began in the 1930s. Research and testing of the technology was done primarily by Forest Products Laboratory (FPL) in Madison, Wisconsin as part of an U.S. Forest Service attempt to conserve forest resources. In 1937, a small stressed-skin house was constructed and garnered enough attention to bring in First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt to dedicate the house. In a testament to the durability of such panel structures, it has endured the severe Wisconsin climate and was used by University of Wisconsin–Madison as a day care centre up until 1998 when it was removed to make way for a new Pharmacy School building. With the success of the stress skinned panels, it was suggested stronger skins could support all of the structural loads and eliminate the conventional building frame altogether. After the creation of their prototype, Forest Products Laboratory entered Their custom designed SIP into the marketplace where it sold for next thirty years. Engineers from Forest Products Laboratory weren't the only ones churning out structural panels. In fact, the 1930s saw sandwich-panel technology emerge from another source. Indeed, some of the earliest examples of SIPs can be found in the Usonian houses designed by none other than the famed architect Frank Lloyd Wright. Frank Lloyd Wright was exceptionally innovative, and his SIPs were a result of his efforts to incorporate beauty and simplicity into cost-effective homes. Wright's attempt at a panel contained no insulation; they consisted of three layers of plywood and two layers of tar paper. Due to the lack of insulation, this prototype failed to achieve widespread popularity and they were never produced on a large scale. Why we decided to build this way? According to industry estimates, structural insulated panels (SIPs) are the fastest growing segment of panellised construction. Structural Insulated Panels (SIPs) are highquality foam core panels that are strong, very energy-efficient, and suitable for residential and commercial building applications. Capitalize on the advantages of building homes panellised, faster construction, consistent high quality, reduced waste and lower overall costs. Additionally, SIPs raise the ante by offering increased strength and energy efficiency, plus even shorter construction time. SIPs are the 21st Century Building Material Structural insulated panels (SIPs) are a high performance building system for residential and light commercial construction. The panels consist of an insulating foam core sandwiched between two structural facings, typically oriented strand board (OSB). SIPs are manufactured under factory controlled conditions and can be fabricated to fit any building design. The result is a building system that is extremely strong, energy efficient and cost effective. Building with SIPs will save you time, money and labour.
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How SIP’s Work
Sip’s (Structurally Insulated Panels) are pre-fabricated panels that can be used for walls, floors and roofs. They are generally chosen for their speed of construction, once the panels have been delivered onto site they can take just days to construct, they are also incredibly high performance and lightweight. The panels are made from two structural skins (normally Oriented Strand Board), bonded to both sides of a rigid foam insulation. The strong structural bond between the three layers allows the two skins to transmit considerable horizontal and vertical loads, whilst the insulation core holds the layers together and provides the thermal and energy performance (amongst other things). The material of the insulation core can vary. The skins are typical OSB but the cores can be expanded polystyrene (EPS), extruded polystyrene (XPS), polyisocyanate (PIR) or polyurethane (PUR). There is little difference between the varying core materials as far as strength and fire resistance are concerned. Sip’s can be used in two ways, they can either provide the whole structure or they can be the infill for a concrete, steel or timber frame. They are most commonly used for mass produced buildings such as large housing developments. This is because sips can be custom designed for any build, but like any kind of mass production, the more you make of the same pattern the cheaper they will be. Thermal Performance- External walls achieve very good U-Values due to the insulation being part of the structure. Generally manufacturers will make the panels between 100mm and 250mm thick (although they can be any thickness). Even at 100mm they can easily reach the required U-Value targets for new developments (between 0.1 W/m2K and 0.2 W/m2K).
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Air tightness- SIPs normally have a vapour control layer on the internal side which not only stops the movement of moisture vapour but also acts as an effective air barrier. The Vapour control barriers are then lapped and sealed, along with the splines at panel junctions (normally with expanding foam). All of this gives them excellent air tightness so you must also remember to include additional ventilation measures (normally MVHR Units).
Fire- As long as the SIP panels have been correctly designed and made they should be able to easily meet required standards for UK buildings. SIP structures should have noncombustible wall linings which stops them contributing to the growth of a fire and allow them to stay stable during a fire.
Acoustics- SIPs acoustic ability relies on its mass. SIP walls have been shown to achieve good test results, some recorded 10dB better than required standards for Building Regulations. However, if acoustic performance needs to be improved acoustic rated plasterboard in multiple layers can be attached.
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Precedents Dalton Cumbrian Facility The Dalton Cumbrian Facility (DCF) is a state-of-the-art nuclear research complex for the Dalton Nuclear Institute is a building made from SIPs. The building is made up of a steel frame with SIPs fixed to the frame. SIP’s are not just use on the exterior of the building but smaller controlled environments inside the building. In these smaller spaces control the temperature, humidity and what gets in and out of the space. Depending on the requirements of the client the width of the shell of the controlled space can be anywhere between 80mm to 150mm. For the nuclear research facility, the walls will be 150mm as they are working with hazardous substances.
Casa SIP Casa IP is a 139 sq meter home in Santo Domingo, Valparaiso, Chile, designed and built by Alejandro Soffia and Gabriel Rudolphy. The sips were built into 6sq meter modules and put together asymmetrically to form the final house. The project used 71 panels in two sizes and 40 slab panels. Once they had been assembles that exterior and panels were covered in a rain screen followed by wood slats. The house in orientated to the north and south. On the west façade the home is more open, giving it views to the sea, and the east in more enclosed for privacy. The roof of the ground floor becomes a large deck overlooking the ocean. The house took only 10 days to build and produced almost no waste and debris from construction due to its pre-fabrication.
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Ty Pren by Feilden Fowles Ty Pren is an exceptionally sustainable house, which came about through the close collaboration of the client, design team and contractors to deliver a uniquely local and sustainable building. It uses SIPs on the East, West and Southern facing facades. The plan is modernist in its simplicity, set out on a 1.2 m grid, driven by the standard SIP panel and sheet material size. The use of Structural Insulated Panels (SIPs) coupled with the high performing windows has resulted in a super airtight building. The SIPs have an extra lining of Thermal fleece, which is sheep wool.
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Constraints and Possibilities PRO-SIPs can span 6m without a cross wall or frame, providing the panel is thick enough CON- Everything that id nailed into a sip compromises the thermal envelope PRO- You get a tighter thermal envelope CON- Construction using SIPs is more expensive than your standard frame construction. PRO- panels can be made by prefabrication in a factory and bought to site CON- Room for human error in construction and a chance the panels could be damaged in the transportation to site.
PRO- Due to fewer air leaks the thermal envelope is not compromised. CON- Ventilation of a space is harder. If a space is not well ventilated the air could become stale.
PRO- Less need for thermal bridging so walls can be thinner and meet seamlessly. CON- The lack of thermal massing might compromise the structural integrity of the building as there are not as many fixings or bracings.
PRO- SIP’s can support concrete floors. CON- However the highest a SIP’s building can be created is three storeys. PRO- sips can be made to nearly any detention, unlike timber. CON- A large panel would have less structural integrity than a small panel and the larger panel is more prone to cracks or breaks in the core.
PRO- Noise reduction can be created with a small cavity between the SIP and the plasterboard. This gap is also used for wiring,
Con- Wires cannot be run through the SIP as it is a fire hazard. All wiring must have been protected by an IEE approved metal guard.
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Constraints and Possibilities of different core materials PRO -Expanded Polystyrene is the most cost efficient of all the linings and has the best insulating properties with the thinnest panels. Due to its low melting point it can have adjustments made to it on site with heat cutting tools.
CON- Expanded polystyrene has the lowest melting point so it’s a fire risk. It’s made from oil which is an unsustainable source. It cannot be recycled either.
PRO- Polyurethane and Polyisocyanurate have a higher melting point than Expanded Polystyrene. They also have a lower perm rating so it’s a better vapour barrier.
CON- As well as not being sustainable or recyclable Polyurethane and Polyisocyanurate have a higher melting point so word done to it needs to be carried out by drills and saws rather than heat cutting tools. Not many manufactures use this material so it’s harder to obtain.
PRO- Extruded Polystyrene has a lower perm rating and higher melting point than the Expanded Polystyrene, the Polyurethane and the Polyisocyanurate.
CON- Extruded Polystyrene is more expansive than the Expanded Polystyrene and has the same properties.
PRO- Wheat and Rice Straw is the most sustainable of all the possibilities and can be made from recycled materials.
CON- When using Wheat or Rice Straw the walls need to be thicker as the insulating properties are not as good at the other materials. Water damage could occur and the structural integrity of the building will be compromised. Pests and Vermin will use the core as food. There is only one manufacturer of this product.
Possibilities -Housing (New Builds, Extensions, Flat Roofs, Loft Conversions, Bungalows, Apartments) -Commercial (Schools, Hotels, Hospitals, Supermarkets, Student Accommodation) -Leisure (Park Homes, Luxury Lodges, Site Cabins, Security Lodges, Sales Offices) -Controlled Environments (Bakery, Fast Food Outlets, Food Preparation Area, Butchers, Florists) -Bespoke Products (Disabled Accommodation, Garden Office, Lintel Supports, False Chimneys, Boat Houses) -Specialist Solutions (Accommodation, Medical facilities, Educational facilities, Command and control centres, Aid and disaster relief, Supply stores)
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Army use The Army use SIP’s to create “rapidly deployed multi-use shelters”. SIP’s have some key attributes that make them perfect for the Special Forces:
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Modular & lightweight construction.
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Proven high level of ballistic protection including 58 calibre rounds.
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High level of blast protection including 120mm mortar.
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No requirement for mechanical equipment.
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Can withstand environmental extremes and helicopter downwashes.
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Designed for extremes of environmental conditions.
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Designed for expeditionary and rapid reaction forces.
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One hand tool assembly. (Allen Key)
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Deployable via helicopter.
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Depending on the size, a shelter can be deployed prefabricated.
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Service life in excess of 5 years.
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More if the SIP’s have laminated panels, which have great structural properties.
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Minimal training required to erect.
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Very low power consumption for temperature control.
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Low infra-red signature.
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Configurable to provide floor area in excess of 200m2.
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Minimum 4 person assembly.
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Deployable in less than 1 hour.
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The Future of SIPs
Curved SIPs (Sips UK are currently the only manufacturer able to offer curved sips at the moment in the uk.) providing both more strength due to the curved space and also more flexibility and innovation in design.
Maximising space in small scale builds due to thinness of panels, particularly for maximising inner city small spaces.
emergency relief housing, re-building after natural disasters and army use
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Heydar Aliyev Cultural Center - Zaha Hadid Architects Location: Baku, Azerbaijan Client: The Republic of Azerbaijan Structural engineer: Adams Kara Taylor Structural engineer: Tuncel Engineering Mechanical engineer: GMD Project Facade engineer: Werner Sobek Main contractor: DiA Holding External cladding: Arabian Profile Internal skin: Lindner Timeframe: Sept 2007 to May 2012 Floor area: 101,801m2 The architects were appointed to design the Cultural Center after a competition entry in 2007. It was set out to be the key location for cultural programmes within Azerbaijan. Its design is separate to that of the standard soviet architecture in the area, instead it expresses the sensual nature of Baku’s inhabitants. It has become a catalyst for a new wave of development in the area, bringing Azerbaijan into a new age. It is located along the main road between the old city centre and the local airport, a busy highway within the city with little historic value, this has partially allowed for such freedom in the design. The buildings structure consists of a concrete and space frame, which work in hybrid creating a more stable system. The space frame allows for a column free interior other than where the roof occasionally touches the ground. GFRC and GFRP panels are the primary cladding material used across the building and plaza. In each of the locations it has a different finish or structure depending on use.
The buildings form and program is separated into 3 main sections. There is a 1200 seat Auditorium used for conventions and musical performances. Next to this is a multi-purpose hall used as an events space enabling banquets and cinematography. Then in the north there is an 8 storey library which utilises the indirect north light. Externally these 3 spaces are clearly identifiable due to the buildings massing and application of surface. The external form and shape has been developed through use of contextual data. Baku is situated in a seismic zone so is prone to earthquakes and strong winds. With this in mind the aerodynamic form of the building enables the wind to be channelled away or around the building, reducing load on the structure. Also the majority of the fin-like forms within the facade are positioned away from the primary wind direction. A hybrid of software was used to develop this complex form, the architects and structural engineers used Rhino and Grasshopper software to create an ever changing computer model. fig.1 This model was then passed onto the cladding manufacturers Arabian Profile, who worked with a specialist 3D software firm Newtecnic to convert the original model into unique individual components for the cladding. The form also expresses a flowing relationship between its surrounding plaza and the buildings core. The plaza is now a key part of Baku’s urban landscape, and through its multiple undulations and folds the visitor is welcomed and directed into the building. The building does not have any walls per say, instead its fluid roof meets with and becomes part of the plaza floor, further expressing the connection between architecture and landscape (fig.1).
Rhino Model 203
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The Heydar Aliyev Center’s construction is formed of a concrete structure combined with an intricate space frame. The complex steel space frame designed by MERO-TSK has been developed to allow the cladding system of Werner Sobek. Combining these two systems has meant for an improved structure due to the complex form and difficult environment and has allowed for a column free interior.
Space Frame CAD Model
The space frame is comprised of a special steel tubing (members) and nodes (connection points for the members). The MERO KK ball node system was used due to its flexibility through design and form. It is one of the first prefabricated space frame designs offering varied applications. The members are made from hollowed steel tubing, this means they have a greater resistance to buckling compared to solid tubes. Diameters vary depending on use but range from 30 to 355m and (Above) MERO-TSK KK ball node and members length 1.5 to 5m. (Below) Square-on-offset-square double-layered grid The nodes are made of spheres (49.5-350mm diameter) with multiple holes dotted around the surface, these allow the conical ended members to be connected. They are locked into place with a high tensile bolt, the bolt has a dowel pin and is screwed into the node via a sleeve. The sleeve is used to absorb the compressive stress from the overall forces of the frame, ensuring the bolts are not sheared. The construction of the system is done through an automated production line, each component is fabricated in a short space of time and as there are few types of component, mass production is therefore possible reducing costs and time. As the parts making up the frame are of few types, construction of the building can start before all the components are produced. The frames geometry is standard square-on-offset-square double-layered grid, however as the configuration is designed to follow the site topography it does not follow the conventional metric system. As of this the overall frame configuration was mapped out by interconnecting polygons and quadrangular sections together. As the majority of space frames are built square-on-offset-square it shows the frame design has excellent flexibility, proved by the geometric distortion of Hadids design whist still being feasible.
The concrete cladding also contributes, although little, to the building’s structural strength. The panels themselves consist of three layers where the fibreglass is scattered randomly throughout the two outer layers, but are set in bundles following the shape of the panel in the central layer as shown in fig.2. This helps it to maintain its tensile strength without the use of steel reinforcement to counteract the materials’ brittle nature, meaning that it could be cast at 8-13mm thick whilst able to maintain high stress loads. Furthermore, with the panels having a smooth surface they are able to redirect the wind around the building, resulting in a reduced force on the primary structure. Even with these combined systems creating such a large internal column free space required additional structure, within the building there are multiple “Curved Boot Columns” (fig.3). These are part of the building’s interior, walls peeling out from the ground flowing up in circular directions to meet the buildings envelope as well as creating a functional feature (stairs/corridor/balcony/etc.). This does mean the space is free of standard columns, however it does mean the space is not completely open.
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fig.2
fig.3
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Two cladding materials were used: the first being glass fibre reinforced concrete (GFRC) and the second being fiberglass reinforced plastic (GFRP); both of which were supplied by Arabian Profile, located 3000km away from Baku in Sharjah, UAE. Both materials are a mixture of fine grain concrete or plastics and fibre glass mats, however the plastic was used for around 75% of the structure. Two materials were used for different properties, however both had to be a specific colour, texture and sheen, as well as be graffiti-proof and slip resistant. The materials also had to be dirt repellent, making it low maintenance. These were important factors to consider because the design called for a white exterior, and because of the heavy air pollution as well as heavy winds around the site, the material is resilient to this and remains its original texture and colour with minimal cost for maintenance throughout its life. The concrete panels take up only the first three metres of cladding from the ground up as it is more able to carry loads as stated previously. A great disadvantage of using concrete, however, is that it is very heavy so transporting it to site, as well as mounting it to the frame may require extra machinery and therefore increased cost. This is the reason GFRP was also used, as it is dramatically lighter and is easier to transport and handle using manual labour. The plastic panels exist above the three metres where it handles far less gravitational loads, but its flexural strength allows it to withstand the high wind loads acting at different angles. The red line in fig.4 shows this three metre cut.
fig.4
The building itself contains 16,150 unique pre-cast panels: 15,000 GFRP rain-screen panels and 3150 GFRC panels. They span over the surface area of around 50,000 m2, each panel a maximum size of 1.5m by 7m. It was vital that each panel fit perfectly over the frame in order to achieve the final form that looks like a single curved surface that reflects the landscape. This was the reason the manufacturers ‘Arabian profile’ worked with ‘Newtectic’, who initially developed the panels in 3D software. This was then sent to the manufacturers who put each panel into 3 categories as seen in fig.5. Moulding the panels cost considerably more than using the extrusion bed, however most of the panels were moulded due to the structure’s unique form. To speed up construction after they left the manufacturer, each panel was individually micro-chipped with a unique coding in order to be tracked upon delivery to the site, as well as helping the construction team know its exact location on the structure, and therefore speeding up the building process and preventing ‘lost’ panels. The majority of the building materials and services were imported from other countries because of their lack of availability in Baku, which was very expensive. Unlike the high tech materials used in the cladding and structure, the joints remain traditional to keep costs low: Standard drilled anchor systems and panel joints.
Unique pre-made molds The molds used to cast the panels were categorised in 3 ways: 1. Flat planar Cast using an extrusion bed.
2. Single curvature Moulded
3. Double curvature Moulded fig.5
In 2012 after the opening of the building the roof caught fire, despite the fact that it conformed to the highest fire standards. The exact nature of the fire had not been released though it was thought to have started due to some of the welding on the space frame not meeting fire regulations. The use of the GFRP panels with the gel coating may have been more flammable than stated in the product outline. As a result of this the GFRC panels could have been used and would have reduced fire damage, though would have meant a further development on the space frame to allow for the additional weight.
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GFRP panels
Manufacturing process Raw materials Filler Unsaturated polyester resin Firbreglass Gel coat
Apply gel coat as first layer in mold Lay fibreglass mat in mold
Cover fibreglass with vacuum bag and seal Pump out air using hose
Microchipped and transported from Sharjah, UAE to Baku
Add unsaturated polyester resin and filler to bag and surround fibreglass Continue pumping until set
Lifted by crane and manually attached using standard steel bolts and screws
GFRC panels
Raw materials
Lay fibreglass mat in mold
Portland cement Silica sand Aggregate Additives
Cover fibreglass with vacuum bag and seal Microchipped and transported from Sharjah, UAE to Baku
Water Pump out air using hose
Alkali resistant fibreglass
frame
Total cost per ft2 = $26.74
Manufacturing process
Reinforcement
Mounting on existing space
Add cement slurry to bag and surround fibreglass
Continue pumping until set
Mounting on existing space frame Lifted by crane and manually or mechanically attached using standard steel bolts and screws
Total cost per ft2 = $41.03
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The building is water-tight due to a waterproof membrane that exists between the cladding and insulation boards. A vapour barrier exists on the opposite side to block out any moisture from the internal space, particularly because it is a public building designed to accommodate a large number of people. In terms of ventilation, the exhibition gallery contains a variable air volume system and the rest of the building ventilated using convectors and floor heating. The glass curtain wall system supplied by Hueck Hartmann exists on parts of the structure with a low energy and solar control coating which results in a semi-reflective effect. Since it is low energy, less heat is lost through the double glazing units, reducing the amount of energy and therefore cost to maintain the temperature of the interior space. The solar control coating regulates how much sunlight is allowed to pass through the glazing as a large part of the north east facade is glazed. During the day the glazing reflects the Baku sky and landscapes, and during the night is completely transparent because of the indoor lighting.
In conclusion, the Heydar Aliyev incorporates many successful design and structural elements appropriate for the brief and site context, specifically its harsh weather and pollution. The design and construction processes have been carefully developed to create such an intricate building on a difficult site. However, this has not been without its drawbacks regarding the budget. This is due to the amount of time taken on its planning, as well as the number of specialists required. These range from software engineers to contractors. Regarding the design of a surface form structure there are many different factors to consider due to the vast number of unique components which make up the single form. When developing a form of this nature organisation between all involved in the design and building process must have clear communication channels, specifically with the building model and any alterations made to it. This would have been reasonably simple if Building information modelling software (BIM) was suitable, although with the complex form it would have been a near impossible task. Hence, the teams working on each component worked closely with those working on adjacent features and reported back to project managers responsible for this organisation. So to conclude, the processes in designing a building as complex as this requires more than just a detailed knowledge of the building. In comparison to a standard component building, the cultural centre is certainly unique.
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Detailed section (Scale 1:25) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
6.
7. 8. 9.
1. 8-13mm GFRP panels to roof higher than datum at approximately 3m above ground level. Arabian Profile. 2. Support beams 3. longitudinal steel tubes supporting rain screen panels 4. Rod connectors between space frame and secondary steel tubes 5. Insulation boarding with waterproof membrane on top and vapour barrier below 6. Member, Space frame - MERO-TSK 7. Node, Space frame - MERO-TSK 8. Telescopic tubes 9. 6mm two-layer fibre-reinforced mineral boards screwed to fixing plates. Lindner.
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Rhino/ Grasshopper modelling Rhino allows full parametric control of the architectural model, as opposed to other 3D modelling programmes such as Sketchup or 3DS max. This was the reason it was used to create the Heydar Aliyev, which consists of a complex geometry of curves and planes. Rhino uses Non-Uniform Rational B-Splines (NURBS) which allows this freedom whilst applying mathematical values to the model. These values can then be used to calculate the technical aspects of the design. The grasshopper plugin was also used. Entering algorithms into the software to ensure accuracy within the digital model. Using Rhino alone would be more time consuming and potentially less accurate. The process below shows a basic example of how the Heydar Aliyev may have been developed.
Two control point lines have been drawn in a similar form to parts of the form of the Heydar Aliyev cultural centre.
The two lines are then lofted which creates a polysurface between each curve. The polysurface is made up of multiple surfaces. These are formed by joining up each point on the curves. A plane is created between each parallel line together forming the polysurface.
The polysurface is then meshed which separates the form into several panels which could potentially be used to calculate the form of the cladding.
The final rendered form.
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Giant Campus Headquarters by Morphosis Architects - Cladding and Material Systems Essay
Joseph Wyatt and Jack Stancombe
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Giant Campus Headquarters by Morphosis Architects - Cladding and Material Systems Essay The Giant Campus Headquarters designed by Morphosis architects, is located on the outskirts of Shanghai and was built over three years, between 2005 and 2008. This low rise building with 258,000 ft² of space, features dramatic cantilevers that hang over a purpose built lake. 164,000 ft² of undulating green roof creates a topographical variety to the otherwise flat area that surrounds it, which the architects refer to as an augmented ground-plane or lifted landscape. Select rooms have glass floors, including the cantilevered meeting room from which users can see the lake beneath. Internally the walls are predominantly white coated with gypsum board. The building also boasts large inverted parabolic columns that can be seen throughout, creating a sense of futurism. The project was built as headquarters for the online games developing company, Giant Interactive Group. It not only accommodates for the business functions, but offers leisure and hotel facilities for its staff, including swimming pools and an auditorium. The two sections maintained for ‘work’ and ‘pleasure,’ are separated by a traffic free road running beneath a connecting bridge. In this report we will focus in detail on the cladding, materials and their relationship to the structure.
Figure 1 - Location in Shanghai
Figure 2 - Elevation with cantilever over lake
The prominent cladding facing most of the design, is a cement composite panel produced by a company called Swisspearl. Swisspearl has a range of products, however the ‘Xpressiv’ panel was used as it offered suitable characteristics including colour, texture and touch in relation to its environment. The primary structure is steel, combining braced steel moment frames for the cantilevers, a grid shell structure for parts of the undulating roof and concrete and steel structure for the low lying elements. Figure 3 shows part of the Gridshell roof with the interlinking steel struts forming the primary structure to which everything is attached.
