Corn Wheat and Rice

Cor n, c e Whe atand Ri

T HEGRAI NST HATF E E DT HEWORL D F É L I XR AMOSGAMI ÑO L AC I E NCI A AT UAL CANCE

Corn, wheat and rice,

the grains that feed the world

FĂŠlix Ramos GamiĂąo

Corn, wheat and rice,

the grains that feed the world

F茅lix Ramos Gami帽o

Universidad Aut贸noma de Nuevo Le贸n

Jesús Áncer Rodríguez Rector Rogelio G. Garza Rivera Secretary General Rogelio Villarreal Elizondo Secretary of Extension and Culture Mario Cesar Salinas Carmona Secretary for Research, Innovation and Graduate Celso José Garza Acuña Publications Director Juan Roberto Zavala Treviño Coordinator of “La Ciencia a tu Alcance” Collection

Padre Mier No. 909 poniente, esquina con Vallarta Centro, Monterrey, Nuevo León, México, C. P. 64000 Tel: (5281) 8329 4111 / Fax (5281) 8329 4095 e-mail: publicaciones@uanl.mx web page: www.uanl.mx/publicaciones

Corn, wheat and rice, the grains that feed the world First edition, 2013 © Autonomous University of New Lion © Félix Ramos Gamiño ISBN: 978-607-433-993-2 Al rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission in writing of the copyright owner and publisher.

Printed in Monterrey, Mexico Impreso en Monterrey, México

Contents

Presentation

9

Introduction

13

Chapter I. Cereals

23

Chapter II. Corn

33

Chapter III. Wheat

47

Chapter IV‌ Rice

61

Conclusion

71

Bibliography

73.

About the Author

75

Corn, wheat and rice, the grains that feed the world

Presentation Dr. Jesús Áncer Rodríguez Rector of the Autonomous University of Nuevo León

I

n order to present the general public in a clear, attractive, accurate and responsible form, scientific and technological knowledge, not only from a theoretical view, but also its history, recent discoveries, the understanding of technological advances and their relevance in daily life, the Autonomous University of Nuevo León begins this collection: SCIENCE AT YOUR FINGERTIPS. To reach the goal of integrating it, we have invited researchers and popularizers of science from Nuevo León, as well as from other states, always with the idea of promoting interest in science and technology in all sectors of the population, favoring the rapprochement between scientific community and society, and promoting the participation of connoisseurs in outreach efforts.

9

Félix Ramos Gamiño

We want to present not only the formal content of scientific disciplines, their laws, theories, principles, facts and applications, but also to bring the spirit of science to the people of our state and our country.

Another purpose we have in mind is to present the scientists as they are, with the idea that, reading about them, we can better understand their contributions to the welfare and development of society, because although their scientific and technological research meets our needs, they should not lose their human faces.

It is worth remembering that in 1612, when Galileo Galilei wrote, in Italian, not in Latin, as scientific works were presented in those times, his book on sunspots, and later, in 1632 , the Dialogue on the Two World Systems, he laid the foundation for the popularization of science, because, as he said in a letter to his friend, the Canon Paolo Gualdo: “I write in vulgar language because I want everybody to read it.”

Since then on, works on common language followed. In 1637, René Descartes published in French his Discourse on Method, and, in 1661, Robert Boyle presented in English his masterpiece The Skeptical Chemist.

Later on, the popularization of science has been nurturing herself with authors like Nicolas Camille Flammarion (1842-1925), who founded the French Astronomical Society, and who, with his works, popularized astronomy; the Russian Isaac Asimov (1920-1992), who besides of being an author of works of science fiction, wrote numerous books and newspaper columns for the general public, with themes of historical, chemical and environmental disclosure, such as his latest book: The wrath of the earth. We have also Martin Gardner (1914-2010), great popularizer of mathematics; Desmond Morris (1928 ), author of the famous work The Naked Ape, and The human zoo”; Carl Sagan ( 1934-1996 ), with his famous books The dragons of Eden and Cos10

Corn, wheat and rice, the grains that feed the world

mos: Personal Journey, that became a popular TV series and the novel Contact, with which a film was made, in 1997; and Stephen Hawking, who with his extensive research on the Einstein’s “Theory of Relativity and on the origin of the universe”, and with his most popular work History of Time, is perhaps the most prominent science writer today.

In our country, since eighteenth century, there have been excellent communicators , as Antonio Alzate (1737-1799), who with a clear vocation for physics, chemistry, mathematics and astronomy, was interested in popularizing scientific knowledge, and who, inter alia, beginning in 1768, published weekly The Mexico’s Literary Journal, in which he offered the general public science news, and José Ignacio Bartolache (1739-1790), a famous mathematician, who between 1772 and 1773 published a newspaper with the name of Mercurio Volante, which offered the people of Mexico curious and important news on physics and medicine.

During the last thirty years, the Mexican scientific community outreach has become extremely important , and has been complying with new generations, among which, for lack of space, we only mention Luis Martínez Estrada, communicators former, who achieved the academic category for science communication;Alejandra Jaidar Matalobos (19371988), prominent physical and disseminator, who, among other things, promoted the collection of popular science “Science from Mexico”, of the Fondo de Cultura Económica, and Rene Drucker Colin, specialized scientist in physiology and neurobiology, and great communicator, who with numerous awards and distinctions, has been president of the Mexican Academy of Sciences and director of Popularization of Science at UNAM. Also, we mention José Mario Molina, a prominent chemist, author of works on the ozone layer. In 1995 he received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry, and has been performing a remarkable outreach; 11

Félix Ramos Gamiño

Julieta Norma Fierro, a leading scientist in the field of astronomy, with numerous books and articles, and the making of a television series entitled “Beyond the Stars”; Antigona Segura Peralta, who, in addition to numerous publications and lectures around the country, has led for more than ten years, the radio program “Towards the New Millennium”, in Radio Red. This collection , “SCIENCE AT YOUR FINGERTIPS”, adds to these efforts, also with the idea of bringing together our popularizers of science and of being a bridge between the world of scientific and technological research and the general public, who wants and needs to have available scientific and technological knowledge.

12

Corn, wheat and rice, the grains that feed the world

Introduction

F

amines have been a constant in the history of mankind.

This phenomenon has been recorded over the centuries in different regions of the world, in different times, and of course, for different reasons. However, never had been there a situation like the one we live in today, in which, according to UN ďŹ gures, repeated during the Congress BioMonterrey 2011, National Projet in Biotechnology, one billion of human beings suffer from hunger.

13

FĂŠlix Ramos GamiĂąo

The figures do not stay there. The situation worsens and becomes more worrisome, considering that -still according to the international organization- almost 24,000 people die every day from hunger or hunger-related causes, and 75 percent of the dead are children who did not reach the age of five months.

In this regard, the Institute for Development and Food Policy states that wars and famine cause only ten percent of deaths from starvation, even though these are the ones that cause more impact in public opinion.

Most of hunger deaths are caused by chronic malnutrition, as families do not get food in quantity -and quality let alone- enough to meet their needs.

Ultimately, the primary cause of this situation is extreme poverty, which with most heartbreaking dyes occurs in developing countries.

Famine

Famine is defined as the situation that occurs when a country or a geographical region does not have enough food and resources to meet the needs of the population, so that the mortality rate increases because of hunger and malnutrition.

Although this phenomenon has been present among mankind since ancient times, there is a memorable passage in the Bible, when Pharaoh of Egypt had a dream that featured seven fat cows, which were followed by another seven skinny cows that ate the former.

The Bible tells that, intrigued by the dream, Pharaoh called his wise men, for them to explain its meaning, but nobody could do it. Someone reminded Pharaoh 14

Corn, wheat and rice, the grains that feed the world

that in prison there was a young Israelite, Joseph, who had a reputation for knowing how to interpret dreams. So, the king sent for him.

After hearing the story, Joseph told the king that in Egypt would arise seven years of great plenty, in which crops would be extraordinary.

