luocsub by Nguyễn Minh Tiến

NGUYEÃN MINH TIEÁN dòch vaø chuù giaûi

LÔØI GIÔÙI THIEÄU

Khi nhaän ñöôïc taäp saùch naøy –nguyeân taùc tieáng Anh – töø moät ngöôøi baïn ôû Ñöùc göûi taëng, toâi töï noùi ngay vôùi mình raèng: “Lòch söû Phaät giaùo ö? Vôùi chöøng naøy trang saùch thì chæ coù theå laø cöôõi ngöïa xem hoa thoâi!”

LÖÔÏC SÖÛ PHAÄT GIAÙO Nguyeân taùc “A Short History of Buddhism” EDWARD CONZE

NHAØ XUAÁT BAÛN TOÅNG HÔÏP THAØNH PHOÁ HOÀ CHÍ MINH

Nhöng khi ñoïc qua taäp saùch, toâi bieát laø söï ñaùnh giaù ban ñaàu cuûa mình ñaõ coù phaàn naøo hôi voäi vaõ, thieáu chính xaùc. Edward Conze quaû thaät ñaõ laøm ñöôïc ñieàu töôûng nhö khoâng theå laøm ñöôïc laø giôùi thieäu toång quaùt veà lòch söû phaùt trieån cuûa Phaät giaùo baèng moät caùch ngaén goïn nhaát coù theå ñöôïc, maø vaãn thaâu toùm ñöôïc ñaày ñuû nhöõng gì caàn thieát. Maëc duø baûn thaân laø moät Phaät töû, Conze vaãn luoân giöõ ñöôïc khoaûng caùch khaùch quan caàn thieát khi trình baøy caùc vaán ñeà veà lòch söû Phaät giaùo. Hôn theá nöõa, ngay khi ñeà caäp ñeán caùc boä phaùi khaùc nhau, oâng cuõng khoâng bao giôø ñeå cho ngoøi buùt cuûa mình nghieâng veà theo nhöõng khuynh höôùng tö töôûng maø mình ñaõ choïn. Vaø ñaây chính laø yeáu toá ñaõ taïo ñöôïc söï tin caäy caàn thieát cho moät taùc phaåm coù tính caùch söû hoïc nhö theá naøy. Conze cuõng taïo ñöôïc cho taäp saùch cuûa mình moät caáu truùc raát chaët cheõ. Maëc duø vôùi nhöõng söï kieän khaù daøy ñaëc dieãn ra trong hôn 2.500 naêm maø chæ vôùi khoâng ñaày 150 trang saùch,1 oâng ñaõ khoâng laøm cho ngöôøi ñoïc phaûi choaùng ngôïp bôûi söï doàn daäp cuûa chuùng. Baèng moät söï lieân keát kheùo leùo, oâng ñaõ trình baøy taát caû theo moät caùch khaùi quaùt nhaát maø vaãn bao haøm ñöôïc nhöõng chi tieát coát loõi caàn thieát nhaát. Trong moät chöøng möïc naøo ñoù, toâi coù caûm giaùc lieân töôûng ngheä thuaät trình baøy naøy cuûa oâng nhö nhöõng neùt chaám phaù ñoäc ñaùo cuûa moät nhaø danh hoïa thuûy maëc. Nhöng lòch söû phaùt trieån cuûa moät toân giaùo, nhaát laø khi toân giaùo aáy laø Phaät giaùo, khoâng theå chæ bao goàm nhöõng söï kieän, maø ñieàu caàn thieát vaø thaäm chí coøn quan troïng hôn nöõa chính laø 1

Nguyeân taùc Anh ngöõ in chöõ nhoû chæ coù 135 trang.

Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

caùc khuynh höôùng tö töôûng vôùi söï hình thaønh vaø phaùt trieån cuûa chuùng. Vaø vieäc trình baøy ngaén goïn nhöõng vaán ñeà voâ cuøng phöùc taïp, ña daïng vaø ñoâi khi raát tröøu töôïng naøy thaät khoâng deã daøng chuùt naøo. Ngöôøi vieát neáu khoâng naém vöõng taát caû moïi vaán ñeà vaø tuaân theo moät phöông phaùp trình baøy heát söùc khoa hoïc, thì chaéc chaén seõ khoâng traùnh ñöôïc söï laïc loái trong khu röøng tö töôûng ñaày bí aån cuûa Phaät giaùo. Conze ñaõ laøm ñöôïc ñieàu khoù laøm, vaø thaäm chí coøn laøm raát toát, khi oâng giôùi thieäu haàu nhö taát caû nhöõng khuynh höôùng tö töôûng lôùn khaùc nhau trong Phaät giaùo, vaø neâu leân ñöôïc söï khaùc bieät cô baûn nhaát cuûa chuùng. Chæ vôùi taùc phaåm naøy, Conze ñaõ hoaøn toaøn xöùng ñaùng ñöôïc xeáp vaøo moät trong nhöõng ngöôøi coù coâng lôùn trong vieäc truyeàn baù Phaät giaùo sang phöông Taây. Nhöng ngoaøi ra, cuøng vôùi baäc tieàn boái Daisetz Teitaro Suzuki, oâng coøn goùp phaàn quan troïng hơn nữa trong vieäc trình baøy nhöõng tö töôûng Ñaïi thöøa, nhaát laø Thieàn toâng, theo caùch maø ngöôøi phöông Taây coù theå tieáp nhaän ñöôïc. Tuy nhieân, toâi vaãn giöõ quan ñieåm cho raèng vieäc ñoïc taäp saùch naøy ñeå tìm hieåu veà lòch söû Phaät giaùo laø vieäc cöôõi ngöïa xem hoa. Ñieàu kyø laï ôû ñaây laø, vôùi söï höôùng daãn cuûa Conze, ngöôøi “xem hoa” theo caùch naøy ñaõ coù ñöôïc nhöõng kieán thöùc cô baûn nhaát veà Phaät giaùo, veà söï hình thaønh vaø phaùt trieån, veà nhöõng traøo löu tö töôûng xöa vaø nay cuûa noù, khoâng phaûi töø goùc ñoä moät tín ñoà, maø töø goùc ñoä hoaøn toaøn khaùch quan cuûa moät nhaø khoa hoïc. Vôùi nhöõng hieåu bieát naøy, ngöôøi ñoïc xem nhö ñaõ coù ñuû nhöõng höôùng daãn caàn thieát ñeå coù theå maïnh daïn daán böôùc vaøo khu röøng Phaät giaùo, vôùi hôn 2.500 naêm tuoåi, ñeå vieáng thaêm nhöõng nôi thích hôïp nhaát ñoái vôùi mình. Vaø quan troïng hôn nöõa laø coù theå thu haùi ñöôïc ít nhieàu hoa thôm coû laï töø khu röøng aáy. Ñieàu taát nhieân laø, cuõng nhö bao nhieâu taùc phaåm khaùc, duø hoaøn thieän ñeán ñaâu cuõng khoâng theå traùnh khoûi moät vaøi tyø veát, cho duø laø raát nhoû. Ñieàu naøy ñoâi khi cuõng coù theå laø do nhöõng loãi in aán. Trong quaù trình chuyeån dòch sang tieáng Vieät, chuùng toâi ñaõ caån thaän ñoái chieáu vaø ghi nhaän roõ raøng nhöõng sai soùt aáy (veà nieân ñaïi, veà quan ñieåm, veà söï kieän...) ñeå ngöôøi ñoïc tieän xem xeùt. 6

Vaø moät ñieàu ñaùng tieác ôû ñaây laø taùc giaû ñaõ söû duïng caùc teân rieâng chöõ Haùn phaàn lôùn theo phieân aâm tieáng Anh, maø khoâng ñöa keøm ñöôïc phaàn Haùn töï. Ñieàu naøy ñaëc bieät gaây khoù khaên cho ngöôøi ñoïc, vì raát nhieàu ngöôøi trong chuùng ta coù theå voâ cuøng quen thuoäc vôùi ngaøi Huyeàn Trang, nhöng laïi khoâng bieát Yuan-tsang laø ai. Ñeå giaûm bôùt khoù khaên naøy, chuùng toâi ñaõ coá gaéng trong phaïm vi coù theå ñöôïc ñeå ñöa keøm vaøo baûn dòch nhöõng teân goïi quen thuoäc hôn vôùi ñoäc giaû Vieät Nam. Tuy nhieân, ñeå ñaûm baûo tính chính xaùc, phaàn Haùn ngöõ hoaëc Phaïn ngöõ lieân quan seõ ñöôïc theâm vaøo trong caùc chuù giaûi. Ngoaøi ra, chuùng toâi cuõng ñoàng thôøi thöïc hieän nhieàu chuù giaûi khaùc, nhaèm muïc ñích cung caáp theâm nhöõng thoâng tin lieân quan cho ngöôøi ñoïc, ñeå coù theå giuùp cho nhöõng ai chöa töøng laøm quen vôùi Phaät giaùo coù theå tieáp nhaän moät caùch deã daøng hôn. Taát caû chuù giaûi trong saùch ñeàu laø do chuùng toâi bieân soaïn, vaø ñöôïc trình baøy ôû cuoái trang, caû phaàn tieáng Anh laãn tieáng Vieät, ñeå taïo söï caân ñoái. Baûn dòch tieáng Vieät vaø nguyeân taùc ñöôïc trình baøy theo loái song ngöõ ñeå tieän ñoái chieáu, nhöng thænh thoaûng cuõng khoâng traùnh khoûi coù ñoaïn cheânh nhau moät vaøi doøng. ÔÛ nhöõng nôi nguyeân taùc coù vaán ñeà, ñeàu coù söï löu yù ñeå ñoäc giaû tieän xem xeùt. Ñieàu cuoái cuøng muoán noùi ôû ñaây laø, töø khi Conze hoaøn thaønh taùc phaåm naøy ñeán nay cuõng ñaõ khaù laâu. Trong quaõng thôøi gian vöøa troâi qua naøy, nhieàu tö lieäu môùi ñöôïc phaùt hieän, ñaëc bieät laø nhöõng thaønh töïu vöôït böïc cuûa khoa khaûo coå hoïc, ñaõ cho pheùp chuùng ta hieåu ñöôïc nhieàu hôn veà giai ñoaïn khôûi nguyeân cuûa Phaät giaùo. Vieäc boå sung nhöõng kieán thöùc môùi naøy laø ñieàu khoâng thích hôïp laém trong quaù trình chuyeån dòch taäp saùch, neân chuùng toâi chæ muoán löu yù theâm ñeå ñoäc giaû coù moät söï ñaùnh giaù khaùch quan hôn veà nhöõng gì ñöôïc trình baøy trong taùc phaåm. Mong raèng vôùi taäp saùch naøy, ngöôøi ñoïc coù theå coù ñöôïc moät caùi nhìn khaùi quaùt veà Phaät giaùo. Taát caû nhöõng gì tieáp theo sau nöõa, haún coøn tuøy thuoäc ôû noã löïc töï thaân cuûa moãi ngöôøi. Duø ñaõ heát söùc thaän troïng trong coâng vieäc, nhöng vôùi nhöõng haïn cheá nhaát ñònh veà naêng löïc vaø trình ñoä, chaéc haún khoâng theå traùnh ñöôïc ít nhieàu sai soùt. Kính mong caùc baäc cao minh roäng loøng chæ giaùo. NGUYEÃN MINH TIEÁN

A short history of Buddhism

ÑOÂI NEÙT VEÀ TAÙC GIAÛ

Edward Conze sinh ngaøy 18 thaùng 3 naêm 1904 taïi Forest Hill, Lewisham, London, Anh Quoác, trong moät gia ñình goác Ñöùc. OÂng laø trieát gia vaø laø moät nhaø nghieân cöùu Phaät hoïc loãi laïc, ñaõ phieân dòch vaø saép xeáp boä kinh Baùt-nhaõ Ba-la-maät-ña theo heä thoáng vaø goùp phaàn truyeàn baù tö töôûng Ñaïi thöøa khaép chaâu AÂu, chaâu Myõ. Ñoái vôùi Phaät töû chaâu AÂu, nhöõng tröôùc taùc cuûa oâng laø taøi lieäu nghieân cöùu tu taäp Phaät phaùp quí baùu khoâng theå boû qua ñöôïc. Cha oâng tröôùc laø moät nhaân vieân ngoaïi giao, sau chuyeån sang ngaønh toøa aùn, laøm vieäc taïi Dűsseldorf, CHLB Ñöùc. Conze tröôûng thaønh vaø ñöôïc giaùo duïc taïi Ñöùc vôùi teân goïi laø Eberhard. Nôi ñaây, oâng sôùm bieåu hieän nhöõng caù tính ñaëc thuø: söï caûm nhaän nhaïy beùn tröôùc nhöõng vaán ñeà xaõ hoäi, loøng caêm phaãn tröôùc nhöõng traøo löu aùi quoác cöïc ñoan cuûa Ñöùc quoác xaõ, loøng yeâu thieân nhieân vaø cuoäc soáng tónh mòch ôû thoân queâ. Naêm leân 13 tuoåi, Conze coù dòp bieát veà Phaät giaùo. OÂng hoïc trieát, taâm lí vaø AÁn Ñoä hoïc taïi nhöõng ñaïi hoïc Tbingen, Heidelberg, Kiel vaø Koln. Taïi Heidelberg, vaøo khoaûng nhöõng naêm 1924-1925, oâng ñöôïc Max Walleser, moät trong nhöõng ngöôøi ñaàu tieân dòch kinh Baùt-nhaõ Ba-la-maät-ña sang tieáng Ñöùc, höôùng daãn ñi vaøo Phaät giaùo Ñaïi thöøa. Sau ñoù, nhôø Heinrich Rickert, oâng coù dòp laøm quen vôùi Thieàn toâng. Naêm 1928, oâng laøm luaän aùn tieán só taïi Koln. Naêm 1932, oâng cho xuaát baûn taùc phaåm Phöông thöùc ñoái laäp. Bình luaän veà lyù thuyeát Duy vaät bieän chöùng.1 Vì nhöõng haønh vi choáng Ñöùc quoác xaõ neân oâng phaûi rôøi CHLB Ñöùc vaøo naêm 1933, sang tò naïn taïi Anh quoác, vaø khoâng laâu sau, oâng nhaäp quoác tòch Anh. 1

Der Satz von Widerspruch. Zur Theorie des Dialektischen Materialismus.

Töø naêm 1933 trôû ñi, oâng daïy taâm lyù vaø trieát hoïc taïi Oxford vaø London. Caùc taùc phaåm cuûa Daisetz Teitaro Suzuki vaø moät hoïc giaû AÁn Ñoä laø Har Dayal laïi höôùng daãn oâng trôû veà vôùi Phaät giaùo. Töø naêm 1943 ñeán 1949, oâng nghieân cöùu raát nhieàu veà AÁn Ñoä hoïc, gia nhaäp Hoäi Phaät giaùo2 taïi London vaø cuõng toå chöùc nhieàu buoåi thuyeát giaûng. Trong nhöõng naêm sau chieán tranh theá giôùi laàn thöù hai, oâng cho xuaát baûn khoaûng 20 quyeån saùch vaø hôn 100 tieåu luaän veà nhöõng vaán ñeà cuûa Phaät giaùo, vaø chính nhöõng taùc phaåm naøy ñaõ laøm cho teân tuoåi oâng lan truyeàn khaép theá giôùi. OÂng ñaõ töøng thuyeát giaûng taïi Wisconsin, Madison, Washington, Seattle, Bonn, Berkeley, Santa Barbara... Naêm 1973, Conze ngöng vieäc thuyeát giaûng, lui veà soáng taïi Sherborne, Somerset, vaø töø ñoù chuyeân chuù vaøo vieäc nghieân cöùu Phaät hoïc. Troïng taâm nghieân cöùu cuûa oâng laø trieát lyù Baùt-nhaõ, vaø veà chuû ñeà naøy, oâng ñaõ xuaát baûn haøng loaït tieåu luaän. OÂng cuõng ñaõ dòch sang Anh ngöõ vaø xuaát baûn nhieàu kinh vaên thuoäc heä naøy. Naêm 1979, oâng cho ra ñôøi quyeån hoài kyù vôùi töïa ñeà “The Memoirs of a Modern Gnostic”, trong ñoù oâng töï cho mình laø moät ngöôøi coù caù tính maâu thuaãn. Conze coù moät caùi nhìn, moät caûm nhaän saâu saéc cho nhöõng vaán ñeà, nhaân sinh quan khaùc bieät cuûa theá kyû naøy. Quyeån hoài kyù cuûa oâng ñaõ chöùng toû khaû naêng ngheä thuaät dung hôïp nhieàu quan ñieåm cuûa oâng. OÂng maát ngaøy 24 thaùng 9 naêm 1979 taïi Yeovil, Somerset, London. Nhöõng taùc phaåm quan troïng nhaát cuûa oâng laø Buddhism, Its Essence and Development - Oxford 1951; Buddhist Meditation - London 1956; Buddhist Thought in India - London 1962; A Short History of Buddhism - London 1980. Ngoaøi ra oâng coøn dòch nhieàu kinh ñieån töø Phaïn ngöõ (Sanskrit) sang Anh ngöõ, nhö Kinh Kim cang, Taâm kinh Baùt-nhaõ, Kinh Ñaïi Baùt-nhaõ... °°°

Buddhist Society

BOÁI CAÛNH LÒCH SÖÛ VAØ CAÙC THÔØI ÑAÏI TRONG LÒCH SÖÛ PHAÄT GIAÙO A. BOÁI CAÛNH LÒCH SÖÛ

THE HISTORICAL CONTEXT, AND THE EPOCHS OF BUDDHIST HISTORY A.

Tín ñoà Phaät giaùo tin raèng coù moät con ngöôøi thaät ñöôïc toân xöng laø ñöùc Phaät, hay Ñaáng Giaùc Ngoä, ñaõ nhaän ra ñöôïc trí hueä saùng suoát xa xöa, hay noùi ñuùng hôn laø töø voâ thuûy, cuûa con ngöôøi. Vaø ngaøi ñaõ laøm ñöôïc ñieàu naøy ôû Bihar, AÁn Ñoä, vaøo khoaûng töø naêm 600 cho ñeán 400 tröôùc Coâng nguyeân – thôøi gian chính xaùc khoâng ñöôïc bieát.

Buddhism claims that a person called “The Buddha”, or “The Enlightened One”, rediscovered a very ancient and longstanding, in fact an ageless, wisdom, and that he did so in Bihar in India, round about 600 or 400 BC - the exact date is unknown.

Trí hueä giaùc ngoä maø ngaøi ñaït ñeán coù theå tröø ñi ba ñieàu baát thieän, cuï theå laø:

His re-formulation of the perennial wisdom was designed to counteract three evils.

1. Traùnh duøng baïo löïc döôùi moïi hình thöùc, töø vieäc gieát haïi con ngöôøi vaø caùc loaøi ñoäng vaät, cho ñeán vieäc gaây söùc eùp veà maët tinh thaàn ñeå buoäc ngöôøi khaùc phaûi suy nghó khaùc ñi.

1. Violence had to be avoided in all its forms, from the killing of humans and animals to the intellectual coercion of those who think otherwise. 2. The “self” or the fact that one holds on to oneself as an individual personality, was held to be responsible for all pain and suffering, which would in the end be finally abolished by the attainment of a state of self-extinction, technically known as “Nirvāna”.

2. Tính vò kyû, hay noùi ñuùng hôn laø söï chaáp ngaõ, nghóa laø coá chaáp vaøo tính hieän höõu cuûa caù nhaân mình nhö moät caù theå rieâng bieät, ñöôïc xem nhö laø nguyeân nhaân cuûa taát caû moïi ñau ñôùn, khoå naõo maø con ngöôøi phaûi gaùnh chòu, vaø chæ coù theå chaám döùt khi quaù trình tu taäp giuùp ñaït ñeán moät traïng thaùi hoaøn toaøn voâ ngaõ, hay coøn ñöôïc goïi baèng moät thuaät ngöõ Phaät giaùo laø Nieát-baøn.1 3. Söï cheát, laø moät traïng thaùi meâ laàm coù theå vöôït qua ñöôïc bôûi nhöõng ai ñaït ñeán choã khoâng coøn söï cheát, böôùc vaøo ngöôõng cöûa voâ sanh. Ngoaøi vieäc ñöa ra nhöõng phöông phaùp ñoái trò ñeå loaïi tröø ba ñieàu baát thieän neâu treân, baûn thaân ñöùc Phaät khoâng heà döïng neân moät hoïc thuyeát hay nhöõng giaùo ñieàu cöùng nhaéc. Thay vì vaäy, ngaøi thu phuïc ñöôïc söï tin töôûng hoaøn toaøn laø nhôø vaøo chính nhöõng keát quaû ñaït ñöôïc thoâng qua vieäc chæ daïy caùc ñeä töû ñi theo moät tieán trình tu taäp goàm ba phaàn chính laø: giöõ giôùi luaät, tu taäp thieàn ñònh vaø duy trì söï tænh giaùc. 10

3. Death was an error which could be overcome by those who entered the “doors to the Deathless”, “the gates of the Undying”. Apart from providing antidotes to these three ills, the Buddha formulated no definite doctrines or creeds, but put his entire trust into the results obtained by training his disciples through a threefold process of moral restraint, secluded meditation and philosophical reflection. 1

Maëc duø trong nguyeân taùc khoâng coù caùc tieâu ñeà naøy, chuùng toâi theâm vaøo ñeå ñoäc giaû tieän theo doõi.

Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

Veà ñieåm thöù nhaát, noùi veà baïo löïc - thuaät ngöõ dieãn ñaït yù khoâng duøng baïo löïc laø ahiṃsā, thöôøng dòch laø baát haïi, coù nghóa laø traùnh taát caû moïi hình thöùc laøm toån haïi ñeán söï soáng cuûa muoân loaøi.. Chæ xeùt rieâng veà ñieåm naøy, Phaät giaùo laø moät trong nhöõng phong traøo choáng laïi nhöõng theá löïc chuyeân cheá taøn baïo noåi leân vaøo khoaûng 3000 naêm tröôùc Coâng nguyeân, vôùi nhöõng döï aùn phaùt trieån coâng nghieäp vaø hoaït ñoäng quaân söï ñaõ daãn ñeán söï lan traøn, thöôøng laø voâ nghóa, cuûa baïo löïc vaø huûy hoaïi söï soáng.

As to the first point, that of violence - the technical term for “non-violence” is ahiṃsā, which means the avoidance of harm to all life. In this respect Buddhism was one of the many movements which reacted against the technological tyrannies which had arisen about 3000 BC, whose technical projects and military operations had led to widespread and often senseless violence and destruction of life.

Ngay töø nhöõng thôøi kyø phaùt trieån raát sôùm, neàn vaên minh con ngöôøi voán ñaõ ñi keøm vôùi nhöõng soùng gioù cuûa vieäc tranh giaønh quyeàn löïc vaø cuûa caûi vaät chaát. Töø khoaûng naêm 600 tröôùc Coâng nguyeân, moät trong nhöõng ñôït soùng gioù naøy ñaõ traøn qua khaép chaâu AÙ, töø Trung Hoa sang caùc vuøng ñaûo Hy Laïp treân bôø bieån Tieåu AÙ. Ñieàu naøy ñaõ thuùc ñaåy moïi söùc maïnh taâm linh cuûa con ngöôøi phaûi ñöùng leân choáng laïi heä thoáng baïo löïc ñöông quyeàn.

From its very beginning the growth of civilization has been accompanied by recurrent waves of disillusion with power and material wealth. About 600 BC onwards one such wave swept through the whole of Asia, through all parts of it, from China to the Greek islands on the coast of Asia Minor, mobilizing the resources of the spirit against the existing power system.

ÔÛ AÁn Ñoä, söï phaûn khaùng naøy noåi leân trong moät vuøng noâng nghieäp luùa nöôùc, khaùc vôùi caùc vuøng ôû veà phía taây voán soáng nhôø vaøo chaên nuoâi vaø troàng luùa mì. Trong khoaûng 2000 naêm qua, Phaät giaùo vaãn luoân phaùt trieån maïnh meõ chuû yeáu ôû caùc quoác gia troàng luùa nöôùc vaø khoâng ñaùng keå laém ôû nhöõng nôi khaùc. Theâm vaøo ñoù, vaø ñieàu naøy laïi caøng khoù giaûi thích hôn, Phaät giaùo chæ lan truyeàn ôû nhöõng quoác gia maø tröôùc ñaây ñaõ töøng suøng baùi caùc linh vaät nhö raén hoaëc roàng, vaø chöa bao giôø ñöôïc truyeàn vaøo caùc nöôùc ñaõ töøng ca ngôïi vieäc gieát roàng nhö moät chieán coâng hieån haùch, hoaëc quy loãi cho loaøi raén nhö nguyeân nhaân gaây beänh taät, ruûi ro cho con ngöôøi. Veà ñieåm thöù hai, lieân quan ñeán töï ngaõ, trong vieäc ñöa ra söï ñoái trò vôùi chuû nghóa caù nhaân, Phaät giaùo chuû yeáu nhaém ñeán taàng lôùp thò daân ñoâng ñaûo. Phaät giaùo phaùt trieån ôû moät vuøng treân ñaát AÁn Ñoä quanh Benares vaø Patna, nôi thôøi ñaïi ñoà saét ñaõ saûn sinh ra nhöõng oâng vua ñaày tham voïng xuaát thaân töø quaân ñoäi, ñaõ thieát laäp caùc vöông quoác meânh moâng vôùi nhieàu thaønh phoá roäng lôùn vaø söï phaùt trieån roäng raõi vieäc giao dòch thöông maïi, coù neàn kinh teá tieàn teä khaù phaùt trieån vaø toå chöùc cai trò hôïp lyù. Nhöõng thaønh phoá môùi naøy ñaõ thay theá caùc xaõ hoäi boä toäc quy moâ nhoû baèng nhöõng 12

In India the reaction arose in a region devoted to rice culture, as distinct from the areas further West with their animal husbandry and cultivation of wheat. For the last two thousand years Buddhism has mainly flourished in rice-growing countries and little elsewhere. In addition, and that is much harder to explain, it has spread only into those countries which had previously had a cult of Serpents or Dragons, and never made headway in those parts of the world which view the killing of dragons as a meritorious deed or blame serpents for mankind’s ills. As to the second point, concerning the self, in offering a cure for individualism Buddhism addresses itself to an individualistic city population. It arose in a part of India where, round Benares and Patna, the iron age had thrown up ambitious warrior kings, who had established large kingdoms, with big cities, widespread trade, a fairly developed money economy and a rationally organized state. These cities replaced small-scale 13

Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

khu ñoâ thò coù taàm voùc lôùn hôn, vôùi taát caû nhöõng toäi loãi phi nhaân tính, söï chuyeân moân hoùa, vaø caû nhöõng hoãn loaïn veà maët xaõ hoäi maø taát yeáu phaûi daãn ñeán.

tribal societies by large-scale conurbations, with all the evils of depersonalization, specialization and social disorganization that that entails.

Phaàn lôùn coâng vieäc hoaèng hoùa cuûa ñöùc Phaät ñöôïc thöïc hieän ôû caùc thaønh phoá lôùn, vaø ñieàu naøy giuùp lyù giaûi cho tính caùch tri thöùc trong lôøi daïy cuûa ngaøi, cuõng nhö phong caùch thaønh thò trong ngoân ngöõ ñöôïc söû duïng vaø tính hôïp lyù trong caùc tö töôûng ñöôïc ngaøi truyeàn daïy. Ñöùc Phaät luoân nhaán maïnh raèng ngaøi laø moät ngöôøi chæ ñöôøng, khoâng phaûi moät ñaáng quyeàn naêng, vaø raèng moïi söï gôïi yù chæ daãn ñeàu caàn phaûi ñöôïc chöùng nghieäm, keå caû nhöõng chæ daãn cuûa chính ngaøi.

Most of the Buddha’s public activity took place in cities and that helps to account for the intellectual character of his teachings, the “urbanity” of his utterances and the rational quality of his ideas. The Buddha always stressed that he was a guide, not an authority, and that all propositions must be tested, including his own.

Nhôø ñöôïc toâi luyeän trong moät moâi tröôøng giaùo duïc phoùng khoaùng, caùc Phaät töû luoân ñaùp laïi vôùi nhöõng gì chöa ñöôïc chöùng minh baèng caùch ñaët ra nhöõng nghi vaán khoâng mang tính caùch ñoá kî, vaø nhôø vaäy maø hoï coù theå hoøa ñoàng, thích hôïp vôùi taát caû nhöõng tín ngöôõng phoå bieán khaùc, khoâng chæ rieâng taïi AÁn Ñoä, maø coøn laø ôû khaép nhöõng quoác gia maø ñaïo Phaät ñöôïc truyeàn ñeán.

Having had the advantage of a liberal education, the Buddhists react to the unproven with a benevolent scepticism and so they have been able to accommodate themselves to every kind of popular belief, not only in India, but in all countries they moved into.

Veà ñieåm thöù ba, lieân quan ñeán caùi cheát. Coù ñieàu gì ñoù trong vaán ñeà naøy maø chuùng ta khoâng hoaøn toaøn hieåu heát ñöôïc. Roõ raøng laø ñöùc Phaät chia seû moät quan nieäm voán ñaõ coù töø nhöõng giai ñoaïn raát sôùm trong lòch söû loaøi ngöôøi, raèng caùi cheát khoâng phaûi laø moät yeáu toá baét buoäc phaûi coù trong söï soáng chaân thaät, maø laø daáu hieäu cho thaáy chuùng ta ñaõ coù ñieàu gì ñoù sai laàm. Noùi sai laàm, laø vì xeùt veà baûn theå, chuùng ta voán baát dieät vaø coù khaû naêng chieán thaéng caùi cheát ñeå ñaït ñeán ñôøi soáng vónh cöûu baèng vaøo nhöõng phaùp moân tu taäp. Ñöùc Phaät cho raèng caùi cheát daãn ñeán laø do moät söùc maïnh cuûa toäi loãi, goïi laø Mara.1 Thaàn cheát caùm doã chuùng ta rôøi xa töï theå chaân thaät baát dieät, vaø loâi keùo chuùng ta ra khoûi con ñöôøng coù theå daãn trôû veà traïng thaùi töï do. Döïa treân nguyeân taéc “keû yeáu hôn phaûi cheát”, chuùng ta bò troùi buoäc vaøo aûnh höôûng söï loâi cuoán cuûa toäi loãi do loøng tham vaø söï chaáp ngaõ, maø chaáp ngaõ voán chính laø bieåu hieän cuûa loøng tham. 1

Töùc laø Ma vöông

As to the third point, concerning death; there is something here which we do not quite understand. The Buddha obviously shared the conviction, widely held in the early stages of mankind’s history, that death is not a necessary ingredient of our human constitution, but a sign that something has gone wrong with us. It is our own fault; essentially we are immortal and can conquer death and win eternal life by religious means. The Buddha attributed death to an evil force, called Mara, “the Killer”, who tempts us away from our true immortal selves and diverts us from the path which could lead us back to freedom. On the principle that “it is the lesser part which dies” we are tied to Mara’s realm through our cravings and through our attachment to an individual personality which is their visible embodiment. 15

Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

Khi ruõ boû ñöôïc moïi söï chaáp ngaõ, chuùng ta coù theå vöôït ra khoûi aûnh höôûng cuûa caùi cheát, vaø ñaït ñeán choã thoaùt ra khoûi söï noái tieáp voâ taän cuûa nhöõng caùi cheát, khoâng coøn bò chuùng cöôùp ñi söï soáng mieân vieãn chaân thaät.

In shedding our attachments we move beyond “death’s realm”, “beyond the death-king’s sight” and win relief from an endless series of repeated deaths, which each time rob us of the loot of a lifetime.

B. PHAÂN ÑOAÏN CAÙC THÔØI KYØ PHAÄT GIAÙO

Cho ñeán nay Phaät giaùo ñaõ toàn taïi hôn 2.500 naêm, vaø trong suoát thôøi kyø naøy, Phaät giaùo ñaõ traûi qua nhöõng thay ñoåi saâu xa vaø cô baûn. Ñeå thuaän tieän trong vieäc xem xeùt, lòch söû Phaät giaùo coù theå ñöôïc taïm chia thaønh boán thôøi kyø.

Buddhism has so far persisted for about 2,500 years and during that period it has undergone profound and radical changes. Its history can conveniently be divided into four periods.

Thôøi kyø thöù nhaát laø thôøi kyø Phaät giaùo nguyeân thuûy, phaàn lôùn truøng khôùp vôùi giai ñoaïn maø sau naøy ñöôïc goïi laø Tieåu thöøa. Thôøi kyø thöù hai ñöôïc ñaùnh daáu bôûi söï phaùt trieån cuûa giaùo lyù Ñaïi thöøa. Thôøi kyø thöù ba laø söï phaùt trieån cuûa Maät toâng vaø Thieàn toâng. Caùc thôøi kyø naøy keùo daøi ñeán khoaûng theá kyû 11. Sau ñoù Phaät giaùo khoâng coøn söï thay ñoåi noäi taïi naøo ñaùng keå nöõa maø chæ tieáp tuïc duy trì. Vaø khoaûng thôøi gian 1000 naêm gaàn ñaây coù theå ñöôïc xem nhö laø thôøi kyø thöù tö.1 Veà maët ñòa lyù, Phaät giaùo ôû thôøi kyø ñaàu giôùi haïn gaàn nhö chæ trong phaïm vi AÁn Ñoä. Sang ñeán thôøi kyø thöù hai, Phaät giaùo baét ñaàu cuoäc chinh phuïc sang Ñoâng AÙ, vaø baûn thaân laïi cuõng chòu aûnh höôûng ñaùng keå bôûi nhöõng tö töôûng beân ngoaøi AÁn Ñoä. Trong suoát thôøi kyø thöù ba, coù nhieàu trung taâm phaùt huy moät caùch saùng taïo caùc tö töôûng Phaät giaùo ñöôïc hình thaønh beân ngoaøi AÁn Ñoä, ñaëc bieät laø ôû Trung Hoa. Veà maët trieát hoïc, thôøi kyø ñaàu taäp trung vaøo nhöõng vaán ñeà taâm lyù, thôøi kyø thöù hai laø nhöõng vaán ñeà veà baûn chaát cuûa söï hieän höõu, vaø thôøi kyø thöù ba laø veà caùc vaán ñeà vuõ truï. Thôøi kyø ñaàu chuyeân chuù ñeán vieäc caù nhaân coá gaéng töï nhieáp phuïc taâm yù mình, vaø söï phaân tích taâm lyù laø phöông tieän ñöôïc duøng ñeå ñaït ñeán söï 1

The first period is that of the old Buddhism, which largely coincided with what later came to be known as the “Hīnayāna”; the second is marked by the rise of the Mahāyāna; the third by that of the Tantra and Ch’an. This brings us to about AD 1000. After that Buddhism no longer renewed itself, but just persisted, and the last 1,000 years can be taken together as the fourth period. Geographically, first period Buddhism remained almost purely Indian; during the second period it started on its conquest of Eastern Asia and was in its turn considerably influenced by nonIndian thought; during the third, creative centres of Buddhist thought were established outside India, particularly in China. Philosophically, the first period concentrated on psychological questions, the second on ontological, the third on cosmic. The first is concerned with individuals gaining control over their own minds, and psychological analysis is the method by

Neáu coù theå boå sung cho söï phaân ñoaïn cuûa Conze ñeå phuø hôïp vôùi nhöõng gì chuùng ta ñöôïc bieát hieän nay, coù leõ phaûi theâm vaøo moät giai ñoaïn caän hieän

ñaïi, trong ñoù Phaät giaùo haàu nhö lan roäng khaép theá giôùi vaø ñaëc bieät phaùt trieån maïnh ôû caùc nöôùc chaâu AÂu, chaâu Myõ. Vaø chính Conze coù theå ñöôïc xem laø moät trong nhöõng ngöôøi ñi tieân phong môû ñaàu cho giai ñoaïn naøy.

Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

cheá ngöï taâm. Thôøi kyø thöù hai chuyeån sang baûn chaát töï nhieân cuûa thöïc theå,1 hay ñöôïc goïi laø töï taùnh; vaø söï nhaän thöùc cuûa taâm veà töï taùnh cuûa vaïn höõu ñöôïc xem laø yeáu toá quyeát ñònh ñeå ñaït ñeán söï giaûi thoaùt. Thôøi kyø thöù ba xem vieäc ñieàu chænh töï thaân cho haøi hoøa vôùi vuõ truï laø ñaàu moái ñeå ñaït ñeán giaùc ngoä, vaø söû duïng nhöõng phöông thöùc coù tính caùch maàu nhieäm, huyeàn bí töø thôøi coå xöa ñeå laøm ñöôïc ñieàu ñoù.

which self-control is sought; the second turns to the nature (svabhava) of true reality and the realization in oneself of that true nature of things is held to be decisive for salvation; the third sees adjustment and harmony with the cosmos as the clue to enlightenment and uses age-old magical and occult methods to achieve it.

Treân phöông dieän giaûi thoaùt, caùc thôøi kyø naøy khaùc nhau veà quan nieäm ñaøo luyeän con ngöôøi. Trong thôøi kyø ñaàu, lyù töôûng maø söï tu taäp nhaém ñeán laø thaùnh quaû A-la-haùn,2 nghóa laø baäc ñaõ döùt tröø heát aùi nhieãm, moïi duïc voïng ñeàu döùt saïch, vaø khoâng coøn phaûi taùi sinh trong luaân hoài. Thôøi kyø thöù hai, maãu möïc ñöôïc höôùng ñeán laø Boà Taùt,3 ngöôøi phaùt nguyeän cöùu ñoä toaøn theå sinh linh vaø tin töôûng chaéc chaén vaøo vieäc töï mình coù theå ñaït ñeán söï giaùc ngoä hoaøn toaøn ñeå trôû thaønh moät vò Phaät. Thôøi kyø thöù ba, lyù töôûng ñöôïc nhaém ñeán laø caùc vò Taát-ñaït,4 ngöôøi ñaït ñeán söï hoøa hôïp hoaøn toaøn vôùi vuõ truï, khoâng coøn baát cöù giôùi haïn naøo, vaø hoaøn toaøn töï taïi trong söï vaän duïng nhöõng naêng löïc cuûa vuõ truï trong töï thaân cuõng nhö ñoái vôùi ngoaïi caûnh.

Soteriologically, they differ in the conception of the type of man they try to produce. In the first period the ideal saint is an Arhat, or a person who has non-attachment, in whom all craving is extinct and who will no more be reborn in this world. In the second it is the Bodhisattva, a person who wishes to save all his fellow-beings and who hopes ultimately to become an omniscient Buddha. In the third it is a Siddha, a man who is so much in harmony with the cosmos that he is under no constraint whatsoever and as a free agent is able to manipulate the cosmic forces both inside and outside himself.

Nhöõng toân giaùo khaùc coù leõ cuõng ñeàu coù nhöõng thay ñoåi ñaùng chuù yù nhö vaäy, nhöng ñieàu ñaëc bieät cuûa Phaät giaùo laø nhöõng thay ñoåi trong moãi moät giai ñoaïn môùi ñeàu ñöôïc hoã trôï bôûi söï hình thaønh moät loaïi kinh taïng môùi, maëc duø ñöôïc vieát ra nhieàu theá kyû sau khi Phaät nhaäp dieät, nhöng vaãn ñöôïc xem laø lôøi Phaät daïy. Kinh taïng cuûa thôøi kyø ñaàu, ñeán thôøi kyø thöù hai ñöôïc boå sung theâm raát nhieàu kinh ñieån Ñaïi thöøa, vaø ñeán thôøi kyø thöù ba laø moät soá löôïng khoång loà caùc kinh Tan-tra.5 Taát caû nhöõng kinh saùch xuaát hieän veà sau naøy ñeàu voâ danh, theo nghóa laø taùc giaû cuûa chuùng khoâng ñöôïc bieát ñeán. Vaø vieäc cho raèng taát caû nhöõng kinh

Other religions may perhaps have undergone changes as startling as these, but what is peculiar to Buddhism is that the innovations of each new phase were backed up by the production of a fresh canonical literature which, although clearly composed many centuries after the Buddha’s death, claims to be the word of the Buddha Himself. The Scriptures of the first period were supplemented in the second by a large number of Mahāyāna Sutras and in the third by a truly enormous number of Tantras. All these writings are anonymous in the sense that their authors are unknown and the claim that they were all

2 3

Svabhāva, Haùn dòch nghóa laø töï taùnh (自性), baûn taùnh (本性) hay töï theå (自體). Arahat, cuõng goïi taét laø La-haùn. Noùi ñuû laø Bodhisattva (Boà-ñeà-taùt-ñoûa), Haùn dòch nghóa laø Giaùc höõu tình (覺有情).

Siddha (Taát-ñaït), Haùn dòch nghóa laø Thaønh töïu giaû (成就者), theo giaùo lyù Maät toâng laø caùc vò tu taäp ñaõ chöùng ngoä. 5 Tan-tra, aâm Haùn Vieät ñoïc laø Ñaùt-ñaëc-la (怛特羅), mang nghóa laø “söï lieân tuïc thoáng nhaát theå”, thöôøng ñöôïc hieåu laø caùc kinh saùch daïy veà vieäc tu taäp Thieàn ñònh theo Kim cang thöøa, vaø trong moät soá kinh ñöôïc dòch laø Nghi quyõ.

Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

saùch naøy ñeàu do chính mieäng Phaät thuyeát seõ coù lieân quan ñeán moät quan nieäm khaù linh hoaït veà ñöùc Phaät.1

spoken by the Buddha Himself involves, as we shall see (ch. II sec. 1), a rather elastic conception of the Buddha.

Thöïc ra, trong moät quaõng thôøi gian baát kyø naøo ñoù, nhöõng phaùt trieån môùi khoâng phaûi hoaøn toaøn thay theá heát nhöõng caùi cuõ. Nhöõng tröôøng phaùi cuõ vaãn song song toàn taïi vôùi nhöõng tröôøng phaùi môùi, maëc duø thöôøng phaûi chòu aûnh höôûng thay ñoåi raát ñaùng keå. Phaät giaùo nguyeân thuûy trong thôøi kyø thöù nhaát, khi böôùc sang thôøi kyø thöù hai ñaõ haáp thuï raát nhieàu giaùo lyù cuûa Ñaïi thöøa. Vaø söï tieáp xuùc giöõa caùc kinh Tan-tra vôùi kinh ñieån Ñaïi thöøa ñaõ daãn ñeán moät söï toång hôïp dieãn ra taïi caùc tröôøng ñaïi hoïc Bengal vaø Orissa suoát thôøi ñaïi Pāla.2 Taäp saùch naøy chæ taäp trung vaøo nhöõng ñoät bieán mang tính saùng taïo, vaø ñieàu ñoù seõ laø ñònh höôùng trong suoát quaù trình hình thaønh taäp saùch.

At any given time the newer developments did not entirely supersede the older ones. The older schools coexisted with the new ones, although they were often profoundly modified by them. The old Buddhism of the first period absorbed in the second a good many of the tenets of the Mahāyāna and the contact between the Tantras and the Mahāyāna led to a synthesis which took place in the universities of Bengal and Orissa during the Pāla period (see ch. Ill sec. 1). In my account I will concentrate on the creative impulses and they will be my guide.

Söï phaân chia lòch söû Phaät giaùo thaønh nhöõng giai ñoaïn 500 naêm khoâng chæ phuø hôïp vôùi caùc söï kieän, maø coøn ñöôïc ñeà caäp ñeán trong nhieàu taùc phaåm Phaät hoïc ra ñôøi vaøo khoaûng ñaàu Coâng nguyeân. Naêm giai ñoaïn, moãi giai ñoaïn laø 500 naêm, ñöôïc keå ra nhö ñeå ñaùnh daáu söï suy yeáu lieân tuïc cuûa giaùo lyù theo thôøi gian. Vaø ngöôøi ta cho raèng, gioáng nhö vaïn vaät ôû ñôøi, taêng ñoaøn Phaät giaùo vaø giaùo lyù roài cuõng seõ phaûi chòu söï suy taøn. Trong moãi thôøi kyø, phaàn taâm linh seõ sa suùt daàn. Vaø sau 2.500 naêm, ngoïn löûa taâm linh ñöôïc döï baùo laø seõ ñi daàn ñeán choã saép taét haún.3 Cho duø quan saùt thöïc teá coù chöùng minh ñöôïc söï suy thoaùi theo nhö döï ñoaùn naøy hay khoâng, noù vaãn coù moät aûnh höôûng maïnh meõ veà maët tinh thaàn ñoái vôùi tín ñoà Phaät giaùo trong nhöõng thôøi ñaïi tieáp theo sau ñoù, vaø chuùng ta seõ vaãn coøn nghe nhaéc laïi ñieàu naøy nhieàu laàn nöõa. Caâu chuyeän veà lòch söû Phaät giaùo quaû thaät khoâng chæ toaøn moät veû huy hoaøng, maø coøn coù caû nhöõng bi thöông nöõa. Ñoái vôùi caùc söû gia hieän ñaïi, Phaät giaùo laø moät hieän töôïng gaây khoù khaên veà moïi maët cho coâng vieäc cuûa hoï. Vaø chuùng ta chæ coù theå an uûi hoï raèng, Phaät giaùo khoâng ñöôïc hình thaønh ñeå daønh cho caùc söû gia. Hoï thieáu haún caùc thoâng tin chính xaùc veà lòch söû 1

Xem chöông II, phaàn 1. Xem Chöông III, phaàn I. 3 Xem chöông IV, phaàn 9. 2

The division of Buddhist history into periods of 500 years does not only agree with the facts, but it is mentioned in many Buddhist writings dating from the beginning of the Christian era. These five periods of 500 years are enumerated as marking the continued dege-neration of the doctrine. Like everything else, the Buddhist order and doctrine is bound to decay, in each period its spirituality will be diminished, and after 2,500 years it will be near its extinction (see ch. IV sec. 9). Whether or not observation bears out this diagnosis of a continuous decay, it had a profound influence on the mentality of the Buddhists in later ages, and we will hear of it again and again. The story of Buddhism is indeed not only a splendid, but also a melancholy one. To the modern historian, Buddhism is a phenomenon which must exasperate him at every point and we can only say in extenuation that this religion was not founded for the benefit of historians. Not only is there an almost complete absence 21

Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

Phaät giaùo nguyeân thuûy taïi AÁn Ñoä. Vaø khoâng nhöõng ngaøy thaùng, taùc giaû, nôi choán phaùt sinh cuûa haàu heát caùc vaên baûn hieän coù ñeàu haàu nhö hoaøn toaøn khoâng ñöôïc bieát, maø ngay caû giaùo lyù ñaïo Phaät cuõng taïo cho caùc söû gia moät aán töôïng nhö laø khoâng thoûa maõn vaø raát khoù naém baét. Caùc Phaät töû thöôøng coù khuynh höôùng laøm caân baèng moät phaùt ngoân baèng caùch ñöa ra moät phaùt bieåu ñoái nghòch laïi, vaø chaân lyù ñaït ñeán khoâng phaûi baèng caùch choïn löïa giöõa hai ñoái nghòch naøy, maø laø söï keát hôïp caû hai. Nhö vaäy thì, ngoaøi vieäc söû duïng chung caùc thuaät ngöõ ñaëc thuø cuûa Phaät giaùo, coøn coù ñieåm chung naøo giöõa nhöõng giaùo lyù thuoäc caùc tröôøng phaùi khaùc bieät nhau chaêng? Vaø coù nhöõng yeáu toá chung naøo giöõa nhöõng ngöôøi hoïc Phaät ñeå coù theå cho pheùp chuùng ta goïi chung taát caû laø Phaät töû? 1. Trong soá nhöõng yeáu toá oån ñònh hôn caû, söï toå chöùc caùc töï vieän laø hieån nhieân vaø ñaùng chuù yù nhaát. Söï keá tuïc cuûa tính toå chöùc naøy laø neàn taûng hoã trôï cho moïi ñieàu khaùc.1 2. Tieáp ñeán chuùng ta coù moät heä thoáng nhöõng phöông phaùp thieàn ñònh ñöôïc truyeàn noái nhö laø moät yeáu toá baát bieán khaùc. Chính nhöõng pheùp thieàn ñònh naøy ñaõ taïo neân khuoân maãu cho caùc theá heä Phaät töû noái tieáp nhau, vaø haàu nhö chaéc chaén mang laïi moät hieäu quaû khaù ñoàng nhaát cho baát cöù ai chòu ñaët mình vaøo trong voøng aûnh höôûng cuûa chuùng.2 3. Thöù ba, taát caû Phaät töû ñeàu höôùng ñeán chæ moät muïc ñích, vaø hoaøn toaøn gioáng nhau, ñoù laø dieät tröø taän goác söï chaáp ngaõ, töø boû quan nieäm veà moät baûn ngaõ rieâng bieät cuûa caù nhaân trong toaøn theå. Vaø nhöõng ñieàu ñöôïc thuyeát giaûng, cuõng nhö coâng phu thöïc teá haønh trì cuûa hoï ñeàu höôùng ñeán söï vun boài cho caùc ñöùc tính taâm linh raát deã daøng nhaän ra, nhö laø tính ñieàm tónh, tính ñoäc laäp, hoaëc luoân quan taâm vaø töø aùi vôùi keû khaùc. Trong kinh vaên, giaùo phaùp ñöôïc so saùnh nhö laø moät muøi vò, nghóa laø ñeå tröïc tieáp caûm nhaän. Lôøi vaøng cuûa Phaät trong caùc kinh ñieån ñöôïc xaùc ñònh 1 2

Xem chöông I phaàn 2. Xem chöông I, phaàn 3.

of hard facts about its history in India; not only is the date, authorship and geographical provenance of the overwhelming majority of the documents almost entirely unknown, but even its doctrines must strike the historian as most unsatisfactory, and elusive. Buddhists tend to cancel out each statement by a counter-statement and the truth is obtained not by choosing between the two contradictory statements, but by combining them. What then, apart from their characteristic terminology, is common to all this variety of diverse teachings, what are the common factors which allow us to call all of them “Buddhist”? 1. Among the more stable factors the monastic organization is the most obvious and conspicuous. Its continuity is the basis which supports everything else (see ch. I sec. 2). 2. Next we have as a constant element a traditional set of meditations which have moulded all generations of Buddhists and which are bound to exert a fairly uniform effect on everyone who subjects himself to their influence (see ch. I sec. 3). 3. Thirdly, all Buddhists have had one and the same aim, which is the “extinction of self, the dying out of separate individuality, and their teachings and practices have generally tended to foster such easily recognizable spiritual virtues as serenity, detachment, consideration and tenderness for others. In the Scriptures, the Dharma has been compared to a taste. The word of the Buddha is there defined as that which has the taste of Peace, the taste of Emancipation, the taste of Nirvāṇa. It 23

Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

laø mang laïi muøi vò an laïc, giaûi thoaùt vaø Nieát-baøn. Leõ dó nhieân ñoù laø nhöõng phaåm chaát ñaëc bieät khoâng deã gì moâ taû ñöôïc, vaø chaéc chaén seõ xa laï vôùi nhöõng ai töø choái vieäc töï mình theå nghieäm trong thöïc teá.

is, of course, a peculiarity of tastes that they are not easily described, and must elude those who refuse actually to taste them for themselves.

4. Trong suoát lòch söû cuûa mình, Phaät giaùo coù söï thoáng nhaát cuûa moät heä thoáng toå chöùc, trong ñoù moãi moät phaùt trieån môùi ñeàu dieãn ra trong söï keá tuïc cuûa nhöõng gì tröôùc ñoù. Moät con noøng noïc so vôùi con eách thaät voâ cuøng khaùc bieät, vaäy maø chuùng laïi laø nhöõng giai ñoaïn khaùc nhau cuûa cuøng moät loaøi vaät, vaø ñaõ lieân tuïc tieán hoùa töø con naøy ñeán con kia. Söï chuyeån hoùa cuûa Phaät giaùo chaéc haún seõ gaây ngaïc nhieân cho nhöõng ai chæ nhìn vaøo keát quaû cuoái cuøng, bò ngaên caùch bôûi thôøi gian, ñaõ khaùc bieät vôùi nhau nhö giöõa con nhoäng vôùi con böôùm. Thaät ra, chuùng ñöôïc lieân keát vôùi nhau bôûi caùc giai ñoaïn chuyeån tieáp töø caùi cuõ ñeán caùi môùi maø chæ coù theå nhaän ra ñöôïc qua söï nghieân cöùu töôøng taän. Trong Phaät giaùo khoâng coù gì thöïc söï laø môùi. Nhöõng gì coù veû nhö môùi, thaät ra chæ laø söï ñieàu chænh moät caùch tinh teá nhöõng yù töôûng ñaõ coù töø tröôùc kia.

4. Throughout its history,. Buddhism has the unity of an organism, in that each new development takes place in continuity from the previous one. Nothing could look more different from a tadpole than a frog and yet they are stages of the same animal, and evolve continuously from each other. The Buddhist capacity for metamorphosis must astound those who only see the end-products separated by long intervals of time, as different as chrysalis and butterfly. In fact they are connected by many gradations, which lead from one to the other and which only close study can detect. There is in Buddhism really no innovation, but what seems so is in fact a subtle adaptation of pre-existing ideas.

°°° Söï phaùt trieån lieân tuïc vaø truyeàn thöøa thích hôïp cuûa giaùo phaùp luoân heát söùc ñöôïc chuù troïng. Ñaây khoâng phaûi laø nhöõng luaän thuyeát roái raém cuûa nhöõng keû theo chuû nghóa caù nhaân muoán noã löïc taïo ra söï ñoäc ñaùo cho rieâng mình baèng moïi giaù. Traùi laïi, chuùng ta coù caùc baäc thaày ñaõ hình thaønh neân nhöõng boä phaùi, tröôøng phaùi ña daïng khaùc nhau, vaø söï truyeàn thöøa qua caùc ñôøi toå sö ñaõ duy trì tính lieân tuïc cuûa Phaät giaùo trong nhieàu theá kyû.

Great attention has always been paid to continuous doctrinal development and to the proper transmission of the teachings. These are not the anarchic philosophizings of individualists who strive for originality at all costs. Instead, we have groups of teachers, known as “sects” or “schools”, and lines of masters which maintain continuity over many centuries.

Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

CHÖÔNG I: THÔØI KYØ 500 NAÊM TRÖÔÙC COÂNG NGUYEÂN

CHAPTER 1: THE FIRST FIVE HUNDRED YEARS: 500–0 BC

1. NHÖÕNG ÑAËC ÑIEÅM CUÛA THÔØI KYØ ÑAÀU

Ñieåm noåi baät cuûa thôøi kyø ñaàu laø thieáu haún caùc thoâng tin chính xaùc. Duy nhaát chæ coù moät nieân ñaïi thaät söï chaéc chaén, ñoù laø thôøi kyø cai trò cuûa hoaøng ñeá A-duïc,1 töø naêm 274 ñeán naêm 236 tröôùc Coâng nguyeân. Vua A-duïc laø ngöôøi heát söùc uûng hoä Phaät giaùo vaø ñaõ ñöa toân giaùo naøy töø moät toân giaùo nhoû cuûa caùc nhaø tu khoå haïnh trôû thaønh moät toân giaùo lôùn treân toaøn coõi AÁn Ñoä. Ngay caû nhöõng ghi cheùp nieân ñaïi lieân quan ñeán cuoäc ñôøi cuûa ñöùc Phaät cuõng laø moät söï suy ñoaùn khoâng chaéc chaén. Ngöôøi AÁn Ñoä töø tröôùc ñeán nay vaãn cho raèng ñöùc Phaät ñaõ nhaäp dieät khoaûng 100 naêm tröôùc vua A-duïc. Coøn nhöõng hoïc giaû caän ñaïi noùi chung ñeàu ñoàng yù raèng ngaøi ñaõ soáng vaøo moät quaõng thôøi gian naøo ñoù trong khoaûng töø naêm 563 ñeán naêm 483 tröôùc Coâng nguyeân. Tuy coù phaàn naøo mieãn cöôõng, nhöng ôû ñaây cuõng phaûi taïm chaáp nhaän theo nieân ñaïi aáy. Tính chaát caùc vaên baûn hieän coù cuûa chuùng ta laïi caøng laøm taêng theâm tính khoâng xaùc thöïc cuûa vaán ñeà. Suoát trong thôøi kyø ñaàu naøy, kinh ñieån chæ ñöôïc truyeàn mieäng, vaø phaûi cho ñeán khoaûng gaàn cuoái thôøi kyø môùi baét ñaàu coù söï ghi cheùp. Nhöõng gì ñöùc Phaät ñaõ thaät söï noùi ra, haàu nhö khoâng coù gì ñöôïc ghi cheùp laïi ngay. Coù theå laø vaøo luùc aáy ñöùc Phaät ñaõ giaûng daïy baèng ngoân ngöõ Ardhamagadhi,2 nhöng khoâng coù Phaät ngoân naøo ñöôïc ghi laïi baèng ngoân ngöõ naøy. Veà nhöõng kinh ñieån ñöôïc ghi cheùp sôùm nhaát, ngay caû ngoân ngöõ ñöôïc söû duïng vaãn coøn laø moät vaán ñeà gaây tranh caõi. Nhöõng gì chuùng ta coù chæ laø baûn dòch cuûa nhöõng kinh ñieån ñaàu tieân aáy sang caùc thöù tieáng AÁn Ñoä khaùc, chuû yeáu laø tieáng Pāli, vaø moät hình thöùc ñaëc bieät cuûa tieáng Sanskrit duøng rieâng cho Phaät giaùo. Voán chöa töøng coù moät hình thöùc toå chöùc taäp trung, neân vaøo moät thôøi ñieåm khoâng xaùc ñònh naøo ñoù, Phaät giaùo ñaõ töï chia taùch 1 2

Aśoka

Ngoân ngöõ cuûa xöù Ma-kieät-ñaø vaøo thôøi ñoù.