Figure 3 - Gridshell Structure Roof 211
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A computer program was used to calculate the necessary quantity of paneling produced for Giant Campus Headquarters onto the steel frame. In identifying the total number of panels required, it minimised the amount of paneling wasted, helping to save resources and energy. This kind of system contributed to its green output and process. Morphosis uses Bentley Microstation as its cad platform, and Bentley Triforma and Bentley Structural for BIM. B.D.S. creates parametric steel highly detailed models in Tekla Xsteel, and Permasteelisa uses Autodesk Autocad for detailing, unfolding and drawing the perforated metal. These programmes help clients and everyone involved in the construction of the building, its visualization and understanding the building in greater detail. The paneling material consists of portland cement, limestone, water, air and then a high quality non-toxic fibre which is used to reinforce the concrete. The production process is relatively energy efficient, panels are left to cure for 28 days using only 125MJ per meters squared of paneling. Xpressiv panels have many advantages which were appropriate for the project. The panels fixing allows for easy installation minimizing on-sight construction times, and can just as easily be dismantled if required. The panels are attached to the steel sub-frame from the backside using steel rivets, creating an invisible fixing system, with under cut anchors and cleats to hanging rails as seen in Figure 5. In the construction of the exterior walls of the building, there is a 800mm gap between the Swisspearl panels and the insulation, meaning that plumbing, ventilation and other services can be hidden from view. Shrinkage of panels due to high levels of portland cement is something that had to be considered. Over 10 years one meter of paneling can shrink by up to 1.8mm, causing gaps to appear between panels. Actions were taken to reduce this by using looser fixing, thus allowing shrinkage to happen without damaging the panels. The panels ability to bend also allows for a more flexible design, suiting the curving façade.
This composite material offers high levels of weatherproofing including resistance to frost and rain. In researching Shanghai’s weather statistics such qualities are integral to the design. The building lacks urban or environmental barriers with its open terrain, subjecting it to all weather conditions. Xpressiv’s impermeability means the rain hitting it bounces off or runs down the façade into either the green roof or surrounding lake, as seen in Figure 4. However, where the panels intersect there is a slight gap. A waterproof membrane lies underneath the panels contributing to its watertight exterior, the diagram shows water running and bouncing off the facade away from the building. This design helps direct rain to run off the building rather then soak through. These materials and their construction help to tackle the areas weather conditions in a sustainable and efficient way. Another benefit in using these panels is its conservation of colour, it is able to withstand extreme weather conditions over an estimated 40-year life span and remain intact, as provided by Swisspearl. The panels maintenance and upkeep is minimal. Rainwater rinses dirt easily from its smooth surface and therefore requires little cleaning. Figure 4 - Surface Runoff
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Figure 5 - Wall Composition in Section, Close Up detial and 3D
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Steel Structure Swisspearl Panelling Steel Substructure End plate Connector Connecting Bolt Rivet Rivet Gun
The end plate connector is wielded onto the column during manufacturing and the steel substructure is attached using bolts during construction.
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Another prominent feature contributing to the green energy efficient and environmentally friendly design of the Giant Interactive Group Campus, is the glass curtain wall located on the south elevation. The facades combination of metal paneling and double insulated ceramic-fritted glass, reduces solar heat gain whilst providing sun shading. This contributes positively to the overall efficiency of this vast complex. The fritting involved is screen-printed ceramic frit paint which is applied onto the already manufactured cut glass and fused onto its surface. This happens during the toughening/strengthening process resulting in a tough decorative glass. Not only does this product contribute towards a more efficient reduction of solar heat gain and glare, but it gives the faรงade natural lighting whilst enabling a degree of privacy. This precedent does not state the type of glass used, however research into similar precedents indicates a silkscreen and sand blasted glass. This strong reinforced glass has the added benefit in reducing direct light transmission through its design, and providing sustainable protection against glare and solar heat. The curtain type is a stick built system, which involves the double insulated glass being hung from the steel structure. The loads and stresses imposed on the glass curtain wall are transferred through the buildings structure through the steel anchors. These attach the vertical mullions to the building, which contribute to the curtain walls structure. Argon, a dense transparent gas is implemented in between the glass sheets and contributes towards a more energy efficient faรงade, as it acts as insulation. Figure 6 - Glass Curtain Wall Composition in Plan
Figure 6 shows the curtain wall in plan where the fritted glass intersects with the structural mullions. The joint is sealed by transom end seal where the transoms connect to the mullions. The transom is square cut and fixed to the mullions by spring cleats. This system is water tight and with the double glazing argon insulated glass, it is also thermally efficient. Figure 7 shows the intersection in 3D, showing the glass curtain walls construction more clearly.
Figure 7 - Glass Curtain Wall Composition in 3D
Kalzip was used for the office building roofing system and is made of a standing seam aluminum metal. The Kalzip used in this project is Kalzip 65/403 profile, 1.0mm thickness, mill finish and the clip used is a ST Clip L100. Like the Swisspearl its implementation involved using computer-generated forms and design principles to efficiently construct the roof. This fast installation cladding made of aluminium profiled sheets, has the latest thermal insulation standards, contributing towards the buildings environmentally friendly output. Further water resistance due to the aluminum base material and corrosion resistance gives it a long life span and is virtually maintenance-free. The minimum heat transfer enables the roof to be virtually free of thermal bridges. The ST Clip is made of aluminum and is designed to secure the Kalzip profiled sheets to the steel substructure.
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The other main cladding that covers around seventy five percent of the entire building is the Green roof. This is a major contributor to the green energy output. This product provides extra thermal mass helping to reduce energy consumption, and controls unwanted heat gain through evaporative cooling. Its construction consists of many layers and sits on the concrete layer which attaches on the steel structure. The concrete ensures no leakages through the green roof and its design promotes surface run off, so water cannot build up. The next necessary layers include water barriers again helping with impermeability, root barriers so vegetation cannot grow into the roof structure compromising its strength, drainage and then the soil and vegetation on top as shown in Figure 8. This creates a green and natural overall appearance and adds beauty to the building.
Figure 8 - Green Roof Construction Layers
After contacting and researching in detail Morphosis’s Giant Campus precedent, it has become clear that very little in-depth drawings or studies show a detailed breakdown of materials, their systems and fixings. Therefore we are going to focus on a similar precedent by Morphosis, the Federation building in San Francisco to gain detailed drawings and insight into this buildings similar construction. This $144 million building was designed as a supplement to the Phillip Burton Federal Building and like the Giant Campus in Shanghai has been created to be green, consuming less than half the power of a normal office tower. Its shape and orientation incourage natural air flow allowing easy ventlaition and cooling throughout the building.
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Figure 9 - Federal Building Facade Breakdown
Figure 10 - Federal Building South Facade showing perforated steel panels connections
The Federal buildings environmental outlook see’s half of the pollution-intensive Portland cement used for the foundations, being replaced with blast furnace slag. This is a recycled waste product taken from the steel manufacturing industry and significantly helps in reducing greenhouse gas emissions in its construction. This also contributes towards a higher strength concrete and its warm light coloured tone, contributes to daylight penetration within the office space.
Glass Steel Mullion
Concrete Floor Slab
T Structure
Metal Scrim Concrete Structure 4’ Steel Tubing
Figure 9, 11 and 12 shows the south façades construction in exploded 3D, plan and section. The concrete columns are attached to steel mullions which fix the glass in place in a curtain wall system, however this offers no structural properties. The metal scrim uses approximately 200,000 square feet across the building of perforated stainless steel with 80% opacity. This authentic sunscreen allows small amounts of light to penetrate the building reducing direct solar heat gain. It is constructed by fixing the metal panels to four inch steel tubes using rivets as shown in Figure 10, which are visible from the outside exposing trusses and bolts, and these are then fixed to protruding cantilevered T-section structures, which are also made of steel. This entire system is braced using cross bracing to give the structure stability. Its location in San Francisco requires the building to withstand seismic activity; this cross bracing increases the buildings capability to withstand earthquakes. In this buildings steel construction, steel cables are used for cross bracing due to their high resistance to tension.
Metal Scrim
4’ Steel Tubing
Cross Brace
T Structure Concrete Structure Figure 11 - Federal Building South Facade Breakdown in Plan 216
Figure 12 - Federal Building South Facade Breakdown in Section Joseph Wyatt, Jack Stancombe
The perforated stainless steel on this south faรงade, as a material, soaks up a large portion of solar energy before it is able to enter occupied spaces within the building and heat them up. Consequently the material absorbs and then conducts heat into the airspace around it. This heated air then rises alongside the building helping to take exhaust air out of the building through computer-controlled windows. This system reduces huge amounts of money being spent on machine ventilation systems by utilizing the solar energy to basically fuel a passive heat pump which helps to cool the building, and it is environmentally friendly. In colder months a hydronic heating system is used. Heat is delivered though a finned-tube convector which is integrated into the exterior glazing along the length of the building. Early uses of 3-D modelling included generating quantity takeoffs which allowed for cost estimating, whilst coordinating with the engineering team for the control of geometry and layout, and managing the production of construction documents. The northern facade is entirely different from the southern faรงade. The scaffolding style floor-to-ceiling glass spreads out over the entire length of the building behind a strong grid of metal catwalks with fifty-five thin rows of opaque glass fins. These glass fins serve the same purpose as the perforated stainless steel panels on the south faรงade in reducing direct sunlight and filtering out glare and heat as shown in Figure 14. Atop the federal building is more steep folded perforated steel forming a hollow cone. This is held in place by V-shaped trusses helping in hiding rooftop mechanical systems whilst accentuating the buildings height as seen in Figure 13.
Figure 13 - Federal Building Section
Figure 14 - Federal Building Fin Blocking Light Diagram
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Figure 15 - Federal Building Close up Section of South Facade and fixing
Figure 15 shows the south facades construction breakdown. The concrete floor slabs connect to the T-structure and are bolted together. The cross bracing is attached using a pin-joint to the T-frame which protrudes horizontally from the facade, as shown in the close up of figure 15. This diagram section reveals how far offset the perforated steel sits off the elevation helping to maintain consistent levels of light into the office space behind it. A computer-controlled system operates the windows automatically controlling air circulation and temperature of the entire building. This system in itself saves huge amounts of energy being wasted and helps to reduce its carbon footprint. Figure 16 shows the process and sliding mechanism of the window using a spring piston.
Figure 16 - Federal Building Close up of window mechanism
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Bibliography: COOK, P (1989) Morphosis: buildings and projects. New York: Rizzoli. MAYNE, T (2006) Morphosis: Volume IV (Morphosis; Buildings and Projects) (Vol. 4). New York: Rizzoli. MAYNE, T (1999) Morphosis: buildings and projects: 1993-1999. New York: Rizzoli. MAYNE, T (2009) Morphosis: buildings & projects, 1999-2008. New York: Rizzoli International. SCHITTICH, C (2012) Japan : Architecture, Constructions, Ambiances. Unknown: DETAIL ARCH20 (2013) The Giant Interactive Group Corporate Headquarters | Morphosis Architects [Online]. Available from: http://www.arch2o.com/giant-interactive-group-corporate-headquarters-morphosis-architects/ [Accessed 2/11/14]. BRENDAN MCGETRICK (2011) The Giant Interactive Group Campus [Online]. Available from: http://www.domusweb.it/en/ architecture/2011/01/10/the-giant-interactive-group-campus.html [Accessed 2/11/14]. CHARLES J. KIBERT (2008) Sustainable Construction: Green Building Design and Delivery [Online]. Available from: http:// books,google.co.uk/books [Accessed 23/10/14]. CLIFFORD A. PEARSON (2011) Giant Interactive Group [Online]. Available from: http://archrecord.construction.com/projects/portfolio/2011/01/giant_interactive.asp [Accessed 3/11/14]. EMILY TYRER (2010) A Complex Modernity: Morphosis’ San Francisco Federal Building [Online]. Available from: http://wesscholar.wesleyan.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1424&context=etd_hon_theses [Accessed 1/11/14]. ERIKA KIM (2011) morphosis architects: giant interactive group corporate headquarters [Online]. Available from: http:// www.designboom.com/architecture/morphosis-architects-giant-interactive-group-corporate-headquarters/ [Accessed1/11/14]. GALINSKY (2009) United States Federal Buidling [Online]. Available from: http://www.galinsky.com/buildings/sffb/ [Accessed 1/11/14]. JOANN GON CHAR (2007) U.S. Federal Building [Online]. Available from: http://archrecord.construction.com/projects/portfolio/archives/0708federal.asp [Accessed 5/11/14]. JOHN KING (2007) Towering Expectations [Online]. Available from: http://www.sfgate.com/bayarea/place/article/TOWERING-EXPECTATIONS-S-F-s-new-federal-2615184.php [Accessed 22/10/14]. MORPHOSIS (2011) Giant Interactive Group Corporate Headquarters [Online]. Available from: http://morphopedia.com/ projects/giant-interactive-group-corporate-headqu [Accessed 27/10/14]. MORPHOSIS (2011) San Francisco Federal Building [Online]. Available from: http://morphopedia.com/projects/san-francisco-federal-building [Accessed 29/10/14]. SURTHERLAND LYALL (2011) Giant Campus by Morphosis, Shanghai, China [Online]. Available from: http://www.architectural-review.com/buildings/giant-campus-by-morphosis-shanghai-china/8614190.article [Accessed 5/11/14]. SWISSPEARL (2014) The Swiss Collection [Online]. Available from: http://www.swisspearl.com/products-and-solutions/ [Accessed 22/10/14].
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Arch3036 2014-15 Technology 3
Project 1 : Materials/Systems ETFE Ethylene tetrafluoroethylene
Catherine Bailey & Nailah Bakhsh
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Eden Project
Etfe is a fluorine based plastic also known as a polymer. Structurally a polymer is made up of chains of monomers. It is made by combining TFE (a colourless gas and chemical compound) and Ethylene (a gas). This process is called polymerization. The resin is set into foils that are durable, highly transparent and very lightweight in comparison to glass structures. These foils can be used as a single layer, in multiple layers or in cushion form. Etfe structures are an example of membrane construction, which means the elements are all in tension and the sub structure is in compression. They may also be called ‘Thin-shell structures’. This form of construction has become increasingly popular for its flexibility of design and high performance.
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Technology ARCH 3036
Fresilo residential building, Denmark
Etfe has a variety of functions these include the construction of both residential and commercial buildings. It can be used to create a complete structure or sections of one. For example it was used to create a canopy over the Trinity Walk Shopping Centre in Wakefield. Designed by Architen Landrell the feature canopy is made up of sculptural ETFE cushions and was chosen as a more affordable option to glass. It is also used to cover electrical wires particularly in aircraft and spacecraft due to its excellent chemical, electrical and high-energy radiation resistance. It has been used in wall coverings also, particularly in anti graffiti applications. It has recently been used in solar panel applications because of its low-density elasticity.
ETFE has many advantages including a high corrosion resistance and strength over a wide temperature range from -185°c to 150°c. This is beneficial as it means the material can be used in construction in a variety of different climates and under very hot and freezing conditions it will still perform. It is self-cleaning as a result of its non-stick surface and recyclable and can be stretched up to three times its length as it has a very high tensile strength of 42N/mm2. A single foil has a U value of 5.6w/ m2K, which is not very ecient, but three layers have a value of approximately 1.9w/m2K, this is within the reasonable guidelines. One can increase the layers up to 5 times to create an efficient thermal envelope and a lower U-value. Its disadvantages include when it is burned it releases hydrofluoric acid which is highly corrosive and the gas is poisonous. It is also prone to puncture although being strong, however this can be easily fixed as a new patch can be welded on to reseal it. This is also a reason why it is more efficient than glass because if broken the entire glass panel would need to be replaced which is costly and complex. Finally ETFE has a very high solar gain nevertheless this can be solved with the use of clever solar shading or printed patterns on the plastic. This is called a fritt pattern and reduces solar gain to between 0.71G – 0.22 G.
Trinity Walk Shopping Centre, Wakefield
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A diagram to show that inflating or deflating the cushions overlays the fritt patterns and either increases or reduces the building’s solar gain.
Eden Project
Technology ARCH 3036 DuPont developed ETFE over 40 years ago as a static coating material in the aerospace industry. It began to be used in agricultural structures such as greenhouses and for solar panel applications; since it has demonstrated its worth in the architectural sector. In the 1990’s it started to be used in the construction of offices, universities, medical facilities, exposition halls and zoos. At this time it was mainly used in roof structures and not as a complete structure in itself. In 2000 it was used to create the geodesic biomes of the Eden Project in Cornwall, which was a new concept as the entire structure was made from ETFE and steel. The outstanding national aquatics centre in Beijing was completed in 2008 and is the largest structure made from ETFE. It is known as the water cube as the steel and ETFE pillows create a bubble like appearance, which is lit up blue at night.
Founder of DuPontÉleuthère Irénée du Pont
EDEN PROJECT
ARCHITECTS: NICHOLAS GRIMSHAW & PARTNERCOMPLETED IN MAY 2001
LOCATION: CORNWALL
ETFE greenhouse
Etfe is made from the mineral Fluorite that is used in the production of aluminium. It is found in continents such as Europe mainly Germany and Switzerland, China, Mongolia, South Africa and Mexico. It is made from combining Fluorite with hydrogen sulphate and trichloromethane. These combined make chlorodifluoromethane; by pyrolysis (thermochemical decomposition) this creates tetrafluoroethylene (TFE) a colourless gas, which is joined with Ethylene to make ETFE (a copolymer). The ETFE resin is produced in either a powder or compressed into pellets. This is then extruded into a thin film and left to set. AGC is one of the largest manufacturers of ETFE worldwide.
Heart of Africa Biodome at Chester Zoo
STRUCTURE: STEEL AND THERMOPLASTIC
What is it? The Eden project is a complex dominated by two natural biomes within adjoining domes. The domes consist of 100’s of hexagonal and pentagonal inflated plastic cells supported by steel frames. The first dome emulates a tropical environment and the second a Mediterranean environment.
Fluorite Mineral 223
December Sunpath
ETFE is a translucent material it allows as much light as possible to enter a struccture. This is essential for a greehouse. It naturally illuminate and helps heat up the interior.
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Section through the node
Axonometric showing the node connecting the three panels
Perspective view of Eden Project geodesic node
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cushion 4. Restraint mounted to steel upstand 5. 193.7mm diameter CHS 6. Paired 2mm stainless steel anti-bird wire on raised brackets 7. Cast galvanised steel node Note: foil cushions omitted for clarity
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A section to show structural details ETFE is waterproof, self cleaning and has a U value 1.4w/m2k.
Section of roof detail
Section of ground detail
The ETFE cushions are scaled to fit each dome using hexagons ranging from 5 to 11 m in diameter.
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The ETFE cushion is made up of three layers with air between. The air increases insulation but does not affect the amount of solar gain. The cushions are adjustable; they can be pumped up on colder days to increase the insulation or they can be let down on hot days to prevent over heating.
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1. The lid profile is fixed to the steel structure 2. The ETFE panels are then held in place by the lid profile and rubber base seal (deflated) 3. The rubber cap seal is then placed on top to seal the joint and project the structure from water damage 4. Finally an aluminium plate is screwed on top and through the joint to the lid profile to create a unit 5. The panel is then inflated
Primary Structure Secondary structure Insulation ETFE cladding The secondary structure connects the ETFE cushions together and on to the steel primary structure. There is insulation between the aluminum gutter this forms part of a thermal envelope and prevents heat loss.
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Bibliography Annette LeCuyer (2008). ETFE: Technology and Design. Birkhauser Verlag AG. Graham Bizley (2010). Architecture in Detail II. Routledge. Andrew Hall (2009). Details in Architecture: Creative Detailing Volume 7.images Publishing. Stefan Behling (2010). Innovative Design + Construction: Manufacturing and design synergies in the building process. Detail. Ajla Aksamija (2013). Sustainable Facades: Design Methods for High-performance Building Envelopes. John Wiley & Sons. Olga Popovic Larsen, Andy Tyas (2003). Conceptual Structural Design: Bridging the Gap Between Architects and Engineers. Thomas Telford.
Water conservation is a big part of the project. The clay pit has an ample amount of water due to rainfall, ground water and natural string sources. All these sources of water are more then enough to obtain the horticultural and humidification requirements. The water quantity is also sufficient enough to provide grey water for flushing toilets and urinals.
ETFE multi-layer cushions. Available: http://www.highpoint-structures.com/en-us/products/35-64-350/etfe/etfe-multi-layer-cushions.aspx. Last accessed 13th Nov 2014. ETFE Properties. Available: http://www.fluorotherm.com/technical-information/materials-overview/etfe-properties/. Last accessed 16 Nov 2014.
They wanted the purest possible water to be used for the humidification of the Tropical Biome because they needed to avoid any deposition of minerals on the plants. Rain water is drained through the gutters and collected in the hoppers at the bottom of the Biome. This system is highly effective and efficient.
Taiyo Kogyo corporation. (.). Architecture of ETFE. Available: http://www.makmax.com/ business/etfe_advantages.html. Last accessed 17th Nov 2014. Amy Wilson. (2013). ETFE Foil: A Guide to Design. Available: http://www.architen.com/ articles/etfe-foil-a-guide-to-design/. Last accessed 16th Nov 2014.
In the first proposal they where going to use a single layer un-braced geodesic system using 500 mm diameter circular steel tubes. The company Mero instead proposed a two layer hex tri hex geometry which reduced the size of the structural members to 193 mm in diameter for the outer layer and 114 mm for the inner layer. By reducing the members the weight was also drastically reduced by 50%. Altogether it weighed 22 kilograms per square meter of surface area. Due to its light weight they feared the wind load on such a large building would cause the structure to be unbuildable. The wind tunnel test showed that the clay pit’s topography would shelter the structure from strong winds.
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Timber Scott Bird Kieren Blanch
ARCH 3036 2014-2015 TECH 3 Project 1: Material/System Study
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Contents Material Study - Timber 1 - Introduction 2 - History 3 - Manufacturing Process 4 - Description 5-6 - Functions of Timber 7 - Examples of Timber
Case Study - Cedar House - Hudson Architects 8 - Introduction 9 - Plan and Section Drawings 10 - Structure 11 - 1:10 Detail Section Drawing 12 - Exploded Axonometric 13 - Bibliography
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Material Study - Timber
Introduction Timber is a material that is commonly used in building construction with its main uses coming in the form of framing as well as exterior cladding. Made by cutting down trees and then shaping the timber in to boards/beams it’s an eco-friendly material that is widely used around the world. A lightweight yet strong material, timber is a good choice for framing and construction as it is also very easy and simple to use in a frame. There are also a lot of different shades/textures and patterns of grain to choose from so it’s quite a versatile material in both construction and for exterior cladding design. As timber is so versatile there are many different types of cladding used over the world, whether it be to get a desired colour or texture for a building or to match the environmental surroundings. Over time many types of frames have been made out of timber and trees and so there is no set construction method which can also be a positive as it means there aren’t as many restrictions when it comes to building a frame out of the material.
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Material Study - Timber History The history of timber goes back a long way, the material has been used for many years and even dates back to Ancient Rome and Egypt when it was used in roofing systems. Over time it grew to be used widely as framing but then became more of just an external material. Nowadays there are wide uses of timber in both framing and cladding. In its first main use timber was a main building material when creating small primitive huts. The logs of trees could be used as pillars/columns which then hold up the roof which is made of smaller pieces of timber. These can be thought of as the initial form of roof rafters. Over time it became clear timber wasn’t the safest material to build with as it was highly flammable. This caused the movement to stone, brick and other materials to become the main construction methods. Later it became clearer that timber could be used alongside other materials to create a safe building and so it made a comeback and can now be seen in many buildings around the world once again.
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Material Study - Timber Manufacturing Process The manufacturing process for timber is quite simple as it is a natural material. Older trees are chosen by workers to be felled letting the younger trees grow. Once a set of trees are chopped down a new set are normally planted in their old position. The way to bring them down is normally with either chainsaws or large tractor-like vehicles with cutters. Once the trees are cut down they are stored in a clearing before being transported to a sawmill when ready. When at the sawmill the conversion process begins to turn the logs in to usable wooden boards. The ends of each log are trimmed so that they are straight and then each trimmed log is cut in to boards. The boards are then made square using circular saws and shaped if necessary. They are also seasoned to get rid of the high percentage of water contained in the logs. If this isn’t done then the wood can warp and change shape over time so unseasoned (green) wood isn’t used often to make precise products.