However, he said, the seven years of plenty (the seven fat cows) would be followed by other seven years of extraordinary drought and poor harvests (the seven skinny cows). So he suggested the king to take the necessary steps to store grain from the seven years of plenty, to cope with the famine that would be present in the next seven years. And just as Joseph said, so it was.

For other famines that have plagued mankind, Wikipedia does a collection, from which we consider the following:

Famine in Ireland

In 1845, there was a great famine in Ireland. Previously, half the population of the island, (eight million) mainly fed potatoes, a tuber native to America, which –it has traditionally been considered- came 15

FĂŠlix Ramos GamiĂąo

in Europe to suppress hunger. The potatoes -the Irish themselves cultivated them- became an essential part of their diet, but for the following years, because of a plague, the harvests were very poor.

The 1845 harvest was destroyed by a fungus (Phytophthora infestans) known as rust, which came to Europe from North America. Thousands of people headed to towns and cities in search of help, but the situation now prevailing, joined by the large concentrations of people, worsened dramatically, with epidemics of typhoid, cholera and dysentery. All of these exceeded far beyond the capabilities of government, landowners and organizations to provide assistance to the poor. Three years later, in 1848, Ireland had lost a million people, most victims of hunger and disease, while more than a million emigrated in other countries.

Famines in India

In the late nineteenth century, according to Wikipedia gathering, a series of frequent and devastating famines occurred in India. They were the most catastrophic in the history of this country. Approximately 25 outbreaks of famine spread across the states of Tamil Nadu, in the south of the country, Bihar in the north, and Bengal in the east.

These famines, which left between 30 and 40 million deaths, were the result of weather problems, with changes in rainfall patterns, droughts alternating with floods. However, this was not the only reason for the famine. A lot had to do with the administration of the British, who arbitrarily changed the vocation of the land.

16

Corn, wheat and rice, the grains that feed the world

Thus, land that was cultivated by Indian farmers with basic products for their subsistence, were now used, because of the British Administration, for tea and cotton plantations. Also, restrictions on internal trade and the high taxes that the Indians were forced to pay to the English, and the disastrous war with Afghanistan, led to a high inflation and to a substantial export from India to England.

In this serious situation, some British citizens, such as William Digby, advocated for legal reforms and official aid to solve the problem of famine, but the Governor-General at the time, Lord Lytton, strongly opposed any change. Thus, the famine continued until, in August 1947, India achieved its emancipation from the British government.

Famine in the USSR

In the winter 1932-1933 there was a severe famine in large parts of the Soviet Union, which affected parts of theVolga, Ukraine and Kazakhstan. Already in 1921, another famine had occurred, but the second one, according to historians, was artificially created mainly, although weather problems worsened it.

Joseph Stalin, who had come to power in 1924, instituted a policy of collectivization of agriculture, which landless peasants enthusiastically welcomed, while landowners opposed the measure, sometimes violently, so revolts erupted. Stalin, as the fierce dictator he was, sent the Red Army to quell the riots.Thousands of dissidents were arrested and sent to hard labour camps in Siberia or shot.

17

FĂŠlix Ramos GamiĂąo

At the same time, the share of food the republics of the Soviet Union were obliged to deliver, increased, particularly for Ukraine.This situation led to lack of food in the most fertile regions, and the consequent mass starvation in the region that had been considered the Barn of the USSR. In the worst moments of this critical situation, up to 25,000 people died every day, and estimates indicate that the total number of deaths could have been 3.5 million people.

Famine in Ethiopia

During the administration of Haile Selassie in Ethiopia, there was, in the early 1970s, a terrible famine, which left more than 300,000 victims. According to estimates from Wikipedia, the phenomenon was due to a severe drought, which, exacerbated by the delay in Ethiopian agriculture, reduced food production in the country, although the most affected regions were the provinces of Welo and Tigray, which recorded the mentioned deaths.

Although this situation was kept under wraps for a while, finally resulted in the weakening of the regime and the overthrow of the monarchy.

18

Corn, wheat and rice, the grains that feed the world

The country still could not recover from this catastrophe when, in the early 1980s, there was another severe drought, which affected mainly the rural population and provoked new famine, killing nearly one million people. As a result, hundreds of thousands of people sought refuge abroad.

In early 1985, about 7.7 million people were still suffering food shortages.

Of these, 2.5 million were in direct danger of starvation. It is common knowledge that the late singer, Michael Jackson, sang the song We are the World, in honor of the Ethiopian people.

Famine in Spain

After the Civil War in Spain, about 200,000 people died of starvation between 1939 and 1945. However, a study conducted in 1941 revealed that the famine in the country was not a product of the Civil War and a prolonged drought, but of autarkic policies promoted by the Franco government.

19

Félix Ramos Gamiño

The Hunger Year in Viceregal Mexico

Mexico has not escaped famine. Although this phenomenon appeared several times during the Spanish domination, the most critical situation occurred in 1785-1786, in the “Year of Hunger in Colonial Mexico”.

An article published by David J. Robinson, Department of Geography, Syracuse University, New York, analyzes the situation and, in the absence of official data, estimates, especially after consultations in the parish records of the time, that the death toll may have reached half a million people .

The author points out that“The drought,unseasonal frosts and prolonged cold weather, and agricultural shortages caused by social factors and periodic epidemics, had devastating impacts on the socioeconomic structure of colonial Spanish America. One of the disasters of famine affected a large region of colonial Mexico, in the early summer of 1785 and lasted until the fall of 1786. Since the first studies of Humboldt, the “Year of Hunger”, as it was called by contemporaries, has been 20

Corn, wheat and rice, the grains that feed the world

identified as the most significant crises that affected the period after sixteenth century in colonial Mexico.

“Humboldt (sub) estimated that more than 300,000 deaths resulted from the persistence of the crisis, and many recent analyzes (Morin, Garner,Van Young, Cuenya, Thomson, Brading, Martin, Trautmann etc...), who have investigated the evolution of the late colonial Mexico, highlight the importance of the events of the years 1785-1786 “ .

Current Situation

Today, the extreme poverty in which more than 50 million Mexicans live can cause widespread famine. In fact, outbreaks have already occurred in several states of the republic, as the PRI congressman, Oscar Garcia Barron, president of the Land Reform Commission of the Chamber of Deputies, alerted.

21

Félix Ramos Gamiño

According to the legislator, “the lack of food is already present in states such as Durango, Zacatecas, Chihuahua, Coahuila, Mexico, Oaxaca and Guerrero, among the most affected.”

Global poverty

The figure above cited, in the sense that there are in the world one billion of hungry humans, has its more commonly origin in poverty.

Disturbing, to say the least, are the following: • More than one billion people live in poverty.

• In Africa, nearly one in four human beings is malnourished.

• In Latin America, nearly one in eight people go to bed hungry every night.

• In Asia and the Pacific, 28 percent of the population is on the verge of starvation.

• In the Near East, one in ten people are inadequately fed.

• In Somalia, most of the rural population already exhausted their food supplies, and is limited to one and insufficient meal a day.

22

Corn, wheat and rice, the grains that feed the world

Chapter I Cereals

T

he problem of poverty and hunger can not have simplistic solutions. It requires the participation of all countries to seek global solutions.

However, most of the food policy experts propose, as a starting point, dramatically reducing the overall production and consumption of meat, because an important part of the world grain production is employed to feed animals.

23

Félix Ramos Gamiño

The world population has just surpassed the seven billion human beings, and their food supply can not be subordinated to a meat diet. Humans must eat other foods, and the most viable option are vegetables. Their production must be increased significantly, particularly in regard to cereals.

Among these, the most widely produced and that contribute the most to the human feeding are corn -originally from Mexico-, wheat and rice. For this reason, it can be stated that corn, wheat and rice are the grains that feed the world. These are, in fact, the ones who have come to alleviate the famine suffered by mankind throughout history.