1. THE PECULIARITIES OF THE FIRST PERIOD

The absence of hard facts is particularly marked for the first period. One, and only one, date is really certain and that is the rule of the emperor Aśoka (274—236 BC) whose patronage transformed Buddhism from a small sect of ascetics into an allIndian religion. Even the date of the Buddha’s life is a matter of conjecture. Indian tradition often tells us that His death took place 100 years before Aśoka. Modern scholars have on the whole agreed to place His life between 563 and 483 BC. With some reluctance I have here followed their chronology. The nature of our documents gives rise to further uncertainties. During this entire period the Scriptures were transmitted orally and they were written down only towards the end of it. Of the actual words of the Buddha nothing is left. The Buddha may have taught in Ardhamagadhi, but none of His sayings is preserved in its original form. As for the earliest Canon, even its language is still a matter of dispute. All we have are translations of what may have been the early Canon into other Indian languages, chiefly Pāli and a particular form of Buddhist Sanskrit. Always without a central organization, Buddhism had divided itself at some unspecified time into a number of sects, of which 27

Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

ra thaønh moät soá caùc boä phaùi. Vaø theo nhö ñöôïc bieát laø ñaõ coù khoaûng 18 boä phaùi. Phaàn lôùn nhöõng boä phaùi naøy coù kinh ñieån rieâng, nhöng haàu heát ñeàu ñaõ maát. Hoaëc laø vì chuùng chöa bao giôø ñöôïc ghi cheùp laïi, hoaëc laø vì söùc taøn phaù cuûa thôøi gian ñaõ huûy hoaïi ñi taát caû. Nguyeân nhaân giuùp cho moät soá kinh ñieån coøn ñöôïc giöõ laïi laø sau khi Phaät giaùo suy suïp ôû AÁn Ñoä vaøo ñaàu theá kyû 13, chuùng ñaõ tình côø loït vaøo moät soá vuøng beân ngoaøi AÁn Ñoä nhö Tích Lan, Neùpal hoaëc Trung AÙ, hoaëc laø nhôø tröôùc kia ñaõ ñöôïc dòch sang tieáng Trung Hoa hay tieáng Taây Taïng. Bôûi vaäy, chuùng ta chæ coù moät soá löôïng raát ít nhöõng kinh thöïc söï ñaõ löu haønh trong coäng ñoàng Phaät giaùo vaøo thôøi kyø ñaàu. Vaø hôn theá nöõa, nhöõng gì coøn ñöôïc giöõ laïi coù phaàn laø do söï may maén tình côø ñöa ñeán, hôn laø do söï choïn loïc töø tính chaát coå xöa vaø giaù trò truyeàn thöøa cuûa chuùng. Vaø nhöõng kinh ñieån maø chuùng ta hieän coù, coù theå ñaõ ñöôïc bieân soaïn vaøo baát cöù thôøi ñieåm naøo trong suoát 500 naêm cuûa thôøi kyø ñaàu. Tröôùc tieân caàn phaûi noùi roõ raèng, khoâng coù moät tieâu chuaån khaùch quan naøo cho pheùp chuùng ta choïn ra ñöôïc nhöõng phaàn naøo trong soá kinh ñieån naøy laø do chính ñöùc Phaät ñaõ noùi ra. Moät vaøi cuoán saùch hieän nay ôû chaâu AÂu ñöa ra raát nhieàu söï quaû quyeát veà nhöõng ñieàu do chính ñöùc Phaät thuyeát daïy. Nhöng ñoù chæ hoaøn toaøn laø söï suy ñoaùn maø thoâi. Kinh ñieån nguyeân thuûy hieän giôø laø naèm ngoaøi taàm hieåu bieát cuûa chuùng ta. Thôøi gian xa xöa nhaát maø chuùng ta coù theå laàn theo daáu veát ñeå bieát ñöôïc laø thôøi kyø maø Phaät giaùo ñaõ chia taùch ra thaønh caùc boä phaùi rieâng. Ñieàu maø chuùng ta coù theå laøm ñöôïc laø so saùnh nhöõng kinh vaên cuûa caùc boä phaùi khaùc nhau, chaúng haïn nhö so saùnh vaên baûn kinh Dhammapāda1 cuûa Thöôïng toïa boä ôû Tích Lan vôùi vaên baûn kinh Udānavarga2 cuûa Nhaát thieát höõu boä ñöôïc tìm thaáy trong sa maïc vuøng Taân Cöông.3 Khi naøo chuùng ta tìm ra ñöôïc nhöõng ñoaïn trong hai cuoán naøy, moät cuoán vieát baèng tieáng Pāli vaø moät cuoán baèng tieáng Sanskrit, gioáng nhau chính xaùc töøng chöõ moät, 1

Kinh Phaùp Cuù Caûm Höùng Ngöõ 3 Turkestan 2

usually eighteen are counted. Most of these sects had their own Canon. Nearly all of them are lost to us, either because they were never written down, or because the depredations of time have destroyed the written record. Only those are left which after the collapse of Buddhism in India about AD 1200 had by some chance got into some region outside India, like Ceylon, Nepal, or Central Asia, or which had been previously translated into Chinese or Tibetan. We therefore possess only a small portion of what actually circulated in the Buddhist community during the first period. What is more, the selection of what is preserved is due more to chance than considerations of antiquity and intrinsic merit. And that which we have may have been composed at any time during the first five hundred years. First of all it must be stated quite clearly that there is no objective criterion which would allow us to single out those elements in the record which go back to the Buddha Himself. Some modern European books abound in confident assertions about what the Buddha Himself has personally taught. They are all mere guesswork. The “original gospel” is beyond our ken now. The farthest we can get back in time is the period when the community split up into separate sects. What we can do is to compare the documents of the various sects, say a Theravadin Dhammapāda from Ceylon with a Sarvastivadin Udānavarga found in the sands of Turkestan. Where we find passages in which these two texts, the one in Pali and the other in Sanskrit, agree word by word, we can assume that they belong to a time antedating the separation of 29

Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

thì ta coù theå cho raèng chuùng thuoäc veà cuøng moät thôøi ñieåm, vaø ñaõ coù tröôùc söï kieän chia taùch cuûa hai boä phaùi, voán xaûy ra trong thôøi kyø cai trò cuûa vua A-duïc. Coøn khi so saùnh thaáy hai cuoán khoâng gioáng nhau, chuùng ta phaûi taïm cho laø chuùng thuoäc vaøo thôøi gian sau vua A-duïc, vì khoâng coù ñöôïc baèng chöùng ngöôïc laïi. Nhöng cho ñeán nay cuõng chöa coù ai laøm coâng vieäc so saùnh ñoù moät caùch coù heä thoáng, vaø khi vieäc naøy chöa ñöôïc thöïc hieän, thì chuùng ta vaãn chöa theå phaân bieät roõ nhöõng kinh ñieån thuoäc veà moät hoaëc hai theá kyû ñaàu vôùi nhöõng kinh ñieån xuaát hieän vaøo thôøi kyø sau vua A-duïc. Thaäm chí chuùng ta cuõng khoâng theå bieát chaéc laø vaøo luùc naøo vaø trong hoaøn caûnh naøo thì söï phaân chia caùc boä phaùi ñaõ xaûy ra, vì taát caû nhöõng taùc phaåm maø chuùng ta coù veà vaán ñeà ñoù ñeàu ñöôïc vieát sau ñeán 5 theá kyû so vôùi nhöõng söï vieäc maø chuùng töôøng thuaät, vaø haàu nhö caùc döõ kieän luoân bò boùp meùo bôûi nhöõng thaønh kieán veà boä phaùi. Nhöng cho duø nhöõng hieåu bieát cuûa chuùng ta coù ñöa ta ñeán gaàn thôøi ñieåm nhaäp dieät cuûa ñöùc Phaät trong khoaûng chöøng moät theá kyû, hoaëc hai hay ba theá kyû, thì cuõng vaãn coøn coù moät giai ñoaïn khôûi nguyeân chìm trong bí aån, vaø chuùng ta khoâng theå naøo ñi xuyeân qua giai ñoaïn aáy. Hai phaàn tieáp sau ñaây seõ coá gaéng giaûi thích nhöõng giaùo lyù ñöôïc xem laø thuoäc thôøi kyø ñaàu cuûa Phaät giaùo, trong phaïm vi coù theå suy luaän ñöôïc vôùi moät phaàn ñaùng tin caäy naøo ñoù. Tröôùc tieân seõ laø phaàn giôùi luaät, sau ñoù laø giaùo thuyeát caên baûn veà söï giaûi thoaùt vaø phöông thöùc tu taäp ñeå ñaït ñeán giaûi thoaùt. 2. GIÔÙI LUAÄT

Hai taøi lieäu coå nhaát maø chuùng ta coù theå xeáp vaøo thôøi kyø tieàn A-duïc vôùi phaàn naøo chaéc chaén, tình côø laïi ñeà caäp ñeán giôùi luaät.1 Töø tröôùc ñeán nay, giaùo phaùp cuûa Phaät thöôøng ñöôïc xeáp thaønh hai nhoùm chính laø Kinh taïng vaø Luaät taïng.2 Luaät taïng ñaõ toû ra coù tính chaát oån ñònh vaø ñoàng nhaát hôn, raát ít gaây ra baát ñoàng, vaø 1 2

Vinaya-piţaka

the two schools, which took place during Aśoka’s rule. Where they do not agree, we may infer their post-Aśokan date in the absence of evidence to the contrary. So far no one has yet systematically undertaken such a comparison and until that is done we are unable to clearly distinguish the doctrines of the first one or two centuries, from those of post Aśokan times. It is not even quite certain when and under what circumstances these separations of the sects took place, since all the works we have on the subject are five centuries later than the events they report and the data are everywhere distorted by sectarian bias. But whether our knowledge gets us to within one century of the neighbourhood of the Nirvāṇa, or to within two or three centuries only, there is an initial period which is shrouded in mystery and to which we cannot penetrate. In the next two sections I will try to explain the doctrines which marked the Buddhism of the first period as far as it can be inferred with some probability. They first concern monastic discipline, and then the basic theory of salvation and the way to it. 2. THE MONASTIC DISCIPLINE

The two oldest documents which we can place with some degree of certainty before Aśoka happen to deal with monastic discipline (Vinaya). From fairly early times onwards the traditions concerning the Buddha’s teachings were grouped under two principal headings called respectively Dharma and Vinaya. The Vinaya proved the more stable and uniform element of the two, much less subject to disagreements and re-formulations.

Tam taïng giaùo ñieån bao goàm Kinh, Luaät vaø Luaän. Nhöng taïng Luaän laø söï dieãn

giaûi roäng giaùo phaùp, vaø khoâng chæ thuaàn nhöõng lôøi Phaät tröïc tieáp truyeàn daïy, maø coøn coù söï ñoùng goùp, tröôùc taùc cuûa caùc vò toå sö, luaän sö veà sau nöõa.

Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

ít bò söûa ñoåi hôn. Raát hieám khi coù nhöõng tranh caõi veà Luaät taïng, vaø cho ñeán sau naøy, söï thaønh laäp caùc boä phaùi khaùc nhau cuõng ít khi daãn ñeán vieäc söûa ñoåi Luaät taïng, ngoaïi tröø nhöõng vaán ñeà chæ thuoäc veà hình thöùc vaø raát nhoû nhaët, nhö y phuïc... Ngay caû khi nhieàu boä phaùi môùi ñöôïc laäp ra cuøng vôùi söï hình thaønh cuûa Ñaïi thöøa treân nhöõng neàn taûng mang tính giaùo ñieàu, thì trong moät thôøi gian daøi hoï vaãn trung thaønh veà maët giôùi luaät vôùi moät trong nhöõng boä phaùi Tieåu thöøa coå xöa hôn. Trong haønh trì thöïc teá, traûi qua lòch söû laâu daøi cuûa Taêng-giaø, taát nhieân cuõng ñaõ coù nhieàu söï giaûn löôïc ñoái vôùi caùc ñieàu luaät quaù khaét khe, phieàn haø. Nhöng xeùt veà khuoân maãu chung thì döôøng nhö trong theá kyû 4 tröôùc Coâng nguyeân Luaät taïng ñaõ ñaït ñeán hình thöùc cuoái cuøng nhö hieän nay roài. Vaøo thôøi kyø ñoù, moät vaên baûn raát quan troïng laø Skandhaka1 ra ñôøi, phaân chia vaø saép ñaët nhöõng taøi lieäu ñoà soä thu thaäp ñöôïc luùc ñoù theo moät keá hoaïch raát chu ñaùo. Taùc phaåm naøy quy ñònh nhöõng theå cheá cô baûn veà ñôøi soáng trong caùc töï vieän cuûa taêng só, nhö vieäc gia nhaäp taêng ñoaøn, caùc nghi leã boá-taùt,2 vieäc an cö trong muøa möa,3 vaø cuõng thaûo luaän ñeán nhöõng vaán ñeà lieân quan veà y phuïc, thöïc phaåm, thuoác men cho ngöôøi beänh, cuõng nhö caùc quy ñònh phaûi tuaân theo trong vieäc xöû lyù nhöõng ngöôøi vi phaïm. Xöa hôn nöõa laø vaên baûn Prātimoksha,4 ghi laïi khoaûng 250 giôùi, laø moät söï phaân loaïi caùc hình thöùc vi phaïm trong ñôøi soáng tu só. Veà vaên baûn naøy, chuùng ta coù khoaûng 12 phieân baûn khaùc nhau, nhöng taát caû ñeàu phuø hôïp vôùi nhau veà nhöõng ñieåm quan troïng. Cöù moãi nöûa thaùng, nhöõng giôùi luaät naøy phaûi ñöôïc tuïng ñoïc leân moät laàn tröôùc taäp theå Taêng-giaø.2 Trong taát caû caùc vaên baûn kinh ñieån, khoâng coù vaên baûn naøo khaùc coù ñöôïc söï tin caäy cuûa taát caû Phaät töû nhö laø nhöõng ñieàu khoâng theå baøn caõi, vaø phoå bieán roäng raõi cuõng nhö toàn taïi laâu daøi nhö giôùi luaät ghi trong vaên baûn Prātimoksha naøy. Vì theá, chuùng ta caàn phaûi coù moät yù nieäm veà noäi dung cuûa chuùng.

Discussions on the Vinaya are seldom heard of and even at later times school formations rarely implied modifications in the Vinaya, except in quite external and superficial matters, such as dress, etc. Even when with the Mahāyana quite new schools arose on dogmatic grounds, they adhered for a long time as far as the Vinaya was concerned to one of the older Hinayana schools. In actual practice there has been, of course, much plain disregard of the more onerous rules in the long history of the order, but as for their formulation it seems to have reached its final form already in the fourth century BC. At that time a great work, the Skandhaka, was produced, which divided and arranged the enormous material accumulated by then according to a well conceived plan. It regulates the fundamental institutions of Buddhist monastic life, the admission to the order, the confession ceremonies, the retirement during the rainy season, and it discusses clothing, food and drugs for the sick, as well as the rules to be observed in the punishment of offenders. Older still are the approximately two hundred and fifty rules of the Prātimoksha, a classification of ecclesiastical offences, of which we possess about a dozen different recensions, which agree on all essentials. These rules must be recited every fortnight in front of a chapter of the monks. Among all the texts of the Scriptures there is none that has enjoyed among Buddhists an authority as uncontested, widespread and lasting as these Pratimoksha rules, and it is therefore necessary to give the reader some idea of their contents. 3

Kieàn-ñoä, moät vaên baûn bao goàm caùc ñieàu khoaûn quy ñònh vieäc an cö, töï töù, boá-taùt, phoøng xaù, y phuïc... cuûa taêng só. 2 Töùc laø leã tuïng giôùi moãi thaùng ñöôïc toå chöùc hai laàn trong caùc töï vieän.

Hay coøn goïi laø tröôøng höông, tröôøng haï... moät quy cheá vaãn ñöôïc tuaân thuû nghieâm ngaët cho ñeán ngaøy nay. 4 Prātimoksha, hay thöôøng goïi laø Cuï tuùc giôùi. Cuï tuùc: ñaày ñuû. Goïi nhö vaäy laø vì tröôùc khi thoï nhöõng giôùi naøy, ngöôøi xuaát gia phaûi qua moät giai ñoaïn thoï trì moät soá nhöõng giôùi luaät cô baûn khaùc (sa-di, sa-di ni), voán ñöôïc xem laø chöa ñaày ñuû.

Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

Tröôùc heát laø boán troïng giôùi,1 ngöôøi vi phaïm phaûi bò truïc xuaát khoûi taêng ñoaøn. Ñoù laø: daâm duïc, troäm caép, gieát ngöôøi2 vaø ñaïi voïng ngöõ.3 Tieáp ñeán laø 13 giôùi Taêng-taøn,4 caàn phaûi taïm ñình chæ tö caùch taêng só trong moät thôøi gian ngaén ñeå suy ngaãm vaø saùm hoái vieäc ñaõ laøm,5 trong ñoù coù 5 giôùi coù lieân quan ñeán söï daâm duïc, 2 giôùi veà vieäc kieán taïo choã ôû, vaø 6 giôùi coøn laïi laø toäi ly giaùn Taêng-giaø. Tieáp theo nöõa laø hai tröôøng hôïp phaïm giôùi lieân quan ñeán daâm duïc, caàn xöû lyù tuøy theo hoaøn caûnh phaïm toäi.6 ÔÛ möùc ñoä nheï hôn ñoâi chuùt laø 30 giôùi maø ngöôøi phaïm seõ bò maát quyeàn chia seû phaàn y phuïc thuoäc veà taêng ñoaøn, vaø theâm vaøo ñoù seõ phaûi ñoïa vaøo caùc ñöôøng aùc.7 Trong soá nhöõng ñieàu caám maø caùc giôùi naøy neâu ra, coù vieäc khoâng ñöôïc caát giöõ vaøng baïc, cuõng nhö khoâng ñöôïc tham gia caùc hoaït ñoäng buoân baùn, hoaëc chieám laøm cuûa rieâng nhöõng vaät duïng maø leõ ra phaûi thuoäc veà taêng ñoaøn. Tieáp ñeán laø 90 giôùi maø ngöôøi phaïm vaøo neáu khoâng saùm hoái seõ phaûi ñoïa vaøo caùc ñöôøng aùc. Caùc giôùi naøy lieân quan ñeán nhöõng ñieàu nhö noùi doái, cheâ bai, huûy baùng nhöõng taêng só khaùc. Caùc giôùi naøy cuõng quy ñònh moái quan heä giöõa ngöôøi xuaát gia vaø giôùi cö só, baèng caùch nghieâm caám vieäc tröïc tieáp truyeàn daïy giaùo lyù cho ngöôøi chöa xuaát gia,8 hoaëc khoâng ñöôïc ñem vieäc phaïm loãi cuûa moät vò taêng noùi cho moät ngöôøi theá tuïc bieát v.v... Nhöõng giôùi coøn laïi ñeà caäp ñeán raát nhieàu sai phaïm nhoû nhaët hôn, nhö caám 1

Ñöôïc goïi laø caùc giôùi ba-la-di, Haùn dòch nghóa laø Baát coäng truï (不共住), nghóa laø khoâng theå coøn soáng chung ñöôïc vôùi taêng chuùng. 2 Coù söï khaùc bieät giöõa giôùi luaät nguyeân thuûy vaø quan ñieåm Ñaïi thöøa ôû ñieåm naøy. Troïng giôùi ôû ñaây ñeà caäp ñeán vieäc gieát ngöôøi, coøn Ñaïi thöøa xem vieäc saùt sanh, töùc laø saùt haïi sanh maïng cuûa baát cöù loaøi naøo, ñeàu laø troïng toäi. 3 Ñaïi voïng ngöõ: doái gaït ngöôøi khaùc raèng mình ñaõ chöùng ñaéc thaùnh trí, ñaõ ngoä ñaïo... trong khi thaät söï khoâng ñöôïc nhö vaäy. Nhöõng ñieàu noùi doái khaùc khoâng ñöôïc xem laø ñaïi voïng ngöõ, vaø ñöôïc xeáp vaøo ñieàu luaät khaùc. 4 Ñöôïc goïi laø caùc giôùi Taêng-giaø baø-thi-sa (Sańghadisesa– 僧伽婆尸沙), cuõng goïi laø caùc giôùi Taêng taøn. Phaïm caùc giôùi naøy cuõng nhö ngöôøi bò cheùm maø chöa cheát haún, coøn coù theå cöùu soáng ñöôïc. Ñoù laø nhôø vieäc phaùt loä saùm hoái ñuùng phaùp tröôùc Taêng-giaø. 5 Khi chòu caùc hình thöùc xöû lyù naøy, ngöôøi phaïm giôùi taïm thôøi bò caùch ly khoûi taêng chuùng trong moät thôøi gian nhaát ñònh, keøm theo moät soá caùc quy ñònh khaùc phaûi thöïc hieän, nhö vieäc taùc phaùp saùm hoái...

First of all they list four offences which deserve expulsion, i.e. sexual intercourse, theft, murder, and the false claim to either supernatural powers or high spiritual attainments. Then follow thirteen lighter offences, which deserve suspension, and of which five concern sexual misconduct, two the building of huts, and the remaining six dissensions within the Order. The recitation then continues to enumerate two sexual offences which are “punishable according to the circumstances”, and after that come thirty offences which “involve forfeiture” of the right to share in garments belonging to the Order and which, in addition, make the offender liable to an unfavourable rebirth. They forbid, among other things, the handling of gold and silver, as well as trading activities, or the personal appropriation of goods intended for the community. Next there are ninety offences which, unless repented and expiated, will be punished by an unfavourable rebirth. They concern such things as telling lies, belittling or slandering other monks, they regulate the relations with the laity by forbidding “to teach the Scriptures word by word to an unordained person”, to tell laymen about the offences committed by monks, and so on. For the rest they concern a huge variety of misdemeanours, e.g. they forbid to destroy any kind of vegetation, to dig the earth, to drink alcoholic beverages, or to have a chair or bed made with legs higher than 6

Ñöôïc goïi laø 2 Baát ñònh phaùp (不定法). Ngöôøi phaïm giôùi naøy rôi vaøo tình huoáng khoâng xaùc ñònh roõ, coù theå bò xeáp vaøo nhieàu toäi danh khaùc nhau. Vieäc quyeát ñònh xeáp vaøo toäi danh naøo laø tuøy theo lôøi noùi cuûa ngöôøi ñaõ phaùt hieän ra vieäc phaïm giôùi aáy, chöù khoâng theo lôøi töï thuù cuûa ñöông söï. Ñöôïc goïi laø 30 giôùi Ni-taùt-kyø ba-daät-ñeà (Naihsargik-prāyascittika –尼薩耆波逸提), Haùn dòch nghóa laø Xaû ñoïa. Ñaây laø caùc giôùi lieân quan ñeán taøi vaät, ngöôøi phaïm giôùi tröôùc heát phaûi xaû boû taát caû taøi vaät lieân quan trong vieäc phaïm giôùi tröôùc chuùng taêng, sau ñoù chaân thaønh saùm hoái vaø nhaän caùc hình thöùc xöû lyù cuûa taäp theå. Ñaây laø quan ñieåm cuûa rieâng thôøi kyø naøy, nhö chuùng ta seõ thaáy nhöõng thay ñoåi veà sau cho pheùp giaùo phaùp ñöôïc truyeàn baù khoâng coù giôùi haïn.

Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

phaù haïi caây coái, caám ñaøo ñaát, caám duøng caùc chaát gaây say, nghieän, hoaëc ngoài, naèm treân giöôøng quaù cao.1 Taøi lieäu raát coøn ñöa ra boán giôùi phaïm vaøo phaûi töï noùi ra ñeå saùm hoái, 13 veà maãu möïc cuûa ngöôøi xuaát gia, vaø cuoái cuøng laø 7 quy taéc ñeå quyeát caùc tranh caõi.2

gaây xöa giôùi giaûi

Muïc ñích cuûa Luaät taïng laø taïo ra nhöõng ñieàu kieän lyù töôûng cho vieäc thieàn quaùn vaø xaû ly. Nhöõng giôùi luaät naøy thuùc ñaåy moät söï thoaùt ly hoaøn toaøn khoûi ñôøi soáng xaõ hoäi, khoûi nhöõng moái quan taâm vaø söï lo laéng cuûa theá tuïc, nhöõng aùi luyeán thöôøng tình vôùi gia ñình vaø hoï haøng. Keøm theo ñoù, vieäc ñoøi hoûi moät neáp soáng cöïc kyø ñôn giaûn vaø caàn kieäm laø nhaèm ñaûm baûo thoaùt khoûi söï phuï thuoäc, trong khi söï thoaùt ly gia ñình vaø buoâng boû taát caû taøi saûn laø nhaèm thuùc ñaåy vieäc döùt tröø tham aùi. Ban ñaàu, Taêng-giaø döôøng nhö chæ bao goàm nhöõng vò taêng khaát thöïc, nhaän thöùc aên cuûa tín thí trong caùc bình baùt vaø maëc y phuïc chaép vaù baèng nhöõng mieáng gieû ñaõ boû ñi, nguû nghæ trong röøng, trong hang ñaù hoaëc döôùi goác caây. Chæ vaøo muøa möa hoï môùi ngöøng ñi khaát thöïc vaø taäp trung laïi ôû moät nôi. Qua caùc thôøi kyø, tuy vaãn coøn moät soá ít caùc vò taêng só theo ñuoåi loái soáng kham khoå, ñôn giaûn cuûa thôøi kyø ñaàu,3 nhöng noùi chung, vôùi söï phaùt trieån maïnh meõ cuûa toân giaùo, taêng só ñaõ choïn caùch soáng taäp trung trong nhöõng töï vieän. Vôùi ñôøi soáng töï vieän, hoï vaãn khoâng baän taâm ñeán caùc vaán ñeà theá tuïc, nhöng traùnh ñöôïc nhöõng baát tieän cuûa moät cuoäc soáng khaát thöïc haèng ngaøy nhö tröôùc kia. Luaät taïng chæ keát taäp coù moät laàn, nhöng lòch söû toàn taïi veà sau laø caû moät quaù trình dung hôïp khoâng ngöøng giöõa hai yeáu toá: moät beân laø tính chaát baát bieán cuûa giôùi luaät, vaø moät beân laø thöïc tieãn xaõ hoäi vôùi baûn naêng sai phaïm cuûa con ngöôøi.4 1

Quy ñònh theo thöôùc coå laø moät thöôùc saùu phaân, moãi thöôùc baèng khoaûng 0,33 meùt. Nhö vaäy, giöôøng gheá khoâng ñöôïc cao quaù 0,5 ñeán 0,6 meùt. 2 Töùc laø Thaát dieät traùnh phaùp (七滅諍法). 3 Nhöõng vò taêng theo tröôøng phaùi goïi laø Phaät giaùo nguyeân thuûy. 4 Ñieàu naøy coù nghóa laø ñaõ coù nhöõng thay ñoåi nhaát ñònh khoâng traùnh khoûi trong Luaät taïng, vaø nhöõng thay ñoåi naøy bò giaèng co veà hai phía ñoái nghòch nhau. Moät maët, chuùng ñöôïc haïn cheá toái ña bôûi tính chaát baát bieán ñaõ ñöôïc thieát ñaët

eight inches. The obviously very archaic document then further gives four offences requiring confession, followed by thirteen rules of decorum, and it concludes with seven rules for the settling of disputes. The purpose of the Vinaya rules was to provide ideal conditions for meditation and renunciation. They try to enforce a complete withdrawal from social life, a separation from its interests and worries, and the rupture of all ties with family or clan. At the same time the insistence on extreme simplicity and frugality was meant to ensure independence, while the giving up of home and all property was intended to foster nonattachment. Originally, the Order seems to have been conceived as composed of wandering beggars, who ate food obtained as alms in their begging bowls, wore clothes made from rags picked up on rubbish heaps and dwelt in the forest, in caves or at the foot of trees. Only during the rainy season must they cease roaming about and stay in one and the same place. At all times a minority continued to aspire after the rigours of this primitive simplicity, but, generally speaking, with the increasing prosperity of the religion the monks settled down in monasteries which gave aloofness from social concerns without some of the inconveniences of the hand-to-mouth existence originally envisaged. The text of the Vinaya being fixed once and for all, its further history is one of constant compromises between its sacrosanct provisions on the one hand, and social realities and human fallibility on the other. töø ñaàu – tín ñoà Phaät giaùo thöøa nhaän raèng chæ coù ñöùc Phaät laø ngöôøi duy nhaát coù theå cheá ñònh giôùi luaät vaø söûa ñoåi giôùi luaät. Maët khaùc, thöïc tieãn xaõ hoäi vaø ngay caû nhöõng thay ñoåi veà taâm sinh lyù cuûa con ngöôøi qua caùc thôøi ñaïi ñoøi hoûi phaûi coù nhöõng söûa ñoåi nhaát ñònh trong giôùi luaät. Maâu thuaãn xung ñoät naøy cuoái cuøng daãn ñeán söï dung hoøa hôïp lyù nhaát coù theå ñöôïc chaáp nhaän, vaø ñoù laø nhöõng thay ñoåi taát yeáu cuûa Luaät taïng.

Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

3. GIAÙO LYÙ CÔ BAÛN

3. THE BASIC DOCTRINES

Chuùng ta ñaõ ñeà caäp khaù nhieàu ñeán vieäc tu taäp cuûa taêng só, vaäy coøn nhöõng giaùo lyù naøo ñöôïc daønh cho taát caû tín ñoà trong thôøi kyø ñaàu? Vaø khoâng nhöõng theá, coøn laø daønh cho taát caû tín ñoà cuûa nhöõng theá heä veà sau, cho duø hoï coù thöïc hieän nhöõng söûa ñoåi hoaëc theâm bôùt nhieàu ñeán ñaâu ñi chaêng nöõa.

So much about the practices of the monks. What then were the doctrines common to all the Buddhists of the first period, and shared not only by them but by all later Buddhists however much they might modify them by additions and reservations? They can be grouped under two main headings. They first of all propound a theory of salvation, showing the need for it, its nature and the methods necessary to attain it. They secondly concern the three "Jewels" or "Treasures", i.e. the Buddha, the Dharma and the Sańgha. In its core, Buddhism is a doctrine of salvation. The need for it arises from the hopelessly unsatisfactory character of the world in which we find ourselves. Buddhists take an extremely gloomy view of the conditions in which we have the misfortune to live. It is particularly the impermanence of everything in and around us that suggests the worthlessness of our worldly aspirations which in the nature of things can never lead to any lasting achievement or abiding satisfaction. In the end death takes away everything we managed to pile up and parts us from everything we cherished. How futile is the search for security in such surroundings, for happiness with such unsuitable materials! The joys and pleasures of the children of the world are exceedingly trivial and their choices and preferences betray little wisdom. They behave rather like the small child who finds a marble of exceeding beauty with a green spot on it, is overjoyed at having found it, and who, so as to make quite sure of not losing it again, proceeds straightaway to swallow the marble, with the result that his stomach has to be pumped out. Further, who would not be frightened if he realized all the pains and terrors to which he exposes himself by having a body! Suffering without end in a futile round of rebirths after

Giaùo lyù cô baûn coù theå toùm laïi theo hai höôùng chính. Tröôùc heát laø nhaèm ñöa ra lyù thuyeát veà söï giaûi thoaùt, noùi leân söï caàn thieát cuûa moät ñôøi soáng giaûi thoaùt, tính chaát cuûa giaûi thoaùt vaø caùc phöông phaùp caàn thieát ñeå ñaït ñeán giaûi thoaùt. Tieáp sau ñoù laø ñeà caäp ñeán Tam baûo: Phaät baûo, Phaùp baûo vaø Taêng baûo. Coát loõi cuûa ñaïo Phaät laø giaùo lyù giaûi thoaùt. Nhu caàu giaûi thoaùt phaùt sinh töø tính chaát khoâng thoûa maõn moät caùch voâ voïng cuûa ñôøi soáng. Phaät töû coù caùi nhìn heát söùc öu tö veà nhöõng ñieàu kieän khoå ñau trong cuoäc soáng. Chính söï voâ thöôøng cuûa vaïn vaät quanh ta laøm cho chuùng ta thaáy ñöôïc söï taàm thöôøng cuûa nhöõng tham voïng theá gian, maø baûn chaát cuûa vaïn vaät khoâng bao giôø coù theå ñem ñeán cho chuùng ta söï thaønh töïu laâu daøi hay thoûa maõn maõi maõi. Sau cuøng, caùi cheát seõ laáy ñi taát caû nhöõng gì chuùng ta ñaõ tìm caùch tích luõy ñöôïc, vaø taùch chuùng ta ra khoûi nhöõng gì ñang oâm aáp. Thaät laø voâ ích khi ñi tìm söï an toaøn vaø haïnh phuùc trong nhöõng hoaøn caûnh nhö vaäy! Nhöõng nieàm vui vaø laïc thuù cuûa con ngöôøi nhoû nhoi trong theá giôùi naøy thaät heát söùc taàm thöôøng, vaø söï choïn löïa, meâ ñaém cuûa hoï boäc loä roõ söï thieáu khoân ngoan. Hoï cö xöû chaúng khaùc gì ñöùa treû con tìm thaáy moät hoøn bi tuyeät ñeïp, quaù vui möøng khi coù ñöôïc hoøn bi, vaø ñeå ñaûm baûo laø khoâng bò maát ñi neân ñaõ nuoát ngay hoøn bi aáy, ñeå roài phaûi suùc ruoät... Hôn theá nöõa, coù ai laïi khoâng sôï haõi neáu nhaän thöùc ñöôïc taát caû nhöõng noãi ñau ñôùn vaø kinh hoaøng mình ñang phaûi gaùnh chòu khi coù moät xaùc thaân! Noãi ñau khoå voâ taän trong moät chuoãi luaân hoài1 trieàn mieân voâ ích laø soá phaän cuûa nhöõng con ngöôøi taàm thöôøng. Vaø söï gheâ sôï nhöõng ñau khoå ñoù chính laø ñoäng löïc thoâi 1

Samsādra 38

Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

thuùc ñi ñeán söï giaûi thoaùt. Nhöõng tu só Phaät giaùo laø nhöõng ngöôøi gheâ sôï noãi khoå sanh töû, neân ñaõ töø boû ñôøi soáng gia ñình ñeå coù theå ñaït ñöôïc giaûi thoaùt. Neáu chuùng ta hoûi tieáp veà nguyeân nhaân cuûa tình traïng khoå ñau khoâng theå traùnh khoûi trong cuoäc ñôøi naøy, thì caâu traû lôøi laø khoâng do baát cöù moät theá löïc beân ngoaøi naøo, hoaëc moät soá phaän, moät thaàn linh aùc ñoäc naøo... aùp ñaët, maø nguyeân nhaân ñích thöïc laø do yeáu toá töï taâm cuûa chuùng ta. Yeáu toá naøy ñöôïc moâ taû theo nhöõng caùch khaùc nhau nhö laø loøng tham duïc, söï chaáp ngaõ, voâ minh, hay cuõng ñöôïc goïi laø taø kieán. Khoâng chæ loøng ham muoán duïc laïc, tieàn baïc, ñòa vò xaõ hoäi hay quyeàn löïc ñöôïc cho laø coù khuynh höôùng bieán chuùng ta thaønh noâ leä cho nhöõng söùc maïnh maø khoâng coù chuùt hy voïng naøo coù theå duøng vaøo muïc ñích coù lôïi, maø baát cöù hình thöùc ham muoán naøo cuõng bò ngöôøi Phaät töû quy cho laø nguyeân nhaân huûy dieät söï töï do trong noäi taâm vaø tính ñoäc laäp cuûa chuùng ta. Töø moät goùc ñoä khaùc hôn, chuùng ta coù theå noùi raèng toaøn boä nhöõng ñau khoå cuûa chuùng ta ñöôïc sinh ra töø thoùi quen muoán chieám höõu moät phaàn cuûa vuõ truï nhö theå ñoù laø cuûa rieâng mình, vaø luùc naøo cuõng muoán ñöa ra nhöõng tuyeân boá chieám höõu kieåu nhö “Caùi naøy cuûa toâi”, “Toâi laø theá naøy...”, “Ñaây laø baûn thaân toâi.”... Giaùo lyù caên baûn cuûa Phaät giaùo cho raèng töø ngöõ “toâi” maø chuùng ta noùi ra ñoù khoâng heà coù yù nghóa chaân thaät, raèng baûn ngaõ chæ laø do taâm töôûng chuùng ta hö caáu neân, vaø vì theá maø trong khi chaïy theo caùi baûn ngaõ khoâng thaät ñoù, chuùng ta ñaõ phaûi ñaùnh maát ñi haïnh phuùc chaân thaät ñeå ñoåi laáy moät ñieàu hoaøn toaøn töôûng töôïng. Sau cuøng, Phaät giaùo khaùc vôùi Thieân Chuùa giaùo ôû choã Phaät giaùo xeùt caên nguyeân cuûa moïi ñieàu xaáu xa do “voâ minh”1 chöù khoâng do “toäi loãi”; do söï nhaän thöùc sai laàm, chöù khoâng do vieäc haønh ñoäng theo yù muoán vaø choáng ñoái. 1

rebirths (samsāra), that is the lot of ordinary people and the revulsion from it is the spur to salvation. The Buddhist ascetics were men who in fear of birth and death had left home life to gain salvation. If next we ask for the cause of this unsatisfactory state of affairs, we are told that it is not imposed upon us by any outside force, by some fate or malevolent deity, but that it is due to some factor in our own mental constitution. This factor is variously described as “craving”, the “belief in a separate self, “ignorance” or adherence to the “perverted views”. Not only the craving for sense-pleasures, for money, social position or power is apt to put us in bondage to the forces which we vainly hope to use for our own ends, but any form of desire whatsoever is condemned by Buddhists as destructive of our inward freedom and independence. From another angle we may say that the whole of our unhappiness stems from the habit of trying to appropriate some part of the universe as if it were our “own” and to say of as many things as we can that “This is mine, I am this, This is myself." It is a fundamental teaching of Buddhism that this word “self” does not correspond to a real fact, that the self is fictitious and that therefore by our self-seeking we sacrifice our true welfare to a mere fiction.

Ñöôïc hieåu laø söï meâ muoäi, khoâng hieåu ñuùng nhö thaät veà baûn chaát cuûa vaïn phaùp.

Finally, Buddhism differs from Christianity in that it sees the root cause of all evil in “ignorance” and not in “sin”, in an act of intellectual misapprehension and not in an act of volition and rebellion.

Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

Veà moät ñònh nghóa thieát thöïc cuûa voâ minh, chuùng ta coù theå xem ñoù laø boán taø kieán1 laøm cho ta ñi tìm söï thöôøng toàn trong choã voâ thöôøng, tìm söï thanh thaûn trong choã ñau khoå khoâng theå taùch rôøi, tìm caùi “toâi” trong choã chaúng lieân quan gì ñeán baûn ngaõ chaân thaät, vaø tìm vui thuù trong choã thaät ra chæ toaøn laø söï gheâ tôûm ñaùng chaùn gheùt.2 Leõ dó nhieân tình theá seõ laø hoaøn toaøn tuyeät voïng, neáu nhö theá giôùi khoå ñau naøy vaø voøng luaân hoài sanh töû laø bao goàm toaøn boä thöïc taïi. Nhöng thöïc teá khoâng phaûi vaäy. Vöôït ra ngoaøi nöõa coøn coù moät caûnh giôùi khaùc goïi laø Nieát-baøn, moät traïng thaùi sieâu nhieân vöôït khoûi nhöõng hieåu bieát vaø kinh nghieäm thoâng thöôøng, vaø chuùng ta khoâng theå noùi gì veà caûnh giôùi aáy, ngoaïi tröø moät vieäc laø taát caû nhöõng gì xaáu xa ñeàu ñaõ chaám döùt cuøng vôùi nhöõng nguyeân nhaân vaø haäu quaû cuûa chuùng. Tín ñoà Phaät giaùo thöôøng ít chuù taâm ñeán vieäc ñònh nghóa Nieát-baøn laø gì, maø quan taâm nhieàu hôn ñeán vieäc töï mình chöùng nghieäm caûnh giôùi aáy. Vaø hoï laïi caøng khoâng thích noùi roõ veà nhöõng ngöôøi ñaõ chöùng ñaéc Nieát-baøn. Theá giôùi naøy thöôøng ñöôïc ví nhö ngoâi nhaø ñang chaùy, vaø nhöõng ai tænh taùo ñeàu phaûi coá thoaùt ra khoûi ñoù. Nhöng neáu coõi luaân hoài naøy gioáng nhö moät ngoïn löûa, thì Nieát-baøn gioáng nhö traïng thaùi coù ñöôïc sau khi daäp taét ngoïn löûa ñoù. Như chuùng ta ñoïc thaáy trong kinh Nipāta,3 moät trong nhöõng baûn kinh coå xöa: “Nhö ngoïn löûa do gioù thoåi buøng leân Khi taét ñi, ñeán choã khoâng ai ñeán ñöôïc. Baäc hieàn giaû tòch tònh, Thoaùt khoûi danh saéc, ñaït cöùu caùnh, Cuõng ñeán caûnh giôùi khoâng ai ñeán ñöôïc. Traêm ngaøn söï lyù thaûy ñeàu khoâng, Muoân lôøi chæ giaùo cuõng im baët.” 1 2

Viparyāsa-catuksa

As a working definition of ignorance we are offered the four “perverted views” (viparyāsa) which make us seek for permanence in what is inherently impermanent, ease in what is inseparable from suffering, selfhood in what is not linked to any self, and delight in what is essentially repulsive and disgusting. The situation would, of course, be entirely hopeless if this world of suffering and Samsara comprised the whole extent of reality. In fact this is not so, and beyond it there is something else, which is called Nirvāṇa, a transcendental state which is quite beyond the ken of ordinary experience, and of which nothing can be said except that in it all ills have ceased, together with their causes and consequences. Buddhists are less intent on defining this Nirvāṇa, than on realizing it within themselves. And they are very much averse to making positive statements about the man who has gone to Nirvāṇa. This world is often compared to a house on fire, which everyone in his senses will try to escape from. But if the samsaric world is like a fire, then Nirvāṇa is like the state which results from the extinction of that fire. As we read in the Sutta Nipāta (1074, 1079), one of our more ancient texts: As flame flung on by force of wind Comes to its end, reaches what none can sum; the silent sage, released, From name-and-form, goes to the goal, Reaches the state that none can sum. When all conditions are removed. All ways of telling also are removed.

Töùc laø boán tính chaát bao truøm vaïn phaùp, maø vì khoâng nhaän ra ñöôïc neân con ngöôøi chöa theå ñaït ñeán giaûi thoaùt. Ñoù laø nhöõng tính chaát: voâ thöôøng, khoå, voâ

ngaõ vaø baát tònh. Khi ñaït ñeán caûnh giôùi cuûa söï giaûi thoaùt, boán tính chaát naøy trôû thaønh: thöôøng, laïc, ngaõ vaø tònh. 3 Sutta Nipāta, 1074, 1079.

Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

Bôûi vì moïi nguyeân nhaân cuûa toäi loãi ñeàu naèm trong chính ta, neân ta coù theå baèng vaøo nhöõng noã löïc cuûa chính mình ñeå loaïi tröø chuùng, chæ caàn ta bieát caùch thöïc hieän ñieàu ñoù. Nhö moät thaày thuoác gioûi, ñöùc Phaät ñaõ cho chuùng ta raát nhieàu phöông thuoác ñeå chöõa trò voâ soá caùc chöùng beänh. ÔÛ möùc ñoä cô baûn, nhöõng phöông phaùp giaûi thoaùt cuûa Phaät giaùo cuõng coù veû töông töï nhö moät soá toân giaùo khaùc. Tröôùc heát, ngöôøi tin Phaät phaûi thöïc hieän moät vaøi haïnh laønh trong ñôøi soáng haèng ngaøy. Ngöôøi aáy phaûi vaâng giöõ theo naêm giôùi, ñoù laø khoâng gieát haïi sinh maïng, khoâng troäm caép, khoâng taø daâm,1 khoâng noùi doái vaø khoâng duøng nhöõng chaát gaây nghieän. Tieáp ñeán, ngöôøi aáy phaûi chuù yù veà ngheà nghieäp cuûa mình. Ví duï, nhöõng ngöôøi baùn thòt, nhöõng ngöôøi ñaùnh caù... ñeàu thöôøng xuyeân phaïm vaøo giôùi thöù nhaát, vaø do ñoù chuùng ta khoâng mong hoï coù theå ñaït thaønh quaû taâm linh cao. Coù nhöõng ngheà nghieäp khaùc ít nguy haïi ñeán phaàn taâm linh hôn, nhöng an toaøn vaø hieäu quaû nhaát laø trôû thaønh moät vò tyø-kheo soáng khoâng gia ñình, khoâng taøi saûn vaø moïi nhu caàu vaät chaát chæ hoaøn toaøn döïa vaøo ngöôøi khaùc. Nhöng moät khi nhöõng neàn moùng ñaïo ñöùc ñaõ ñöôïc thieát laäp, nhöõng noã löïc coøn laïi cuûa ngöôøi hoïc Phaät laø nhaèm vaøo söï reøn luyeän taâm trí, vaøo caùc phöông thöùc tu taäp thieàn ñònh khaùc nhau. Thieàn laø moät pheùp tu taäp taâm yù, nhaèm thöïc hieän ba muïc ñích rieâng bieät nhöng coù lieân heä chaët cheõ vôùi nhau: 1. Muïc ñích thöù nhaát laø giuùp ngöôøi tu taäp töø boû söï chuù yù thoâng thöôøng vaøo nhöõng caûm xuùc lieân tuïc thay ñoåi do caùc giaùc quan gaây ra vaø nhöõng yù töôûng taäp trung vaøo töï thaân.2 2. Muïc ñích thöù hai laø noã löïc thay ñoåi söï chuù yù töø theá giôùi giaùc quan ñeán moät caûnh giôùi khaùc thanh cao hôn, vaø nhôø 1

ÔÛ ñaây ngaên caûn söï taø daâm, nghóa laø vieäc thöïc hieän haønh vi daâm duïc vôùi moät ngöôøi khaùc khoâng phaûi laø vôï hoaëc choàng mình. Ñoái vôùi ngöôøi xuaát gia thì phaûi boû haún söï daâm duïc. 2 Pheùp tu naøy nhaèm döøng taát caû moïi voïng nieäm, vaø ñöôïc goïi laø Chæ.

Since the causes of all evil lie within ourselves, we ourselves can, by our own efforts, rid ourselves of them, if we only know how to go about it. Like a good physician the Buddha has given us a profusion of remedies for the great variety of our ailments. On their lower levels the Buddhist methods of salvation are similar to those found in other religions. A man must first of all bring some morality into his daily life, and he must observe the “five precepts” which forbid killing, stealing, sexual misconduct, lying and the use of intoxicants. Next he must take care how he earns his living. Butchers, fishermen, or soldiers, for instance, break the first precept all the time, and little spirituality can be expected of them. Other occupations are less perilous to the soul, but the safest and most fruitful is that of a homeless and propertyless monk who relies on others for all his material needs. But once the moral foundations are laid, the remainder of the Buddhist efforts consist in mental training, in meditations of various kinds. Meditation is a mental training which is carried out for three distinct, but interconnected, purposes: 1. It aims at a withdrawal of attention from its normal preoccupation with constantly changing sensory stimuli and ideas centred on oneself. 2. It aims at effecting a shift of attention from the sensory world to another, subtler realm, thereby calming the turmoils of the mind. Sense-based knowledge is 45

Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

ñoù laøm dòu ñi söï loaïn ñoäng trong taâm trí. Nhöõng hieåu bieát döïa vaøo giaùc quan thöôøng laøm cho chuùng ta khoâng thoûa maõn, cuõng gioáng nhö moät ñôøi soáng chæ döïa vaøo giaùc quan. Nhöõng gì thuoäc veà giaùc quan vaø kinh nghieäm quaù khöù thuoäc loaïi naøy laø khoâng xaùc thöïc, voâ boå, raát taàm thöôøng vaø haàu heát laø khoâng ñaùng quan taâm. Chæ coù söï hieåu bieát duy nhaát ñaùng giaù laø söï hieåu bieát ñöôïc khaùm phaù nhôø thieàn quaùn, khi caùnh cöûa caùc giaùc quan ñaõ ñöôïc ñoùng laïi. Chaân lyù cuûa thaùnh giaùo naøy phaûi vöôït ra ngoaøi theá giôùi phaøm tuïc vôùi nhöõng tri thöùc döïa treân giaùc quan vaø taàm nhìn giôùi haïn bôûi nhöõng caûm giaùc.1 3. Muïc ñích thöù ba cuûa thieàn laø hoøa nhaäp vaøo chính thöïc taïi sieâu vieät caùc giaùc quan, töï do giong ruoåi giöõa nhöõng gì vöôït ngoaøi tri thöùc vaø kinh nghieäm cuûa con ngöôøi, vaø söï tìm kieám naøy ñöa thieàn ñeán vôùi taùnh khoâng nhö laø moät thöïc taïi toái thöôïng. Trong thuaät ngöõ cuûa Phaät giaùo, böôùc ñaàu tieân ñöôïc goïi laø chaùnh nieäm,2 böôùc tieáp theo laø chaùnh ñònh,3 vaø böôùc thöù ba laø trí hueä.4 Söï lieân heä giöõa ba pheùp tu ñöôïc chæ roõ trong sô ñoà sau:

as inherently unsatisfactory as a sense-based life. Sensory and historical facts as such are uncertain, unfruitful, trivial, and largely a matter of indifference. Only that is worth knowing which is discovered in meditation, when the doors of the senses are closed. The truths of this holy religion must elude the average worldling with his sense-based knowledge, and his sense-bounded horizon. 3. It aims at penetrating into the suprasensory reality itself, at roaming about among the transcendental facts, and this quest leads it to Emptiness as the one ultimate reality. In Buddhist terminology, the first preliminary step is known as “mindfulness’ (smŗti), which is followed then by “ecstatic trance” (samādhi) and “wisdom” (prajñā). The relation of the three is indicated by the following diagram: Mindfulness

Chaùnh nieäm

A Calming down

Tónh taâm

Quaùn chieáu

Chaùnh ñònh

Ecstatic

Trí hueä

Noäi taâm töï giaùc

Insight

Wisdom

An objectless inwardness

Chaân khoâng voâ töôùng

An unsubstantial emptiness

Nirvāṇa

Nieát-baøn 1

Pheùp tu naøy nhaèm quaùn saùt, nhaän ra nhöõng gì maø tri thöùc theá tuïc khoâng theå ñaït ñeán ñöôïc, vaø ñöôïc goïi laø Quaùn.

Smŗti Samādhi 4 Prajñā 3

Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

Ñaây laø söï phaân loaïi vieäc tu thieàn theo muïc ñích nhaém ñeán. Theo moät caùch khaùc, thieàn coù theå ñöôïc xeáp loaïi theo ñoái töôïng hoaëc chuû ñeà. Coù khaù nhieàu chuû ñeà nhö vaäy ñöôïc ñöa ra cho ngöôøi tu taäp, vaø ngöôøi aáy coù theå choïn löïa tuøy theo naêng löïc tinh thaàn vaø khuynh höôùng cuûa mình. Coù quaù nhieàu khaû naêng choïn löïa ñeán noãi khoâng sao coù theå keå heát ra ñaây. Trong soá naøy coù theå keå ñeán nhöõng caùch luyeän hôi thôû khaù ñôn giaûn theo kieåu Du-giaø, söï quaùn saùt 32 phaàn trong cô theå, söï suy ngaãm veà xaùc cheát qua caùc giai ñoaïn thoái röõa khaùc nhau, söï tænh thöùc quaùn saùt noäi taâm ñeå nhaän bieát caùc tieán trình taâm linh ñang dieãn ra, cho duø ñoù laø thoï caûm, tö töôûng, nhöõng trôû ngaïi ñoái vôùi söï chuù taâm, hay laø nhöõng yeáu toá giuùp ñaït ñeán giaùc ngoä. Tieáp ñeán coøn coù vieäc boài ñaép nhöõng tình caûm xaõ hoäi nhö tình thaân höõu vaø loøng töø bi, nieäm töôûng ñeán söï cao quyù cuûa Tam baûo, söï quaùn töôûng veà caùi cheát vaø nieàm khao khaùt ñaït ñeán Nieát-baøn. Moät ñeà taøi raát ñöôïc öa chuoäng cuûa vieäc thieàn quaùn laø möôøi hai maét xích vôùi töông quan sinh khôûi laãn nhau,1 cho thaáy voâ minh daãn ñeán caùc yeáu toá khaùc cuûa söï toàn taïi trong theá giôùi traàn tuïc ñöôïc keát thuùc baèng giaø vaø cheát nhö theá naøo, vaø ngöôïc laïi söï tröø dieät voâ minh seõ daãn ñeán caùc yeáu toá naøy dieät ñi nhö theá naøo.2 Nhöõng phöông phaùp thieàn quaùn khaùc laïi coá taïo aán töôïng trong taâm trí chuùng ta veà baûn chaát voâ thöôøng cuûa vaïn höõu, laøm boäc loä hoaøn toaøn söï ñau khoå, chöùng minh söï voâ nghóa cuûa khaùi nieäm sai laàm veà “töï ngaõ”, nuoâi döôõng söï quaùn chieáu trong noäi taâm veà taùnh khoâng, vaø phaùt loä nhöõng neùt ñaëc thuø cuûa con ñöôøng daãn ñeán giaûi thoaùt. Thöïc ra, döôøng nhö coù voâ soá nhöõng phöông thöùc thieàn quaùn ñaõ ñöôïc xaùc ñònh laø thuoäc veà thôøi kyø ñaàu tieân cuûa Phaät giaùo, maëc duø ñieàu roõ raøng laø phaûi sang thôøi kyø thöù hai môùi coù moät söï saép xeáp heä thoáng naøo ñoù ñöôïc aùp duïng cho nhöõng phöông thöùc naøy. Töø ñaây noùi ñeán Tam baûo.3 Ñöùc Phaät laø quan troïng nhaát, laø 1

Töùc laø Thaäp nhò nhaân duyeân (Pratītya-samutpāda), goàm coù voâ minh, haønh, thöùc, danh saéc, luïc caên, xuùc, thuï, aùi, thuû, höõu, sinh vaø laõo töû. 2 Moái quan heä sinh dieät naøy ñöôïc theå hieän khaù roõ neùt trong taâm kinh Baùtnhaõ.

This is the classification of the meditations according to their purpose. From another point of view they can be classified according to their subjects or topics. A considerable number of such topics were offered to the aspirant, and his choice among them depends on his mental endowments and proclivities. So vast is the range of the possibilities offered that they cannot possibly be even enumerated here. There we have relatively simple breathing exercises of the Yogic type, a survey of the “thirty-two parts of the body”, the contemplation of corpses in various degrees of decomposition, an introspective awareness of our mental processes as they go along, be they feelings, thoughts, or the hindrances to concentration, or the factors which make for enlightenment. Then there is the cultivation of the social emotions, such as friendliness and compassion, the recollection of the virtues of the three Jewels, the meditation on death and the aspiration for Nirvāṇa. A favourite subject of meditation are the twelve links of the chain of conditioned co-production (pratyaya- samutpādā)., which shows how ignorance leads to the other factors of worldly existence ending in old age and death and how, conversely, the extinction of ignorance must lead to the extinction of all these factors. Other meditations again try to impress on our minds the facts of the impermanence of all conditioned things, to show up the full extent of suffering, demonstrate the inanity of the term “self”, to foster insight into emptiness and to reveal the characteristic features of the path which leads to salvation. In fact, there seems to be almost no limit to the number of meditational devices which are attested for the first period of Buddhism, although it was apparently only in the second period that some systematic order was imposed upon them. Now as to the Three Jewels, the Buddha is essential to this 3

Tam baûo bao goàm: Phaät, Phaùp vaø Taêng.

Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

ngöôøi saùng laäp Phaät giaùo, ngöôøi ñaûm baûo cho söï chaân thaät vaø ñaùng tin caäy cuûa giaùo lyù ngaøi truyeàn daïy baèng vaøo thöïc teá laø chính ngaøi ñaõ hoaøn toaøn giaùc ngoä. Ngaøi ñaõ nhaän thöùc roõ ñöôïc baûn chaát, yù nghóa cuûa cuoäc soáng theá tuïc vaø ñaõ tìm ra ñöôïc con ñöôøng chaéc chaén ñeå thoaùt ra khoûi ñoù. Ngaøi khaùc vôùi nhöõng con ngöôøi khaùc ôû choã laø ñaõ töï mình tìm ra chaân lyù vaø bieát ñöôïc taát caû nhöõng gì caàn thieát ñeå ñaït ñöôïc söï giaûi thoaùt. Vieäc ngaøi coù hieåu bieát taát caû caùc söï vieäc khaùc, nghóa laø baäc Nhaát thieát trí1 theo nghóa ñaày ñuû nhaát cuûa cuïm töø naøy hay khoâng, vaãn coøn laø moät vaán ñeà tranh caõi giöõa caùc boä phaùi. Nhöng taát caû ñeàu ñoàng yù vôùi nhau raèng ngaøi thoâng hieåu taát caû nhöõng gì caàn thieát ñeå ñaït ñöôïc söï an laïc toái thöôïng, vaø vì theá, ñoái vôùi nhöõng vaán ñeà taâm linh thì ngaøi coù theå laøm moät ngöôøi daãn ñöôøng chaéc chaén vaø khoâng theå sai laàm.

religion as its founder who guarantees the truth and reliability of the teaching by the fact that He is “fully enlightened”. He has awoken to the nature and meaning of life and has found a definite way out of it. He differs from all other people in that He has by Himself found the truth, and that He knows everything that is necessary to salvation. Whether He knew also all other things, i.e. whether he was omniscient in the full sense of the term, was a matter of dispute among the sects. There was, however, general agreement that He knew everything needful for the attainment of final peace and that therefore He could in spiritual matters act as a sure and infallible guide.

Baûn thaân danh töø Phaät2 khoâng phaûi laø moät teân rieâng, maø laø moät danh xöng, hay moät töø moâ taû, coù nghóa laø baäc toaøn giaùc. Töø naøy moâ taû traïng thaùi cuûa ngöôøi ñaõ hoaøn toaøn thoâng suoát moïi vaán ñeà taâm linh ñoái vôùi vaïn höõu, hay noùi caùch khaùc laø baûn chaát cuûa thöïc taïi. Teân rieâng cuûa ñöùc Phaät theo lòch söû laø Coà-ñaøm,3 hoaëc Taát-ñaït-ña,4 vaø goïi theo toäc hoï cuûa ngaøi laø Thích-ca Maâu-ni,5 coù nghóa laø “Baäc hieàn giaû cuûa doøng hoï Thích-ca”.6 Nhöng tieåu söû caù nhaân ngaøi khoâng phaûi laø ñieàu ñöôïc Phaät giaùo quan taâm nhieàu nhaát. Söï cao quyù cuûa ngaøi ñoái vôùi toân giaùo naøy naèm ôû söï truyeàn daïy giaùo phaùp taâm linh. Vieäc moät ngöôøi ñöôïc nhìn ñoàng thôøi töø hai goùc ñoä7 nhö theá naøy laø thoâng thöôøng ñoái vôùi caùc vò laõnh tuï toân giaùo nhieàu uy tín ôû chaâu AÙ. Trong nhöõng naêm gaàn ñaây, chuùng ta cuõng gaëp moät tröôøng hôïp nhö vaäy vôùi Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, ngöôøi cuõng ñoàng thôøi ñöôïc goïi laø Mahatma, “Ngöôøi coù taâm hoàn vó ñaïi”, moät danh xöng ñeå chæ cho söùc maïnh tinh thaàn ñöôïc tieàm taøng trong moät caù nhaân ñaëc bieät.

The word “Buddha” itself is, of course, not a proper name, but a title, or epithet, which means the “Enlightened One”. It refers to the condition of a man who was a completely unobstructed channel for the spiritual force of Dharma, or Reality itself. The personal name of the historical Buddha was Gautama, or Siddhartha, and after His tribe He is often called Sakyamuni, “the sage from the tribe of the Sakyas”. With the historical individual the Buddhist religion is not greatly concerned. His value to the religion lay in His transmission of the spiritual teachings about Dharma. A duality of this kind is normal in authoritative Asian religious leaders. In recent years we have met it again in Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, who at the same time was the Mahatma, the “Great-souled One”, a word for the spiritual force which worked through that particular individual.

Thuaät ngöõ naøy coù nghóa laø baäc hieåu bieát heát thaûy moïi söï vieäc trong vaïn höõu. 2 Phaät (佛) laø phieân aâm theo aâm Haùn Vieät töø tieáng Phaïn laø Buddha, cuõng ñoïc laø Phaät-ñaø. Khi ñaïo Phaät truyeàn sang nöôùc ta hoài ñaàu Coâng nguyeân, töø naøy ñaõ töøng ñöôïc phieân aâm tröïc tieáp sang tieáng Vieät laø Buït.

Gautama

Siddhārta, cuõng ñoïc laø Só-ñaït-ta 5 Śākyamuni 6 Śākya 7

Töùc laø töø goùc ñoä con ngöôøi traàn tuïc vaø goùc ñoä con ngöôøi thieâng lieâng.

Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

Hieåu nhö vaäy thì caù nhaân con ngöôøi ñöôïc goïi laø Coà-ñaøm hay Thích-ca Maâu-ni, theo moät caùch naøo ñoù, laø cuøng toàn taïi vôùi nguyeân lyù tinh thaàn cuûa taùnh Phaät, voán thöôøng ñöôïc goïi vôùi nhieàu teân khaùc nhau nhö laø Nhö Lai, hay Phaùp thaân, hay Phaät taùnh. Tuy nhieân, tín ñoà Phaät giaùo luoân cho raèng moái quan heä chính xaùc giöõa caù nhaân ñöùc Phaät vaø nhöõng giaù trò thieâng lieâng veà maët taâm linh cuûa ngaøi laø khoâng theå xaùc ñònh ñöôïc. Töø tröôùc ñeán nay tín ñoà Phaät giaùo cuõng luoân choáng laïi khuynh höôùng cuûa nhöõng ngöôøi chuû tröông khoâng taùi sanh laø chæ ñaët nieàm tin vaøo moät con ngöôøi thöïc söï hieän höõu trong cuoäc ñôøi, vaø tín ñoà Phaät giaùo cuõng tìm moïi caùch ñeå laøm giaûm ñi taàm quan troïng veà hieän thaân traàn tuïc cuûa ñöùc Phaät. Chính baûn thaân ñöùc Phaät ñöôïc cho laø ñaõ töøng noùi vôùi Vakkali raèng: “Naøy Vakkali! Con thaáy gì trong caùi xaùc thaân heøn moïn naøy cuûa ta? Ai thaáy ñöôïc taâm phaùp hay giaùo phaùp, ngöôøi aáy nhìn thaáy ta; ai thaáy ta töùc laø thaáy taâm phaùp. Naøy Vakkali, ngöôøi thaáy Phaùp laø thaáy Nhö Lai; thaáy Nhö Lai töùc laø thaáy Phaùp”. Nhö moät bieåu töôïng cho chö Phaät, neân ñöùc Phaät cuûa chuùng ta khoâng phaûi laø moät hieän töôïng rieâng leû, maø laø moät trong nhöõng ñöùc Phaät ñaõ töøng xuaát hieän ôû theá giôùi naøy trong nhieàu kieáp. Söï hieåu bieát veà nhöõng vò Phaät khoâng ñöôïc ghi nhaän trong lòch söû aáy döôøng nhö ngaøy caøng gia taêng theo thôøi gian. Ban ñaàu coù baûy vò, roài sau ñoù chuùng ta ñöôïc nghe ñeán 24 vò, vaø cöù nhö vaäy, con soá naøy vaãn tieáp tuïc gia taêng. Baûy vò Phaät, hay Thaát Phaät, goàm coù Phaät Thích-ca Maâu-ni vaø saùu vò Phaät ñaõ ra ñôøi tröôùc ngaøi, raát thöôøng xuaát hieän trong ngheä thuaät. ÔÛ mieàn Bharhut vaø Sanchi laø nhöõng thaùp Phaät vaø caây Boà-ñeà cuûa caùc vò aáy, coøn ôû Gandhara, Mathura vaø Ajanta trong suoát thôøi kyø thöù hai laø theo hình daïng con ngöôøi, vaø haàu nhö raát khoù phaân bieät ñöôïc söï khaùc nhau giöõa hình töôïng caùc vò Phaät naøy. Chæ ñeán cuoái thôøi kyø thöù nhaát, ngöôøi ta môùi chuyeån söï chuù yù sang ñeán hai vò Phaät khaùc nöõa. Vôùi söï phaùt trieån cuûa giaùo thuyeát veà caùc vò Boà Taùt,1 xuaát hieän theâm ñöùc Phaät Nhieân Ñaêng,2 ñaõ coù tröôùc ñöùc Thích-ca Maâu-ni 24 ñôøi, vaø laø vò Phaät thoï kyù3 cho ñöùc

In this way the individual, called Gautama or Sakyamuni, somehow coexists with the spiritual principle of Buddhahood, which is variously called the “Tathagata”, or “the Dharma-body” or “the Buddha-nature”. The Buddhists have, however, always maintained that the exact relation between His individual and His spiritual sides cannot be defined. They have also consistently opposed the tendencies of the unregenerate to put their faith into a living actual person and have done everything to belittle the importance of the Buddha’s actual physical existence. It is the Buddha Himself who is reported to have said to Vakkali: “What is there, Vakkali, in seeing this vile body of mine? Whoso sees the spiritual Law, or Dharma, he sees me; whoso sees me sees the spiritual Dharma. Seeing Dharma, Vakkali, he sees me; seeing me, he sees Dharma.” As the manifestation of a type, the “historical Buddha” is not an isolated phenomenon, but one of a series of Buddhas who appear in this world throughout the ages. Knowledge of the non-historical Buddhas seems to have grown as time went on. Originally there were seven, then we hear of twenty-four, and so the number steadily increased. The “seven Buddhas”, i.e. Sakyamuni and His six predecessors, are frequently represented in art - in Bharhut and Sanchi by Their stupas and Bodhi-trees, in Gandhara, Mathura and Ajanta during our second period in human form, each nearly indistinguishable from the other. It was only towards the end of the first period that interest shifted to two other non-historical Buddhas. With the development of the Bodhisattva-theory (see ch. II sec. 1) comes Dīpaṃkara, Sakyamuni’s twenty-fourth predecessor, under whom He first resolved to become a Buddha. With the spread of pessimism 2

Xem chöông II, phaàn 1

Dīpaṃkara

Thoï kyù: noùi tröôùc moät caùch chaéc chaén veà söï thaønh Phaät sau naøy.

Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

Thích-ca Maâu-ni. Cuøng vôùi söï lan truyeàn moät döï baùo khoâng hay veà söï toàn taïi sau naøy cuûa giaùo phaùp ñöùc Phaät Thích-ca,1 ñaõ xuaát hieän vieäc thôø kính ñöùc Phaät Di-laëc, moät vò Phaät töông lai, ngöôøi seõ laøm cho giaùo phaùp taùi hieän vôùi moät söùc soáng môùi. Trong thôøi kyø naøy, tieåu söû cuûa ñöùc Phaät Thích-ca Maâu-ni – nhö moät con ngöôøi bình thöôøng – ít ñöôïc quan taâm ñeán. Thaät khoù maø taùi hieän ñöôïc nhöõng söï kieän trong cuoäc ñôøi ngaøi baèng vaøo nhöõng chi tieát chuùng ta hieän coù. Söï chuù yù chæ ñöôïc taäp trung vaøo hai giai ñoaïn trong cuoäc ñôøi ngaøi, coù yù nghóa lôùn nhaát ñoái vôùi tín ñoà. Ñoù laø giai ñoaïn ngaøi ñaït ñeán söï chöùng ngoä, phaù tan böùc maøn voâ minh; vaø nhöõng ngaøy cuoái khi ngaøi nhaäp Nieát-baøn, hoaøn taát söï chieán thaéng caùi cheát vaø theá giôùi traàn tuïc. Veà nhöõng giai ñoaïn khaùc trong ñôøi ngaøi, coù veû nhö phaàn lôùn nhöõng gì chuùng ta bieát ñöôïc tröôùc heát laø nhôø ôû moät phaàn trong Luaät taïng, theo truyeàn thoáng ñöôïc bao goàm moät baûn ghi cheùp baét ñaàu töø vieäc ñeà caäp ñeán toäc hoï cuûa ngaøi vaø söï ñaûn sanh kyø dieäu, roài tieáp tuïc cho ñeán luùc nhaäp Nieát-baøn, ñeán truyeàn thuyeát veà Hoäi nghò caùc tröôûng laõo laàn ñaàu tieân2 ôû thaønh Vöông-xaù,3 nôi ñöôïc tin laø ñaõ dieãn ra vieäc keát taäp kinh taïng laàn thöù nhaát, vaø cuoái cuøng chaám döùt vôùi vieäc ñeà caäp ñeán laàn keát taäp kinh taïng thöù hai4 ôû Tyø-xaù-ly,5 vôùi söï giaûi quyeát moät soá ñieåm baát ñoàng veà giôùi luaät.6 Caâu chuyeän veà cuoäc ñôøi ñöùc Phaät tröôùc tieân chæ laø moät söï goùp nhaët caùc maåu chuyeän ñöôïc neâu ra tröôùc moãi ñieàu luaät ñeå chöùng minh cho xuaát xöù cuûa ñieàu luaät vaø giaûi thích veà noäi dung.7 Theâm vaøo ñoù, nhieàu chuyeän keå vaø truyeàn thuyeát daàn daàn phaùt sinh xoay quanh caùc thaùnh ñòa hay ñeàn thôø, ñeå noùi leân tính caùch thieâng lieâng cuûa chuùng. Khoâng coù maáy noã löïc trong vieäc keát noái taát caû nhöõng caâu chuyeän naøy theo thöù töï thôøi gian ñeå thaønh moät tieåu söû. Vò trí cuûa chuùng ta hieän nay khoâng cho pheùp quyeát ñònh ñöôïc nhöõng chuyeän naøo laø coù giaù trò ñaùng tin caäy veà maët lòch söû,

about the continued vitality of Sakyamuni’s message comes the cult of Maitreya, the future Buddha, under whom the Dharma will reappear with new vigour. This period had little interest in the biography of the Buddha Sakyamuni as a person. It would be difficult to reconstruct the facts of His life from the details we have. Interest concentrated on the two periods of His life which had the greatest significance for the believer, i.e. to the period of His enlightenment which marked His victory over ignorance, and to His last days , when He attained His final Nirvāṇa, and consummated His victory over death and the world. For the rest it appears that the greater part of what we believe to know of His life was at first a part of the Vinaya tradition, that it consisted of an account which began with His genealogy and miraculous birth, and went on beyond His final Nirvāṇa to the legendary first Council of Rajagṛha where the Canon of the Sacred Scriptures is said to have been compiled, and ended with the so-called second council of Vaiśāli where controversial points of disciplinary practice were discussed. The story of His life was at first a collection of precedents, which were invoked to justify the Vinaya rules. In addition, many stories and legends gradually grew up in connection with some holy place or shrine, to account for its sanctity. Little attempt was made to weave all these stories into one consecutive biography. At present we are not in a position to decide which ones of them 4 5 6

Hoäi nghò caùc tröôûng laõo keát taäp kinh ñieån laàn naøy goàm coù 700 vò tyø-kheo, do ngaøi Da-xaù laøm chuû trì.

Vaiśālī

Töùc laø döï baùo veà thôøi kyø ñöôïc goïi laø Maït phaùp, khi maø taát caû kinh ñieån seõ maát daàn ñi vaø vieäc tu taäp Chaùnh phaùp khoâng coøn nöõa. 2 Hoäi ñoàng naøy goàm 500 vò A-la-haùn, döôùi söï chuû trì cuûa ngaøi Ma-ha Cadieáp. 3 Rājagrha, cuõng ñöôïc phieân aâm laø La-duyeät.

Laàn keát taäp naøy laø khoaûng 100 naêm sau Phaät nhaäp dieät, vaø nhöõng baát ñoàng veà giôùi luaät ñöôïc noùi ñeán ôû ñaây laø do moät tyø kheo hoï Baït-kyø ôû mieàn Ñoâng AÁn neâu leân. Vò naøy ñeà ra 10 ñieàu luaät môùi, vaø 700 tröôûng laõo tham gia keát taäp laàn naøy ñaõ thoáng nhaát baùc boû. 7 Trong Luaät taïng, tröôùc moãi ñieàu luaät ñeàu coù neâu moät ñoaïn ngaén keå roõ hoaøn caûnh Phaät thuyeát giaûng ôû ñaâu vaø do nhaân duyeân gì cheá ñònh ñieàu luaät aáy. Nhö vaäy, tuy khoâng nhaèm duïng yù vieát tieåu söû, nhöng nhöõng noäi dung aáy cung caáp cho chuùng ta raát nhieàu chi tieát ñaùng keå veà cuoäc ñôøi ñöùc Phaät.

Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

vaø nhöõng chuyeän naøo laø ñöôïc döïng neân do söï suøng baùi cuûa nhöõng ngöôøi sau naøy. Coøn vieäc ñöa ra moät söï phaân bieät nhö theá laïi laø hoaøn toaøn xa laï ñoái vôùi tinh thaàn cuûa taêng só Phaät giaùo trong thôøi kyø ñaàu.

are trustworthy historical information and which ones are the pious inventions of a later age. Nothing was in any case more alien to the mentality of the monks of this first period than to make such distinctions between these two orders of facts.

Vieäc moâ taû ñöùc Phaät seõ khoâng theå hoaøn taát neáu chuùng ta khoâng ñeà caäp ñeán raèng, theo caùch nhìn cuûa nhöõng ngöôøi ñöông thôøi vôùi ngaøi, ngoaøi moät thaân xaùc bình thöôøng nhö moïi ngöôøi ñeàu coù theå nhìn thaáy, ngaøi coøn coù moät Phaät thaân sieâu nhieân, maø chæ moät soá ngöôøi coù theå nhìn thaáy ñöôïc baèng vaøo ñöùc tin. Ngheä thuaät Phaät giaùo ñaõ coá gaéng heát söùc ñeå theå hieän Phaät thaân naøy, vôùi chieàu cao gaàn 5m vaø coù ñuû 32 töôùng toát cuûa caùc ñöùc Phaät. Chaúng haïn nhö, caùc ñöùc Phaät ñeàu coù nhöõng vaân da hình baùnh xe döôùi loøng baøn chaân, coù maøng da noái giöõa caùc ngoùn tay, coù nhuïc keá treân ñaàu, coù haøo quang bao quanh ñaàu vaø quanh thaân, moät chuøm loâng xoaén laïi maøu traéng naèm giöõa hai chaân maøy.v.v... Theo hình thöùc moâ taû maø chuùng ta hieän coù, thì truyeàn thoáng naøy roõ raøng laø thuoäc veà giai ñoaïn sau vua A-duïc. Tuy nhieân, moät phaàn naøo trong ñoù cuõng coù theå thuoäc thôøi ñaïi xa xöa hôn nhieàu, ñi ngöôïc veà taän thôøi coå ñaïi, vaø thaäm chí coù lieân quan ñeán nhöõng truyeàn thoáng noùi veà veû ñeïp con ngöôøi coù tröôùc caû Phaät giaùo, vaø thuaät ñoaùn soá meänh coå xöa, noùi tröôùc veà soá phaän, baûn chaát vaø töông lai cuûa moät con ngöôøi döïa vaøo töôùng maïo vaø nhöõng ñieàm baùo tröôùc.

Our description of the Buddha would be incomplete if we failed to mention that alone among mortals of His age He had in addition to His normal physical body, as it appeared to common people, still a kind of “ethereal” body, which only the elect could see with the eye of faith and which Buddhist art tried to reproduce to the best of its abilities. The “ethereal” body is sixteen feet high, and it possesses the thirty-two “marks of the superman”. For instance, the Buddhas have wheels engraved on Their feet, webs between Their fingers, a cowl on Their heads, a halo and an aureole round Their heads and bodies, a tuft of white curly hair between Their eyebrows, and so on and so on. In the form in which we have it, this tradition is obviously post-Aśokan. Parts of it may, however, go back much further, to ancient and even pre-Buddhist traditions about manly beauty, and to the age-old art of predicting a person’s destiny, nature and future from such signs and prognostics.

Kim thaân ñöùc Phaät khaùc vôùi thaân phaøm phu khoâng chæ laø ôû 32 töôùng toát, nhöng theâm vaøo ñoù coøn coù moät tính chaát laø phaàn xöông trong cô theå khoâng bao giôø hö hoaïi. Khi tieán haønh leã traø tyø,1 nhöõng ñoát xöông trong thaân theå ngaøi khoâng bieán thaønh tro maø hoùa thaønh ngoïc xaù-lôïi,2 ñöôïc phaân chia cho tín ñoà vaø ñöôïc gìn giöõ töø ñôøi naøy sang ñôøi khaùc, nhö raêng cuûa ñöùc Phaät hieän nay vaãn coøn ôû Kandy.3

A Buddha’s body differs from that of other people not only by the possession of the thirty-two marks, but in addition it has the peculiar property that its bony parts are indestructible. At the cremation of the Buddha Sakyamuni they were not reduced to ashes, and they formed the relics which were distributed among the believers, and were preserved from generation to generation, like the Buddha’s tooth now in Kandy.

Ngoâi thöù nhì trong Tam baûo laø Phaùp, bao goàm taát caû nhöõng söï maàu nhieäm trong tín ngöôõng Phaät giaùo, vaø khoâng theå deã daøng noùi roõ chæ trong vaøi ba caâu. Tín ñoà Phaät giaùo ôû chaâu AÙ tröôùc ñaây 1 2 3

Nghi leã duøng löûa ñeå thieâu xaùc, hoûa taùng

Śarita

Thuoäc Tích Lan

Dharma, the second of these Treasures, comprises all the mysteries of the Buddhist faith, and cannot easily be explained in a few words. Buddhists in Asia normally did not describe themselves as “Buddhists”, but as “followers of the Dharma”. 57

Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

thöôøng khoâng töï moâ taû veà mình nhö laø “ngöôøi theo Phaät”, maø laø nhöõng “ngöôøi tin vaø laøm theo giaùo phaùp”. Phaùp ôû ñaây laø teân goïi ñeå chæ cho moät söùc maïnh tinh thaàn sieâu nhieân voán tieàm aån trong taát caû moïi vaät. Vì laø thuoäc veà tinh thaàn vaø khoâng thuoäc veà theá giôùi traàn tuïc naøy, neân Phaùp coù phaàn khoù naém baét, vaø khoâng deã daøng ñònh nghóa hay hieåu roõ ñöôïc. Xeùt theo caùc tieâu chuaån duy lyù thì töø ngöõ naøy laø heát söùc tröøu töôïng. Nhöng vì Phaùp laø ñoái töôïng chính cuûa toaøn boä giaùo lyù nhaø Phaät, neân caàn phaûi neâu ra ñaây nhöõng yù nghóa chính vaø chæ roõ moái lieân heä giöõa nhöõng yù nghóa ñoù. 1. Tröôùc heát, phaùp laø töø duøng ñeå chæ cho moät thöïc taïi toái thöôïng. Moät thöïc taïi taâm linh tieàm aån trong taát caû nhöõng gì chuùng ta nhaän thaáy ôû beân trong vaø bao quanh chuùng ta. Thöïc taïi naøy laø coù thaät trong töông quan ñoái nghòch vôùi nhöõng hö aûo cuûa theá giôùi giaùc quan thoâng thöôøng, vaø chuùng ta caàn phaûi höôùng veà thöïc taïi taâm linh naøy cuõng nhö xa lìa ñi nhöõng hö aûo cuûa theá giôùi traàn tuïc, bôûi vì chæ coù thöïc taïi toái thöôïng naøy môùi coù theå laøm cho chuùng ta thaät söï thoûa maõn. Thöïc taïi naøy cuõng khoâng naèm ngoaøi theá giôùi traàn tuïc, maø hieåu theo moät caùch naøo ñoù, noù luoân luoân hieän dieän trong vaïn höõu vaø laø quy luaät noäi taïi chi phoái taát caû. 2. Thöù hai, theo moät caùch dieãn dòch deã hieåu hôn, thì phaùp coù nghóa laø thöïc taïi toái thöôïng ñöôïc giaûng giaûi hoaëc neâu leân trong lôøi daïy cuûa ñöùc Phaät, vaø theo caùch hieåu naøy, phaùp coù nghóa laø giaùo lyù, laø kinh ñieån hay chaân lyù. 3. Thöù ba, theo caû hai nghóa treân, phaùp coù theå ñöôïc phaûn aùnh trong ñôøi soáng chuùng ta, coù theå töï boäc loä trong haønh ñoäng cuûa chuùng ta, khi naøo maø chuùng ta haønh ñoäng phuø hôïp theo vôùi phaùp. Nhö vaäy, phaùp ôû ñaây ñöôïc hieåu laø chaân chaùnh, laø ñöùc haïnh. 4. Thöù tö, vaø chính laø theo nghóa naøy, phaùp ñöôïc hieåu theo moät caùch tinh teá hôn vaø haøm chöùa moät yù nghóa goùp phaàn ñaëc bieät vaøo tö töôûng Phaät giaùo, ñoàng thôøi cuõng haøm chöùa trong ñoù taát caû nhöõng ñoäng löïc thuùc ñaåy söï phaùt trieån. Trong nhöõng taùc phaåm Phaät giaùo, khaép nôi ñaày 58

This “Dharma” is the name for an impersonal spiritual force behind and in everything. Being spiritual and not of this world, it is rather elusive and not easy to define or get hold of. Judged by logical standards the word is extremely ambiguous. But since the Dharma is the subject-matter of all Buddhist teachings, it is necessary to list its main meanings, and to show their interconnection: 1. First of all it is a word for the one ultimate reality. One spiritual reality underlies all that we perceive in and around us. It is real as contrasted with the illusory things of the commonsense world, to it we should turn as we should turn away from them, for it alone brings true satisfaction. And it is not external to worldly things and events, but in some ways immanent to them, and the directing Law within them. 2. Secondly, by an easy transition, it means that ultimate reality as interpreted or stated in the Buddha’s teaching, and in this subjective form it means “Doctrine”, “Scripture”, or “Truth”. 3. Thirdly, Dharma, in both the first and second sense, may be reflected in our lives, may manifest itself in our actions, insofar as we act in accordance with it. The word thus assumes the meaning of “righteousness” and “virtue”. 4. It is in its fourth sense that the word becomes rather subtle and assumes a meaning which constitutes the specific contribution of Buddhist thought, containing at the same time within it all the tensions that have caused it to develop. Buddhist writings everywhere are 59

Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

daãy nhöõng choã ñeà caäp ñeán caùc phaùp, vôùi haøm nghóa laø coù nhieàu phaùp, vaø chuùng trôû neân khoù hieåu, tröø khi yù nghóa cuï theå ñöôïc duøng cuûa töø naøy ñaõ ñöôïc hieåu roõ. Phaùp ôû ñaây ñöôïc duøng trong yù nghóa khoa hoïc, vaø vì theá moïi söï vieäc ñöôïc xem xeùt trong moái quan heä vôùi phaùp theo nghóa thöù nhaát ñaõ noùi treân, coù nghóa laø xem xeùt chuùng nhö ñuùng thaät trong thöïc theå toái thöôïng cuûa chuùng. Haàu nhö taát caû caùc heä thoáng khoa hoïc vaø trieát hoïc ñeàu ñoàng yù baùc boû veû beân ngoaøi cuûa theá giôùi tri giaùc, nhö moät caáu truùc giaû taïo do chính nhöõng giaùc quan cuûa con ngöôøi döïng leân, vaø thay vaøo ñoù baèng moät söï giaûi thích caùc söï kieän döïa treân nhöõng söï toàn taïi ña daïng khaùc nhau coù theå hieåu ñöôïc. Thí duï roõ nhaát laø veà heä thoáng nguyeân töû. Ñaèng sau veû ngoaøi ñöôïc nhaän bieát baèng giaùc quan cuûa theá giôùi vaät chaát, heä thoáng naøy ñaõ chöùng thöïc laø coù moät theá giôùi khaùc, taïo thaønh bôûi caùc nguyeân töû, gaàn nhö khoâng theå nhìn thaáy ñöôïc vaø chæ coù theå hieåu thaáu ñöôïc baèng caùc coâng thöùc toaùn hoïc. Caùc nguyeân töû naøy laø nhöõng gì thöïc söï hieän höõu veà maët vaät lyù, moät söï hieåu bieát töôøng taän veà nguyeân lyù vaän ñoäng cuûa chuùng cho pheùp chuùng ta kieåm soaùt ñöôïc caû vuõ truï vaät chaát, vaø töø ñoù chuùng ta coù theå suy ra ñöôïc tính chaát vaät lyù cuûa nhöõng söï vaät maø caùc giaùc quan cuûa chuùng ta nhaän bieát ñöôïc. Cuõng töông töï nhö vaäy, tín ñoà Phaät giaùo cho raèng theá giôùi quan cuûa chuùng ta bò boùp meùo hoaøn toaøn bôûi voâ minh vaø tham duïc, vaø ngay caû nhöõng ñôn vò chia taùch maø chuùng ta duøng, nghóa laø nhöõng phaàn vaät theå maø chuùng ta cho laø coù theå nhaän thöùc ñöôïc, cho ñeán moái quan heä maø chuùng ta thöøa nhaän giöõa nhöõng ñôn vò aáy, ñeàu chaúng coù giaù trò gì maáy. Nguyeân töû ñoái vôùi caùc nhaø vaät lyù hoïc caän ñaïi cuõng töông töï nhö caùc phaùp ñoái vôùi tín ñoà Phaät giaùo.

replete with references to “dharmas” in the plural and they become unintelligible unless the specific meaning of this term is appreciated. The word is here used in a scientific sense, which results from considering things and events in their relation to the Dharma in sense 1, i.e. from studying them as they are in their own ultimate reality. Nearly all scientific and philosophical systems agree in rejecting the appearance of the commonsense world as a false artificial construction, replacing it by an explanation of events based on intelligible entities of various kinds. The most obvious example is the atomic system. Behind the sensory appearance of the material world this system postulates another world, composed of atoms, fairly invisible and adequately grasped only by mathematical formulas. These atoms are that which is physically really there, a thorough understanding of their behaviour allows us to control the physical universe, and we can deduce from them the physical properties of things which our senses perceive. Likewise, the Buddhists assume that our common-sense view of the world is hopelessly distorted by ignorance and craving, and that neither the units into which we divide it, i.e. the “things” we believe to perceive, nor the connections we postulate between them, have much validity. What are “atoms” to the modern physicists, are the “dharmas” to the Buddhists.

Phaûi ñôïi sang ñeán thôøi kyø thöù hai cuûa Phaät giaùo môùi coù söï phaân loaïi taát caû caùc phaùp moät caùch coù heä thoáng. Cuõng gioáng nhö ñoái vôùi nguyeân töû, phaûi maát moät thôøi gian daøi töø khaùi nieäm khôûi xöôùng cuûa Demokritos cho ñeán söï nghieân cöùu veà sau chính xaùc hôn cuûa Mendeleyev vaø Bohr. Nhöõng gì chuùng ta coù trong thôøi kyø ñaàu laø danh saùch lieät keâ con soá caùc phaùp, chaúng haïn nhö nguõ

A systematic classification of all dharmas had to wait for the second period, just as in this matter of atoms a long time passed between their initial conception by Demokritos and their more precise study by Mendeleyev and Bohr. What we have in this period are various numerical lists of dharmas - such as

Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

uaån,1 töùc laø saéc, thoï, töôûng, haønh vaø thöùc, ñöôïc coi nhö nhöõng yeáu toá taïo thaønh moät caù theå con ngöôøi. Hoaëc luïc nhaäp,2 töùc laø maét, tai, muõi, löôõi, thaân vaø yù cuøng vôùi caùc ñoái töôïng cuûa chuùng laø saéc, thanh, höông, vò, xuùc vaø phaùp, taïo thaønh toaøn boä nhöõng kinh nghieäm coù theå coù cuûa chuùng ta. Moät phaùp laø moät söï kieän xaûy ra beân ngoaøi con ngöôøi, khoâng thuoäc moät ai hay caù nhaân naøo, maø chæ lieân tuïc dieãn ra moät caùch khaùch quan theo chieàu höôùng rieâng cuûa chính noù. Moät tu só Phaät giaùo ñöôïc xem laø ñaït ñeán thaønh töïu ñaùng keå nhaát khi ngöôøi aáy coù theå thaønh coâng trong vieäc töï bieát roõ taát caû nhöõng gì trong tö töôûng mình nhôø vaøo caùc phaùp ñang dieãn ra beân ngoaøi naøy, trong soá ñoù ngöôøi aáy nhaän ñöôïc töø truyeàn thoáng nhöõng danh saùch roõ raøng maø khoâng bao giôø coù trong ñoù caùi “toâi” mô hoà vaø tai haïi. Ngoaøi Phaät giaùo ra, khoâng toân giaùo naøo khaùc coù ñöôïc baát cöù ñieàu gì töông töï nhö theá naøy trong söï reøn luyeän tinh thaàn ñoái vôùi tín ñoà cuûa hoï, vaø ñieåm ñaëc thuø cuûa Phaät giaùo phaàn lôùn ñöôïc tìm thaáy trong nhöõng gì ñöôïc noùi veà caùc phaùp khoù naém baét naøy. Veà phaàn Taêng-giaø,3 hoaëc Giaùo hoäi, coù söï phaân bieät giöõa moät taêng ñoaøn höõu töôùng vaø moät taêng ñoaøn voâ töôùng. Tröôùc heát, giaùo hoäi höõu töôùng bao goàm taát caû chö taêng ni, vaø trong moät nghóa roäng hôn, bao goàm caû nhöõng nam nöõ cö só, nhöõng ngöôøi uûng hoä Giaùo hoäi vaø ñaõ quy y Tam baûo, nguyeän giöõ theo naêm giôùi.4 Trong Giaùo hoäi, ngöôøi ta laïi toân xöng moät soá caùc bieåu töôïng öu tuù nhaát, caùc vò Hieàn Thaùnh Taêng, taïo thaønh Taêng-giaø chaân thaät. Vieäc ñaép y vaøng chæ cho thaáy laø moät ngöôøi ñaõ coù ñuû nhaân duyeân toát ñeïp ñeå coù theå tu chöùng, nhöng vieäc naøy töï noù khoâng ñaûm baûo chaéc chaén cho söï thaønh coâng cuûa ngöôøi ñoù. Coøn veà phaàn caùc cö só, ñòa vò cuûa hoï trong Giaùo hoäi khoâng coù gì chaéc chaén, vaø ñoái vôùi nhieàu vò taêng só, döôøng nhö cö só khoâng coù chuùt aûnh höôûng naøo caû. Taêng-giaø chaân thaät, hay Giaùo hoäi voâ töôùng, bao goàm caùc 1 2 3

Cuõng goïi laø nguõ aám. Luïc nhaäp töùc laø khi saùu caên tieáp xuùc vôùi saùu traàn

Sańgha

the five “skandhas”, i.e. form, feelings, perceptions, volitional impulses and consciousness, which were said to constitute the whole range of a human personality. Or the six external and internal sense-fields, i.e. eye, ear, nose, tongue, touchorgan and mind, as well as sight objects, sound-, smell-, taste-, touch- and mind-objects, which constitute the whole range of our possible experience. A “dharma” is an impersonal event, which belongs to no person or individual, but just goes along on its own objective way. It was regarded as a most praiseworthy achievement on the part of a Buddhist monk if he succeeded in accounting to himself for the contents of his mind with the help of these impersonal dharmas, of which tradition provided him with definite lists, without ever bringing in the nebulous and pernicious word “I”. No other religion has included anything like this in the mental training of its adherents and the originality of Buddhism is to be found largely in what it has to say about these elusive dharmas. With regard to the Sańgha, or “community”, a visible and an invisible Church are distinguished. The visible community consists first of all of the monks and nuns, and then in a wider sense it also comprises the laymen and laywomen who support the monks, have taken their refuge with the three Jewels, and promise to observe the five precepts. Within this community a small elite constituted the true Sańgha. The wearing of the yellow robe merely shows that a man had exceptionally fine opportunities for spiritual attainment, but it does not render his spiritual success absolutely certain. As for the laymen, their status in the community was a most uncertain one, and for many of the monks they seemed to carry almost no weight at all. The true Sańgha, the invisible Church, consisted of the 4

Naêm giôùi cuûa haøng cö só, hay nguõ giôùi, goàm coù caùc giôùi: khoâng saùt sanh, khoâng troäm caép, khoâng taø daâm, khoâng noùi doái vaø khoâng duøng caùc chaát gaây say, gaây nghieän.

Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

vò Aryas,1 töùc laø nhöõng ngöôøi “cao quyù” hay “thaùnh thieän”, caùc vò Hieàn Thaùnh Taêng, töông phaûn vôùi nhöõng keû traàn tuïc bình thöôøng, cuõng thöôøng goïi laø “phaøm nhaân ngu muoäi”. Söï khaùc bieät giöõa thaùnh nhaân vaø phaøm nhaân laø neàn taûng cuûa giaùo lyù ñaïo Phaät. Thaùnh nhaân vaø phaøm nhaân ñöôïc xem laø coù hai caùch hieän höõu hoaøn toaøn töông phaûn nhau, ñöôïc goïi laø xuaát theá vaø traàn tuïc. Chæ caùc vò thaùnh giaû môùi ñöôïc xem laø coù moät ñôøi soáng thöïc söï, coøn nhöõng ngöôøi phaøm tuïc chæ toàn taïi moät caùch teû nhaït trong traïng thaùi roái raém, toái taêm vaø khoâng coù muïc ñích. Khoâng haøi loøng khi phaûi sinh ra theo caùch nhö moät phaøm nhaân, caùc vò thaùnh ñaõ traûi qua moät söï taùi sanh veà maët taâm linh, hay cuõng ñöôïc hieåu laø söï ñaït ñaïo. Noùi caùch khaùc, caùc vò ñaõ töï mình döùt tröø taát caû phan duyeân, ñaït ñeán möùc coù theå höôùng söï tu taäp cuûa mình ñeán Nieát-baøn moät caùch hieäu quaû. Caùi nhìn cuûa moät ngöôøi phaøm tuïc veà Nieát-baøn thöôøng bò ngaên trôû bôûi nhöõng ñieàu trong cuoäc soáng maø hoï tieáp caän theo moät caùch quaù xem troïng. Tuy nhieân, nhôø vaøo coâng phu thieàn quaùn laâu ngaøy, ngöôøi ta coù theå ñaït ñeán moät traïng thaùi maø moãi khi coù moät ñoái töôïng traàn tuïc hieän ra tröôùc maét thì seõ hoaøn toaøn thaät taâm choái boû noù, nhö laø moät trôû ngaïi hay söï quaáy raày. Moät khi söï chaùn gheùt naøy trôû thaønh thoùi quen khaéc saâu trong taâm yù, thì haønh giaû cuoái cuøng coù theå nhaän laáy Nieát-baøn, caûnh giôùi khoâng troùi buoäc, laøm ñoái töôïng quaùn chieáu. Khi aáy, vò naøy khoâng coøn laø moät phaøm nhaân nöõa, maø baét ñaàu ñöôïc xeáp vaøo haøng thaùnh giaû. Sau ñoù, vò thaùnh giaû naøy ngaøy caøng ít bò chi phoái hôn bôûi nhöõng ñoäng löïc cuûa phaøm nhaân, nghóa laø nhöõng ñoäng löïc ñöôïc taïo thaønh bôûi loøng vò kyû vaø nieàm tin sai laàm vaøo söï chaân thaät cuûa nhöõng gì sinh khôûi töø caùc giaùc quan, voán chöùa ñöïng ñaày nhöõng söï tham lam, saân haän vaø si meâ. Söï töông phaûn khi höôùng ñeán Nieát-baøn laøm boäc loä ra tính chaát taàm thöôøng, voâ nghóa cuûa taát caû nhöõng moái quan taâm theá tuïc, vaø töï thaân Nieát-baøn ngaøy caøng trôû neân moät söùc maïnh thuùc ñaåy tieàm aån sau baát cöù haønh ñoäng naøo. Coù söï phaân bieät boán baäc thaùnh giaû. Baäc thaáp nhaát laø Döï löu,2 ñeå chæ raèng vò naøy ñaõ baét ñaàu hoøa nhaäp vaøo con ñöôøng daãn 1

Aryas, the “noble” or “holy”ones, men who were contrasted with the common worldlings, also known as the “foolish common people” (bala-prthag-jana). The difference between these two classes of persons is fundamental to Buddhist theory. They are held to occupy two distinct planes of existence, respectively known as the “worldly” and the “supramundane”. The saints alone are truly alive, while the worldlings just vegetate along in a sort of dull and aimless bewilderment. Not content with being born in the normal way, the saints have undergone a spiritual rebirth, which is technically known as “winning the Path”. In other words, they have detached themselves from conditioned things to such an extent that they can now effectively turn to the Path which leads to Nirvāṇa. The worldling’s vision of Nirvāṇa is obstructed by the things of the world which he takes far too seriously. Through prolonged meditation he can, however, reach a state where each time a worldly object rises up in front of him, he rejects it wholeheartedly as a mere hindrance, or nuisance. Once this aversion has become an ingrained habit, he can at last take Nirvāṇa, the Unconditioned, for his object. Then “he ceases to belong to the common people”, he “becomes one of the family of the Aryans”. Thereafter he is less and less impelled by the motives of ordinary people, i.e. by motives which are a compound of self-interest and a misguided belief in the reality of sensory things and which contain a strong dosage of greed, hate, and delusion. The contrast with the vision of Nirvāṇa reveals the insignificance and triviality of all these worldly concerns and Nirvāṇa itself increasingly becomes the motivating force behind whatever is done. Four kinds of saints are normally distinguished. The lowest is called a “Streamwinner”, to indicate that he has won contact 2

Śrota-āpanna, töùc laø quaû vò Tu-ñaø-hoaøn (須陀洹), Haùn dòch nghóa laø Döï löu (預流), cuõng dòch laø Nhaäp löu (入流), nghóa laø “ñöôïc döï vaøo, nhaäp vaøo doøng”, theo nghóa ôû ñaây laø doøng thaùnh.

Haùn dòch nghóa laø Thaùnh giaû.

Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

ñeán caûnh giôùi khoâng troùi buoäc. Nhöõng baäc coøn laïi ñöôïc phaân bieät theo soá laàn phaûi taùi sanh sau khi cheát – baäc thaáp nhaát phaûi taùi sanh nhieàu nhaát laø baûy laàn, baäc tieáp theo chæ moät laàn vaø baäc thaùnh cao nhaát, baäc A-la-haùn,1 quaû vò cuoái cuøng vaø cao quyù nhaát cuûa phöông thöùc tu taäp naøy, khoâng coøn taùi sanh nöõa. Hieàn Thaùnh Taêng bao goàm taát caû caùc baäc thaùnh giaû naøy, nhöng caùc vò A-la-haùn laø toân quyù nhaát.

with the Path which leads to the Unconditioned. The saints are characteristically disting-uished by the number of times they have to return to this world after death - the first kind must come back seven times at the most, the second only once, and the fourth, the Arhat, the finest and final product of this training, need never come back at all. The true Sańgha is the community of all these saints, but the Arhats are those most highly prized.

4. CAÙC BOÄ PHAÙI VAØ NHÖÕNG BAÁT ÑOÀNG

4. THE SECTS AND THEIR DISPUTES

Giaùo hoäi Phaät giaùo khoâng duy trì maõi ñöôïc söï thoáng nhaát, vaø chaúng bao laâu ñaõ phaân chia thaønh moät soá caùc boä phaùi. Truyeàn thoáng Phaät giaùo AÁn Ñoä thöôøng noùi ñeán 18 boä phaùi nhö theá, nhöng ñoù chæ laø con soá theo nhö truyeàn laïi. Trong thöïc teá, ít nhaát chuùng ta cuõng ñaõ keå teân ñöôïc hôn 30 boä phaùi. Ñöùc Phaät khoâng chæ ñònh ai laø ngöôøi tieáp noái cöông vò cuûa ngaøi,2 vaø Phaät giaùo chöa bao giôø ñöôïc bieát laø coù moät cô cheá quyeàn löïc trung öông theo kieåu nhö Giaùo hoaøng cuûa Thieân Chuùa giaùo hay giaùo chuû Khalif cuûa Hoài giaùo. Vì nhöõng coäng ñoàng cuûa caùc boä phaùi gaén lieàn vôùi nhöõng mieàn khaùc nhau cuûa AÁn Ñoä, neân caùc truyeàn thoáng ñòa phöông ñaõ phaùt trieån. Maëc duø vaäy, baát chaáp söï phaân chia veà ñòa lyù vaø giaùo lyù, caùc boä phaùi noùi chung vaãn duy trì ñöôïc moái quan heä oån ñònh vôùi nhau.

The Buddhist community did not remain united for long and soon fell apart into a number of sects. Indian Buddhist tradition generally speaks of “eighteen” such sects, but that is a mere traditional number and in fact more than thirty are known to us, at least by name. The Buddha appointed no successor and Buddhism has never known a central authority like that of the Pope or the Khalif. As different communities fixed themselves in different parts of India, local traditions developed, though in spite of all geographical and doctrinal divisions the different sects generally speaking remained in constant communion with each other.

Khoâng nhöõng laø coù caùc tyø-kheo rieâng leû lieân tuïc ñi laïi töø trung taâm naøy ñeán trung taâm khaùc, maø coøn coù vieäc toå chöùc thöôøng xuyeân caùc cuoäc haønh höông cuûa raát ñoâng caùc taêng só vaø cö só ñeán chieâm baùi nhöõng thaùnh ñòa ôû Ma-kieät-ñaø3 (nôi naøy ñaõ trôû thaønh thaùnh ñòa thieâng lieâng nhôø moái quan heä vôùi cuoäc ñôøi ñöùc Phaät vaø ngoïc xaù-lôïi ngaøi ñeå laïi). Ñieàu naøy taïo ra söï pha troän thöôøng xuyeân giöõa caùc yeáu toá khaùc bieät nhau nhieàu nhaát. Vì vaäy, nhöõng vaán ñeà maø caùc boä phaùi ñöa ra thaûo luaän haàu nhö ñeàu gaàn 1

Boán quaû vò töø Tu-ñaø-hoaøn, Tö-ñaø-haøm, A-na-haøm cho ñeán A-la-haùn, theo tuaàn töï laø boán Thaùnh quaû ñöôïc nhaém ñeán trong quaù trình tu taäp cuûa haøng Tieåu thöøa. Trong ñoù, quaû vò cuoái cuøng laø A-la-haùn ñaõ döùt saïch laäu hoaëc vaø

Not only did individual monks constantly travel from one centre to another, but the institution of regular pilgrimages of masses of monks and laymen to the holy places of Magadha, which were hallowed by the life of the Buddha and by the relics of His body, caused a constant intermingling of the most diverse elements. The problems which the sects discussed remained

2 3

thoaùt khoûi sinh töû. Tuy nhieân, theo quan ñieåm Ñaïi thöøa thì caùc vò naøy vaãn coøn nhöõng laäu hoaëc vi teá. Maëc duø theo truyeàn thoáng cuûa Thieàn toâng thì ñöùc Phaät ñaõ truyeàn y baùt cho ngaøi Ma-ha Ca-dieáp, thöøa nhaän ngaøi laø ngöôøi keá tuïc.

Magadha 67

Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

gioáng nhö nhau, vaø nhöõng giaû thuyeát laøm neàn taûng ñeå xaây döïng caùc giaûi phaùp cuõng ñeàu nhö nhau. Thoâng qua vieäc tieáp xuùc thöôøng xuyeân maø taát caû tín ñoà Phaät giaùo ñeàu duy trì ñöôïc söï hieåu bieát nhau. Caùc boä phaùi khaùc nhau ñeàu muoán coù söï toå chöùc vaø kinh ñieån rieâng cuûa mình. Maëc duø vaäy, trong nhöõng töï vieän vaãn coù raát nhieàu taêng só thuoäc caùc boä phaùi khaùc nhau soáng chung moät caùch hoaøn toaøn hoøa hôïp. Ñieàu ñöôïc thöøa nhaän roäng raõi laø: muïc ñích ñeà ra coù theå ñaït ñeán baèng nhieàu con ñöôøng khaùc nhau, vaø caùc boä phaùi toû ra heát söùc caûm thoâng nhau, cho duø thænh thoaûng cuõng coù xaûy ra tranh caõi gay gaét. Taát caû caùc boä phaùi ñeàu chia seû moät giaùo phaùp chung, maëc duø cuõng phaûi thöøa nhaän moät ñieàu quan troïng laø hình thöùc giaùo phaùp truyeàn mieäng thôøi aáy khoâng phaûi ngaén goïn, deã truyeàn ñaït vaø deã hieåu. Giaùo phaùp ñöôïc tröïc tieáp khaåu truyeàn ñeå traùnh rôi vaøo nhöõng keû khoâng thích hôïp. Nhöng coù quaù nhieàu ñieàu, neân khoâng moät ai coù theå moät mình ghi nhôù heát. Do ñoù, caùc phaàn khaùc nhau cuûa giaùo phaùp ñöôïc truyeàn cho caùc vò taêng só chuyeân bieät, coù theå hoïc thuoäc naèm loøng phaàn giaùo phaùp ñoù, chaúng haïn nhö Luaät taïng, hoaëc Kinh taïng, hoaëc moät phaàn cuûa Kinh taïng, hoaëc Abhidharma1 .v.v... Nhöõng taêng só coù theå tuïng ñoïc thuoäc loøng töøng phaàn giaùo phaùp nhö vaäy hình thaønh neân nhöõng nhoùm rieâng bieät vôùi nhöõng ñaëc quyeàn rieâng, vaø chính söï hieän dieän cuûa hoï ñaõ goùp theâm moät phaàn vaøo söï phaân chia cuûa taêng ñoaøn. Chuùng ta cuõng khoâng theå queân raèng, cho duø toå chöùc Taênggiaø coù mong muoán choáng laïi söï phaân chia nhö vaäy ñeán ñaâu ñi chaêng nöõa, thì ñoù cuõng khoâng phaûi moät toå chöùc chæ bao goàm giôùi taêng só, maø coøn coù caû nhöõng cö só, voán laø thaønh phaàn maø Taêng-giaø phaûi döïa vaøo veà maët kinh teá. Vì theá, ñaõ naûy sinh moät söï caêng thaúng thöôøng xuyeân giöõa moät beân laø nhöõng ngöôøi xem Phaät phaùp nhö phöông tieän ñeå taïo ra moät soá ít caùc vò A-la-haùn soáng caùch bieät trong caùc töï vieän vôùi söï nghieâm trì giôùi luaät, vaø beân kia laø nhöõng ngöôøi muoán gia taêng khaû naêng mang laïi söï giaûi thoaùt cho nhöõng ngöôøi bình thöôøng, cuøng luùc choáng laïi aûnh 1

thus roughly the same for all and so were the assumptions on which the solutions were based. Through constant contact all Buddhists thus remained mutually intelligible. The different sects tended to have their own organization and Scriptures. In many monasteries members of different sects nevertheless lived together in perfect amity, it was generally recognized that the goal may be reached by different roads and the sects showed great tolerance to each other, although occasional sharp religious invective was of course not entirely unknown. They all shared one common Dharma, although it is important to realize that the verbal formulation of this Dharma did not exist in a brief, handy and unambiguous form. It was transmitted orally, to prevent it from reaching those unfit to receive it, but there was so much of it that no one person could keep it all in mind. In consequence different parts of the scriptures were handed to specialists who knew by heart, say, the Vinaya or the Sutras, or a part of the Sutras, or the Abhidharma, and so on. The reciters of each part of the Scriptures formed separate corporations with privileges of their own and their very existence would add to the divisions within the Order.

Abhidharma, Haùn dòch aâm laø A-tyø-ñaït-ma (阿毗達磨), dòch nghóa laø Voâ tyû phaùp (無比法) hay Thaéng phaùp (勝法), cuõng töùc laø Luaän taïng.

Nor must we forget that this Order, however much it might resent the fact, was not a self-contained entity, but had to coexist with laymen on whom it was economically dependent. There was thus a constant tension between those who regarded the Dharma as a means for the production of a small elite of Arhats living in monastic seclusion in strict observation of the Vinaya rules, and those who wished to increase the chances of salvation for the ordinary people, while combating the authority

Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

höôûng cuûa caùc vò A-la-haùn, vaø vaän ñoäng cho vieäc nôùi loûng caùc giôùi luaät trong töï vieän.

of the Arhats and working for a relaxation of the monastic precepts.

Cuoái cuøng, chuùng ta phaûi ñeà caäp ñeán trieát hoïc nhö laø moät trong nhöõng nguyeân nhaân maïnh meõ nhaát cuûa vieäc phaân chia boä phaùi. Ñeå hieåu ñöôïc vì sao trieát hoïc ñaõ ñoùng moät vai troø quyeát ñònh trong söï phaùt trieån cuûa Phaät giaùo cuõng laø ñieàu khoâng maáy khoù khaên. Söï giaûi thoaùt ôû nhöõng caáp ñoä cao hôn phuï thuoäc vaøo vieäc tænh giaùc trong thieàn quaùn veà nhöõng yeáu toá thöïc söï chi phoái caùc tieán trình taâm linh cuûa chuùng ta. Trong khi tieán haønh caùc phöông phaùp thieàn quaùn naøy, caùc tu só phaûi ñoái maët vôùi nhöõng vaán ñeà hình thaønh neân laõnh vöïc trieát hoïc ôû khaép nôi, chaúng haïn nhö tính chaát vaø söï phaân loaïi cuûa tri thöùc, nhöõng vaán ñeà veà nhaân quaû, veà thôøi gian vaø khoâng gian, veà nhöõng tieâu chí ñeå ñaùnh giaù thöïc taïi, veà söï toàn taïi hay khoâng toàn taïi cuûa moät “baûn ngaõ”... vaø nhieàu vaán ñeà khaùc. Giôø ñaây, caàn nhaän ra moät ñieàu laø, trieát hoïc khaùc vôùi moïi ngaønh tri thöùc khaùc ôû choã, noù cho pheùp coù nhieàu hôn moät giaûi phaùp cho moãi vaán ñeà. Chính laø töø nôi baûn chaát cuûa söï vaät maø nhöõng khaùc bieät veà yù kieán chaéc haún ñaõ caøng taêng theâm, khi tín ñoà Phaät giaùo caøng ñi saâu hôn vaøo nhöõng vaán ñeà trieát hoïc coù lieân quan ñeán giaùo lyù.

Finally we must mention philosophy as one of the most potent causes of sectarian divisions. It is not difficult to see why philosophy should have played a decisive role in the development of Buddhism. Salvation on its higher levels was made dependent on the meditational awareness of the actual facts governing our mental processes. In the course of carrying out these meditations, the monks came up against problems which everywhere form the field of philosophy, such as the nature and classification of knowledge, the problems of causality, of time and space, of the criteria of reality, of the existence or nonexistence of a “self” and so on. Now it is a fact of observation that philosophy differs from all other branches of knowledge in that it allows of more than one solution to each problem. It is in the nature of things that the differences of opinion should have multiplied the more the Buddhists went into the philosophical impli-cations of their doctrine.

Roõ raøng laø ôû ñaây khoâng theå neâu ra heát ñöôïc haøng traêm ñieåm baát ñoàng giöõa caùc tín ñoà Phaät giaùo, hoaëc ngay caû vieäc ñeà caäp ñeán taát caû caùc boä phaùi. Coù theå chæ caàn noùi ñoâi ñieàu veà boán hoaëc naêm boä phaùi chính, coøn nhöõng boä phaùi chi nhaùnh haõy taïm thôøi gaùc laïi. Bieåu ñoà ôû trang sau seõ chæ ra söï lieân heä giöõa caùc boä phaùi chính trong Taêng-giaø.

It would be clearly impossible here to enumerate the literally hundreds of points of dispute among the Buddhists, or even to give an account of all the sects. It will be sufficient to say a few words about the four or five chief sects, and leave the subsects to look after themselves. The following diagram shows the affiliations between the main branches of the Order:

Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

Söï phaân chia caùc boä phaùi 140 naêm sau Phaät nhaäp Nieát-baøn (khoaûng 340 tröôùc CN) 200 naêm sau Nieát-baøn (khoaûng 280 tröôùc CN) Ñaïi chuùng boä

Thöôïng toïa boä

(Mahāsānghika)

(Sthavirāvāda)

140 AN3 (= 340BC?) Mahāsānghikas

200 AN (= 280BC?)

Pudgalavādin

236 naêm sau Nieát-baøn

Truï töû boä

(Pudgalavāda)

(khoaûng 244 tröôùc CN)

236 AN (=244BC?)

Vibhajyavādins

Nhaát thieát höõu boä

Sarvastivādin

(Sarvāstivāda)

Phaân bieät boä

(Vibhajyavāda)

Söï phaân chia tröôùc nhaát, giöõa Ñaïi chuùng boä vaø Thöôïng toïa boä, phaùt khôûi töø vaán ñeà ñòa vò thaùnh giaû cuûa caùc vò A-la-haùn. Moät vò taêng teân laø Ñaïi Thieân1 ñaõ neâu leân nhöõng nghi vaán veà vieäc naøy. OÂng ñöa ra 5 ñieàu ñeå cho raèng caùc vò A-la-haùn khoâng xöùng ñaùng ñeå ñöôïc kính troïng gioáng nhö chö thieân, nhö moät soá nhoùm trong taêng ñoaøn thöôøng gaùn cho hoï. Trong nhöõng ñieàu aáy, oâng ñeà caäp ñeán vieäc caùc vò A-la-haùn coù theå bò moäng tinh, vaø bieän luaän raèng nhö vaäy hoï vaãn coøn bò aûnh höôûng cuûa nhöõng ñieàu xaáu xa hieän ra trong giaác mô. Ngoaøi ra, caùc vò vaãn coøn coù nhöõng choã nghi ngôø, coøn coù nhieàu ñieàu chöa bieát, vaø coøn phuï thuoäc vaøo söï daãn daét cuûa ngöôøi khaùc môùi coù theå ñaït ñöôïc söï giaûi thoaùt. Laäp luaän cuûa Ñaïi Thieân khôi daäy moät cuoäc tranh luaän maø ña soá trong taêng ñoaøn ñaõ ngaû veà theo oâng. Vì theá, tröôøng phaùi cuûa oâng töï laáy teân laø Ñaïi chuùng boä.2

The first schism, between Mahāsānghikas and Sthavirās, was occasioned by the question of the status of the Arhats. A teacher by the name of Mahādeva arose, who claimed that in five points the Arhats fell short of the god-like stature which some sectionsof the community attributed to them. They could, among other things, have seminal emissions in their sleep, and that fact, so he argued, indicated that they are still subject to the influence of demonic deities who appear to them in their dreams. They are also still subject to doubts, ignorant of many things, and owe their salvation to the guidance of others. His thesis led to a dispute in which the majority took the side of Mahādeva, whose school in consequence called themselves the Mahāsānghikas. 2

Sthavirās

Mahādeva 72

Mahāsānghika

AN = After Nirvāna: sau khi Phaät nhaäp Nieát baøn

Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

Nhöõng ngöôøi choáng laïi laäp luaän cuûa Ñaïi Thieân hình thaønh moät boä phaùi khaùc goïi laø Thöôïng toïa boä,1 töï cho raèng hoï cao quyù vaø chính thoáng hôn. Ñaïi chuùng boä vaãn tieáp tuïc toàn taïi ôû AÁn Ñoä cho ñeán heát thôøi kyø thöù nhaát, vaø ñaõ coù nhöõng phaùt trieån quan troïng veà giaùo lyù dieãn ra trong boä phaùi naøy. Taát caû nhöõng söï phaùt trieån naøy, veà cô baûn ñaõ ñöôïc xaùc ñònh bôûi quyeát ñònh ñöùng veà phía nhöõng ngöôøi bình thöôøng chöù khoâng phaûi caùc vò thaùnh giaû, vaø do ñoù boä phaùi naøy ñaõ trôû thaønh caàu noái ñeå nhöõng khaùt voïng cuûa ña soá ñi vaøo Phaät giaùo. Nhöõng hoïc thuyeát quan troïng nhaát cuûa Ñaïi chuùng boä lieân quan ñeán hoïc thuyeát veà ñöùc Phaät vaø lyù thuyeát trieát hoïc. Chaúng haïn nhö quan nieäm veà ñöùc Phaät, hoï cho raèng taát caû nhöõng gì coù tính caùch theá nhaân, traàn tuïc hay lòch söû ñeàu khoâng dính daùng gì ñeán ñöùc Phaät chaân thaät. Ngaøi laø baäc sieâu vieät, vöôït treân theá gian, khoâng coù baát cöù söï khieám khuyeát hay oâ nhieãm naøo. Ngaøi laø baäc toaøn trí, toaøn naêng, voâ bieân vaø baát dieät, maõi maõi an truù trong thieàn ñònh vaø khoâng bao giôø coù nhöõng traïng thaùi lô ñaõng hay meâ nguû. Theo caùch hieåu naøy, ñöùc Phaät trôû thaønh moät ñoái töôïng lyù töôûng cuûa tín ngöôõng. Coøn ñöùc Phaät coù thaät trong lòch söû ñöôïc cho laø hoùa thaân kyø dieäu cuûa ñöùc Phaät sieâu nhieân, ñöôïc ngaøi hoùa hieän ra treân theá gian naøy ñeå giaùo hoùa chuùng sanh. Trong khi ca ngôïi tính sieâu theá gian cuûa ñöùc Phaät, boä phaùi naøy ñoàng thôøi cuõng coá gaéng laøm taêng theâm yù nghóa cöùu ñoä cuûa ngaøi ñoái vôùi nhöõng chuùng sanh phaøm tuïc. Theo ñoù thì ñöùc Phaät khoâng bieán maát khi nhaäp Nieát-baøn, maø vôùi loøng töø bi voâ haïn cuõng nhö thoï maïng voâ löôïng, ngaøi seõ maõi maõi hoùa hieän ra nhöõng vò söù giaû döôùi moïi hình thöùc, vaø caùc vò naøy seõ cöùu giuùp taát caû caùc loaøi chuùng sanh theo nhieàu caùch khaùc nhau. AÛnh höôûng cuûa ngaøi khoâng chæ giôùi haïn vôùi moät soá ít ngöôøi coù theå hieåu ñöôïc caùc giaùo lyù thaâm saâu cuûa ngaøi, maø töø khi coøn laø moät vò Boà Taùt, nghóa laø suoát moät thôøi gian raát laâu tröôùc khi thaønh Phaät, thaäm chí ngaøi ñaõ töï nguyeän sanh trong nhöõng caûnh giôùi ñau khoå, laøm thaân thuù 1

Sthavirāvāda 74

His adversaries took the name of Sthavirās, “the Elders”, claiming greater seniority and orthodoxy. The Mahāsānghikas continued to exist in India until the end and important doctrinal developments took place within their midst. All these were ultimately determined by their decision to take the side of the people against the saints, thus becoming the channel through which popular aspirations entered into Buddhism. Their most important theories concern Buddhology and philosophical theory. As for the Buddha, they regarded everything personal, earthly, temporal and historical as outside the real Buddha, Who was transcendental, altogether supramundane, had no imperfections and impurities whatsoever, was omniscient, all-powerful, infinite and eternal, forever withdrawn into trance, never distracted or asleep. In this way the Buddha became an ideal object of religious faith. As for the historical Buddha, He was a magical creation of the transcendental Buddha, a fictitious creature sent by Him to appear in the world and to teach its inhabitants. While on the one side intent on glorifying the otherworldliness of the Buddha, the Mahāsānghikas at the same time tried to increase the range of His usefulness to ordinary people. The Buddha has not disappeared into Nirvāṇa, but with a compassion as unlimited as the length of His life, He will until the end of time conjure up all kinds of messengers who will help all kinds of beings in diverse ways. His influence is not confined to those few who can understand His abstruse doctrines. As a Bodhisattva, i.e. during the very long period which precedes His Buddhahood, He is even reborn in the “states of woe”, becomes of His own free will an animal, a ghost or a dweller in hell and in many ways furthers the weal of those beings who 75

Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

vaät, quyû ñoùi, hoaëc sanh vaøo ñòa nguïc, vaø baèng nhieàu phöông tieän ñeå laøm taêng theâm haïnh phuùc cho nhöõng chuùng sanh ñang soáng trong nhöõng ñieàu kieän maø söï giaùo hoùa chaéc chaén khoâng ñöôïc quan taâm ñeán. Khoâng nhöõng chö Phaät thò hieän nôi theá giôùi naøy, maø caùc ngaøi coøn bieán hieän khaép nôi trong toaøn theå vuõ truï, hieän höõu ôû khaép moïi nôi, trong taát caû caùc coõi theá giôùi. heát:

Hai trieát thuyeát sau ñaây cuûa Ñaïi chuùng boä laø quan troïng hôn 1. Ñaïi chuùng boä cho raèng tö töôûng cuûa chuùng ta, trong baûn chaát töï nhieân, trong söï hieän höõu töï thaân, trong thöïc chaát caên baûn nhaát cuûa noù, laø hoaøn toaøn thuaàn khieát vaø khoâng ngaên ngaïi. Nhöõng ñieàu baát tònh chæ laø baát chôït khôûi leân, khoâng bao giôø coù theå thaät söï thaâm nhaäp hoaëc gaây aûnh höôûng ñeán söï thuaàn khieát nguyeân thuûy cuûa tö töôûng.

2. Ñaïi chuùng boä ngaøy caøng gia taêng söï hoaøi nghi veà giaù trò cuûa nhöõng tri thöùc qua ngoân ngöõ vaø khaùi nieäm. Moät soá ngöôøi trong boä phaùi naøy cho raèng taát caû nhöõng chuyeän theá gian laø khoâng thöïc, bôûi vì ñeàu do taø kieán maø coù. Chæ coù nhöõng gì vöôït treân theá phaùp, vaø coù theå goïi laø “taùnh khoâng”, vaéng laëng taát caû caùc phaùp, môùi laø chaân thaät. Moät soá khaùc laïi cho raèng heát thaûy moïi thöù, theá gian vaø xuaát theá gian, tuyeät ñoái vaø töông ñoái, luaân hoài vaø Nieát-baøn, cuõng ñeàu laø nhöõng aûo töôûng, khoâng thaät. Taát caû nhöõng gì chuùng ta coù ñöôïc laø nhöõng caùch dieãn ñaït baèng ngoân ngöõ maø khoâng coù gì laø thöïc söï töông öùng caû. Vôùi trieát thuyeát naøy, Ñaïi chuùng boä ñaõ sôùm gieo maàm moáng ñeå veà sau naûy sinh Phaät giaùo Ñaïi thöøa trong thôøi kyø thöù hai. Söï phaân chia thöù hai, giöõa Truï töû boä1 vaø Thöôïng toïa boä lieân quan ñeán vaán ñeà söï hieän höõu cuûa caù theå hay “caùi toâi”. Luùc môùi thaønh laäp, nhöõng ngöôøi theo chuû thuyeát “höõu ngaõ” ñöôïc goïi laø Ñoäc töû boä, theo teân ngöôøi saùng laäp. Veà sau naøy, hoï ñöôïc bieát ñeán nhieàu hôn vôùi teân goïi laø Truï töû boä. Maëc duø khoâng theo ñuùng giaùo lyù cuûa Phaät,2 nhöng coù ñoâi luùc hoï vaãn loâi cuoán ñöôïc ñoâng 1 2

Pudgalavāda, Truï töû boä, hay coøn goïi laø Ñoäc töû boä (Vātsīputrīyas), theo teân cuûa vò taêng saùng laäp laø Ñoäc Töû (Vatsa).

Boä phaùi naøy neâu ra giaû thuyeát veà moät caùi “ngaõ” tieàm aån trong moãi con ngöôøi.

live in conditions in which wisdom teaching must fall on deaf ears. Nor are Buddhas found on this earth alone, but they fill the entire universe, and exist here and there everywhere, in all the world systems. Two of the philosophical theories of the Mahdsan-ghikas are of outstanding importance: 1. They taught that thought, in its own nature, its own being, in its substance, is perfectly pure and translucent. The impurities are accidental to it, never enter into or affect its original purity, and remain “adventitious” to it. 2. The Mahāsānghikas were in the course of time led to an increasing scepticism about the value of verbalized and conceptualized knowledge. Some of them taught that all worldly things are unreal, because a result of the perverted views. Only that which transcends worldly things and can be called “emptiness”, being the absence of all of them, is real. Others said that everything, both worldly and supramundane, both absolute and relative, both Samsara and Nirvāṇa, is fictitious and unreal and that all we have got is a number of verbal expressions to which nothing real corresponds. In this way the Mahāsānghikas early implanted the seeds which came to fruition in Mahāyāna Buddhism in the second period. The second split, between the Pudgalavādins and the Sthavirās, concerned the question of pudgala, or “person”. At the beginning of their history the “Personalists” were called Vātsīputrīyas, after their founder, whereas later on they were better known as the Sammitiyas. Although barely orthodox, Tuy hoï coù noùi khaùc ñi ñoâi chuùt, nhöng thöïc chaát vaãn chính laø töï ngaõ (ātman) maø ñöùc Phaät ñaõ baùc boû.

Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

ñaûo ngöôøi theo, nhö chuùng ta coù theå thaáy ôû söï kieän ngaøi Huyeàn Trang vaøo theá kyû 7 ñaõ ñeám ñöôïc ñeán 66.000 tyø-kheo theo boä phaùi naøy trong toång soá 250.000 tyø-kheo treân toaøn coõi AÁn Ñoä. Giaùo ñieàu cô baûn cuûa trieát hoïc Phaät giaùo cho raèng töï ngaõ1 cuûa con ngöôøi chæ laø moät bieåu hieän sai laàm, vaø khoâng neân ñeå yù nieäm veà töï ngaõ xen vaøo trong khaùi nieäm veà thöïc taïi nhö voán coù, cho duø laø döôùi baát cöù hình thöùc naøo. Nhöõng ngöôøi theo chuû thuyeát höõu ngaõ ñaõ thaùch thöùc quan ñieåm naøy, vaø cho raèng beân caïnh caùc phaùp voâ ngaõ vaãn coù moät caùi “ngaõ” phaûi xem xeùt ñeán. Hoï daãn chöùng nhieàu phaàn ñaùng tin caäy trong kinh ñieån ñeå haäu thuaãn cho quan ñieåm cuûa hoï. Chaúng haïn nhö hoï raát thöôøng trích daãn caâu naøy: “Coù moät ngöôøi, khi sinh ra treân theá giôùi naøy laø sinh ra vì haïnh phuùc cuûa nhieàu ngöôøi. Ngöôøi ñoù laø ai? Chính laø Nhö Lai.”2 Nhöõng ngöôøi phaûn ñoái vaãn phaûi thöøa nhaän nhöõng caâu trích daãn töông töï nhö theá, nhöng luoân cho raèng chuùng khoâng mang nghóa theo nhö hoï ñaõ dieãn dòch, bôûi vì trong nhöõng lôøi aáy, ñöùc Phaät chæ tuøy thuaän maø söû duïng ngoân ngöõ cho thích hôïp vôùi söï meâ toái cuûa chuùng sanh maø thoâi. Nhöõng ngöôøi chuû tröông höõu ngaõ coøn cho raèng töï ngaõ laø moät thöïc taïi theo nghóa tuyeät ñoái. Chính töï ngaõ laø yeáu toá chung, laø moät söï noái keát cho nhöõng tieán trình noái tieáp nhau xaûy ra trong moät caù nhaân cuï theå traûi qua nhieàu ñôøi soáng, ñeå cuoái cuøng ñaït ñeán Phaät quaû. Song song vôùi lyù thuyeát naøy, Truï töû boä coøn raát quan taâm ñeán vieäc ñònh nghóa moái quan heä giöõa töï ngaõ vaø caùc uaån theo moät caùch sao cho khoâng maâu thuaãn vôùi nhöõng nguyeân taéc chuû yeáu trong giaùo lyù cuûa ñöùc Phaät vaø cuõng ñeå loaïi tröø nieàm tin sai laàm veà töï ngaõ. Hoï daïy raèng: “Töï ngaõ khoâng gioáng vôùi caùc uaån, cuõng khoâng naèm trong caùc uaån, vaø khoâng naèm ngoaøi caùc uaån.” Coù theå noùi laø khaùi nieäm töï ngaõ ñöa ra moät kieåu caáu truùc thoáng nhaát cho nhöõng yeáu toá thuoäc veà tinh thaàn vaø theå chaát. Vì vaäy, töï ngaõ khoâng theå dieãn ñaït baèng lôøi, vaø cuõng khoâng theå ñònh nghóa ñöôïc, cho duø laø ôû baát cöù khía caïnh naøo. Töï ngaõ chaân thaät vaø sieâu 1 2

Ātman Tathagatā 78

they were at times strong in numbers, as we can see from the fact that Yuan Tsang in the seventh century counted 66,000 Personalist monks, out of a total of 250,000 in the whole of India. It was a fundamental dogma of Buddhist philosophy that personality is a token of falsehood and that no idea of “self, in whichever form it might appear, ought to have a place in the conception of reality as it actually is. The Personalists challenged this position and claimed that in addition to the impersonal dharmas there is still a Person to be reckoned with. They could adduce much scriptural authority in favour of their views. They were, for instance, fond of quoting the remark: “One person, when He is born in the world, is born for the weal of the many. Who is that one person? He is the Tathagata.” Their opponents had to admit these and many other passages, but they maintained that they do not mean what they say, since in them the Buddha only conformed to the linguistic usage of an ignorant world. The Personalists on the other hand taught that the Person is a reality in the ultimate sense, which provides a common factor or link for the successive processes occuring in a self-identical individual, over many lives, up to Buddhahood. At the same time the Pudgalavadins took great care to define the relation of the Person to the skandhas in such a way as not to contradict the essential principles of the Buddha’s teaching and so as to exclude the “erroneous belief in a self. “The Person is neither identical with the skandhas, nor is he in the skandhas, nor outside them”, so they taught. He provides, as we would put it, .a kind of “structural unity” for the psycho-physical elements. As such he is “ineffable”, indefinable in every respect whatsoever. 79

Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

vieät cuûa moät ngöôøi quaû thaät tinh teá ñeán möùc chæ coù caùc ñöùc Phaät môùi coù theå nhìn thaáy ñöôïc.

A man’s true, transcendental Self is indeed so subtle that only the Buddhas can see it.

Truï töû boä laø bieåu hieän cho söï phaûn öùng cuûa nhöõng tri thöùc thoâng thöôøng choáng laïi tính caùch khoâng chaéc chaén cuûa lyù thuyeát veà caùc phaùp döôùi nhöõng hình thöùc quaù cöùng nhaéc. Hoï ñaõ gaây ra söï khoù chòu thöôøng xuyeân cho nhöõng ngöôøi baát ñoàng thuoäc caùc boä phaùi khaùc trong nhieàu theá kyû. Vaø trong moät chöøng möïc naøo ñoù, boä phaùi naøy coù theå noùi laø tieàn thaân cuûa trieát hoïc Ñaïi thöøa. Coù söï töông ñoàng gaàn guõi giöõa töï ngaõ cuûa hoï vôùi chaân nhö1 hoaëc taùnh khoâng cuûa phaùi Trung luaän.2 Vaø tạng thöùc3 cuûa Duy thöùc toâng4 laïi coù nhieàu chöùc naêng maø nhöõng ngöôøi chuû tröông höõu ngaõ naøy ñaõ gaùn cho töï ngaõ cuûa hoï.

The Pudgalavadins represented the reaction of commonsense against the improbabilities of the dharmas theory in its more uncompromising forms. They provided over the centuries a constant irritant to disputants of other sects and in some ways they were the forerunners of Mahayana philosophy. There exists a close analogy between the pudgala and the Suchness, or Emptiness, of the Madhyamikas, and the “Storeconsciousness” of the Yogacarins had many of the functions which the Personalists assigned to the pudgala.

Söï phaân chia thöù ba laø giöõa Nhaát thieát höõu boä vaø Phaân bieät boä, baét nguoàn töø giaùo lyù baûn theå toaøn höõu5 cuûa Katyayamputra, cho raèng khoâng chæ rieâng hieän taïi, maø caû nhöõng söï kieän trong quaù khöù vaø töông lai ñeàu laø coù thaät. Döôøng nhö vua A-duïc ñaõ ñöùng veà phía cuûa Phaân bieät boä, vaø vì theá Nhaát thieát höõu boä chuyeån veà phía Baéc vaø giaùo hoùa xöù Kashmir, nôi maø veà sau tieáp tuïc laø trung taâm cuûa hoï trong hôn moät ngaøn naêm. Khi chuùng ta xem xeùt ñeán vieäc haønh thieàn caên baûn cuûa Phaät giaùo, cuõng khoâng coù gì ñaùng ngaïc nhieân khi vaán ñeà hieän höõu cuûa nhöõng söï kieän quaù khöù vaø töông lai laïi döôøng nhö quaù quan troïng. Giöõa nhöõng tính chaát khoâng thoûa maõn cuûa theá giôùi naøy, tính chaát voâ thöôøng laø quan troïng hôn heát. Vaø coâng vieäc cuûa moät thieàn giaû laø khaéc saâu ñieàu aáy trong taâm trí ñeán möùc toái ña, ñeå coù theå laøm taêng theâm söï nhaøm chaùn ñoái vôùi nhöõng vaán ñeà theá tuïc. Trong töông quan naøy, haønh giaû phaûi choïn laáy moät söï vieäc, hay moät phaùp, vaø quaùn xeùt söï sinh khôûi roài dieät ñi cuûa noù, nghóa laø quaùn xeùt phaùp aáy hieän ñeán nhö theá naøo, phaùt trieån nhö theá naøo vaø dieät maát nhö theá naøo. 3 2 3

Tathatā

Madhyamaka

Ālaya-vijñāna, cuõng goïi laø A-laïi-da thöùc hay Haøm taøng thöùc. 4 Yogācāra, hay coøn goïi laø Du-giaø haønh toâng. 80

Thirdly, the split between Sarvastivadins and Vibhajyavadins was occasioned by the pan-realistic ontological doctrine of Katyayamputra, who taught that not only the present, but also past and future events are real. It appears that Aśoka sided with the Vibhajyavadins and that in consequence the Sarvastivadins went North and converted Kashmir, which remained their centre for more than a thousand years. When we consider the basic practice of Buddhist meditation, it is not surprising that the problem of the existence of past and future events should have seemed so important. Among the unsatisfactory features of this world the pride of place belonged to impermanence and it was the task of the Yogin to impress its full extent on his mind so as to further his distaste for worldly things. In this connection he had to take an event, or dharma, and see its “rise and fall”, i.e. how it “comes, becomes, goes”. 5

Giaùo lyù naøy cho raèng baûn theå cuûa söï vaät luoân luoân hieän höõu, vaø vì theá, thöïc taïi ñoàng thôøi bao haøm caû quaù khöù, hieän taïi vaø vò lai.

Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

Moät khi haønh giaû ñaõ quen vôùi vieäc ñaët quaù khöù töông phaûn vôùi hieän taïi vaø töông lai, thì raát coù theå ngöôøi ñoù seõ trôû neân toø moø muoán bieát xem lieäu chæ coù hieän taïi laø hieän höõu, hay caû quaù khöù vaø töông lai cuõng hieän höõu? Neáu duy nhaát chæ coù hieän taïi hieän höõu, thì vieäc naøy seõ gôïi leân theâm vaán ñeà söï keùo daøi cuûa hieän taïi maø nhieàu ngöôøi cho laø chæ trong moät thoaùng voâ cuøng ngaén nguûi. Trong tröôøng hôïp ñoù, seõ khoâng coù gì toàn taïi keùo daøi qua thôøi gian, vaø ngöôøi ta buoäc phaûi cho raèng söï vieäc bò maát ñi vaø ñöôïc taùi taïo trong töøng khoaûnh khaéc. Nhöng theo Katyayamputra, ñieàu naøy taïo ra nhöõng khoù khaên khoâng chæ cho nhöõng tri thöùc thoâng thöôøng, maø caû cho giaùo lyù nghieäp quaû vaø söï baùo öùng cuûa Phaät giaùo nöõa. Bôûi vì, neáu nhö moät haønh ñoäng töø quaù khöù, voán ñaõ khoâng toàn taïi ngay sau khi dieãn ra, laïi coù theå ñöa ñeán moät keát quaû toát hoaëc xaáu trong nhieàu naêm sau ñoù, vaäy thì trong tröôøng hôïp aáy, coù moät ñieàu gì ñoù khoâng toàn taïi maø vaãn hoaït ñoäng vaø taïo ra taùc ñoäng trong khi noù khoâng toàn taïi. Bôûi theá, Katyayamputra cho raèng, cuõng töông töï nhö vaäy, nhöõng hieåu bieát veà caùc ñoái töôïng quaù khöù vaø töông lai nhö ñöôïc xaùc ñònh bôûi trí nhôù vaø döï baùo seõ khoâng theå coù ñöôïc, bôûi vì khoâng theå coù baát cöù moät söï hieåu bieát naøo, neáu nhö khoâng coù moät ñoái töôïng thaät söï cuûa taâm trí. Töø ñoù, oâng ñöa ra lyù thuyeát toaøn höõu, trôû thaønh moät luaän ñeà ñaëc bieät cuûa Nhaát thieát höõu boä.1 Thuyeát naøy traùnh ñöôïc nhöõng vaán ñeà neâu treân, nhöng thay vaøo ñoù laïi gôïi leân nhieàu vaán ñeà khaùc. Vaø ñeå coù theå ñöùng vöõng ñöôïc caàn phaûi coù theâm moät caáu truùc thöôïng taàng ñoà soä vôùi raát nhieàu giaû thuyeát phuï thuoäc. Maëc duø baùm víu vaøo moät hoïc thuyeát nhieàu khuùc maéc, nhöng Nhaát thieát höõu boä vaãn trôû thaønh moät tröôøng phaùi ñaùng keå nhaát treân tieåu luïc ñòa AÁn Ñoä. Keát quaû cuûa cao traøo quan taâm ñeán caùc vaán ñeà trieát hoïc laø tröôøng hôïp ñaàu tieân veà moät loaït nhöõng kinh vaên ñöôïc saùng taïo 1

Ngay teân goïi cuûa boä phaùi naøy cuõng noùi leân ñieàu ñoù. Hoï coøn ñöôïc goïi vôùi teân ñaày ñuû hôn laø Thuyeát nhaát thieát höõu boä, vaø goïi vaén taét laø Höõu boä. Duø goïi theo teân naøo, neùt ñaëc tröng nhaát vaãn ñöôïc neâu leân, ñoù laø vieäc hoï cho raèng taát caû ñeàu hieän höõu, caû quaù khöù, hieän taïi vaø vò lai.

Now, once a monk had got used to contrasting the past with the present and future, he might well become curious to know whether only the present really exists, or also the past and future. If only the present exists, this raises the further point of its duration, which many regarded as lasting just one single instant. In that case no thing will endure for any length of time, and one must assume that it is annihilated and re-created from instant to instant. This raises difficulties not only for the commonsense, but according to Katyayamputra, also for the Buddhist doctrine of karma and retribution. For if a past action, which has ceased to exist immediately after taking place should lead to a reward or punishment many years later, then in that case something which does not exist is operative, has an effect, at a time when it does not exist. Likewise, so Katyayamputra thought, the knowledge of past and future objects, as attested by memory and prediction, would be impossible, since no knowledge is possible without an actual object in front of the mind. In consequence he evolved the pan-realistic theory, which became the peculiar thesis of the Sarvastivadins. It avoided the difficulties mentioned above, only to introduce many others in their stead and a vast superstructure of auxiliary hypotheses was required to make it tenable. In spite of their addiction to a rather tortuous scholasticism, the Sarvastivadins became the most significant school on the Indian subcontinent. As the result of the emergence of an interest in philosophical questions we have the first instance of a whole class of canonical literature being created to meet a new situation. The 83

Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

ra ñeå ñaùp öùng vôùi hoaøn caûnh môùi. Boä A-tyø-ñaït-ma roõ raøng laø ñaõ ñöôïc soaïn ra sau laàn phaân chia thöù ba cuûa caùc boä phaùi. Noäi dung baûy cuoán A-tyø-ñaït-ma cuûa Nhaát thieát höõu boä khaùc xa vôùi noäi dung baûy cuoán cuûa Thöôïng toïa boä,1 moät nhaùnh phaân chia töø Phaân bieät boä.2 Moät soá caùc boä phaùi khaùc, nhö Kinh löôïng boä3 ñaõ tieán xa hôn ñeán choã phaûn baùc laïi tính xaùc thöïc cuûa caû boä A-tyøñaït-ma. Töø khoaûng naêm 220 tröôùc Coâng nguyeân trôû ñi, ñaõ coù raát nhieàu noã löïc tinh thaàn ñeå cho ra ñôøi nhöõng boä saùch naøy, voán laø nhöõng taøi lieäu höôùng daãn caàn thieát cho phöông phaùp thieàn quaùn, chæ roõ nhöõng söï kieän naøo coù theå xem laø caên baûn cho ngöôøi khôûi ñaàu, vaø nhöõng söï kieän khaùc ñöôïc chuùng taïo thaønh nhö theá naøo, vaø chuùng taïo ñieàu kieän töông taùc vôùi nhau nhö theá naøo.v.v... Tröôùc khi keát thuùc vieäc noùi veà caùc boä phaùi, chuùng ta coù theå ñeà caäp theâm moät soá ñieåm baát ñoàng veà caùc vaán ñeà ñöôïc quan taâm roäng raõi hôn. Khaùi nieäm khoù naém baét veà Nieát-baøn ñaõ laø chuû ñeà tranh luaän. Neáu Nieát-baøn laø vöôït ngoaøi nhaän thöùc, vaäy lieäu Nieát-baøn coù thaät toàn taïi hay khoâng? Vaø coù theå taïo ra ñöôïc aûnh höôûng gì khoâng? Nieát-baøn coù phaûi laø traïng thaùi duy nhaát vöôït ngoaøi nhaän thöùc, hay khoâng gian cuõng laø vöôït ngoaøi nhaän thöùc ? Lieäu coù söï khaùc bieät naøo giöõa Nieát-baøn cuûa chö Phaät vaø Nieát-baøn cuûa nhöõng ngöôøi khaùc hay khoâng? Vaø neáu coù, thì khaùc bieät ñoù laø gì? Ngoaøi ra coøn coù nhieàu quan taâm ñeán vieäc xaùc ñònh nhöõng tieâu chí cuûa söï chöùng ngoä hoaøn toaøn, baát thoái chuyeån. Vaø do ñoù cuõng daãn ñeán raát nhieàu tranh luaän veà vieäc lieäu coù khi naøo caùc vò A-la-haùn vaø caùc baäc thaùnh khaùc coù theå bò thoái chuyeån hay khoâng? Vaø keå töø khi naøo thì söï giaûi thoaùt cuûa hoï coù theå ñöôïc ñaûm baûo chaéc chaén? Veà vaán ñeà caùi cheát, voán luoân aùm aûnh trong taâm trí ngöôøi tu taäp, ngöôøi ta töï hoûi raèng, lieäu giôø cheát cuûa moãi ngöôøi coù luoân luoân ñöôïc xaùc ñònh tröôùc bôûi nghieäp quaû cuûa ngöôøi aáy, hay moät caùi cheát sôùm hôn vaø khoâng ñöôïc xaùc ñònh tröôùc cuõng coù theå xaûy ra? 1

Theravāda Vibhajyavāda 3 Sautrāntika 2

Abhidharma books were clearly composed after the third division of the schools. The contents of the seven Abhidharma books of the Sarvastivadins differ greatly from those of the seven books of the Theravadins, who are an offshoot of the Vibhajyavadins. Some sects, like the Sautrantikas, went so far as to contest the authenticity of all Abhidharma works. A great mental effort went, from about 200 BC onwards, into the production of these books, which are technical handbooks of meditation, teaching what events can be regarded as elementary, how others are composed of them, how they condition each other, etc. Before we leave the schools, we may mention a few more points of disagreement on questions of a more general interest. The elusive concept of Nirvāṇa came in for some discussion. If it is unconditioned, does it exist, and can it have effects? Is it the only unconditioned thing, or is space also unconditioned? Is there any difference between the Nirvāṇa of the Buddhas and that of other people, and what is it? There was also much interest in determining the criteria of a definite achievement, which cannot again be lost. There was therefore much debate on when and whether the Arhats and other saints can “fall back” and from when onwards their salvation is assured. On the subject of death, always present in the minds of these ascetics, one wondered whether the hour of death is definitely fixed by karma, or whether a premature and untimely death is possible. 85

Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

Cuõng coù nhieàu baát ñoàng veà nhöõng gì seõ theo sau caùi cheát. Coù 5 tröôøng phaùi tin raèng vieäc taùi sinh vaøo moät thaân xaùc môùi xaûy ra ngay töùc thì sau khi cheát. Trong khi ñoù, 5 tröôøng phaùi khaùc cho raèng coù moät giai ñoaïn chuyeån tieáp sau khi cheát, keùo daøi ñeán 49 ngaøy.1 Vaø suoát thôøi gian ñoù, trong haàu heát caùc tröôøng hôïp, taâm thöùc daàn daàn chuaån bò ñôøi soáng môùi cho chính mình. Trong tröôøng hôïp cuûa moät soá caùc vò thaùnh, khoaûng thôøi gian naøy ñöôïc duøng ñeå ñaït ñeán Nieát-baøn maø hoï ñaõ khoâng ñaït ñöôïc khi coøn soáng. 5. CÖ SÓ

Cho ñeán luùc naøy, chuùng ta ñaõ phaùc thaûo sô qua ñöôïc nhöõng quan ñieåm cô baûn vaø muïc tieâu cuûa haøng taêng só xuaát gia, nhöõng ngöôøi hình thaønh neân phaàn coát loõi chính yeáu cuûa Phaät giaùo. Theá coøn veà nhöõng tín ñoà Phaät giaùo khoâng theo ñuoåi ñôøi soáng xuaát gia, nhöng neáu khoâng coù hoï thì haøng taêng só khoâng theå coù ñuû ñieàu kieän ñeå tu taäp thieàn quaùn, nhöõng ngöôøi aáy thì sao? Vò trí cuûa hoï nhö theá naøo trong böùc tranh toaøn caûnh? Hoï ñöôïc giao cho thöïc hieän nhöõng ñieàu gì? Vaø taêng só ñaõ laøm ñöôïc nhöõng gì cho hoï? Neáu moät cö só caûm thaáy raøng buoäc vôùi gia ñình vaø khoâng theå thoaùt ly ñeå soáng cuoäc soáng khoâng nhaø, ngöôøi aáy ñöôïc cho laø khoâng ñuû phöôùc duyeân. Vaø phöôùc duyeân thì phuï thuoäc vaøo nhöõng gì maø moät ngöôøi ñaõ laøm töø trong quaù khöù vaø nhöõng gì laøm giôùi haïn khaû naêng gaëp ñöôïc caùc ñieàu kieän toát ñeå tu taäp cuûa ngöôøi aáy. Trong moät vaøi tröôøng hôïp ngoaïi leä ñöôïc ghi nhaän, moät soá cö só chöa töøng xuaát gia vaãn ñaït ñöôïc söï giaûi thoaùt sanh töû. Tuy nhieân, noùi chung thì söï giaûi thoaùt cuûa cö só khoâng theå ñaït ñöôïc ngay trong hieän taïi, chæ coù theå ñöôïc ñaûm baûo vôùi ñieàu kieän laø cho ñeán moät ñôøi soáng töông lai hoï ñaõ taïo ñuû phöôùc duyeân ñeå coù theå böôùc vaøo theá giôùi töï do cuûa moät ñôøi soáng trong töï vieän. Veà maët tín ngöôõng, coâng vieäc duy nhaát maø moät cö só coù theå laøm trong hieän taïi laø laøm taêng theâm phöôùc baùu cuûa mình. Phaät giaùo chæ ra 4 phöông thöùc ñeå cö só coù theå laøm ñieàu ñoù: 1

There was also disagreement on what follows on death: five schools believed that death is instantly followed by rebirth in another organism, whereas five other schools taught that death would be followed by an “intermediary existence” of up to fortynine days, during which in most cases the new incarnation slowly prepared itself. In the case of certain saints this interval is used for the attainment of the Nirvāṇa which escaped them during this life. 5. THE LAITY

We have now sketched the basic opinions and aims of the homeless monks who constitute the essential core of the Buddhist world. But what about those Buddhists who were not monks, what about the laity without whom the monks could not possibly carry on their meditations? What is their place in the scheme of things? What are they given to do? And what do the monks do for them? If a layman feels tied to his home and unable to escape from it into the homeless life, it is due to his deficiency in a quality called “merit”, which depends on what he has done in the past and which circumscribes his access to spiritual opportunities. A number of exceptional cases are recorded of laymen having won deathlessness without previously entering the Order. Generally speaking, however, their salvation is out of the question at present, and can be assured only on condition that by a future life they have accumulated sufficient “merit” to make the jump into the social freedom of the monastic life. The layman’s one and only religious task at present can be to increase his store of merit. The Buddhist religion offers him four avenues for doing so:

Giai ñoaïn naøy ñöôïc goïi laø giai ñoaïn mang thaân trung aám, coù ñöôïc ñeà caäp ñeán trong kinh Thuû Laêng Nghieâm. Veà nhöõng giaûi thích chi tieát hôn, ñoäc giaû

coù theå tìm ñoïc trong quyeån Ngöôøi Taây Taïng nghó veà caùi cheát (hay Ngöôøi cheát ñi veà ñaâu) (Nguyeãn Minh Tieán bieân soaïn, NXB Toân giaùo, 2004)

Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

a. Vaâng giöõ theo 5 giôùi, hoaëc ít nhaát cuõng laø baét ñaàu vôùi moät phaàn naøo trong ñoù. Vaøo caùc ngaøy raèm hoaëc ñaàu thaùng, cö só coù theå giöõ theâm 3 giôùi nöõa.1 Ñoù laø aên chay vaø khoâng aên sau luùc giöõa tröa, khoâng tham gia caùc cuoäc giaûi trí theá tuïc, vaø khoâng duøng caùc loaïi daàu thôm hoaëc ñoà trang söùc. Moät soá ngöôøi coøn giöõ theâm 2 giôùi nöõa,2 ñoù laø khoâng naèm hoaëc ngoài treân giöôøng gheá cao roäng vaø khoâng nhaän tieàn baïc hay caùc vaät quyù giaù.

a. He must observe the five precepts, or at least some of

them. On feast days, every fortnight, he may add to them another three, i.e. he fasts, avoids worldly amusements, and uses neither unguents nor ornaments. A few observed still two more precepts, i.e. they did not sleep on a high, big bed and they accepted no gold or silver.

b. Ñaët nieàm tin saâu vöõng vaøo ngoâi Tam baûo. Vun ñaép nieàm tin laø ñieàu laønh thích hôïp ñoái vôùi cuoäc soáng coù gia ñình. Nhöng nieàm tin vaøo Tam baûo khoâng nhaát thieát phaûi laø duy nhaát, khoâng loaïi tröø vieäc thôø cuùng oâng baø hoaëc caùc taäp tuïc chung cuûa xaõ hoäi. Ngoâi Tam baûo khoâng phaûi laø moät kieåu thaùnh thaàn ñoá kî, khoù chòu veà vieäc gia chuû thôø kính caùc vò thaàn hoä meänh cuûa quoác gia hay boä toäc.

b. He must have devotion for the Three Treasures and faith is the virtue apposite to a householder’s state of life. But this faith is not an exclusive one and does not entail a rejection of his ancestral beliefs and of the Brahmanic religious usages of his social environment. The Triple Jewel is not a jealous God and is not displeased by the worship of the deities of a man’s country or caste.

c. Cö só phaûi coù loøng roäng löôïng, khoâng tham tieác, nhaát laø ñoái vôùi caùc vò taêng só, vaø cuùng döôøng cho caùc vò caøng nhieàu caøng toát, khoâng nhöõng ñeå caùc vò duy trì nhöõng nôi töï vieän, maø coøn caû nhöõng nôi thôø kính khoâng coù ngöôøi ôû nöõa.3 Trong moät chöøng möïc naøo ñoù, coâng ñöùc taïo ra do vieäc cuùng döôøng laø tuøy thuoäc vaøo ñöùc ñoä cuûa ngöôøi thoï nhaän. Vì theá, nhöõng vò ñeä töû cuûa Phaät, vaø ñaëc bieät laø caùc vò A-la-haùn, laø nhöõng maûnh ruoäng phöôùc4 toát nhaát ñeå gieo maàm coâng ñöùc.

c. He must be generous, especially to the monks, and give as much as possible to them, not only for their upkeep, but also for religious buildings inhabited by no one. To some extent the merit produced by gifts depends on the spiritual endowments of the recipient, and therefore the sons of Sakyamuni, and in particular the Arhats, are the best possible “field for planting merit”.

d. Cö só coøn coù theå thôø kính ngoïc xaù-lôïi cuûa Phaät ñeå laïi. Thaùi ñoä thöïc söï cuûa tín ñoà Phaät giaùo ñoái vôùi ngoïc xaù-lôïi töø raêng vaø xöông Phaät ñeå laïi thaät khoù coù theå moâ taû baèng nhöõng töø ngöõ maø ngöôøi phöông Taây ñaõ hieåu ñöôïc. Neáu duøng töø “caàu nguyeän” ñöùc Phaät thì roõ raøng laø khoâng theå ñöôïc, vì hoï cho raèng ngaøi khoâng coøn nöõa maø ñaõ nhaäp Nieát-baøn , nghóa laø hoaøn toaøn khoâng hieän höõu nöõa ñoái vôùi theá gian naøy. Ngay 1 2

Töùc laø thoï Baùt quan trai, bao goàm 8 giôùi. Töùc laø Thaäp giôùi. Vieäc giöõ 8 giôùi hoaëc 10 giôùi coøn coù ñieåm khaùc vôùi 5 giôùi ôû choã laø giôùi “khoâng taø daâm” trôû thaønh giôùi “khoâng daâm duïc”. Cö só trong ngaøy thoï Baùt quan trai khoâng laøm chuyeän daâm duïc duø laø vôùi baát cöù ai.

d. He may worship the relics of the Buddha. The actual attitude of the Buddhists to these teeth and bones is difficult to describe in terms readily understood in the West. It is obviously impossible for them to “pray” to the Buddha, for the reason that He is no longer there, being in Nirvāṇa, i.e. extinct as far as this world is concerned. It is even doubtful whether the word “worship” is a very

3 4

Töùc laø caùc thaùp Phaät, ñeàn thôø... Thuaät ngöõ Phaät giaùo goïi laø phöôùc ñieàn.

Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

caû khi duøng töø “thôø kính” cuõng vaãn coøn ñaùng ngôø vì khoâng bieát laø coù thích hôïp hay chaêng. Tröôùc khi coù söï ra ñôøi cuûa neàn coâng nghieäp hieän ñaïi, con ngöôøi ôû khaép nôi ñeàu nhìn vaøo theá giôùi nhö moät coõi huyeàn bí coù voâ soá nhöõng khaû naêng xaûy ra baát cöù ñieàu gì, vaø raát nhieàu nhöõng söùc maïnh voâ hình, ñaày yù nghóa vaø bieát bao nhieâu ñieàm baùo ñaùng chuù yù. ÔÛ AÁn Ñoä, kieåu chaøo chaép hai tay laïi vaø ñöa ra phía tröôùc1 laø taäp quaùn chaøo hoûi thoâng thöôøng, trong ñoù khoâng heà coù söï coá chaáp ñoäc ñoaùn, yù thöùc noâ leä hay söï meâ tín suøng baùi ngaãu töôïng. Nhöõng ñieàu naøy taùc ñoäng raát ít ñeán ngöôøi coù ñöùc tin chaân chính, vaø khoâng giôùi haïn ñöôïc söï töï do trong noäi taâm cuûa hoï. Ñöùc tin nhieät thaønh ñaõ taïo ra trong theá giôùi Phaät giaùo voâ soá nhöõng thaùnh ñieän2 vaø baûo thaùp,3 ñaõ trôû thaønh ñoái töôïng suøng baùi ñaëc bieät cuûa haøng Phaät töû taïi gia. Tuy vaäy, vieäc saùng taïo ra vaø thôø phuïng caùc aûnh töôïng cuûa Phaät ñaõ xuaát hieän khaù treã, raát coù theå laø khoâng sôùm hôn theá kyû thöù nhaát. Neáu moät cö só thöïc haønh 4 ñieàu laønh nhö treân thì seõ coù moät cuoäc soáng haïnh phuùc, vaø sau khi cheát seõ ñöôïc sanh veà caùc coõi trôøi. Vua A-duïc ñaõ theå hieän raát toát nhöõng tính chaát cuûa Phaät giaùo theo nhö ñöôïc hieåu bôûi haøng cö só. Trong giaùo lyù ñaïo Phaät, nhaø vua coi troïng nhaát hai vieäc laø khoâng gaây haïi ñeán keû khaùc4 vaø coù loøng töø ñoái vôùi moïi ngöôøi.5 Caùc saéc leänh cuûa oâng coù nhieàu choã taùn döông vaø thuùc ñaåy vieäc thöïc haønh nhöõng ñieàu laønh ñôn giaûn, vaø chuùng ta cuõng nghe noùi nhieàu veà söï caàn thieát cuûa loøng hieáu thaûo. Nhöng trong ñoù khoâng noùi ñeán nhöõng tö töôûng saâu saéc hôn hoaëc nhöõng giaùo lyù cô baûn veà ñöùc tin. Cuõng khoâng thaáy ñeà caäp ñeán Töù dieäu ñeá, Baùt chaùnh ñaïo, giaùo lyù nhaân quaû, hoaëc ngay caû ñeán Nieát-baøn hay caùc phaåm chaát sieâu vieät cuûa moät vò Phaät. Vaäy thì giôùi taêng só mang laïi ñöôïc nhöõng lôïi ích gì cho haøng cö só? Hoï laøm taêng theâm haïnh phuùc veà caû hai maët tinh thaàn vaø vaät chaát cho cö só.

suitable one. Before the advent of modern industrialism men everywhere looked upon the world as a mysterious realm of boundless possibilities, full of invisible forces, meaningful and replete with significant hints. The posture of namaskara, in which the folded extended palms are held forth, is the customary mode of greeting in India. Bigotry, servility and superstitious idolatry do not enter into it. All these things rest very lightly on the true believer and do not constrain his inner freedom. The fervour of the faithful filled the Buddhist world with innumerable shrines (caitya) and Stupas, which became the object of the special devotion of householders. The creation and cult of Buddha images is, however, fairly late, and unlikely to go back before the first century AD. If a layman well observes these four duties, he will be happy in this life, and after his death he will be reborn in heaven, or in paradise. The Emperor Aśoka well exemplifies the character of Buddhism as understood by the laity. Among Buddhist doctrines he regarded as the two most important ones the avoiding of doing harm to others (ahirhsa) and the active benevolence towards them (maitri). His edicts contain many moral exhortations to the practice of the simple virtues and we also hear much about the need for piety. But there is nothing in them about the deeper ideas or fundamental tenets of the faith. There is no mention of the four holy Truths, the eightfold path, the chain of causation, or even of Nirvāṇa, or of the supernatural qualities of a Buddha. What benefits then does the monk bestow upon the laymen? He increases both their spiritual and their material welfare. 2 3

Namaskāra, tö theá chaøo theo truyeàn thoáng cuûa AÁn Ñoä. Tieáng Anh goïi tö theá naøy laø Namaskar.

Caitya

Stūpas 4 Ahimsā , Haùn dòch nghóa laø Baát haïi (不害). 5 Maitra, Haùn dòch nghóa laø Töø (慈). 91

Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

Veà maët tinh thaàn, hoï söû duïng nhöõng baøi thuyeát giaûng veà caùc phaàn giaùo lyù deã hieåu vaø coù lieân quan ñeán cö só, vaø baèng caùch neâu göông moät ñôøi soáng thaùnh thieän coù theå giuùp mang laïi nieàm khao khaùt vaø nhieät tình cho nhöõng ngöôøi coøn raøng buoäc vôùi theá tuïc, ñeå töø ñoù coù theå heù môû cho hoï thaáy söï töï do vaø thanh thaûn coù theå ñaït ñeán trong ñôøi sau.

He promotes the first by sermons on those aspects of the doctrine which are intelligible and relevant to the laity, as well as by the example of a holy life which will give courage and zest to those still tied to the world and can give them a glimpse of the freedom and serenity they may achieve in a future life.

Qua moät thôøi gian, coù raát nhieàu chuyeän tieàn thaân ñöùc Phaät,1 keå veà nhöõng ñôøi soáng tröôùc ñaây cuûa ngaøi, hieän thaân con ngöôøi cuõng nhö thuù vaät, vaø nhöõng chuyeän daãn duï coù tính caùch raên daïy,2 ñöôïc taäp hôïp laïi ñeå daønh cho cö só. Nhöõng caâu chuyeän naøy ñöôïc say meâ laéng nghe, nhöng khoâng ñöôïc xem troïng baèng nhöõng giaùo lyù coù tính caùch sieâu vieät hôn. Noäi dung cuûa chuùng chuû yeáu laø veà nhöõng ñöùc haïnh trong ñôøi soáng theá tuïc, thöôøng xuyeân nhaán maïnh vaøo thuyeát nghieäp quaû vaø luaân hoài, cuõng nhö nuoâi döôõng loøng töø bi ñoái vôùi taát caû chuùng sanh. ÔÛ Bharhut, Bodhgaya, Sanchi, Nagarjunikonda vaø Ajanta, nhieàu caâu chuyeän tieàn thaân ñöôïc minh hoïa baèng hình töôïng vaø tranh aûnh.

In the course of time a vast literature of Birth stories (jataka), which tell of the Buddha’s previous lives, animal as well as human, and of edifying tales (avadana) was composed for the benefit of the laity. These stories were listened to with avidity, but they had less authority than the more metaphysical teachings. Their message concerns chiefly the virtues of secular life. They constantly stress the doctrine of karma and rebirth and also foster a tenderness towards all that lives. In Bharhut, Bodhgaya, San-chi, Nagarjunikonda and Ajanta many of the Jataka tales have been illustrated in sculpture and painting.

Veà maët vaät chaát, tín ñoà Phaät giaùo ôû chaâu AÙ tin raèng ngöôøi daân coù theå coù ñöôïc söï sung tuùc, phaùt ñaït veà kinh teá, traùnh ñöôïc naïn ñoùi, dòch beänh, vaø chieán tranh laø phaàn lôùn nhôø vaøo caùc vò taêng só. Bôûi vì söï thònh vöôïng cuûa moät quoác gia phaàn lôùn tuøy thuoäc vaøo thieän chí cuûa nhöõng söùc maïnh tinh thaàn tieàm aån3 maø chæ caùc vò taêng só môùi coù theå bieát ñöôïc vaø coù khaû naêng taùc ñoäng ñeán nhöõng söùc maïnh aáy theo höôùng coù lôïi. Moïi vieäc ñeàu toát ñeïp ñoái vôùi moät daân toäc bieát kính troïng chö taêng, vaø baøy toû söï toân kính ñoái vôùi chö Phaät baèng vieäc cuùng döôøng roäng raõi cho caùc töï vieän, chuøa thaùp. Nhöng neáu quoác gia naøo quay löng vôùi Phaät giaùo thì theá naøo cuõng phaûi suy suïp trong ñau khoå. Ñaây laø nhöõng nieàm tin ñaõ giuùp duy trì caùc töï vieän. Tuy nhieân, söï uûng hoä coù tính caùch töï nguyeän vaø khoâng oån ñònh cuûa ngöôøi daân, voán chæ raøng buoäc bôûi nhöõng nieàm tin mong manh nhö theá, seõ khoâng giuùp cho Taêng-giaø toàn taïi ñöôïc laâu. Ñieàu

It was also a belief of Buddhist Asia that the material wellbeing of the people, their economic prosperity and their freedom from famine, epidemics and wars, was largely the work of the monks. For the welfare of a nation depends chiefly on the benevolence of occult and spiritual forces, which the monks alone can know about and which they alone can propitiate. All is well with a people which respects the monks, showing its reverence for the Buddhas by generous gifts to the monasteries and for temples and shrines, but a nation which turns its back on the religion is doomed to perish in misery. These were the beliefs which helped to maintain the monastic institutions. The voluntary and sporadic support of a population tied to them by links as tenuous as these would, however, not have kept the Order going for long. The secret behind its social survival

Jātaka Avadāna 92

Ngöôøi ta tin raèng nhöõng söùc maïnh naøy thöôøng coù khuynh höôùng tröøng phaït, giaùng hoïa cho con ngöôøi, tröø khi ñöôïc xoa dòu ñi bôûi moät taùc nhaân naøo ñoù.

Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

bí maät phía sau söï toàn taïi cuûa Taêng-giaø qua nhieàu theá kyû laø ôû nôi khaû naêng cuûa caùc tín ñoà Phaät giaùo ñaõ lieân tuïc nhieàu laàn giaønh ñöôïc söï uûng hoä töø caùc nhaø cai trò ôû chaâu AÙ, vaø nhöõng ngöôøi naøy baûo trì caùc töï vieän baèng ngaân quyõ cuûa nhaø nöôùc. Neáu khoâng coù söï uûng hoä theo caùch naøy, chö taêng buoäc phaûi trôû thaønh chuû sôû höõu cuûa nhöõng taøi saûn lôùn lao1 vaø phaûi töø boû hoaøn toaøn nhöõng khoaûn hieán cuùng töø vieäc ñi khaát thöïc nhaø naøy sang nhaø khaùc. Ñaây cuõng laø moät giaûi phaùp, nhöng noù ñe doïa ñeán söï thoaùt ly theá söï, vaø raát coù theå loâi cuoán taêng só vaøo phaïm vi cuûa nhöõng xung ñoät xaõ hoäi. Maëc duø laø nhöõng moái quan heä vôùi cö só luoân thieáu tính oån ñònh vaø coù nhöõng ñieåm yeáu ngay töø neàn moùng cuûa vaán ñeà, nhöng neáu Phaät giaùo ñaõ taùch daàn ra khoûi nhöõng giaùo lyù cuûa thôøi kyø ñaàu,2 ñieàu ñoù phaàn lôùn laïi laø nhôø ôû coâng lao cuûa haøng cö só. Chính nhôø söï thuùc eùp cuûa hoï ñaõ ñöa ñeán nhöõng caûi caùch cuûa thôøi kyø thöù hai vaø thöù ba, vì theá maø nhöõng caûi caùch naøy bò nhöõng taêng só nghieâm khaéc cho laø moät söï suy ñoài. Phaät giaùo Ñaïi thöøa ñaùnh giaù cao vai troø cuûa haøng cö só hôn. Hoï giaønh ñöôïc söï uûng hoä roäng raõi nhôø vaøo quan ñieåm cho raèng quaàn chuùng cuõng quan troïng nhö phaùp; nhôø vaøo söï chæ trích tính vò kyû cuûa nhöõng vò taêng chæ bieát nghó ñeán lôïi laïc cuûa rieâng mình; nhôø vaøo söï pheâ phaùn nghieâm khaéc nhöõng vò taêng kieâu maïn; vaø nhôø vaøo vieäc ñöa ra nhöõng caâu chuyeän veà caùc vò cö só giaøu coù, chaúng haïn nhö Duy-ma-caät,3 coù trình ñoä tu chöùng vöôït xa hôn caû nhöõng vò taêng lôùn tuoåi vaø ñaùng kính nhaát. Nhöõng söùc eùp töông töï nhö vaäy thöôøng khieán cho caùc vò taêng só phaûi toû ra höõu ích hôn ñoái vôùi haøng cö só. Trong thôøi kyø thöù ba, thôøi kyø Tan-tra, taêng só töï buoâng thaû vaøo nhöõng nieàm tin huyeàn bí vaø trôû thaønh nhöõng ngöôøi xem thieân vaên, luyeän theå löïc, caàu möa, trò beänh... Ñoù laø lyù do taïi sao caâu chuyeän veà Phaät giaùo trôû neân khoù hieåu, tröø khi laø coù söï chuù yù ñuùng möùc ñeán nhöõng khao khaùt cuûa giôùi bình daân ít hoïc. Yeáu toá maø nhöõng ngöôøi saùng laäp ñaõ choái boû, cuoái cuøng laïi trôû thaønh yeáu toá quan troïng nhaát. 1

Vì hoï phaûi töï ñöùng ra quyeân goùp. Töùc laø nhöõng böôùc caûi caùch, phaùt trieån môùi. 3 Vimalakīrti, Haùn dòch aâm laø Duy-ma-caät (維摩詰), dòch nghóa laø Tònh Danh (淨名). 2

over the centuries lay in the ability of the Buddhists, repeated over and over again, to enlist the support of Asian rulers, who maintained the monastic institutions out of government funds. In default of this, the monks were driven to become large property owners in their own right and to dispense altogether with the capricious rewards of begging from house to house. This is also a solution, but it imperils aloofness from the things of this world and is apt to draw the monks back into the arena of social strife. Nevertheless relations with the laity were always precarious and there at its base was the Achilles heel of the whole soaring edifice. If Buddhism departed from the tenets of the first period, it was largely the work of the laity. It was their pressure which did much to bring about the reforms of the second and third period, reforms which therefore appeared to the strict monastic party as a degeneration. The Mahay ana gave much greater weight to the laymen. It could count on much popular support for its opinion that people are as important as dharmas, for its attacks on the selfishness of monks who think only of their own welfare, for its constant censure of “haughty” and “conceited” monks and for its stories of wealthy householders, such as Vimalaklrti, who surpassed the oldest and most venerable monks in the splendour of their spiritual attainments. The same kind of popular pressure would induce the monks to become more manifestly useful to laymen. In the third, Tan-trie, period they inserted themselves into their magical beliefs and acted as astrologers, exercisers, weather makers, doctors, etc. That is why the story of Buddhism becomes unintelligible unless due weight is given to the desires of the dumb common people. The stone which the builders had rejected became the cornerstone after all. 95

Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

6. SÖÏ MÔÛ ROÄNG

6. EXPANSION

Suoát thôøi kyø thöù nhaát, Phaät giaùo noùi chung vaãn coøn laø moät toân giaùo rieâng cuûa AÁn Ñoä. Vaøo khoaûng naêm 250 naêm tröôùc Coâng nguyeân, vua A-duïc göûi caùc phaùi boä ñeán choã nhöõng haäu dueä cuûa Alexander Ñaïi ñeá, nghóa laø caùc vöông quoác cuûa Hy Laïp ôû Ai Caäp, Macedon, Cyrene vaø Epirus. Nhöõng phaùi boä naøy khoâng ñeå laïi daáu veát naøo vaø raát coù theå hoï ñaõ khoâng ñaït ñöôïc keát quaû gì. Söï hieåu bieát khaù mô hoà veà Phaät giaùo maø chuùng ta tìm thaáy trong caùc taùc giaû Hy Laïp coù theå ñöôïc giaûi thích bôûi nhöõng cuoäc tieáp xuùc veà sau naøy, voán chæ dieãn ra trong moái quan heä maäu dòch phaùt trieån maïnh meõ vaøo thôøi ñaïi La Maõ giöõa AÁn Ñoä vaø Ñòa Trung Haûi.

During this period Buddhism remained on the whole a purely Indian religion. The emperor Aśoka, about 250 BC, sent some missions to the successors of Alexander the Great, i.e. to the Greek kingdoms of the diadochs in Egypt, Macedon, Cyrene and Epirus. These missions have left no trace and they may very well have been ineffective. The rather dim awareness of Buddhism which we find in Greek authors can be accounted for by later contacts which took place in connection with the trade which flourished in Roman times between India and the Mediterranean.

Chæ coù hoaït ñoäng cuûa phaùi ñoaøn do vua A-duïc phaùi ñi Tích Lan laø mang laïi keát quaû. Sau khi ñöôïc Mahinda, con vua A-duïc, truyeàn vaøo Tích Lan khoaûng naêm 240 tröôùc Coâng nguyeân, Phaät giaùo ñaõ toàn taïi nôi ñaây trong moät thôøi gian laâu hôn baát cöù nôi naøo khaùc. Töø ñoù veà sau, Phaät giaùo ñaõ trôû thaønh quoác giaùo cuûa nöôùc naøy. Chæ coù Phaät töû môùi coù quyeàn chính thöùc trôû thaønh moät vò vua, vaø ñaûo Lanka ñöôïc xem nhö laø cuûa chính ñöùc Phaät. Nhaø vua coù boån phaän baûo veä Taêng-giaø, vaø nhöõng quyeàn lôïi lôùn lao ñöôïc daønh cho caùc töï vieän döôùi hình thöùc hieán cuùng, söï toân kính, vaø khoâng bò ai can thieäp vaøo noäi boä. Maëc duø haàu heát caùc nhaø vua ñeàu laø cö só, nhöng hoï vaãn laø quan toøa toái haäu trong vieäc phaân xöû baát cöù söï baát ñoàng naøo giöõa taát caû nhöõng tín ñoà Phaät giaùo.1 Veà phaàn cuûa taêng só, noùi chung thöôøng giuùp ñôõ caùc nhaø vua, vaø tranh thuû söï uûng hoä cuûa quaàn chuùng cho nhöõng ñieàu caùc nhaø vua muoán thöïc hieän.

It was only in Ceylon that Aśoka’s missionary activity bore fruit. Once brought there about 240 BC by Mahinda, Aśoka’s son, Buddhism has existed in Ceylon for a longer stretch of time than anywhere else. From that time onwards Buddhism has been the state religion of Ceylon. Only Buddhists had a legitimate right to be kings and the island of Lanka was held to belong to the Buddha Himself. It was the king’s duty to protect the Order of monks and great benefits accrued to the monasteries in the form of donations, prestige and protection from interference. The kings, although mostly laymen, were also the final judges in any dispute which might arise among the Buddhists. The monks in their turn generally helped the kings and won popular support for their wishes.

Moái quan heä gaàn guõi giöõa Taêng-giaø vôùi Nhaø nöôùc ñaõ coù nhöõng ñieàu baát lôïi. Töø theá kyû 2 tröôùc Coâng nguyeân trôû ñi, ñieàu ñoù khoâng nhöõng ñaõ ñöa tinh thaàn cuûa chuû nghóa daân toäc vaøo Phaät giaùo Tích Lan vaø laøm cho giôùi taêng só coù khuynh höôùng thieân veà chính trò, maø coøn daãn hoï ñeán choã nhieät tình uûng hoä nhöõng

This close connection of the Sańgha with the state had its disadvantages. From the second century BC onwards it not only infused a spirit of nationalism into the Buddhism of Ceylon and made the monks prone to political intrigue, but it also led them to enthusiastically support the national wars of their kings. They assured king Dutta Gamani (101-77 BC) that the killing of many thousands of enemies was of no account, because

Nghóa laø bao goàm caû chö taêng.

Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

cuoäc chieán tranh cuûa caùc vò vua. Giôùi taêng löõ ñaõ noùi chaéc vôùi vua Dutta Gamani1 raèng vieäc gieát haøng ngaøn keû thuø laø khoâng thaønh vaán ñeà, vì ñaõ laø nhöõng keû khoâng coù ñöùc tin2 thì nhöõng keû thuø aáy thaät söï chaúng hôn gì suùc vaät. Taêng só thaùp tuøng theo quaân ñoäi cuûa nhaø vua naøy, bôûi vì “söï hieän dieän cuûa caùc vò tyø-kheo ñem ñeán cho chuùng ta caû söï toát laønh vaø söï che chôû”, vaø chính nhaø vua ñaõ gaén moät vieân ngoïc xaù-lôïi vaøo caây giaùo cuûa mình. Trong moät thôøi gian daøi, tín ñoà Phaät giaùo Tích Lan tieáp tuïc giöõ quan heä chaët cheõ vôùi AÁn Ñoä qua caùc caûng Bharukaccha vaø Surparaka ôû mieàn Taây. Daàn daàn, toaøn boä kinh taïng ñöôïc ñöa vaøo Tích Lan, vaø cho ñeán cuoái thôøi kyø ñaàu, hoaëc coù theå muoän hôn, thì coù caû nhöõng kinh saùch môùi bieân soaïn baèng tieáng Pāli cuûa caùc boä phaùi chính. Chaúng haïn nhö phaàn ñaàu cuûa cuoán “Dilan-ñaø vaán ñaïo”.3 Trong theá kyû thöù nhaát tröôùc Coâng nguyeân, Kinh taïng vaø caùc taùc phaåm chuù giaûi, voán tröôùc ñoù chæ ñöôïc truyeàn mieäng, ñaõ ñöôïc ghi cheùp laïi ôû chuøa Aluvihara “ñeå Phaät phaùp coù theå toàn taïi laâu daøi”. Chieán tranh vaø naïn ñoùi keùm ñaõ laøm giaûm ñi daân soá cuûa nöôùc naøy, vaø vieäc truyeàn mieäng kinh taïng bò laâm nguy. Thaùnh ngöõ cuûa kinh taïng laø tieáng Pāli, trong khi caùc phaàn chuù giaûi laø baèng tieáng Tích Lan. Tích Lan trôû thaønh queâ höông cuûa moät boä phaùi ñöôïc bieát ñeán nhö laø Thöôïng toïa boä,4 raát ñöôïc quan taâm trong lòch söû Phaät giaùo, moät phaàn vì kinh taïng cuûa hoï ñöôïc giöõ laïi ñaày ñuû, vaø moät phaàn vì söï caùch bieät veà maët ñòa lyù neân töông ñoái ít bò aûnh höôûng bôûi nhieàu söï phaùt trieån sau naøy. Tuy vaäy, khoâng roõ laø hoï ñaõ baét nguoàn töø boä phaùi naøo cuûa AÁn Ñoä. Coù leõ hoï gioáng vôùi Phaân bieät boä, vaø ñöôïc phaùt sinh töø moät trong nhöõng chi nhaùnh cuûa boä phaùi naøy.

as unbelievers they were really no more than animals. They accompanied the army of the same king, “since the sight of bhikkhus is both blessing and protection for us”, and the king himself had a relic of the Buddha put into his spear. For a long time Ceylonese Buddhists continued to be in lively contact with India over the ports of Bharukaccha and Surparaka in the West. Gradually the whole Canon came to Ceylon and towards the end of our period, or even later, also new works composed in Pali in India by the mother-sect, such as the first part of the “Questions of King Milinda” and the “Nid-desa”. During the first century BC the Canon and Commentaries, so far transmitted orally, were written down at Aluvi-hara, “so that the Dharma might endure”. War and famine had depopulated the country and the oral transmission of the Pitakas was in danger. The holy language of the Canon was Pāli, whereas the Commentaries were in Sinhalese. Ceylon became the home of a school known as the Theravādins - of great interest in the history of Buddhism partly because their Canon is preserved in its entirety and partly because in their geographical isolation they remained relatively unaffected by many of the later developments. It is not, however, very clear what Continental school they were derived from. Probably they were akin to the Indian Vibhajyavadins, and an offshoot of one of their branches.

Nieân ñaïi 101 – 77 tröôùc Coâng nguyeân. ÔÛ ñaây muoán noùi laø tin vaøo Phaät giaùo. 3 Quyeån kinh tieáng Pāli naøy ñaõ ñöôïc dòch sang Haùn vaên vôùi teân laø “Na-tieân Tyø-kheo Kinh”, nhöng ngöôøi dòch ñaõ khuyeát danh, khoâng bieát laø vò naøo. 2

Xem baûn dòch tieáng Vieät “Kinh tyø-kheo Na-tieân” cuûa Ñoaøn Trung Coøn Nguyeãn Minh Tieán - NXB Toân giaùo - 2003. Theravāda, cuõng laø Thöôïng toïa boä, nhöng phaân bieät vôùi Thöôïng toïa boä cuûa AÁn Ñoä.

Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

CHÖÔNG II: THÔØI KYØ THÖÙ HAI (TÖØ ÑAÀU COÂNG NGUYEÂN ÑEÁN NAÊM 500) 1. PHAÄT GIAÙO ÑAÏI THÖØA ÔÛ AÁN ÑOÄ

Vaøo khoaûng ñaàu Coâng nguyeân, moät chieàu höôùng môùi hình thaønh trong Phaät giaùo, ñöôïc bieát vôùi teân laø Phaät giaùo Ñaïi thöøa,1 nghóa ñen laø “coã xe lôùn”.2 Boä phaùi naøy ñöôïc hình thaønh do söï suy kieät cuûa nguoàn ñoäng löïc cuõ trong giaùo lyù, khieán cho ngaøy caøng coù ít ngöôøi chöùng quaû A-la-haùn hôn tröôùc, do nhöõng maâu thuaãn caêng thaúng trong noäi dung giaùo lyù ñaõ phaùt trieån cho ñeán luùc baáy giôø, vaø do nhöõng ñoøi hoûi cuûa haøng cö só muoán coù ñöôïc nhöõng quyeàn bình ñaúng hôn vôùi giôùi taêng só. Nhöõng aûnh höôûng töø nöôùc ngoaøi cuõng coù taùc ñoäng raát lôùn ñeán söï hình thaønh naøy. Ñaïi thöøa phaùt trieån ôû mieàn Taây Baéc vaø Nam AÁn Ñoä, hai vuøng maø Phaät giaùo chòu aûnh höôûng nhieàu nhaát cuûa nhöõng tö töôûng töø beân ngoaøi AÁn Ñoä, vaø aûnh höôûng maïnh meõ cuûa ngheä thuaät Hy Laïp döôùi nhöõng hình thöùc moâ phoûng theo Hy Laïp vaø La Maõ, vaø caû aûnh höôûng cuûa nhöõng tö töôûng töø Ñòa Trung Haûi vaø Iran. Söï pha troän laãn loän naøy, thaät tình côø laïi giuùp cho Phaät giaùo Ñaïi thöøa trôû neân thích hôïp cho vieäc truyeàn baù ra beân ngoaøi AÁn Ñoä. Ñeå coù theå truyeàn ra beân ngoaøi, Phaät giaùo tröôùc heát phaûi thay ñoåi phaàn naøo theo vôùi aûnh höôûng cuûa caùc tö töôûng ngoaïi quoác, vaø phaûi traûi qua giai ñoaïn ñaàu cuûa vieäc xoùa boû moät soá tính chaát thuaàn AÁn Ñoä. Tröôùc khi coù theå ñöôïc caùc neàn vaên hoùa xa laï chaáp nhaän, Phaät giaùo thoaït tieân phaûi nhaän laáy moät daáu aán töø nhöõng neàn vaên hoùa aáy. Hay noùi caùch khaùc, chæ vôùi hình thöùc ñaõ ñöôïc thay ñoåi nhö Ñaïi thöøa, Phaät giaùo môùi coù theå toàn taïi ñöôïc beân ngoaøi AÁn Ñoä. 1 2

CHAPTER 2: THE SECOND PERIOD (AD 0-500) 1. THE MAHĀYĀNA IN INDIA

About the beginning of the Christian era a new trend took shape in Buddhism, known as the Mahāyāna, literally “the great vehicle”. It was prepared by the exhaustion of the old impulse which produced fewer and fewer Arhats, by the tensions within the doctrines as they had developed by then and by the demands of the laity for more equal rights with the monks. Foreign influences also had a great deal to do with it. The Mahāyana developed in North-West India and South India, the two regions where Buddhism was most exposed to non-Indian influences, to the impact of Greek art in its Hellenistic and Romanized forms and to the influence of ideas from both the Mediterranean and the Iranian world. This cross-fertilization incidentally rendered the Buddhism of the Mahāyāna fit for export outside India. So that it should be able to travel outside India, Buddhism had first to be somewhat modified by foreign influences, had to undergo a preliminary phase of de-Indianization. Before it could be received by alien cultures it had first to receive an impression from them. Roughly speaking only in its modified Mahāyāna form has it been able to live outside India.

Teân goïi Ñaïi thöøa haøm yù neâu leân toâng chæ laø cöùu vôùt heát thaûy chuùng sanh,

nhö coã xe lôùn chôû ñöôïc nhieàu ngöôøi, ñoái laïi vôùi Tieåu thöøa, coã xe nhoû, laáy vieäc giaûi thoaùt cuûa rieâng mình laøm chính tröôùc khi coù theå nhaém ñeán cöùu ñoä nhieàu ngöôøi.

100

101

Mahāyāna

Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

Thôøi gian troâi qua, Ñaïi thöøa daàn daàn chinh phuïc troïn veïn caû moät nöûa phía baéc cuûa Phaät giaùo toaøn theá giôùi, vaø tín ñoà Phaät giaùo ôû caùc nöôùc nhö Neùpal, Taây Taïng, Moâng Coå, Trung Hoa, Trieàu Tieân vaø Nhaät Baûn haàu heát ñeàu laø thuoäc Ñaïi thöøa. Ñaïi thöøa phaùt trieån vôùi hai giai ñoaïn: giai ñoaïn thöù nhaát, döôùi hình thöùc khoâng coù heä thoáng, dieãn ra vaøo khoaûng ñaàu theá kyû thöù nhaát tröôùc Coâng nguyeân, cho ñeán naêm 150, vaø giai ñoaïn thöù hai khôûi ñaàu töø sau naêm 150, döôùi hình thöùc heä thoáng hoùa, daãn ñeán söï hình thaønh hai tröôøng phaùi rieâng bieät laø phaùi Trung luaän1 vaø phaùi Du-giaø.2

In due course the Mahāyāna has conquered the entire northern half of the Buddhist world, and the Buddhists of Nepal, Tibet, Mongolia, China, Korea and Japan are nearly all Mahayanists. The Mahāyāna developed in two stages: first in an unsystematic form, which went on between 100 BC and AD 150, and then, after AD 150, in a systematized philosophical form, which led to two distinct schools, the Madhyamikas and the Yogacarins.

Tröôùc heát chuùng ta caàn phaûi giaûi thích moät soá nhöõng ñieåm chính cuûa Ñaïi thöøa luùc sô khôûi. Khoaûng naêm 100 tröôùc Coâng nguyeân, moät soá tín ñoà Phaät giaùo caûm thaáy nhöõng lôøi daïy trong giaùo lyù ñaõ trôû neân quaù xöa cuõ vaø khoâng coøn mang laïi lôïi ích nöõa. Vôùi quan nieäm raèng giaùo phaùp ñoøi hoûi söï caûi caùch lieân tuïc ñeå ñaùp öùng nhöõng nhu caàu cuûa thôøi ñaïi môùi, cuûa nhöõng con ngöôøi môùi vaø hoaøn caûnh xaõ hoäi môùi, hoï baét ñaàu taïo ra moät loaïi kinh vaên môùi.

We must first of all explain the main features of the early Mahāyāna. About 100 BC a number of Buddhists felt that the existing statements of the doctrine had become stale and useless. In the conviction that the Dharma requires ever new re-formulations so as to meet the needs of new ages, new populations and new social circumstances, they set out to produce a new literature.