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Material Study - Timber Description Timber is a lightweight, strong and readily accessible material that is simple to use in construction and is used worldwide as a building material. Most of the time when trees are cut down for construction use a new set will be planted and so timber is a sustainable resource. Timber is anisotropic which means that its qualities are highly dependent on the direction of the grain. In most timber the strength of the beam is around one hundred times greater in tension and four times greater in compression in the direction of the grain than at a right angle to it. This is a reason why laminated timber is used a lot as it means stacking beams on top of each other with grains at right angles to each other which means that it will be strong in both directions. There are a few main types of timber that are used in both framing and in cladding. These can sometimes overlap and be used for both but a lot of the time there are specific timbers used for one use over the other. A few timber frame examples are the standard lumber (usually refers to felled trees) and timber. Oak has been used for beams, floors in the same fashion that other woods such as pine and fir have. For cladding there are a many types of timber to choose from. Cedar is a very popular wood used today as it is knot-free, clean and naturally resists against decay. Fir can also be used in cladding and is sourced locally in a lot of areas so is a good choice for sustainability. Larch is denser than a few types of timber and so is more resilient to knocks. IT can be aquired in different grades and so has a wide variation in price and quality. Some people try to keep their designs similar all the way through and will therefore use the same type of wood for both the construction of their timber framing and also for their timber cladding. In some cases this isn’t the best idea for the structure or for the appearance but may be cheaper for the client as all the wood can be sourced from the same place. Some will mix and match in order to try and save on material costs or to get a desired shade or texture from their timber.
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Material Study - Timber Functions of Timber Timber is mainly used in construction for the uses of cladding and framing. Both of these are widely used but are completely different. When using timber frames there is a very large amount of types that can be considered. A few types of timber frame that have been used are: Traditional log construction – Logs used to be stacked on top of each other with 90 degree connections used to make the full frame. Modern timber frame construction – Built level by level, this is the most common structural use of timber today. Balloon framing – Vertical members continue through all stories with floors and roof attached internally.
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10. 11. There are a few types of timber beams that are used widely in construction. A couple that are very effective are: Glulam beams – Made by stacking timber on top of each other at right angles to make it super strong and then laminate it to make the seals even stronger. CLT beams – Made by attaching timber beams end to end using teeth and then laminated these to make them stronger.
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Material Study - Timber Functions of Timber Timber is also widely used for cladding purposes as it can come in a variety of colours and textures so it can fit any situation. The main cladding styles used are: Vertical/Horizontal/Diagonal boards Shingles and Shakes Panel Cladding Prefinished compressed fibre panels
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Material Study - Timber Examples of Timber
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CASE STUDY - Cedar House - Hudson Architects
Although deigned and built for a photographer and his family, Hudson Architects used the Cedar House project as a prototype for a new cost-effective modern housing system. This low cost was achived by the use of pre-fabricated structural timber panels which inturn allowed the entire building to be constructed in just 7 day, keeping both building and material costs to a minimum without compromising on design or aesthetics. The brief was for a simple two bedroom house with a third room that could double as an office and guest room. Seperate to the main house, a dark room and spacious gallery/studio space are also provided with their own loading access. The whole building is clad in around 15000 untreated cedar shingles, which Hudson Architects hoped would allow the building to mature in its surroundings.
Location: Norfork, England, UK Structural Engineer: Alan Conisbee Associates Quantity Surveyor: Roger Rawlinson Associates
“Cedar House pilots a new prototype for cost-effective new-build modern housing. It Deploys innovative off-site construction, which simpolifies the building process without compromising the architecture of the house. The cedar reads as a dramatic and sleek protective cloak that sits harmoniously within its countryside surroundings.�
Project Team: Anthony Hudson Dieter Kleiner Timber Elements: Structure, pre-fabricated floors, walls, roofing and cladding Timber Species: Cedar (shingles), Engineered Timbers, Reconstituted Wood Shavings
HUDSON Architects
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CASE STUDY - Cedar House - Hudson Architects
Ground Floor Plan 1:200
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1 - Ramp 2 - Terrace 3 - Entrance 4 - Living Area 5 - Dining Area 6 - Kitchen 7 - Entrance Deck 8 - Bedroom 9 - Bathroom 10 - WC 11 - Master Bathroom 12 - Master Bedroom 13 - Dark Room 14 - Office 15 - Garage and storage with mezzanine above 16- Studio
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Long Section 1:200
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Short Section 1:200 1 - Terrace 2 - Entrance 3 - Stacked Glass Doors to Kitchen 4 - Kitchen 5 - Kitchen Island 6 - Corner Window 7 - Entrance Deck
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CASE STUDY - Cedar House - Hudson Architects Structure - Overview
Roof Structure Detail 1:10
A pre-fabricated timber panel system, comprising of lightweight floor, wall and roof panels was chosen to form the structure of this building. Each panel arrived on site as a ready made ‘casset’ comprising of an efficient engineered timber joist frame work (glulam timbers) housing the insulation, vapor barrier, breather board, service ducts and wraped in a stressed skin of breathable waste-woodchip. Each panel also already had openings for doors and windows cut out allowing for fast installation once on site. To increase regidity of the structure and to allow for the huge 4mx2m framless corner window and 8m long foldable glass wall, the roof plates had to be reinforced with a pair of parallel timbers running the length of the house which transfered the large load down into the gable end walls. The panel system was chosen as it is a fairly cost effective building method, but also because it is extremly fast to work with. Once the concrete foundations were layed the whole build was completed in just 7 days. This is partly due to the fact that the panals arrived pre-plastered and finished so no further work was required after installation.
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CASE STUDY - Cedar House - Hudson Architects
Detail Section 1:10 1. Vapourcheck barrier over 12.5mm plasterboard 2. Prefabricated roof cassette 3. 15mm Bitroc board
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CASE STUDY - Cedar House - Hudson Architects Exploded Axonometric
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1. Plasterboard covered in a stressed skin of breathable waste-woodchip
6. 135x50mm Structural Engineered Timber Joist Frame Work
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7. Plaster Windboard covered in a stressed skin of breathable waste-woodchip
3. 45x45mm Internal Battens 4. Vapour Control Layer 5. 135mm Thermal Insulation
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8. Breather Membrane 9. 25x38mm Horrizontal Battens
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Material Study - Timber Sources (1) http://www.archdaily.com/230234/motat-aviation-display-hall-studio-pacific-architecture/patrick-reynolds-2/ (2) http://aandaamigos.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/08/cut-down.jpg (3) http://www.soil-net.com/album/Plants/Woods_Forest/Coniferous%20woodland/ slides/Tree%20Forestry%20Logs%2004.jpg (4) http://sflonews.files.wordpress.com/2013/02/log-truck.png (5) http://blog.epa.gov/greeningtheapple/wp-content/uploads/2012/12/Portable_ Sawmill.jpg (6) http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_0tE4xX5H0co/TBRAKAKMtTI/AAAAAAAACzc/ UrUUEa691Y4/s1600/sawmill+032.JPG (7) http://www.homeprotect.co.uk/Media/274887/timber-frame-565-300.jpg (8) http://springriverloghomes.net/handcraftcorner.jpg (9) http://thumb101.shutterstock.com/display_pic_with_ logo/98708/98708,1258466501,3/stock-photo-house-frame-under-construction-isolated-d-illustration-41091097.jpg (10) http://www.builditsolar.com/Projects/SolarHomes/LarsenTruss/Larsen3.jpg (11) http://d2gzmlqnkfjqmm.cloudfront.net/data/product/content/agg/boisecascadellc/Boise-Cascade-LLC/Boise08/FC9988B25A8BA39280DEE707533B1B42_boise_glulam.detail.png (12) http://www.woodproducts.fi/sites/default/files/clt.png (13) http://news.domain.com.au/domain/real-estate-news/beach-house-beauty-onbay-watch-20121207-2aywt.html (14) http://blog.ounodesign.com/2009/08/29/unplugged-eco-barn-in-normandyfrom-the-eco-house-book/ (15) http://www.brick-clad.co.uk/upload/images/st_johns_wandsworth__640x313. jpg (16) http://www.howarth-timber.co.uk/Images/Gallery/Zoom/timber_cladding_project.jpg (17) http://www.homeprotect.co.uk/Media/274887/timber-frame-565-300.jpg (18) http://static.dezeen.com/uploads/2013/12/The-House-of-the-Early-Childhoodin-Mayenne_dezeen_3.jpg (19) http://classconnection.s3.amazonaws.com/822/flashcards/131822/jpg/study_ packet_1-c_page_071317057267983.jpg (20) http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_RSeTrS6Uy2s/TKzw5WzmzJI/AAAAAAAAHk8/sA1lI134btM/s1600/bdf7ed97-small.JPG
CASE STUDY - Cedar House - Hudson Architects Sources and References http://www.hudsonarchitects.co.uk/ McLEOND, V. (2010) Detail in Contemporarty Timber Architecture. London - Laurence King Publishing Ltd. http://www.bdonline.co.uk/what-lies-beneath/3047193.article http://www.archello.com/en/project/cedar-house http://www.conisbee.co.uk/project/cedar-house/
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Brick Technology Term 1 ARCH3036-2015-Y Rosie Pratt P12213936 and Ben Pole P12213629 244
History of Bricks Bricks are one of the oldest building materials known to man kind, dating back to around 7000BC. The first bricks used were sun-dried mudbricks in Southern Turkey and around Jericho which can still be seen in the excavations of large towns in Jericho. This is where the idea of using a repeated unit to form structures first appeared. Bricks were used structually to make dwellings for the people of the town and but moving on from this bricks were used as more than just a structure for buildings. In early Islamic architecture mudbricks are used as decorative brickwork named Hazarbaf. Islamic brickwork grew in sophistication of its techniques over the centuries. By the 11th century, mutiple brick sizes were being used and brick work with triangles, squares, octagons, cruciform designs appeared. This form of decoration was very intricate and complex and it shows that brick can be used as more than just a structure which is something that we can see all the way into modern architecture. Process of making mudbrick
Çatalhöyük a proto-city in Southern Turkey
Mudbrick used in decorative Islamic Architecture Mud Bricks are a very resilient building material and they have stood the test of time as they can still be seen around the world from when they were used in ancient times. There are still buildings being constructed of mud-brick today but a lot more scarcely. In modern architecture, mud bricks are sometimes used in the construction of eco-friendly dwellings in Australia. The only problem with mud brick construction is that it will not survive extreme weather conditions even after a waterproof coating so should not be exposed to continuous high levels of moisture.
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History of Handmade Bricks Hand-making clay bricks has been around since Roman times and these sort of bricks used to be very commonly throughout the UK. Nowadays bricks are more commonly made by large scale manufacturing processes using machinery which produce many more bricks much more quickly. Hand-made bricks these days are viewed as very desirable but are very expensive as they are time consuming to make.
Historic Process of Handmaking Bricks
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Modern Uses of Handmade Bricks Handmade bricks have now become something to be desired but are much more expensive than manufactured bricks, costing at least ÂŁ750 per 1,000 bricks whereas a manufactured brick can be as cheap as ÂŁ100 but with an average price of about ÂŁ350. Handmade bricks are often used during restoration work to be inkeeping with the existing building but are also chosen because of their finish and their versatility of shape.
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Brick Case Study
Student Centre London School of Economics Architect: O’Donnell & Tuomey Total Project Cost: £ 21.5 million Gross Floor Area: 6,100sq m Completion Date: April 2013 RIBA Stirling Prize 2014
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London School of Economics Student Centre O’Donnell and Tuomey Architects uses handmade bricks as a decorative facade while concrete is the used as the main structure of the building. The architects were seeking a handmade, crafted character to the building which is why handmade brick was picked as a material and the bricks were manually laid. The bricks were also handmade because of the varied shapes that were needed as the bricks were not cut in order to reduce waste. Three types of brick were used: a standard brick; half bricks made with their own specific angle and a filler brick of between 10 and 12 different sizes. There are 46 standard shapes of bricks and 127 special bricks out of a total 175,000. These different shaped bricks were carefully slotted together to create the angles of the facade. The structure is a combination of reinforced in situ concrete acting as a shell and slabs and steel columns between floors. The bricks are attached to the concrete using wall ties every 450mm. Wall ties are metal rods that are simply there to tie the inner concrete and the outer masonry together and provides the necessary restraint to the outer leaf of masonry. The wall ties used in this building are Ancon SD21 Ties and they work by using a channel cast into the concrete structure which the tie is slotted into and then anchors into place. There are also brackets to stop the brick slipping around windows and edges.
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London School of Economics Student Centre
Wessex Blend Mixture
The bricks used in the Student Centre at London School of Economics are Western Red and Wessex Mix Blended. These are types of brick that are both a red in colour. The building uses bricks locally sourced rom Coleford in Gloucestershire in order to keep the carbon footprint of the building as low as possible. The bricks are arranged in a Flemish bond pattern which means that alternately the bricks have their short side and then long side facing outwards.
Western Red
In places where lighting is an issue, the short side has been left out leaving a perforated brick pattern that lets in light and air. Each brick is offset from the next in an open work pattern, to create a dappled daylight inside and a glowing like lattice lantern at night., which through varied finishes provide interesting lighting and notable solar gain meaning that less heating is required within the building. The perforated areas also allows for ventilation at these points.
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Handmade bricks 102.5mm arranged in FLemish bond 10mm joints Ancon SD21wall ties Mortar
Damp Proof Course mechanically attached to insulation
170mm Insulation
Ancon MDC horizontal bracket to hold up brickwork
Solid Insulated Panel
Waterproof membrane to stop moisture entering interior
Solid brick without frogs, perforate Flemish bond
Brick window sill
Recessed Brick
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Types of Mortar When constructing with bricks, the masonry is bound together with mortar. There are two main types of mortar used commonly; cement mortar and lime mortar. Cement Mortar is mortar that uses cement as its binder. Cement is produced by heating lime with clay in a kiln to high temeperatures. The final product is a powder used to create mortar which when mixed with water sets solid and can bind objects together. The most common type of cement used in modern construction is known as Portland Cement. Portland cement is made when the lime is heated, removing carbon dioxide from the calcium carbonate, to form calcium oxide, which in this context is more commonly refered to as quick lime. This is then mixed with other materials to form clinker, which then has gypsum added to it.
Another type of mortar is Lime Mortar. Lime is an aggregate of lime, sand and water, and is one of the oldest types of mortar having been used in the buildings of ancient Rome and Greece. The popularity of lime mortar decreased over the course of the 20th century due in part to the increased strength and reduced setting time of portland cement. However it is often used in the restoration of older buildings to match the orginal mortar which would have been lime, and also due to its porous properties the mortar can move with the building as it settles as opposed to portland cement which would crack and have to be repointed.
Mortar joints, known as pointing can be finished in various ways. The most common ways are; flush, bucket handle, weather struck, recessed, weather struck and cut. When bricks are laid on a bed of mortar, the mortar is squeezed out of the joint. The excess mortar is then skimmed off the surface of the bricks and finished with a tool specific to each pointing technique. Weather struck and bucket handle pointing is most resistant to water penetration and are therefore the most commonly used.
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Brick Manufacturing
Traditionally a couple of courses of blue bricks was laid near ground level, this is known as a damp proof course (DPC). Blue bricks are bricks which have been fired for longer than standard red bricks, making there more dense, and therefore less absorbent. This means they aid the prevention of ground water penetrating the blockwork higher up the structure. This is known as rising damp. Nowadays, a plastic damp proof membrane is placed on top of one of the lower courses of red bricks, which is a more effective method of preventing moisture penetration into the fabric of the wall.
Mechanised Manufacturing
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Brick Case Study
Queens Building School of Engineering and Manufacture De Montfort University Architect: Short and Associates Total Project Cost: ÂŁ9.7million Gross Floor Area: 110,000 ft2 Construction Period: Novermber 1991 - August 1993 Green Building of the Year 1995 RIBA Awards 1995 H.J. Dyos Prize 1994
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Sustainability
Construction using brick has a high thermal mass, which means the structure absorbs heat more slowly, as well giving off heat more slowly, in comparison to a structure with a low thermal mass. The Queens building is built with a standard cavity wall. This consists of a concrete blockwork inner leaf, mineral wool insulation, and an outer brick veneer. Inbetween the outer brick layer and the mineral wool insulation is an air space. The air space allows moisture to drain out of the fabric of the wall and out through weep holes near the ground. This is important as masonry is a highly absorbent material. In between the mineral wool insulation and the block work is a vapour barrier, this it to prevent any moisture which doesn’t drain from the cavity from penetrating the block work and any interior finishes which could be damaged. The diagram below shows the interior temperature variants for a building with high thermal mass. By absorbing heat from the external environment during the day and emitting at night the internal temperature is much more stable compared to external, this reduces the energy requirements of the building making it more sustainable.
Comfort Zone
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Aesthetics The Queens Building use of masonry means that it sits compfortably with its surroundings which consist of victorian terraced houses and factories, all built with brick. To reference this building heritage, the Queens building adopts traditional brick details, for decorative as well as functional reasons. The design of the Queens building was centred around creating passive lecture theatres. This is achieved by using honey comb brickwork underneath the lecture theatre seating. Honeycomb brickwork is traditionally used for constructing barns, in order to reduce wind load on unventilated structures, but in this case allows cool air to enter the building for ventilation purposes. This cool air as it is heated internally rises through chimneys. The building also has many brick arches and buttresess, in order to reference the traditional techniques present in the surrounding building. Nowadays using steel beams to create window openings is the most common method.
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Primary Structure
The primary supporting structure of the building is masonry. However, the there are many steel elements introduced into the structure. These include steel triangulated ties, which rest on block work pads inset into the brick walls. These frames ties the walls together to resist horizontal loads by transfering them to the external walls vertically. There are also steel columns to support floating walkways and concrete cast lecture theatres.
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Brick Manufacturing
The diagram above shows the distribution of clay in the UK. Bricks are made of fired clay, and therefore traditionally the areas where the vernacular style of architecture is masonry based, are situated where clay is abundant. Clay differs from region to region resulting in a different colouration of brick in each region. The Queens building is made of Ibstock red bricks, which are quarried and fired in Leicestershire. Therefore the colour and texture of the bricks used for the Queens building match those of the surrounding buildings.
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Walter Segal Construction Method
ARCH 3036 2014-2015 Project 1 mateiral/system study BA3
The Walter segal Construction Method
the Segal method named after the architect who devised it. based on traditional timber frame methods of building brought up to date to take advantage of modern materials and was devised to simplify all aspects of designing, planning and building so that a person with only basic carpentry skills could self build their own home. self builders do not have to rely on sub-contractors because the individual can complete many of the operations themselves. saving money and time by avoiding co ordination. http://www.segalselfbuild.co.uk/home.html
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Walter Segal Construction Method
Walter Segal born in 1907 and lived until 1985. Walters parents were Jewish Romanians living in Berlin and moved to Ascona in Switzerland in 1914. Walter studied architecture in Delft Berlin and he won a scholarship to finish his education at the Technische Hochschule in Berlin. Moving to London in 1936 and made a living at the edges of the architectural world. He wrote a book called home and environment with Leonard Hill and planning and transport: their effects on industry and residents. Walter married and had six children. It was during the demolition and rebuilding of their home at Highgate that they built a lightweight timber structure. The building was designed using a modular grid and based on the standard sizes of materials that were used. They used a dry form of construction, eliminating the need for wet trades and utilised a series of timber frames erected on simple founations of paving slabs. Taking only two weeks to build to a cost of 835 pounds. His intention was to dismantle the building when it was no longer needed and to sell the materials on in their original sizes. It was this temporary built house that led to the Segal method. Walter was commissioned to design a few similar houses in the following years and in 1971 a teacher having his house built in this way decided that he did not need the builder and decided to build it himself. Demonstrating that the Segal Method could enable people who had little building experience to build their own homes.
In the 1970's, Lewisham Council made three small sites available for people on the housing waiting list to build their own homes using this method. being a first in this country and resulted in five years of negotiation and discussion before the first group was allowed to start. No one was prevented from taking part, men and women, young and old, single parents and families all built together and each house was designed to the future inhabatants needs. Being such a success that the council made a fourth site available. During the last scheme Walter Segal died and a Trust was set up to ensure that his ideas did not die with him. The Walter Segal Trust was registered charity in 1989 to help people in housing need or low incomes, to build their own homes.
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Walter Segal Construction Method
Section of method Shingle Layer
3 Layer of felt Woodwool Platerboard/polystryerene thermalBoard
Douglas fir Beam Batten Glasal Sheet Woodwool Plasterboard Batten
Douglas fir Post
T&G Boarding Fibregalss Asbestos Cement Joists
Polythene Coarse Gravel Concrete paneling
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Walter Segal Construction Method
The walter segal method utilises simple timber frames, is a dry method of construction eliminating wet trades as bricklaying and plastering and is a lightweight, adaptable, ecologically sound building which can be individually designed to the requirements of a self builder within normal building and planning controls. The Segal building method is adaptable and this allows the structural beam and post frame to be designed around the layout plan with the columns being able to be spaced up to 6 modules apart in either direction allowing a span of 3.85 m in either direction with composite beams or tresses incorporated for largest spans. The amount of calculations that have to be prepared a novice might find them daunting especially atempted alone, a structural engineer could be hired for this. The dead, imposed and wind loads, the bending and deflecting of critical joists and beams, the wind overturning effects and soil bearing pressures are among these. A schedule of materials should also be prepared this is a combination of the traditional specification and bill of quantities. This lists in detail the quantities sizes and costs of each component in the building and will help provide an accurate cost of the overall project. A catalogue of elements and the building instructions of the last two documents needed before building commences. The former shows standard diagrams showing how the junctions are constructed and the latter are a step-by-step description of the building process with annotated diagrams where they are necessary.
Multiple design options for wall layout
extendable modular grid
Load
Rigid Joints Resistant to wind direction
Floor beams ruduce force at base of build Frames rigid in this direction
Cross panels rducue twisting of build Windows and door possible on any wall without structual weakening.
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Walter Segal Construction Method
Double thickness at centre creates equal load
Equal load
Single
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Modular joint thickness determined by material.
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Each building is made up of a series of timber frames, these are assembled flat on the ground and stacked in the order to be erected. Once erected they are temporally braced into position and will eventually be the structural element of the building taking the entire structural load. The rigid joints are formed with galvanised steel bolts, these joints resist the horizontal wind forces. Unlike typical portal frames there is a tie beam at floor level, this then eliminates the horizontal reactions at the base of the columns and is what allows the building to stand above the ground without being anchored to it. These sit on pad foundations dug at existing ground levels and topped with paving slabs. The rest of the ground works consist of laying the remaining paving slabs to create a perimeter around the edge of the building layout, within this perimeter the topsoil will be replaced with gravel. This foundations reduces costs and the need for heavy equipment or wet trades. The resultant buildings sit above the ground and this obviates the need to level sites and destroy existing trees and shrubs thus creating a lower impact on the site than traditional housing. The building method, enables good use of steeply sloping and poor quality sites which may be less expensive than those normally available for building. this also allows the buildings to be built around the existing landscape rather than being imposed on it.
Posts are cut to level making the structure suitable for almost any
Gravel
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600mm
Paving slabs
Pre cast concret slabs
Concrete piers
Coarse Gravel 100mm Structure is located on the outside of the design
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Layer of shingles 3 layers of bondeed felt WoodWool Insulation
In contrast to more conventional methods of construction, the roof is put on at an early stage of the building programme. This means that builders are sheltered from the weather for most of the time they are building meaning that they are less likely to lose time due to bad weather.
In the Segal method the roof ’s waterproof membrane is not fixed but is laid loose on top of the roof deck(this is usually a flat roof chosen for its ease of construction) and is carried up over the up stand and covers the facias as well. This means that any movement will not cause the membrane to wrinkle, crack or tear,thus eliminating the common causes for the failure of flat roofs. All the roofs used in the Segal method have a generous overhang around the whole of the building creating a microclimates around the building. The floors are generally tongue and grooved softwood(this is generally used because the walls of the building have not yet been erected). Since the floor is raised above ground level it should be insulated against extra heat loss this then gives an undercroft across the whole extent of the house which can be used for storage services are found within this space.
All joists and beams undersides are at the same level for ceilings to be attached with ease.