In this respect, in the 50th edition of Science / Knowledge / Technology magazine, dated to March 16-29, 2007, Dr. Julio César Vega Arreguín writes: “Rice, corn and wheat are undoubtedly the three most cultivated cereals in the world, and they are the ones of the highest human consumption. In recent years it has been estimated that the rice occupies about 148 million hectares; maize, 140 million, and wheat, a little more than 200 million. Together they provide more than 60 percent of calories and protein in our daily diet”.

In the same publication, Dr. Sergio R. Othón Serna Saldívar goes back to antiquity, and reminds us that “Agriculture began about 12,000 years ago, and since then it has played a key role in the food supply and the development of humanity. Since then, cereals have been considered the backbone of agriculture and the most prolific and abundant source of food”.

Serna Saldívar underlines his conviction that “Rice, wheat and corn will continue to be the mainstay of humanity, especially in the developing world. Agrobiotechnicians and Fito Breeders will develop new varieties and hybrids that will maintain their high productivity in the field, but containing added values, such as a high nutritional value and nutraceutical properties or proven health benefit.”

24

Corn, wheat and rice, the grains that feed the world

Presence on five continents

Nowadays, cereals are present on the five continents, and their degree of production level reflects both the potential of agronomy, and the demand of the population. However, it was not always so.The presence of grains was distinct in their beginning, and the three major cereals in the human diet: corn, wheat and rice, have characterized the social and economic evolution of the continents of the globe, and these are identified with them.

Although its origins date back to ancient Mesopotamia, wheat cereal is considered the key element in Europe and in the European diet; maize, originating from Mexico, is the American cereal, and rice is the Asian cereal. In the same way, sorghum, and its “close relative”, millet, are considered the African cereals.

Contribution of cereals to feeding

Cereals -their name is derived from Ceres, the Roman goddess of agriculture-, are a group of plants within a larger issue: the grasses.

The seed and the fruit are virtually one and the same thing: cereal

25

FĂŠlix Ramos GamiĂąo

grains, and the most used in human food are corn, wheat and rice, but also important are oats, barley, rye and millet. Some cereals, such as wheat, spelled and rye contain gluten, a special protein that allows the preparation of bread, so they are called bread grains.

According to the United Nations Organization for Food and Agriculture, in every year of this emerging millennium, world grain production has exceeded two billion tons, of which, one thousand two hundred million tons, generally in developing countries, while developed countries have not achieved that their production reaches one billion tons. In terms of production by continent, based on the 2008 FAO, figures are as follows: Europe, 20.1%; Asia, 42.9%; America, 28.6%; Africa, 6.6%, and Oceania, 1.9% .

Feeding and economic importance

When man learned to cultivate grain -ten or twelve thousand years ago- he could pass his status from nomadic to sedentary. In each geographical area of the planet certain types of cereal dominate over the others, but in all cases, grains are staples in the diet of the peoples who have created around them all of a culinary tradition, characteristic of the respective culture.

Thanks to its content of starch, vitamins, dietary fiber and slowly decomposing sugar, as well as the important contribution of proteins, carbohydrates and minerals, cereals are the major source of nutrients, and have been therefore throughout history, an essential element for feeding humanity.

Thus, for their nutritive properties, for their relatively low cost, for their ability to induce early satiety experience, for their versatility and ease of agroindustrial or culinary processing, cereals have been, from immemorial times, a basic product in people feeding, and their consumption is suitable for any age or condition.

26

Corn, wheat and rice, the grains that feed the world

At our table cereals arrive in most varied forms: The tortilla (corn or wheat) is, in the case of Mexico and several countries in Latin America, the best known and traditional presentation of grain.

The bread (corn or wheat, but can also be rye) is a virtually ubiquitous food in our meals.

Pasta can be consumed in its varieties of macaroni, noodles, spaghetti, stars, word search, etc...

Cookies, candy, stubble are made primarily with wheat.

Expanded cereals are, in the fast paced world of today, the main breakfast for many people of all ages and walks of life.

In this section, it is necessary to mention that much of the world production of wheat grain, even traditionally almost exclusively for human feeding, is also used as animal food. In developed countries, 56 percent of cereal consumption is for livestock feed and in developing countries, the grain destined for this category is 23 percent.

27

FĂŠlix Ramos GamiĂąo

Considering the overall situation, 37 percent of grain production goes to feed livestock. To do this, you can use the whole grain, the grain crushed and added to feed, grain grinding, even with the seed coat, in whole plants, harvested before maturity, such as corn and sorghum.

In the case of some cereals, they can also benefit as straw.

Even if -as discussed lines above in every year of this young century, cereal harvests have exceeded two billion tons, in 2010, according to UN figures, production was two thousand 70 million tons, representing yet -if we consider a world population of six billion human beings- 345 kg per person.

However, taking into account animal consumption of cereals, the average for each human being was at an estimated 155 kilograms.

In cases of countries considered major producers, part of the availability of cereals is domestic consumption, while the other part goes to the international market. In contrast, countries considered small farmers, as they can not meet their domestic demand crops, have to resort to imports, when financial conditions permit it.

28

Corn, wheat and rice, the grains that feed the world

In the case of three basic cereals that have been cited here, we can say that the rice is intended almost exclusively for human consumption, and only a small amount is given other uses; wheat is in mostly for human consumption, although a significant percentage of the production is for livestock feed and other uses; corn, in Latin America, is intended primarily for human consumption, but an important part is also used in livestock feed and farm animals. In European countries, this cereal is intended primarily for animal feed and biofuels manufacturing.

The genome of cereals

During the last years of the twentieth century, biological sciences experienced a revolution, thanks to scientific knowledge, in different fields of human activity; and the undisputed technological advances -which have accelerated in these early years of XXI Century- made possible starting research work to reveal the genomic sequences of different species.

Obviously, the most important one was the human genome project, which was primarily aimed at determining the sequence of chemical base pairs containing the DNA and map the approximately 20.000 to 25.000 genes of the human genome, from a physical and functional standpoint.

The project began in 1990, with a term of 15 years estimated studios, involving the Department of Energy and the National Institutes of Health in the United States, under the leadership of James T. Watson.

However, in 2000 there was an initial draft, and the presentation of the entire human genome took place in 2003, two years earlier than originally scheduled.

In tandem with the human genome project, studies were initiated to determine the genomes of other organisms, and the first to be released was that of Arabidopsis thaliana, a small plant with a short life cycle, which has been considered a model plant.

29

Félix Ramos Gamiño

However, the greatest scientific interest was focused on the genome of plants that have greater economic impact on the world today, and have accompanied mankind almost since its appearance on the planet.These plants are the ones known as grasses (Poaceae),in whose family the cereals occupy important place. Cereals are herbaceous plants that are cultivated for their edible fruits, among which we find, as predominant, those that are the main subject of this text: corn, wheat and rice.

Scientists believe that domestication of cereals -including wheat and barley–, was of toral importance for the development of early civilizations in ancient Mesopotamia. In the case of maize, it played a key role in the flourishing of pre-Columbian cultures in America.

An article of BIOGENIC (Colombian Biologists Geneticists) states: “The experiences gained in the sequencing of other organisms were applied in cereals projects. However, so far only species with two sets of chromosomes (diploid), with a small genome, have been successfully sequenced. Such is the case of rice (with a genome size of 389 megabases (Mb), maize (2300 Mb), and sorghum (760 Mb). In the case of cereals with more than two sets of chromosomes (polyploid) Pooideae family, such as wheat (Mb 16000), barley (5000 Mb) and oats (11000 Mb), it 30

Corn, wheat and rice, the grains that feed the world

has not been reported a complete sequence due to their huge genomes.”

Later, the same article states: “In diploid species, the rice genome was the first to be reported.” The project was originally scheduled for ten years, but it was done in just six years.

“Parallel to the publication of the sequence of the rice (the article follows), in 2005, three government agencies of the United States: National Science Foundation (NSF), The Department of Energy (DOE) and United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) endured with $32 million the 2,300- Mb sequence present in the maize genome. Four years later, the genome of this American species was published”.