Söï saùng taïo kinh vaên môùi naøy laø moät trong nhöõng boäc phaùt phi thöôøng nhaát cuûa naêng löïc saùng taïo trong lòch söû nhaân loaïi, vaø ñöôïc duy trì trong khoaûng 4 ñeán 5 theá kyû. Hoï tin raèng, chæ rieâng vieäc laëp laïi kinh vaên xöa cuõ khoâng theå duy trì söùc soáng cuûa moät toân giaùo. Tröø phi coù ñöôïc moät löïc caân baèng qua vieäc ñoåi môùi thöôøng xuyeân, baèng khoâng thì toân giaùo seõ trôû neân chai lyø vaø maát ñi nhöõng phaåm chaát ñeå taïo thaønh nguoàn sinh khí.

The creation of this literature is one of the most magnificent outbursts of creative energy known to human history and it was sustained for about four to five centuries. Repetition alone, they believed, cannot sustain a living religion. Unless counterbalanced by constant innovation, it will become fossilized and lose its lifegiving qualities.

Ñeán ñaây thì quan ñieåm Ñaïi thöøa döôøng nhö laø hoaøn toaøn hôïp lyù. Ñieàu khoù hieåu hôn laø hoï muoán trình baøy nhöõng taùc phaåm môùi nhö chính nhöõng lôøi Phaät daïy, trong khi chuùng roõ raøng laø ñöôïc hình thaønh nhieàu theá kyû sau khi Phaät nhaäp dieät. Ñeå taïo choã ñöùng cho moät boä phaùi môùi, hoï ñaõ laøm theo caùch cuûa Ñaïi chuùng boä laø giaûm nheï taàm quan troïng cuûa ñöùc Phaät döôùi goùc ñoä moät con ngöôøi coù thaät trong lòch söû, vaø thay vaøo ñoù laø moät 1 2

Madhyamaka

Yogācāra

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So far the Mahayanistic attitude seems quite logical. What is more difficult to understand is that they insisted in presenting these new writings, manifestly composed centuries after the Buddha’s death, as the very words of the Buddha Himself. In order to make room for the new dispensation, they followed the Mahasarighikas in minimizing the importance of the historical Buddha dakyamuni, whom they replaced by the Buddha who is the embodiment of Dharma (dharmakdya). In 103

Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

ñöùc Phaät Phaùp thaân. Trong kinh Dieäu phaùp lieân hoa, chuùng ta ñöôïc nghe raèng, raát laâu sau khi ñöùc Phaät ñaõ thaønh ñaïo döôùi coäi caây Boà-ñeà – coù theå laø khoaûng naêm 500 tröôùc Coâng nguyeân – ngaøi vaãn luoân toàn taïi trong suoát thôøi gian voâ taän, vaø luùc naøo ngaøi cuõng thuyeát giaûng giaùo phaùp ôû khaép moïi nôi vôùi voâ soá hoùa thaân. Trong kinh Kim Cang coù baøi keä noåi tieáng nhö sau: “Nhöõng ai duøng hình saéc ñeå thaáy ta, Hoaëc duøng aâm thanh maø tìm ta, Nhöõng ngöôøi aáy ñeàu theo phaùp sai laàm, Khoâng theå thaät söï nhìn thaáy ta.”1 Neáu ngöôøi ta do Phaùp thaân maø nhìn thaáy Phaät, thì chính Phaùp thaân aáy seõ daãn ñöôøng cho hoï.2 Quan nieäm xem ñöùc Phaät nhö laø hieän thaân vónh cöûu cuûa taát caû chaân lyù ñaõ cho pheùp söï tieáp tuïc phaùt loä ra chaân lyù cuûa ngaøi vaøo nhöõng thôøi ñieåm khaùc nhau. Vaãn chöa haøi loøng vôùi ñieàu naøy, nhöõng ngöôøi Ñaïi thöøa coøn coá gaéng lieân nhöõng keát kinh vaên môùi vôùi ñöùc Phaät coù thaät trong lòch söû baèng moät soá huyeàn thoaïi. Hoï xaùc nhaän raèng hoï ñaõ ñöôïc nghe Phaät thuyeát phaùp luùc ngaøi coøn taïi theá, raèng song song vôùi vieäc Hoäi nghò caùc Tröôûng laõo keát taäp kinh ñieån Tieåu thöøa ôû thaønh Vöông Xaù, kinh ñieån Ñaïi thöøa cuõng ñöôïc keát taäp bôûi moät soá caùc vò Boà Taùt nhoùm hoïp treân nuùi Thieát Vi,3 vaø raèng caùc baûn kinh ñaõ ñöôïc gìn giöõ moät caùch kyø dieäu trong naêm theá kyû, caát giaáu trong nhöõng cung ñieän döôùi loøng bieån cuûa Long Vöông, hoaëc vôùi söï gìn giöõ cuûa vua Caøn-thaùt-baø, hoaëc vua trôøi Ñeá-thích. Vaø roài, theo nhö caùch noùi cuûa ngaøi Long Thoï laø, “naêm traêm naêm sau khi Phaät nhaäp Nieát-baøn, Chaùnh phaùp sau khi ñaõ daàn daàn suy ñoài, ñang trong luùc laâm nguy”, nhöõng phaùp baûo naøy töø trong quaù khöù ñöôïc phaùt loä vaø truyeàn daïy cho moïi ngöôøi ñeå laøm hoài sinh Phaät phaùp. 1

Trong baûn Haùn vaên, baøi keä naøy ñöôïc dòch laø: “Nhöôïc dó saéc kieán ngaõ, Dó aâm thanh caàu ngaõ, Thò nhaân haønh taø ñaïo, Baát naêng kieán Nhö Lai.” (若以色見我，以音聲求我，是人行邪道，不能見如來。) 2 Nguyeân caû caâu naøy trong nguyeân taùc ñöôïc ñöa vaøo baøi keä, nhöng theo noäi dung kinh Kim Cang chuùng toâi khoâng thaáy coù caâu naøy neân e laø coù söï saép xeáp sai laàm khi in aán. Coù leõ ñaây laø phaàn dieãn giaûi tieáp theo cuûa taùc giaû thì ñuùng hôn.

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the “Lotus of the Good Law” we are told that the Buddha, far from having reached His enlightenment at Bodhgaya, about 500 BC or whenever the date may have been, abides for aeons and aeons, from eternity to eternity, and that He preaches the Law at all times in countless places and innumerable disguises. In the “Diamond Sutra” occurs the famous verse: Those who by my form did see me, And those who followed me by voice, Wrong the efforts they engaged in, Me those people will not see! From the Dharma-body should one see the Buddhas, From the Dharma-bodies comes their guidance. The conception of the Buddha as the timeless embodiment of all Truth allowed for a successive revelation of that truth by Him at different times. Not content with this, the Mahayanists tried to link their own new writings with the historical Buddha by a number of mythological fictions. They asserted that they had been preached by the Buddha in the course of His life on earth, that parallel to the Council at Rajagrha, which codified the Sutras of the Hmayana, the Mahāyāna Sutras had been codified by an assembly of Bodhisattvas on the mythical mountain of Vimalasvabhava; that the texts had been miraculously preserved for five centuries and stored away in the subterranean palaces of the Nagas, or with the king of the Gandharvas, or the king of the Gods. Then, as Nagarjuna puts it, “five hundred years after the Buddha’s Nirvāṇa, when the Good Law, after having gradually declined, was in great danger”, these treasures from the past were unearthed, revealed and made known, so as to revivify the doctrine. 3

Veà vieäc keát taäp kinh ñieån Ñaïi thöøa, ñöôïc noùi ñeán trong Ñaïi Trí Ñoä Luaän, quyeån 100 (Ñaïi Taïng Kinh, quyeån 25, trang 57) vaø Kim Cang Tieân Luaän, quyeån 1 (Ñaïi Taïng Kinh, quyeån 25, trang 798). Theo ñoù thì chuû trì vieäc keát taäp laø caùc vò Boà Taùt Vaên-thuø vaø Di-laëc.

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Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

Vaäy nhöõng caùch taân chuû yeáu veà giaùo lyù cuûa Ñaïi thöøa laø gì? Coù theå toùm löôïc döôùi 5 ñeà muïc nhö sau:

What then were the main doctrinal innovations of the Mahāyāna? They can be summarized under five headings:

1. Veà muïc ñích, coù söï thay ñoåi töø lyù töôûng A-la-haùn sang lyù töôûng Boà Taùt;

1. As concerns the goal there is a shift from the Arhat-ideal to the Bodhisattva-ideal; 2. A new way of salvation is worked out, in which compassion ranks equal with wisdom, and which is marked by the gradual advance through six “perfections” (paramiia); 3. Faith is given a new range by being provided with a new pantheon of deities, or rather of persons more than divine; 4. “Skill in means” (upāyakausalya), an entirely new virtue, becomes essential to the saint, and is placed even above wisdom, the highest virtue so far; 5. A coherent ontological doctrine is worked out, dealing with such items as “Emptiness”, “Suchness’, etc.

2. Moät phöông thöùc giaûi thoaùt môùi ñöôïc vaïch ra, trong ñoù töø bi ñöôïc xeáp ngang vôùi trí hueä, vaø ñöôïc ñaùnh daáu bôûi söï tieán boä daàn qua 6 ba-la-maät;1 3. Ñöùc tin ñöôïc ñaët vaøo nhöõng ñoái töôïng môùi, baèng caùch ñöa ra moät loaït caùc vò thaùnh, hoaëc tin vaøo con ngöôøi hôn laø thaàn thaùnh; 4. Phöông tieän thieän xaûo2 laø moät ñöùc tính hoaøn toaøn môùi, trôû neân thieát yeáu cho haøng thaùnh giaû vaø thaäm chí coøn ñöôïc xem troïng hôn caû trí hueä, voán tröôùc kia vaãn ñöôïc xem laø ñöùc tính cao quyù nhaát; 5. Moät phaàn giaùo lyù maïch laïc veà baûn theå ñöôïc vaïch ra, giaûi quyeát nhöõng vaán ñeà nhö taùnh khoâng, chaân nhö .v.v... Giôø ñaây chuùng ta seõ laàn löôït xem xeùt töøng ñieåm moät trong naêm ñieåm môùi naøy. 1. Muïc tieâu ñaït ñeán thaùnh quaû A-la-haùn, voán ñaõ töøng laø ñoäng löïc cuûa Phaät giaùo trong thôøi kyø ñaàu, nay ñöôïc ñöa xuoáng haøng thöù nhì. Vò thaùnh theo Ñaïi thöøa noã löïc ñeå trôû thaønh moät Boà Taùt, hay Bodhisattva (Boà-ñeà-taùt-ñoûa), – do töø chöõ bodhi, nghóa laø giaùc ngoä, vaø sattva, nghóa laø höõu tình. Moät vò Boà Taùt coù ba ñaëc ñieåm noåi baät laø:

We will now consider these five points one by one. 1. The goal of Arhatship, which had motivated Buddhism in the first period, is now relegated to the second place. The Mahayanistic saint strives to be a “Bodhisattva” - from bodhi, “enlightenment”, and sattva, “being” or “essence”. A Bodhisattva is distinguished by three features:

a. Trong baûn chaát hieän höõu cuûa mình, vò Boà Taùt luoân khao khaùt ñaït ñeán söï giaùc ngoä hoaøn toaøn nhö ñöùc Phaät, maø theo quan ñieåm naøy coù nghóa laø baäc Nhaát thieát trí, nghóa laø thaáu bieát taát caû moïi vieäc trong suoát moïi thôøi gian vôùi heát thaûy moïi chi tieát vaø khía caïnh khaùc nhau cuûa chuùng.

a. In his essential being he is actuated by the desire to win the full enlightenment of a Buddha, which, from this point of view, implies complete omniscience, i.e. the knowledge of all things at all times in all their details and aspects,

Pāramitā, cuõng goïi laø Luïc ñoä, bao goàm Boá thí, Trì giôùi, Nhaãn nhuïc, Tinh

taán, Thieàn ñònh vaø Trí hueä. Saùu phöông phaùp naøy ñöôïc xem nhö saùu phöông tieän ñöa ngöôøi ñeán bôø beân kia, töùc laø ñeán choã giaûi thoaùt. Vì vaäy, Haùn dòch

aâm laø ba-la-maät (波羅蜜) vaø dòch nghóa laø ñaùo bæ ngaïn (到彼岸), töùc laø “ñeán bôø beân kia”. 1 Upāya-kauśalya, Haùn dòch laø thieän xaûo phöông tieän (善巧方便).

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Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

b. Vò Boà Taùt coù ñuû hai dieäu löïc laø töø bi vaø trí hueä, vôùi möùc ñoä nhö nhau. Nhôø loøng töø bi, ngaøi queân baûn thaân mình maø hoaõn laïi vieäc nhaäp Nieát-baøn ñeå cöùu giuùp chuùng sanh ñang ñau khoå. Nhôø trí hueä, ngaøi noã löïc ñaït ñeán söï nhaän bieát trong baûn taâm veà taùnh khoâng cuûa vaïn vaät. Vaø ngaøi luoân giöõ vöõng taám loøng töø bi kieân ñònh vôùi taát caû chuùng sanh, cho duø vôùi trí hueä ngaøi thaáy roõ raèng chuùng sanh vaø nhöõng noãi thoáng khoå cuûa hoï ñeàu laø aûo moäng. c. Maëc duø chuù taâm höôùng ñeán söï thuaàn khieát, vò Boà Taùt vaãn duy trì moái quan heä vôùi nhöõng ngöôøi bình thöôøng, vaø coù cuøng nhöõng caûm xuùc rung ñoäng nhö hoï. Tuy nhieân, nhöõng caûm xuùc naøy khoâng heà gaây aûnh höôûng hay laøm vaån ñuïc taâm trí ngaøi. 2. Loøng töø bi cuûa moät vò Boà Taùt ñöôïc goïi xem laø “vó ñaïi”, vì loøng töø bi aáy laø voâ haïn vaø khoâng phaân bieät. Vò Boà Taùt quyeát taâm trôû thaønh ngöôøi cöùu ñoä taát caû chuùng sanh, cho duø laø giaù trò cuûa chuùng sanh aáy nhö theá naøo, hoaëc coù ñoøi hoûi ñeán söï chuù yù cuûa ngaøi hay khoâng. Thôøi kyø ñaàu chæ hoaøn toaøn naán maïnh vaøo trí hueä cuûa caùc vò thaùnh, nhöng giôø ñaây taâm nguyeän vò tha mong muoán mang laïi haïnh phuùc cho ngöôøi khaùc ñöôïc cho laø cuõng coù giaù trò töông ñöông nhö trí hueä. Giaùc ngoä laø söï hieåu bieát töôøng taän vaø hoaøn toaøn veà baûn chaát vaø yù nghóa cuûa ñôøi soáng, veà nhöõng söùc maïnh chi phoái taïo thaønh ñôøi soáng, veà phöông phaùp ñeå chaám döùt ñôøi soáng, vaø veà thöïc taïi hieän höõu vöôït treân ñôøi soáng. Nhöõng ngöôøi Ñaïi thöøa ñoàng yù raèng söï giaùc ngoä khoâng töï noù ñöa ñeán taâm nguyeän cöùu ñoä chuùng sanh. Hoï phaân bieät coù ba baäc giaûi thoaùt: 2 baäc thuoäc veà töï lôïi vaø 1 baäc laø lôïi tha. Baäc giaûi thoaùt töï lôïi laø nhöõng vò A-la-haùn vaø Bích Chi Phaät, ñöôïc xem nhö ñaïi dieän cho quan ñieåm cuûa Tieåu thöøa, cho loaïi “coã xe nhoû”. Hoï ñöôïc moâ taû nhö laø thôø ô tröôùc nhöõng moái lo nghó cuûa theá gian, vaø chuù taâm tröôùc heát ñeán söï giaûi thoaùt cuûa chính mình. Baäc giaûi thoaùt lôïi tha laø caùc vò Phaät, vaø söï theo ñuoåi con ñöôøng lôïi tha cuûa moät vò Boà Taùt ñeå ñaït ñeán giaùc ngoä ñöôïc goïi laø Phaät thöøa, hay Ñaïi thöøa.1 1

Mahāyāna 108

b. He is dominated by two forces, in equal proportion, i.e. by compassion and wisdom. From compassion he selflessly postpones his entrance into the bliss of Nirvāṇa so as to help suffering creatures. From wisdom he attempts to win insight into the emptiness of all that is. He persists in his compassionate solidarity with all that lives although his wisdom shows him that living beings and all their woes are purely illusory, c. Although intent on ultimate purity, a Bodhisattva remains in touch with ordinary people by having the same passions they have. His passions, however, do not either affect or pollute his mind. 2. A Bodhisattva’s compassion is called “great”, because it is boundless and makes no distinctions. A Bodhisattva resolves to become the saviour of all, whatever may be their worth or their claim to his attention. In the first period the wisdom of the saints had been fully emphasized, but now their selfless desire to make others happy is said to rank equal in value with it. Enlightenment is the thorough and complete understanding of the nature and meaning of life, the forces which shape it, the method to end it, and the reality which lies beyond it. This enlightenment, the Mahayanists agreed, does not automatically entail the desire to assist others. Among the enlightened they distinguished three types, two of them “selfish”, one “unselfish”. The “selfish” types are the Arhats and Pratyekabuddhas, who are said to represent the idea of the Hīnayāna, of the “inferior vehicle”. They are described as aloof from the concerns of the world and intent on their own private salvation alone. The “unselfish” ones are the Buddhas, and the pursuit of the unselfish quest for enlightenment on the part of a Bodhisattva is called the “Buddha-vehicle”, of the “Great Vehicle” (maha-yana). 109

Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

Vò Boà Taùt phaûi laø moät ngöôøi kieân nhaãn. Vò naøy muoán thaønh Phaät, nhöng khoaûng caùch giöõa ngaøi vôùi söï toaøn haûo sieâu vieät cuûa ñöùc Phaät - ngöôøi hieåu bieát vaø laø hieän thaân cuûa taát caû - laø voâ taän. Khoâng theå naøo vöôït qua ñöôïc khoaûng caùch aáy trong moät ñôøi soáng naøy. Phaûi caàn ñeán thôøi gian keùo daøi voâ soá kieáp, vaø vò Boà Taùt phaûi chuaån bò tinh thaàn ñeå vöôït qua thôøi gian voâ soá kieáp aáy tröôùc khi ñaït ñöôïc muïc ñích. Tuy vaäy, söï ngaên caùch giöõa vò Boà Taùt vôùi quaû Phaät laïi chæ laø moät söï ngaên ngaïi nhoû. Ñoù laø söï vöôùng maéc vaøo töï ngaõ, töï cho mình laø moät caù nhaân rieâng bieät, vaø giöõ laáy khuynh höôùng coá höõu veà caùc khaùi nieäm “toâi laøm”, “cuûa toâi laøm...”.1 Thoaùt ñöôïc chính mình laø nhieäm vuï treân heát cuûa moät vò Boà Taùt. Baèng vaøo 2 phöông phaùp, Boà Taùt coù theå loaïi tröø ñöôïc söï chaáp ngaõ cuûa chính mình. Thöù nhaát laø, veà maët haønh ñoäng, ngöôøi hy sinh chính mình vaø phuïc vuï vôùi loøng vò tha. Thöù hai laø, veà maët nhaän thöùc, ngöôøi quaùn xeùt noäi taâm veà söï khoâng hieän höõu khaùch quan cuûa töï ngaõ. Phöông phaùp thöù nhaát laø do loøng töø bi cuûa ngöôøi, vaø phöông phaùp thöù hai laø do trí hueä, ñöôïc ñònh nghóa nhö laø khaû naêng thaâm nhaäp vaøo thöïc taïi chaân thaät, vaøo töï taùnh cuûa söï vaät, vaøo söï hieän höõu trong töï thaân cuûa söï vaät. Söï haønh ñoäng vaø nhaän thöùc ñöôïc tin laø phaûi ñi ñoâi vôùi nhau môùi coù theå mang laïi ñöôïc nhöõng thaønh quaû taâm linh. Söï nhaát quaùn giöõa töø bi vaø trí hueä ñöôïc theå hieän bôûi saùu pheùp tu hoaøn thieän, hay saùu ba-la-maät, töùc laø saùu “phöông phaùp coù theå giuùp vöôït qua ñöôïc bôø beân kia”. Moät ngöôøi bình thöôøng trôû thaønh Boà Taùt khi ngöôøi aáy laàn ñaàu tieân phaùt nguyeän seõ ñaït ñeán söï giaùc ngoä hoaøn toaøn vì lôïi ích cuûa taát caû chuùng sanh.2 Sau khi phaùt nguyeän, töø ñoù cho ñeán khi ñaït ñöôïc quaû Phaät, vò Boà Taùt daønh troïn taâm löïc traûi qua voâ soá kieáp ñeå thöïc haønh saùu ba-la-maät. Ñieàu naøy quan troïng ñeán möùc Ñaïi thöøa thöôøng töï ví mình laø “Luïc ñoä thöøa”. Vaø Luïc ñoä, hay saùu ba-la-maät aáy laø: boá thí, trì giôùi, nhaãn nhuïc, tinh taán, thieàn ñònh vaø trí hueä. 1 Ahamkārā-Mamakārā 2 Thuaät ngöõ Phaät giaùo goïi söï phaùt nguyeän ñaàu tieân naøy laø “phaùt taâm Boà-ñeà”.

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A Bodhisattva must be a patient man. He wants to become a Buddha, but his distance from the transcendental perfection of a supreme Buddha, Who both knows and is everything, will obviously be nearly infinite. In one life it could not possibly be traversed. Countless lives would be needed and a Bodhisattva must be prepared to wait for aeons and aeons before he can reach his goal. Yet, he is separated from Buddhahood only by one single small obstacle, i.e. his belief in a personal self, his assumption that he is a separate individual, his inveterate tendency towards “I-making and Mine-making” (ahamkāra-mamakāra). To get rid of himself js the Bodhisattva’s supreme task. By two kinds of measures he tries to remove himself from himself - actively by selfsacrifice and selfless service, cogni-tively by insight into the objective non-existence of a self. The first is due to his compassion, the second to wisdom, defined as the ability to penetrate to the true reality, to the “own-being” of things, to what they are in and by themselves. It is believed that action and cognition must always go hand in hand to bring forth their spiritual fruits. The unity of compassion and wisdom is acted out by the six “perfections”, or pdramitd, the six “methods by which we go to the Beyond”. A person turns into a Bodhisattva when he first resolves to win full enlightenment for the benefit of all beings. Thereafter, until his attainment of Buddhahood, aeons and aeons are devoted to the practice of the Paramitas. So important is this concept that the Mahāyāna often refers to itself as the “Vehicle of the Paramitas”. The six are: the perfections of giving, morality, patience, vigour, meditation and wisdom. 111

Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

Boá thí ba-la-maät ñoøi hoûi moät söï haøo phoùng, saün loøng cho ñi taát caû nhöõng gì mình coù, ngay caû thaân maïng. Trì giôùi ba-la-maät laø nghieâm trì giôùi luaät, ngay caû khi phaûi lieàu ñi maïng soáng cuûa mình. Ñaïi thöøa chuù troïng ñeán nhaãn nhuïc ba-la-maät nhieàu hôn Tieåu thöøa, vaø môû roäng töø nhaãn nhuïc hôn so vôùi yù nghóa thoâng thöôøng cuûa noù. Veà maët ñöùc haïnh, nhaãn nhuïc coù nghóa laø nhaãn nhuïc chòu ñöïng taát caû nhöõng khoå ñau vaø söï ñoái nghòch maø khoâng coù chuùt giaän döõ hay baát bình naøo. Theâm vaøo ñoù, nhaãn nhuïc ôû ñaây coøn ñöôïc xem nhö moät ñöùc tính cuûa trí hueä, vaø veà maët naøy noù coù nghóa laø söï chaáp nhaän baèng vaøo tröïc giaùc tröôùc khi hieåu thaáu ñöôïc caën keõ veà söï saâu xa cuûa nhöõng giaùo lyù baûn theå, thöôøng gaây ra söï lo sôï raát khoù tin nhaän cuûa Ñaïi thöøa, chaúng haïn nhö söï khoâng hieän höõu cuûa taát caû moïi söï vaät. Tinh taán ba-la-maät coù nghóa laø vò Boà Taùt kieân trì khoâng meät moûi trong coâng haïnh cuûa mình, traûi qua voâ soá kieáp vaãn khoâng bao giôø chaùn naûn. Söï thaønh töïu veà thieàn ñònh giuùp cho vò Boà Taùt ñaït ñöôïc söï ñieâu luyeän trong vieäc xuaát thaàn hoùa hieän “nhieàu nhö soá caùt soâng Haèng”. Vaø cuoái cuøng, trí hueä toaøn haûo laø khaû naêng hieåu ñöôïc nhöõng tính chaát quan yeáu nhaát cuûa taát caû moïi tieán trình vaø hieän töôïng, moái quan heä töông taùc cuûa chuùng, nhöõng ñieàu kieän mang laïi söï sinh khôûi vaø dieät maát, cuøng vôùi tính chaát hoaøn toaøn khoâng thaät coù cuûa chuùng khi toàn taïi rieâng bieät. ÔÛ möùc ñoä cao nhaát, trí hueä ñöa ñeán taùnh khoâng, voán laø thöïc taïi duy nhaát. 3. Moät ñoùng goùp noåi baät nöõa cuûa Ñaïi thöøa laø söï phaân bieät möôøi giai ñoaïn maø vò Boà Taùt thöôøng phaûi vöôït qua treân con ñöôøng tieán ñeán quaû vò Phaät. Phaàn giaùo lyù naøy ñöôïc hoaøn chænh vaøo theá kyû 3 trong kinh Thaäp Ñòa. Saùu giai ñoaïn ñaàu töông öùng vôùi saùu ba-la-maät, moãi giai ñoaïn ñöôïc phaân bieät roõ bôûi söï thöïc haønh tích cöïc moät ba-la-maät. Do ñoù, giai ñoaïn thöù saùu töông öùng vôùi söï thaønh töïu trí hueä, vaø nhôø ñoù, vôùi söï hieåu bieát veà taùnh khoâng, vò Boà Taùt tieán ñeán choã ñoái dieän vôùi chính thöïc taïi.1 ÔÛ ñòa vò naøy, Boà Taùt coù theå thoaùt khoûi nhöõng noãi sôï haõi cuûa theá giôùi sinh töû, vaø 1

Töùc laø ñòa vò Abhimukhī, Haùn dòch laø Hieän tieàn ñòa (現前地).

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The first enjoins generosity, a willingness to give away all that one has, even one’s own body, and the second the scrupulous observance of the moral precepts, even at the risk of one’s own life. As for “patience”, the Mahāyāna has much more to say about it than the Hinayana and it uses the word in a wider sense than is usual. As a moral virtue it means the patient endurance of all kinds of suffering and hostility and the absence of any feeling of anger or discontent when meeting with them. In addition, “patience” is here also considered as an intellectual virtue and as such it means the emotional acceptance, before one has fathomed the whole of their depth, of the more incredible and anxiety-producing ontological doctrines of the Mahāyāna, such as the nonexistence of all things. Vigour means that the Bodhisattva indefatigably persists in his work over the ages and never feels discouraged; his perfection of meditation enables him to gain proficiency in trances “numerous as the sands of the Ganges”. The perfection of wisdom finally is the ability to understand the essential properties of all processes and phenomena, their mutual relations, the conditions which bring about their rise and fall, and the ultimate unreality of their separate existence. At its highest point it leads right into the Emptiness which is the one and only reality. 3. Another distinctive contribution of the Mahāyāna is the distinction often stages which the Bodhisattva must traverse on his way to Buddhahood. This aspect of the doctrine reached its final formulation in the third century in the “Sutra on the Ten Stages”. The first six of these stages correspond to the six “perfections” and each of them is marked by the intensive practice of one of them. The sixth stage therefore corresponds to the perfection of wisdom and with it the Bodhisattva has 113

Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

neáu muoán coù theå nhaäp vaøo Nieát-baøn. Tuy nhieân, vì loøng töø bi ngaøi khoâng laøm nhö vaäy maø vaãn ôû laïi theá gian naøy trong moät thôøi gian daøi ñeå cöùu giuùp chuùng sanh. Maëc duø ôû trong theá gian, nhöng Boà Taùt giôø ñaây khoâng coøn thuoäc veà theá gian nöõa. Trong boán ñòa vò sau, Boà Taùt ñaït ñeán ñieàu maø kinh vaên goïi laø “dung nhieáp phaùp giôùi”, vaø trôû thaønh moät thöïc theå sieâu nhieân coù nhieàu dieäu löïc khaùc nhau. So vôùi caùc vò Boà Taùt bình thöôøng nhö trong saùu ñòa vò ñaàu tieân, nhöõng vị Boà Taùt ñaõ vöôït leân ñeán boán ñòa vò sau cuøng coù khaùc bieät ôû choã laø caùc ngaøi coù theå tuøy yù hoùa hieän thaønh raát nhieàu ñoái töôïng tín ngöôõng. Chaúng bao laâu, ñöùc tin ngaøy caøng gia taêng ñoái vôùi caùc hoùa thaân khaùc nhau cuûa caùc vò Boà Taùt, nhö Boà Taùt Quaùn Theá AÂm, Boà Taùt Vaên-thuø-sö-lôïi, Boà Taùt Di-laëc, Boà Taùt Ñòa Taïng, Boà Taùt Phoå Hieàn vaø nhieàu vò khaùc nöõa. Maëc duø ñöôïc hình thaønh ôû AÁn Ñoä, moät soá trong nhöõng vò Boà Taùt naøy cho thaáy coù nhöõng aûnh höôûng maïnh meõ töø nöôùc ngoaøi, ñaëc bieät laø aûnh höôûng töø Iran. Söï phaùt trieån caùc vò Boà Taùt hoùa thaân ñöôïc keøm theo, vaø thaäm chí laø ñaõ coù tröôùc, bôûi caùc vò Phaät hoùa thaân, ñöôïc tin laø hieän höõu khaép möôøi phöông theá giôùi. Veà phöông Ñoâng coù Phaät A-suùc, töùc laø vò Phaät khoâng bao giôø xao ñoäng.1 Veà phöông Taây laø quoác ñoä cuûa Phaät Voâ Löôïng Quang,2 thöôøng ñöôïc xem gioáng nhö Phaät Voâ Löôïng Thoï,3 laø vò Phaät coù ñôøi soáng keùo daøi voâ taän.4 Hình töôïng cuûa Phaät Voâ Löôïng Thoï laø töông öùng vôùi hình töôïng Zurvan Akaranak5 cuûa Iran. Töông töï nhö vaäy, hình töôïng cuûa Phaät Voâ Löôïng Quang coù raát nhieàu töông ñoàng vôùi thaàn maët trôøi cuûa Iran, vaø coù leõ coù nguoàn goác töø ñeá quoác Kushana ôû vuøng bieân giôùi giöõa AÁn Ñoä vaø Iran. Coøn coù nhieàu vò Phaät hoùa 1

Akşobhya, Haùn dòch aâm laø A-suùc, dòch nghóa laø Baát Ñoäng (不動). Amitābha 3 Amitāyus 2 4

Kinh A-di-ñaø noùi raèng hai danh hieäu naøy ñeàu laø cuûa cuøng moät vò Phaät, chính laø Phaät A-di-ñaø. 5 Danh xöng naøy cuõng mang nghóa laø “khoâng giôùi haïn veà thôøi gian”.

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by his understanding of emptiness come “face to face’ (abhimukhi) with Reality itself. At that point he would be able to escape from the terrors of this world of birth-anddeath and he could, if he wanted to, enter into Nirvāṇa. Out of compassion he nevertheless makes no use of this possibility, but stays on in the world for a long time so as to help those in it. Although in the world, he now is no longer of it. During the last four stages a Bodhisattva gains what the texts call “sovereignty over the world”, and he becomes a kind of supernatural being endowed with miraculous powers of many kinds. From the ordinary Bodhisattvas as they exist on the first six stages, the “celestial Bodhisattvas” of the last four stages differ in that they were well suited to becoming objects of a religious cult. Soon the faithful increasingly turned to all kinds of mythical Bodhisattvas, such as Avalokitesvara, Manjusri, Maitreya, Kshitigarbha, Saman-tabhadra and others. Though conceived in India some of these Bodhisattvas show strong non-Indian, and particularly Iranian influences. The development of mythical Bodhisattvas was accompanied, and even preceded by, that of mythical Buddhas, Who were held to reside in the heavens in all the ten directions. In the East lives Akshobhya, the “Imperturbable”. In the West is the kingdom of the Buddha of “Infinite Light”, Amitabha, not always clearly distinguished from Amitayus, the Buddha who “has an infinite life-span”. Amitayus is a counterpart to the Iranian Zurvan Akaranak (Unlimited Time), just as the cult of Amitabha owed much to Iranian sun worship and probably originated in the Kushana Empire in the 115

Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

thaân khaùc nöõa, vaø trong thöïc teá laø nhieàu ñeán möùc khoâng theå xaùc ñònh ñöôïc, vaø haàu heát caùc vò ñeàu coù quoác ñoä rieâng cuûa mình, moät theá giôùi khoâng thuoäc veà theá giôùi naøy, moät coõi tònh ñoä trong saïch, bôûi vì khoâng coøn nhöõng ñieàu ueá tröôïc vaø phieàn naõo nöõa. 4. Tieáp ñeán, chuùng ta phaûi noùi ñoâi ñieàu veà phöông tieän thieän xaûo, moät ñöùc tính luoân luoân khoâng theå taùch rôøi ñoái vôùi vò Boà Taùt, nhöng phaûi ñeán ñòa vò thöù baûy trong Thaäp ñòa thì môùi phaùt huy ñöôïc toái ña ñöùc tính naøy, sau khi söï thaønh töïu veà trí hueä ñaõ giuùp Boà Taùt nhaän ra ñöôïc taùnh khoâng thaät söï cuûa taát caû moïi söï vaät maø coù veû nhö ñang hieän höõu. Phöông tieän thieän xaûo laø khaû naêng phaùt huy ñöôïc naêng löïc tinh thaàn tieàm aån cuûa nhöõng con ngöôøi khaùc nhau,1 baèng vaøo nhöõng lôøi noùi vaø vieäc laøm ñöôïc ñieàu chænh theo ñuùng vôùi nhu caàu vaø phuø hôïp theo vôùi khaû naêng nhaän thöùc rieâng cuûa moãi ngöôøi. Neáu söï thaät laø nhö vaäy, thì taát caû nhöõng gì maø cho ñeán luùc naøy chuùng ta ñaõ mieâu taû nhö laø caùc yeáu toá caáu thaønh giaùo lyù Ñaïi thöøa chæ toaøn laø phöông tieän thieän xaûo, vaø khoâng coù gì khaùc hôn nöõa. Ñoù laø moät loaït nhöõng ñieàu töôûng töôïng ñöôïc kheùo leùo baøy ra chæ nhaèm thuùc ñaåy söï giaûi thoaùt cuûa chuùng sanh. Thöïc söï maø noùi laø khoâng coù chö Phaät, khoâng coù caùc vò Boà Taùt, khoâng coù söï chöùng quaû vaø cuõng khoâng coù caùc ñòa vò tu chöùng. Taát caû nhöõng ñieàu naøy chæ laø ñöôïc töôûng töôïng ra, ñöôïc ñieàu chænh cho phuø hôïp, vaø tuøy thuaän theo vôùi nhu caàu cuûa chuùng sanh meâ toái, vôùi muïc ñích laø ñöa hoï vöôït qua ñeán beán bôø giaûi thoaùt.2 Tröø ra moät thöïc taïi duy nhaát, cuõng coøn goïi laø taùnh khoâng hoaëc chaân nhö, coøn thì taát caû moïi söï vieäc khaùc ñeàu khoâng thöïc söï hieän höõu, vaø cho duø coù noùi ñeán baát cöù ñieàu gì cuõng chæ laø hoaøn toaøn khoâng thaät, giaû taïo vaø voâ giaù trò. Nhöng cho duø nhö vaäy, chaúng nhöõng laø nhöõng ñieàu aáy coù theå ñöôïc pheùp noùi ra, maø thaäm chí coøn laø höõu ích nöõa, bôûi vì söï giaûi thoaùt cuûa chuùng sanh caàn ñeán chuùng. 1

Thuaät ngöõ Phaät giaùo goïi söï khaùc nhau naøy laø caên cô cuûa moãi chuùng sanh. 2 Tinh thaàn naøy ñöôïc dieãn ñaït ñaày ñuû trong kinh Kim Cang, vaø ñöôïc thaâu toùm

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borderland between India and Iran. There are many other celestial Buddhas, in fact infinitely many, and most of them have a “kingdom” of their own, a world which is not of this world, a land which is “pure” because free from defilements and adverse conditions. 4. Next we must say a few words about the “skill in means”, a virtue which is indispensable to a Bodhisattva at all times, but which he possesses in its fullness only late, on the seventh stage, after the “perfection of wisdom” has thoroughly shown him the emptiness of everything that seems to be. “Skill in means” is the ability to bring out the spiritual potentialities of different people, by statements or actions which are adjusted to their needs and adapted to their capacity for comprehension. If the truth be told, all that we have described so far as constituting the doctrine of the Mahāyāna is just “skill in means” and nothing more. It is a series of fictions elaborated to further the salvation of beings. In actual fact there are no Buddhas, no Bodhisattvas, no perfections, and no stages. All these are products of our imagination, just expedients, concessions to the needs of ignorant people, designed to ferry them across to the Beyond. Everything apart from the One, also called “Emptiness” or “Suchness”, is devoid of real existence, and whatever may be said about it is ultimately untrue, false and nugatory. But nevertheless it is not only permissible, but even useful to say it, because the salvation of beings demands it. trong caâu “Phaùp thöôïng öng xaû, haø huoáng phi phaùp” (法尚應捨, 何况非法). Theo ñaây thì roõ raøng taát caû giaùo phaùp ñeàu chæ ñöôïc baøy ra nhö phöông tieän ñoä sanh, vaø khi ñaït ñöôïc giaùc ngoä thì khoâng coøn coù gì laø thaät caû, ngay caû baûn thaân giaùo phaùp.

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Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

5. Cho ñeán luùc naøy, chuùng ta ñaõ noùi veà nhöõng phöông thöùc ñeå ñaït ñeán giaûi thoaùt. Baây giôø, chuùng ta seõ ñeà caäp ñeán chính söï giaûi thoaùt ñoù. Nhöõng thuyeát giaûng saùng suoát veà baûn theå, hay baûn chaát cuûa thöïc taïi, ñaõ taïo neân phaàn coát loõi cuûa giaùo lyù Ñaïi thöøa. Nhöõng thuyeát giaûng naøy voâ cuøng tinh teá, khoù hieåu, khoù naém baét vaø khoâng theå naøo toùm löôïc, bôûi vì chuùng khoâng phaûi laø nhöõng phaùt bieåu döùt khoaùt veà nhöõng söï kieän cuï theå, vaø bôûi vì veà maët dieãn ñaït chuùng khoâng giaûi thích baát cöù ñieàu gì, khoâng noùi ra ñieàu gì cuï theå, vì thöïc taïi toái thöôïng khoâng ngaên ngaïi ñöôïc cho laø vöôït quaù khaû naêng naém baét cuûa tri thöùc vaø söï dieãn ñaït cuûa ngoân töø. Cho duø coù laø gì ñi nöõa, nhöõng giaùo lyù chuyeân bieät veà baûn theå cuûa Ñaïi thöøa ñaõ phaùt trieån hôïp lyù töø trieát lyù cuûa Ñaïi chuùng boä, ñoái nghòch moät caùch tröïc tieáp vaø coù yù thöùc vôùi giaùo lyù cuûa Nhaát thieát höõu boä. Boán luaän ñeà cô baûn sau ñaây laø nhöõng ñieåm chung cuûa taát caû nhöõng ngöôøi theo Ñaïi thöøa: a. Taát caû caùc phaùp ñeàu laø khoâng, theo yù nghóa moãi phaùp khoâng laø gì caû trong töï thaân chuùng, vaø töï thaân chuùng cuõng khoâng laø gì caû. Do vaäy, baát cöù phaùp naøo cuõng khoâng theå phaân bieät ñöôïc vôùi caùc phaùp khaùc. Vaø vì theá, taát caû caùc phaùp ñeàu hoaøn toaøn khoâng thöïc vaø gioáng nhö nhau. b. Taùnh khoâng naøy coù theå ñöôïc goïi laø chaân nhö, khi ngöôøi ta nhaän thöùc moãi söï vaät hoaøn toaøn ñuùng nhö thöïc coù, khoâng theâm, khoâng bôùt baát cöù ñieàu gì. Chæ coù moät chaân nhö duy nhaát, vaø theá giôùi ña daïng chæ laø ñöôïc döïng leân baèng trí töôûng töôïng cuûa chuùng ta. c. Neáu taát caû laø moät vaø nhö nhau, vaäy thì caùi tuyeät ñoái cuõng seõ gioáng vôùi caùi töông ñoái, caùi vöôït ngoaøi nhaän thöùc gioáng vôùi caùi ñöôïc nhaän thöùc, vaø Nieát-baøn cuõng nhö luaân hoài. d. Hieåu bieát chaân thaät phaûi vöôït leân treân tính caùch hai maët cuûa caû chuû theå laãn khaùch theå, cuõng nhö cuûa söï xaùc ñònh vaø phuû ñònh.

5. So far we have spoken about the way to the Beyond. Now we come to the Beyond itself. Wisdom teachings about ontology, or the nature of reality, constitute the inner core of the Mahāyāna doctrine. These teachings are extremely subtle, abstruse and elusive and defy any attempt at summarizing them, because they are not meant as definite statements about definite facts and because it is said expressly that they do not explain anything, do not say anything in particular, for the ultimate transcendental reality is held to lie beyond the grasp of intellectual comprehension and verbal expression. Be that as it may, the peculiar ontological doctrines of the Mahāyāna developed logically from the philosophy of the Mahasarighikas and in direct and conscious opposition to that of the Sarvastivadins. Four basic propositions are common to all Mahayanists: a. All dharmas are “empty” in the sense that each one is nothing in and by itself. Any dharma is therefore indistinguishable from any other dharma. In consequence all dharmas are ultimately non-existent and the same. b. This Emptiness can be called “Suchness”, when one takes each thing “such as it is”, without adding anything to it or subtracting anything from it. There can be only one Suchness and the multiple world is a construction of our imagination. c. If all is one and the same, then also the Absolute will be identical with the Relative, the Unconditioned with the conditioned, Nirvāṇa with Samsara.

Boán luaän ñeà naøy ñöa ñeán gaàn söï giaûi thoaùt, nhöng khoâng thöïc söï ñaït ñeán. Choã thaâm saâu nhaát cuûa toaøn boä giaùo lyù laø khoâng coù gì khaùc hôn ngoaøi söï yeân laëng.

d. True Knowledge must rise above the duality of either subject and object, or of affirmation and negation. These four propositions get near to the Beyond, but they do not quite reach it. The inmost sanctum of the whole doctrine is filled with nothing but silence.

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Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

Baây giôø chuùng ta noùi ñeán Phaät giaùo Ñaïi thöøa ñöôïc heä thoáng hoùa, voán ñöôïc chia thaønh hai tröôøng phaùi trieát hoïc chính: phaùi Trung luaän vaø phaùi Du-giaø.

We now come to the systematized Mahāyāna, which falls into two main philosophical schools, the Madhyamikas and the Yogacarins.

Phaùi Trung luaän ñöôïc thaønh laäp bôûi ngaøi Long Thoï (vaøo khoaûng naêm 150), ngöôøi mieàn Nam AÁn, laø moät trong nhöõng boä oùc vó ñaïi nhaát cuûa xöù AÁn Ñoä. Tröôøng phaùi naøy toàn taïi qua nhieàu theá kyû vaø cuõng ñaõ phaùt trieån maïnh meõ ôû Trung Hoa vaø Taây Taïng. Trieát lyù Trung luaän chuû yeáu laø moät hoïc thuyeát bieän luaän nhaém ñeán söï hoaøi nghi bao truøm taát caû, baèng caùch chæ ra raèng moïi phaùt bieåu ñeàu gioáng nhau ôû ñieåm laø taát caû ñeàu khoâng theå ñöùng vöõng ñöôïc. Ñieàu naøy cuõng ñuùng ngay caû khi noùi veà caùi tuyeät ñoái. Taát caû moïi söï vieäc taát yeáu ñeàu laøø giaû taïo, duy chæ coù caùi “im laëng saám seùt” cuûa ñöùc Phaät môùi coù theå noùi leân ñaày ñuû veà ñieàu ñoù. Veà maët giaûi thoaùt, taát caû moïi söï vieäc phaûi ñöôïc buoâng boû heát, cho ñeán khi chæ coøn duy nhaát caùi taùnh khoâng tuyeät ñoái, vaø khi aáy giaûi thoaùt seõ ñöôïc ñaït ñeán.

The Mādhyamika school was founded by Nagarjuna (c AD 150), a South Indian and one of the greatest minds India has produced. The school persisted for many centuries and has had a vigorous life also in China and Tibet. The Madhyamika philosophy is primarily a logical doctrine which aims at an allembracing scepticism by showing that all statements are equally untenable. This applies also to statements about the Absolute. They are all bound to be false and the Buddha’s “thundering silence” alone can do justice to it. Soteriologically, everything must be dropped and given up, until absolute Emptiness alone remains, and then salvation is gained.

Söï khôûi ñaàu môø nhaït cuûa tö töôûng Du-giaø coù theå ñaõ ñöôïc nhaän ra vaøo thôøi cuûa ngaøi Long Thoï, nhöng phaûi ñeán theá kyû 4 trieát lyù naøy môùi ñöôïc hình thaønh roõ neùt. ÔÛ ñaây, hai vò Theá Thaân1 vaø Voâ Tröôùc2 laø nhöõng teân tuoåi vó ñaïi nhaát, vaø söï nghieân cöùu cuûa lòch söû caän ñaïi cho ñeán nay vaãn chöa thaønh coâng trong vieäc phaân loaïi, saép xeáp raát nhieàu döõ kieän maâu thuaãn hieän coù veà nieân ñaïi, taùc phaåm vaø haønh traïng cuûa hoï.

At the time of Nagarjuna the shadowy beginnings of Yogācārin thinking could already be discerned, but the philosophy itself was clearly formulated only in the fourth century. Vasubandhu and Asanga are the greatest names here and modern historical research has so far not yet succeeded in sorting out the many conflicting data we have on their chronology, writings and activities.

Phaùi Du-giaø ñöa ra moät lyù thuyeát chuû yeáu veà maët taâm lyù, vaø tin raèng caùi tuyeät ñoái, veà maët thöïc duïng, coù theå ñöôïc moâ taû nhö laø taâm, yù hay laø thöùc. Lyù thuyeát cuûa hoï laø moät thöù chuû nghóa duy taâm sieâu hình,3 theo ñoù thì taâm thöùc saùng taïo ra ñoái töôïng cuûa noù nhôø vaøo chính nhöõng naêng löïc tieàm aån noäi taïi. Tuy nhieân, taâm thöùc coù theå töï 1

Vasubandhu, Haùn dòch aâm laø Baø-taåu-baøn-ñaäu (婆藪槃豆), dòch nghóa laø Thieân Thaân (天親), hay Theá Thaân (世親). Ngaøi laø Toå ñôøi thöù 21 cuûa Thieàn toâng AÁn Ñoä. Asańga, Haùn dòch aâm laø A-taêng-giaø (阿僧伽), dòch nghóa laø Voâ Tröôùc (無著). Ngaøi laø anh ruoät cuûa ngaøi Theá Thaân, vaø ñöôïc xem laø ngöôøi saùng laäp

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The Yogacarins propounded a primarily psycholo-gical theory and believed that the Absolute can usefully be described as “Mind”, “Thought” or “Consci-ousness”. Theirs was a metaphysical idealism, according to which consciousness creates its objects out of its own inner potentialities. Mind can, however, exist quite by itself, without any object whatever. Soteriologically, the Yogacarins aimed at

Duy thöùc toâng, hay Du-giaø haønh toâng, cuõng thöôøng goïi laø Du-giaø toâng. Noùi chính xaùc laø Duy thöùc, ñuùng nhö teân goïi cuûa toâng naøy.

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noù hieän höõu maø khoâng caàn coù baát cöù ñoái töôïng naøo. Veà maët giaûi thoaùt, phaùi Du-giaø nhaém ñeán moät nhaän thöùc khoâng chaïy theo ñoái töôïng. Söï giaûi thoaùt ñöôïc ñaït ñeán khi chuùng ta coù theå taïo ra ñöôïc moät nhaän thöùc thuaàn tuùy, nghóa laø chæ thuaàn coù taâm thöùc, vaø hoaøn toaøn vöôït qua ranh giôùi giöõa chuû theå vaø ñoái töôïng. Hai tröôøng phaùi Trung luaän vaø Du-giaø roõ raøng laø hoaøn toaøn khaùc bieät nhau veà nhöõng gì hoï quan taâm cuõng nhö muïc tieâu nhaém ñeán. Vì theá, nhöõng cuoäc tranh luaän thænh thoaûng xaûy ra giöõa ñoâi beân ñaõ khoâng coù maáy aûnh höôûng, vaø raát ít ñöôïc noùi ñeán trong caùc taùc phaåm cuûa hoï. Noùi chung, moãi tröôøng phaùi ñeàu haøi loøng vôùi vieäc vaïch ra giaùo lyù cuûa rieâng mình, khoâng chuù yù laém ñeán tröôøng phaùi kia. Ñoái vôùi nhöõng ngöôøi theo phaùi Trung luaän, giaùo lyù cuûa phaùi Du-giaø coù veû nhö laø moät söï sai laàm hoaøn toaøn khoâng theå hieåu ñöôïc. Trong khi ñoù, phaùi Du-giaø xem giaùo lyù Trung luaän nhö laø giai ñoaïn ban ñaàu cuûa chính hoï, tuy nhieân, ñaõ ñi cheäch höôùng chaân lyù vaø coát loõi bí truyeàn cuûa Phaät giaùo. Tröôøng phaùi Du-giaø coøn ñaùng chuù yù hôn ôû choã laø ñaõ saùng taïo ra phaàn cuoái cuøng cuûa giaùo lyù veà Tam thaân Phaät. Ñöùc Phaät ñöôïc cho laø hieän höõu treân ba möùc ñoä khaùc nhau. Khi laø Phaùp thaân,1 ngaøi laø Tuyeät ñoái, laø Chaân lyù, laø chính baûn thaân Thöïc taïi. Khi laø Baùo thaân,2 ngaøi thò hieän chính mình cho caùc vò Boà Taùt vaø haøng thaùnh giaû ñöôïc nhìn thaáy, vaø thuyeát phaùp cho hoï nghe ôû caùc coõi trôøi, taïo ra söï vui thuù vaø öa thích ñoái vôùi Phaùp. Sau cuøng, khi laø Hoùa thaân,3 ngaøi laø thaân maø chuùng sanh coù theå nhìn thaáy thò hieän vaøo nhöõng thôøi ñieåm nhaát ñònh nôi theá gian, voán laø thaân hö aûo do Phaät hoùa hieän ra ñeå thöïc hieän coâng vieäc hoùa ñoä treân theá gian. Baèng vaøo söï tinh luyeän veà maët tri thöùc, nhieàu ngöôøi thuoäc phaùi Du-giaø coøn theâm vaøo moät thaân thöù tö nöõa, ñoù laø Töï taùnh thaân,4 laø caên baûn cuûa caû ba thaân kia. Nhöng ôû ñaây caàn phaûi heát söùc löu yù thaän troïng. Giaùo lyù Tam thaân Phaät naøy thöôøng ñöôïc nhieàu ngöôøi cho laø do nhöõng ngöôøi 1

Dharmakāya Sambhogakāya 3 Nirmānakāya 4 Svābhāvikakāya, cuõng coù nôi goïi laø Mahāsukhakāya, Haùn dòch laø Ñaïi laïc thaân (大樂身). 2

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achieving “an act of cognition which no longer apprehends an object”. Salvation is won when we can produce in ourselves an act of thought which is “Thought-only”, pure consciousness, and altogether beyond the division between subject and object. The two systems were clearly quite distinct in their interests and intentions. The polemics which they occasionally directed against each other had therefore little effect and occupy little space in their writings. On the whole each school was content to elaborate its own tenets, without paying too much attention to its rivals. To the Madhyamikas, the Yogacarin doctrine appeared as a quite incomprehensible perversity, whereas the Yogacarins regarded the Madhyamika doctrine as a preliminary stage of their own, which however missed the true and esoteric core of the Buddha’s teaching. The Yogacarin school is further noteworthy for having elaborated the final formulation of the doctrine of the three Bodies of the Buddha. The Buddha is said to exist on three distinct levels. As the Dharma-body He is the Absolute, Truth and Reality itself. In His “communal body”, or His “enjoyment body” (sāmbhoga-kaya), the Buddha shows Himself to the celestial Bodhisattvas and other superhuman beings and preaches in unearthly realms the Dharma to them, generating joy, delight and love for it. Finally there is the fictitious, or conjured up body (nirmdna-kaya) which is the one that human beings see appearing at certain times on earth and which is a phantom body sent by the real Buddha to do His work in the world. By way of scholastic refinement, many Yogacarins still added a fourth Body, the Substantial Body (svdbhdvika-kaya), which is the basis of the other three. Yet a note of caution must here be sounded. It is generally said that this doctrine of the Three Bodies was first formulated 123

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A short history of Buddhism

thuoäc phaùi Du-giaø ñeà ra tröôùc tieân vaøo khoaûng naêm 300, nhöng veà cô baûn khoâng coù gì thaät söï môùi trong ñoù. Caû ba thaân naøy ñeàu ñaõ ñöôïc bieát ñeán töø nhieàu theá kyû tröôùc. Vieäc ñoàng nhaát moät khía caïnh cuûa ñöùc Phaät vôùi Phaùp theå1 ñaõ ñöôïc ñöa ra töø thôøi kyø ñaàu, vaø thuoäc veà phaàn coát yeáu cuûa Phaät giaùo. Veà Baùo thaân, ñaõ coù moät truyeàn thoáng laâu ñôøi noùi veà ba möôi hai töôùng toát cuûa baäc vó nhaân. Nhöõng töôùng toát naøy roõ raøng laø khoâng thuoäc veà phaàn thaân xaùc maø ai ai cuõng coù theå nhìn thaáy ñöôïc, maø laø gaén lieàn vôùi moät loaïi thaân theå maàu nhieäm chæ coù theå nhìn thaáy ñöôïc baèng ñöùc tin, vaø chæ töï hieån loä ra tröôùc haøng thaùnh giaû. Maëc duø moät söï giaû ñònh veà loaïi thaân theå maàu nhieäm nhö theá ñaõ ñöôïc ñöa ra töø raát laâu, nhöng maõi cho ñeán khoaûng naêm 300, taát caû nhöõng gì ñöôïc noùi veà ñieàu naøy vaãn coøn mô hoà vaø khoù naém baét. Raát coù theå laø phaàn giaùo lyù veà ñeà taøi naøy chöa ñöôïc phaùt trieån ñaày ñuû tröôùc theá kyû 3. Nhöng cuõng coù theå laø phaàn giaùo lyù naøy ñöôïc xem nhö ñaëc bieät thieâng lieâng, vaø vì theá ñöôïc giöõ kín, chæ coù theå tröïc tieáp khaåu truyeàn cho nhöõng ai coù ñuû phaåm chaát taâm linh ñeå tieáp nhaän, coøn nhöõng ngöôøi khaùc phaûi töï haøi loøng vôùi moät soá ít nhöõng ñeà caäp mô hoà. Veà sau, coù theå laø söï suy thoaùi lieân tuïc maø chuùng ta ñaõ coù laàn noùi ñeán tröôùc ñaây ñaõ ñi keøm theo vôùi söï traàn tuïc hoùa phaàn giaùo lyù ñoù. Trong thôøi kyø ñaàu, nhö chuùng ta ñaõ bieát, moät taêng só khoâng ñöôïc pheùp tröïc tieáp truyeàn daïy kinh ñieån cho cö só. Vaø chuùng ta nghe noùi veà oâng Caáp Coâ Ñoäc, moät trong nhöõng ñaïi thí chuû lôùn nhaát thôøi ban ñaàu cuûa Giaùo hoäi, raèng chæ ñeán luùc laâm chung, sau nhieàu naêm kính ngöôõng ñöùc Phaät vaø uûng hoä Taêng-giaø, môùi ñöôïc nghe ngaøi Xaù-lôïi-phaát giaûng veà tính chaát khoâng thoûa maõn cuûa saùu traàn.2 Bôûi vì, theo lôøi ngaøi Xaù-lôïi-phaát, nhöõng vaán ñeà nhö vaäy chæ daønh cho taêng só aùo vaøng, thöôøng khoâng ñöôïc giaûng daïy cho haøng cö só aùo traéng. Veà sau, tröôùc tieân laø kinh ñieån noùi chung khoâng coøn ñöôïc giöõ kín nöõa, vaø tieáp theo, nhöõng phaàn giaùo lyù aån maät hôn cuõng daàn daàn ñöôïc boäc loä ra töøng ñieåm moät. Vaø thöïc teá 1 2

by the Yogacarins about AD 300, but basically there is nothing really new about it. All three bodies had been known centuries before. The identification of one side of the Buddha with the Dharma had often been made in the first period and is of the essence of Buddhism. As to the second body, there had been a long-standing tradition about the “thirty-two marks of the superman”, which were obviously not attributes of the body visible to all, but adhered to some glorified body which is visible only to the eyes of faith and manifests itself only to the community of the saints. Although the assumption of such a “glorified” body had been made for a long time, all references to it until about AD 300 are vague and elusive. It may be that the doctrine on this subject was not fully developed before the third century. It may also be, however, that this was regarded as a particularly sacred, and therefore secret, subject, which could be explained only orally to those who were spiritually qualified to hear of it, while the remainder had to content themselves with a few vague hints. It is likely that the continuous decline of which we spoke before was accompanied by an increasing profanizatign of the doctrine. In early times, as we saw, a monk was even forbidden to recite the actual text of the Sutras to laymen. We hear of Anathapindada, one of the greatest early benefactors of the Order, that only on his death-bed, after having for many years honoured the Lord and helped the Sańgha, he was allowed to hear from Sariputra a sermon on the unsatisfactory nature of sense-objects, because, as Sariputra told him, such subjects were reserved for the yellow-robed monks and were not normally taught to the men in white robes, to the laymen. Later on, first the Sutras ceased to be secret and further on also the more secret teachings hidden behind them were divulged

Töùc laø khaùi nieäm veà Phaùp thaân Phaät. Töùc laø ñoái töôïng cuûa saùu caên, hay noùi roõ laø hình saéc, aâm thanh, höông, vò, söï

xuùc chaïm vaø caùc phaùp. Nhöõng ñoái töôïng naøy khoâng bao giôø thoûa maõn ñöôïc söï tham caàu cuûa chuùng ta, vì baûn chaát cuûa chuùng laø nhö vaäy.

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laø tröôøng phaùi Du-giaø luoân cho raèng taát caû nhöõng gì hoï laøm chæ laø giaûi thích nhöõng yù nghóa maät truyeàn ñaõ coù töø laâu, nhöng chöa bao giôø ñöôïc phoå bieán roäng khaép cho taát caû moïi ngöôøi.

one by one. As a matter of fact the Yogacarins always claimed that all they did was to explain the “esoteric” meaning, known all along, but never broadcast to all and sundry.

Neáu quaû ñuùng nhö vaäy, thì nhöõng gì maø trong lòch söû tö töôûng Phaät giaùo coù veû nhö ñoåi môùi veà giaùo lyù thöôøng raát coù theå chæ laø söï chuyeån ñoåi daàn daàn ñöôøng ranh giôùi phaân vaïch giöõa phaàn giaùo lyù maät truyeàn vaø phaàn giaùo lyù coâng truyeàn. Ban ñaàu, ngay caû cho ñeán thôøi vua A-duïc, phaàn lôùn giaùo lyù ñeàu laø maät truyeàn, tröø ra moät soá chuaån möïc ñaïo ñöùc hoaëc nhöõng ñieàu töông töï. Cho ñeán thôøi ñaïi Tan-tra,1 vaøo thôøi kyø thöù ba, thì ngay caû nhöõng giaùo lyù bí truyeàn nhaát cuõng ñaõ ñöôïc ghi cheùp. Tieán trình naøy coù theå ñöôïc hieåu nhö ñeå buø ñaép laïi söï thaát baïi ñöôïc thöøa nhaän ngaøy caøng gia taêng trong vieäc ñaït ñeán nhöõng thaønh quaû taâm linh ñaõ ñaët ra. Nhöõng vò taêng khoâng theå töï mình ñaït ñeán söï chöùng ngoä trong töï taâm, thöôøng lao vaøo nhöõng hoaït ñoäng höôùng ngoaïi, truyeàn baù roäng raõi giaùo lyù cuûa hoï trong ñaïi chuùng. Töø thöïc teá laø moãi yù töôûng ñöa ra chæ coù theå ñöôïc xaùc nhaän vaøo moät thôøi gian veà sau, neân chuùng ta khoâng theå ñöa ra baát cöù keát luaän naøo coù tính caùch thuyeát phuïc veà vieäc yù töôûng aáy coù thaät söï vöøa ñöôïc nghó ra vaøo luùc noù ñöôïc coâng boá hay khoâng. Bôûi vì, raát coù theå chæ laø vaøo luùc ñoù yù töôûng naøy môùi thoâi khoâng daønh rieâng cho moät soá ngöôøi choïn loïc, maø phaàn naøo ñöôïc ñöa ra cho taát caû moïi ngöôøi.