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Corners are formed without cutting panels
Space between joints in a straight wall
Once the floors are laid this provides a working platform for the walls to be constructed. The walls consist of a weatherproof external finish, insulation, the structural core and an internal finish. These layers rely on a loose fit between them to allow air to circulate removing the need for a vapour barrier. layers can be personalised to improve performance or provide washable surfaces for example a layer of plastic laminate will provide a great splashback around the bath. The wall panels are clamped together with timber battens and bolted with galvanised steel bolts these are engaged onto a soleplate at the tops and bottom’s, the joint is not sealed and they weep hole is formed at the bottom to drain it and allow ventilation of the wall. Walter Segal’s approach to Windows was to buy materials and make them on site reducing costs and dependence upon a manufacturer and negate any delays. The internal walls are secured in a similar way to the external walls except there would be to internal finishes. The door linings were made on site and incorporated into the wall. Once the internal walls have been installed the ceilings can then be fixed these are usually painted plaster board played between the joists on the battens.
Depth of column to fit structural requirements
applying a spline joint would remove issues with heat lost through joints
Panels and insulation can be lifted up fro maintenance
Battens hold the floor panels up. held together by joists.
Panels fit between joists without measuring or cutting.
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The services are being installed into the voids in the roofs, walls and floors the lighting wiring is run ithrough ceiling voids dropping down within the walls to light switches, the pipework for the heating gas and water is run in the floor voids.
Wall battens are removable for easy access to voids in wall to find electrical wiring
Power mains are located behind the floor boards
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Waste pipe under floor
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Greenwich borough produced a number of Segal self build developments overseen by Co-operative Housing in South-East London (CHISEL). the Greenwich Self Build co-operative project at Llanover Road, which officially started on 16th March 1993
The self-builders had all been selected by the council, and were working on a “Self Build For Rent” model. They committed to putting in 20 hours a week each on the build. In return for their labour in building the houses they would be able to live in them on a reduced rent. Before starting they attended a training course. The first stage of the build was to dig the holes for the concrete bases for the pad foundations. The little digger in the photograph was the only “large” piece of machinery used for the entirety of the build
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In early stages at Llanover Road, All of the self builders worked together – preparing the foundation bases and constructing and erecting the frames and main structure. After that concentrate went on their own properties It took two years and nine months to complete the self build project, and the material costs for a house were £13,500. The development was the first completed Segal housing project since the original ones in Lewisham. The Greenwich Self Build co-operative went on to further Segal projects in Woolwich and Thamesmead.
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Pros:
Cons
Simple but effective building method Maximum economy of materials and effort Readily available techniques Waste is kept to a minimum approach could be applied to different mateirals groundwork is minimal simplified building process adaptable and easy to extend
Heavy heat loss. Unpopular with contractors
The cost of a two bed brick and block built bungalow :
Total floor area of house -180m2 Cost per square metre £1,032/m2 Cost of house - £185,834 Total cost of project including external works - £193,834 This approximate price does not include, VAT, the buying of a building plot, any Professional and legal fees the cost of Insurance and borrowing. As an example, if your builder IS VAT registered then the price would increase to £232,601 if VAT is at 20%.
External wall Price per m2 Quantity Total price A 100mm brickwork outer skin £50 240 £12,000 B 100mm cavity wall insulation (full fill) £10 240 £2,400 C 100mm lightweight thermal block £20 240 £4,800 Intermediate floor D Concrete beam & block floor £35 100 £3,500 Partitioning E Partitioning £20 170 £3,400 TOTAL COSTS £26,100 The lightweight nature of the method enables people of all ages and abilities, to build as a group or individually co-operating as and when they need. enabling all members of a community group to get to know one another during the building stages. They will learning each others strengths and weaknesses. This will help create a stable community with pride of there achievements together thus enabling community protection for each other and the buildings. In conclusion the future of this method depends upon its sustainability and green credentials, since this building method is built with a renewable energy source, with a low embodied energy. With attitudes changing to the way we build houses, and more mortgages being readily available for non-standard construction homes self building has increased. If this method was more widely known about more self builders would probably choose this method with its simplified documentation and construction. Since this method is easily personalised and is expandable, with a couple being able to extend another bedroom for £1500 over an Easter weekend, suiting the needs of many since they can build a small structure initialy and expandlater on. this building method allows people to get on the first rung on the housing ladder. And with building materials steadily increasing in performance and usability this method has a bright future if only it was made more publicly aware.
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http://www.segalselfbuild.co.uk/home.html http://www.ianwhite.info/walter_segal_buildings.html http://www.segalselfbuild.co.uk/news/waltersegalbycol.html http://mondodesigno.com/segal.html http://www.selfbuild-central.co.uk/construction/main-structure/post-and-beam/ http://www.ajbuildingslibrary.co.uk/projects/display/id/2011 http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/2011011809536/ http://www.cabe.org.uk/case-studies/walter-segal-self-build http://www.segalselfbuild.co.uk/projects/hedgehogspecific.html http://cargocollective.com/brakkablog/The-Segal-Method http://www.homebuilding.co.uk/community/breaktime/ self-build-pioneer-segal http://www.themodernhouse.net/directory-of-architects-and-designers/walter-segal/ http://blog.konstrukshon.com/architectural-technologist-walter-segal-timber-frame-construction/
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g r e e n
J o a n a
F r a g a . J u l i a n a
p a n e l
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s y s t e m
a b s t r a c t .
Nowadays, there are efforts in all professional elds to develop technologies that contribute to a more sustainable world and provide better quality of life for people. This work presents one of those technologies developed for integrating nature and architecture, the Green Panel System (GPS). Dened as plants xed in supported vertical structures, the GPS was rst developed in 1938 by Professor Stanley White, although the concept has its origin in 600BC with the hanging gardens of Babylon. The term Green Wall can be divided into two subcategories, which were Green Facades and Living Walls. The rst basically refers to facades made of climbing plants mostly supported by metallic trellis or wood, while the second are completely articial systems, using modular or continuous, planted-up units, and additionally have an independent irrigation system. The work is mainly focused on the living walls which in turn, offer advantages and disadvantages to using them. An example use of livings walls is the work of the botanist Patrick Blanc, which brings very interesting results using this technology. The system of green panels are being increasingly used in projects today, but is also interesting to think of their applications in the future, or even a more futuristic vision that brings up the question of living building.
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Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 1
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Deď€ nition ............................................................................................................................
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Categories of Green Wall ................................................................................................... 3
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Irrigation System ................................................................................................................ 8
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Advantages and Disadvantages ....................................................................................... 10
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Case Study ........................................................................................................................... 11
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Future Applications ........................................................................................................... 12
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References ........................................................................................................................... 14
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i n t r o d u c t i o n .
Nature has always been the basis of human needs. Like other natural factors, the plants have served humanity has always been used as a source of food, clothing, building materials, among other uses. With the advancement of new technologies and modern urban landscape dominated much of the habitable areas, which over time caused many problems within the natural framework of the planet. Therefore, people turned to treat nature, more specically the vegetation, as a key strategy for reversing this situation, improving the environment and human life. In the course of time, the integration of new technologies and vegetation began a new model of living architecture, which involves different types of professionals mobilized in pursuit of a single goal: to improve the quality of life for people and the planet.
Stanley rened the vertical garden typology with his patent for the "vegetation-Bearing Architectonic Structure and System, in which he denes a new eld of vegetationbearing architecture. The impact of this invention has still unrealized provocations on this history of gardens and designed landscapes. Since then the system became increasingly developed and adaptable to various uses and situations. Recently there have been a recent surge in popularity regarding the use of green walls: 80% were constructed in or after 2009 and 93% dated from no later than 2007. Many Iconic green walls have been constructed by Institutions and in public places such as Airports and are now becoming common, to improve the aesthetics and local temperature. The system still have some limitations, but it is being proved as a great asset to sustainable architecture.
The concept of green wall has been around 600BC with the hanging gardens of Babylon. Green facades were also very important in the Art and Crafts and Modern style movements in Europe. In the beginning of the 20th century, the ‘Jugendstil’ movement used climbing plantson the buildings to make a seamless changeover between the house and garden. later in 1938, Stanley White is knows for being the rst person to theorize and study green walls. He called his invention "Botanical Bricks" and developed prototypes in his backyard in Urbana, at the University of Illinois. He also developed the modern green wall with hydroponics, although the technology used today was perfected by the french landscape artist Patrick Blanc.
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d e f i n i t i o n .
Green walls can be dened as a composed of plants xed in supported vertical structures which are attached to an existing wall¹. It is used to describe and refer to all types of vegetated wall surfaces. This technology can be divided in two different categories: green facades and living walls. While green facades use climbing plants or cascading groundcovers to cover supporting structures, the living walls incorporate multiple 'containerised' plantings to create the vegetation cover xed to a structural wall or frame.
¹ Growing Green Guide. (http://www.growinggreenguide.org/technical-guide/introduction-to-roofs-walls-andfacades/green-wall-denition/)
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c a t e g o r i e s o f g r e e n w a l l . Green Facades
Green facades are mostly made of climbing plants supported by a metallic or wood trellis, mesh work or cabling that can be attached on the structure or be selfsupporting. They are usually set outdoors, rooted in the ground and do not require additional irrigation.
Created with owerpots This type of green facade is often related to the DIY types of outdoor and indoor decorations. It consists in simply attaching owerpots on a vertical structure without any kind of additional irrigation or special care. The plants are taken care of as any other owerpot. Although the installation does not require special training, its complexity can vary depending on the skills of the person who is doing it.
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c a t e g o r i e s o f g r e e n w a l l . Modular Trellis, Grid Systems, Grid and Wire-Rope Net systems “The building block of this modular system is a rigid, light weight, three - dimensional panel made from a powder coated galvanized and welded steel wire that supports plants with both a face grid and a panel depth.” (ÖZGÜR BURHAN TIMUR and ELIF KARACA, Vertical Gardens) This system is designed to provide the climbing plants a support structure for them to grow, without compromising the structural integrity of the building.
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c a t e g o r i e s o f g r e e n w a l l . Living Walls
Living walls are completely artiď€ cial systems, using continuous or modular, planted-up, units. Continuous living wall systems can be made of felt-layers or be a block of concrete. Modular panels are using modules of sphagnum, substrate ď€ lled metallic cage, preformed plastic modules or rock wool units. The plants can be previously grown or installed on spot.
Vegetated Mat Walls Pioneered by Patrick Blanc, It is composed of two layers of synthetic fabric with pockets that support the plants and growing media. The fabric walls are held by a frame and backed by a waterproof membrane against the building wall because of its high moisture content. Nutrients are primarily distributed through an irrigation system that cycles water from the top of the system down. This technology is designed so it allows a wider range of design possibilities with the plants.
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c a t e g o r i e s o f g r e e n w a l l . Vegetated Mat Walls
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c a t e g o r i e s o f g r e e n w a l l . Modular Living Walls The most commonly used technology, Modular Living Walls are panels or blocks with previously grown plants attached to panels that are connected to a support structure and installed on the building walls. They are square or rectangular panels that hold growing media to support the plant material.
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Generally speaking, larger green walls have a direct irrigation system and smaller walls have a recirculating system, although this can vary.
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Direct Irrigation System ‘’A direct irrigation system does not have a water tank or pump. Instead, irrigation water comes directly from an external water source (i.e. city water). This water is sometimes injected with fertilizer through an injector. A pump is not needed for direct irrigation because of the existing water pressure of the water lines. Water is channeled to the green wall and distributed to the plants of the wall. As water is pulled downward by gravity, any excess irrigation water is collected and sent to a sewer drain (not recirculated).’’ (AMBIUS, 2013)
Recirculating Irrigation Systems “Recirculating irrigation systems do just as the name implies: recirculates water. In a recirculating system, the source of water is an irrigation tank which is either remote-controlled or directly underneath the green wall. The irrigation tank is lled manually on a regular basis to provide an adequate supply of irrigation water. Water is pumped from the tank to the green wall. Water is distributed to the plants in the wall. Gravity pulls excess water downward. Excess drainage water collects at the bottom of the wall and is fed back to the tank. This water is then used over and over (recirculates).” (AMBIUS, 2013)
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a d v a n t a g e s & d i s a d v a n t a g e s .
Advantages Green walls are aesthetically pleasing and are said to reduce stress and improve well-being. They are well known for their ability to reduce the overall temperature of a building when used on exterior walls. When used on interior walls they can purify the air and remove toxins. Exterior use can reduce air pollution and help to offset the carbon footprint. They can also dampen noise pollution. The system can also act as a natural ď€ lter to clean water as it ows through the system and protect building exteriors from the elements. Green walls provide an attractive design feature, but also add to building insulation by direct shading of the wall surface. They create cooler micro climates and improve local air quality, and provide the possibility of growing plants in locations that would not normally support vegetation.
Disadvantages Although the system provides several improvements on sustainable building, Green Walls are not the cheapest system there is. Like any other technology it has to be installed correctly. The wrong choice of plants and vegetables suitable for the environment could lead to an excessive cost on maintenance and replacement of these plants, that would certainly die for lack of good environmental conditions. Green Walls naturally attracts insects, which may be a problem specially for indoor walls. Regarding the Living Walls, there are also limits regarding the maximum height of the building.
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c a s e
s t u d y .
Patrick Blanc is a French botanist who innovates the use of green walls. By working at the French National Centre for Scientic Research, Blanc could become a specialized in tropical plants. Although Professor Stanley Hart White had invented the vertical garden, Blanc is recognized for modernizing and popularizing it. The inspiration to his work comes from the nature itself and it is described as follows: “On a load-bearing wall or structure is placed a metal frame that supports a PVC plate 10 millimetres (0.39 in) thick, on which are stapled two layers of polyamide felt each 3 millimetres (0.12 in) thick. These layers mimic cliff-growing mosses and support the roots of many plants. A network of pipes controlled by valves provides a nutrient solution containing dissolved minerals needed for plant growth. The felt is soaked by capillary action with this nutrient solution, which ows down the wall by gravity. The roots of the plants take up the nutrients they need, and excess water is collected at the bottom of the wall by a gutter, before being re-injected into the network of pipes: the system works in a closed circuit. Plants are chosen for their ability to grow on this type of environment and depending on available light.” (BLANC, nd)
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f u t u r e a p p l i c a t i o n s .
Green Walls are known for their aesthetic and qualities of sustainability. However, although a Green Facade can exist independently, a Living Wall can not exist without a previous building structure to support it. What if the green wall system could evolve to something even more natural and even more self supporting? Perhaps by becoming the structure of the building itself? Construction with living material is not a secret nor a new technology: small tribes in Cerrapunji, India has been constructing Living Bridges made of functional roots of trees for generations.
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f u t u r e a p p l i c a t i o n s .
If one can build a bridge out of living materials, why can't build actual dwellings or even more complex structures? Urban designer Mitchell Joachim presents his vision for sustainable, organic architecture: eco-friendly abodes grown from plants. Joachim presents a new way of building, using pleaching: an ancient technique that consists in moulding the growth of the tree around a desired shape. Green walls nowadays don't have any kind of structural value, but maybe in the future we will be able to use them without the aid of other materials.
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r e f e r e n c e s .
Vertical Garden - Patrick Blanc. N.D. [WWW] Available from http://www.verticalgardenpatrickblanc.com/. Accessed 06/11/2014. TED. N.D. Mitchell Joachim: Don’t build your home, grow it! [WWW] Available from http://www.ted.com/talks/mitchell_joachim_don_t_build_your_home_grow_it. Accessed 08/11/2014. Gsky. N.D. Green Wall Systems Comparison [WWW] Available from http://gsky.com/greenwalls/. Accessed 08/11/2014. Green Wall Systems. N.D. [WWW] Available from http://www.green-walls.co.uk/. Accessed 08/11/2014. Impact Lab. N.D. Living Wall Systems [WWW] Available from http://www.impactlab.net/2009/05/16/living-wall-systems/. Accessed 07/11/2014. Green Screen. 2008. Introduction to Green Walls Technology, Benets & Design [WWW] Available from http://www.greenscreen.com/Resources/download_it/IntroductionGreenWalls.pdf. Accessed 08/11/2014. Ambius. N.D. Green Wall Panel Systems [WWW] Available from http://www.ambius.com/green-walls/panel-systems/index.html. Accessed 06/11/2014. Strangly. N.D. Green Panel System (GPS) [WWW] Available from http://www.strongly.com.hk/greenPanels.html. Accessed 06/11/2014.
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Title: Shading, Landscape and Orientation By Maria Logotheti & Georgios Kyprianou p12228286/p12205239 Technology Year 3 18 Nov 2014 Dr. Ahmad Taki
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Sun control plays an important role to a building. Shading, landscape and orientation have a significant role to controlling how much light enters the building and bases the buildings layout according to light. For example a room that is used throughout the day is not going to be placed north because there is no direct light so it is going to be cold. Also with shading we can control how much light enters the building according to the angle of the sun. This report is going to analyze what shading, landscape and orientation is in more depth. Following it is going to focus on the different ways that we can achieve this in order for the building to make the most out of the sun, making it a low energy design, and also the factors that a designer needs to consider in order to be successful. Moving on the report focuses on some presidents of building around the world showing how a building is layout and also shaded according to the different climate and requirements of each region. Finishing some conclusions are going to be made seeing what some limitations in shading landscape and orientation are and suggesting ways to prevent them.
Starting with shading, is one of the solar passive cooling techniques, with the others being insulation of building components and air exchange rate. Shading in terms of architecture is finding ways to control how much light enters a building. In the design process of a building number of facts need to be considered and balanced to achieve the best possible outcome to maximize the comfort level of people using the particular building, and one of these factors is shading. Shading plays an important role to a building as it can massively affect the comfort level. One very important factor that is critical to the design of a building is and also to the consideration of what type of shading the structure is going to have is the different criteria of shading according to various climate zones (Bansal). The following table shows the requirements of buildings in terms of shading according to the climatic zone they belong in.
Climatic Zone Hot and Dry Warm and Humid
Requirements Complete year round shading Complete year round shading, but not affecting ventilation Complete year round shading, only during major sunshine hours No shading Shading during summer only Shading during summer only
Temperate Cold and Cloudy Cold and Sunny Composite
In hot climates and hot dry climates with no winter heating requirements, the aim is to block direct sun by using trees and surrounding buildings to shade every faรงade year round while capturing and funneling cooling breezes.
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In all other climates a combination of passive solar heating and passive cooling is desirable. The best balance between capturing sunlight and capturing cooling breezes is determined by heating and cooling needs.
In order to achieve the best possible outcome for shading in a particular building there are many different shading mechanisms that can be use. Shading mechanisms are the different structures, mechanisms that are used in order to control the amount of light entering a building, and there are both external and internal mechanisms for a building to have. So what are the different types of shading mechanisms? A. Overhangs, Louvers and Awnings. They are either parts of a building or separately placed on the buildings elevation. There are also different types, movable opaque, louvers and fixed. Movable opaque reduce solar gain of the building but at the same time block the view and prevent air movement. Some examples are roller blinds, curtains, awnings etc. Louvers block air movement to a certain level and also prevent solar radiation from entering the building, and they can be adjustable are fixed. And lastly fixed can be overhangs of chajjas and provide protection from sun and rain.
B. Shading of roofs. This kind of shading can also reduce the heat gain of a building. Shading of roofs is provided by external means and can be achieved by using roof covers of concrete, sheet, plants canvas, earthen pots etc. Different materials provide different aspects to the building. For example concrete or galvanized iron 3 293
sheet protect from direct radiation and does not allow heat to escape the building during night time. Another example is cover of deciduous plants where evaporation from the surface of the leaves lower the temperature of the roof keeping it at the same level as daytime air temperature, and at night the temperature is lower than sky temperature.
C. Shading by trees and vegetation. Place an important role in the energy conservation of a building. Also according to what type of plant is used the degree of shading differs. Some examples are: a. Deciduous trees and shrubs. Provide summer shade but allow sunlight to go through in winter and should be located on the south or southwest side of the building. b. Trees with heavy foliage. Completely block the sun rays and cast dense shadows. c. Evergreen trees. Protect from summer setting sun and also from winter breezes and should be located south and west of a building.
D. Shading by textured surfaces. Highly textured walls have a proportion of their surface shaded when light hits them, also they are a part of the building’s design and
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its purpose is to allow the sunlit surface to stay cooler and cool down faster at night time.
Orientation is the way a building sits in its context in relation to seasonal variations in the sun’s path as well as the wind patterns around the area. Good orientation combined with other low energy design features, can reduce and even stamp out the need for technical heating and cooling resulting in lower bills, a decrease in greenhouse gas emissions and improved comfort. Design for orientation is a basic step to make sure that a building works with the passage of the sun across it throughout the day. Study of the sun paths of a site is fundamental in designing the building to let in light and increase passive solar gain, and also reducing glare and overheating inside of the building. Some other factors affecting orientation and layout are topography, speed of wind and its direction, the site’s relationship with the neighborhood, the location of shade elements such as trees and surrounding buildings, as well as parking and access to vehicles. To increase solar gain, a building will be located, oriented and designed to maximize window area facing north (or within 20 degrees of north) for example, a flat east-west floor plan. However, this depends on the shape, topography and orientation of the site. For example, an east-west floor plan will not be possible on a narrow north-south site. Furthermore, in the north hemisphere, in order to face the sun and obtain maximum solar gain, the windows would face the south. On the other hand, in the south hemisphere, it is reversed, with the windows facing the north in order to maximize solar gain.
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At this stage, we derive to three conclusions about orientation and layout: 1. Only the South face of the building receives sun all year round. The main sun direction is from the South, specifically in winter. Therefore, solar panels and glazing that will capture solar energy in winter should face south. Solar gain starts to fall seriously outside the zone of South/South-East to South/South-West. Surfaces of the building facing South-East or SouthWest receive 10% less solar energy during a year than surfaces facing south. 2. Surfaces facing North have shade all year round. Whilst most sun is received in the area of South East to South West, the opposite quadrant, North-East to North-West, will receive very little sun throughout the year except at the peak of summer. Thus, solar energy design focuses insulation and minimizes windows on this side of a building. New build solar houses often have this side of the house buried in the ground and put all glazing on South. 3. The winter sun is lower than the summer sun. Vertical South facing windows work best to have maximum solar heating in the winter as they capture the low sun. Some solar houses, have their windows angled 11 degrees back from the vertical position to face the winter sun perfectly.
One of the most important parts of orientation and passive design process is selecting a site. The first factor that needs to be considered is the amount of sun the site receives. A site that receives a small amount or no sunlight cannot be used for passive solar design. Ideal site for a passive solar design will be:   
flat or north-sloping free of obstructions to the north (and be unlikely to be built out in future) able to hold a building with a particularly large north-facing wall or walls for maximum solar gain (as well as north-facing outdoor areas if those are wanted). When designing a house, rooms and outdoor spaces should be located in such way to maximize comfort during use of the space. This means living areas and outdoor spaces facing north, and service areas such as laundries and bathrooms should face south.
Moving on, based on the findings from shading as well as orientation and landscape the report is going to focus on some buildings from all over the world in order to test if those structures fit the above criteria and are considered low energy designs.
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Summarizing the above, shading, landscape and orientation help the building make the most out of the environment it sits on and also use as much solar energy as possible, all adding up to lower energy bills of a building. In addition to this all this factors work to the preference of a person using the building as it makes his life more comfortable. From the presidents analyzed above from all over the world, some of the presidents do not fit all the criteria. For example the “Walkie Talkie” does not take into consideration the surrounding area of the building (the landscape that it is build on). In terms of shading the designer I successful as light is reflected away from the surface of the building due to its curve and also the materials used, but this has an impact on the surrounding area, and as stated before many shops opposite the tower have problems with excess sunshine and also some of the cars melt due to the high temperature produced by the reflected solar rays in the area. On the other hand some of the presidents like the “Kuggen” sit perfectly on its environment without generating any problems to the surrounding area, and at the same time making the most out of its shape (minimizing the external surface but at the same time maximizing internal space) also due to the shape of the glasses and also each floor starting from the ground going to the top being larger than the previous one, making the most out of the sun ( keeping light in the building and also keep it shaded when needed with physical or technical means). Concluding shading, landscape and orientation play a primary role in producing a low energy design as it helps make the most out of the environment the building is placed on.