31

Félix Ramos Gamiño

32

Corn, wheat and rice, the grains that feed the world

Chapter II Corn

Origin After several decades of study and lots of publications, the international scientiďŹ c community has concluded, since the year 1985, that the Mexican annual teosinte, Zea mays ssp called parviglumis, belonging to the Balsas race, is the corn’s ancestor. Also, there is evidence that the populations in which the origin of corn was predominantly 33

Félix Ramos Gamiño

given, are located in the states of Michoacán, México and Guerrero.

So it is said in an article published by scientists Claudia A. Bedoya and Víctor H. Chávez Tovar, in Claridades. They note that “two important discoveries have helped reshape the understanding of the domestication and early dispersal of maize.The first one is the accumulation of genetic evidence (that) the corn has emerged from an annual teosinte (Zea mays ssp parviglumis), which can be currently found in the Balsas River region, west of Mexico (Matsuoka et al., 2002). The second one, the results that have been generated by accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) in the carbon-14 dating of very small pieces of corn, determining a reliable chronology for the initial appearance and eventual dispersal of maize (Staller et al., 2006) “ .

The same authors suggest that domestication of crops in prehispanic Mexico took place about 10,000 years ago, but in the specific case of corn, -and as a reinforcement they cite Matsuoka et al.- Molecular data suggest that maize domestication occurred about 9.000 years ago, which is consistent with archaeological evidence.

34

Corn, wheat and rice, the grains that feed the world

Before the arrival of the Spanish -different authors mention-, the Indians followed a very simple system for growing corn. They used to make holes in the ground, and then cast seeds in them, which they dusted with ash. They placed over a dead fish, which served as a fertilizer, and then covered the seeds with earth.

Improved maize seeds of today require better technology; they must be preferably planted in clay soil, well drained and warm. It is advisable to proceed to sowing after a legume crop in rotation with other plants in order to obtain a more abundant production.

Medicinal properties

The www.botanical-online.com page attributes various medicinal properties to corn, and notes succinctly: “The decoction of corn silk, at 50 g. per liter for 20 minutes, is one of the most important natural resources to increase diuresis or removal of body fluids. Drinking four glasses a day of this preparation stimulates kidneys by increasing urination, which is a very important resource in a set of physical abnormalities”.

Among all ill conditions in which corn silk infusion can be used, the above page quotes the following: - Obesity: Very useful for losing weight:This is the cause why corn silk infusion is basic in the composition of most of the preparations for that 35

FĂŠlix Ramos GamiĂąo

purpose.

- Hypertension: The removal of body fluids helps lower high blood pressure.

- Kidney stones: This preparation prevents the formation of kidney stones and helps dissolve them.

- Gallstones: Equally useful is this fluid intake in the prevention of gallstones.

- Cystitis: The increase in urination can help expel microorganisms that cause inflammation in the bladder.

- Nephritis: The increase in urination can help expel microorganisms that cause inflammation of the kidney.

- Edema: It helps to eliminate water, and is indicated in cases of excessive fluid accumulation in the body, in the form of edema.

- Heart Failure: It has been used as a resource to improve the symptoms of heart failure in relation to the accumulation of body fluids this disease leads to (swollen ankles, swollen abdomen, weight gain, etc ...). Dangerous treatment. Previous consult with your doctor is recommended.

- Renal impairment: Corn silk infusion can be used as a resource to improve the symptoms of kidney failure in relation to the retention

36

Corn, wheat and rice, the grains that feed the world

of body uids this disease leads to ( swollen ankles, swollen abdomen , weight gain , etc ...). Dangerous treatment. Previous consult with your doctor is recommended.

- Premenstrual syndrome: this preparation can be used to reduce the swelling that accompanies PMS.

Corn as food

Because of its intrinsic composition, corn is rich in carbohydrates and, consequently, it is a food that satisďŹ es, and is able to satisfy hunger for a long time. So, the person consuming it does not have to resort to other foods fat rich, but less healthy for the body.

Corn is also a food with a high proportion of protein, which can not be completely assimilated by the body, so that scholars believe it is advisable to combine its use with vegetables and legumes, as well as meat, ďŹ sh, eggs or milk.

37

FĂŠlix Ramos GamiĂąo

Other corn features are that it is rich in soluble fiber and in B vitamins.

Also, in the kitchen, corn is very versatile, so that its forms of consumption can be almost as varied as the imagination of the people who prepare it.

In fact, in the case of Mexico, in addition to the traditional tortilla that accompany most foods, we have the most diverse presentations and products according to the State in question.

Also, the website above cited makes the following suggestions for preparation: “Cooked as vegetable: corn can be eaten boiled as steamed vegetables.

(The cooking time should not exceed eight minutes). The best corn ears are those which have the sheath closed, smooth and tender grains that, when squeezed, let easily flow a milky fluid.

38

Corn, wheat and rice, the grains that feed the world

“In salads: Raw, tender grains or small tender mazorquitas are added to salads and complement them. You have to use cobs of the day, so that you can be sure the corn is tender and with no rancidity. You should save the leftover in the fridge.

“Polenta: corn flour, together with oil and cheese, are used for producing a puree that may accompany other combinations of vegetables or meats.

It is very common in Italian cuisine, especially in the region of Piedmont.

It can be eaten as a puree or in the shape of baked pancakes, or toast.

“Popcorn: They are obtained by heating the corn in a pan or in the microwave. They can be eaten alone, flavored with a little olive oil and salt, or wrapped in caramelized sugar, cheese, etc... You must note that, although very attractive and very good for the palate, their nutrient content is very low, since practically only contain starch.

“Corn pancakes, arepas or oji: All of these are varieties of corn flour, treated with different processes to improve food properties. Very

39

Félix Ramos Gamiño

common in African or American crops, they require very specific culinary skills, so, if you want to taste them, you better resort to restaurants dedicated to this type of food. Mexican or African American restaurants can assist you in this matter.

“Cereals: corn flakes are produced from shredded cereal which has been subjected to a cooking process, together with sweeteners (syrup, honey or sugar) and transformed into flakes by a process of cold pressing. They are very suitable for breakfast, mixed with yogurt, kefir or milk.”

Corn Varieties

Dr. Serna Saldívar, above cited, tells us about the types of corn, according to their characteristics: Teeth: This is the most abundant class in the world, due to its high productivity in the field. It has a slit in the crown of the caryopsis and the characteristic jagged shape. The vast majority has a yellow and soft endosperm.

Crystalline: This corn has a spherical or tear shape, that has no indentation in the crown. The grains are smaller and denser than the teeth. They are usually textured glass and white or yellow.

Yellow: Rich in carotenoid pigments in the endosperm, this is the most produced corn in the world. This corn is generally destined to animal food, and is the preferred in the starch refining industry.

White: This is a low in carotenoids in the endosperm corn. The vast majority is channeled to the food industry producing flour, snacks and bread.

Pigmented blue or purple and red: These white endosperm corns are soft and they have high pigmentation in the aleurone layer that gives the blue / purple appearance. It is used for making snacks and preparing traditional dishes.

Dovecote: It is a mutant of crystalline or glassy maize, with a growth 40

Corn, wheat and rice, the grains that feed the world

rate of up to 36 times its original volume. The rate of expansion is dependent on the thickness of vitreous endosperm and pericarp.

Waxy: This is usually jagged and yellow maize with low amylose content (0-5 percent), with waxy endosperm appearance, used for starch reďŹ ning industry. Waxy starch is contrasting with the functional properties of starch from normal endosperms. It is less susceptible to retrogradation.

High amylose:These are maize mutants having up to 50 percent amylase.

Still not planted commercially, they are highly resistant to cooking, and could be used for the production of some breakfast cereals or snacks.