If this is so, then what in the history of Buddhist thought seems to be doctrinal innovation may very often be nothing but the gradual shifting of the line between esoteric and exoteric teachings. At first, even up to Aśoka, the bulk of the doctrine, except for some moral maxims and so on, was esoteric. By the time of the Tantra, in the third period, even the most esoteric doctrines were written down. This process can be understood as one of compensation for the increasing admitted failure to achieve the spiritual goals aimed at. The monks who were unable to succeed inwardly in their self-realization would then indulge in the extraverted activity of spreading their doctrines among the general population. From the fact that a statement is attested only at a later date we cannot therefore conclude with any cogency that it was actually invented at that time. It is just as well possible that it ceased at that time to be the prerogative of the initiated and became more or less public property.

2. SÖÏ PHAÙT TRIEÅN CUÛA TIEÅU THÖØA ÔÛ AÁN ÑOÄ

Baát chaáp söï phaùt trieån cuûa Ñaïi thöøa, nhöõng tröôøng phaùi Tieåu thöøa coå xöa vaãn duy trì ñöôïc söï phaùt trieån cuûa rieâng hoï. Nhöõng söï phaùt trieån môùi taát nhieân laø ñaõ coù phaàn naøo aûnh höôûng ñoái vôùi hoï. Hoï ñieàu chænh theo moät vaøi giaùo lyù cuûa Ñaïi thöøa, hoaëc laø töø söï vay möôïn tröïc tieáp, hoaëc laø vì hoï cuøng chòu aûnh höôûng gioáng nhö nhöõng gì ñaõ hình thaønh neân Ñaïi thöøa. Quan nieäm veà Boà Taùt giôø ñaây ñaõ trôû neân noåi baät trong nhöõng caâu chuyeän tieàn thaân keå veà nhieàu ñôøi soáng tröôùc ñaây cuûa 1

Ñöôïc xem laø thôøi kyø phaùt trieån thöù ba cuûa Phaät giaùo, khi nhöõng kinh saùch Tan-tra ñöôïc hình thaønh, vôùi aûnh höôûng ngaøy caøng lôùn cuûa Maät giaùo.

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2. HĪNAYĀNA DEVELOPMENTS IN INDIA

In spite of the growth of the Mahāyāna, the old Hīnayāna schools held their own. The new developments naturally had some influence on them. They adopted some Mahāyāna theories, either by direct borrowing or because they were exposed to the same influences which shaped the Mahāyāna. The idea of a Bodhisattva now becomes prominent in the vast popular Jataka literature which tells stories about the Buddha’s former lives. Originally these tales were fables, fairy127

Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

ñöùc Phaät, voán raát ñöôïc öa chuoäng roäng raõi. Nguoàn goác ban ñaàu cuûa nhöõng caâu chuyeän naøy laø nhöõng chuyeän nguï ngoân, thaàn thoaïi, nhöõng chuyeän keå truyeàn mieäng... ñöôïc ruùt töø trong kho taøng truyeän daân gian phong phuù cuûa AÁn Ñoä. Nhöõng caâu chuyeän ñang löu haønh naøy, sau ñoù ñöôïc söûa ñoåi cho phuø hôïp vôùi vieäc söû duïng trong Phaät giaùo, baèng caùch trình baøy nhö nhöõng söï vieäc xaûy ra trong cuoäc ñôøi thaät cuûa ñöùc Phaät. Trong moät thôøi gian daøi, nhöõng caâu chuyeän naøy ñöôïc ñöa ra ñeå minh hoïa caùc giôùi luaät do Phaät cheá ñònh, hoaëc vôùi muïc ñích ca ngôïi taâm hoàn cao quyù cuûa ñöùc Theá Toân. Chæ veà sau naøy, chuùng môùi ñöôïc keå laïi döôùi hình thöùc chuyeän keå veà Boà Taùt. Lieân quan ñeán nhöõng caâu chuyeän tieàn thaân cuûa ñöùc Phaät, moät loaït 10 phaùp ba-la-maät1 ñöôïc keå ra, song song vôùi 6 ba-la-maät cuûa Ñaïi thöøa. Theâm nöõa, loøng töø bi trong nhöõng caâu chuyeän tröôùc ñaây chæ laø moät ñöùc tính phuï thuoäc vaø nhoû nhaët, nhöng ñaõ trôû neân noåi baät hôn trong nhöõng caâu chuyeän veà haønh traïng cuûa Boà Taùt. Boà Taùt bao giôø cuõng laø tieàn thaân trong nhöõng kieáp soáng tröôùc ñaây cuûa ñöùc Phaät. Ngoaøi ra, giaùo lyù veà taùnh khoâng luùc naøy ñöôïc nhaán maïnh hôn tröôùc ñoù. Moät söï thöøa nhaän raèng thôøi ñaïi baáy giôø ñaõ xaáu ñi, khoâng coøn laø thôøi cuûa caùc vò A-la-haùn, ñaõ ñöa ñeán söï coi troïng hôn ñoái vôùi mong muoán theo ñuoåi nhöõng muïc ñích thöù yeáu, chaúng haïn nhö taùi sanh veà caûnh giôùi cuûa chö thieân, hoaëc caûnh giôùi cuûa ñöùc Di-laëc, vò Phaät töông lai hieän ñang ôû coõi trôøi Ñaâu-suaát.2 Nhöng noùi chung thì nhöõng söï nhöôïng boä naøy ñöôïc thöïc hieän moät caùch khaù mieãn cöôõng. Nhöõng nguoàn tö lieäu hieän coù cuûa chuùng ta veà Tieåu thöøa haàu nhö chaúng bao giôø ñeà caäp ñeán nhöõng ngöôøi theo Ñaïi thöøa, cho duø laø theo caùch tích cöïc hay tieâu cöïc. Nhöõng ngöôøi Tieåu thöøa coù phaàn naøo hoaøi nghi ñoái vôùi taát caû nhöõng caùch taân cuûa Ñaïi thöøa. Veà tuyeân boá cho raèng nhöõng kinh ñieån môùi cuûa Ñaïi thöøa chính laø lôøi Phaät daïy, hoï ñaõ töø choái khoâng chòu tieáp nhaän moät caùch nghieâm tuùc. Trong thöïc teá, hoï phuû nhaän nhöõng kinh ñieån naøy, cho raèng chuùng cuõng gioáng nhö quaù nhieàu nhöõng söï bòa ñaët khaùc, vaø khoâng ñaùng ñeå xem xeùt moät 1

tales, anecdotes, etc., taken from the vast fund of Indian folklore. These current tales were then adapted to Buddhist uses by being represented as incidents in the lives of the historical Buddha. For a long time they were just told to illustrate the Buddha’s moral precepts, or for the purpose of proclaiming the glory and spiritual stature of the Lord (Bhagavari). Only at a later age were they recast into the form of stories about the Bodhisattva. In connection with the Jatakas a set of 10 “perfections” was elaborated, parallel to the six perfections of the Mahāyāna. Also the compassion and the loving-kindness, which in older literature is a minor and very subordinate virtue, becomes more prominent in these tales of the Bodhisattva’s deeds, the “Bodhisattva” always being The Buddha in His previous lives. Likewise the doctrine of “emptiness” is now stressed more than it was in the past. A recognition of the fact that the times are bad and the days for the Arhats have passed, gives greater respectability to the aspiration after the secondary goals, such as the rebirth among the gods, or with Maitreya, the future Buddha, now in the Tushita heaven. But on the whole these concessions are made rather grudgingly. Our Hīnayāna sources practically never mention the Mahayanists, either posilively or negatively. They were somewhat incredulous of all these innovations and they refused to take seriously the claim that the many new Mahāyāna works gave the Buddha’s actual words. In fact they rejected these works as just so many “concoctions” and unworthy of serious consideration. The eloquent testimony of the complete and total

Luaän Duy thöùc goïi ñaây laø 10 thaéng haïnh vaø keå ra nhö sau: Thí ba-la-maät, Giôùi ba-la-maät, Nhaãn ba-la-maät, Tinh taán ba-la-maät, Thieàn ba-la-maät, Baùt-

nhaõ ba-la-maät, Phöông tieän thieän xaûo ba-la-maät, Nguyeän ba-la-maät, Löïc ba-la-maät vaø Trí ba-la-maät. Möôøi ba-la-maät trong thôøi kyø ñaàu do Phaät giaùo Tieåu thöøa lieät keâ khoâng bieát coù töông töï nhö theá naøy hay khoâng. 2 Tuşita, Haùn dòch nghóa laø Hyû Tuùc (喜足) hoaëc Dieäu Tuùc (妙足), dòch aâm laø Ñaâu-suaát (兜率) hay Ñaâu-suaát-ñaø (兜率陀).

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Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

caùch nghieâm tuùc. Söï im laëng hoaøn toaøn cuûa caùc hoïc giaû Tieåu thöøa veà vaán ñeà Ñaïi thöøa laø baèng chöùng maïnh meõ cho chuùng ta bieát roõ hoï ñaõ nghó gì veà boä phaùi ñoà soä naøy. Khoâng nao nuùng bôûi Ñaïi thöøa, nhöõng ngöôøi Tieåu thöøa tieáp tuïc phaùt trieån giaùo lyù rieâng cuûa mình, chuû yeáu laø laøm roõ theâm nhöõng haøm nghóa hôïp lyù trong boä A-tyø-ñaït-ma cuûa hoï.1 Vieäc bieân soaïn vaø heä thoáng hoùa boä luaän naøy phaûi maát heát boán theá kyû ñaàu Coâng nguyeân. Sau ñoù, boä luaän naøy ñöôïc hoaøn taát cho hai tröôøng phaùi chính. Veà vieäc naøy, chuùng ta coù ñöôïc phaàn naøo hieåu bieát chính xaùc, chaúng haïn nhö ngaøi Theá Thaân hoaøn thaønh boä luaän cuûa Nhaát thieát höõu boä, vaø ngaøi Phaät AÂm2 hoaøn thaønh boä luaän cuûa Thöôïng toïa boä. Vaøo khoaûng naêm 400, Tieåu thöøa ñaït ñeán möùc hoaøn thieän nhaát trong khaû naêng cuûa hoï. Sau ñoù, khoâng coøn coù theâm gì môùi, vaø maëc duø toàn taïi theâm 800 naêm nöõa, Phaät giaùo Tieåu thöøa AÁn Ñoä ñeå laïi cho chuùng ta raát ít daáu veát cuûa nhöõng hoaït ñoäng saùng taïo tri thöùc tieán xa hôn. Chính ngaøi Theá Thaân ñaõ caûm thaáy mình ñi ñeán ñoaïn cuoái cuûa moät thôøi ñaïi, vaø ngaøi keát thuùc boä luaän A-tyøñaït-ma Caâu-xaù3 baèng nhöõng doøng noåi tieáng sau ñaây:

silence of all Hīnayāna doctors on the subject of the Mahāyāna shows clearly what they thought of all this splendour. Undeterred by the Mahāyāna, the Hinayanists went on with their own doctrinal development, which consisted in working out the logical implications of their Abhidharma. The elaboration and systematization of the Abhidharma occupied the first four centuries of our era. After that time it was completed for the two principal schools of which we have any precise knowledge, i.e. by Vasubandhu for the Sarvastivadins and by Buddhaghosa for the Theravadins. About AD 400 the Hinayanists reached the perfection of which they were capable. After that there was no more to come and the Indian Hīnayāna, although it persisted for another 800 years, has left us few records of further creative intellectual activity. Vasubandhu himself felt that he had reached the end of an epoch and he concludes his “Abhidharmakosa” with the famous words: The times are come When flooded by the rising tide of ignorance Buddha’s religion seems to breathe its last.

“Thôøi ñaõ ñeán, Vôùi söï traøn ngaäp soùng voâ minh daâng cao Phaät giaùo döôøng nhö thôû hôi cuoái cuøng.” Söï saùng taïo boä luaän A-tyø-ñaït-ma laø moät trong nhöõng thaønh töïu vó ñaïi nhaát cuûa trí hueä con ngöôøi. Trong phaàn 3 cuûa Chöông I ñaõ giaûi thích phaàn naøo moät soá yù nghóa ñöôïc duøng cuûa danh töø phaùp. Trong thôøi kyø thöù hai, ngöôøi ta ñaõ coá xaùc ñònh moät caùch coù heä thoáng xem coù bao nhieâu loaïi phaùp, hay thaønh phaàn cô baûn cuûa kinh nghieäm, caàn phaûi ñöôïc thöøa nhaän. Nhaát thieát höõu boä ñaït ñöôïc moät danh saùch 75 phaùp. Trong khi ñoù, Thöôïng toïa boä tin raèng caàn phaûi neâu ñeán 174 phaùp. Nhöng söï khaùc bieät giöõa hai con soá naøy ít nghieâm troïng hôn nhieàu so vôùi veû ngoaøi. Danh saùch cuûa Thöôïng toïa boä tuy daøi hôn raát nhieàu, nhöng chuû yeáu laø

The creation of the Abhidharma was one of the greatest achievements of the human intellect. I have explained to some extent the sense in which the word “dharmas” was used. In our second period one attempted to determine systematically how many kinds of “dharmas”, or ultimate constituents of experience, had to be assumed. The Sarvastivadins arrived at a list of 75 dharmas, whereas the Theravadins believed that 174 were necessary. The difference between the two lists is much less serious than it appears to be. The Theravadin list

Nhö ñaõ noùi trong moät ñoaïn tröôùc, noäi dung boä A-tyø-ñaït-ma cuûa moãi boä phaùi khaùc nhau raát nhieàu.

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Buddhaghoşa Abhidharmakośa 131

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A short history of Buddhism

vì hoï chia nhoû phaùp thöù 14 (töôûng) cuûa Nhaát thieát höõu boä thaønh 89 loaïi thöùc. Ngoaøi ra, hai danh saùch naøy khaùc nhau ôû söï saép xeáp, thöù töï lieät keâ vaø caùch duøng töø, cuõng nhö moät soá caùc chi tieát vuïn vaët, quaù phieàn toaùi ñeå keå heát ra ñaây. Nhöõng yeáu toá cô baûn voán ñaõ ñöôïc giaûi quyeát xong tröôùc ñoù, vaøo luùc maø hai tröôøng phaùi vaãn coøn thoáng nhaát vôùi nhau, vaø chæ coù nhöõng chi tieát cuoái cuøng laø ñöôïc theâm vaøo sau naøy. Phaïm vi ñaùng kinh ngaïc cuûa nhöõng nghieân cöùu trong boä luaän A-tyø-ñaït-ma coù theå ñöôïc nhaän roõ khi chuùng ta nhìn vaøo nhöõng ñeà taøi maø ngaøi Theá Thaân baøn ñeán trong boä luaän A-tyøñaït-ma Caâu-xaù. Boä luaän coù 8 chöông, baøn veà nhöõng hieän töôïng trong töï nhieân, veà nhöõng söùc maïnh vaø baûn naêng töï nhieân, veà vuõ truï hoïc... nghóa laø nguoàn goác, söï saép xeáp vaø huûy dieät cuûa vuõ truï, vaø baøn veà nghieäp baùo, nhöõng duïc voïng, caùc baäc thaùnh giaû khaùc nhau vaø nhöõng phöông phaùp daãn ñeán giaûi thoaùt, vaø chaám döùt baèng moät khaûo saùt veà naêng löïc nhaän thöùc thieâng lieâng vaø nhöõng thaønh töïu cuûa thieàn ñònh. Theâm vaøo ñoù coøn coù moät phaàn phuï luïc daønh ñeå baùc boû quan ñieåm cuûa nhöõng ngöôøi thöøa nhaän söï hieän höõu töï ngaõ, keå caû nhöõng tín ñoà Phaät giaùo. Vieäc loaïi tröø vaø xoùa boû taát caû nhöõng quan ñieåm nhö vaäy laø muïc tieâu chính cuûa ngaøi Theá Thaân trong vieäc bieân soaïn boä luaän cuûa mình. Tröôùc phaàn toång keát cuoái cuøng laø nhöõng baøi luaän thuyeát raát daøi vaø bao quaùt, trong ñoù chuùng ta coù ñöôïc moät soá tö lieäu veà Nhaát thieát höõu boä. Trong theá kyû thöù nhaát, boä phaùi naøy ñaõ san ñònh laïi kinh taïng cuûa hoï. Khoaûng naêm 100, coù boä Tyø-baø-sa,1 moät boä luaän giaûi cuûa boä A-tyø-ñaït-ma, vaø vaøo khoaûng naêm 200, ra ñôøi boä luaän ñoà soä Ñaïi Tyø-baø-sa,2 ñöôïc bieân soaïn bôûi 500 vò A-la-haùn ôû Kashmir, vaø ñaõ hình thaønh teân goïi Tyø-baø-sa boä3 cho boä phaùi chính thoáng nhaát thaønh laäp töø Nhaát thieát höõu boä. Danh xöng Tyø-baø-sa coù nghóa laø “söï löïa choïn”, vaø teân goïi cuûa nhöõng taùc phaåm vöøa ñeà caäp treân xuaát phaùt töø thöïc teá laø raát nhieàu yù kieán khaùc nhau cuûa caùc baäc luaän sö haøng ñaàu ñeàu ñöôïc ghi nhaän caån 1 2

Vibhāshā Mahāvibhāsha. Boä luaän naøy goàm 200 quyeån, ñaõ ñöôïc ngaøi Huyeàn Trang dòch sang Haùn vaên.

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is so much longer chiefly because they subdivided one item of the Sarvastivadins (i.e. no. 14, Thought) into the 89 kinds of consciousness. Otherwise the lists mainly differ in their arrangement, order of enumeration and terminology, as well as in a number of trifling details too wearisome to enumerate here. The basic factors were already worked out while the two schools were still united and only the final touches were added at a later period. The astounding range of Abhidharma studies can be appreciated when we look at the topics which Vasubandhu discusses in his Abhidharmakosa. It falls into eight chapters, dealing with the elements, the powers and faculties, cosmology, i.e. the origin, arrangement and destruction of the universe, with karma, the passions, the various kinds of saints and the paths which lead to salvation, concluding with a survey of sacred cognition and meditational attainments. In addition an appendix is devoted to the refutation of the views of Buddhists and non-Buddhists who postulate the existence of an ego, the abolition and eradication of all such views being Vasubandhu’s main object in the composition of his treatise. The final synthesis was preceded by many lengthy and extensive discussions of which we have for the Sarvastivadins some documents left. In the first century of our era they fixed their Canon, about AD 100 there is the Vibhdshd, a commentary to the Abhidharma, and about AD 200 the enormousMahdvibhdsha, a commentary to thejndnaprasthdna composed by 500 Arhats of Kashmir, which gives the name of Vaibhdshika to the most orthodox school of the Sarvastivadins. The word vibhasha can be translated as “option” and the works just mentioned derived their name from the fact that different opinions of the leading 3

Vaibhāshika 133

Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

thaän, ñeå ngöôøi ñoïc coù theå löïa choïn nhöõng yù kieán naøo toû ra phuø hôïp nhaát vôùi mình.

teachers of the school are carefully recorded, so that the reader may be able to choose those which seem most likely to him.

Tröôøng phaùi ñoái nghòch chuû yeáu cuûa Tyø-baø-sa boä laø Kinh löôïng boä. Hoï khoâng tin raèng baûy cuoán A-tyø-ñaït-ma cô baûn laø do chính ñöùc Phaät truyeàn daïy, vaø cho raèng chæ coù nhöõng gì trong boä A-tyø-ñaït-ma ñöôïc trích daãn raûi raùc töø Kinh taïng laø nhöõng neàn taûng coù theå tin caäy ñöôïc.

The chief adversaries of the Vaibhashikas were the Sautrantikas who did not believe that the seven basic Abhidharma texts had been preached by the Buddha, and regarded the statements on Abhidharma which are scattered in the Sutras as the only reliable scriptural basis for that subject.

Giaùo lyù cuûa Kinh löôïng boä thöôøng ñôn giaûn hôn vaø roõ raøng laø hôïp lyù hôn giaùo lyù cuûa Nhaát thieát höõu boä. Söï maâu thuaãn giöõa hai tröôøng phaùi naøy lieân quan ñeán nhöõng vaán ñeà chaúng haïn nhö khaû naêng töï tænh giaùc, hoaëc laø söï nhaän thöùc tröïc tieáp ñoái töôïng, hay tranh luaän veà vieäc trong yù nghóa naøo thì moät ñoái töôïng khaùch quan thöïc söï hieän höõu, hoaëc caùi gì thöïc hieän haønh vi thaáy: laø con maét, laø yù thöùc hay laø taâm. Hoï cuõng tranh luaän veà vieäc söï huûy dieät coù nguyeân nhaân cuûa noù, hay xaûy ñeán moät caùch töï nhieân nhö laø baûn chaát voán coù cuûa söï vaät. Ngaøi Theá Thaân ñaõ coù nhieàu nhöôïng boä ñoái vôùi quan ñieåm cuûa Kinh löôïng boä, vaø vì theá, boä luaän cuûa ngaøi bò boä phaùi chính thoáng Tyø-baø-sa coâng kích. Ngaøi Theá Thaân khi aáy ñaõ nhaän ra ngaøi Chuùng Hieàn1 laø moät luaän sö ñoái nghòch coù naêng löïc maïnh meõ, ñaõ pheâ phaùn boä luaän cuûa ngaøi theo quan ñieåm truyeàn thoáng. Maëc duø vaäy, boä luaän naøy vaãn ngaøy caøng ñöôïc nhieàu ngöôøi thöøa nhaän nhö laø keát luaän cuoái cuøng veà ñeà taøi naøy, vaø vieäc coù raát nhieàu luaän sö chuù giaûi cho boä luaän ñaõ chöùng minh ñöôïc söï phoå bieán roäng raõi cuûa noù keùo daøi ñeán nhieàu theá kyû sau ñoù. Tuy nhieân, nhöõng hoaït ñoäng saùng taïo cuûa Tieåu thöøa khoâng chæ hoaøn toaøn giôùi haïn ôû boä luaän A-tyø-ñaït-ma. Nhöõng chuyeän keå veà söï ñaûn sinh cuûa ñöùc Phaät vaø nhöõng chuyeän keå coù tính caùch giaùo duïc lieân tuïc ñöôïc gia taêng. Cuoäc ñôøi vaø nhaân caùch cuûa ñöùc Phaät ñaõ thu huùt nhieàu söï chuù yù cuûa tín ñoà. Boà Taùt Maõ Minh,2 voán cuõng laø moät nhaø thô taøi hoa, ñaõ duøng hình thöùc thi ca cuûa tieáng 1

Sańghabhadra, luaän sö ñeä töû cuûa ngaøi Ngoä Nhaäp, thuoäc Nhaát thieát höõu boä.

Ngaøi vieát Caâu-xaù bao luaän ñeå pheâ phaùn Caâu-xaù luaän. Ngaøi Theá Thaân ñoïc luaän naøy, cho laø khoâng phaûi choáng phaù, nhöng ngöôïc laïi laø laøm roõ theâm yù nghóa boä luaän cuûa mình, neân ñoåi teân laïi goïi laø Thuaän chaùnh lyù luaän.

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The doctrines of the Sautrantikas are often simpler and more obviously reasonable than those of the Sarvastivadins. The controversies between the two schools dealt with such subjects as the possibility of self-consciousness, or that of the direct perception of objects. Or one debated in what sense external objects really exist, or what it is that does the “seeing” (the eyes, or the consciousness, or mind), or whether destruction has a cause or comes about automatically of itself in the very nature of things. Vasubandhu made many concessions to the Sautrantika point of view, and his Kosa was in consequence assailed by the orthodox Vaibhashikas. He found an able and powerful opponent in Sańghab-hadra, who commented on the Kosa from the traditional point of view. Nevertheless theKosa was increasingly recognized as the last word on the subject and numerous commentaries testify to its enduring popularity in subsequent centuries. The creative activities of the Hīnayāna were, however, not entirely confined to the Abhidharma. Constant additions were made to the Birth Stories and Edifying Tales. The life and personality of the Buddha claimed the attention of the devotees. Asvaghosa (c. 100), a very fine poet, used the devices of Indian 2

Aśvaghosa, töùc Boà Taùt Maõ Minh (馬鳴). Nieân ñaïi cuûa ngaøi vaøo khoaûng töø naêm 100 ñeán 160.

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Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

Sanskrit ñeå truyeàn baù roäng raõi thaùnh söû cuûa ñöùc Phaät qua taùc phaåm Phaät sôû haïnh taùn,1 trong ñoù ñöôïc ñöa vaøo raát nhieàu kieán thöùc cuûa ñaïo Hindu. Taùc phaåm cuûa ngaøi noåi baät leân vôùi söï nhieät tình coáng hieán, nhöng khoâng coù lyù do naøo ñeå cho raèng ngaøi laø moät ngöôøi theo Ñaïi thöøa, duø hieåu theo baát cöù nghóa chính xaùc naøo cuûa danh töø naøy, vaø nhöõng quan ñieåm cuûa ngaøi cho thaáy coù nhieàu söï ñoàng caûm vôùi quan ñieåm cuûa Ñaïi chuùng boä hôn laø vôùi baát cöù tröôøng phaùi ñaõ ñöôïc bieát naøo khaùc.

Sanskrit poetics to popularize the life of the Buddha by his Buddhacarita, into which he introduced much Hindu learning. His work is marked by great devotional feeling, but there is no reason to assume that Asvaghosa was a Mahayanist in any precise sense of the term and his views show more affinity to those of the Mahāsānghikas than to any other known school.

Ngaøi Theá Thaân cuõng vieát kòch nöõa. Töø thôøi ñaïi cuûa ngaøi trôû ñi, kòch ngheä ñaõ trôû thaønh moät phöông tieän ñöôïc öa chuoäng hôn heát ñeå truyeàn baù roäng raõi nhöõng quan ñieåm cuûa Phaät giaùo.

Asvaghosa also wrote dramas, which have since his time been favourite means of popularizing Buddhist sentiments.

ÔÛ Mieán Ñieän vaø Taây Taïng, moät soá nhöõng caâu chuyeän daøi hôn veà tieàn thaân ñöùc Phaät hieän nay vaãn coøn laø ñeà taøi öa chuoäng trong kòch ngheä, chaúng haïn nhö caâu chuyeän Vessantara noåi tieáng, keå veà moät ngöôøi ñaõ boá thí taát caû nhöõng gì mình coù. Vaøo theá kyû 5, lòch söû ñöùc Phaät ñöôïc bieân soaïn ôû Tích Lan döôùi hình thöùc môû ñaàu cho quyeån truyeän tieàn thaân baèng tieáng Pāli. Thaùnh söû naøy keå veà ñöùc Phaät töø thôøi xa xöa trong quaù khöù, khi ngaøi baét ñaàu phaùt taâm Boà-ñeà quyeát ñònh seõ thaønh Phaät, cho ñeán luùc ngaøi baét ñaàu giaùo hoùa sau khi thaønh ñaïo. Chuùng ta coøn coù quyeån “150 baøi tuïng ca” cuûa Matrceta (khoaûng naêm 150), ca ngôïi coâng ñöùc cao caû vaø saâu xa cuûa ñöùc Phaät. Taäp saùch naøy ñöôïc giaûng daïy cho taát caû taêng só. Muïc ñích nhaém ñeán cuûa theå loaïi vaên chöông naøy laø ñöùc tin chöù khoâng phaûi laø trí hueä.

In Burma and Tibet some of the longer Jatakas, like the famous story of Vessantara, who gave away all he had, are still popular subjects of dramatic performances. In the fifth century a biography of the Buddha from the period aeons ago when he first decided to attain Buddhahood, down to the beginning of His teaching, was compiled in Ceylon, in the form of an to the Pali Jataka book. We also have Matrceta’s (c. 150) “Hymn in 150 Verses”, lauding “the Buddha’s great and profound virtues”, which was taught to all monks. Piety and not wisdom was the aim of this kind of literature.

3. NEPAL VAØ KASHMIR

3. NEPAL AND KASHMIR

Phaät giaùo döôøng nhö ñaõ coù töø laâu ôû Nepal, coù leõ ngay töø luùc khôûi ñaàu cuûa Phaät giaùo. Tuy nhieân, töø theá kyû 7 trôû veà tröôùc haàu nhö chuùng ta khoâng bieát ñöôïc gì nhieàu. Vaø Phaät giaùo Nepal coù nhieàu khaû naêng laø khoâng khaùc bieät ñaùng keå so vôùi Phaät giaùo ôû Baéc AÁn. Trong truyeàn söû Svāyambhupurāna, ngaøi Vaên-thuø ñöôïc daønh cho moät vò trí quan troïng, töøng ñi töø Trung Hoa ñeán Svāyambhu, laøm bieán maát moät hoà nöôùc lôùn luùc ñoù chieám 1 Buddhacarita, ñôøi Baéc Löông ngaøi Ñaøm Voâ Saám dòch sang Haùn vaên vôùi teân laø Phaät sôû haïnh taùn (佛所行讚), goàm 5 quyeån (Ñaïi Taïng Kinh, quyeån 4, trang 1).

In Nepal the religion seems to have existed for a long time, probably from the beginning of Buddhism onwards. Little is, however, known of the period before the seventh century AD, and the Buddhism of Nepal was in all probability not substantially different from that of Northern India. In the legendary history of the Svayambhupurqna a great role is assigned to Manjusri, who came from China to Svayambhu, made the great lake disappear which up to then had filled the valley, founded the city of Kathmandu and placed there as a ruler the king Dharmikara

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caû vuøng thung luõng, vaø laäp neân thaønh phoá Kathmandu, vaø ñaët vua Dharmikara, ngöôøi ñöôïc ngaøi mang theo töø xöù Ñaïi Trung Hoa1 ñeán, laøm ngöôøi cai trò ôû ñoù. Chính ñöùc Phaät ñaõ ñaûn sanh taïi vöôøn Lam-tyø-ni2 ôû Nepal, vaø vua A-duïc ñöôïc bieát laø ñaõ ñeán chieâm baùi thaùnh tích naøy vaø coù döïng leân moät truï ñaù khaéc chöõ. Tröôùc thôøi ñaïi cuûa vua A-duïc, coù leõ Phaät giaùo ñaõ ñöôïc bieát ñeán ôû Kashmir, nhöng chæ ñeán giai ñoaïn caàm quyeàn cuûa vò vua naøy thì Phaät giaùo môùi coù aûnh höôûng, khi Kashmir trôû thaønh moät phaàn laõnh ñòa cuûa oâng. Tyø-kheo Madhyantika ñaõ ñöôïc phaùi ñeán ñeå giaùo hoùa taïi xöù naøy. Vua A-duïc ñaõ xaây 500 tinh xaù cho caùc vò A-la-haùn vaø cuùng döôøng vuøng thung luõng naøy cho Taêng-giaø. Sau ñoù, vaän meänh Phaät giaùo thöôøng xuyeân thay ñoåi theo vôùi chính saùch cuûa moãi nhaø cai trò. Döôùi thôøi vua Kanishka, moät Hoäi ñoàng tröôûng laõo ñöôïc thaønh laäp ñeå san ñònh phaàn kinh ñieån cuûa Nhaát thieát höõu boä. Töø ñoù veà sau, kinh ñieån cuûa phaùi naøy thöôøng ñöôïc vieát baèng tieáng Sanskrit, vaø chæ rieâng söï kieän naøy cuõng ñaõ laøm taêng theâm taàm quan troïng cuûa nhöõng ngöôøi Baø-la-moân veà theo Phaät giaùo, vì chæ coù hoï môùi hoaøn toaøn am hieåu söï phöùc taïp cuûa loaïi ngoân ngöõ naøy. Sau trieàu ñaïi cuûa caùc vua doøng Kushana, moät phaûn öùng cuûa nhöõng ngöôøi ñaïo Hindu baét ñaàu. Döôùi trieàu vua Kinnara, nhieàu töï vieän bò phaù huûy. Caùc vò vua giôø ñaây noùi chung ñeàu theo ñaïo Shiva, vaø vì theá söï baûo trôï töø phía hoaøng gia khoâng coøn nöõa. Trong suoát thôøi kyø thöù hai naøy, Kashmir noåi tieáng laø moät trung taâm nghieân cöùu Phaät giaùo. Gaàn nhö taát caû nhöõng hoïc giaû Phaät giaùo töø thôøi ngaøi Maõ Minh cho ñeán ngaøi Voâ Tröôùc ñeàu ñaõ töøng cö nguï moät thôøi gian naøo ñoù ôû ñaây. Vaøo khoaûng naêm 250, ngaøi Ha-leâ-baït-ma3 soaïn boä Thaønh thaät luaän,4 moät söï toång hôïp lyù thuù caùc quan ñieåm Ñaïi thöøa vaø Tieåu thöøa. Caùc vò taêng Kashmir ñaõ coù ñeán Khotan, Trung Hoa vaø xöù Andhra, vaø chính moät vò taêng Kashmir laø Gunavarman ñaõ giaùo hoùa thaønh coâng ôû xöù Java vaøo hoài ñaàu theá kyû 5. 1 2

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whom he had brought with him from Maha-Clna. The Buddha Himself was born in Nepal, at Lumbini, and Aśoka is known to have visited His birthplace, where he erected an inscribed pillar. Although probably known in Kashmir before Aśoka, Buddhism really made its influence felt only during his rule, when Kashmir formed part of his Empire. The bhikshu Madhyantika was sent to convert the country. Aśoka is said to have built 500 monasteries for the Arhats, and to have given the valley itself as a gift to the Sańgha. Thereafter the fate of Buddhism fluctuated with the attitude of the rulers. Under Kanishka a Council is said to have been held which fixed the Sarvastivadin Canon. From that time onwards the Sarvastivadin writings were normally in Sanskrit, and this fact by itself would increase the relative weight of the Brahmin converts who alone would be fully conversant with the complications of this language. After the Kushana kings a Hindu reaction set in, under King Kinnara many monasteries were destroyed, the rulers in general were Shivaites, and royal patronage was therefore withdrawn. During our period Kashmir gained a high reputation as a centre of Buddhist learning and nearly all the great Buddhist scholars between Asvaghosa and Asanga are reported to have resided there at some time or other. Harivarman about 250 wrote his Satyasiddhi, an interesting synthesis of Mahāyāna and Hlnayana views. Kashmiri monks went to Khotan, China and the Andhra country, and it was a Kashmiri monk, Gunavarman, who converted Java at the beginning of the fifth century. 3

Harivarman, dòch aâm laø Ha-leâ-baït-ma (呵梨跋摩). Ngaøi sanh vaøo khoaûng töø naêm 250 ñeán 350, neân boä Thaønh thaät luaän cuõng khoâng bieát chính xaùc ñöôïc soaïn vaøo naêm naøo. Boä luaän naøy ñaõ ñöôïc ngaøi Cöu-ma-la-thaäp dòch sang Haùn vaên. 4 Satyasiddhi

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4. TÍCH LAN

4. CEYLON

Vaøo ñaàu thôøi kyø naøy, moät cuoäc tranh luaän ñaùng keå nhaát ñaõ dieãn ra veà vieäc so saùnh giöõa trau gioài tri thöùc vaø coâng phu haønh trì thì ñieàu naøo laø quan troïng hôn. Phaùi Dhammakathikas nhaán maïnh vaøo vieäc trau gioài tri thöùc hôn laø söï thöïc haønh nhaän thöùc, vaø ñaõ giaønh ñöôïc phaàn thaéng. Keát quaû laø toaøn boä tính caùch cuûa Phaät giaùo Tích Lan ñaõ thay ñoåi. Caùc vò taêng coù hoïc thöùc raát ñöôïc kính troïng, vaø vì theá taát caû nhöõng taêng só coù trí thoâng minh ñeàu chuyeân taâm vaøo vieäc ñoïc saùch. Vieäc daønh troïn thôøi gian cho coâng phu thieàn ñònh thöôøng chæ ñöôïc thöïc hieän bôûi caùc vò taêng lôùn tuoåi, trí oùc keùm minh maãn vaø theå traïng yeáu ôùt. Khoâng bao laâu, vieäc trau gioài tri thöùc khoâng chæ bao goàm kinh ñieån Phaät giaùo, maø coøn ñöôïc môû roäng vôùi caùc moân hoïc nhö ngoân ngöõ, ngöõ phaùp hoïc, söû hoïc, luaän lyù hoïc, y hoïc v.v... Caùc töï vieän Phaät giaùo trôû thaønh nhöõng trung taâm hoïc thuaät vaø vaên hoùa, vaø coøn coù theâm caû söùc haáp daãn veà maët ngheä thuaät nöõa.

At the beginning of our period a most significant discussion took place about the question whether learning or practice is the more important. The Dhammakathikas who stressed learning rather than practical realization were victorious and as a result the whole character of Ceylonese Buddhism changed. The learned monks were greatly honoured and in consequence all able and intelligent monks applied themselves to booklearning. The full-time practice of meditation was normally taken up by elderly monks of weak intellect and feeble physique. Book learning soon included not only the Tipitaka, but also languages, grammar, history, logic, medicine, etc., the Buddhist monasteries became centres of learning and culture, and they were also made artistically attractive.

Vaøo theá kyû thöù nhaát tröôùc Coâng nguyeân, Saddhatissa, moät vò hoaøng ñeä, ñaõ ñeà nghò caùc vò taêng só thöû neâu teân, duø chæ moät vò thaùnh taêng xöùng ñaùng vôùi söï suøng kính cuûa oâng ta.1 Nhöng maët khaùc, nhöõng baøi luaän giaûi baèng tieáng Tích Lan laïi cho raèng vaøo thôøi ñoù ñaûo quoác naøy coù raát nhieàu vò A-la-haùn, vaø raát laâu sau ñoù vaãn coøn nhieàu vò taêng duy trì neáp soáng nghieâm trì giôùi luaät, khaéc khoå vaø theo ñuoåi veà taâm linh. Theo caùc ngaøi Phaùp Hieån vaø Huyeàn Trang, Tích Lan ñaõ töøng noåi tieáng trong caùc nöôùc theo Phaät giaùo.

In the first century BC Saddhatissa, the king’s brother, had asked the monks to name even one holy man who deserved his veneration. The Sinhalese commentaries, on the other hand, assume that at that time the island was full of Arahants and for a long time afterwards many monks continued to live a strictly disciplined and austere spiritual life. As we know from Fa Hien and Yuan Tsang, Ceylon enjoyed a high reputation in other Buddhist lands.

Trong theá kyû 5, coù ba hoïc giaû ñaõ dòch nhöõng boä luaän giaûi Tích Lan coå xöa ra tieáng Pāli. Taát caû ñeàu ñeán töø Nam AÁn, khoâng phaûi ngöôøi Tích Lan. Ñoù laø caùc vò Phaät-ñaø Ñaït-ña,2 Phaät AÂm vaø Phaùp Hoä.3 Ngöôøi noåi tieáng nhaát trong caû ba laø ngaøi Phaät AÂm, ñaõ trình baøy phaàn khaûo saùt tuyeät vôøi cuûa ngaøi veà giaùo lyù Phaät giaùo trong quyeån luận Thanh tònh đaïo.4 Quyeån luaän naøy laø baûn

During the fifth century three scholars, all non-Ceylon-ese from Southern India, translated the old Sinhalese commentaries into Pali. They were Buddhadatta, Buddha-ghosa and Dhammapala. The most famous of them, Buddhaghosa, gave in his “Path to Purity” (yisuddhi-magga) a splendid survey of Buddhist doctrine. The book is a compendium of the Tipitaka,

Nghóa laø oâng ta khoâng coøn tìm thaáy vò thaùnh giaû naøo trong haøng nguõ chö taêng nöõa, maø cho raèng chæ coù toaøn nhöõng hoïc giaû chaïy theo tri thöùc. 2 Buddhadatta, Haùn dòch aâm laø Phaät-ñaø Ñaït-ña (佛陀達多).

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3 4

Dhammapala, dòch nghóa laø Phaùp Hoä (法護). Visuddhimagga

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A short history of Buddhism

toång quan veà Tam taïng kinh ñieån, vaø laø moät trong nhöõng kieät taùc vó ñaïi cuûa neàn vaên chöông Phaät giaùo, trong ñoù trình baøy moät caùch xaùc thöïc, roõ raøng vaø chi tieát nhöõng phöông phaùp thöïc haønh thieàn quaùn chính yeáu cuûa caùc vò taêng Du-giaø. Vaøo cuoái theá kyû 5, moät hoäi ñoàng ñaõ xem xeùt san ñònh laïi caùc baûn kinh ñieån moät laàn nöõa. Töø ñoù trôû veà sau, giaùo lyù vaø truyeàn thoáng cuûa Thöôïng toïa boä ñaõ ñöôïc coá ñònh döùt khoaùt. Vaø khoaûng naêm 400, kinh ñieån baèng tieáng Pāli laàn ñaàu tieân ñöôïc dòch sang tieáng Tích Lan. Ñeå duy trì söùc soáng cuûa mình, Phaät giaùo Tích Lan tieáp tuïc phuï thuoäc vaøo moái quan heä vôùi AÁn Ñoä. Nhöng tính chaát cuûa moái quan heä naøy ñaõ thay ñoåi vaøo thôøi kyø thöù hai. Söï lieân laïc vôùi caùc caûng ôû mieàn Taây ñaõ bò baõi boû, vaø ñöôïc thöïc hieän qua caùc caûng ôû cöûa soâng Haèng. Nhö vaäy, aûnh höôûng cuûa caùc vò taêng vuøng Makieät-ñaø1 töï nhieân ñöôïc boäc loä. Trong thôøi kyø naøy coù nhieàu söï baát hoøa vaø maâu thuaãn giöõa hai töï vieän chính: Mahā-viharā2 vaø Abhayagiri-viharā.3 Abhayagiri-viharā ñöôïc thaønh laäp töø naêm 24 tröôùc Coâng nguyeân. Chö taêng ôû ñaây coù moät thaùi ñoä côûi môû hôn ñoái vôùi cö só, tieáp xuùc nhieàu hôn vôùi AÁn Ñoä, coù quan ñieåm töï do, ñoùn nhaän nhöõng tö töôûng môùi töø beân ngoaøi vaø caáp tieán hôn so vôùi nhöõng vò taêng baûo thuû ôû Mahā-viharā. Ngay sau khi thaønh laäp, hoï tieáp nhaän caùc vò taêng thuoäc phaùi Ñoäc töû boä töø AÁn Ñoä sang. Veà sau, hoï coøn theâm vaøo giaùo lyù caên baûn cuûa Thöôïng toïa boä nhöõng phaàn môû roäng goàm giaùo lyù vaø kinh ñieån Ñaïi thöøa. Vaøo cuoái theá kyû 3, chuùng ta nghe noùi ñeán moät tröôøng phaùi môùi xuaát phaùt töø phaùi naøy, goïi laø Phöông ñaúng boä.4 Ñaây coù leõ laø moät hình thöùc cuûa Ñaïi thöøa. Vaø vaøo theá kyû 4, hoï tieáp nhaän moät vò ni sư Ñaïi thöøa AÁn Ñoä laø Tăng-giaø-maät-ña,5 thoâng thaïo pheùp tröø taø, ñöôïc nhaø vua uûng 1

Magadha Haùn dòch laø Ñaïi Töï (大寺), moät trong hai töï vieän lôùn nhaát ôû Tích Lan, ñaõ töøng ñöôïc ngaøi Phaùp Hieån ñeán vieáng thaêm vaøo khoaûng naêm 400 vaø ghi nhaän laø luùc ñoù coù chöøng 3000 taêng só. 3 Haùn dòch laø Voâ UÙy Töï (無畏寺), vì töï vieän naøy ñaët treân ngoïn nuùi Voâ UÙy, laø moät trong nhöõng trung taâm Phaät giaùo lôùn cuûa Tích Lan. 4 Vaipulyavada 2

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and one of the great masterpieces of Buddhist literature which describes authoritatively, lucidly and in great detail the principal meditational practices of the Buddhist Yogin. At the end of the fifth century also a council revised the text of the Tipitaka. From this time onwards the doctrine and tradition of the Theravadins has been definitely fixed. And about 400 the Pali Suttas had for the first time been translated into Sinhalese. For its vitality the Buddhism of Ceylon continued to depend on its contact with India, but the nature of this contact had altered in the second period. The commu-nications with the Western ports were now abandoned, and communications went through the ports at the mouth of the Ganges. In this way the influence of the monks of Magadha, particularly the Mulasar-vastivadins, made itself felt. There was during this period much discord and controversy between the two principal monasteries, the Mahavihara and the Abhayagirivihara, the latter having been founded in 24 BC. The Abhayagiri monks had a more democratic attitude to laymen, had more contact with India, were liberal in their views, welcomed new ideas from abroad, and were more progressive than the conservative Mahavihara monks. Soon after their foundation they received Vatslputriya monks from India. Later on they added to the basic Theravada a superstructure of Mahāyāna doctrines and scriptures. At the end of the third century we hear of a new school among them, called Vaitulyavada. This was probably a form of Mahāyāna, and in the fourth century Sańghamitra, an Indian Mahayanist “versed in the exorcism of spirits”, won the support of the king, and the 5

Saṃghamittā, con gaùi vua A-duïc. Ni sö ñeán Tích Lan vaø kieán laäp Ni chuùng ñaàu tieân ôû nöôùc naøy.

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hoä, vaø töï vieän Mahā-viharā bò ñoùng cöûa moät thôøi gian. Nhöng khoâng bao laâu sau, Tăng-giaø-maät-ña bò moät ngöôøi thôï moäc gieát cheát, vaø sau naêm 362 Mahā-viharā baét ñaàu hoaït ñoäng trôû laïi. Vaøo naêm 371, moät chieác raêng haøm traùi cuûa ñöùc Phaät ñöôïc mang ñeán Tích Lan töø vuøng Dantapura ôû Kalinga, vaø phaàn xaù-lôïi quyù giaù naøy ñöôïc giao cho Abhayagiri-viharā, vì khuynh höôùng Ñaïi thöøa ôû ñaây saün loøng hôn trong vieäc khuyeán khích söï suøng baùi. Vaøo ñaàu theá kyû 5, Ngaøi Phaùp Hieån tính ñöôïc coù 60.000 vò taêng ôû Tích Lan. Trong soá ñoù coù 5.000 vò thuoäc Abhayagiri-viharā vaø 3.000 vò thuoäc Mahā-viharā. Khuynh höôùng chính thoáng cuûa Tích Lan ñaõ thaønh coâng trong vieäc ngaên chaën hoaøn toaøn caùc taùc phaåm vaên chöông cuûa nhöõng ngöôøi ôû Abhayagiri-viharā, nhöng moät trong nhöõng taùc phaåm cuûa hoï ñöôïc giöõ laïi trong baûn dòch tieáng Trung Hoa. Ñoù laø cuoán Giaûi thoaùt ñaïo luaän cuûa ngaøi Öuba-ñeå-sa,1 coù cuøng chuû ñeà nhö cuoán Thanh tònh ñaïo luaän cuûa ngaøi Phaät AÂm vaø ñaõ ñöôïc vieát ra tröôùc ñoù. Thaät laï luøng khi coù theå nhaän ra laø quyeån saùch aáy khoâng baét nguoàn töø baát cöù neàn taûng naøo trong giaùo lyù cuûa Thöôïng toïa boä.

Mahavihara was closed for a time. But Sańghamitra was soon killed by a carpenter, and after 362 the Mahavihara began to function again. At this time, in AD 371, the left eye tooth of the Buddha was brought to Ceylon from Dantapura in Kalinga, and this precious relic was entrusted to the Abhayagiri monastery which because of its Mahāyāna leanings was more willing to encourage bhaktic piety. In the beginning of the fifth century FaHien counted 60,000 monks in Ceylon, of whom 5,000 belonged to the Abhayagiri, and 3,000 to the Mahavihara. The Ceylonese orthodoxy has succeeded in suppressing the entire literature of the Abhayagirivadins, but one of their works is preserved in a Chinese translation. It is Upatissa’s Vimut-timagga, which has the same theme as Buddhaghosa’s “Path to Purity”, and was written before his time. It is curious to observe that it does not depart from Theravadin doctrines on any fundamental issues.

5. SÖÏ MÔÛ ROÄNG SANG ÑAÏI AÙ

5. EXPANSION INTO GREATER ASIA

Phaûi maát naêm theá kyû troâi qua tröôùc khi Phaät giaùo ñöôïc thaám nhuaàn khaép tieåu luïc ñòa AÁn Ñoä, töông ñöông vôùi khoaûng thôøi gian La Maõ chinh phuïc baùn ñaûo YÙ. Khoaûng 500 naêm sau khi Phaät nhaäp Nieát-baøn, Phaät giaùo ñaõ coù theå baét ñaàu môû roäng sang Ñaïi AÙ. Gandhara, thuoäc vuøng taây baéc AÁn Ñoä, ñöôïc xem laø caùi noâi cuûa Phaät giaùo theá giôùi. Chính töø nôi ñaây, caùc vò taêng só trong maøu y vaøng ñaõ daàn daàn thaâm nhaäp vaøo Trung AÙ, vaø töø ñoù tieán vaøo Trung Hoa roài tieán xa hôn nöõa. Vaø boä phaùi Phaät giaùo phaùt trieån ñöôïc beân ngoaøi AÁn Ñoä chuû yeáu chính laø Ñaïi thöøa. Chuùng ta caàn giaûi thích ñoâi chuùt veà vieäc taïi sao nhöõng ngöôøi Ñaïi thöøa ñaõ thaønh coâng hôn nhieàu trong vieäc truyeàn baù Phaät giaùo ra nöôùc ngoaøi so vôùi Tieåu thöøa. Khoâng phaûi laø nhöõng ngöôøi Tieåu thöøa thieáu nhieät tình trong vieäc truyeàn ñaïo, nhöng khieám khuyeát chính cuûa hoï laø söï cöùng nhaéc, thieáu linh hoaït, uyeån chuyeån. Trong khi ñoù, nhöõng ngöôøi Ñaïi thöøa phoùng khoaùng hôn 1

Upatissa

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Five whole centuries had to elapse before Buddhism had penetrated the Indian subcontinent, about as long as it took Rome to conquer the Italian peninsula. Now, about 500 years after the Buddha’s Niryana, His religion could begin to expand into Greater Asia. Gandhara, in the North-West of India, was the birthplace of Buddhism as a world religion. It was from here that the monks in the saffron robe gradually filtered into Central Asia, and from there into China, and further on. And it was chiefly the Mahāyāna form of Buddhism which took root outside India. We must give some explanation why the Mahayanists were so much more effective missionaries than the Hinayanists. It was not that the latter were deficient in missionary zeal, but they were handicapped by the fact that they were rather inflexible literalists, whereas the Mahāyāna claimed much 145

Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

nhieàu trong vieäc giaûng giaûi kinh vaên. Ñieàu naøy ñuùng caû veà maët giôùi luaät cuõng nhö veà giaùo lyù. Chaúng haïn nhö, neáu giôùi khoâng aên thòt ñöôïc hieåu theo moät caùch nghieâm ngaët, thì nhöõng ngöôøi daân du muïc seõ khoâng theå tieáp nhaän ñöôïc nhöõng xoa dòu töø Phaät phaùp, bôûi vì hoï khoâng theå giöõ giôùi luaät ñöôïc moät caùch nghieâm ngaët. Caùc vò taêng Ñaïi thöøa ñaõ nhanh choùng tìm caùch traùnh neù ñi nhöõng ñieàu luaät khoâng theå thöïc hieän nhö theá, baèng caùch dieãn giaûi laïi cho thích hôïp vôùi hoaøn caûnh. Ñieàu ñaëc bieät quan troïng trong söï thaønh coâng cuûa hoï coøn laø thaùi ñoä ñoái vôùi ñieàu luaät caám taêng só laøm coâng vieäc chöõa beänh. Lòch söû caùc ñoaøn truyeàn giaùo cuûa Thieân Chuùa giaùo trong nhöõng theá kyû vöøa qua ñaõ chöùng toû raèng, tröø ra vieäc söû duïng baïo löïc, thì caùc ñoaøn truyeàn giaùo coù keát hôïp vieäc trò beänh ñaõ ñaït ñöôïc nhieàu keát quaû giaùo hoùa hôn heát. Baïo löïc laø phöông thöùc maø nhöõng ngöôøi Phaät giaùo cheâ boû khoâng duøng ñeán, nhöng nhöõng phöông thöùc trò beänh baèng dao moå, thaûo döôïc, thuoác nöôùc... ñaõ giuùp nhöõng ngöôøi Ñaïi thöøa ñeán ñöôïc vôùi moïi nhaø, ngheøo heøn cuõng nhö giaøu coù. Hoï töï nhuû vôùi mình raèng, loøng töø bi vaø traùch nhieäm ñoái vôùi ñoàng loaïi coù giaù trò hôn laø moät ñieàu luaät toát ñeïp nhöng duøng khoâng ñuùng choã. Hoï daønh troïn nhieät tình cho vieäc nghieân cöùu vaø thöïc haønh y hoïc. Moân hoïc naøy ñaõ trôû thaønh moät phaàn trong chöông trình ñaøo taïo chính thöùc, chaúng haïn nhö ôû ñaïi hoïc Nālanda, vaø khaép caùc töï vieän ôû Taây Taïng. Thaùi ñoä côûi môû töông töï nhö vaäy cuõng ñöôïc aùp duïng ñoái vôùi caùc vaán ñeà giaùo lyù. Söï giaûm thieåu nhöõng khaùc bieät giöõa quan ñieåm Phaät giaùo vôùi caùc quan ñieåm khoâng thuoäc Phaät giaùo raát ñöôïc coi troïng, nhaèm coù theå tieáp thu toái ña nhöõng quan ñieåm ñaõ coù töø tröôùc cuûa nhöõng ngöôøi môùi tin theo Phaät giaùo, cho duø ñoù laø nhöõng quan ñieåm cuûa Laõo giaùo, Taây Taïng giaùo, Thaàn giaùo, Caûnh giaùo hay pheùp tröø taø... Söï môû roäng naøy dó nhieân coù nguy cô trôû thaønh söï buoâng thaû veà giôùi luaät vaø nhöõng suy dieãn tuøy tieän veà giaùo lyù. Vaø noùi chung, nhöõng cheäch höôùng veà giaùo lyù coù theå ñöôïc ngaên ngöøa hieäu quaû hôn laø söï buoâng thaû veà giôùi luaät. Nhöõng tröôùc taùc giaù trò cuûa Ñaïi thöøa ñeàu chöùa ñöïng raát ít, neáu coù, nhöõng gì coù theå xem laø khoâng chính thoáng ñoái vôùi moät tín ñoà Phaät giaùo khaùch quan. Coù moät yeáu toá ñaõ giôùi haïn vaø kieåm soaùt söï môû roäng “tuøy duyeân” cuûa caùc taùc giaû, ñoù laø vieäc tröôùc khi vieát saùch, taâm yù

greater freedom in interpreting the letter of the Scriptures. This applied to both monastic rules and doctrinal propositions. For instance, if the rules about eating meat are strictly interpreted, nomadic populations will remain without the consolations of the Dharma, because among them the Vinaya rules cannot be strictly observed. Mahāyāna monks quickly found a way round unworkable rules, and reinter-preted them to fit the circumstances. Of particular importance for the success of their missionary enterprises was their attitude to the Vinaya rule which forbids monks to practise medicine. The history of Christian missions in recent centuries shows that, violence apart, the medical missionaries effected more conversions than anyone else. The sword was the one method which the Buddhists disdained to use, but the scalpel, the herb and the potion opened to the Mahayanists the houses of the poor and rich alike. They convinced themselves that compassion and their responsibilities to their fellow-men counted for more than a well-meant monastic rule and they zealously gave themselves over to the study and practice of medicine, which formed part of the curriculum for instance at Nālandā University and also at the monastic institutions of Tibet.

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The same latitudinarianism was practised with regard to doctrinal questions. Great care was taken to minimize the differences between Buddhist and non-Buddhist opinions, to absorb as much of the pre-existing views of their converts as was possible, be they Taoist, Bon, Shinto, Manichean or shamanis-tic. This latitudinarianism is of course in danger of lapsing into laxity in the moral and into arbitrary conjectures in the doctrinal field. The latter danger was on the whole more effectively avoided than the former and the best Mahāyāna literature contains little, if anything, that to any fair-minded Buddhist can appear as positively unorthodox. There was one factor which limited and restrained the “skill in means” of these

Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

hoï ñaõ ñöôïc hun ñuùc vaø uoán naén bôûi nhieàu naêm tu taäp thieàn ñònh theo caùc khuynh höôùng truyeàn thoáng. Trung Hoa laø nöôùc lôùn ñaàu tieân ñöôïc tö töôûng Phaät giaùo thaâm nhaäp vaøo. Cuõng gioáng nhö ôû Nhaät Baûn vaø Taây Taïng sau naøy, Phaät giaùo traûi qua naêm giai ñoaïn maø chuùng ta seõ saép xeáp caùc tö lieäu döïa theo ñoù. 1. Môû ñaàu laø thôøi kyø cuûng coá neàn taûng, ñöôïc ñaùnh daáu baèng söï phieân dòch caùc kinh caên baûn. 2. Thôøi kyø naøy ñöôïc noái tieáp bôûi moät coá gaéng sô khôûi nhaèm ñi ñeán choã thích hôïp vôùi thöïc tieãn. Phaät giaùo khoâng phaûi truyeàn baù vaøo nhöõng nôi chöa coù choã döïa tinh thaàn, maø thaät ra laø phaûi ñoái maët khaép nôi vôùi nhöõng con ngöôøi ñaõ hun ñuùc töø nhöõng truyeàn thoáng tröôùc ñoù, nhö Laõo giaùo ôû Trung Hoa, Thaàn giaùo ôû Nhaät, Taây Taïng giaùo1 ôû Taây Taïng... 3. Giai ñoaïn thöù ba ñöôïc ñaùnh daáu bôûi moät söï nhaän hieåu thuaàn thuïc hôn veà giaùo lyù, nhöng phaàn lôùn vaãn coøn phuï thuoäc nhieàu vaøo nhöõng maãu möïc cuûa AÁn Ñoä. Chaúng haïn nhö, ôû Trung Hoa ñieàu naøy ñöôïc bieåu loä qua vieäc nhöõng baûn chuù giaûi ña daïng, thöôøng laø ngaén goïn, hoaëc nhöõng boä luaän giaûng veà giaùo lyù, ñöôïc nguïy taïo nhö nhöõng baûn dòch töø tieáng Sanskrit. Coù hai trong soá nhöõng tröôøng hôïp naøy ñöôïc nhieàu ngöôøi bieát ñeán. Moät laø vaên bản Khôûi tín luaän,2 ñöôïc cho laø cuûa ngaøi Maõ Minh nhöng khoâng ñuùng. Hai laø moät baûn vaên goïi laø “Kinh Thuû Laêng Nghieâm”,3 ñöôïc cho laø ñaõ mang töø ñaïi hoïc Nālandā veà, nhöng thaät ra laø vieát ôû Trung Hoa. 4. Giai ñoaïn thöù tö, coù leõ laø giai ñoaïn quan troïng nhaát vaø thöôøng phaûi maát khoaûng 600 naêm ñeå ñaït ñeán. Nhöõng

men, and that was the fact that before they wrote their books their minds had been remoulded and disciplined by many years of meditation on traditional lines. China was the first large country to be penetrated by Buddhist thought. As in Japan and Tibet later on, Buddhism went through five stages, which will act as our guides for the arrangement of our material. 1. There was first a period of consolidation, marked by translations of the basic texts. 2. This was followed by a preliminary attempt at coming to terms with the material. Buddhism did not move into a spiritual vacuum, but everywhere it encountered people formed by some previous tradition - by Taoism and Confucianism in China, Shinto in Japan, Bon in Tibet. 3. After this, the next, or third phase, is marked by a more mature assimilation of the doctrine, but still largely in dependence on Indian models. In China, for instance, this took the form of either numerous, generally brief, commentaries, or of original doctrinal treatises which were passed off as translations from the Sanskrit. Two of these are very well known. The one is the famous “Awakening of Faith”, wrongly attributed to Asvaghosa, and the other the so-called Surangama Sutra, said to have been brought from Nālandā, but actually written in China by Fang Jong. 4. We now come to the fourth phase, which is perhaps the most important of all and normally took 600 years to

Töùc laø ñaïo Bon, thònh haønh ôû Taây Taïng töø tröôùc khi Phaät giaùo ñöôïc truyeàn vaøo, raát coù theå ban ñaàu laø moät hình thöùc ñoàng boùng keøm theo trò beänh, tröø taø... Nhöõng ngöôøi theo toân giaùo naøy tin raèng toân giaùo cuûa hoï ñaõ ñöôïc laäp neân töø raát laâu veà tröôùc, bôûi moät vò coù teân laø Shenrab Mibo. Khi Phaät giaùo ñöôïc truyeàn vaøo Taây Taïng, hoï ñaõ phaûn öùng baèng caùch caûi caùch laïi toân giaùo cuûa hoï. Keát quaû laø haàu heát caùc nghi leã cuõng nhö kinh vaên cuûa hoï ngaøy nay ñeàu laø nhöõng hình thöùc sao cheùp töø Phaät giaùo. Tröôùc naêm 1959, coù khoaûng 350 tu vieän cuûa ñaïo naøy ôû Taây Taïng.