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Bibliography
Unknown. (). Passive Design. Available: http://www.level.org.nz/passivedesign/location-orientation-and-layout/. Last accessed 11th Nov 2014. unknown. (). Orientation / South Facing Windows. Available: http://greenpassivesolar.com/passive-solar/building-characteristics/orientationsouth-facing-windows/. Last accessed 10th Nov 2014. Nick Gromicko. (). Building Orientation for Optimum Energy. Available: http://www.nachi.org/building-orientation-optimum-energy.htm. Last accessed 11th Nov 2014. Caitlin McGee. (2013). orientation. Available: http://www.yourhome.gov.au/passive-design/orientation. Last accessed 10th Nov 2014. John Brennan. (). BUILDING ORIENTATION. Available: http://www.architecture.com/RIBA/Aboutus/SustainabilityHub/Designstrategies/Ea rth/1-1-3-2-Buildingorientation.aspx. Last accessed 15th nov 2014.
Don Prowler, FAIA , Donald Prowler and Associates. (2008). Sun Control and Shading Devices. Available: http://www.wbdg.org/resources/suncontrol.php. Last accessed 13th Nov 2014
John Perry, Maurya McClintick. (2000). Variable Shading Coefficients. 1, p200p208.
Paul Gut & Dieter Ackerknecht (1993). Climate Responsive Buildings: SKAT. p52p81.
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CASE STUDY: FOUNTAINS VISITOR CENTRE
BY CATHERINE BALANTA & JOMALIE ACAY P12232842 P12185229 TECHNOLOGY 3 ARCH3036 2014-5 PROJECT 1: MATERIALS/SYSTEMS STUDIES 304
STONE
1 Introduction 2 3 4 5 7
Granite Slate Sandstone Marble Limestone CASE STUDY
9 Dry Stone Wall 10 Plan & Section 11 Detailed Technical Drawing 12 Exploded 3D Diagram 13 Roof REFERENCES
14 Bibiography
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Introduction There are many different types of stone. The most common of these is granite, followed by slate, sandstone, marble and limestone. Stone is excavated from the ground in quarries. Stone is normally used for cladding, particularly today. This is a thin sheet of stone applied to a building, internally and externally. It can be used for flooring purposes and for roofing. Stone is not only used for these purposes, they are also used in its solid form for building. Gothic cathedrals are prime examples, these are mostly built out of solid limestone or sandstone. The amazing pyramids of the ancient Egypt were created with natural stone. This was one of the first uses of stone in architecture. The Greek progress largely relied on the use of stone as well. The first civilisations in India and China also benefited from the aesthetic value added on from the stone. [1]
Casing stones cut and set into the structure to produce perfectly smooth sides at a precise and consistent angle
The remaining casing stones - which is the outer layer of the polished stone
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Casing stones on the East face of Menkaure’s pyramid showing an area of finished stones
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Stone is classified via the British Standard BSEN12440, it is the denomination of natural stone. They stress that all stones should be considered individually. Below are the different classifications of natural stone. Granite An igneous stone that can retain a shine is granite. Diorites, dolerites and syeneites falls into this categorisation also. These igneous rocks are made by the gentle cooling of molten minerals such as hornblende and quartz. A broad variety of grain patterns and colours have been produced within the bounds of this classification. It is really strong and durable. It is mostly unaffected by atmospheric attack, pollution and abrasion. Normally, the façades are able to clean itself. Diorite A rock “with sialic and femic portions well distinctâ€? are Diorites, it is used to label a rock made by a white mineral (feldspar) and a dark mineral (amphibole or pyroxene). [5] Green Hornblende and Plagioclase modified by Sericite in a Diorite. (Below)
Dolerite Normally a medium to dark grey colour, it is a basic, minor intrusive igneous rock, with a medium crystalline surface. It is made up of augite with labradorite plagioclase feldspar and may also has quartz within it. Faults, joints and bedding planes are where dolerites can be forced into forming structures named sills and dykes. [6] (Below) Dolerite dyke.
Syenite Course in grain and is an intrusive igneous rock of the same general composition as granite but with the quartz either absent or present in relatively small quantities (<5%).[7]
Fumihiko Maki - Aga Khan Foundation, Toronto
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Slate The British Isles is the home of slate, it has been established extensively throughout it for hundreds of years. It is also one of the earliest stones used in and around immediate areas of attainability. The slate roof tiles, in this case, was retrieved from demolished houses nearby. Mainly roofing requires this type of stone as it can be easily split into thin pieces. Mudstones and volcanic ash sequences is where slate arose, they are metamorphosed sediments. Slate will not bend, warp or degrade and is extremely firm. All over the industry, management systems and quality assurance is extensively used.
Fielden Fowles Ty Pren, Wales
Appearance (Right) Lake District blue/grey, light green, olive green and silver grey North Wales blue, grey, blue-black and red Cornwall grey Slate has a natural appearance because it is easily split into thin segments. Water jet, bush hammered, flame textured, fine rubbed, sanded and sawn are more finishes to slate.
(Right) Thick piece of Slate compared to that of thin sheets of slate, commonly used for roofing
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Max Dudler - Castle Visitor Centre - Heidelberg, Germany
Sandstone Sandstone derived from sediments, it has a granular consistency. Marls, greywackes and grit-stones are elements of sandstone. The grain cement iron rich, clay bearing and is siliceous. Felspar, mica and quartz are the prime mineral particles in it. The white colour of sandstone is due to the pure silica being in it, the addition of clay creates the grey colour and the presence of glauconite which contains potassium makes a green colour. In this case this building is this red colour due to the presence of iron oxides. The building stone of the North was conventionally sandstone. It can be discovered locally in regions such as Scotland, Wales, North East of England, Yorkshire and Derbyshire. Sandstone has good weathering and load-bearing properties. When considering weathering, correct detailing is key. Metal cramps and corbels, other than iron or steel, require great care when using with sandstone. [2]
Sandstone Paving Slabs usually situated in gardens
Appearance Flooring or paving is what sandstone is most fit for. Just like slate, sandstone can be riven and its normal appearance is sawn. Flame textured, sandblasted and tooled finishes are also obtainable. To this day, sandstone is one of the few historic natural minerals still in use. It is effectively maintenance free and it provides outstanding durability. It provides great value for money and is aesthetically pleasing to the eye.
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Marble
The effect of this process is the creation of a stone with very tight crystalline structure and definite porosity. The limited porosity of marble, especially polished marble makes it less vulnerable to the leaching effects of water. However the calcite of which marble is composed, is highly susceptible to be attacked by acidic agents. The colour of marble ranges from the brilliant white of calcite to black, including bluegrey, red, yellow and green, depending upon the mineral composition.
The use of marble in architecture dates back thousands of years to ancient Egyptian and Mesopotamian times. Marble being a fine, polished material is capable of bearing immense weight. Modern technologies have been able to take advantage of marble by its elegance. Marble can almost be moulded into any shape and is commonly used in the manufacturing process.
Marble is an extremely hard metamorphic stone composed of calcite (CaCO3). It is formed as a result of the recrystallisation of limestone under the intense pressure and heat of geological processes. Geological Section of the different types of marble stone
Taj Mahal - India
The Taj Mahal is a monument example where marble is used. The glistening effect is created by the translucent marble. Marble is also used for decoration in the interior of the building such as flooring and detailing. Marble was brought on carts from the Makrana quarry in Rajasthan.[7] Opened: 1648 Architectural style: Mughal architecture Height: 73 m Architects: Ustad Ahmad Lahouri, Ustad Isa Burials: Mumtaz Mahal, Shah Jahan, Ustad Ahmad Lahouri Function: Monument, Mausoleum 310
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Quarrying - The process and Italyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Carrara marble quarry How Marble is extracted from quarries and cut:
How marble is polished: After slabs are cut, they are moved onto the polishing line one at a time where they are laid horizontally on a large conveyor. There they pass under polishing heads which begin with very coarse diamond abrasives and then move to finer grit abrasives.
1 Quarrying is predominantly below ground and is a major skill where operatives cut and move rock on a grand scale. 2 First steps call for on and of site investigations of the stone itself. Topography, climate and the availability of suitable transport links take human resources and are a major consideration that have cost implications for a viable project.
Marble will receive a cementitious compound to fill the natural voids of the stone. Part of the way through this line, marble will receive a coating of a resin treatment which will fill in any pits or micro fissures which are inherent to the stone in order to make the final surface easier to clean. Most of the excess resin is removed by further polishing and for materials where the final surface is to be honed, the process will stop with a lower grit abrasive than materials with a polished surface.
3 The geological composition and structure of rock will dictate the methods and equipment employed to extract the stone and show the form the quarry will take. 4 Additional machinery are then positioned to take out the desired stone sections as dictated by the natural jointing and other geological structural features such as bedding planes.
For the stone that will be processed into tile, long strips of material experience has the same polishing process before being cut to size. Some tiles especially polished materials will additionally have a small bevel or arris added to make the final installation look flawless.
5 Quarrying has developed new techniques and advanced equipment to cut and move stone in an efficient manner with due consideration to the natural environment. Pneumatic machines and drills will work a series of holes aligned to create planes of weakness enabling large monolithic masses of solid stone to be sized down to more manageable units.
Revolving closed loop networks of steel cables studded with diamond and tungsten tipped cutting heads slice through solid marble and limestone like a giant cheese cutting wire.
6 As a quarry is developed, the pattern of cut rock faces reveal the hidden internal structures and colours of an outcrop in all its geological splendour. With a wide range of materials of various finishes and thicknesses presented in this form the task of selection is made much easier for the client and visitor. Carrara Marble Quarrying - Italy
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Limestone is a sedimentary rock that consists of more than 50 % calcium carbonate. There are different types of limestone formed through a variety of processes. These are through shallow marine waters or evaporation. Limestone can be precipitated from water. This is secreted by marine organisms such as algae and coral, or can form from the shells of dead sea creatures. Some limestones form from the cementation of sand and/or mud by calcite, and these often have the appearance of sandstone or mudstone. As calcite is the principle mineral component of limestone, it will fizz in dilute hydrochloric acid.
Advantages: -Limestone has been used for thousands of years and it still lends itself to create sustainable, modern buildings. -Limestone has a good dimension which can be used for large buildings. -Can be used as in its crushed rock form or as a raw material found in industrial processes. -Other various uses: road base, railroad ballast, concrete and cement when it's fired in a kiln with crushed shale.
Limestone Quarry. Section of eroded limestones. 1 to 4, bedded massive limestones. 5, thing-bedded shaly limestone. 6, Lower Devonian grits and shales. Functions: The use of limestone on a large scale has been dated back to the construction of the Great Pyramid of Giza (c. 2560 BC). - Modern limestone skyscrapers mainly use thin plates rather than solid block format. - Vital resource to manufacture cement or mortar. - Limestone plays part in agriculture and its production on a soil conditioner to neutralise acidic soil conditions. Short history on limestone: The history of limestone formation is told nicely in a small passage in the book on the 'Geography of Michigan'. In some way, the first bacteria and one-celled plants learned to take lime (CaCO3) from the water; they collected in jelly-like masses. Lime collected on these early plants, layer upon layer, and built up into great masses of limestone. Sea creatures evolved into more complex creatures taking in lime from the sea to protect external shells. When these creatures died their shells fell to the sea floor, accumulating in thick masses. They were also broken to lime muds, but all in time became limestone rock - the animals which lived in the seas, and the museums in which the records of past life (fossils) are preserved.
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Perryfield
Broadcroft
Limestone Manufacture: The word 'lime' refers to products derived from heating (calcining) limestone. Beginning: Limestone is a natural abundant of sedimentary rock consisting of high levels of calcite, magnesium carbonate or dolomite (calcium and magnesium carbonate) along with minerals. Lime production begins by extracting limestone from quarries. Sizing: Limestone enters a primary crusher to break the rock. Depending on the size of the feedstone required, limestone may go through a secondary or tertiary crusher to further reduce its size. The stone is then screened into various sizes ranging from several inches to dust-sized particles. The sized stone is then washed.
Coombefield
Limestone Quarrying: Process diagram
An example of limestone quarrying could be seen in the Portland quarrying of stone range. Since the roman times, limestone quarrying has been extracted from Portland stone quarries. There are three portland stone quarries in the island with the same portland Geology. - Broadcroft - Perryfield - Coombefield Detail Diagram of Limestone
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Case Study Fountains Abbey Visitor Centre by Edward Cullinan Architects Location: Ripon, Yorkshire UK Client: National Trust Appointed: 1987 Completed: 1992 Awards: Civic Trust Award, RIBA Award, BCI Awards Special Commendation, Europa Nostra Medal of Honour This build uses natural matter to create a distinctive place on the approach to Fountains Abbey, the open courtyard form of this Visitor Centre enriches the experience of visitors to this marvellous site. This World Architectural Heritage Site is controlled by the National Trust who commissioned Cullinan Studio to design a Visitor Centre and new landscaped car park. Dry-stone walls are seen on the outer elevations of the building, they lie under clerestory glazing and is shielded by steeply pitched stone tile roofs with oversailing eaves. One of the main uses of stone in this building is the dry stone wall, it acts as a rain skin which protects the building from elements and anchors it to its place.
Dry Stone Wall
A dry stone wall adds value and beauty to any build. It will last forever and no mortar is used. Some of materials and tools needed to create a dry stone retaining wall is the folding rule, pick and shovel, heavy hammer, string line and your selected stone [3]. The type of stone commonly used for this wall is fieldstone and York stone. These are stones found in the local area in local fields where they naturally occur. York stone is a term for a diversity of sandstone [4]. During the medieval times, York stone has been specifically excavated from quarries in Yorkshire, now this term is being applied in general terms. Some blocks of stone are cut to fit together without mortar, some stones naturally fit together and do not need reshaping. The dry stone walls appear to grow out of the ground and lean protectively against the building, acting as a rain screen for the insulation behind. It also provides protective covering for insulation over the concrete structure. Typical section through two different dry stone walls
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Plan & Section
Auditorium Shop
Tickets
Restaurant
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Detailed Technical Drawings
Spring clip insect screen Lead dressed over fascia and against end board then tucked into rebate Steel bracket connection to rafter Min 25mm thick stone roof tiles laid to diminishing courses from largest 5’ x 4’ tiles fixed with sheep’s bones or tines of stag antlers 12 x 32 ash trim pinned to ply Vapour barrier Rigid insulation
Horizontal board bolted to centre of wall plate through s.w. packing piece
Non-oxidising mesh fixed to cladding board & tucked behind dry-stone wall
PRODUCED BY AN AUTODESK EDUCATIONAL PRODUCT
PRODUCED BY AN AUTODESK EDUCATIONAL PRODUCT
PRODUCED BY AN AUTODESK EDUCATIONAL PRODUCT
Pre-formed aluminium flashing fixed to wall plate
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Exploded 3D Diagram - Roof Detail
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Roof The roof is a steeply pitched stone tile roof with oversailing eaves. The nature, extent and visible effects of weathering will depend upon the location, degree of exposure and prevailing weather conditions and the effectiveness of the architectural detailing. Eaves The roofing ranges include an under eaves slate supplied specifically to achieve a traditional stone eaves detail. The under eaves slates are fixed bed upwards so that the moulded surface may be seen from the ground. Detailing The appropriate standard under eaves slate is supplied unless otherwise specified; this provides an eaves oversail of between 60-80mm depending on pitch.
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References [1] http://www.zomordah.com/history-natural-stone [2] http://www.stonefed.org.uk/ [3] http://stoneshowroom.ca/how-to-install-retaining-wall-dry/ [4] Gould, Kate (29 February 2012). â&#x20AC;&#x153;Designing small gardens: choosing stonesâ&#x20AC;?. The Guardian. Retrieved 9 April 2014. [5] http://www.alexstrekeisen.it/english/pluto/diorite.php [6] Allaby & Allaby, 1999, p. 166 [7] http://earthphysicsteaching.homestead.com/Syenite.html
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Bibliography Book referencing
1) Morphosis Buildings Projects Book ( Thom Mayne) (Rizoli new york 19992008, China)
Article referencing
1) New York, NY, USA - October 12, 2009. Available from: http://www.arcspace.com/features/morphosis/41-cooper-square/ 2) Cooper Union New Academic Building at 41 Cooper Square. Available from : http://www.azahner.com/portfolio/cooper-union 3) Morphosis architects’ Cooper Union Academic Building, New York – March 4, 2010. Available from: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ad.1053/pdf 4) 41 Cooper Square - Posted: February 22, 2009 / Last Edited: October 20, 2014. Available from: http://morphopedia.com/projects/41-cooper-square 5) Get Fit: Morphosis’s New Academic Building for the Cooper Union. Available from: http://www.harvarddesignmagazine.org/issues/31/get-fit-morphosissnewacademic-building-for-the-cooper-union 6) New Academic Building for the Cooper Union for the Advancement of Science and Art – March 6, 2009. Available from: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ad.846/pdf
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BIO FUEL SYSTEMS AND
RECYCLABLE MATERIALS
INTRODUCTION
Recycling unwanted materials such as food and building materials can have a beneficial effect on the environment. By reducing the amount of waste that is sent to the landfills and incinerators, will reduce the amount of gases such as methane being released into the atmosphere. Due to these materials being recycled it will reduce the amount of pollution that will be created as the amount of new materials will be reduced and therefore save energy that could be used for other things. Finally when materials are recycled greenhouse emissions will be not be created and released into the atmosphere there will help to reduces global climate change.
By Caryn Meyer (P1228062x) and Emily Husband (P12201328) 334
WHY USE BIO FUEL? Bio fuel systems are the foundation of modern life due to the fact we have used on average half the world’s oil resources. Bio gas is a different type of bio fuel it’s a mixture of carbon dioxide and methane produced by the anaerobic decomposition creating sewage and municipal wastes. Biodegradable materials such as energy crops can be fed into conventional fossil fuels which reduces the volume of the fossil fuel through the process of co-firing.
STATISTICS Bio fuel contributes to 10-15 of the world’s primary energy source. Bio fuel is referred as a gas, Liquid or biodegradable produce which can be used to create gas of biological origins that can be manipulated to make fuel through the process of fermentation of bacteria. The methane collected from the process is used for the fuel, these can be in any form including solid, liquid or gaseous. Although this had to be a living matter recently otherwise the energy would not be created. In 2000 in the UK only 2.5 percent of renewable energy being made up of 1 percent bio fuel and 1.5 percent produced by hydro power.
OTHER FORMS OF RENEWABLE ENERGY The five most important most efficient renewable energy resources we harvest today to generate energy include geothermal energy which extracts heat from the earth and uses thermal heat as a source of energy, tidal and wave energy which draw on the endless moves of the ocean waves as well as biomass which comes from growing plants which then in turn are harvested into fuel, further more hydro electricity harnesses the movement of water as gravity pulls it down hill. However they are all limited by practical and environmental problems where as the fifth renewable energy system we use today is one of the cleanest and more widespread and more sustainable that all previously mentioned is solar energy. 99.99% of energy on earth is produced from the sun, without the sun we wouldn’t survive our planet would be dead. Wind Power is the fastest growing source of energy in 1999 ultra modern wind turbines generated 1 billion kilowatt hours of electricity which is enough for 3.5 million average houses.
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FERMENTATION Cow manure and bio gas fuel technology provides a free, sustainable source of power all year round. Once the manure is used to create the fuel farmers can use it as fertiliser which helps to provide a better income. Mixing the cow dung with water and placed into fermentation pits where it is broken down by natural bacteria, releasing methane. The gas is collected and stored in a tank and then piped on demand to the farmer’s house, to be burnt to generate energy for cooking, laundry and lighting. The bio gas plants also produce a rich organic waste which is dried and used as fertiliser. Both fertiliser and fuel wood are increasingly expensive in the country and bio gas has a potentially important future. It may also be used to manage organic waste in urban settings.
ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES ADVANTAGES: +Fossil fuels bio fuel has more advantages and more beneficial factors which are healthier and more environmentally safer. In conclusion some of the advantages to using bio fuels are that they produce lower emissions creating less toxic pollutants called green house gases which get trapped in the sun rays inside that atmosphere and cause global warming. +Bio fuel is reusable as it’s made from organic material such as waste and foods, this also helps a different cause, using waste for bio fuel means the waste is being used instead of having to get factories to get rid of the waste. This is one of the major reasons why bio fuels are becoming more and more popular. The fact that the bio fuels are biodegradable is another advantage because that means the environment would not be affected nearly as much as an oil spill would affect the environment. A good example is the oil spills on the Gulf of Mexico which killed loads of wildlife in and outside of the ocean. The biggest advantage to human beings is that bio fuels are safe to grow, harvest and convert unlike drilling, mining and other traditional actives used to get fossil fuels. DISADVANTAGES: +The machinery required to farm the plants does create carbon emissions as they need to be manufactured and created, tested and maintained on a regular basis. Another major disadvantage is that the plantations take up a lot of agriculture land which could be used for growing food. Many activist groups argue that it’s unethical to use the land to farm plants that won’t be eaten when there is still world hunger which is a bigger problem in the world.
“The use of bio fuels to increase 50% by 2020. But environmentalists say bio fuels made from some food crops contribute more greenhouse gases than the fossil fuels they are designed to replace, as well as causing deforestation and hunger.” http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2013/nov/29/biofuels-worse-fossil-fuels-food-crops-greenhouse-gases
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CASE STUDY
ASDA ANAEROBIC FOOD WASTE PLANT
BIO FUEL CASE STUDY Asda aims to reduce the amount of waste products by sending most of their waste to anaerobic digestion facilities creating biogas. Asda don’t throw any store food waste into landfill. It’s either given to charity, or turned into something useful like energy, bio fuel or pet food. The “low carbon' store, which opened in October last year, previously diverted 99% of its operational waste away from landfill. However, following the removal of the store's waste compactor today, the supermarket has pledged to go even further and will stop sending the remaining 1% of its food, recycling and general store waste produced at the store to landfill - the highest level of landfill diversion of any supermarket store to date. Instead they send the waste to Supermarket supplier; QV Foods has opened a 1.5 MW anaerobic digestion facility as part of its joint venture with biogas developer, Tamar Energy at its headquarters in Lincolnshire, UK. 25,000 tonnes of food waste are processed through anaerobic digestion facilities creating biogas but diverted from landfill. Dealing both with the vegetable trimmings and peelings arriving at the site they process the food waste and turn it into biogas to meet a significant electricity demand set by Asda. Page Three 337
WHY RECYCLE MATERAILS? Recycling and reusing materials used in conjunction with other green natural materials can create enviromentally friendly dwellings. If you use recyclable, reusable construction materials within a building projects not only reduces the amount of money spent on the project, but also limits the contribution towards global warming as new materials that would produce CO2 emissions during manufacturing would not need to be made. Different materials are beneficial in different ways, for example metals are infinitely recyclable; which means that they can be used repeatedly into functionally equivalent product. Materials can also be ‘down-cycled’ which means that old materials can be used to create new products; for example bricks and concrete can be crushed to help create new bricks or new pieces of concrete. Although sometimes this is still not possible and a small percentage still ends up in landfills. The three main recyclable construction materials include concrete, timber and steel. 20 percent of concrete is recycled, 75 percent is down-cycled ad 5 percent ends up in land fills; a large percentage is down-cycled due to it be easier to crush existing pieces of concrete and reform them to feet future projects rather than using existing pieces. Timber is harder to re-use as it less structurally sound as concrete and steel; this means that only 13 percent is recycled, 10 percent is down-cycled, 13 percent is re-used, 58 percent ends up in landfills and 6 percent is incinerated. This is compared to steel which is 93 percent being recycled, 6 percent being re-used and 1 percent ending up in a landfill; this is due to steel’s durability so therefore will be able to be used repeatedly without losing its structure.
ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES ADVANTAGES: +Reduces material and waste disposal costs +Reduces your CO2 emissions +Meeting planning requirements +Complementing other aspects of eco-design +Respond to client requirements DISADVANTAGES: +Some materials may not hold structural form +Hard to find ‘good’ materials +Building costs can be higher than traditional builds +Materials may not have good thermal mass
RECYCLING STRUCTURES Steel can be dismantled from its original project and inserting into another project without having to go through the recycling process; which has environmental implications to take into consideration through demolition such as noise, dust and safety hazards. There are many examples of buildings that have been reused and adapted into a new use. For example the old steel frame market buildings such as Convent Garden and Billinsgate in London have been converted into commercial use. Reusing a steel beam in its existing form is more efficient than remelting the steel to reform into a new steel beam, therefore saving the energy that is used to do this process. Similar to recycling, it is important to carefully select which materials to reuse as some are more amenable than others, so therefore will not be as effective within construction. Also some materials could be damaged through deconstruction so is important to be examined to make sure that it is efficient for a new build. Page Four 338
RECYCLING STRUCTURES...