Sweet: Known as Chullpi since pre hispanic times, it is considered a horticultural crop, with sales exceeding $ 260 million per year in the United States. The su gene alteres its carbohydrate composition and retards starch synthesis while increases the sucrose, glucose and fructose levels.

41

FĂŠlix Ramos GamiĂąo

Opaque 2 and high-quality protein: Corn soft opaque-2 was discovered in 1964 by Dr. E. Mertz. It contains twice the lysine and tryptophan than regular corn and a good quality protein, especially for children and infants. The development of QPM maize or high-quality protein was based on the backcross of normal maize with maize Opaque 2 for harder textured grains and high in lysine and tryptophan.

High in carotenoids: This type of corn contains high pigmentation of carotenes and xanthophylls in the endosperm, and it is mainly used in poultry feed to promote yellowing of the skin and a stronger staining in the egg yolk.

High in oil:This type of corn is also called high energy. It was developed to provide better food for pets. These are six percent corn oil, rather than three percent in regular corn. There are pigmented maize with high oil content.

Pozolero or cuzco: This is white dent corn, which produces larger caryopses, and whose kernel is soft and floury. Because of its size and smoothness, it is used to make snacks and pozole.

The huitlacoche

Although not very popular in the northeast of Mexico, a lot of us have ever tested a fungus that occurs in the ears of our cornfields and although of unwelcome aspect in view, it is a true culinary delight and a treat for the palate. This is known as huitlacoche 42

Corn, wheat and rice, the grains that feed the world

(who does not remember the famous Mexican boxer of the decades of the 50 and 60, Jose Medel, a native of the neighborhood of Tepito, nicknamed “El Huitlacoche”?).

In this respect, Wikipedia says the huitlacoche or thrasher, whose scientific name is Ustilago maydis, is a species of edible mushroom, corn parasite that can attack all portions of the plant, but it does more often in the ears. The affected plants develop malformations, such as bulging guts, initially pale gray, but they darken when approaching maturity, and inside contain reproductive spores on a black colored spongy tissue.

And although many farmers in different parts of the world consider this fungus as a pest, in Mexico it has high culinary value. It is cultivated scraping husks, so that the spores come in contact with the beans, to promote growth.

The same free encyclopedia adds that “In Mexico, this fungus is considered a culinary heritage since pre-hispanic times. Huitlacoche may be consumed while not yet reached maturity, and the spores are dried yet, as just before sporulation. The fungus is usually consumed cooked with garlic, epazote and served with a sauce. It is also an ingredient in dishes such as quesadillas, tacos, omelets, pancakes, puddings and soups.”

Later, Wikipedia says that “The appreciation and culinary use of this fungus varies greatly depending on the context. In some upscale restaurants in Europe and the United States, huitlacoche is considered a fine dining exotic ingredient, used by top chefs.”

Cornmeal == and its properties

“Besides eating tender dried beans or corn cob or used to eat as a fresh vegetable, corn grinding allows us to extract corn flour with which many food preparations can be produced.” The online page www. botanical-online.com, that says this, slogans also that “corn flour dust is 43

Félix Ramos Gamiño

more or less fine, which is obtained from dry milling of corn grain. It may be integral, so it has a yellow color, or refined, in which case it is white. It consists mainly of starch and zein, a type of protein.

“The main advantage of the cornmeal over other flours,such as wheat,barley, rye or oats, is the fact of lack of gluten, making it suitable for people with celiac disease or gluten intolerance. This allows us to prepare a series of dishes that are suitable for these patients. Moreover, because of the lack of gluten, this type can not be used as an ingredient sole flour in bread making. It must be combined with other bread flours (wheat, barley, rye or oats). This does not imply that it is not used as basic “bread” in some cultures “.

We all know that corn flour –as the industrialized one the Mexican company Maseca produces- or the known nixtamal, which is processed in popular mills, is a basic component in the diet of many American and African countries. With this material the famous tortillas are produced.

Supply and demand

Right below some data released by the Center for the Study of Change in the Mexican Countryside (CECCAM), based on official sources such as the Ministry of Agriculture (SAGARPA), the Bank of Mexico, government reports and official documents of the Free Trade are listed: • Maize is the most important crop in Mexico. It annually produces 44

Corn, wheat and rice, the grains that feed the world

about 18.2 million tons (Dr. Francisco Zavala García of the Faculty of Agronomy of the UANL, estimated annual production of Mexico at 22 million tonnes), in an area of 8.5 million hectares, mostly ejido (there are only 4 million farmers in the country).

• There are two types of corn producers: • The first group (92 percent of producers) have holdings of between zero and five acres, and accounts for 56.4 percent of total production. Overall, more than half of its production is consumed locally. Their yields range between 1.3 and 1.8 tonnes per hectare.

• The second group (7.9 percent of producers), with holdings of more than five hectares, accounts for 43.6 percent of production. They only spend the 13.55 percent of its production to consumption, and yields of 1.8 to 3.2 tonnes per hectare.

• Since the entry into force of NAFTA, corn imports from the United States have been increasing, and now they represent a third of the national production (6 million tons per year).

• It is, almost entirely, yellow corn, supposedly intended for consume.

45

Félix Ramos Gamiño

• In the U.S., a third of corn production is genetically modified (GM), so Mexico is being flooded with GM maize.

• In the first five years of NAFTA (1994-1999), the purchases of grain to the United States and Canada totaled 58.8 million tons, equivalent to two years of domestic production and 757 million dollars.

46

Corn, wheat and rice, the grains that feed the world

Chapter III Wheat

Origin

T

he ďŹ rst human beings -since the times of the primary school our teachers taught us that-, were nomads who for their maintenance were devoted mainly to hunting and gathering wild fruits.

However, a singular fact came to put an end to that lifestyle, and this was the cultivation of cereals, 47

Félix Ramos Gamiño

particularly wheat, by man.This can be considered, in fact, as the activity that would trigger for the first revolution -known also as Agricultural, and Neolithic Revolution, in order to occur, at the same time, the start of the development, and therefore, the end of the prehistory and the beginning of the story.

But, for this to happen, it took millions of years, as Dr. Julio César Vega Arreguín writes in CONOCIMIENTO: “Evolutionary studies suggest that grain originated from a common ancestor about 65 million years ago. And the time when rice, corn and wheat began to diverge, it is estimated that happened about 50 million years ago.”

This assertion is consistent with scientific evidence. Such evidence shows us that in its origins wheat was wild, and it was first raised in Mesopotamia, between the valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates, and from there it spread to the entire region known as Fertile Crescent, ranging from Palestine (Jericho area), southern Turkey (Huyuk Katal area), to the very Mesopotamia and the Persian Gulf.

48

Corn, wheat and rice, the grains that feed the world

In this region, also known as the cradle of mankind, there was, between twelve thousand and ten thousand years ago, a mutation or hybridization in the wild wheat, which resulted in (Wikipedia says) “tetraploid plant with larger seeds, which could not have spread with the wind. There have been findings of charred remains of emmer wheat grains (Triticum dicoccoides) and traces of grains in clay, in Jarmo (northern Iraq), dating from 6700 a. C.” Later, wheat arrived in ancient Egypt, and was cultivated with great success in the Nile Valley, thanks especially to floods that occur annually in the region because of the overflow of the Nile River, which left a rich fertilization in arable land.

From here, the cultivation of wheat arrived in the Greek and Roman civilizations. We must remember that the Greek goddess of bread and agriculture was Demeter, meaning “Mother Goddess”, while its equivalent in Roman mythology was Ceres, from which the word “cereal” is derived.

Wikipedia notes that “In Rome the government ensured the 49

Félix Ramos Gamiño

maintenance of no economic possibilities citizens, supplying wheat at a low price and regulating the milling and bread making, because rationing it was common practice.The milling and baking were activities carried out jointly, so that furnaces with high production capacity were designed in ancient Rome.

“The consumption of wheat and bread in the Roman Empire overlaid great importance, which is also confirmed in the Bible and, according to the most accurate translations, it is possible to find in its text 40 times the word wheat, 264 times the word bread and 17 times the word breads. The latter meanings may relate to wheat bread or barley bread (as was common in those days), although Scripture quotations are frequently used to refer to the broader concept of the set of things required to live, as in the expression ‘make a living’. In the parable of the sower, it is a reference to the adulteration of grains, comparing wheat (goodness) with the tares (the evil)”.

When cultivated by humans, wheat, which could not have been successful in the wild, produced more food. This was actually an agricultural revolution. In parallel, the domestication of sheep and goats was developed, hitherto wild species inhabiting the region.

World production

There were no significant changes for centuries in the methods growing and processing wheat, although this cereal is produced almost all of Europe. However, there were regions (especially northern Europe), in which preference was given to the cultivation rye and barley.

of in in of

Although at the end of eighteenth century there were some mechanical developments in the mills, such as the appearance of the blowers, hoists and modern methods for power transmission -thereby increasing the production of flour-, it was not until XIX century when there was a fundamental change in the grinding, with the advent of the steam 50

Corn, wheat and rice, the grains that feed the world

mill, with rollers or iron cylinders.

So, on a par with other important technological developments, there was a gradual increase in the cultivation of cereal, which finally reached remote regions, such as North America and Oceania.

For a long time, the Soviet Union was the first place in wheat world production, with more than one hundred million tons annually.

However, due to its rapid growth in different fields, the largest producer of wheat in our time is China, with about 96 million tons (16% of world production), followed by India, with 12%, and United States, with 9%.

Wheat in Mexico

About the history of wheat in Mexico, it is interesting what the website http//www.molinovillafane.com/todo_acerca_del_trigo.html says. It is said that wheat came to our country at the time of the conquest by Spanish vessels which arrived with large amounts of wheat, but history documents it in another way: “As the old world travels to America were long, provisions were consumed and ended before reaching their destination.Apparently, travelers did not care to save some seeds to be planted in Mexico. So they say it was a bit late arrival of wheat in the region now comprising our country.

51

Félix Ramos Gamiño

“According to historians Andrés de Tapia and Francisco López of Gomora, the black Portuguese Juan Garrido, the servant of Hernán Cortés, was the first to plant and harvest wheat in Mexico, after having found three grains mixed in a bag of rice. Only one of them germinated, but it gave place to 180 grains and other crops of that spike began to be cultivated in different regions of New Spain.

“Already by 1534, just 13 years after the conquest was consolidated, important crops of wheat were produced in the vicinity of Texcoco and Puebla.

“The Jesuits made the wheat reach the northern part of the country, where they taught the natives to cultivate it. With the expulsion of the Jesuits, the Franciscans followed the work of culture in the region.

“The cultivation of wheat in New Spain as well as its processing into flour and then in bread was a compelling need of the conquerors to meet old customs here in their food. They also had the task of teaching the locals milling and bread making, becoming part of the American diet since.

“The mills around the capital, some of which dated back to the sixteenth century,were in the early nineteenth century: El Molino del Rey, which belonged to the Marquis de Zulueta, those of Temacoco, Zavaleta, Socorro, Miraflores in Texcoco, and the Del Moral, the Santo Domingo and Valdes in Coyoacan and Bethlehem in the hills of Santa Fe, in Tacubaya; the Santa Monica and San Ildefonso, in the jurisdiction of Atzcapotzalco”.

52

Corn, wheat and rice, the grains that feed the world

Medicinal properties of wheat

Traditionally, wheat has been considered a fairly complete food, rich in minerals, particularly phosphorus, invigorating, and highly effective in relieving various ailments of human beings, as in the following cases: - The cooked wheat grain, like whole wheat bread is special to combat constipation.

- It is a good tonic for the nerves, and is a special food for anemic.

- Soft wheat extract (spikes) is a highly recommended food for sick stomach, weak and convalescent.

- Wheat bran contains lots of elements and biochemical basiďŹ ers.

- The wheat cooking water is one of the best broths for every kind of vitamin deďŹ ciency; the same water can be added to the milk of infants, when it is necessary to reduce or increase it in biochemicals, as it is fully compatible with milk.

- Saved broth is effective against all types of fevers and stomach and intestinal infections, as well as for liver disorders.

53

FĂŠlix Ramos GamiĂąo

Properties of wheat germ oil

Wheat germ is the most nutritious and therefore the most beneficial part of the seed, and can be consumed as a nutritional supplement. It can also be used in the following cases: - It is a very powerful antioxidant, it contains about 20 mg. Vitamin E per 100 ml.

- It is recommended to prevent thrombosis, atherosclerosis and coronary heart disease.

- It is recommended to combat skin diseases.

- It is very useful to avoid excessive dandruff, to hydrate the skin and to give shine and strength to hair, nails and skin.

Wheat as food

If corn is versatile in its uses, and can be consumed in the most varied preparations, according to the customs of the country, and even in country’s regions, the same can be said of wheat which, once processed 54

Corn, wheat and rice, the grains that feed the world

into flour, can be used primarily for making bread, biscuits, cakes, tortillas, pasta for soups and other products.

“One of the most important nutrients -yet according to the website lines above quoted- is protein, which is contained in gluten. This facilitates the development of high quality yeast, required for breadmaking.

“The lower quality wheat is used for the production of alcoholic beverages and animal feed. Likewise, byproducts of milling (bran, little bran, etc...) are used as feed, or for the development of other human high in fiber foods.

“The nutritive value of wheat and its flour derived products have always been an important source of food for mankind, because they provide energy, protein, vitamins and minerals, very necessary for the healthy growth of the population.

55

Félix Ramos Gamiño

“In short, when it comes to wheat, it is based on an approach of each of the sectors that are involved in the production chain. Each one requires different conditions of quality, depending on their interests or the orientation they are going to give to the consumers of the grain and its derivatives. Farmer, it is said, needs to have a good harvest that can allow him to earn high yields; the industry man needs the wheat to be of high quality for grinding and capable of high yields in the extraction of flour; the baker requires high quality flour, and demands of this to have the necessary elements for making bread, cakes or cookies. The final user wants to find a quality product, high in nutritional value and with lasting good price”.

Wheat Varieties

Dr. Serna Saldívar discloses wheat types, according to their cited above characteristics. They are as follows: Durum or Crystalline: It is tetraploid wheat with vitreous endosperm, usually yellow, used for industrial production of pasta (soups), containing 56

Corn, wheat and rice, the grains that feed the world

10 to 14 percent protein.

Drive or Baker: It is better quality wheat for baking processes. It contains from 10.5 to 14.5 percent protein, and produces a tough and elastic gluten. Within this category, there are red and white pericarp, and winter and spring habit.

Soft or biscuit:This wheat has a soft endosperm, and is protein low. It is preferred to make cookies, cakes and related products, leavened with chemical agents. Within this category there are red and white pericarp (club), and winter and spring habit.

Waxy: This wheat starch has more than 95 percent of amylopectin. It is preferred for making noodles or oriental noodles.

Release: This is the resulting of hybridization of Emmer and Einkorn wheat. It is sown in small areas of Turkey, and is considered a wild wheat.

Einkorn: It is the ancestral wheat, which gave rise to common wheat or spelta (diploid).

57

FĂŠlix Ramos GamiĂąo

Wheat flour and its properties

Ancient civilizations knew not only wheat, but they tamed and exploited it for the production of food, particularly bread, which has been a traditional food of mankind. In fact, bread is synonymous with food.

Wheat is usually processed into flour, which is intended to make bread, biscuits, cakes, tortillas (traditional northern flour tortillas), pastas for soups and a wide range of other products. Studies found out that one of the most important elements of the wheat is the protein found in gluten. This, in turn, is one of the key elements in bread making.

Other uses are given to wheat. Wheat of lower quality is used in the production of alcoholic beverages and animal feed. Regarding the products of the grinding, as wheat bran, they are used for animal feed or for the production of other human foods with high fiber content.