A material that is highly reused within construction is steel; this is due to its durability and its deconstructing capabilities. This can be seen in a large number of temporary structures including scaffolding and form work. This is mainly due to how the components slot together. Although it is important that these components are tested to make sure that they have an ample amount of strength to be used again. This is done by any coatings being removed, prefabricated and primed to reach the requirements of the next project, these beams and columns are then cut to the required length. Reusing steel components will increase if the designing of deconstruction is taken more into consideration, for example by using a modular construction, the modules or pods can be deconstructed from the building and refurbished and reused in either the same or new building. For example the British Pavilion at the Seville Expo which was built in 1993, this was designed to be an energy efficient building that could be easily dismantled and reused after the expo has finished. An example of this is Crystal Palace, Paxton, which was first built in Hyde Park in 1851. The life of the Great Exhibition was limited to six months, after which something had to be done with the building, so therefore was moved and reconstructed in South London. The constructing of the building began on Sydenham Hill in 1852. This construction incorporated most of the constructional parts that had been included in the Hyde Park building and although this was reusing old parts of the previous building the design was considered different as it was seen as a â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Beaux-artsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; form.
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CASE STUDY
VILLA WELPELOO, NETHERLANDS
LOCATION: Villa Welpeloo, Enschede, the Netherlands ARCHITECT: Superuse Studios CONSTRUCTED: 2005 USE: Residential CONSTRUCTED: January 2006 - November 2009 COST: € 900,000 Villa Welpeloo is an eco-home is located in Enschede, The Netherlands. The home’s creators Superuse Studios (formerly 2012 Architechten) wanted to make sure that this residential project is a sustainable build that is constructed from almost all recycled or reclaimed materials; which were all gathered within a 9 mile radius of the site, including 60% within the exterior and 90% interior.
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MATERIALS USED
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1. Reused Steel Profile 2. Reused Wooden Beams 3. Aluminium Drip Edge 4. Reused Cable Reel Wood 5. Reused Polysterene Insulation 6. Reused Umberella Ribs
The load bearing structure is made out of steel beams that previously made up a machine for textile production (one machine gave the steel for the whole villa.) Along with this the main facades are clad with wood from redundant cable reels, this was an effective material as they are a standard size and form so therefore could clad the whole exterior. Umbrellas were also used to create a number of light features.
As this was a project that was based around the idea of recycling materials it was important to look at the economic footprint. Due to this project being experimental by using reused materials the cost of the project was higher than using standard building materials and therefore was important for the ecological footprint to be lower of that of a traditional build. Page Seven 341
NON-RECYCLED MATERIALS In some cases it was impossible to reuse materials within this project, for example the screws and plasterboards came straight out of the factory to. ensure both stability and and give a crisp finish to the interior
Also the foundations and the floor on the ground level are made of new concrete.
RECYCLED MATERIALS
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Timber Applications: Timber Framing: Traditional timber framing is the method of creating structures using heavy squaredoff and carefully fitted and joined timbers with joints secured by large wooden pegs.It is commonplace in wooden buildings from the 19th century and earlier.
fig. 1
Timber Insulations: Timber can be also used as an insulation material beneath the wall or oor. It is easy to fit and has a good acoustic insulation. Furthermore it can absorb moisture and prevent heat from leaking outside. Is not highly recommented as it is highly ameable.
fig. 2
Timber Flooring: Wood ooring is any product manufactured from timber that is designed for use as ooring, either structural or aesthetic. Wood is a common choice as a ooring material due to its environmental profile, durability, and restorability.
fig. 3
Timber Interior: Mostly aesthetic use of timber is to decorate the interior of a house. Goes very well with white concrete and glass. fig. 4
Flooring Breather membrance Timber oor Insulation
Timber frames Cladding battens
Timber cladding
Nails
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TIMBER HISTORY
GENERAL HISTORY
SHELTERS
PALEOLITHIC
BONES AND BRANCHES STRUCTURE, COVERED WITH ANIMAL LEATHER
2.5 mi B.C. - 10.000 B.C.
FIRST PALAFITAS
NEOLITHIC
SMALL HOUSES
BONES AND BRANCHES STRUCTURE, COVERED WITH ANIMAL LEATHER
10.000 B.C. - 3.000 B.C.
EGYPTIAN EMPIRE
SMALL HOUSES AND TOOLS USE OF TIMBER IN SMALLER HOUSES AND TOOLS FOR BIGGER BUILDING
ANCIENT AGE
CHINESE EMPIRE
3.000 B.C. - 476 A.D.
BIG PUBLIC BUILDINGS BUILT WITH TIMBER
ROOFING AND STRUCTURE
GREEK EMPIRE ROMAN EMPIRE
USE OF TIMBER IN SMALLER HOUSES AND TOOLS FOR BIGGER BUILDING
MEDIEVAL AGE
MIXED BUILDINGS DEVELOPMENT OF STRUCTURE SYSTEMS AND MANUFACTURED PIECES
476 A.D. - 1492 A.D.
MODERN AGE
FURNITURE
1492 A.D. - 1789 A.D.
TIMBER USED IN FURNITURE AND ORNAMENTS OF FANCY HOUSES
CONTEMP. AGE
PALAFITA COMMUNITIES COMMUNITIES THAT LIVE IN PALAFITAS ORGANISE THEMSELVES INTO COMMUNITIES AND SMALL VILLAGES AROUND THE WORLD
1789 A.D. - NOW
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Timber Manufacture: At first forestry worker select mature trees in order to allow younger trees to grow to maturity. Usually the trees that are cut off are replaced with new young ones in order to keep the forest in existence. Many forestry workers are using chainsaws, but large logging companies have specially designed tractors with cutters and grabbers that can harvest hundreds of trees per day. After the trees are cut down the logs are stored in the forest for a few days in order fot the water content to evaporate and reduce their weight. Finally the logs are transported to the sawmill, most often by vehicles with lifting gear or oating them in rivers and allowing them to be carried down stream by the current. At the sawmill the logs are cut into "boards" with circular saws and bandsaws in order to reach their final shape. Their are two types of cuting a log, the first one is called "through and through sawn" and in which th elog is cut in straight lines. And the second one is "Quarter sawn" at which the log is cut in three straight lines throught the middle then all the way around it. Finally the timber boards are been removed from their curved edges and become actual boards. In order for the timber boards to become acceptable in the making of a timber framed building they need to be "dry", that means reamoving most of the moisture that the wood contains so that it wont bend or deform.
Through and Throughsawn
Quartersawn
The timber boards are used for cladding and ooring in buildings and also for furnishing and other uses of
Before
timber. The through and through sawn creates thick timber boards that are later sawn into rectangles and can be used for building framing.
After using the circular saw
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fig. 5
Hardwood: Usually comes from trees that lose their
Kinds of Timber:
leaves during Autumn and Winter and it has high
Oak
density in comparison with softwoods. Examples of
Larch
hardwood trees include alder, balsa, beech, hickory,
Sitka Spruce
mahogany, maple, oak, teak, and walnut and are usually more expensive than other softwoods.
Norway Spurce
Hardwoods are usually used for ooring, decking,
Douglas Fir
furniture and in general for constructions that need to
European Fir
last.
Scots Pine
Softwood: Most often comes from trees that have needles and cones for leaves. About 80% of all timber
Pitch Pine
comes from softwood and is usually used for doors,
Western Red Cedar
windows , small furniture and paper. Examples of
Cedar
softwood trees are cedar, Douglas fir, juniper, pine, redwood, spruce, and yew. A very strong
Ash
disadvantage is the lack of fire resistance.
Beech
Joined cladding
Joined cladding Timber cladding Timber cladding Nail Nail
Joined
Batent
Breather Membrance
Breather Membrance 347
Palafitas or Stilt houses Palafitas or Stilt houses are houses raised on timber piles over the surface of soil or water, this houses are built primarily as a protection against ooding but also server to keep out wild life and instects. Palafitas have a shady space under the structure that usually serves as a working or strorage space. Stilt houses go back to the Neolithic and Bronze Age, and they were very common in Alpine and Pianura Padana region. Most often the settelments were located on lake shores and used as fishing houses, although later on they began to built them for living purposes as well. Today, stilt houses are still common in parts of the Mosquito Coast in northeastern Nicaragua, northern Brazil, South East Asia, Papua New Guinea and West Africa. Palafitas are especially widespread along the banks of the tropical river valleys of South America (Palafito), notably the Amazon and Orinoco river systems. Brazil
Norway
Myanmar
fig. 6
fig. 7
fig. 8
Social Aspects: The palafitas are usually built in communities along rivers or ooded regions, settling in these conditions for reasons of convenience of better survival in the region. In the specific case of Brazil, the communities are mainly located in the states of north and northeast of the country, where some regions live in poorer conditions and their population needs to adapt to the resources available in order to live in the best way possible. The palafitas are based on a vernacular way of construction, where materials are usually available in the region and constructive knowledge is transmitted between generations. Over time, constructive techniques improved and got through upgrades, such as use of industrial parts, mainly due to the recent emergence of industries in the region. In the past this communities used to live in extremely bad conditions. However, nowadays most of them are developed in order to live in better conditions, for at least a minimal comfort and subsistence, using the resources of the river as fishing and hunting, and also working with it as a way of transportation, using boats and canoes. The palafitas also exist in some large cities, mainly as an attempt of decrease the segregation between classes. Thus, palafita communities settle themselves in canals and rivers in central regions of the city, keeping a closer contact with their jobs and daily routines.
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Palafitas construction process First the constructor inserts timber piles in the ground in order to create the foundation for the lifted oor. Then he continues by placing timber piles horizontally on the foundations in order to create the frame of the oor. The oor is finished when timber boards selected for ooring as placed on top of the framing. Afterwards the constructor inserts timber piles on the oor area vertically, in order to create the walls and structure of the palafita. The shape of the roof is determined by the way the structure piles are placed. Lastly the constructor placed timber boards on the wall framing and roof, completing the palafita.
Timber cladding Timber structure Timber cladding Flooring structure Timber beam Base pillar 349
Palafitas construction process - Families in Brazil usually build their own Palafitas, the project requires 2-3 persons and it can be completed in an astonishing fast paced. The most common design of a palafita takes an average of 30 days to be completed without any heavy machinery tools, the constructors are using only a hammer to join the logs and a small hand saw to carve the edges. - The materials used in this houses are logs and trees found near the area of construction, people living in this stilt houses are poor therefore they can not afford any manufactured logs in order to create the foundations needed for the rest of the house. Usually the timber boards used for ooring and the roof are manufactured timber but in many cases this boards are taken from older palafitas that were abandoned or can not be restored. - The timber boards used for ooring are thicker and have more resistance than the ones at the wall cladding. It is really important that the oor remains dry constantly and can withstand fire, the inhabitants very often use their oor as a base to light fire and cook. - Sometimes if are available, the builders use materials from previous palafitas that were destroyed or abandoned. That happens very often as the water level rises higher than the constructor estimated, resulting to the palafita to ood. Afterwards the family rebuilds their home at the same location using materials from their previous one but the oor been on a higher level so that the water level wont reach it during raining seasons.
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- The timber piles used at the base of the building take no specific treatment, is a natural aspect of trees to withstand water and changes in moisture levels. Manufactured wood would be affected in a matter of years by this conditions because is thin, the logs used as foundation to this houses are very thick and they dont have their bark removed. As a result this logs can last up tp 20 years without been replaced by new ones. - Thatch is a fresh and easy option for roof material, but is hard to be found in some regions and it also requires maintenance every few months. Most often the families choose to roof their house with aluminium sheets or tiles. - In many cases timber houses require some sort of cladding in order to place the timber boards on their walls, at the palafitas houses the walls do not require any cladding because the timber boards are built very close to each other. - Every three or four years the family needs to replace the manufactured timber used on the walls and oor of the house because it putrefies with the weather conditions and changes in moisture levels of the area. - Needlessly to say that Palafitas are build during the winter when the level of the river falls and the land is dry giving the chance to residents to maintained their houses. New houses are built during this period and it also gives the opportunity to the communities to work on agriculture.
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fig. 9
In 2012 three Brazilian architects submitted this proposal in order to benefit the living environment of poor people in Ilha do Pavao at the shore of Guaiba Lake. People there are currently living in stilt houses that they design and built on their own, called Palafitas. During the raining seasons the river level rises, as a result many stilt houses get destroyed, damaged or ooded. Palafitas are sitting on wooden piles of 5-6 meters in order to avoid the river ood, in many cases the water level rises so high that the inhabitants are trapped inside with no way out. Even if the stilt houses survives in this harsh weather conditions it stills need maintenance very often, so this architects came up with a brilliant idea to help the poor and make their lives easier. The proposal includes ooding houses that during the winter where the river level drops the house sits slightly over the ground level. During the summer when raining season occurs the houses oods at water level, keeped in place by steel columns on the outside walls that are connected with the house structure and the ground under water. The designers wanted something that can be produced at a mass production with low cost that is why they chose this kind of materials, which includes timber at the most part, ooding concrete and plywood. They also mention that the idea is to built the houses in factories and then use moving trucks to deliver them to their customers, they were also targeting to solve a problem that many countries with similar weather conditions face. There are two kinds of ooding houses, the smaller one can contain up to 4 persons and will cost 3500 euro, that is approximately 2800 pounds which is very cheap for house of this size with that many capabilities. The larger stilt house is made so it hosts up to 10 people.
Timber slats
Plywood Timber framing
Floating concrete 352
Conclusion Timber as a material comes in many forms and is being used since ancient times for many purposes, especially in building construction and house cladding. It is very interesting to observe that a material so old is still been used in harsh environments under constantly changing weather conditions and it still is functional. People living in palafitas can not afford replacing their wooden logs with steal beams but even if they did we believe they would continue the usage of timber as it is their tradition and feel comfortable with the material.
References Habitar Habitat. (2013). Palafitas e Casas Flutuantes -- Família Salgado e Antonio Almeida. [Online Video]. 06/11/2013. Available from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GkSibBsr6AE. [Accessed: 18 November 2014]. Fernandes, A, 2011. PALAFITAS POR TERRA: A ARQUITECTURA POPULAR EM SÃO TOMÉ E PRÍNCIPE. Inuências, sistemas construtivos e potencial para o desenvolvimento. . CLME’2011, [Online]. 1, 2. Available at: http://repositorio-aberto.up.pt/bitstream/10216/57222/2/4626.pdf [Accessed 18 November 2014]. A n c r u z e i r o s . 2 0 1 2 . F O L H A I N F O R M AT I V A N º 2 6 - 2 0 1 2 . [ O N L I N E ] A v a i l a b l e a t : http://www.ancruzeiros.pt/Informacao2012/CulturaAvieiraFI-26-2012.pdf. [Accessed 18 November 14]. Concurso de Projeto. 2012. Premiados – Concurso de Estudantes – Sustentabilidade e Habitação de Interesse Social – CHIS 2012. [ONLINE] Available at: http://concursosdeprojeto.org/2012/09/16/premiadosconcurso-estudante-sustentabilidade-e-habitacao-de-interesse-social/. [Accessed 18 November 14].
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MATERIAL POETICS
Traditional Materials In Contemporary Forms Travertine & Portland
LIMESTONE LSA Third Year Technology BA Hons Architecture ARCH 3036 TECH PROJECT 1 November 2014
Teniola Ogunlaiye | P12211156 Sumaya Pemberton | P12213109 354
MATERIAL POETICS: STONE - HISTORY OVERVIEW Stone is the oldest building material known to mankind. The term stone refers to natural rock after its removal from the earths crust. The significance of stone as a building material has been widely demonstrated through prehistoric structures and its sophisticated use in the early civilisations around the world, e.g. the ancient dry stone structures are scattered throughout the world, with Egyptian pyramids and Peruvian temples. Although the use of stone has declined over the last 100 years, it still remains an aristocrat of building materials; recognised as a material of great durability and strength; noticeably the most prominent choice for buildings associated with status, power and religion. The earliest examples of stone masonry (shown below) is in both the ‘old’ and ‘new’ worlds demonstrates a high skill level, something which is often suggested as being a result of the existing knowledge of carpentry at the transition in working from wood to stone. THE CAIRN OF BARNENEZ France | Around 4800 BC
DOLERITE & GRANITE The Cairn of Barnenez is a Neolithic monument located in France. It is considered one of the earliest megalithic monuments in Europe, as well as the oldest building in the world. The two materials used in the construction were the green metamorphic dolerite of Barnenez which was available in the nearby surroundings and a clear granite from a near quarry.
LA HOUGE BIE France | Around 3500 BC
ALTAR
TARXIEN TEMPLES Malta | Around 3600 BC
LIMESTONE
KNAP OF HOWAR Scotland | Around 3100 BC
DRYSTONE & SANDSTONE
THE GREAT PYRAMID OF GIZA Saqqara | Around 2500 BC
GRANITE & LIMESTONE
La Hougue Bie is a spectacular cruciform Passage Grave situated on the Island of Jersey. It is a member of a group of similar monuments known as Armorican Passage Graves, with a distribution covering the Channel Islands and Brittany. It’s a highly unusual archaeological monument and it hides an 18.6m long passage lined with enormous stones. The Tarxien Temples consist of four megalithic temples constructed between 3600 and 2500 BC. They are notable for their complexity, fine construction and variety of stonework figural carvings. The material used in the construction of these temples was limestone. It is said that Malta is ‘a rocky lump of limestone and therefore, has stone absolutely everywhere. Knap of Howar is the oldest known standing settlement in North-West Europe. It consists of two inter-connected ‘houses’ dating from the Neolithic or ‘New Stone Age’. Both buildings were made out of stone, since trees have always been scarce in the islands while the local red sandstone readily splits into ready-to-use slabs. The Great Pyramid of Giza is the oldest and largest of the three pyramids. The Great Pyramid consists of an estimated 2.3 million blocks which most believe to have been transported from nearby quarries. It is estimated that 5.5 million tonnes of limestone, 8,000 tonnes of granite (imported from Aswan), and 500,000 tonnes of mortar were used in its construction.
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MATERIAL POETICS: STONE - HISTORY OVERVIEW Construction The construction of stone buildings constructed has evolved over the years. Construction methods go back thousands of years. Stone construction has similar characteristics to mud brick construction such as a heavyweight and immobile structure.
DRY STONE STACKING EXAMPLES
DRY STONE STACKING The earliest form of stone construction is known as dry stone, or dry stacking - without the use of any mortar between them. These are freestanding structures such as field walls, bridges and buildings that use irregularly shaped stones which are carefully selected and placed so that they fit closely together without sli pping (fig. 1). Structures are typically wider at the base and taper in as height increases. The weight of the stone pushes inwards to support the structure, and any settling or disturbance makes the structure lock together and become even stronger. Dry stone structures are highly durable and easily repaired. They allow water to drain through them, without causing damage to the stones. They do not require any special tools, only the skill of the craftsman in choosing and placing the stones. There are several methods of constructing dry stone walls, depending on the quantity and type of stones available. Most older walls are constructed from stones and boulders cleared from the fields during preparation for agriculture (field stones) but many also from stone quarried nearby. For modern walls, quarried stone is almost always used. The type of wall built will depends on the nature of the stones available. STONE MASONRY EXAMPLES
FIG.1 STONE MASONRY Traditional stone masonry evolved from dry stone stacking. Stone blocks are laid in rows of even or uneven height, and fixed in place with mortar, a cement or lime mixture pasted between the stones (fig. 2). The building stones are normally extracted by surface quarrying, drilled and split using diamond saws or iron wedges, and then shaped and polished according to their requirements. The basic hand tools used to shape stones are chisels, mallets and metal straight edges, but modern power tools such as angle grinders and compressed air-chisels are often used to save time and money. Stones are either shaped (dressed) into a block, known as ashlar masonry, or left rough and cut irregularly, known as rubble masonry. Mortared stone structures are less durable than dry stone, because water can get trapped between the stones and push them apart. FIG. 2
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MATERIAL POETICS: HISTORICAL STONE PRECEDENT STUDY The Pyramid Djoser The Pyramid of Djoser (also known as The Step Pyramid) is the earliest large cut stone construction. The archaeological remains lie in the Saqqara Necropolis, Egypt. It was built during the 27th century BC for the burial of Pharaoh Djoser by Imhotep, his vizier. The stone is carved to resemble wood, reeds, or other softer materials which made the tomb more durable. The stone itself was supported by a number of timber beams in aid to hold the structure together. It was clad in polished white limestone. Pioneering techniques like this led to many ancient historians to credit the chief architect, Imhotep, with inventing stone architecture. This incredible monument leads some to discuss the mystery surrounding the Egyptians method of building. The Step Pyramid of Djoser is very large. It originally stood at 62 metres (203 foot) tall, with a base of 109 x 125 metres (325 x 410 foot). This was the first high structure that the ancient Egyptians built. Prior to this, their structures were usually no more than 10 metres (33 foot) tall. This leads back to the question of how the ancient Egyptians managed to even construct such a large Pyramid, bearing in mind they had never erected a structure that size before.
FIG. 1 - Sketch of Pyramid Djoser
It is believed that this pyramid consists of different layers (fig. 2). First is the middle core that is visible on every pyramid after the Bent Pyramid. This layer was used by the Egyptian builders to retain the core filling and would have been a key to connect the outer cladding. The step design of the pyramid meant that the builders were able to connect the cladding to the pyramid while still supporting the weight of the cladding blocks. The infill and central core of the pyramid primarily consists of much smaller stones, and any other larger blocks that the builders wanted to conceal. The inner core was used to create internal ramps, which enabled the Egyptians to build the pyramid from the inside out. The ramps were started at the mid-point of the pyramid and would zigzag across its full internal width, matching the height of the middle-core stones as the pyramid was built. The small number of heavy middle core blocks could have been raised on these internal ramps and positioned at the perimeter of the pyramid. As most of the inner fill stones were much smaller, they could have been easily handled by men and animals. The final layer is the outer cladding.
Dressed outer casing stone to provide an outer facade connected to the core blocks
Grout Infill in layer to provide internal ramps
FIG. 2 - Section Through Outer Wall Core blocks built in diminishing course constructed from large limestone blocks to create a curtain wall to hold the infill material that is used to form adjustable internal ramps
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MATERIAL POETICS: TYPES OF STONE Analysis According to the manner of their geological formation all rocks, referred to building as stones, fall into one of three classes: igneous, sedimentary of metamorphic, each having recognisable physical characteristics. These are further subdivided into about 30 different rock groups.
IGENOUS ROCKS Igneous rocks are formed from red hot viscous masses of magma from deep below the earthâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s surface, as these silicate molten masses, crystalize at the transition from the earthâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s crust to the upper mantle (the cooling of molten magma). This is quite a heterogeneous molten silicate mixture containing considerable amounts of dissolved gas, as well as crystals or crystal aggregates. The magma slowly begins to solidify at temperatures between 900 and 1150C. Feldspar is the chief ingredient of igneous stones.