Throughout history, humans have taken advantage of wheat and its flour products for their high nutritional value because it will provide energy, protein, vitamins and minerals.

Supply and demand

According to the Department of Agriculture of the United States, over the past two decades, global wheat production has ranged from 522.7 million tons (the lowest in the 1994-95 season) and 687 million tonnes (the highest, in the 200809 season). The respective product consumptions were, according to the same source, 541.8 and 644 million tons. You may wonder how can world wheat consumption in a season (1994-95) be greater than 58

Corn, wheat and rice, the grains that feed the world

the total production. The answer is very simple, and lies in the fact that, generally, there is always a margin of existence of the product in global markets.

With respect to global wheat production from 2005-06, the ďŹ rst place has always been occupied by European Union, which has not fallen from 120.2 million tonnes (2007-08), and has even achieved the ďŹ gure of 151.6 million tonnes ( 2008-09).

However, if we look at individual countries, the top places of the production have also been occupied between 2005-06 and 2009-10, with their respective minimum and maximum production in millions tons, by the following: Season

Country

2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10

China India Russia U.S. Canada

Minimum Production*

Maximum output*

97.4 68.6 44.9 49.2 20.1

113.5 78.6 63.7 68.0 26.6

* Production in millions of tons.

59

Félix Ramos Gamiño

60

Corn, wheat and rice, the grains that feed the world

Chapter IV Rice

Origin

S

ince immemorial times, and to date, the origin of rice (Oryza sativa) has been controversial.

And the reason is simple: although various authors and historians have expressed their view, always different, according to the voice in question, the reality is that despite all that has been woven around this grass, there is no written document setting out its origin.

61

FĂŠlix Ramos GamiĂąo

Consequently, the versions are as varied as the voices are - respectable, it must be said, that discuss the topic. However, based on expert opinion, it would be possible to establish some parameters: a) According to some historians, this cereal is native to Southeast Asia and has been cultivated for more than seven thousand years.There is evidence of its cultivation prior to the five thousand year BC, in eastern China, and before the six thousand year BC, in a cave in northern Thailand. b) Some scholars estimate rice is native to South Asia, because it grows wild in India, Indochina and China. c) Another group of researchers do not hesitate to set the origin of rice in Africa, from where it would have moved to Asia. d) Here it comes another version that we might call conciliatory, according to which the grain emerged almost simultaneously on both continents.

While connoisseurs reach agreement -almost impossible missionwhich is not questioned is the fact that rice is one of the oldest human foods.This is, with no doubt, the reason that many Asian countries have attributed themselves in the past -and they persist in that position- its origin.

62

Corn, wheat and rice, the grains that feed the world

The information here contained has been extracted from the http:// saludparalavida.sld.cu page, in an article signed by Margarita Polo Viramontes. It is also reported there that Chinese literature has considered the rice the staple food of the people since 3000 BC, as the plantings of this cereal was the occasion of a great ceremony, and its domestication dates back to between 1300 and 1000 BC. As it has been already said, it is the feeling of some historians that rice began to spread from Asia to India, during the invasion of the Aryans, and in order to say so, they are based on the fact that, apparently, the Greek word oryza is derived from Sanskrit terms yrini and arunya.

Regardless of the controversies regarding its origin, the reality is that in modern times rice has spread to virtually all latitudes of the planet, and, after corn, it is the most produced cereal in the world. However, if we consider that much of the corn production is for purposes other than human consumption, it can be said that rice is the most important cereal in the diet of the human worldwide population.

It is also worthy to be said that there are over ten thousand varieties of rice, all framed in one of two subspecies of Oryza sativa: indica variety, typical of the tropics, and japonica, which can be found in the tropics and in temperate regions, and which is characterized by high content of amylose -type starch.

As for the top twenty rice producing countries, the number one corresponds undoubtedly to China, closely followed by India. In descending order are: Indonesia, 63

FĂŠlix Ramos GamiĂąo

Bangladesh, Vietnam, Myanmar, Thailand, Philippines, Brazil, Japan, United States, Pakistan, Egypt, Cambodia, South Korea, Nigeria, Nepal, Madagascar, Iran and Sri Lanka. (There are those who place Thailand in sixth, and Myanmar in seventh).

Rice in Mexico In the case of rice in Mexico, Luis Angel Lopez Ibarra writes in The Economist, that although this cereal has been incorporated into the traditional diet of the population, and is the inevitable accompaniment to many dishes, rice has not displaced corn and has not become, therefore, the main dish.

In recent years, the annual production of this grain in Mexico has been in the order of 285,000 tonnes per year. However, the annual domestic consumption is in the order of about 740,000 tons, so that, in ten kilos of product in our country, six kilos come from imports, he says.

However, based on historical information, Lopez Ibarra says that this has not always been the case, because in the 80s, the annual production was in the order of 550,000 tons, and even it was possible to exceed the 800,000 tonnes.

64

Corn, wheat and rice, the grains that feed the world

Medicinal properties

Since ancient times rice was attributed medicinal properties, and it is said that, at the time of Nero, in imperial Rome, the Greek physician Dioscorides considered it very effective for relieving intestinal problems.

In turn, Latinos Horace, Pliny and Columella recommended its use as a beverage.

Rice as food

Rice is, in present times, the staple food of much of mankind. In fact, it is the main food in at least 17 countries in Asia and the PaciďŹ c region; eight countries in Africa, seven in Latin America and the Caribbean, and one in the Near East.

Due to its characteristics, rice is considered a healthy and nutritious food. Among these features, you can consider the following: • Half a cup of cooked white rice provides 103 calories to the body.

Brown rice provides 108 calories. • It contains no cholesterol.

65

Félix Ramos Gamiño

• Virtually no fat (0.2 grams in half a cup of cooked white rice, and 0.9 grams in the case of brown rice.

• Contains no sodium.

• It is a complete carbohydrate.

• Does not contain gluten, and is non-allergenic.

• It is easy to digest.

For this reason, the consumption of rice several times a week is recommended, either as a main dish or as a garnish in dishes of vegetables and legumes, red meat and chicken and fish as well as eggs and other foods.

Rice varieties

In his article published in issue 50 of the Science Knowledge Technology magazine, Dr. Sergio R. Othon Serna Saldivar discloses some types of rice and their characteristics: Length: they are grains that, in the palay form of rice, measure 8.9 to 9.6 mm long by 2.3 to 2.5 mm wide. The endosperm is generally 66

Corn, wheat and rice, the grains that feed the world

normal, with 25 percent amylose and 75 percent amylopectin.

Middle: they are grains that, in the palay form of rice, measure 7.9 to 8.2 mm long by 3.0 to 3.2 mm wide. They have less amylose (15-20 percent) than long rice. They absorb more water during cooking and are more sticky that long rice.

Short: they are grain that, in the palay form, measure 7.4 to 7.5 mm long by 3.1 to 3.6 mm wide. They have less amylose (18-20 percent) than long rice and absorb more water during cooking and are more sticky than long. Within this category there are genotypes that do not contain wax or amylose.

Newrex: this is a long rice, with 2-4 percent more amylose than its class peers. It has been developed for the canning industry, since it cooks quickly, without absorbing much water, and maintains its integrity in thermal processes.

Bull: it is classiďŹ ed as long rice, but with an amylose content (18-20 percent) like that of rice medium and short. Therefore, it has cooking and textural properties similar to those of the rice medium / short.

67

Félix Ramos Gamiño

Japonico: these rices are generally short, especially consumed in Japan and northern China. They are low in amylose content (12-19 percent). Therefore, once cooked, they acquire a sticky texture.

Javánico: these rices are generally short, with intermediate or low amylase content, and low gelatinization temperature.

Hindu: it is rice with intermediate or high amylase content, which, once cooked, is sticky. There are varieties long, medium and short.

Waxy: This is rice with almost one hundred percent of amylopectin.