Differentiation within these rock groups is sometimes due only to minor variations in the chemical composition or the pressure or temperature conditions. The main stones used in building are discussed here in the following order: GEOLOGICAL CLASS
GROUP
Igneous Sedimentary
Granite Sandstone Limestone Slate Marble Quartzite
Metamorphic
Igneous Rock
Key To Processes Melting
Magma
Sediment (sand, silt, clay)
Crystallizing Weathering Metamorphosing Compaction & Cementing
Metamorphic Rock
Sedimentary Rock
METAMORPHIC ROCKS Metamorphic rocks are formed by the transformation of igneous, sedimentary or older metamorphic rocks as a result of changing physical conditions over periods lasting millions of years. The causes of these transformations are varying temperatures or pressures or tectonic movements, and very frequently all three factors together. In classifying metamorphic rocks we make a distinction according to the original rock material: orthorocks (formed from igneous rocks) and pararocks (formed from sedimentary rocks). This leads to the following formation:
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS Sedimentary rocks include our most common building stones - sandstone and limestone. Unlike most igneous rocks, sedimentary rocks are characterised by a distinct layered or bedded structure and show either granular or crystalline textures. They are formed either from particles of older rocks which were broken down by action water, wind or ice, or from accumulations of organic origin. Sand and shingle are loose sediments, whereas the particles of sedimentary stones which are available as blocks and slabs have been cemented together by minerals originally carried in solution in water and consolidated by super-imposed deposits.
orthogeniss migmatite chlorite schist
serpentinite
paragneiss quartzite greywacke venturine quartzite marble dolomite marble 358
granite granite + gneiss gabbro basalt diabase peridotite gabbro mudstone clayey shale sandtone mudstone clayey shale clayey sandstone limestone dolomite
MATERIAL POETICS: TYPES OF STONE Properties GRANITE DENSITY: 2.6 - 2.8 g/cm³ COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH: 130 - 270 N/mm² TENSILE BENDING STRENGTH: 5 - 18 N/mm² ABRASION RESISTANCE: 5 - 8cm³/50cm² THERMAL EXPANSION: 0.8mm/m100K WATER ABSORPTION: 0.1 - 0.9% by wt TOTAL POROSITY: 0.4 - 1.5% by vol. THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY: 1.6 - 3.6 W/mK SOURCES: BAVARIAN FOREST, FICHTELGEBIRGE, UPPER PALATINATE FOREST,
BLACK FOREST, HARZ MOUNTAINS - IGENEOUS | GRAIN STRUCTURE / EXPENSIVE TO QUARRY - MAJORLY GOOD WEATHER & FROST RESISTANTANCE - GRANITES WITH HIGHER WATER ABSORPTION WEATHER FASTER
LIMESTONE DENSITY: 2.6 - 2.9 g/cm³ COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH: 75-240 N/mm² TENSILE BENDING STRENGTH: 3 - 19 N/mm² ABRASION RESISTANCE: 15 - 40cm³/50cm² THERMAL EXPANSION: 0.75mm/m100K WATER ABSORPTION: 0.1 - 3% by wt TOTAL POROSITY: --% by vol. THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY: 2.0 - 3.4 W/mK SOURCES: TREUCHTLINGEN & EICHSTATT (UPPER BAVARIA), KELHEIM (LOWER
BAVARIA) & WORLDWIDE - SEDIMENTARY | VARIETY OF STRUCTURES, TEXTURES & COLOURS - FROST RESISTANT DEPENDING ON TYPE - FADES DUE TO INFLUENCE OF THE ATMOSPHERE
QUARTZITE DENSITY: 2.6 - 2.7g/cm³ COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH: 150-300 N/mm² TENSILE BENDING STRENGTH: 13 - 25 N/mm² ABRASION RESISTANCE: 7 - 8cm³/50cm² THERMAL EXPANSION: 1.25mm/m100K WATER ABSORPTION: 0.25 - 0.5% Masse - % TOTAL POROSITY: --% by vol. THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY: -- W/mK SOURCES: AUSTRIA (RAURIS, PFUNDERS), SWITZERLAND, BRAZIL, NORWAY,
ITALY, SWEDEN, SOUTH AFRICA - METAMORPHIC | LIGHT COLOURED; FINE GRAINED, CONSISTENT GRAIN SIZE - WEATHER RESISTANT & NORMALLY FROST RESISTANT - HIGH QUARTZ CONTENT = VERY HARD & MEANS DIFFICULT TO WORK WITH
SLATE DENSITY: 2.8 - 3.1g/cm³ COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH: 170-240 N/mm² HARDNESS: 3.0 to 4.0 on Moh’s scale MODULUS OF RUPTURE: 24 - 34 N/mm² SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 2.65 - 2.80 WATER ABSORPTION: 1.0- 2.0% by wt TOTAL POROSITY: --% by vol. THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY: -- W/mK SOURCES: SPAIN, BRAZIL, PAPAGAIOS (MINAS GERAIS), NORTH WALES,
CORNWALL, WESTMORLAND - METAMORPHIC | FINE GRAINED & DURABLE - WEATHER RESISTANT - LITTLE MOISTURE MOVEMENT
SANDSTONE DENSITY: 2.0 - 2.7g/cm³ COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH: 30-150 N/mm² TENSILE BENDING STRENGTH: -- N/mm² ABRASION RESISTANCE: 9 - 35cm³/50cm² THERMAL EXPANSION: 1.2mm/m100K WATER ABSORPTION: 0.2 - 10% by wt TOTAL POROSITY: --% by vol. THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY: 1.2 - 3.4 W/mK SOURCES: MAIN-NECKAR REIGON, WURTTEMBERG, LOWER SAXONY, SWABIA,
LOWER BAVARIA, FRANCONIA, SAXONY - SEDIMENTARY - SOLID BUT EASILY ABRADED; UNIFORM CONSISTENCY - NORMALLY FROST RESISTANT
TRAVERTINE DENSITY: 2.4 - 2.5g/cm³ COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH: 20-60 N/mm² TENSILE BENDING STRENGTH: 2 - 13 N/mm² ABRASION RESISTANCE: -- cm³/50cm² THERMAL EXPANSION: 0.68mm/m100K WATER ABSORPTION: 2 - 5% by wt TOTAL POROSITY: --% by vol. THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY: -- W/mK SOURCES: BAD CANNSTATT, LANGENSALZA, ITALY (TIVOLI), SPAIN, PORTUGAL
-
SEDIMENTARY PITTED & POROUS; SOLID & FINE GRAINED NORMALLY FROST RESISTANT FADES WHEN USED EXTERNALLY; SUITABLE FOR FACADE PANELS
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MATERIAL POETICS: LIMESTONE Properties Limestone is a calcareous sedimentary rock composed principally of calcium carbonate (calcite - CaCO3) or the double carbonate of calcium and magnesium (dolomite). It is commonly composed of tiny fossils, shell fragments and other fossilized debris. These fossils are frequently visible to the unaided eye on close examination of the stone surface, however this is not always the case. Some varieties of limestone have an extremely fine grain.
COLOURS Limestone is found in almost all colours, except for shades of green and blue.
Limestone makes up about 10% of the total volume of all sedimentary rocks. The solubility of limestone in water and weak acid solutions leads to karst landscapes, in which water erodes the limestone over thousands to millions of years. Most cave systems are through limestone bedrock.
QUARRIES Quarrying limestone is big business but the need for limestone has to be balanced against the economic, environmental and social effects. Some factors that have to be considered include: effect on employment -– increased job opportunities; pollution – - noise, sound and air; traffic levels; visual effects of having a quarry.
PROPERTIES The resistance depends on the porosity and any inclusions that may be present. Limestone fades due to the influence of the atmosphere. Polished surfaces lose their shine.
Limestone is further sub-divided into travertine and dolomite limestone. Travertine is formed when water evaporates from the limestone caverns and dolomite limestone are those limestone that are compose of magnesium. Dolomite limestone is much harder and more resistant to weathering.
Imported stone is most notably sourced from France, Germany, Portugal, Spain, Turkey, Egypt and Israel which are also available in the UK.
Limestone is fit for building purposes, though many of them are burnt for lime. In the Cuddapah, Bijawar, Khondalite and Aravalli groups, limestones attain considerable development, some of them being of great beauty and strength. They have been largely drawn upon in the construction of many of the noted monuments of the past in all parts of the country.
Map to show main quarrying areas of building stone in the UK
Limestone is very common in architecture, especially in Europe and North America. Many landmarks across the world, including the Great Pyramid and its associated complex in Giza, Egypt, are made of limestone. So many buildings in Kingston, Ontario, Canada were constructed from it that it is nicknamed the L‘ imestone City’.
- EXCELLENT DURABILITY - LOW MAINTENANCE - COST EFFECTIVE - LONG LASTING APPLICATIONS Limestone is used extensively in both new building and restoration where their ease of working facilitates the production of cladding, ashlar and other forms of walling. They are also suitable for flooring. Many limestones are particularly suited to carved and moulded work. Components such as cills and jambs, soffits and copings, heads and mullions are readily produced to add interest and enrichment to building facades. PERFORMANCE Limestone generally has good load bearing properties and weathering characteristics although correct detailing is important as with all building materials. Limestones must not be used above sandstones on exterior elevations.
APPEARANCE The way in which they are formed leads to a variety of structures, textures and colours. CONSTITUENTS Primarily the mineral calcite.
The properties of individual types of stone can vary considerably and advice should always be sought on the selection of suitable stones, both for general and particular applications. 360
MATERIAL POETICS: LIMESTONE Formation Limestone is formed in shallow seas with the help of organisms, supported and accompanied by physical-chemical processes. Algae, shells, corals, snails and other organisms build their skeletons from the calcium carbonate dissolved in the water. After these organisms die, the calcium carbonate collects in the form of skeletal remains, shells or sludge on the seabed. These sediments then undergo compaction and digenesis due to the pressure from above. Besides the true calcium carbonate, they are small clay deposits, but primarily numerous pigments, which are responsible for the wide range of colours. The earthâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s crust is constantly evolving and the same mineral may melt deep inside the earth and then freeze when it reaches the surface (igneous rocks). In this process, it may change stones that come into contact with it (metamorphic rocks). Wind and weather will erode any mineral, but over millennia its particles may recombine until they form a new rock (sedimentary rocks). The following illustrations help you to understand these processes since they determine what sculptors and quarrymen call law, a concept that defines the order in which stone grows, which should not be contradicted when carving. 1. ERUPTION
This drawing shows the location of the different types of stone during an eruption. After a magma eruption, pressure and heat intensively metamorphose the closest sedimentary rocks, but they have minimal effect on the rocks that are further away, which sometimes makes it difficult to distinguish between the different rocks.
2. EROSION
This drawing shows evolution of the same landscape after millions of years of erosion. Igneous rocks are more resistant and give rise, for example, to basaltic needles. The accumulation of sand or clay, rock waste, and organic detritus, particularly of the sea, will create new sandstone and limestone.
3. PRESSURE
We often find landscapes where the rocks do not appear in their original location. The emergence of new mountains and continental drift lead to pressures that move or fracture the rocks, particularly soft rocks, forming folds or faults.
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MATERIAL POETICS: LIMESTONE Travetine Stone Travertine is a Sedimentary stone made essentially of calcite and deposited by calcareous waters, also known as a limestone deposit; extracted from the earths crust through quarrying. The stone is characterised by naturally occuring pitted holes and troughs in its surface often filled with grout by some installers but also left open by many others. Travertine is among the most frequently used stones in modern architecture, commonly utilised within wall cladding, facade material and flooring. PROPERTIES
HISTORY
The structure of travertine stone is uniform with a soft texture and a low hardness, and is nowhere near as dense or hard as granite. Because of these attributes, Travertine stone is fairly easy to mine and process. The density of the stone is also light, allowing for manageable transportation. One of the key characteristics of travertine is the holes and troughs gracing the surface of the stone. These naturally occurring pits give the stone an aged and weathered appearance.
Some of the qualities and benefits of using Travertine stone such as it being plentiful, weighs less than marble and/or granite and is relatively easy to quarry lead it to being most commonly used by the Ancient Romans. The stone was historically mined by the Ancient Romans and was largely used in the construction of the Colosseum in Rome used mainly for the pillars and arcades. They referred to the stone as â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Lapis Tiburtinusâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;.
APPLICATIONS
The stone derives its name from Tibur now named Tivoli, a town about 20km from Rome where the stone was often quarried from.
Travertine rock has been used as a building material for thouands of years stemming from the Ancient civilisation. Now, travertine is heavily used in modern architceture as it adds a rich and distinctive character to a variety of indoor and outdoor applications. It is commonly used for paving patios, garden paths, showers, wall coverings, counter tops. It is also used in exterior applications on commercial and institutional structures. APPEARANCE Pure Travertine is a creamy white colour, but the building stone is more often found in various shades of brown, yellow and red due to the inclusion of other minerals. Common varieties incude light beiges, walnut, desert gold and cherry red. The lighter, neutral tones work well for commercial interior and exterior projects. Travertine is never a solid color due to its veins or bands of contrasting color that run throughout the stone. Therefore, no two stones or tiles are alike. Several materials were employed for the building of the Colosseum, all of them easily found or produced in the Roman area. One of these is the travertine, a limestone, then tuff for the other pillars and radial walls, tiles for the floors of the upper storeys and the walls; finally, concrete (a.k.a. cement) for the vaults. 362
MATERIAL POETICS: TRAVERTINE Quarrying
WATER JET CUTTING MACHINES This method accelerates the natural process of erosion. Water jet machines use tremendously high powered jets of water or water and an abrasive grit of some kind to cut through metal, travertine, granite and many other substances.
Travertine is found in greatest abundance where hot and cold springs have been active for tens of thousands of years. The most famous travertine location, and the source of the stone used for the Getty Center, is Bagni di Tivoli, 20 kilometers east of Rome, where travertine deposits over 90 meters thick have been quarried for over two thousand years. Travertine is mined using one of four primary methods: - Channelling machines - Wire Saws - Chain Saws - Water Jet Cutting Machines
CHAIN SAWS WIRE SAWS
A similar concept to the portable ones used for trimming trees. Quarry chain saws are much larger and have special diamond blades designed for cutting stone.
Wire saws are commonly used to cut stone into manageable blocks for transport to a mill or warehouse. Access holes are drilled outlining a block 6 metres high, 12 metres wide and 2 metres deep. The diamond impregnated cables are pulled through and attached to the saw. The saws used for this kind of work are huge and are either continuous or reci procating. Once the bottom of the slab is cut, the back can be drilled cut or blasted free.
CHANELLING MACHINES Chanelling machines have a series of drill bits for making vertical and horizontal holes. Wedges are then placed in the horizontal holes until the block separates and can be removed from the quarry wall. During the winter, freezing water is sometimes used to separate the block.
FIG. 1 - WIRE SAW SKETCH
FIG. 2 - WIRE SAW SKETCH
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MATERIAL POETICS: TRAVERTINE Quarry Locations Extensive deposiits of travertine can be found at Tivoli , Italy. A decade ago, Italy almost had a monopoly on the world travertine market; but now a significant supplies are quarried in mainly Potrugal, Spain, Turkey, Iran, Mexico and Peru. Many European countries have travertine deposits somewhere, although often are not commercially viabke as the deposits are typically mall, due to the restricted mode of formation. Turkey produces the largest volume of Traverine sold in Europe, much of it comming fom the Denizil region, which includes Pamukkale. Travertine can also be found in areas in the America with deposits in Mexico and south-western USA.
BADAB-E SURT, IRAN
LIMESTONE WALL| PAMUKKALE, TURKEY
REVISED TRAVERTINE POOLS | PAMUKKALE, TURKEY Pamukkale is another i portant source of Travertine. Huge dams formed from natural traverine deposits create one of the most beautiful world Herittage sites on the world. The UK has no sources of Travertine of its own. 364
MATERIAL POETICS: TRAVERTINE Transportation of Travertine
In Ancient times before roads and wagons, large pieces of Travertine stone were carried on sledges often along prepared roads pulled by teams of men to building sites or the river nile for shi pping. Now, in a modern world, there are many services available for the trasnportation of goods via land, air and water provided via common carriers.
Since travertine is not availalbe in the UK, we can look at how it is transpoted to other countires, for example - transportation to the United States from Turkey. STAGES: 1. Direct transfer with shi ps across the atlantic ocean with many common carriers readily available.
TRAVERTINE IMPORT FROM TURKEY TO USA
2. The shi ps take approximately 6 weeks to arrive from Turkey. 3. 95% of the travertine containers arrive at the port of Miami.
4. They are then distributed from the port to several different warehouses and wholesalers via â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;freightâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; forwarders.
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MATERIAL POETICS: TRAVERTINE Performance & Sustainability MATERIAL PERFORMANCE - Extreme hardness and durability - Works in both interior and exterior applications - It is considered a natural insulator because it traps the - coolness of the earth and does not absorb the heat of the sun - Freeze and thaw resistance - Will not buckle or fade - It is highly reactive with acidic solutions (e.g. orange juice, vinegar). - Comes in a variety of sizes, colours and finishes - Offers a varied range of patterns
1. TRAV££ERTINE BLOCK
PROBLEMS AND DETERIORATION
- Spongy texture - Voids and streaks - Hollows of tiny little calcite crystals.
Weathering may have a degrading effect on the appearance and structural soundness of limestone. Factors include rain, snow, temperature, wind and atmospheric pollutants. Generally these factors act in combination with one another or with other agents of deterioration. Rainwater, especially in combination with atmospheric gases often resulting in acid rain can result in dissolution of the limestone, causing higher levels of salt movement within the stone structure. Temperature can effect rates of deterioration and (in larger stones) movement of the pieces, as well as patterns of salt migration within the stone.
2. WEATHERED TRAV££ERTINE - The contrast between where the water really run down (grey area) and the less-weathered side (whiter area). - Grey areas are rough like sandpaper whilst thehe whiter areas are far smoother. - Caused by water carrying dissolved CO2.
Most of the natural or inherent problems which can occur with limestone require some degree of moisture to occur, however other problems such as wind erosion and vandalism may occur independently.
3. TRAV££ERTINE BLOCK - SHADES - Alternating dark and ligh coloration - Stains from rivulets of water that have flowed down and others incorporated within the stone.
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MATERIAL POETICS: TRAVERTINE Structure (Cladding Diagrams)
Fig. 1. Traditional hand fixed cladding.
Particularly for the medium and smaller projects. The traditional hand fixed cladding system typically carries the load of the cladding to a load bearing fixing situated at the floor plate. The stones above are simply restrained using Restraint fixings. Due to the space requried for ventillation cavity and thermal insulation, the stone cladding panels overhang the corner by a considerable amount. Special fixings are often the only solution in such cases in order to maintain the edge distance of approximately 100mm for the drilled holes and reduce the unsupported end of the cladding panel to a minimum.
Fig. 2. Illustrating a typical problem regarding the fixing of stone cladding at corners
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MATERIAL POETICS: TRAVERTINE Case Study: Apartment No.1 Project Title: Apartment No.1 Architect: Collective Terrain Client: Ramin Mehdizadeh, Hossein Sohrabpoor, Mehdi Mehdizadeh Location: Mahallat, Iran Year: 2010 Iranian city Mahallat is home to a thriving stone cutting industry. Even though the industry contributes nearly half of the city’s economy, it also generates a lot of waste stone from the cutting process. Tehran’s Architecture by Collective Terrain set out to put the so-called waste stone to use by constructing an apartment building from it. Apartment No. 1, a modern stone building made up of eight apartments of three bedrooms each, is the product of the idea; proving that the left-over stone was not so useless. The cut stone tiles produced in Mahallat are produced from mining area’s rich travertine deposits. The cutting process, however, proved wasteful as the process of making a single tile wastes as much stone as is contained in the tile itself. This waste stone is then discarded. Apartment No. 1, designed by Architecture by Collective Terrain, showed that the left-over material was still useful. The building was constructed using waste stone gathered from several mines to produce a modern, textured exterior in a colourful natural pattern.
The historical construction method of dry stone stacking was used for this building. The recylcled stones were selected and interlocked so that they can fit closely together without sli pping. Collective Terrain architects pursued a genuine sense of contextualism, embracing contemporary vocabulary using historical methods in order to create a holistic architectural ensemble that enhances the building industry in a small town by setting new local/international architectural standards. Example of modern dry stone stacking
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MATERIAL POETICS: TRAVERTINE Case Study: Apartment No.1 Project Title: Apartment No.1 Architect: Collective Terrain Client: Ramin Mehdizadeh, Hossein Sohrabpoor, Mehdi Mehdizadeh Location: Mahallat, Iran Year: 2010 The architect decided to use local materials in a time of the country’s economic crisis. In order to explore locally produced materials, he researched how stones are excavated in the In surrounding local quarries and how they are processed in the stone factories. He soon appreciated the possibilities offered by stone-cutting as well as the architecture of the quarry itself that resembles a townscape. This investigation inspired the architect to emulate the quarry both in designing the volume and massing of the building as well as its surfacing. The quarry resembles a townscape and provides endless inspiring volumetric forms. The findings of his research took another direction as he realised that more than 50% of the stones are wasted during the process and thrown away. According to the mayor’s office, there are 200 stone-cutting factories in Mahallat. Each factory on average produces 50 tons of leftover stones per day. A simple calculation shows that local stone-cutting plants in Mahallat produce 365,000 tons of wasted stones each year. The leftover stones are diverse in size, shape, type and colour but they all have one common characteristic – their similar thickness. All of the stones are cut either 2 or 4 centimetres thick. Realising that a huge amount of energy is being used to process stones, the architect decided to embark on a novel approach for finding a way to use these leftover stones in his project, which can potentially help save the environment of his hometown.
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MATERIAL POETICS: LIMESTONE Portland Stone Seeing as travertine is not available in the UK, we looked further and found its ‘UK equivalent; Portland Stone. Portland stone is a limestone from the Tithonian stage of the Jurassic period quarried on the Isle of Portland, Dorset. Portland stone is a characteristic feature of London’s architecture. It has been used for centuries as a building material and these buildings stand as testaments to the stones strength and durability. Originally the stone was used on its own or as a facing to brick masonry. With the advent of framed structures, where the load is carried by the frame and not by the external walling, the stone used to cover the framework is referred to as cladding.
PROPERTIES Like travertine, portland stone is creamy white, but it is only that solid colour which doesn’’t vary, whereas the colour of travertine does. It has excellent resistance to weathering, even in polluted atmospheres. It is a durable stone with good weathering characteristics and it can be used for all exposures on buildings including elements which must endure the worst of the weather, such as copings and ground level plinths. Long-term weathering depends, however, on good repair and maintenance to prevent rainwater ingress. Neglect or poor work, particularly poor work to joints or the use of very hard and impermeable mortars, will cause serious masonry defects to develop (fig.1) .
HISTORY Stone has been quarried on Portland since Roman times and was being shi pped to London in the 14th century. Extraction as an industry began in the early 17th century, with shi pments to London for Inigo Jones’ Banqueting House. Wren’s choice of Portland for the new St Paul’s Cathedral was a great boost for the quarries and established Portland as London’s choice of building stone.
Portland stone surfaces can develop gypsum skins in areas not regularly washed by rainwater. In these sheltered conditions, the limestone (calcium carbonate) on the face is converted to gypsum (calcium sulphate, known as a gypsum skin or crust) and the stone surface may be stained and cracked, and eventually become detached as a result (fig.2). (FIG. 1) Poor joint treatment: in this case past smearing of hard mortar over the sky face of the cornice joint left the lower section open. (FIG. 2) Typical gypsum (calcium sulphate) skin on sheltered Portland stone in the process of blistering, cracking and detachment.
St Paul’s Cathedral is Sir Christopher Wren’s masterpiece, built in glowing Portland Stone, crowned by the magnificent dome, a famous landmark on the skyline of the City of London.
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MATERIAL POETICS: PORTLAND STONE Portland Stone Cladding Portland Stone has been used for centuries as a building material and these buildings stand as testaments to the stones strength and durability. Originally the stone was used on its own or as a facing to brick masonry. With the advent of framed structures, where the load is carried by the frame and not by the external walling, the stone used to cover the framework is referred to as cladding. Portland Stone cladding can be sub-divided into three categories based on the fixing method and function: - Traditional Handset Cladding - Stone-Faced Pre-Cast Concrete Cladding - Rain Screen Stone on Metal Frame Cladding It is important to remember when designing stone cladding that the finished stone will be cut from a raw block. This may seem like an obvious statement but the princi ple is important for cost-effective and environmentally sound use of this valuable product. FIG. 1 - Stone Detailing
DETAILING As all stones are cut from the solid raw blocks, anything cut away, such as notched quoins of U'shaped stones, is waste and therefore additional cost. In an attempt to replicate a solid stone such as a quoin, some designers consider using glued and pinned returns. The length of the return is limited to 4x thickness for 40 to 50mm thick and 3x thickness for 50mm and over. The designer should be aware that the glued and pinned joint will contrast the other cement lime mortar joints and should only be used in exceptional circumstances (fig 1-2).
IMPACT & DAMAGE All exposed surfaces are liable to impact damage. This damage can be described as either soft body or hard body. A soft body impact is generally associated with a person or another heavy cushioned item falling against the stone. Hard body impacts are associated with smaller lighter objects such as tools being dropped onto the cladding. Both types of impacts have the potential to cause damage and although it is very difficult to protect against hard body impacts, there are a number of ways to increase the strength of stone cladding to protect against soft body impacts; including stone thickness, spacing between the fixings, and fixings design (fig. 3).
FIG. 2 - Optimum Detail Design
FIG. 3
STONE PANEL
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MATERIAL POETICS: PORTLAND STONE Portland Stone Cladding | 1. Traditional Handset Cladding Traditional hand fixed cladding still dominates the use of Portland Stone cladding, particularly for the medium and smaller projects. The traditional hand fixed cladding system typically carries the load of the cladding to a load bearing fixing situated at the floor plate. The stones above are simply restrained using Restraint fixings. FIXINGS The positioning and type of loadbearing and restraint fixings will be determined by a number of factors including the stone thickness calculation, the location of the movement joints and the actual structure of the building. We recommend the early appointment of the specialist stone cladding designer, who is normally part of the stone fixing contractorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s team. It is important to ensure they have the technicrl expertise and competence to advise on the fixing system and complete the stone cladding design. The designer should consider whether the fixings and the fixing system, including the stone, should be subject to testing to prove there is sufficient strength.
FIG.1 - Restraint Fixing
Insulation Damp Proof Course Restraint Cramp and Dowel Weep Holes at Perp Joint Portland Stone Cladding
Restraint fixings tie the cladding to the structure
Cavity
Insulation Loadbearing Fixing Stainless Steel Support Bracket
FIG. 2 - Loadbearing Fixings
6mm Dowel With 20mm Min. Embedment Compression Joint Cavity Portland Stone Cladding
Loadbearing fixings transfers the weight of the cladding on to the structure of the building MOVEMENT JOINTS
The building designer will be aware that the structure and the stone cladding will be subject to movement. This movement will be initially due to shrinkage and/or elastic deformation under load, but ongoing movement will occur due to differential thermal movement of the structure, the fixings and the stone, the moisture content of the stone and movement from wind loading. It is recommended that the structural engineer/designer sets out the calculations showing the effects of these various movements and ensures that the cladding can accommodate them. COMPRESSION JOINTS Compression joints are horizontal movement joints and are designed to accept the vertical movement of the structure. They are normally situated at each floor level immediately under the course supported by the load bearing fixing. The recommended minimum width is 15mm. EXPANSION JOINTS Expansion joints are vertical movement joints. The spacing and the widths of these joints need to be designed to accommodate the antici pated movement, but it is recommended that the joints are not less than 10mm per 6m length of cladding and should be between 1.5m and 3m from any corner. 372
MATERIAL POETICS: PORTLAND STONE Portland Stone Cladding | 2. Stone Faced Pre-Cast Concrete Cladding Stone on Precast cladding is stone panels on precast concrete cladding units. The technique was imported from the USA in the 1950s and has a proven track record. The cladding façade will look very similar to the traditional handset cladding and often Stone on Precast projects will include elements of handset stone. FIXINGS The individual stones are supported by the series of dowels and they do not rely on adhesion with the concrete. The debonded surface should mean that there is little or no contact with the concrete and so minimise the risk that contaminants and staining from the concrete can leach into the stone. The stones are attached to the large concrete backing panels in a factory environment, then hauled to the site and craned into position. The panels can include the window units and are attached to the structure using a variety of methods. Stone on Precast panels can have the advantage of allowing for faster on site construction and earlier enclosure of the dry envelope to enable internal works to proceed faster. The stones on a precast concrete panel are subject to very little stress. They are individually supported and supported at the back by the concrete. The only stress exerted on the stone is through the dowels themselves.
STONE
MOVEMENT The debonding membrane between the concrete backing panel and the individual stones will allow for differential movement between these different products. Stone on Precast panels are normally a single storey in height and up to a structural bay in width. Movement between these panels and the structural frame will need to be assessed and movement joints around the panels designed by the specialist stone cladding designer. It is important that they have the technical expertise and competence to advise on the fixing system and complete Stone on Precast cladding design.
FIG. 1 - Stone / Dowels interface detail
Sealants Movement joints need to be filled with a sealant that has a good service life (above 20 years), has good adhesion properties, will match the colour of the Portland Stone and will not cause staining of the stone. A primer may be necessary. Joint Width
STAINLESS STEEL DOWELS FLEXIBLE GROMMET
The manufacturing tolerances as set out in BS 8298 allow for typically 5mm (+- “1.5mm) joints for all but the largest stones. Please note that the maximum width of a mortar joint is 13mm, but a sealant filled movement joint can be up to 30mm wide.
DEBONDED SURFACE
Cement Lime Mortars The mortars for jointing and pointing should match the colour of the Portland Stone and be slightly weaker than the stone itself. To ensure the colour match, Portland Stone dust should always be used as the aggregate. 373
2/3 THICKNESS THICKNESS
MATERIAL POETICS: PORTLAND STONE Portland Stone Cladding | 3. Rainscreen Stone on Metal Frame Cladding VENTILATED RAINSCREEN CLADDING Ventilated rainscreen cladding is a system of cladding in which the stone panels are used as part of a system that shields the majority of the supporting structure from direct rainfall. It combines a cavity and drainage system behind the panels to remove any moisture that gets past the rainscreen panels. There are two types of rainscreen panels: Pressure-Equalised The cavity behind the panels is divided into compartments to generate pressure to impede the ingress of water through the open joints. Drained-and-Ventilated The open joints between the stones permits air movement, thereby encouraging the drying out of moisture that gets through the joints. Fixings The individual stones can either be fixed direct to a backing wall or more typically to a framing system comprising of a grid of vertical and horizontal aluminium profiles. The fixings to the stone will normally have combined load bearing and restraint capabilities. They can be brackets recessed into the joints of the stones or undercut anchors in the back of the stones. There are a number of different systems that offer differing advantages and disadvantages to the cladding designer. Movement The designer needs to be aware of the various movements; thermal, dead & live loads, settlement, moisture and wind loadings, between the structure, the framing system and the individual stones. Joints Joints in a rainscreen panel system are designed to permit air to circulate behind the panel and to allow moisture to drain from the cavity. In most projects, all the joints will be open, but some joints can be filled with an appropriate sealant if required. If a sealant is used it is important to ensure that it has a good service life, will match the colour of the stone and will not cause staining of the stone. A primer may be necessary. The joint width needs to be carefully controlled to ensure that it is wide enough to be classed as ‘ open’ at all times. An open joint is normally classed as a minimum of 10mm and will allow free draining of water. Baffled (a component inserted into the joint) or Labyrinth (stepped) joints to impede the direct passage of water may be considered.
Backing Wall
Air Gap Open Joint >= 10 374
Closed Joint Sealent, gasket or <= 10
Stone Panel
Cavity
MATERIAL POETICS: Portland Stone Case Study: Itchen Greenhouse
Architect: Design ACB Client: Tom Lloyd Main Contractor: Sinacola Renovations Ltd Completed: Jan 2011 Floor Area: 25m2 Sector: House Location: North Hampshire, UK About:
Set within the grounds of a 16th Century Grade II listed house, the minimalist Greenhouse designed as a multi-purpose space including a dog kennel, dog run and refuse store is a deceptively simple building. It incorporates an interesting and complimentary mix of materials that acknowledge the existing house whilst remaining modern. A heavy Portland stone base is used to support a lightweight timbre and glass structure. This contrast has been further re-enforced through a dark stain on timber elements. Its narrow banding is designed to accentuate the horizontal planes of the portland stone below, the module of which is continued in the paneled timbre doors. The stone detailing includes a number of highly complex specially cut stones all drawn in three-dimensional schedules.
Greenhouse Working Detail
Design ACB was commissioned by a private client to design a series of contemporary outbuildings set within the substantial grounds and curtilage of a Grade II listed house. One of these outbuildings is a new greenhouse which incorporates a dog-kennel, dog-run and bin store.
11 2
The tectonic resolution of the scheme has been carefully considered with a heavy Portland stone base supporting a lightweight timber and glass structure above. This contrast has been further re-enforced through a dark stain on timber elements. The timber cladding has been constructed from Accoya速, a high technology, stable and sustainably sourced softwood. Its narrow banding is designed to accentuate the horizontal planes of the Portland stone below, the module of which is continued in the paneled timber doors. The greenhouse incorporates a building management system which automatically opens and closes glass louvres to control solar gain and regulate internal temperature.
3
4
5
1 Tapered prefabricared Iroko timber Greenhouse Frame 24mm diameter SS tie rod 2 45x25mm profiled Iroko glazing bead, screwed & 3 plugged to rafter 6.4mm thick toughened glass 4 25x25x2mm SS angle bonded to u/s of glazing to form 5 dri p angle and lourve stop 75x30mm SS drainage channel with welded endcaps 6 72x145 treated SSW timber wallplate fixed between 7 uprights Sto Ventec carrier board, rendered 8 12mm WBP plywood sheathing board 9 75x295x595mm Portland Stone; Coping, doweled at 10 edge with vertical restraint in horizontal joints 72x145 treated SSW timber wallplate fixed to RC 11 upstand 75x295x595mm Portland Stone; Cladding, restrained 12 with Ancon YDB95 ties, screwed to studwork
7 8 10
9
11 12
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MATERIAL POETICS: Portland Stone Case Study: Entrance for St Paul’s Cathedral School Architect: Kilburn Nightingale Architects Client: St Paul’s Cathedral School Main Contractor: Bolt and Heeks Completed: Jul 2011 Floor Area: 10m2 Sector: Education Location: London, UK
Main Entrance Lobby For a School St Paul’s Cathedral School asked Kilburn Nightingale architects to design a new entrance pavilion that would enhance and improve the experience of entering the School. The existing entrance was cramped and drafty, so they came up with a design that enlarged the entrance area and made it cosier, providing a sheltered internal place where staff, pupils and parents can gather. Kilburn Nightingale architects also took the opportunity to express this more clearly as the main front entrance. Their approach was to create a sympathetic but modern addition to the original listed building designed by the Architects Co-Partnershi p in the 1960s. The design reflects the materiality of the existing building primarily with the use of roach bed Portland stone and leadwork to the roof. It was built on a tight programme over the summer holidays this year, and the School are enjoying the end result.
Working Detail of New Portland Stone Clad Wall
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MATERIAL POETICS: SUMMARY & CONCLUSION To conclude, stone has been recognised as a significant building material for many years dating back to Egyptian and ancient roman times with remains of these prehistoric structures still standing today. With qualities such as great durability and strength, it has maintained its aristocrat status within the group of building materials. The ever changing and evolving methods of construction fueled the development of stone applications throughout the years. Many years ago the use of stone as a building material represented power and status seen heavily used for the construction of Pyramids, churches and Temples. Now over 100 years later we see a greater deal of applications for stone that have evolved externally and internally. While still being used for buildings of great significance e.g. chapels, cathedrals, monuments and government buildings; we also see applications such as walls and decorative purposes, paving slabs and floor tiles. Through an in depth investigation of stone in general lead us to home in on Limestone targeting Travertine and Portland stone in particular. Due to its unique characteristics, with naturally occurring pitted holes in its surface and natural aged and weathered appearance, Travertine Stone demonstrated material poetics in its form. Frequently used in modern architecture but has a great historical background having been one of the main materials used in the construction of the Colosseum. Travertine Stone was heavily used by the ancient romans with extensive local deposits located only 20km from Rome in the city of Tivoli allowing Italy to dominate the world Travertine market almost a decade ago. With many material performance qualities such as its ability to resist freeze and thaw allowing it to become a natural insulator. Extreme hardness and durability as well as its ability to not buckle or fade lead Travertine to become a commonly used material in Modern architecture, it did have its disadvantages that should also be considered. As a deposit of Limestone, weathering has a degrading effect on the stones appearance, e.g. rain, snow, temperature, wind and atmospheric pollutants. With Temperature affecting the rate of deterioration and rainwater in combination with atmospheric gases often resulting in dissolution of the stone. In relation to its cladding detail due to the space required for the ventilation cavity and thermal insulation, the stone panels often overhang the corner by a considerable amount. Another set back for Travertine stone was that there were no Deposits within the UK and would have to be sourced overseas. However, though research we managed to find that Portland stone was often used as its UK equivalent; also a limestone quarried on the Isles of Portland, Dorset. Portland stone is a characteristic feature of Londonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Architecture used for centuries.
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Technology Report 3036 - Year 3 BA Architecture Fabricated Timber I Beams and Columns By Bellinda Harris (p12199443) and Ayodele Fisher (p11284696)
UK Manufacturers http://www.jji-joists.co.uk/ ://www.howarth-timber.co.uk/Product/262/I-beams.aspx www.oakworthtimberengineering.co.uk http://www.selfbuild-central.co.uk/construction/main-structure/structural-timber-and-steel/ Finland Manufacturer http://www.metsawood.com/uk/Product/finnjoist-i-beam#.VDPUKN14WrU China Manufacturer http://www.zulinform.cn/en/products.asp?mid=548&cid=550 USA manufacturer http://www.doka.com/web/services/phase/index.en.php
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Introduction: Timber is a sustainable material so perfect for the design of an eco-friendly building. The trees can easily be replanted each time the wood is harvested for use. A fabricated timber I beam or column ( also known as engineered timber) is a structurally engineered timber joist made from high-grade softwood and an engineered composite panel. Engineered wood is at an advantage to timber as timber can have weaknesses such as knots and slopping grains. Engineered wood products are made from bonding the chips, flakes and strands together or can be fabricated by combining two or more woods to form a new product. The I beam gets its name from its shape, looking like an â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;I â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;in section. The verticals are called the web and horizontals are the flange. These two components can be changed in size depending on how far the intended span depth needs to be.
Flange
Web
These beams are a straight piece of wood so causes the whole design to be made in a grid format. However the design does not have to be square as this is just one prefabricated element of the design. The wood frame will need to added to with insulation and cladding giving freedom of materials
Life Cycle of a JJI Joist
HARVESTED Produce the JJI Joist CO2 Absorbed
REPLANT TREES
USED CO2 Released
DEMOLISHED
Construct Building
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Properties:
Structure: The I beams are normally consisted of two parts: the flange and the thin web. The flange can be made of kiln-dried strength-graded timber or laminated veneer lumber (LVL) which has a groove in which the 9mm thick Oriented Strand Board (OSB) web is slotted into to produce the iconic I â&#x20AC;&#x201C;shape of the beam. This is then stuck with water resistant glue.
Types of I beams: The beams also come in different styles. Having double I beams and these can also have in fills creating a composite insulated Beam (CIB) that makes them even stronger. This makes the beam stronger structural performance and also provides sound insulation. To increase these spans and weight support further an infill can be placed inside the gaps of the beams making it even stronger however also heavier, so will need more support from the walls at either end of the beam. 1. I beam 2. Double I beam 3. Box Beam 4. Ressused box Beam 5. Boxed I beam 6. Boxed Double I beam
Span Length and Height: Looking specifically at JJI, the timber I beams are made to span up to 12 metres, as shown above, the different grade of timber I beams varies on the length of the flanges, the smaller the flange width is, the higher the grade of the timber I beam is. The D-grade timber can span the longest hence why itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s mainly used for primary structure, whilst the A-grade timber is used more for supporting the structure.
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Softwares used with Timber I beams: Companies such as JJI are fully supported by three Windows based software packages written in the UK to provide fast and cost effective design solutions for todayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s construction industry. These packages are regularly updated to ensure compliance with ever changing Building Regulations and Codes of Practice, each new version incorporating new features and developments to help the designer maximise the benefits of the system.
JoistMaster is an extremely powerful beam design tool, which enables the specifier to quickly assess the most cost effective joist solution, tailored to his/her particular design requirements, and provide a calculation printout suitable for Local Authority approval. JoistMaster is freely available to download from www.jji-joists.co.uk
FloorMaster is a comprehensive floor design and layout package allowing trained designers to quickly and accurately produce detailed layout drawings, installation details, material call-offs, calculations and design quotations for any building footprint.
OptiMaster is a stock optimisation package designed to work with the output from FloorMaster.
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Fire Resistance: Timber has fire resistance properties such as charring which will protect the rest of the I beam from burning and keeps its structural integrity, making it last longer than steel I beams. As shown on the diagram below, The higher the temperature, the more the timber chars and protects the core of the timber.
I beams have been tested over a half an hour and hour time periods and produced certain combinations for fire resistance: 1. F loor Deck • 22mm (for 600mm centres joists) and 18mm (for less than 450mm centres joists) flooring grade chipboard • 18mm flooring grade plywood • 18mm oriented strand board (OSB) • 21mm T&G softwood flooring 2. Structural Member • JJI-Joist designed to support the applied loads at maximum 600mm centres (excluding 145mm deep) 3. Ceiling • 15mm gypsum wallboard without board edge noggings • 12.5mm gypsum wallboard with 5mm gypsum plaster skim with board edge noggings • 12.5mm ‘fire resisting’ plasterboard with board edge noggings • 15mm ‘fire resisting’ plasterboard and no board edge noggings 1. F loor Deck • 22mm (for 600mm centres joists) and 18mm (for less than 450mm centres joists) flooring grade chipboard • 18mm flooring grade plywood • 18mm oriented strand board (OSB) • 21mm T&G softwood flooring 2. Structural Member • JJI-Joist designed to support the applied loads at maximum 600mm centres (excluding 145mm deep) 3. Ceiling • 12.5mm + 19mm gypsum wallboard and no board edge noggings • 2 no. layers 15mm gypsum wallboard with edge noggings
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Acoustics: The timber I beams doesn’t necessary have acoustic properties but due to the construction of the I beams, it allows for other materials that have greater acoustic properties to be installed within the structure.
1. Floor Deck – 18mm flooring grade chipboard. 2. Structural Member – 220mm deep JJI-Joists at a minimum 400mm centres 3. Ceiling – 15mm gypsum wall board and no board edge noggings
1. 18mm chipboard and 19mm plasterboard plank 2. 70mm dynamic battens at 600mm centres 3. Minimum 25mm quilt between battens 4. Sub-deck board, minimum 15mm 5. 100mm mineral fibre based quilt 6. Resilient bar at 400mm centres 7. Minimum 245mm deep JJI-Joist at centres to suit span 8. 12.5mm plasterboard and 19mm plasterboard plank or 2 no. layers 15mm plasterboard
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Advantages:
Disadvantages:
- Wood is a sustainable source
- Has to be made in a grid format for it to function
- It is only the frame of the design allowing other styles and elements to be added unlike a kit house.
- If left exposed during construction to excessive moisture it can lead to decay.
- Brilliant strength to weight ratio, normal (JJI Joist) I beams can span up to 15m and still be light
- As only Semi pre fabricated, other elements are out of your control, for example insulation and cladding
- Semi pre-fabricated, made off site and added to upon arrival so no worries for fitting
- Wood is flammable, so can be a fire risk - Span depths shorter than that of stronger materials, such as steel I beams
- Can add different techniques to make curved elements in the design
- No thermal mass so building can overheat
- Can expand cavities to 300mm for more insulation and services
- Can be damaged in transport
- Quickly constructed and installed - More cost effective - Provides a less complex design solution - Is extremely stable - Is less prone to splitting and demolition - Pipes can be run through the I beams making the walls thinner than having to run them next to them.
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Vs Other Materials:
Concrete: - The JJI joist is FSC accredited. Whilst concrete scores very poorly environmentally JJI joists have a BRE Environmental Profile and are ‘A’ rated under most applications defined by the ‘Green Guide to Specification. - The loadings on foundations can be reduced as JJI joists are much lighter than concrete. - Using JJI joists, a floor system can be pre-assembled as a cassette panel, resulting in a more accurate and easier installation. - Generally, lead times are 2-3 weeks, compared with up to 16 weeks for concrete.
Solid Timber: - Number of joists to install cut by over two thirds. - Number of hangers required cut by 75%. - JJI joists are available in lengths up to 15 metres. - No extra insulation between joists. - Longer spans for more design flexibility. - Installing services through the property is easier
Metal Web: - Holes from MVHR are not hindered by metal struts or lateral stiffening timbers. - JJI i-joists are the system of choice for the service engineers. - Freely available design software for beam and integrated hole analysis. - Cut to length is easier as no solid blocking or metal to cut through.
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How they are used (JJI) Examples of Walls:
External Wall Corner Junction:
Indictive Structural Opening: Backer Blocks or Lining Boards
JJI Joist lintel
Cripple Stud
Interior face JJI Joist Studs
Exterior face
JJI Joist Studs
JJ-Glullam/EWP Bottom Rail Insulation omitted for clarity
Gable Ladder: Maximum overhang same as rafter spacing. (600mm) Double joist may be required when the Length exceeds JJI joist spacing.
Outrigger notched and nailed around JJI Joist flange, spacing not to exceed 600mm.
Solid timber blocking to suit or blockwork built up Gable wall panel
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How they are used (JJI) Examples of Flooring:
Split Joist on a Wall: 3mm at top of splice block
Continuous Joist on a Wall: Either JJI joist blocking or blockwork is required
Continuous joist
Any type of load support Minimum joist bearing 45mm
Any type of load bearing support.
18x200mm plywood splice block one side only fix with 6 3.35x65mm nails clenched over.
Cantilever: Cantilever closer required.
Any type of load bearing support.
Filler Block Double or Treble Joist: Full depth JJI blocking pieces required between joists
Any type of load bearing support.
Step 1 Double
Step 2 Treble
Provide filler blocks at all ends and bearings of joist and at points of incoming loads. Provide continuous filler block when repeated loads are applied.
â&#x20AC;˘ Back span of cantilever must be at least 3 times the cantilever length â&#x20AC;˘ 1.2m maximum cantilever length 387
How they are used (JJI) Examples of Roofing:
Adjustable Seat Connector for pitches 15-45 degrees
Approved connector, e.g. Cullen ACE or Simpson VPA JJI-Joist or BJ-Beam blocking panel (See Ventilation holes)
Flush Purlin Beam: Maximum overhang to be 1/3 of adjacent span. If overhang to be modified, then maximum 600mm
Restraint Strap (Cullen S or Simpson LSTA)
BJ-Beam Purlin or equivalent
Ventilation: Full depth face fix hanger
1/3 1/3 1/3 2/3
Maximum permissible ventilation hole in JJI Joist blocking
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UK Case Study Macro micro Studio Universal Dundee (JJI Joists): - The Macro Micro Studio is a 50 square metres Passivhaus project fully designed, led and built by eight masters students within The University of Dundee School of Architecture - Zero carbon timber structures in the UK - The studio, with its built-in monitoring devices will enable research into existing and emerging energy technologies - Incorporating JJI-195D I-Joists and JJ-Beam Glulam The team believes that a building should perform architecturally as well as environmentally, and its mission is to create a demonstrative prototype of a studio that can inform future designs. The Macro Micro Studio is a student-led project that aims to bring sustainable building techniques to a wider audience it, raising awareness and industry interest in order to help grow the Passivhaus movement in the UK.
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Outside the UK Case Study Freeport LNG Tanks (Doka): Year of completion: 2006 Project duration: 14 Months Country: United States of America Location: Texas Type of structure: Tank (oil, LNG) / Industrial structures Structure height: 37 metres Length of concreting section: 4.40 metres Number of casting sections: 9
The curved wall is made by using a circular framework using DOKA I beams forming curved walls with a radii of 3.5m and upwards. This technique is highly cost effective because it reduces the rental and wage costs of the site by using pre assembled pieces, only small commissioning qualities are needed and only a small number of ties are needed at 1.5 metres per ties. As seen in the diagram the radii for the circle can be adjusted by simply thickening the wall using dokaflex 21mm form-plywood. It is easy to construct and is rapid to build. There is only one connecting device and it can be easily combined with other techniques in the doka range of formworks.
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The Future for the I Beam; I beams are a well-developed product that completes their purpose to a high and suitable standard. They work well in what they are needed to do and can be constructed in small amounts of time as they are prefabricated elsewhere and then added to upon arrival. This means that they would be a brilliant tool to be used in quick construction such as aid buildings, in disasters needing to rebuild homes quickly is essential so this method could be used to home people much faster and in a comfortable environment. The form of the I beam appears to be that of a grid however the edges can be shaped and fabricated with other elements of design to create curved and shaped designs. These techniques of combining different materials and styles could be the future of buildings with regular floors and an irregular skin that is more flexible not following the grid system.
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