The vast majority of the varieties are classified as short size. They have lower pasting temperature, and are sticky or tacky, once they are cooked. They are preferred for making sushi.

Basmati: these are long grains that once they are cooked possess a characteristic taste and aroma or aromatic “basmati” or “jasmine”.

Black: It is a genotype that produces black caryopses, widely grown in southern China, where it is called heiyouzhan. It is preferred in order to prepare rice desserts. It has high nutraceutical potential.

Dorado (GMO): this rice is genetically modified to achieve high content of beta carotene or provitamin A. It is the only rice with yellow endosperm.

Golden Rice

The so-called Golden Rice project was initiated in 1992 by Professor Ingo Potrykus of the Institute of Plant Sciences of the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, and by Peter Beyer, from the University of Freiburg.

Their intention was to produce, based on genetic engineering, a variety of Oryza sativa rich in pro-vitamin A (beta-carotene) in the grain. Normally, this vitamin is generated in green tissues, but not in the endosperm. To achieve their purpose, and after intensive studies and experiments, the researchers inserted three genes responsible for the biosynthesis of carotenoids: psy, lyc and crt1.

68

Corn, wheat and rice, the grains that feed the world

Golden rice is enhanced with local varieties in the Philippines and Taiwan, as well as with the American variety Cocodrie, and in 2004, the crop was brought to the field in collaboration with the University of Louisiana, and there was found that it produced three to four times more beta-carotene than in a greenhouse.

Also in 2005, researchers at Syngenta Technology Company produced a variety called Golden Rice 2, which produces 23 times more carotenoids than Potrykus’ Golden Rice. The generation of this range was achieved through the combination of psy gene and the gene crt1 of original Golden Rice. A serving of 144 grams of the rice contains the recommended amount of vitamin A for one person.

Potrykus and Beyer, as well as those who have followed the investigations, had in mind helping children with vitamin A deficiency In fact, earlier in this century, it was estimated that 124 million people in 118 countries in Africa and Southeast Asia were affected by the lack of this vitamin.

According to the World Health Organization, such a deficiency is responsible for the deaths of one to two million people each year, and of the irreversible loss of sight of other 500,000 because of the disease called xerophthalmia, consisting of persistent dryness of the conjunctiva and corneal opacity. Children and pregnant women are the most affected.

Potrykus has made intensive efforts so that Golden Rice can be distributed for free to subsistence farming, but this requires that companies which have the intellectual property rights release permits.

69

Félix Ramos Gamiño

This release finally sped after, in 2000, Time magazine did a publication, which claimed that Golden Rice is the first genetically modified crop with unique benefits.

Global rice production

Information released by Patricio Mendez del Villar, from the Center for International Cooperation in Agronomic Research for Development (CIRAD), of France, in his lecture “Global Market Analysis of Rice”, indicates that from the 1960s-70, and to the decade that has just passed, 2000-2010, global rice production has been steadily increasing, from an average of 265 million tons per year in the first period, at an annual average of 606 million tons in the second.

The ten more important countries in this market, and their average production, according to the same source, are: Country

Average production in millions tons:

1. China: 2. India: 3. Indonesia: 4. Bangladesh: 5.Vietnam: 6. Thailand: 7. Burma: 8. Philippines: 9. Brazil: 10. Japan:

185 134 52 39 36 28 25 14 13 11

70

Corn, wheat and rice, the grains that feed the world

Conclusion The annual grain production in our globalized world has been steadily increasing in recent years. But in a worrying competition there has also been a constant rise in world population, which currently now exceeds seven billion people, a ďŹ gure that, according to connoisseurs, will increase within less than 40 years, to exceed the amount of nine billion people by 2050.

This situation poses serious challenges to global food production, particularly in the area of cereals that we have hitherto considered: corn, wheat and rice, which are the grains that, for practical purposes, feed the world.

There is also a serious problem for governments of different countries, which will be in severe difďŹ culty in meeting the food needs of their people.Will they resort, as it has been done in various countries, to the use of genetically modiďŹ ed organisms? Will however prevail the fears put forward mainly by NGOs, on the evils that GMOs can cause?

The solution is neither easy nor can be a simplistic one. Should scientists and political leaders think sensibly and calmly, without visceral outbursts on the best solution to a problem on which nothing less than the future of humanity is at stake.

71

Félix Ramos Gamiño

72

Corn, wheat and rice, the grains that feed the world

Bibliography Bedoya, Claudia A. and Victor H. Chavez Tovar. Claridades.

Center for the Study of Change in the Mexican Countryside (CECCAM ).

Department of Agriculture of the United States.

Gutierrez Diez, Adriana. Knowledge Science Technology Magazine.

Issue No. 38, August 2006.

Polo Viramontes, Margarita. http://saludparalavida.sid.cu Institute for Development and Food Policy.

Robinson, David J. “1785-1786, the year of famine in Colonial Mexico�.

Department of Geography. University of Syracuse, N.Y. USA. Serna Saldivar, Sergio R. Othon. Knowledge Science Technology Magazine.

Issue No. 50, March 2007.

Lump Urban, Peter.The global supply and demand for wheat, maize and rice. Polytechnic University of Madrid.

Soto Moreno, Rodrigo. Knowledge Science Technology Magazine.

Issue No. 50, March 2007.

United Nations Organization for Food and Agriculture.

Vega Arreguin, Julius Caesar. Knowledge Science Technology Magazine.

Issue No. 50, March 2007.

World Health Organization Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. www.molinovillafame.com / todoacerca wheat.

Zavala Garcia, Francisco. Knowledge Science Technology Magazine.

Issue No. 50, March 2007.

73

Félix Ramos Gamiño

74

Corn, wheat and rice, the grains that feed the world

About the Author Félix Ramos Gamiño He studied humanities (four years) and philosophy (three years) in the Tridentine Seminary of Tacámbaro, Michoacán as well as theology (one year) in the Diocesan Seminary of Jacona, also in the state of Michoacán.

In Monterrey, where he lives since June 10, 1968, he has been mainly devoted to journalism, and has worked in the journals Tribuna de Monterrey, Más Noticias, Diario de Monterrey (now Millenio Diario de Monterrey), ABC, El Nacional, and in Monterrey Magazine. He was also for two years a correspondent for Agence France Presse.

He also served, for six years, as a professor at the Faculty of Communication Sciences, Universidad Metropolitana de Monterrey, where he taught, among other disciplines, those of Spanish, Literature, Methodology, Public Opinion, Ethics, Journalistic Genres.

From 2005 to 2012, he served as editor of the Science Knowledge Technology magazine, under the direction of Dr. Luis Eugenio Todd, director of the Coordinación de Ciencia y Tecnología de Nuevo León and of the Colegio de Estudios Científicos y Tecnológicos del Estado de Nuevo León.

75

Félix Ramos Gamiño

76

Corn, wheat and rice, the grains that feed the world

Corn, wheat and rice, the cereals that feed the world was printed in 2013 at Serna Impresos, S. A. de C.V., workshops. In its composition the type Gill Sans MT 9, 10, 11, 12, 22 was used.

The careful editing and layout were made by José Jesús de León Rodríguez, the cover design was led by Javier Estrada Ceja.The printing of this edition consists of 2000 copies.

77

L ACI E NCI A AT UAL CANCE I nor de rt opr e s e ntt hege ne r alpubl i ci nac l e ar ,at t r ac t i ve ,ac c ur at eandr e s pons i bl ef or m,s c i e nt i f i cand t e c hnol ogi c alk nowl e dge ,notonl yf r om at he or e t i c al vi e w,butal s oi t shi s t or y,r e c e ntdi s c ove r i e s , t heunde r s t andi ngoft e c hnol ogi c aladvanc e sandt he i r r e l e vanc ei ndai l yl i f e ,t heAut onomousUni ve r s i t yof Nue voL e 贸nbe gi nst hi sc ol l e c t i on: S CI E NCEATYOURF I NGE RT I PS .

L AC I E NCI A AT UAL CANCE