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Thöôøng ñöôïc bieát vôùi teân laø Ñaïi thöøa khôûi tín luaän, ñöôïc cho laø do Boà Taùt Maõ Minh soaïn, vaø do ngaøi Chaân Ñeá dòch sang Haùn vaên vaøo ñôøi nhaø Löông. Nguyeân baûn Phaïn ngöõ ñaõ bò thaát laïc vaøo thôøi ngaøi Huyeàn Trang, vaø ñöôïc ngaøi khoâi phuïc töø baûn dòch chöõ Haùn. Coù leõ do ñieàu naøy maø taùc giaû ñöa ra nhaän xeùt naøy. Khoâng hieåu taùc giaû ñeà caäp ñeán baûn vaên naøo, nhöng chaéc chaén khoâng phaûi laø baûn kinh Thuû Laêng Nghieâm ñang löu haønh hieän nay, vì baûn naøy do ngaøi Baùt-thích-maät-ñeá dòch töø Phaïn ngöõ vaøo ñôøi nhaø Ñöôøng.

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Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

hình thöùc Phaät giaùo Trung Hoa, Phaät giaùo Nhaät Baûn vaø Phaät giaùo Taây Taïng ñaõ coù theå toàn taïi ñoäc laäp,1 khoâng coøn xung ñoät vôùi daân toäc tính cuûa moãi nöôùc, bieåu hieän ôû Trung Hoa laø Thieàn toâng, ôû Nhaät Baûn laø thôøi kyø Lieâm Thöông,2 vaø ôû Taây Taïng laø Hoàng phaùi,3 Hoaøng phaùi.4 5. Giai ñoaïn thöù naêm laø giai ñoaïn suy yeáu daàn. Nhö chuùng ta ñaõ thaáy, giai ñoaïn ñaàu hoaøn toaøn chæ laø moät söï sao cheùp nguyeân baûn töø Phaät giaùo AÁn Ñoä5 sang baûn ñòa. Giai ñoaïn thöù hai, Phaät giaùo baûn ñòa baét ñaàu söï toàn taïi ñoäc laäp cuûa mình, ñaõ phaàn naøo ñoù coù tính chaát töï quyeát, gioáng nhö ñöùa treû leân hai. Giai ñoaïn thöù ba, Phaät giaùo baûn ñòa ñaït ñeán moät möùc ñoä ñoäc laäp thaät söï, tuy vaäy khoâng phaûi laø hoaøn toaøn töï quyeát, gioáng nhö trong tuoåi thieáu nieân. Giai ñoaïn thöù tö laø khi baûn naêng daân toäc cuoái cuøng ñaõ coù theå töï hoøa nhaäp ñeå cuøng toàn taïi.6 Ñöùa treû ñaõ tröôûng thaønh. Giai ñoaïn saùng taïo naøy cuûa Phaät giaùo ñöôïc keùo daøi trong nhieàu theá kyû, nhö thôøi kyø sau khi tröôûng thaønh cuûa moät con ngöôøi. Vaø gioáng nhö tuoåi giaø phaûi ñeán sau thôøi kyø ñaõ tröôûng thaønh, naêng löïc saùng taïo cuûa Phaät giaùo môø nhaït daàn ñi trong giai ñoaïn thöù naêm. 6. TRUNG AÙ

Ñöôïc truyeàn ñi töø vöông quoác Bactria7 thuoäc AÁn-Hy, vaøo theá kyû 2 tröôùc Coâng nguyeân Phaät giaùo ñaõ ñöôïc thieát laäp vöõng vaøng taïi Trung AÙ. Nhöõng vuøng Khotan, Kuchan, Turfan ... vaøo luùc ñoù laø nhöõng trung taâm vaên hoùa phaùt trieån maïnh, nhôø nhöõng tuyeán ñöôøng ñi laïi ngang qua ñoù. Vieäc thieát laäp cuûa Phaät giaùo treân nhöõng con ñöôøng tô luïa lôùn naøy laø moät söï kieän coù taàm quan troïng quyeát ñònh cho söï phaùt trieån töông lai ôû vuøng Ñoâng AÙ.

reach. A truly Chinese, Japanese and Tibetan Buddhism, which no longer did violence to the national character, asserted itself in China with the Ch’an sect, in Japan in the Kamakura period, in Tibet with the Kahgyudpas and Gelugpas. 5. Then finally there is the period of decay. The first phase, as we saw, was one of bare copying; in the second one asserted one’s independence, some-what wilfully, as a child in its second year; in the third one attained some true independence, without however quite daring to, as in adolescence; in the fourth phase the native genius at last fully asserted itself. This child had grown up. The creative manhood of Buddhism lasted for several centuries. Manhood is followed by old age, and after a time the creative powers of Buddhism waned. 6. CENTRAL ASIA

Spreading from the Indo-Greek Bactrian kingdoms, Buddhism had by the second century BC been well established in Central Asia. Khotan, Kucha, Turfan, etc., were at that time flourishing centres of culture, owing to the caravan routes which went through them. The establishment of Buddhism on the great silk routes was an event of decisive importance for its future propagation in Eastern Asia.

Nghóa laø khoâng coøn chòu nhieàu aûnh höôûng phuï thuoäc vaøo AÁn Ñoä. Kamakura, Haùn dòch aâm laø Lieâm Thöông (鐮倉), moät giai ñoaïn trong lòch söû Nhaät Baûn, keùo daøi töø khoaûng naêm 1192 cho ñeán naêm 1333. 3 Kagyupas, tieáng Taây Taïng laø Bka’-brgyud-pa, Haùn dòch aâm laø Ca-nhó-cö phaùi, töùc Hoàng y phaùi hay Hoàng phaùi, moät trong caùc boä phaùi Phaät giaùo lôùn nhaát ôû Taây Taïng. 4 Gelugpa, tieáng Taây Taïng laø Dge-lugs-pa, Haùn dòch aâm laø Caùch-loã phaùi (格魯派), hay Hoaøng phaùi, boä phaùi Phaät giaùo lôùn ôû Taây Taïng, caùc taêng só cuûa

phaùi naøy ñeàu duøng muõ vaø y phuïc maøu vaøng, khaùc vôùi Hoàng phaùi duøng maøu ñoû. Phaùi naøy ñöôïc moät vò taêng Taây Taïng laø Toâng Khaùch Ba (Tsong-kha-pa) thaønh laäp vaøo khoaûng cuoái theá kyû 14, nhö moät hình thöùc caûi caùch raát maïnh meõ cuûa Phaät giaùo Taây Taïng. Naêm 1578, ngöôøi ñöùng ñaàu phaùi naøy laø Sonam Gyatso ñöôïc nhaän danh hieäu Ñaït-lai Laït-ma vaø phaùi naøy daàn daàn chieám öu theá tuyeät ñoái ôû Taây Taïng cho ñeán naêm 1950. 5 Nghóa laø raäp khuoân moät caùch hoaøn toaøn, khoâng coù baát cöù söï söûa ñoåi naøo. 6 Phaät giaùo trong giai ñoaïn naøy hoøa nhaäp hoaøn toaøn vôùi neàn vaên hoùa daân toäc cuûa baûn ñòa, khoâng coøn baát cöù maâu thuaãn, xung ñoät naøo. 7 Quoác gia trong thôøi coå, toïa laïc ôû khoaûng giöõa daõy nuùi Hindu Kush vaø doøng soâng Oxus (nay laø Damu Arya), ngaøy nay ñöôïc bieát laø thuoäc veà caùc nöôùc Afghanistan, Uzbekistan, vaø Tajikistan. Thuû ñoâ nöôùc naøy thôøi ñoù laø Bactra (ngaøy nay laø Wazirabad thuoäc mieàn baéc cuûa Afghanistan).

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Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

Trong soá caùc boä phaùi, Nhaát thieát höõu boä vaø Ñaïi thöøa toû ra maïnh meõ nhaát. Hoï ñaõ mang theo nhöõng kinh ñieån cuûa boä phaùi mình, vaø trong theá kyû 20 nhieàu ngöôøi chaâu AÂu ñaõ coù nhöõng phaùt hieän quyù giaù trong vuøng sa maïc xöù Turkestan, tìm thaáy nhöõng kinh saùch cuûa AÁn Ñoä ñöôïc ñöa vaøo Trung AÙ vaø caû nhöõng baûn dòch kinh ñieån ra caùc thoå ngöõ nhö tieáng Khang Cö,1 tieáng Khotan, hay tieáng Kucha. Chuùng ta cuõng coù ñöôïc nhieàu taùc phaåm vieát ra taïi Kucha baèng tieáng ñòa phöông, phoûng theo loái vieát cuûa caùc kinh ñieån tieáng Sanskrit cuûa AÁn Ñoä, nhöng khoâng coù taùc phaåm nguyeân baûn thöïc söï naøo coù nguoàn goác taïi choã ñöôïc truyeàn laïi ñeán nay. Theâm vaøo ñoù, nhöõng cuoäc tìm kieám naøy, ñöôïc thöïc hieän trong khoaûng töø naêm 1900 ñeán naêm 1915, coøn khaùm phaù ra moät neàn ngheä thuaät Phaät giaùo cöïc kyø ña daïng, cho thaáy moät söï pha troän kyø laï giöõa nhöõng aûnh höôûng Phaät giaùo Hy Laïp töø mieàn Gandhara2 vôùi nhöõng aûnh höôûng khaùc töø ñeá quoác La Maõ, töø ngheä thuaät Ba Tö vaø ngheä thuaät Trung Hoa. Thoâng qua ñoù, ngheä thuaät Phaät giaùo mang tính chaát Hy Laïp cuûa vuøng Gandhara ñaõ truyeàn sang Trung Hoa, hình thaønh ngheä thuaät ñôøi Nguïy theá kyû 5. Trong nhöõng trung taâm thöông maïi noái lieàn caùc luïc ñòa theo kieåu ña quoác gia naøy, Phaät giaùo laàn ñaàu tieân ñaõ tieáp caän vôùi nhöõng aûnh höôûng toân giaùo môùi. Phaät giaùo khoâng nhöõng gaëp Thieân Chuùa giaùo ôû Trung Hoa döôùi hình thöùc Caûnh giaùo,3 maø coøn gaëp nhöõng ngöôøi theo giaùo phaùi Mani4 voán hoaït ñoäng raát tích cöïc trong vuøng ñoù, nhaát laø vôùi ngöôøi Sogdian. Giaùo phaùi naøy vaãn coøn löu laïi moät vaøi daáu tích trong nhöõng giaùo lyù Phaät giaùo ôû nôi ñaây.

Among the schools, the Sarvastivada and Mahāyāna were most strongly represented. They brought their Scriptures with them and in the course of the twentieth century European travellers have made many invaluable finds in the sands of Turkestan, which yielded both Indian books imported into Central Asia and translations of the Scriptures into the local languages, such as Sogdian, Khotanese, Kuchean, etc. We have also, in Kuchean, several works written in Kucha itself, imitating the Buddhist Sanskrit writings of India, but no really original works of local origin have come down to us. In addition these expeditions, carried out between 1900 and 1915, have brought to light a highly eclectic Buddhist art which offers a curious blend of Greco-Buddhist influences from Gandhara with others from the Roman Empire, and from ArsacoSassanid and Chinese Art. Through it the Greco-Buddhist art spread to China, where it led to the Wei art of the fifth century. In these cosmopolitan centres of intercontinental trade Buddhism was exposed to new religious influences which it had not encountered so far. It not only met with Christianity in its Nestorian form, but also with the Manicheans who were very active in that area, particularly among the Sogdians, and who left some traces on the Buddhist doctrines evolved there.

Sogdian Moät ñòa danh coå, nay thuoäc vuøng taây baéc Pakistan. Gandhara naèm ngay veà phía ñoâng cuûa ñeøo Khyber, voán laø moät con ñöôøng chính ñöôïc caùc ñoäi quaân nöôùc ngoaøi söû duïng ñeå baêng qua vuøng nuùi vaø taán coâng vaøo AÁn Ñoä töø phía taây. Ñaây laø moät trong caùc trung taâm vaên hoùa vaø thöông maïi chính ñöôïc söû duïng bôûi ngöôøi Hy Laïp, AÁn Ñoä vaø Ba Tö, phaùt trieån raát maïnh töø theá kyû 6 tröôùc Coâng nguyeân cho ñeán theá kyû 5. 3 Nestorius, moät chi phaùi cuûa Thieân chuùa giaùo, goïi teân theo ngöôøi thaønh laäp laø

moät vò giaùm muïc cuûa Constantinople. Cuõng ñöôïc ngöôøi Trung Hoa goïi theo teân phieân aâm laø giaùo phaùi Nhieáp-tö-thaùc-lyù (聶斯托里). Ñôøi nhaø Ñöôøng, khoaûng naêm 635 ñöôïc moät nhoùm giaùo só do oâng A-la-baûn (阿羅本) daãn ñaàu truyeàn töø Ba Tö vaøo Trung Hoa. Vua Ñöôøng Thaùi Toâng kính troïng, laäp giaùo ñöôøng ôû kinh ñoâ cho ôû, goïi laø Ba Tö Töï, sau ñoåi laø Ñaïi Taàn Töï. Ban ñaàu chæ coù 21 giaùo só ôû ñaây, nhöng khoâng bao laâu ñaõ lan truyeàn khaép nöôùc. 4 Hay Manichaeism, ñöôïc goïi teân theo vò thaùnh ngöôøi Ba Tö ñaõ saùng laäp ra laø Mani, nieân ñaïi vaøo khoaûng naêm 216 ñeán 76 tröôùc Coâng nguyeân. Toân giaùo naøy ñaõ dieät vong vaøo khoaûng theá kyû 16.

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Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

Söï phaùt trieån cuûa Phaät giaùo 500 400 Nepal

THE DEVELOPMENT OF BUDDHISM

Ấn Độ

300 200 Kashmir Tích Lan

Trung Á

100

Trung Quốc

500 400 Nepal

100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900

300 200 Kashmir Ceylon Java Sumatra Nhật Bản Thái Lan Miến

Điện

500 600 700 800 900

Mông Cổ

1600

1700 1800 1900

Nhöõng con ñöôøng tô luïa thôøi coå

China

100 200 300 400

Tây Tạng

154

Central Asia

100

Triều Tiên

1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500

India

Korea Java Sumatra Japan Siam

Tibet

Burma

1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700

Mongolia

1800 1900

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Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

7. TRUNG HOA

7. CHINA

Töø Trung AÙ, Phaät giaùo ñöôïc truyeàn vaøo Trung Hoa moät caùch töï nhieân, vì Trung Hoa ñaõ chinh phuïc vuøng naøy trong theá kyû thöù nhaát tröôùc Coâng nguyeân, vaø chieám giöõ cho ñeán cuoái ñôøi Haùn, vaøo naêm 220. Ñieåm khôûi ñaàu ñöôïc cho laø trong khoaûng thôøi gian töø naêm 70 ñeán 50 tröôùc Coâng nguyeân, vaø Phaät giaùo döôùi ñôøi nhaø Haùn daàn daàn ñöôïc truyeàn roäng ra caùc nôi. Nhöng thoaït ñaàu Phaät giaùo bò xem laø moät toân giaùo ngoaïi lai cuûa nhöõng daân toäc khoâng thuoäc Trung Hoa, cö truù ôû nhöõng vuøng bieân giôùi beân ngoaøi nöôùc naøy. Vaøo naêm 148 moät cao taêng ngöôøi xöù An Töùc1 teân laø An Theá Cao2 ñeán Trung Hoa.3 Roài naêm 170 coù moät vò taêng AÁn Ñoä laø Truùc Ñaïi Löïc4 vaø moät ngöôøi xöù Nguyeät Chi5 teân laø An Huyeàn,6 töø Trung AÙ ñeán Trung Hoa vaø laäp moät töï vieän ôû Laïc Döông, kinh ñoâ cuûa nhaø Haùn. Nhöng chæ ñeán giai ñoaïn loaïn laïc sau khi nhaø Haùn suïp ñoå, (221-589) Phaät giaùo môùi töï mình thöïc söï trôû thaønh moät löïc löôïng chính ôû Trung Hoa. Vaø phaûi ñeán naêm 355, laàn ñaàu tieân ngöôøi Trung Hoa môùi ñöôïc pheùp trôû thaønh tu só, ít ra laø trong phaïm vi laõnh thoå cuûa caùc vua trieàu Ñoâng Taán. Vaøo theá kyû 2, nhöõng ngöôøi ngoaïi quoác töø Trung AÙ ñeán – ngöôøi An Töùc, ngöôøi Sogdian, ngöôøi AÁn Ñoä v.v... ñaõ dòch moät soá kinh ñieån. Vaøo theá kyû 3 vaø 4, Phaät giaùo ñaõ taïo ñöôïc moät ñaø phaùt trieån trong daân chuùng vaø caû trong trieàu ñình, vaø coù moät soá vò vua ñaõ toû roõ söï uûng hoä Phaät giaùo. Cho ñeán naêm 400, coù 1300 baûn kinh vaên ñaõ ñöôïc dòch. Roài ngaøi Cöu-ma-la-thaäp ñeán. Vôùi söï giuùp söùc cuûa giôùi hoïc giaû Trung Hoa, ngaøi thöïc hieän nhöõng baûn dòch maãu möïc maø cho ñeán nay vaãn coøn ñöôïc söû duïng. Ñeán naêm 500 thì Phaät giaùo ñaõ ñöôïc thieát laäp vöõng chaéc treân khaép nöôùc Trung Hoa, vaø ñang trong moät ñieàu kieän phaùt trieån thuaän lôïi vôùi voâ soá tự vieän, ñeàn thôø vaø nhieàu ñoäng ñaù ñöôïc trang trí baèng nhöõng coâng trình ñieâu khaéc laøm choã cho chö taêng tu taäp.

From Central Asia Buddhism was brought, by a natural transition, to China, which had conquered that region in the first century BC and kept it until the end of the Han dynasty (AD 220). The beginnings are said to go back to somewhere between 70 and 50 BC, and the religion slowly spread under the Han dynasty. But at first it was a foreign religion of the nonChinese populations in China’s outlying marches. In 148 a Parthian, Ngan Che Kao, and in 170 an Indian, Tshou Cho-fo, and a Yueh-chi, Tche tsh’an, arrived in China from Central Asia and established a monastery in Lo-yang, the capital of the Han. It was only in the period of disunity (221-589) which followed on the collapse of the Han, that Buddhism really became a major force in China itself. Only in 355 were Chinese for the first time permitted to become monks, at least in the realm of the Eastern Ts’in rulers. In the second century foreigners from Central Asia - Parthians, Sogdians, Indians, etc. - did some translations. In the third and fourth centuries Buddhism gained momentum among the people and at the Court, and some emperors clearly favoured it. By AD 400 1,300 works had been translated. Then came Kumarajiva, whose translations, made with the help of Chinese literati, were classical works and are still being read. By 500 Buddhism was firmly established throughout the whole of China and in a flourishing condition, with countless monasteries, temples, and sculptured grottoes for the monks. 4

Parthia, Haùn dòch laø An Töùc (安息), moät ñeá quoác thôøi coå cuûa chaâu AÙ. Laõnh thoå tröôùc ñaây cuûa nöôùc naøy ngaøy nay thuoäc veà Iran vaø Pakistan. 2 Ngaøi laø thaùi töû con vua nöôùc An Töùc, boû ngoâi vua maø xuaát gia. 3 Theo Phaät Quang Töø ñieån thì ngaøi ñeán thaønh Laïc Döông vaø ôû ñoù tham gia phieân dòch kinh ñieån cho ñeán naêm 170, nghóa laø hôn 20 naêm.

Ngaøi laø moät trong caùc cao taêng AÁn Ñoä ñeán Trung Hoa sôùm nhaát. Nieân ñaïi cuõng khoâng ñöôïc roõ, chæ bieát vaøo khoaûng nieân hieäu Kieán An thöù 2 ñôøi Hieán Ñeá nhaø Ñoâng Haùn (197), ngaøi ñaõ ôû Laïc Döông vaø dòch kinh Tu Haønh Baûn Khôûi (2 quyeån). 5 Kusana, naèm caùch xa veà höôùng Baéc cuûa AÁn Ñoä chöøng 7.000 daëm. 6 Khoâng roõ nieân ñaïi chính xaùc, chæ bieát ngaøi ñeán Laïc Döông vaøo cuoái ñôøi Haùn Linh Ñeá vaø ñaõ cuøng Nghieâm Phaät Ñieàu dòch kinh Phaùp Caûnh vaø kinh A-haøm khaåu giaûi thaäp nhò nhaân duyeân vaøo nieân hieäu Quang Hoøa thöù 4 nhaø Haùn (181).

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Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

Ñaây laø moät söï thaønh coâng ñaùng keå cho moät toân giaùo coù khaù nhieàu baát ñoàng vôùi quan nieäm chính thoáng ñöôïc thöøa nhaän cuûa ngöôøi Trung Hoa. Chaúng haïn nhö, Phaät giaùo khoâng quan taâm ñeán vieäc noái doõi toâng ñöôøng, hoaëc khoâng chuù troïng maáy ñeán loøng trung thaønh vôùi ñaát nöôùc, vaø coù veû nhö khuyeán khích vieäc ñaët nieàm tin khoâng hoaøn toaøn döïa vaøo lyù luaän.1 Caùc vò taêng só, vì ñaõ döùt boû ñôøi soáng theá gian neân khoâng thöïc hieän nhöõng nghi thöùc leã kính ñoái vôùi nhaø vua vaø trieàu thaàn nhö nhöõng ngöôøi khaùc. Thöïc teá, trong suoát lòch söû cuûa mình, Phaät giaùo coù khuynh höôùng phaùt trieån moät caùch ñoäc laäp trong phaïm vi quoác gia. Nhöõng ngöôøi choáng ñoái cho raèng taêng só ñaõ höôûng ôn vua loäc nöôùc maø khoâng laøm ñöôïc gì ñeå ñeàn ñaùp laïi. Nhöng ngöôïc laïi, tín ñoà Phaät giaùo cho raèng, neáu coù ai ñaõ ban phaùt ra moät caùch voâ cuøng roäng löôïng, thì ñoù chính laø chö taêng, bôûi vì nhöõng lôïi laïc maø caùc ngaøi mang laïi cho toaøn xaõ hoäi qua vieäc thöïc haønh neáp soáng theo lôøi Phaät daïy laø voâ cuøng to lôùn. Trong thöïc teá, nhöõng ñieàu lôïi ñöôïc höôûng töø nhaø vua chæ laø moät gioït nöôùc nhoû nhoi khi so saùnh vôùi söùc hoä trì maø chö taêng Phaät giaùo mang laïi cho khaép caû nhaân loaïi. Tuy nhieân, trieàu ñình vaãn luoân muoán kieåm soaùt taêng ñoaøn Phaät giaùo thoâng qua boä Leã, vaø trong moät chöøng möïc naøo ñoù cuõng löu yù xem chö taêng coù laøm ñuùng theo lôøi nguyeän hieán thaân vì söï an laønh cuûa moïi ngöôøi hay khoâng. Nhöõng ngöôøi giöõ theo truyeàn thoáng cuõng nhaán maïnh ñeán nguoàn goác ngoaïi lai cuûa Phaät giaùo, cho laø toân giaùo naøy ñaõ ñeán töø nhöõng xöù man rôï,2 vaø thuyeát luaân hoài ñoái vôùi nhöõng ngöôøi naøy döôøng nhö khoâng theå tin ñöôïc, bôûi vì hoï cho raèng khi moät ngöôøi cheát thì linh hoàn cuõng maát ñi.

Nghóa laø nghieâng veà tröïc giaùc nhieàu hôn. Vôùi quan ñieåm töï cho mình laø tinh hoa cuûa ñaát trôøi, ngöôøi Trung Hoa ngaøy tröôùc xem taát caû nhöõng daân toäc bao quanh mình ñeàu laø man di, moïi rôï. Chính Toå Ñaït-ma cuõng bò xem laø “rôï Hoà”.

The traditionalist opponents also stressed the foreign origin of Buddhism, which came from “barbarian lands”, and the doctrine of reincarnation seemed to them quite incredible, because they believed that when a man dies his soul also perishes. The problem of survival after death aroused intense interest at the time. In their polemics the Chinese Buddhists were apt to spray away from the orthodox denial of an individual soul and to postulate some enduring “spiritual something of the finest essence”, which transmigrates from existence to existence. They quoted either Lao Tzu or the Yellow Emperor as having said that “the body suffers destruction, but the soul undergoes

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Vaán ñeà söï toàn taïi sau khi cheát ñaõ gôïi leân nhieàu quan taâm maïnh meõ vaøo thôøi ñoù. Trong nhöõng cuoäc tranh caõi, caùc tín ñoà Phaät giaùo Trung Hoa coù khuynh höôùng giöõ khoaûng caùch vôùi söï phuû nhaän theo giaùo lyù chính thoáng veà moät linh hoàn rieâng cuûa 1 2

This was a remarkable success for a religion which offended Chinese official sentiment at many points, for it seemed indifferent to the perpetuation of the family, showed little loyalty to the country and seemed to encourage baseless superstitions. The Buddhist clergy, on the ground that they had withdrawn from the world, refused to make the socially recognized signs of outward respect to the Son of Heaven and his representatives. All through its history, in fact, the Buddhist Church tended to develop into a state within the state. Their opponents blamed them for enjoying the benefits of the rule of the Son of Heaven without doing anything in return. The Buddhists claimed that on the contrary it is the monk, if anyone, who dispenses munificence, for enormous benefits accrue to the whole of society from his practice of the way of the Buddha. In fact, the benefits bestowed by the Son of Heaven are as but a drop of water when compared to the favours dispensed on all mankind by the Buddhist clergy. The state, however, always insisted on controlling,the Buddhist Church through the Ministry of Worship and saw to it that to some extent the monks lived up to their claim that they were sacrificing themselves for the good of the people.

Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

moãi caù nhaân, vaø thöøa nhaän söï hieän höõu cuûa moät “phaàn taâm linh tinh teá nhaát” löu chuyeån töø ñôøi soáng naøy sang ñôøi soáng khaùc. Hoï trích daãn lôøi cuûa Laõo Töû hoaëc cuûa Hoaøng Ñeá1 ñaõ töøng noùi raèng “Thaân xaùc coù huûy dieät, nhöng linh hoàn baát bieán. Vôùi söï baát bieán ñoù, linh hoàn ñi theo nhöõng söï thay ñoåi, vaø vì theá luaân chuyeån qua voâ soá kieáp.” Ñieàu naøy khoâng thöïc söï phuø hôïp vôùi Phaät giaùo, theo nhö ñöôïc hieåu cho ñeán thôøi ñieåm ñoù.

no change. With its unchangingness it rides upon changes and thus passes through endless transformations”. This did not really well agree with Buddhism as it had been understood up to then.

Dó nhieân, söï thaønh coâng phaàn lôùn laø nhôø vaøo vieäc Phaät giaùo haøm chöùa moät thoâng ñieäp maø caùc baäc thaày baûn xöù khoâng theå ñöa ra. Bôûi vì, nhö Taêng Höïu2 ñaõ dieãn ñaït vaøo theá kyû 5, “khoâng coù ai trong boïn hoï ño löôøng ñöôïc coõi trôøi hoaëc hieåu thaáu ñöôïc taâm yù thaùnh nhaân”. Caû giai caáp cai trò vaø nhaân daân ñeàu uûng hoä toân giaùo môùi naøy. Caùc vò vua thöôøng haøi loøng muoán thaáy soá tín ñoà Phaät giaùo yeâu chuoäng hoøa bình trong thaàn daân cuûa mình gia taêng caøng nhieàu caøng toát, vì xaõ hoäi Trung Hoa chöa töøng bieát ñeán vieäc tröng binh taäp theå, vaø luoân luoân coi troïng hoøa bình.

The success was of course largely due to the fact that Buddhism contained a message which the indigenous teachers could not provide. For, as Seng-yu expressed it in the fifth century, “none of them have measured the shape of Heaven or peered into the mind of the Sage”.Both the ruling classes and the people supported the” new religion. The Emperors would be pleased to number as many peace-loving Buddhists as possible among their subjects, because Chinese society never knew universal conscription, and has always valued Peace very highly.

Taàng lôùp thoáng trò xaõ hoäi thöôøng thaáy raèng caùc vò taêng só Phaät giaùo deã hoøa hôïp hôn laø nhöõng ngöôøi theo Laõo giaùo ñoái nghòch vôùi hoï – nhöõng ngöôøi lieân tuïc xuùi giuïc caùc cuoäc khôûi nghóa ôû mieàn queâ, vaø nhöõng nôi thôø cuùng cuûa hoï ñöôïc xaây döïng bôûi söï ñoùng goùp cuûa chính thaønh vieân ôû nhöõng nôi aáy. Coøn tín ñoà Phaät giaùo thì ngöôïc laïi, döïa vaøo söï hieán cuùng cuûa nhöõng ngöôøi giaøu coù, vaø do ñoù coù theå tin ñöôïc laø khoâng theo ñuoåi nhöõng muïc ñích chính trò rieâng maø giôùi caàm quyeàn khoâng mong muoán. Sau cuøng, quaàn chuùng bò thu huùt maïnh meõ bôûi lyù töôûng Boà Taùt, môû ra nhöõng khaû naêng ñöôïc lôïi laïc to lôùn nhaát, ngay caû cho nhöõng haïng ngöôøi thaáp keùm trong xaõ hoäi. Ñeàn thôø Phaät giaùo vôùi caùc vò thaùnh ñaày loøng töø bi nhö ñöùc Quaùn Theá AÂm vaø nhöõng vò khaùc ñaõ mang ñeán cho hoï söï phaán khôûi vaø thanh thaûn. Nhôø söï cuùng döôøng Phaät vaø chö taêng, hoï hy voïng seõ ñöôïc höôûng phöôùc laønh vaøo kieáp sau.

The ruling layers of society would find the Buddhist priests more amenable than their Taoist rivals who were continually fomenting rebellions among the peasantry and whose churches were supported by contributions of the members who constituted them. The Buddhists, on the other hand, relied on the donations of wealthy laymen, and could therefore be relied upon not to pursue unwelcome political schemes of their own. The masses, finally, were greatly attracted to the Bodhisattva ideal which opened the highest possibilities even for those low on the social scale; the Buddhist pantheon, with merciful deities like Kuan Yin and others, brought encouragement and comfort; and from the support of the Buddha and Sańgha they expected rewards in an after-life.

Vò vua ñaàu tieân trong truyeàn thuyeát cuûa Trung Hoa, hoï Coâng Toân, sinh ôû Hieân Vieân (軒轅) cho neân cuõng coù teân laø Hieân Vieân. Töông truyeàn oâng taïi vò ñeán 100 naêm, leân ngoâi vaøo naêm Quyù Hôïi (2698 tröôùc Coâng nguyeân). 2 Taêng Höïu (僧祐), sinh naêm 445 vaø maát naêm 518, laø moät trong nhöõng ngöôøi

ñaàu tieân thöïc hieän vieäc thoáng keâ vaø saép xeáp Ñaïi taïng kinh chöõ Haùn. Taùc phaåm chính laø Xuaát tam taïng kyù taäp (出三藏記集). OÂng hoaøn taát coâng trình cuûa mình ngay tröôùc khi maát, bieân soaïn töø nhöõng baûn lieät keâ ñaõ coù tröôùc ñoù (nay ñaõ maát), coäng theâm vôùi söï nghieân cöùu cuûa chính mình.

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A short history of Buddhism

Moät nieàm tin phoå bieán roäng raõi ôû Trung Hoa laø con ngöôøi coù theå aûnh höôûng ñeán Dieâm Vöông, vò vua cuûa coõi aâm. Moät soá taêng só, chaúng haïn nhö ngaøi Buddha Matanga vaøo theá kyû 3 ñaõ thöïc hieän pheùp laï vaø ñöa ra nhöõng lôøi tieân tri, cuõng nhö chöõa beänh baèng chuù thuaät. Söï phaùt trieån cuûa tö töôûng Phaät giaùo Trung Hoa ñöôïc quyeát ñònh phaàn lôùn bôûi söï choïn löïa kinh ñieån ñeå dòch sang chöõ Haùn. Trong soá nhöõng kinh ñöôïc dòch ñaàu tieân vaø coù aûnh höôûng lôùn nhaát laø kinh Baùt-nhaõ Ba-la-maät-ña. Ngöôøi Trung Hoa ñöôïc cho laø coù ñaàu oùc duy lyù, thöïc nghieäm, ñieàm tónh vaø choáng laïi sieâu hình hoïc. Nhöng ñoù chæ laø moät phaàn trong tính caùch cuûa daân toäc naøy, nhö coù theå thaáy roõ qua söï noàng nhieät tieáp nhaän baûn kinh vaên Baùt-nhaõ voán raát sieâu hình, ngay töø ñôøi nhaø Haùn trôû ñi. Nhöõng ngöôøi chaâu AÂu theo Tin Laønh cuõng khoâng nghieân cöùu Kinh Thaùnh moät caùch nhieät tình hôn laø ngöôøi Trung Hoa khi nghieân cöùu phaàn kinh ñieån raát tröøu töôïng veà trí hueä chöùng ngoä vaø taùnh khoâng naøy.1

It was widely believed in China that thereby one could influence Yama, the God of the Nether World. Some Buddhist priests, like for instance Buddha Matahga in the third century, performed miracles, prophesied and cured diseases by means of their spells.

Khoaûng töø naêm 200 ñeán 450, ñaõ coù söï quan taâm maïnh meõ ñeán caùc phöông phaùp thieàn ñònh, vaø nhieàu saùch höôùng daãn ñöôïc phieân dòch trong suoát thôøi gian naøy.

The development of Chinese Buddhist thought was largely determined by the choice of the sacred texts which were translated into Chinese. Among the first and most influential were the Sutras on Prajnaparamita. The mentality of the Chinese is said to be rationalistic, positivistic, matter-of-fact and anti-metaphysical. That this is only one side of their national character is shown by the enthusiastic reception which they gave to the highly metaphysical Prajnaparamita literature from Han times onwards. The Bible was not studied with greater avidity in Protestant Europe than these very abstract writings on perfect wisdom and emptiness in China. Other works which gained a great popularity, and often became the nucleus of separate schools, were the Lotus of the Good Law (translations 250 onwards), which attracted the Chinese by the splendour of the scenery and by its parables, the story of Vimalakirti (translations 188 onwards), which fascinated by the noble picture of a “white-robed” layman who took the sickness of the world upon himself, and the Nirvāṇa Sutra (translation of 423) which seemed interesting for its teaching about the Buddhanature within each of us. Between 200 and 450 there developed a strong interest in the technical details of Buddhist meditation, and many handbooks were translated during that period.

Söï phaùt trieån cuûa Phaät giaùo truøng hôïp vôùi söï hoài phuïc cuûa

The rise of Buddhism coincided with the revival of Taoism,

Cho ñeán nay, ñöôïc bieát ñaõ coù ít nhaát laø 8 vò dòch boä kinh naøy sang tieáng Haùn. Tröôùc heát laø ngaøi Cöu-ma-la-thaäp dòch vaøo naêm 402. Tieáp theo laø Huyeàn Trang dòch vaøo naêm 649, roài ngaøi Nghóa Tònh dòch vaøo naêm 700, ngaøi Phaùp Nguyeät dòch vaøo naêm 733, ngaøi Baùt-nhaõ Lôïi Ngoân dòch vaøo naêm

790, ngaøi Trí Hueä Luaân dòch vaøo naêm 850, ngaøi Thi Hoä dòch vaøo naêm 980 vaø ngaøi Phaùp Thaønh chöa xaùc ñònh ñöôïc naêm dòch. Ngoaøi ra, ngöôøi ta tin raèng coøn coù 2 dòch giaû khaùc nöõa ñaõ dòch kinh naøy laø ngaøi Baát Khoâng ñôøi Ñöôøng vaø ngaøi Töø Hieàn ñôøi Toáng.

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Coøn coù nhöõng kinh ñieån khaùc cuõng ñöôïc phoå bieán roäng raõi vaø thöôøng trôû thaønh haït nhaân cho caùc boä phaùi rieâng bieät. Ñoù laø boä kinh Dieäu phaùp lieân hoa (ñöôïc baét ñaàu dòch töø naêm 250), thu huùt ngöôøi Trung Hoa bôûi nhöõng caûnh giôùi ñaày aán töôïng vaø nhieàu maåu chuyeän lyù thuù; kinh Duy-ma-caät (baét ñaàu dòch töø naêm 188), loâi cuoán bôûi hình töôïng cao quyù cuûa moät vò cö só xem moïi beänh khoå cuûa theá gian nhö laø cuûa chính mình; vaø kinh Ñaïi Baùt Nieátbaøn (ñöôïc dòch vaøo naêm 423), coù veû nhö ñöôïc quan taâm vì daïy veà Phaät taùnh naèm ngay trong moãi chuùng ta.

Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

Laõo giaùo, vaø nhieàu ngöôøi Trung Hoa nhaán maïnh ñeán söï töông töï giöõa hai khuynh höôùng tö töôûng naøy. Haàu heát ñeàu tin chaéc raèng ñöùc Phaät vaø caùc baäc thaùnh nhaân cuûa Trung Hoa – cuï theå nhö Laõo Töû vaø Trang Töû – ñaõ nhaän ra cuøng moät chaân lyù gioáng nhö nhau. Maõi ñeán theá kyû 5, nhieàu ngöôøi theo Laõo giaùo vaãn xem Phaät giaùo nhö moät phöông phaùp ñöôïc vaän duïng theâm ñeå ñaït ñeán nhöõng muïc ñích cuûa Laõo giaùo. Vaøo theá kyû 3, Vương Phuø1 vieát moät cuoán saùch khaù noåi tieáng, trong ñoù oâng trình baøy Phaät giaùo nhö laø keát quaû cuûa “söï giaùo hoùa nhöõng ngöôøi man rôï” do Laõo Töû thöïc hieän. Caùc thuaät ngöõ Laõo giaùo thöôøng ñöôïc coá yù söû duïng ñeå dieãn ñaït nhöõng khaùi nieäm cuûa Phaät giaùo. Bao giôø cuõng vaäy, nhieàu töø Haùn töông ñöông vôùi caùc thuaät ngöõ Sanskrit ñöôïc söû duïng tröôùc heát vôùi yù nghóa trong Laõo giaùo, vaø ñieàu naøy trong moät chöøng möïc naøo ñoù cuõng aûnh höôûng ñeán caùch duøng cuûa chuùng trong Phaät giaùo. Chaúng haïn nhö chöõ ñaïo2 khi ñöôïc duøng ñeå dòch chöõ mārga trong tieáng Sanskrit, coù nghóa laø con ñöôøng, lieàn töï nhieân ñöôïc theâm vaøo nhieàu haøm nghóa theo Laõo giaùo, vöôït ra ngoaøi nhöõng yù nghóa dieãn ñaït trong nguyeân baûn tieáng Sanskrit, moät söï khaùc bieät khoâng theå ngôø tröôùc vaø cuõng khoâng heà ñöôïc tính ñeán. Töø nieäm xöù3 laø töông ñöông vôùi chöõ satipatthāna, thöôøng ñöôïc xem laø gioáng nhö chöõ nieäm xöù cuûa Laõo giaùo, coù nghóa laø söï duy trì sinh khí. Töø nairātmya ñöôïc dòch vôùi nghóa nhö “khoâng coù saéc thaân”, deã bò hieåu sai thaønh söï hieän höõu khoâng coù thaân xaùc, hay trong moät linh hoàn. Vaø taùnh khoâng ñöôïc nhaän hieåu gioáng nhö thaùi hư,4 hay traïng thaùi “hoãn mang voâ vaät” cuûa Laõo Töû, töùc laø caùi khoâng töø khôûi nguyeân, caùi khoâng bao truøm caû vuõ truï, gioáng nhö moät baøo thai cöu mang heát thaûy vaïn höõu. Vôùi moät nhaø tö töôûng tieâu bieåu nhö Hueä Vieãn thì phaùp thaân töông ñöông vôùi thöïc taïi cao nhaát, laø söï theå hieän töï tính, laø baäc thaùnh hieàn hay vó nhaân cuûa nhöõng ngöôøi theo Laõo giaùo caûi caùch, laø ñöùc Phaät, laø phaàn tinh tuùy trong trung taâm cuûa vaïn höõu, vaø laø linh hoàn cuûa theá 1

and many Chinese stressed the similarity in outlook between these intellectual trends. Few doubted that the Truth as it had been seen by the Buddha and the sages of China, by Lao-tzu and Chuang-tzu in particular, was one and the same. Until the fifth century, many Taoists considered Buddhism as one more method of reaching Taoist goals. In the third century Wang Fo wrote a famous pamphlet, in which he represented Buddhism as the result of “the conversion of the Barbarians by Lao-tzu”. Taoist terminology was often deliberately used to explain Buddhist concepts and in any case many of the Chinese equivalents of Sanskrit technical terms had first been used with a Taoist meaning, which to some extent influenced their use also in Buddhist contexts. A word like tao, used to translate mdrga, or “Path”, would automatically carry with it many Taoist connotations and overtones quite unforeseen and unintended in the Sanskrit scriptures of India. Shou-yi, the equivalent of satipaṭṭhāna, was often equated with the Taoist Shou-yi meaning the retention of the flame of life; or nairātmya, translated as the “absence of shen (body)”, was easily misunderstood as existence without a body, or in a spirit body; and “Emptiness” was identified wiihpen-wu, the “Original Non-existence” of Laotzu, the “Void filled to the brim”, which, like a womb, carries all existence within it. To a representative thinker like Hui-Yuan the Dharmakaya is equivalent to the Highest Being, Personified Nature, the Sage or Great Man of the Neo-Taoists, the Buddha, the Spirit in the Centre of Existence, and the World Soul. Buddhist 化胡經) nhaèm ñaû kích vaø boùp meùo tö töôûng Phaät giaùo. Trong ñoù oâng döïng

Vöông Phuø (王浮), soáng vaøo ñôøi Hueä Ñeá nhaø Taây Taán, giöõ chöùc Saùi Töûu cuûa Laõo giaùo. OÂng thöôøng tranh luaän vôùi vò taêng Phaät giaùo laø Baùch Vieãn (帛遠) nhöng nhieàu laàn bò thua. Sau môùi vieát quyeån “Laõo Töû hoùa Hoà kinh” (老子

chuyeän Laõo Töû sang AÁn Ñoä giaùo hoùa cho Phaät Thích-ca. Hoà laø teân chæ daân AÁn Ñoä, bò ngöôøi Trung Hoa luùc aáy xem nhö moät gioáng daân “moïi rôï”. 2 Ñaïo (道) 3 Nieäm xöù (念處) 4 Thaùi hö (太虛)

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A short history of Buddhism

giôùi. Nhöõng yù töôûng cuûa Phaät giaùo thöôøng ñöôïc töï do dieãn dòch baèng caùch duøng nhöõng töø ngöõ trích ra töø taùc phaåm cuûa Laõo töû, Trang töû hoaëc Kinh Dòch, vaø raát thöôøng khi theá giôùi quan Laõo giaùo ñöôïc hieåu nhö thuoäc veà heä thoáng tö töôûng Phaät giaùo. AÛnh höôûng cuûa Khoång giaùo ít ñöôïc noùi ñeán, maëc duø vaäy vaãn ñöôïc thaáy roõ trong vieäc phieân dòch kinh ñieån. Suoát trong giai ñoaïn naøy, baát kyø yù töôûng hay töø ngöõ naøo khoâng phuø hôïp vôùi nhöõng chuaån möïc cuûa Khoång giaùo trong caùc vaán ñeà nhö ñaïo ñöùc gia ñình, quan heä nam nöõ, söï toân kính ñoái vôùi beà treân trong quan heä xaõ hoäi... ñeàu ñöôïc heát söùc quan taâm thay theá baèng nhöõng caùch dieãn ñaït hoaëc töø ngöõ khaùc. Vaán ñeà chính maø tín ñoà Phaät giaùo Trung Hoa quan taâm trong suoát giai ñoaïn naøy xuaát phaùt töø truyeàn thoáng Laõo giaùo vaø lieân quan ñeán moái quan heä giöõa höõu1 vaø voâ,2 voán sau naøy ñöôïc xem nhö ñoàng nghóa vôùi “taùnh khoâng”3 trong caùc baûn vaên tieáng Sanskrit. Söï tranh luaän veà vaán ñeà naøy daãn ñeán vieäc hình thaønh baûy boä phaùi. Trong ñoù, tröôøng phaùi “baûn lai khoâng” cuûa ngaøi Ñaïo An4 daïy raèng caùi khoâng coù tröôùc heát thaûy moïi hình thöùc cuûa söï tieán hoùa, vaø taùnh khoâng laø söï khôûi ñaàu cuûa voâ soá hình töôïng vaät theå. Giaùo thuyeát do ngaøi giaûng daïy ñöôïc vaän duïng thay ñoåi khaùc ñi ñeå hình thaønh moät tröôøng phaùi thöù hai. Tröôøng phaùi thöù ba taäp trung vaøo vaán ñeà taùnh khoâng cuûa vaät chaát. Tröôøng phaùi thöù tö daïy veà söï voâ taâm, nghóa laø khi baäc thaùnh khoâng chuù taâm vaøo vaïn vaät, ñieàu ñoù khoâng coù nghóa laø chuùng khoâng hieän höõu. Nhö vaäy daãn ñeán yeâu caàu laø chuùng ta phaûi döøng moïi suy nghó trong taâm töôûng vaø khoâng ñeå cho ngoaïi caûnh taùc ñoäng vaøo. Ñieàu naøy veà sau ñöôïc nhaéc laïi raát nhieàu laàn trong Phaät giaùo Trung Hoa. 1 2 3 4

Höõu (有) Voâ (無)

ideas were freely interpreted by the use of phrases taken from Lao-tzu, Chuang-tzu and the Book of Changes and it was quite usual to read the Taoist world-view into the Buddhist system. Less pronounced was the influence of Confucianism, which nevertheless made itself felt in the translation of the Sutras. During this period great care was taken to alter any sentiments or phrases which would offend the Confucian sense of propriety in such matters as family ethics, the relation between the sexes and the attitude to social superiors. The main problem which interested the indigenous Buddhists during this period was taken from the Taoist tradition and concerned the relationship of being (yw) and non-being (wu)) which later they identified with the “emptiness” (Sunyatd) of the Sanskrit writings. The discussion of this problem led to the emergence of “the seven schools”. Among these Tao-an’s (31285) School of Original Non-being taught that “non-being lies prior to the myriad kinds of evolution, and emptiness is at the beginning of the multitudinous shapes of physical things”. The variations of this doctrine are counted as the second school. The third concentrated on the question of the emptiness of matter. The fourth teaches “the non-being of mind” which means “that the sage lacks any deliberate mind toward the ten thousand things; it does not mean that these things themselves are ever non-existent”. This leads to the demand that we should “stop the activities of the mind within, and not let it be impeded by external matter”, which is re-echoed in Chinese Buddhism again and again.

Thích Ñaïo An (312–385), hoïc troø ngaøi Phaät Ñoà Tröøng vaø laø cao taêng kieät xuaát ñôøi Ñoâng Taán. Ngaøi laø ngöôøi coù coâng hoaèng hoùa Phaät phaùp, giaûng giaûi nhieàu kinh ñieån vaø ñaõ coù coâng trình keâ cöùu caùc baûn kinh vaên töø tröôùc cho ñeán thôøi cuûa ngaøi. Coâng trình ñöôïc ghi laïi trong cuoán Ñaïo An Luïc nhöng ñaõ

thaát laïc, chæ bieát laø ngaøi Taêng Höïu veà sau coù söû duïng quyeån naøy ñeå soaïn boä Xuaát Tam Taïng Kyù Taäp. Ngaøi laø ngöôøi ñaàu tieân khôûi xöôùng vieäc taêng só laáy chöõ Thích laøm hoï thoáng nhaát trong danh hieäu. Veà phöông dieän tu taäp, ngaøi giaûng daïy vieäc keát hôïp Thieàn ñònh vaø Trí hueä trong coâng phu haønh trì, vaø laáy kinh Baùt-nhaõ Ba-la-maät-ña laøm toâng chæ.

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Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

Tröôøng phaùi thöù naêm noùi veà nhöõng aán töôïng ñöôïc chaát chöùa, cho raèng taát caû moïi hieän töôïng ñeàu laø nhöõng aûo aûnh nhö trong moät giaác moäng, gaây ra bôûi taâm thöùc, vaø seõ chaám döùt cuøng vôùi nguoàn goác cuûa chuùng khi chuùng ta tænh moäng. Khi aáy, theá giôùi naøy ñöôïc nhìn thaáy nhö troáng roãng, vaø maëc duø taâm ñaõ dieät, nhöng khoâng coù gì maø taâm laïi khoâng taïo taùc ñöôïc. Tröôøng phaùi thöù saùu laø tröôøng phaùi aûo giaùc hieän töôïng, daïy raèng taát caû caùc phaùp ñeàu chæ laø aûo giaùc nhö nhau, vaø aûo giaùc aáy hôïp thaønh nhöõng gì gaén lieàn vôùi söï thöïc thoâng thöôøng. Nhöng thaàn thöùc laø chaân thaät vaø khoâng phaûi troáng roãng, vaø do vaäy gaén lieàn vôùi chaân lyù cao nhaát. Bôûi vì neáu nhö ngöôïc laïi, thaàn thöùc laø troáng khoâng, thì giaùo lyù Phaät giaùo coù theå truyeàn daïy cho ai, vaø ai laø ngöôøi theo ñuoåi ñaïo Phaät, töø boû theá gian vaø chöùng ñaéc thaùnh quaû? Do nôi ñoù, chuùng ta bieát raèng thaàn thöùc khoâng phaûi laø troáng khoâng. Tröôøng phaùi thöù baûy noùi veà söï keát hôïp caùc nguyeân nhaân, xaùc ñònh döùt khoaùt raèng söï hieän höõu, hay nhöõng thöïc theå cuûa theá gian, ñeàu laø do söï keát hôïp cuûa nhöõng nguyeân nhaân, vaø söï caét ñöùt moái quan heä cuûa chuùng daãn ñeán söï khoâng hieän höõu, laø chaân lyù cao nhaát. Khoaûng 400 coâng trình hoïc thuaät cuûa Ngaøi Cöu-ma-la-thaäp ñaõ cuûng coá theâm cho Phaät giaùo vaø taïo ra moät uy tín lôùn lao. Ngaøi laø ngöôøi xöù Quy Tö,1 sinh vaøo naêm 344. Cha ngaøi laø ngöôøi AÁn Ñoä. Naêm 384, ngaøi ñöôïc mang veà Trung Hoa nhö moät chieán lôïi phaåm.2 Ngaøi soáng ôû Löông chaâu,3 tænh Cam Tuùc cho ñeán naêm 402 thì ñöôïc ñoùn veà thuû ñoâ Tröôøng An. Nôi ñaây, ngaøi ñöôïc toân xöng laø Quoác sö, vaø maát vaøo naêm 413.

The fifth, the “school of stored impressions”, maintains that all phenomena are apparitions in a dream caused by mind and consciousness and will cease, together with their source, when we awaken from this dream. “Then the triple world is seen to be empty, and although the mind is extinguished, there is nothing it cannot produce.” The sixth, called the “school of phenomenal illusion”, taught that “all dharmas are equally illusory and, being so, constitute what pertains to ordinary truth. But the spirit (shen) of the mind is genuine and not empty, and as such pertains to the highest truth. For if this spirit were likewise empty, to whom could the Buddhist doctrine be taught and who would be there to cultivate its path, renounce the world and become a Sage? Hence we know that the Spirit is not empty.” The seventh “school of causal combination” finally asserted that being, or worldly truth, results from the combination of causes and their disconnection leads to non-being, which is the highest truth. About 400 Kumdrajiva’s scholarly work consolidated Buddhism and gave it greater prestige. He came from Kucha, born in 344 of an Indian father. Carried off as war booty to China in 384, he lived for fifteen years in Leang-chou in Kansu, and was taken in 402 to the capital of Chang-an, where he became Kuo-Shih, or Director of Religious Instruction, and died in 413.

Kucha, töùc laø nöôùc Quy Tö (龜茲), cuõng ñoïc laø Khöu Töø, Khaâu Tö, hoaëc Dieâu Taàn thuoäc xöù Taân Cöông ngaøy nay. 2 Ñaây laø cuoäc chieán tranh xaâm löôïc cuûa nhaø Tieàn Taàn. Vua Tieàn Taàn luùc aáy laø Phuø Kieân, vaøo naêm 383 sai Laõ Quang mang quaân sang ñaùnh Quy Tö. Laõ Quang thaéng traän, trong soá tuø binh mang veà coù ngaøi Cöu-ma-la-thaäp. Giöõa ñöôøng, Quang nghe nhaø Tieàn Taàn ñaõ maát, Haäu Taàn leân thay, lieàn khoâng veà nöõa maø ñoùng quaân laïi ôû Löông Chaâu, töï leân ngoâi vua, laäp ra nhaø Löông. Ngaøi Cöu-ma-la-thaäp cuõng bò giam giöõ ôû ñoù. Veà sau, vua Haäu Taàn laø Dieâu

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Höng sai Dieâu Thaïc Ñöùc mang quaân ñaùnh deïp nhaø Löông, duøng leã quoác sö maø ñoùn röôùc ngaøi veà Tröôøng An vaøo khoaûng naêm 401. Vua heát söùc toân kính vaø giuùp ñôõ moïi ñieàu kieän cho ngaøi chuû trì vieäc phieân dòch kinh ñieån taïi kinh ñoâ. Ngaøi maát naêm 413, sau 12 naêm doàn heát taâm löïc vaøo vieäc phieân dòch kinh ñieån, ñöôïc hôn 380 quyeån. Hieän trong Ñaïi Taïng Kinh coøn giöõ laïi ñöôïc 55 boä kinh do ngaøi dòch, chöa ñeán 300 quyeån. Nguyeân taùc ghi laø “ngaøi soáng ôû Löông Chaâu 15 naêm...”. Nhöng nhö vaäy khoâng phuø hôïp vôùi naêm ñeán vaø naêm ñi khoûi Löông Chaâu nhö ñöôïc ghi roõ trong ñoaïn naøy: 384 – 402. Vì theá chuùng toâi boû caâu naøy.

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Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

Ngaøi ñöôïc söï baûo trôï cuûa Hoaøng ñeá Dieâu Höng vaø dòch raát nhieàu kinh ñieån. Ban ñaàu ngaøi theo Nhaát thieát höõu boä, nhöng veà sau, ngay luùc vaãn coøn ôû Quy Tö, ngaøi chuyeån sang theo giaùo lyù cuûa ngaøi Long Thoï. Hai ñeä töû quan troïng nhaát cuûa ngaøi laø Taêng Trieäu (384–414) vaø Ñaïo Sinh (vaøo khoaûng naêm 360–434). Caùc taùc phaåm cuûa Taêng Trieäu ñöôïc thu goùp laïi trong boä Trieäu luaän, cho thaáy söï keát hôïp lyù thuù giöõa Phaät giaùo vaø Laõo giaùo caûi caùch. Vaøo giai ñoaïn naøy, nhöõng ñoái khaùng cô baûn trong tö töôûng Phaät giaùo ñöôïc xem nhö töông ñöông vôùi trong phaùi Laõo giaùo caûi caùch. Söï töông phaûn giöõa caùi tuyeät ñoái1 vaø chuoãi sinh dieät taïm bôï döôøng nhö töông öùng vôùi caùi khoâng vaø caùi coù; söï töông phaûn giöõa caùi thöôøng vaø voâ thöôøng laø töông öùng vôùi caùi tónh vaø caùi ñoäng; vaø söï töông phaûn giöõa Nieát-baøn vaø luaân hoài laø töông öùng vôùi voâ vi vaø höõu vi. Taêng Trieäu baøn luaän veà trieát lyù Phaät giaùo Ñaïi thöøa treân cô sôû nhöõng söï töông öùng naøy, vaø nhöõng quan ñieåm cuûa oâng laø nhöõng quan ñieåm ñaàu tieân hình thaønh neân heä thoáng trieát hoïc Phaät giaùo Trung Hoa truyeàn laïi cho ñeán nay. Ñaïo Sinh toû ra laø moät trong nhöõng coát loõi cuûa Phaät giaùo Trung Hoa khi oâng noùi: “Töø khi kinh ñieån ñöôïc truyeàn qua phía Ñoâng (Trung Hoa), nhöõng ngöôøi phieân dòch ñaõ lieân tuïc gaëp phaûi nhöõng trôû ngaïi, vaø nhieàu ngöôøi bò troùi buoäc bôûi vieäc baùm chaët laáy vaên töø, keát quaû laø chaúng maáy ai coù theå hieåu ñöôïc troïn veïn yù nghóa. Chæ khi naøo hoï chòu queân ñi nhöõng chuyeän vaët vaõnh maø naém laáy ñieàu coát yeáu, luùc aáy môùi coù theå baét ñaàu luaän baøn veà Ñaïo.” Moät trong nhöõng vaán ñeà laøm baän taâm caùc tín ñoà Phaät giaùo Trung Hoa vaøo thôøi ñoù laø vaán ñeà soá phaän cuûa nhöõng keû goïi laø nhaát-xieån-ñeà.2 Lieäu coù chuùng sanh naøo coù theå goïi laø nhaát-xieånñeà, vónh vieãn khoâng ñaït ñeán quaû Phaät hay khoâng? Ngöôïc laïi vôùi 1 2

He enlisted the patronage of the emperor Yao Hsing, and translated more than a hundred works. Originally he was a Sarvastivadin monk, but later, while still in Kucha, he was converted to the doctrines of Nagarjuna. His two most important disciples were Seng-chao (384-414) and Chu Tao-sheng (c. 360-434). Seng-chao’s writings, collected under the title “Book of Chao”, represent an interesting combination of Buddhism and Neo-Taoism. On this period the basic oppositions within Buddhist thinking were considered equivalent to those of NeoTaoism. The contrast between the Absolute (bhutatathatd) and the temporal sequence of production and stopping seemed to correspond to that between non-being (wu) and being (yw); that between permanence and impermanence to that between quiescence (ching) and movement (tung)’, and the contrast between Nirvāṇa and Samsara to that of non-activity (wu wei) and having activity (yu wei). Seng-chao discussed the Buddhist philosophy of the Mahāyāna on the basis of these equivalences and his views are the first formulated indigenous Chinese Buddhist philosophical system which has come down to us. Tao-sheng sounded one of the leitmotifs of Chinese Buddhism when he said: “Ever since the transmission of the scriptures eastward (i.e. to China), their translators have encountered repeated obstacles, and many have been blocked by holding too narrowly to the text, with the result that few have been able to see the complete meaning. Let them forget the fish-trap and catch the fish. Then one may begin to talk with them about the Way (Tao)”

Bhutatathatā Icchantikas, Haùn dòch aâm laø nhaát-xieån-ñeà (一闡提), dòch nghóa laø ñoaïn thieän caên (斷善根) hay tín baát cuï tuùc (信不具足), töùc laø nhöõng keû maát

One of the questions which agitated the Chinese Buddhists of that time was that of the destiny of the Icchantikas. Are there any beings called icchantikas (a word of unknown etymological derivation), who are forever excluded from Buddhahood? Taosheng asserted, in opposition to most other scholars, that the

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nieàm tin nôi Phaät phaùp, vaø ñöôïc xem laø toäi loãi naëng neà nhaát.

Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

phaàn ñoâng caùc hoïc giaû khaùc, Ñaïo Sinh khaúng ñònh raèng nhaátxieån-ñeà cuõng coù Phaät taùnh, vaø do ñoù coù theå thaønh Phaät. Ngay trong ñôøi oâng, troïn boä kinh Ñaïi-baùt Nieát-baøn ñaõ ñeán ñöôïc Trung Hoa, xaùc nhaän cho söï ñuùng ñaén cuûa quan ñieåm naøy. Ñaïo Sinh cuõng daïy raèng: “Phaät taùnh chæ ñöôïc thaønh töïu qua söï ñoán ngoä.” Ñoái vôùi nhöõng ngöôøi ñöông thôøi vôùi ngaøi, ñaây laø moät giaùo lyù coù veû môùi meû, nhöng roài söï phuû nhaän vieäc tieäm ngoä1 töø ñoù tieáp tuïc laø moät trong nhöõng ñaëc ñieåm cuûa Phaät giaùo Trung Hoa. Vaøo theá kyû 5, moät vò hoïc quan laø Lu-cheng (425-494)2 cho raèng khaùc bieät naøy caàn chuù yù nhieàu vaøo ñaëc ñieåm taâm lyù daân toäc. OÂng noùi: “Ngöôøi Trung Hoa coù khaû naêng nhaän hieåu chaân lyù baèng tröïc giaùc, hay laø söï phaûn hoài chaân lyù, nhöng hoï laïi thaáy khoù khaên khi thu thaäp tri thöùc. Bôûi ñoù hoï khöôùc töø vieäc goùp nhaët kieán thöùc nhöng saün saøng chaáp nhaän chaân lyù toái thöôïng. Ngöôïc laïi, ngöôøi AÁn Ñoä coù khaû naêng hoïc hoûi deã daøng, nhöng laïi khoù khaên trong vieäc hieåu ñöôïc chaân lyù baèng tröïc giaùc. Bôûi vaäy hoï phuû nhaän yù töôûng veà söï ñoán ngoä maø chaáp nhaän vieäc tieäm ngoä.” Thaät ra, tín ñoà Phaät giaùo AÁn Ñoä ñaõ coù phaân bieät giöõa tieäm ngoä vaø ñoán ngoä, nhöng vaãn xem ñoán ngoä laø giai ñoaïn cuoái cuøng theo sau tieäm ngoä, vaø khoâng ai nghó ñeán vieäc choïn löïa giöõa ñoán hay tieäm. Ngaøi Ñaïo Sinh vaøo thôøi aáy bieän luaän raèng bôûi vì taùnh khoâng tuyeät ñoái cuûa Nieát-baøn chaéc chaén laø hoaøn toaøn khaùc bieät vôùi taát caû nhöõng söï vieäc töông ñoái khaùc, cho neân söï giaùc ngoä phaûn aùnh Nieát-baøn cuõng phaûi hoaøn toaøn khaùc so vôùi taát caû nhöõng giai ñoaïn tinh thaàn naøo höôùng ñeán nhöõng söï vieäc khaùc. Theo nhö vaäy thì söï giaùc ngoä, neáu nhö coù theå ñaït ñeán, chæ coù theå laø ñaït ñeán moät caùch hoaøn toaøn troïn veïn, chöù khoâng theå theo caùch daàn daàn hoaëc töøng phaàn. 1

Ngaøi Ñaïo Sinh cho raèng giöõa meâ vaø ngoä chæ laø moät söï thay ñoåi töùc khaéc (ñoán ngoä), vaø khoâng theå coù söï giaùc ngoä daàn daàn (tieäm ngoä). Theo quan ñieåm naøy, nhöõng coâng phu tu taäp hay thöïc hieän caùc vieäc laønh chæ laø nhaèm chuaån bò cho söï chín muøi cuûa thôøi ñieåm giaùc ngoä, nhöng töï thaân chuùng khoâng mang tính chaát giaùc ngoä. Khi vieäc tu taäp ñaõ vieân maõn, ngöôøi tu chæ trong khoaûnh khaéc ñaït ñeán giaùc ngoä, vaø tröôùc khoaûnh khaéc aáy vaãn laø meâ laàm.

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icchantikas also possess the Buddha-nature and are therefore capable of achieving Buddhahood. During his own lifetime a fuller text of the Great Nirvāṇa Sutra reached China and confirmed his views. Tao-sheng also taught that “Buddhahood is achieved through instantaneous enlightenment”. To his contemporaries this teaching appeared to be a “new doctrine”, and the denial of a gradual enlightenment continued to be one of the special features of Chinese Buddhism. In the fifth century already Lucheng (425-94), a scholar-official, ascribed this difference in emphasis to a difference in national psychology. “The people of China have a facility for comprehending Truth intuitively or ‘mirroring’ it, but difficulty in acquiring learning. Therefore they close themselves to the idea of accumulating learning, but open themselves to that of one final ultimate. The Hindus, on the other hand, have a facility for acquiring learning, but difficulty in comprehending Truth intuitively. Therefore they close themselves to the idea of instantaneous comprehension, but open themselves to that of gradual enlightenment.” In fact, Indian Buddhists had made a distinction between “gradual” and “sudden” enlightenment, but had regarded the second as the final stage of the first and nobody had thought of taking sides for one or the other. Tao-sheng now argues that, since the absolute emptiness of Nirvāṇa is absolutely and totally different from all conditioned things, the enlightenment which mirrors it must also be totally different from all mental stages which are directed on other things. In consequence, enlightenment, if it is to be achieved at all, can be achieved only in its totality, and not in a gradual or piecemeal fashion. 2

Nhaân vaät naøy soáng ñoàng thôøi vôùi ngaøi Taêng Nhu (僧柔) (431 - 494), ñeä töû ngaøi Hoaèng Xöùng (弘稱), nhöng chuùng toâi chöa roõ laø ai.

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Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

Dó nhieân laø caàn phaûi coù nhieàu giai ñoaïn chuaån bò tröôùc khi coù ñöôïc söï ñoán ngoä cuoái cuøng. Nhöng nhöõng giai ñoaïn ñoù neân goïi laø phaàn kieán giaûi, vaãn naèm trong theá giôùi hieän töôïng vaø khoâng thuoäc veà chính kinh nghieäm chöùng ngoä thöïc söï. Bôûi vì khi söï giaùc ngoä duy nhaát ñöôïc ñaït ñeán thì heát thaûy moïi trôû ngaïi ñeàu ñoàng thôøi chaám döùt. Caùi nhìn cuoái cuøng laø söï tröø dieät taát caû nhöõng moái raøng buoäc, giaûi thoaùt hoaøn toaøn ra khoûi chuùng, bôûi vì caùi chaân thaät thì thöôøng toàn, neân nhöõng gì khoâng beàn vöõng töùc laø giaû taïo. Töø thôøi cuûa ngaøi Ñaïo Sinh veà sau, vaán ñeà naøy lieân tuïc gaây tranh luaän ôû Trung Hoa, vaø caùc hoïc giaû ñaõ phaân chia thaønh hai phaùi uûng hoä cho hai quan ñieåm ñoán ngoä vaø tieäm ngoä. Chuùng ta ñaõ baøn qua veà nhöõng giaùo lyù sieâu hình. Trong khi ñoù, veà phaàn tín ngöôõng bình daân thì chæ hoaøn toaøn quan taâm ñeán vieäc ñöôïc vaõng sanh veà coõi Phaät. Vaøo thôøi ñoù, coù ba coõi Phaät chính – moät laø coõi Phaät Döôïc Sö ôû phöông Ñoâng, hai laø coõi Phaät A-di-ñaø ôû phöông Taây, vaø ba laø coõi Phaät Di-laëc1 trong töông lai ôû theá giôùi naøy. Söï thôø kính Phaät Baát Ñoäng ñöôïc xaùc nhaän laø coù töø ñôøi Haùn. Nhöõng ngöôøi tin theo ñöôïc khuyeân laø neân hoïc theo ngaøi, khoâng bao giôø coù yù thuø haèn hay giaän töùc vôùi ai, ñeå coù theå ñöôïc vaõng sanh veà coõi nöôùc Ñieàu Hyû2 cuûa ngaøi, naèm ôû raát xa veà phöông Ñoâng. Daàn daàn, söï suøng baùi ñöùc Phaät A-di-ñaø trôû neân phoå bieán hôn. Ñieàu naøy ñöôïc khôûi xöôùng ñaàu tieân nhôø vaøo caùc baûn dòch kinh ñieån vaø söï giaùo hoùa cuûa moät vò hoaøng töû nöôùc An Töùc laø ngaøi An Theá Cao vaøo khoaûng naêm 150. Vaøo cuoái theá kyû 4, ngaøi Hueä Vieãn (334-416) laø moät ngöôøi tröôùc kia theo Laõo giaùo, vaø ngay caû sau khi tin theo Phaät giaùo vaãn coøn duøng nhöõng taùc phaåm cuûa Trang Töû ñeå dieãn giaûi veà Phaät giaùo, ñaõ bieán ngoâi chuøa ôû Lö Sôn,3 Hoà Baéc thaønh trung taâm thôø phuïng lôùn. Naêm 402, ngaøi quy tuï moät nhoùm 124 ngöôøi cuøng caàu 1

Many preparatory stages must, of course, precede the final flash of insight, but those ought to be called “learning”; they remain inside phenomenal existence and are not a part of the actual experience of enlightenment itself. For “when the single enlightenment comes, all the myriad impediments are equally brought to an end”. The final vision is the total extinction of all ties, final liberation from them, for “what is genuine, that is permanent; what is temporary is false”. From Tao-sheng’s time onwards this theme was constantly debated in China and the theoreticians were divided into supporters of “gradual” or “instantaneous” enlightenment respectively. So far about metaphysics. Popular faith, in its turn, was preoccupied with rebirth in Paradise. There were at that time three principal Paradises - that of the Buddha Akshobhya in the East, that of Amitabha in the West, and that of Maitreya at a future time on earth. The cult of Akshobhya is attested for Han times, and the faithful were advised to imitate him in never feeling wrath or anger for any being, in order that they may be reborn in Abhirati, His kingdom far away on a star in the East. In the course of time the cult of Amitabha proved more popular. It is said to have been first made known by the translations and preachings of the Arsacid prince An-Shih-Kao about AD 150. At the end of the fourth century, Hui-Yuan (334-416), a former Taoist, who even after his conversion to Buddhism still used Chuang-tzu’s writings to explain his new faith, made the Lu-Feng monastery in Hupeh into a centre of the cult. In 402 a group of 124 persons was formed who prayed to be reborn in

Thaät ra, ngaøi Di-laëc ñöôïc cho laø hieän ñang ôû coõi trôøi Ñaâu-suaát, neân nhöõng ngöôøi phaùt nguyeän vaõng sanh veà coõi cuûa ngaøi töùc laø sanh leân coõi trôøi Ñaâu-

suaát. Ngaøi Huyeàn Trang laø moät trong soá nhöõng ngöôøi phaùt nguyeän nhö vaäy. Coøn vieäc xem theá giôùi naøy laø moät trong ba coõi Phaät e khoâng phuø hôïp vôùi quan ñieåm ngöôøi Trung Hoa luùc ñoù. 2 Abhirati, Haùn dòch laø Ñieàu Hyû Quoác (調喜國) 3 Töùc laø chuøa Ñoâng Laâm, moät trung taâm lôùn cuûa vuøng phía Nam.

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A short history of Buddhism

nguyeän ñeå ñöôïc vaõng sanh veà coõi Phaät A-di-ñaø. Nhoùm naøy ñöôïc goïi laø Baïch Lieân Xaõ, vaø laø hình thöùc ñaàu tieân cuûa phong traøo Tònh Ñoä sau naøy. Cuõng gioáng nhö caùc boä phaùi khaùc cuûa Trung Hoa, Tònh ñoä toâng chæ thaät söï ñöôïc thaønh laäp sau naêm 500. Phaät Döôïc Sö vaø Phaät A-di-ñaø laø nhöõng vò Phaät hoùa thaân chæ ñöôïc bieát ñeán bôûi tín ñoà theo Ñaïi thöøa. Trong khi ñoù, Phaät Di-laëc laø vò Phaät töông lai seõ xuaát hieän nôi theá giôùi naøy thì ñöôïc caû Ñaïi thöøa vaø Tieåu thöøa bieát ñeán. Nhöõng kinh ñieån moâ taû söï uy nghieâm cuûa theá gian vaøo luùc ngaøi haï sanh ñeàu ñöôïc dòch ra chöõ Haùn vaøo thôøi kyø thöù hai naøy. Nhöng nieàm tin töôûng ñoái vôùi ngaøi phoå bieán nhaát ôû Trung Hoa laø vaøo khoaûng nhöõng naêm 400 ñeán 650, vaø söï suøng baùi ngaøi döôøng nhö phaàn lôùn laø ñöôïc khuyeán khích bôûi phaùi Du-giaø.

Amida’s Paradise. This group was later on called the “Fellowship of the White Lotus” and was the prototype of the later Ching-t’u movement. Like the other Chinese schools, the Ching-t’u or “Pure Land” school was really founded only after AD 500. Akshobhya and Amitabha are cosmic Buddhas known only to the Mahāyāna. Maitreya, on the other hand, is the future Buddha due to appear on this earth, and he is known to both Mahayanists and Hinayanists. Sutras describing the splendour of the earth at the time of His coming were translated into Chinese in this our second period, but Maitreya’s greatest popularity in China lay between c AD 400 and 650 and His cult seems to have been largely stimulated by the Yogacarin school.

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A short history of Buddhism

CHÖÔNG III: THÔØI KYØ THÖÙ BA

CHAPTER 3: THE THIRD PERIOD

(TÖØ NAÊM 500 ÑEÁN NAÊM 1000) 1. AÁN ÑOÄ

Söï kieän quan troïng nhaát ôû AÁn Ñoä vaøo thôøi kyø thöù ba naøy laø söï ra ñôøi cuûa nhöõng kinh ñieån Tan-tra.1 Theâm vaøo ñoù, chuùng ta seõ phaûi noùi qua veà söï toång hôïp cuûa tö töôûng Ñaïi thöøa, söï phaùt trieån cuûa luaän lyù vaø nhöõng thaønh quaû cuûa Tieåu thöøa. Theå loaïi kinh ñieån Tan-tra laø söï thaønh quaû saùng taïo thöù ba, vaø laø cuoái cuøng cuûa tö töôûng Phaät giaùo AÁn Ñoä.2 Söï saùng taïo naøy traûi qua gaàn nhö laø ba giai ñoaïn. Giai ñoaïn ñaàu coù theå goïi laø Chaân ngoân thöøa.3 Khôûi ñaàu vaøo theá kyû 4 vaø taïo ñöôïc ñaø phaùt trieån töø sau naêm 500. Nhöõng gì maø boä phaùi naøy ñaït ñöôïc laø laøm phong phuù theâm cho Phaät giaùo baèng caùch theâm vaøo nhöõng yeáu toá phuï coù tính caùch thaàn bí truyeàn thoáng, vaø söû duïng chuùng vaøo muïc ñích laøm cho söï ñaït ñeán giaùc ngoä trôû neân deã daøng hôn. Theo phöông thöùc naøy, raát nhieàu caùc hình thöùc thaàn bí nhö man-tra, mu-dra, maïn-ñaø-la... vaø nhieàu vò Phaät, Thaùnh ñöôïc theâm vaøo Phaät giaùo theo moät caùch coù phaàn naøo ñoù khoâng ñöôïc heä thoáng hoùa. Vaø ñieàu naøy ñöôïc noái tieáp bôûi moät söï heä thoáng hoùa vaøo sau naêm 750, vôùi Kim cang thöøa4 keát hôïp taát caû nhöõng giaùo lyù tröôùc ñoù vôùi naêm vò Nhö Lai. Vaø daàn daàn, caùc khuynh höôùng vaø heä thoáng tieán xa hôn nöõa ñaõ xuaát hieän. Ñaùng chuù yù trong soá ñoù laø Caâu sanh thöøa,5 gioáng nhö Thieàn toâng cuûa Trung Hoa, nhaán maïnh söï thöïc haønh coâng phu thieàn ñònh vaø reøn luyeän tröïc giaùc, giaûng daïy baèng caùch ñaët ra nhöõng caâu hoûi khoù giaûi quyeát, nhöõng 1

Haùn dòch aâm laø AÙt-ñaëc-la (怛特羅 ), nguyeân nghóa laø taám löôùi deät, moái lieân heä, söï noái tieáp, lieân tuïc thoáng nhaát theå, ñoâi luùc coøn ñöôïc dòch laø Nghi quyõ. Ñaây laø moät danh töø tröøu töôïng, raát khoù dòch, neân phaàn lôùn caùc ngoân ngöõ treân theá giôùi (Anh, Phaùp, Ñöùc... ) ñeàu khoâng coù töø töông ñöông. Trong Phaät giaùo Taây Taïng, Tan-tra chæ taát caû caùc kinh saùch veà nhieàu ngaønh khaùc nhau (Tan-tra y hoïc, Tan-tra thieân vaên... ), nhöng trong nghóa heïp Tan-tra chæ cho

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AD 500-1000 1. INDIA

The most important event in India in this third period is the emergence of the Tantra. In addition we will have to say a few words about the Pāla synthesis of Mahayana thought, the development of logic, and the doings of the Hinaydnists. The Tantra is the third, and last, creative achievement of Indian Buddhist thought. It went through roughly three phases. The first may be called Mantraydna. It began in the fourth century, gained momentum after AD 500, and what it did was to enrich Buddhism by the appurtenances of magical tradition, utilizing them for the purpose of facilitating the search for enlightenment. In this way many mantras, mudras, mandalas and new deities were more or less unsystematically introduced into Buddhism. This was, after 750, followed by a systematization, called the Vajrayana, which co-ordinated all previous teachings with a group of Five Tathagatas. In the course of time, further trends and systems made their appearance. Noteworthy among them is the Sahajaydna, which, like the Chinese Ch’an school, stressed meditational practices and the cultivation of intuition, taught by riddles, paradoxes and concrete images, and avoided saùch vôû noùi veà pheùp tu thieàn ñònh cuûa Kim cöông thöøa vaø cuõng ñöôïc duøng ñeå chæ nhöõng pheùp tu thieàn ñònh naøy. 2 Ba söï saùng taïo ñöôïc ñeà caäp ôû ñaây laø: 1. Kinh ñieån nguyeân thuûy, 2. Kinh ñieån Ñaïi thöøa, vaø 3. Kinh ñieån Tantra. 3 Mantrayanā, cuõng goïi laø Chaân aâm thöøa, chæ chung nhöõng ngöôøi theo phöông phaùp haønh trì coù söû duïng Man-tra, töùc laø nhöõng chaân ngoân coù söùc maïnh huyeàn bí. 4 5

Vajrayāna Sahajāyana

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Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

vaán ñeà maâu thuaãn vaø nhöõng hình aûnh cuï theå, traùnh rôi vaøo nhöõng hoïc thuaät khoâng coøn söùc soáng, baèng caùch khoâng coá chaáp vaøo caùc giaùo lyù cöùng nhaéc. Cho ñeán cuoái thôøi kyø naøy, vaøo theá kyû 10, xuaát hieän phaùi Thôøi luaân,1 noåi baät leân vôùi söï gia taêng möùc ñoä dung hoøa vaø chuù troïng nhieàu ñeán khoa chieâm tinh. Traøo löu môùi naøy phaùt trieån ôû mieàn Nam vaø Taây Baéc AÁn Ñoä. Nhöõng aûnh höôûng cuûa nöôùc ngoaøi, töø Trung Hoa, Trung AÙ vaø caùc vuøng bieân giôùi bao quanh AÁn Ñoä ñoùng vai troø quan troïng trong vieäc ñònh hình cho noù. Coøn coù söï haáp thuï nhieàu tö töôûng cuûa caùc boä toäc nguyeân khai naèm ngay trong loøng xöù AÁn. Nhöõng kinh Tan-tra coá gaùn moät vai troø toân kính, duø chæ laø thöù yeáu, cho taát caû nhöõng linh thaàn, yeâu tinh, thaàn tieân, aùc quyû, hung thaàn, ma quaùi... voán ñaõ töøng aùm aûnh trong trí töôûng töôïng cuûa nhöõng ngöôøi bình daân, nhö nhöõng chuyeän phuø pheùp gaén chaët vôùi taát caû nhöõng ngöôøi daân du muïc vaø noâng daân. Böôùc tieán xa hôn trong vieäc bình daân hoùa Phaät giaùo nhö theá laø nhaèm muïc ñích taïo ra moät neàn moùng vöõng chaéc hôn nöõa trong xaõ hoäi. Nhöng ñoái vôùi taàng lôùp trí thöùc, vaãn coù söï khaùc bieät quan troïng: nhöõng keû ngoaïi ñaïo duøng phaùp thuaät ñeå ñaït ñöôïc quyeàn löïc, trong khi tín ñoà Phaät giaùo söû duïng noù ñeå thoaùt khoûi nhöõng ngoaïi löïc xa laï vôùi baûn taùnh chaân thaät cuûa chính mình. Nhöõng kinh Tan-tra khaùc bieät vôùi kinh ñieån ban ñaàu cuûa Ñaïi thöøa trong vieäc xaùc ñònh muïc ñích nhaém ñeán, vaø khaùc bieät veà khuoân maãu lyù töôûng cuûa ngöôøi tu taäp, cuõng nhö veà phöông phaùp truyeàn daïy. Muïc ñích vaãn laø ñaït ñeán quaû Phaät, nhöng khoâng coøn laø trong moät töông lai xa xoâi voâ taän nhieàu ñôøi nhieàu kieáp nöõa, maø laø ngay trong hieän taïi, trong chính thaân xaùc naøy, chæ trong moät nieäm töôûng, thaønh töïu moät caùch kyø dieäu nhôø vaøo moät phöông tieän môùi, nhanh choùng vaø deã daøng. Bậc thaùnh lyù töôûng giôø ñaây laø moät vị Taát-ñaït,2 hay moät vò phaùp sö2 nhöng

the fate of turning into a dead scholasticism by holding on to no rigidly defined tenets. Towards the end of our period, in the tenth century, we have the Kalacakra, “Wheel of Time”, which is marked by the extent of its syncretism and by its emphasis on astrology. This new movement arose in the South and the North-West of India. Non-Indian influences, from China, Central Asia and the border lands round India, played a great part in shaping it. There was also much absorption of ideas from aboriginal tribes within India itself. The Tantra endeavoured to assign an honoured, though subordinate, role to all the spirits, sprites, fairies, fiends, demons, ogres and ghosts which had haunted the popular imagination, as well as to the magical practices so dear to all nomadic and agricultural populations. This further step in popularizing the religion aimed at providing it with a more solid foundation in society. But as far as the elite was concerned, there was the important difference that non-Buddhists use magic to acquire power, whereas the Buddhists do so to free themselves from the powers alien to their own true being. The Tantra departed from the early Mahāyāna in its definition of the goal and of the ideal type of person and also in its method of teaching. The aim is still Buddhahood, though no longer at a distant future, aeons and aeons hence, but Buddha-hood right now, “in this very body”, “in the course of one single thought”, achieved miraculously by means of a new, quick and easy way. The ideal saint is now the Siddha, or magician, who has, however, some resemblance to a Bodhisattva as he was said 2 3

Kālacakra 180

Siddha, Haùn dòch aâm laø Taát-ñaït (悉達), dòch nghóa laø Thaønh töïu giaû (成就者), töùc laø ngöôøi ñaõ thaønh töïu trong vieäc tu taäp. Trong yù nghóa ngöôøi coù theå ñieâu luyeän trong vieäc thöïc hieän caùc pheùp thuaät maàu nhieäm.

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A short history of Buddhism

töông töï nhö moät vò Boà Taùt ñaõ leân ñeán Baùt ñòa, vôùi nhöõng naêng löïc thaàn thoâng bieán hoùa thaønh töïu troïn veïn.

to be after the eighth stage, with his wonder-working powers fully developed.

Veà phöông phaùp truyeàn daïy, Ñaïi thöøa ñaõ neâu roõ nhöõng giaùo lyù cuûa hoï trong nhöõng kinh1 vaø luaän2 ñöôïc phoå bieán roäng raõi, saün coù cho baát cöù ai quan taâm tìm hoïc vaø coù ñuû trí hueä ñeå nhaän hieåu. Thay theá vai troø cuûa nhöõng kinh luaän aáy, giôø ñaây chuùng ta chöùng kieán söï hình thaønh cuûa moät khoái löôïng khoång loà caùc kinh Tan-tra, loaïi kinh vaên bí truyeàn chæ daønh rieâng cho moät soá ít ngöôøi ñöôïc choïn löïa, vaø ñöôïc moät ñaïo sö3 truyeàn daïy theo caùch thích hôïp.

As for the method of teaching, the Mahāyāna had stated its doctrines in Sutras and Sastras which were public documents, available to anyone sufficiently interested to procure, and sufficiently intelligent to understand them. In their stead we now witness the composition of a new vast canonical literature of Tantras, which are secret documents destined only for a chosen few who are properly initiated by a guru, or teacher, and which are phrased in a deliberately mysterious and ambiguous language, meaningless in itself without the oral explanations of a teacher who had been properly initiated into its secrets. The secret has been well kept, and although thousands of Tantras are still extant, modern scholars seldom have a clue to their meaning, partly because, hypnotized by the “scientific” assumptions of their own age, they have little sympathy with magical modes of thinking. The general principles of Tantric teaching can be inferred with some certainty, but the concrete detail, which is bound up with actual yogic practices and constituted the real message, eludes our grasp. Unlike the early Mahayanists, the Tantric authors no longer link their scriptures with Sakymuni, but frankly assign them to some mythical Buddha Who is said to have preached them at some remote and distant past.

Nhöõng Tan-tra ñöôïc coá yù vieát ra baèng moät loaïi ngoân ngöõ bí aån vaø khoù hieåu, töï chuùng laø voâ nghóa neáu khoâng coù söï tröïc tieáp giaûng giaûi cuûa moät vò thaày ñaõ hoïc ñöôïc nhöõng bí maät trong ñoù. Nhöõng bí aån ñöôïc giöõ kín, vaø cho duø coù ñeán haøng ngaøn kinh Tantra vaãn toàn taïi, nhöng caùc hoïc giaû hieän ñaïi raát ít khi hieåu ñöôïc chuùt yù nghóa naøo trong ñoù. Phaàn naøo ñoù laø vì hoï bò chìm ñaém trong nhöõng giaû thuyeát khoa hoïc cuûa thôøi ñaïi neân coù raát ít söï ñoàng caûm vôùi caùch suy nghó coù tính chaát huyeàn bí naøy. Nhöõng nguyeân taéc chính trong vieäc truyeàn daïy Tan-tra coù theå hieåu ñöôïc vôùi phaàn naøo chaéc chaén, nhöng chi tieát cuï theå, voán gaén lieàn vôùi coâng phu thöïc haønh thieàn ñònh vaø mang laïi yù nghóa thaät söï thì khoâng theå naém baét ñöôïc. Khoâng gioáng nhö Ñaïi thöøa tröôùc ñaây, nhöõng ngöôøi bieân soaïn Tan-tra khoâng noái keát nhöõng kinh vaên môùi cuûa hoï vôùi ñöùc Thích-ca Maâu-ni, maø noùi raát xaùc quyeát raèng ñoù laø cuûa moät vò Phaät trong truyeàn thuyeát, ñaõ thuyeát giaûng cho hoï töø thôøi quaù khöù raát laâu veà tröôùc. Nhöõng neàn taûng ñeå phaùt minh ra loaïi kinh vaên môùi naøy voán ñaõ saün coù trong tröôøng phaùi Du-giaø. Tröôøng phaùi naøy ñaõ heä thoáng hoùa nhöõng kinh nghieäm ñaït ñöôïc trong quaù trình thieàn ñònh vôùi söï taäp trung cao ñoä, vaø caùc haønh giaû Du-giaø tin raèng nhöõng gì hoï thaáy ñöôïc trong thieàn ñònh gaàn vôùi thöïc taïi hôn nhieàu so vôùi nhöõng gì chuùng ta goïi laø “thöïc tieãn”, hôn caû nhöõng thôøi gian hay nôi choán, hôn caû nhöõng con ngöôøi vôùi nhöõng hoï

The foundations for these new literary conventions were laid already in the Yogacara school. That school systematizes the experiences gained in the course of an excessively introverted transic meditation, and the Yogins were convinced that the visions they had in trance had much greater reality than what we call “facts”, than dates or localities, than individuals, their 2

Sutras

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Sāstras Guru

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Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

teân vaø tieåu söû. Vaø do ñoù, hoï thöôøng tuyeân boá veà moät baûn kinh naøo ñoù laø theo söï truyeàn daïy cuûa moät vò Phaät, chaúng haïn nhö ñöùc Phaät Di-laëc, vaø hoï queân ñi vieäc ñeà caäp ñeán teân tuoåi cuï theå cuûa ngöôøi ñaõ nhaän söï truyeàn daïy ñoù. Nhö vaäy, hoï gaây raát nhieàu khoù khaên cho vieäc nghieân cöùu lòch söû hieän ñaïi, maëc duø theo quan ñieåm rieâng cuûa hoï thì taát caû nhöõng gì laø coát loõi, caàn thieát ñeàu ñaõ ñöôïc ghi cheùp ñuû. Trong moät thôøi gian daøi, nhöõng ngöôøi thuoäc phaùi Du-giaø cuõng toû ra heát söùc quan taâm ñeán nhöõng phöông thöùc truyeàn phaùp bí maät hôn nöõa, vaø boä Nhieáp ñaïi thöøa luaän1 cuûa ngaøi Voâ Tröôùc coù phaân loaïi raát roõ nhöõng phöông thöùc ñöôïc pheùp söû duïng ñeå truyeàn ñaït maät nghóa, khi ñieàu ñöôïc noùi ra khaùc vôùi nhöõng gì thaät söï muoán noùi. Thaät ra, chính töø tröôøng phaùi Du-giaø cuûa Ñaïi thöøa maø nhöõng yù töôûng vaø söï haønh trì caùc Tan-tra ñöôïc saûn sinh ra. Khuynh höôùng môùi taát yeáu seõ laøm suy yeáu heä thoáng töï vieän. Söï phaùt trieån caùc nhoùm nhoû moân ñoà phuï thuoäc hoaøn toaøn vaøo töøng vò ñaïo sö ñaõ thuùc ñaåy vieäc phaân taùn taêng ñoaøn thaønh caùc nhoùm haønh giaû Du-giaø töï laäp. Nhieàu ngöôøi trong soá ñoù tin raèng hoï ñaõ tröôûng thaønh veà maët taâm linh ñuû ñeå khoâng caàn ñeán söï kieàm cheá bôûi giôùi luaät trong töï vieän nöõa. Moät soá khaùc, do loái soáng khoâng ñuùng ñaén cuûa chính mình neân coá yù xuùc phaïm ñeán cuoäc soáng khaéc khoå cuûa nhöõng vò taêng bình thöôøng. Söï phaùt trieån cuûa Tan-tra ban ñaàu laø moät phaûn öùng töï nhieân choáng laïi caùc khuynh höôùng lòch söû ñoái nghòch ñang ngaøy caøng gia taêng, ñe doïa boùp cheát söï phaùt trieån cuûa Phaät giaùo AÁn Ñoä. Ñeå töï baûo veä, nhöõng ngöôøi truyeàn noái Phaät giaùo ngaøy caøng phaûi vaän duïng nhieàu hôn nhöõng söùc maïnh sieâu nhieân huyeàn bí vaø caàu khaån söï giuùp ñôõ cuûa nhieàu vò thaàn linh hôn, nhöõng vò maø hoï tin chaéc laø ñaõ hieän ra raát thaät trong luùc hoï thöïc haønh coâng phu thieàn ñònh.

The new trend was bound to weaken the monastic system. By fostering the development of small conventicles of disciples who owed absolute submission to their guru it favoured the dispersal of the Sańgha into self-sufficient bands of Yogins, many of whom believed that they were spiritually so developed as not to need the restraint of the monastic rules any longer, while others by their unconventional behaviour liked to cock a snook at the sheltered lives of the ordinary monks.

Mahāyānasamgraha-śāstra, Haùn dòch laø Nhieáp ñaïi thöøa luaän (攝大乘論). Vidyārājā

The mantrayanic development was originally a natural reaction against the increasingly adverse historical trends which threatened to suffocate Indian Buddhism. In their defence and for their protection its adherents now more and more mobilized magical and occult powers and invoked the help of more and more mythological beings, whose actual reality was attested to them in the practice of transic meditation. Among these great attention was paid to the “wrathful” deities, like the “Protectors of the Dharma”, also called vidydrājd, “kings of the sacred lore”, who are inherently well-meaning, but

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Trong soá caùc thaàn linh naøy, nhöõng vò coù daùng veû giaän döõ, nhö caùc vò hoä phaùp, hay cuõng goïi laø thieân töôùng Vi-ñaø,2 ñöôïc chuù 1

names and biographies. In consequence they tell us that certain works are due to the inspiration of, say, “Maitreya” and forget to mention the individual name of the human author who took down the inspiration. They thus cause great difficulties to modern historical research, though in their own view they tell us all that is essential and needful. The Yogacarins had also for a long time shown a keen interest in the more secretive modes of conveying information, and Asanga’s Mahdydnasamgraha contains a fine classification of the permissible ways by which a “hidden meaning” may be conveyed, when one says something different from what one really wants to say. It was in fact from the Yogacara branch of the Mahāyāna that the Tantric ideas and practices originated.

Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

yù ñeán raát nhieàu. Hoï voán coù baûn chaát hieàn thieän, nhöng hieän ra veû ngoaøi raát döõ tôïn ñeå baûo veä cho tín ñoà Phaät giaùo. Thaät thuù vò khi coù theå nhaän ra laø vaøo thôøi ñoù, ñeå tìm kieám söï an oån, tín ñoà Phaät giaùo ngaøy caøng ñaët nieàm tin nhieàu hôn vaøo caùc vò thaàn nöõ. Khoaûng naêm 400, thaàn nöõ Ñaø-la1 vaø Baùt-nhaõ Ba-la-maät-ña2 ñaõ ñöôïc suøng kính nhö hai vò Boà Taùt hoùa thaân. Vaø khoâng laâu sau ñoù, laïi coù theâm 5 vò nöõ hoä thaàn, vôùi hình aûnh Ñaïi khoång töôùc3 treân ñænh ñaàu. Sau ñoù, nhöõng ngöôøi thöïc haønh thieàn ñònh huyeàn vi ñeán möùc ñoä cao, daàn daàn ñöa theâm vaøo nhöõng vò nöõ hoä thaàn nhö Thuaànñaø,4 Trì Theá,5 Phaät Maãu Ñaûnh Toân Thaéng,6 Kim Cang Maãu,7 Phaät Quaùn Maãu...8 vaø nhieàu vò khaùc nöõa. Nhöõng ngöôøi thöïc haønh phaùp thuaät ñaëc bieät suøng baùi caùc vò nöõ thaàn trong truyeàn thuyeát thieâng lieâng, vaø caùc vò Khoâng Haønh Maãu.9 Nhöõng ngöôøi bình daân thöôøng ñöôïc khuyeán khích suøng baùi caùc vò nöõ thaàn coù theå ban cho hoï con caùi, hoaëc baûo veä cho khoûi beänh ñaäu muøa .v.v... Sau naêm 700, nhöõng kinh vaên ñöôïc goïi laø Tan-tra caûi caùch laïi ñöa theâm vaøo moät soá caùc vò Phaät vaø Boà Taùt. Nhöõng vò naøy ñöôïc goïi laø Minh trí10 hay Baùt-nhaõ, töông ñöông vôùi Ennoia vaø Sophia11 cuûa nhöõng tín ñoà theo giaùo phaùi Gnosticism.12 Moät nghi leã coù veû nhö lieân quan ñeán tính duïc thöôøng ñöôïc keøm theo vieäc thôø cuùng caùc vò Minh trí, vaø khía caïnh naøy cuûa Tan-tra ñaõ gaây boái roái raát nhieàu cho nhöõng ngöôøi chaâu AÂu thieáu kinh nghieäm khi tìm hieåu vieäc naøy. ÔÛ ñaây khoâng coù gì caàn noùi ñeán, vì söï thaät nhö theá naøo veà nghi leã naøy chuùng ta hoaøn toaøn khoâng ñöôïc bieát. 1 2 3 4 5

Tārā, Haùn dòch nghóa laø Ñoä maãu (度母) hay Duyeân ñoä maãu (緣度母), ñöôïc Phaät giaùo Taây Taïng toân thôø nhö laø hieän thaân cuûa Boà Taùt Quaùn Theá AÂm. Prajñā-paramitā, Baùt-nhaõ ba-la-maät-ña laø dòch theo aâm, dòch nghóa laø Trí hueä (智慧). Maät toâng cho raèng thaàn nöõ laø bieåu töôïng hieän thaân cuûa trí hueä.

Mahāmayuri

assume a terrifying appearance to protect the faithful. It is also interesting to note that in their search for security the Buddhists of that time more and more relied on feminine deities. Already about AD 400 Tara and Prajnaparamita had been adored as celestial Bodhisattvas. They were soon joined by the “Five Protectresses”, with Mahamayuri, “the great Pea Hen”, at their head. Later on the practitioners of advanced mystical meditation evolved a whole pantheon of feminine deities, like Cunda, Vasudhara, Usnisavijaya, Vajravarahi, Buddhalocana, and others; the practitioners of the magical arts were especially devoted to the “Queens of the sacred Lore” and to the dakinis, or “sky walkers”; and the general population was encouraged to turn for their own specific interests to goddesses who gave children, protected from the smallpox and so on. After 700 the so-called “left-handed” Tantra added consorts of the Buddhas and Bodhisattvas. These were called Vidyās of Prajñā, corresponding literally to the Ennoias and Sophias of the Gnostics. A seemingly erotic ritual often accompanied the cult of the vidyas, and this aspect of the Tantra has greatly bemused the more unsophisticated European enquirers. Nothing need be said about it here, because the actual facts of this ritual are totally unknown to us.

Buddhalocana Dākinī, Haùn dòch laø Khoâng haønh maãu (空行母) hay Khoâng haønh nöõ (空行女), töùc laø vò thaàn nöõ thöôøng hieän thaân ñi treân khoâng trung. 10 Vidyā 9

Cunda

Vasudhārā, Haùn dòch laø Trì Theá (持世) Uṣṇīṣavijayā 7 Vajravārahi 6

186

Teân goïi trong truyeàn thuyeát cuûa giaùo phaùi Gnosticism, coù nghóa laø trí khoân, kieán thöùc, ñöôïc xem laø phöông tieän ñeå giuùp con ngöôøi trôû laïi ñöôïc vôùi thieân ñaøng maø hoï bò caùch ly tröôùc ñaây. 12 Moät giaùo phaùi phaùt trieån töø Thieân chuùa giaùo nhöng choáng laïi nhöõng nieàm tin cô baûn cuûa ñaïo naøy. Phaùt trieån maïnh vaøo khoaûng theá kyû 2 vaø 3.

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A short history of Buddhism

Nieàm tin vaøo söï huyeàn bí, vaøo thaàn thoâng vaø söï maàu nhieäm bao giôø cuõng laø moät yeáu toá noäi taïi cuûa Phaät giaùo, cho duø ñieàu ñoù ñöôïc thöøa nhaän nhö moät keát quaû tu taäp thöïc teá hôn laø moät vaán ñeà quan troïng thöïc tieãn caàn thuùc ñaåy. Nhöng khi nhöõng taùc ñoäng tinh thaàn cuûa giaùo phaùp ngaøy caøng yeáu ñi, vaø khi hoaøn caûnh lòch söû ngaøy caøng trôû neân baát lôïi hôn, caøng phaûi coù nhieàu troâng caäy vaøo pheùp maàu ñeå xua tan nhöõng nguy hieåm vaø coù ñöôïc söï chôû che phuø hoä. Chuùng ta ñöôïc bieát raèng, khoaûng sau naêm 300 coù raát nhieàu loaïi thaàn chuù Man-tra1 daàn daàn ñöôïc ñöa vaøo kinh ñieån. Nhöõng thaàn chuù naøy cuõng ñöôïc goïi laø Ñaø-la-ni,2 bôûi vì chuùng coù muïc ñích hoä trì hay duy trì ñôøi soáng tín ngöôõng. Töø sau naêm 500, taát caû caùc hình thöùc huyeàn bí ñeàu ñöôïc vaän duïng, nhö caùc nghi leã cuõng nhö nhöõng hình troøn vaø ñoà hình huyeàn bí. Nhöõng hình thöùc naøy ñöôïc duøng ñeå baûo veä ñôøi soáng taâm linh cuûa caùc phaùp sö, ñoàng thôøi mang laïi cho ngöôøi bình daân nhöõng gì hoï mong öôùc. Pheùp baét aán3 thöôøng laøm taêng theâm hieäu löïc cuûa nhöõng caâu thaàn chuù. Theâm vaøo ñoù coøn coù nhöõng maïn-ñaø-la,4 vôùi neùt ñeïp haøi hoøa maø cho ñeán nay vaãn coøn haáp daãn khieáu thaåm myõ cuûa chuùng ta. Nhöõng voøng troøn huyeàn dieäu naøy, thöôøng ñöôïc veõ quanh moät ñieåm linh thieâng hay thuaàn khieát veà maët nghi leã, dó nhieân laø cuõng coù nguoàn goác raát xa xöa nhö caùc pheùp maàu töø thôøi tieàn söû. Tuy nhieân, caùch saép xeáp kyø laï cuûa Phaät giaùo trong caùc maïn-ñaøla naøy döôøng nhö ñaõ phaùt trieån ôû vuøng Trung AÙ vaø coù nguoàn goác lieân quan nhieàu ñeán khuoân maãu caùc loaïi göông coå Trung Hoa coù nieân ñaïi xaùc ñònh vaøo ñôøi Haùn. Caùc maïn-ñaø-la dieãn taû nhöõng söùc maïnh taâm linh vaø söùc maïnh vuõ truï döôùi moät hình thöùc huyeàn bí hay ñöôïc nhaân hoùa, theå hieän nhöõng söùc maïnh aáy thoâng qua hình aûnh caùc vò thaàn, ñöôïc trình baøy baèng hình daïng coù theå nhìn thaáy 1

Mantra, nhöõng aâm thanh ñaëc bieät khi ñoïc leân coù coâng naêng gôïi moät söùc

Dhāranī, dòch nghóa laø Toång trì (總持), nghóa laø thaâu nhieáp taát caû. Thaät ra,

maïnh sieâu hình hoaëc gaây ra moät taùc ñoäng huyeàn bí naøo ñoù.

The belief in the occult, in magic and miracles, has at all times been an integral part of Buddhism, though more by way of recognizing an established fact than as a matter of urgent practical importance. But as the spiritual potency of the Dharma waned and as history was felt to become more and more adverse, greater reliance was placed on magic to ward off dangers and secure help. We find that after AD 300 sporadically mantras of all kinds are slowly incorporated into the holy writings. These were also called dhdranis, from the rooter, because they are intended to “uphold” or “sustain” the religious life. Then, after AD 500, all the customary procedures of magic were resorted to rituals as well as magical circles and diagrams. These were employed to both guard the spiritual life of the elite, and to give to the unspiritual multitude that which it desired. Mudras, or ritual gestures, often reinforced the efficacy of the spells. Moreover there are the mandalas, the harmonious beauty of which still appeals to our aesthetic sense. Magical circles, which mark off a sacred or ritually pure spot, are, of course, as old as magic and go back well into prehistoric times. The peculiar Buddhist arrangement of mandalas seems, however, to have developed in Central Asia and owes much to the pattern of the Chinese TLV5 mirrors of the Han dynasty. The mandala expresses cosmic and spiritual forces in a mythological, or personified form, representing them by the images of deities, shown either in their visual appearance, or by the syllable which allows us to evoke them and which constitutes their occult principle. These symbols, properly read, allow us to give 3

Mudrā, töùc laø vieäc söû duïng hai baøn tay ñaët theo nhöõng tö theá nhaát ñònh trong

Maņdala, dòch nghóa laø Vieân töôùng, hay voøng troøn, ñöôïc söû duïng nhö nhöõng

khi ñoïc chuù, haønh leã hoaëc caàu nguyeän.

tuy cuõng laø daïng thaàn chuù nhö Mantra, nhöng nhöõng caâu ñaø-la-ni thöôøng coù ñoä daøi hôn.

hình aûnh thieâng lieâng nhaém ñeán nhöõng muïc ñích nhaát ñònh trong caùc nghi leã. 5 TLV = thermoluminescent version: phöông phaùp xaùc ñònh nieân ñaïi baèng ñoàng vò phoùng xaï.

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ñöôïc, hoaëc baèng nhöõng kyù töï coù khaû naêng gaây lieân töôûng ñeán caùc vò thaàn vaø nhöõng gì taïo thaønh tính chaát huyeàn bí cuûa hoï. Nhöõng bieåu töôïng naøy, neáu ñöôïc nhaän hieåu moät caùch thích hôïp seõ cho pheùp chuùng ta dieãn ñaït ñöôïc nhöõng noãi lo sôï saâu thaúm trong taâm hoàn, nhöõng rung ñoäng töø thuôû sô khai vaø nhöõng caûm xuùc töø xa xöa. Thoâng qua chuùng, ta coù theå lieân keát, khoáng cheá vaø laøm tan bieán ñi nhöõng söùc maïnh cuûa vuõ truï, taïo ra ñöôïc söï chaùn gheùt ñoái vôùi taát caû nhöõng ñieàu giaû taïo cuûa theá giôùi luaân hoài, vaø ñaït ñeán söï hôïp nhaát vôùi aùnh saùng taâm thöùc duy nhaát vaø tuyeät ñoái. Nhöõng maïn-ñaø-la laø moät hình thöùc ñaëc bieät cuûa nhöõng ñoà hình vuõ truï xa xöa, ñöôïc xem nhö tieán trình thieát yeáu phaùt trieån töø moät nguyeân taéc coát yeáu vaø xoay quanh moät truïc trung taâm laø nuùi Tu-di.1 Nhöõng ñoà hình nhö vaäy khoâng nhöõng ñöôïc taùi taïo trong caùc maïn-ñaø-la, maø coøn coù ôû nhöõng loaïi bình duøng trong nghi leã, ôû nhöõng cung ñieän hoaøng gia, ôû caùc baûo thaùp vaø ñeàn thôø. Nhôø söï töông ñoàng giöõa vuõ truï roäng lôùn vaø tieåu vuõ truï trong con ngöôøi maø kòch baûn cuûa vuõ truï ñöôïc taùi hieän trong moãi caù nhaân, vôùi taâm thöùc cuõng nhö xaùc thaân coù theå ñöôïc xem nhö laø moät maïn-ñaø-la, laø boái caûnh cuûa söï tìm caàu giaùc ngoä. Caáu truùc, söï thieát keá nhöõng maïn-ñaø-la, vaø söï lieân töôûng ñeán caùc thaàn linh ñeàu ñöôïc khoáng cheá moät caùch töï nhieân bôûi nhöõng quy taéc nghieâm ngaët vaø nghi thöùc haønh leã ñöôïc xaùc ñònh roõ. Söï boäc phaùt saùng taïo cuûa nhöõng Tan-tra ñaàu tieân ñaõ daãn ñeán moät söï hoãn loaïn hoaøn toaøn cuûa voâ soá nhöõng giaû thuyeát veà caùc söùc maïnh vuõ truï vaø taâm linh, vaø chính Kim cang thöøa laø boä phaùi ñaõ aùp ñaët traät töï saép xeáp cho khoái löôïng khoång loà nhöõng truyeàn thoáng môùi hình thaønh ñoù. Boä phaùi naøy chaáp nhaän vieäc phaân chia taát caû söùc maïnh vuõ truï thaønh naêm phaàn, moãi phaàn thuoäc veà moät trong 5 ñöùc Nhö Lai. Ñoù laø caùc vò Ñaïi Nhaät Nhö Lai,2 A-suùc-beä Nhö Lai,3 Baûo Sinh Nhö Lai,4 A-di-ñaø Nhö Lai5 vaø Baát Khoâng Thaønh Töïu Nhö Lai.6 Tieáp ñoù laø moät heä thoáng phöùc taïp vaø raát chi tieát cuûa nhöõng 190

expression to deeply hidden fears, primordial impulses and archaic passions. Through them we can chain, dominate and dissolve the forces of the universe, effect a revulsion from all the illusory things of the samsaric world, and achieve reunion with the light of the one absolute Mind. Mandalas are a special form of age-old diagrams of the cosmos, considered as a vital process which develops from one essential principle and which rotates round one central axis, Mount Sumeru, the axis mundi. Such diagrams were reproduced not only in mandalas, but also in ritual vases, royal palaces, Stupas and Temples. Owing to the equivalence of macrocosm and microcosm, the drama of the universe is reproduced in each individual, whose mind, as well as whose body, can be regarded as a mandala, as the scene of the quest for enlightenment. The construction and designing of mandalas, and the evocation of deities, were naturally governed by strict rules and well defined ritual observances. The creative outburst of the early Tantra led to a complete chaos of assumptions about cosmic and spiritual forces and it was the Vajraydna which imposed order on the vast inchoate mass of traditions which had evolved. It adopted a fivefold division of all cosmic forces, each class being in a sense presided over by one out of five Tathagatas. The names of the Five Tathagatas were Vairocana, Akshobhya, Ratnasambhava, Amitabha and Amoghasiddhi. A complicated and most intricate system of magical correspondences, identifications, transformations and transfigurations 1

Sumeru Mahāvairocana Tathagata 3 Akşobhya Tathagata 4 Ratnasambhava Tathagata 5 Amitābha Tathagata 6 Amoghasiddhi Tathagata 2

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moái töông quan huyeàn bí, söï xaùc ñònh, bieán ñoåi vaø chuyeån hoùa, lieân keát taát caû nhöõng söùc maïnh vaø söï kieän trong vuõ truï vôùi 5 phaàn naøy. Thaân theå con ngöôøi ñöôïc ñaëc bieät xem nhö moät tieåu vuõ truï, laø bieåu hieän cuûa toaøn theå vuõ truï, vaø laø phöông tieän ñeå nhaän thöùc chaân lyù, chuû yeáu laø nhôø vaøo nhöõng phöông phaùp ñaõ hình thaønh neân moät phaàn cuûa moân Du-giaø Hatha1 ngaøy nay ôû AÁn Ñoä. Chuùng ta nghe noùi nhieàu veà söï töông ñoàng giöõa nhöõng gì nhìn thaáy, nghe bieát vaø sôø moù ñöôïc, vaø taát caû moïi vieäc ñeàu ñöôïc vaïch ra nhaèm hôïp nhaát nhöõng söùc maïnh cuûa taâm yù, lôøi noùi vaø thaân theå, höôùng ñeán muïc ñích nhaän ra ñöôïc traïng thaùi roát raùo cuûa söï hoaøn taát, hay chính laø söï giaùc ngoä. Kim cang thöøa ñöôïc xaùc ñònh raát roõ raøng nhö laø moät “phöông thöùc soáng giuùp ngöôøi ta söû duïng ñöôïc moãi moät hoaït ñoäng cuûa thaân, khaåu vaø yù ñeàu nhö laø phöông tieän giuùp cho söï tieán ñeán giaùc ngoä”, vaø nhö vaäy thaät ñaùng ngaïc nhieân laø raát gioáng vôùi Thieàn toâng ngaøy nay. Tuy nhieân, yù nghóa chaân thaät cuûa Kim cang thöøa khoâng phaûi luùc naøo cuõng deã daøng nhaän ra ñöôïc, bôûi vì ôû ñaây ñaõ thaønh moät thoâng leä laø, ñöa caùi cao nhaát vaøo trong hình thöùc thaáp nhaát, laøm cho caùi linh thieâng nhaát trôû thaønh taàm thöôøng nhaát, caùi sieâu vieät nhaát trôû thaønh traàn tuïc nhaát, vaø tri thöùc chaân chaùnh nhaát ñöôïc che giaáu bôûi nhöõng nghòch lyù kyø laï nhaát. Ñaây laø moät caùch ñoái trò coù duïng taâm vôùi söï tri thöùc hoùa quaù ñaùng cuûa Phaät giaùo vaøo thôøi ñoù. Vieäc duøng ñeán raát nhieàu hình aûnh gôïi duïc ñaëc bieät coù duïng yù ñaùnh thöùc thaùi ñoä nghieâm khaéc quaù ñaùng cuûa taêng só ñoái vôùi moïi vaán ñeà lieân quan ñeán tính duïc. Söï giaùc ngoä, keát quaû söï keát hôïp giöõa trí hueä vaø phöông tieän thieän xaûo, ñöôïc trình baøy baèng söï hôïp nhaát nam vaø nöõ trong khoaùi caûm tình yeâu. Söï hôïp nhaát caû hai trong traïng thaùi giaùc ngoä laø nieàm haïnh phuùc khoâng theå dieãn ñaït.2 Söï phaùt trieån xa hôn nöõa cuûa Phaät giaùo ôû vuøng Baéc AÁn chòu aûnh höôûng lôùn lao bôûi söï uûng hoä thaát thöôøng cuûa caùc vò vua chuùa. Vaøo theá kyû 7, vua Giôùi Nhaät,2 moät quoác vöông coù phaàn keùm hôn vua A-duïc, heát loøng uûng hoä Phaät giaùo. Vò vua naøy tröôùc kia öa 192

then link all the forces and facts of the universe with these five “families”. The body in particular is regarded as a microcosm, which embodies the entire universe and is the medium for realizing the truth, very largely by methods which form a part of what is nowadays known as Hathayoga in India. We hear much about parallelisms between the visible, the audible and the touchable, and everything is designed to unite the powers of mind, speech and body for the purpose of realizing the final state of completeness, or enlightenment. The Vajrayana has been well defined as “the art of living which enables us to utilize each activity of body, speech and mind as an aid on the Path to Liberation”, and in this way it is astonishingly akin to the contemporary Ch’an school. The true meaning of Vajrayana teachings is, however, not always easy to ascertain, because here it has become a convention to clothe the highest into the form of the lowest, to make the most sacred appear as the most ordinary, the most transcendant as the most earthly, and the sanest knowledge is disguised by the most grotesque paradoxes. This is a deliberate shock therapy directed against the overintellectualization of Buddhism at that time. The abundant sexual imagery in particular was intended to shock monkish prudery. Enlightenment, the result of a combination of wisdom and skill in means, is represented by the union of female and male in the ecstasy of love. Their becoming one in enlightenment is the highest indescribable happiness (mahāsukha). The further development of Buddhism in Northern India was greatly influenced by the accidents of royal patronage. In the seventh century, King Harshavardhana, a lesser Aśoka, patronized Buddhism, preferring first the Sammitiyas, and 1 2

Hatha Yogā, chi phaùi cuûa Yogā chuù troïng nhieàu ñeán söï luyeän taäp theå löïc, thaân xaùc.

Mahāsukha, Haùn dòch nghóa laø ñaïi an laïc (大安樂). 3 Harshavardhana, trò vì töø naêm 606 – 647. 193

Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

chuoäng phaùi Sammitiyas, vaø coù leõ do keát quaû chuyeán vieáng thaêm cuûa ngaøi Huyeàn Trang töø naêm 630 ñeán naêm 644, oâng quay sang haâm moä Ñaïi thöøa, maëc duø tín ngöôõng cuûa nhaø vua coù leõ laø giaùo phaùi Shiva. Tuy nhieân, chính trieàu ñaïi Pāla cuûa Bengal (750 – 1150) ñaõ quyeát ñònh lòch söû Phaät giaùo trong nhöõng theá kyû tieáp theo sau ñoù baèng söï giuùp ñôõ cho nhöõng ñaïi hoïc cuûa Phaät giaùo. Töø theá kyû 6 ñeán theá kyû 9, ñaïi hoïc Nālandā trôû thaønh moät trung taâm tö töôûng sinh ñoäng cho toaøn theá giôùi Phaät giaùo. Döôùi trieàu ñaïi Pāla, nhöõng trung taâm môùi ñöôïc thaønh laäp ôû mieàn Ñoâng AÁn, ñaëc bieät laø Vikramasila vaø Odantapuri. Nhöõng trung taâm naøy, cuøng vôùi Jaggadala vaø Somarupa laø nhöõng trung taâm ñieåm maø töø ñoù vaên hoùa Phaät giaùo lan toûa ra khaép chaâu AÙ trong suoát töø theá kyû 9 ñeán theá kyû 12. Ngaøi Nghóa Tònh vieáng thaêm ñaïi hoïc Nālandā khoaûng naêm 700,1 ñaõ noùi veà caùc giaùo phaùi ôû ñaây raèng: “Hoï soáng ôû nhöõng nôi rieâng bieät vaø khoâng can döï vaøo nhau.” Nhöng thaät ra thì Phaät giaùo chính thöùc cuûa thôøi ñoù ñaõ laø söï pha troän giöõa giaùo lyù Baùtnhaõ vaø nhöõng Tan-tra. Vua Hoä Phaùp2 (khoaûng 770 – 810) ngay sau khi leân ngoâi raát suøng kính Haribhadra, moät phaùp sö uyeân baùc haøng ñaàu veà giaùo phaùp Baùt-nhaõ vaø Hieän quaùn trang nghieâm luaän,3 nhöng ñoàng thôøi cuõng khoâng coi thöôøng nhöõng ngöôøi dieãn dòch boä Bí maät taäp hoäi,4 moät boä Tan-tra raát noåi tieáng. Chö taêng ôû nhöõng ñaïi hoïc naøy keát hôïp sieâu hình hoïc vôùi söï maàu nhieäm, gaàn gioáng vôùi nhöõng caâu chuyeän “Gerbert ôû thaønh Rheims” vaø “Ñaïi ñeá Albert” cuûa vaên hoïc daân gian thôøi trung coå. Phaïm vi quan taâm cuûa hoï ñöôïc theå hieän raát roõ qua nhöõng gì maø Taranatha ghi nhaän laïi veà moät vò trong soá hoï nhö sau: “Baèng caùch chaêm chuù nhìn vaøo khuoân maët cuûa nöõ thaàn Ñaøla, Sö phaù tan moïi nghi ngôø cuûa mình. Sö laäp ra 8 tröôøng ñeå daïy Baùt-nhaõ Ba-la-maät-ña, 4 tröôøng ñeå giaûng giaûi boä Tan-tra Bí maät taäp hoäi, moãi tröôøng daønh cho moät trong ba loaïi Tan-tra, vaø

then, perhaps as a result of Yuan-tsang’s visit in 630-44, the Mahayana, though Shivaism may have been his own personal religion. It was, however, the Pdla dynasty of Bengal (7501150) who by their support of the great Buddhist universities determined the history of Buddhism for centuries to come. From the sixth to the ninth centuries, Nālandā had been the centre of living thought for the entire Buddhist world. Under the Pala dynasty new centres were founded in Eastern India, especially Vikramasila, and Odantapuri. These together with Jaggadala and Somarupa were the focal points from which Buddhist culture radiated over Asia during the ninth to twelfth centuries. I-Tsing, who visited Nālandā about AD 700, said of the sects there that “they rest in their own places, and do not get themselves embroiled with one another”. In fact, the official Buddhism of the period became a mixture of Prajnāpdramitā and Tantra. King Dharmapala (c. 770-810), immediately on ascending the throne, greatly honoured the teacher Haribhadra, a leading authority on Prajnāpdramitā and Abhisamayālankarā, while not at the same time neglecting the interpreters of the Guhyasamdja, a celebrated Tantric text. The monks of these universities combined metaphysics and magic almost like the Gerbert of Rheims and Albert the Great of mediaeval folklore. Their range of interest is well typified by what Taranatha reports of one of them. “By constantly looking on the face of the holy Tara he resolved all his doubts. He erected eight religious schools for the Prajnaparamitd, four for the exposition of Guhyasamdja, one each for each one of three kinds of Tantra, and he also

thaêm vieáng raát nhieàu nôi vaø coù löu laïi ñaïi hoïc Nālanda trong khoaûng 10 naêm ñeå hoïc hoûi, nhöng coù leõ sôùm hôn so vôùi thôøi ñieåm noùi ôû ñaây.

Ngaøi Nghóa Tònh veà ñeán Laïc Döông, Trung Hoa vaøo muøa heø naêm 695, vaø vaøo naêm 701, khi Voõ Taéc Thieân qua ñôøi thì ngaøi ñang ôû Trung Hoa vaø ñaõ dòch ñöôïc khaù nhieàu kinh ñieån roài. Ngaøi ñeán AÁn Ñoä vaøo khoaûng naêm 673,

Dharmapāla Abhisamayālankarā-śāstra, Haùn dòch laø Hieän quaùn trang nghieâm luaän (現觀莊嚴論) 4 Guhyasamāja-tantra, Haùn dòch laø Bí maät taäp hoäi (秘密集會)

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Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

Sö coøn laäp nhieàu tröôøng vôùi ñuû phöông tieän ñeå giaûng daïy lyù luaän Trung Quaùn. Sö baøo cheá raát nhieàu thuoác tröôøng sanh vaø phaân phaùt cho moïi ngöôøi, ñeå nhöõng ngöôøi giaø, 150 tuoåi hoaëc hôn nöõa, ñeàu treû laïi.” Söï toång hôïp caùc tö töôûng Ñaïi thöøa trong trieàu ñaïi Pāla ñaõ toû ra coù moät söùc soáng kyø laï. Maëc duø bò nhöõng ngöôøi Hoài giaùo huûy dieät ôû Bengal, Phaät giaùo vaãn ñöôïc truyeàn qua Java vaø Nepal. Vaø ôû Taây Taïng vaãn duy trì ñöôïc moät truyeàn thoáng sinh ñoäng cho ñeán nhöõng naêm gaàn ñaây. Vì tín ñoà Phaät giaùo ñi tröôùc nhöõng ngöôøi ñaïo Hindu trong vieäc phaùt trieån nhöõng kinh Tan-tra, neân hoï cuõng ñi tröôùc caû trong söï phaùt trieån moân luaän lyù. Vaøo thôøi Trung coå, vò trí trong xaõ hoäi cuõng nhö quyeàn lôïi cuûa caùc nhoùm toân giaùo ôû AÁn Ñoä, trong moät chöøng möïc naøo ñoù, tuøy thuoäc vaøo söï theå hieän cuûa hoï trong nhöõng cuoäc tranh luaän veà toân giaùo, cuõng raát phoå bieán nhö nhöõng cuoäc ñaáu kieám ôû chaâu AÂu. Trong boái caûnh naøy, seõ laø moät lôïi theá raát maïnh meõ neáu coù ñöôïc kieán thöùc veà nhöõng quy luaät maø nhôø ñoù coù theå phaân bieät roõ nhöõng keát luaän ñöôïc ruùt ra laø hôïp lyù hoaëc khoâng hôïp lyù. Cuõng gioáng nhö nhöõng cuoäc tranh luaän cuûa caùc nhaø huøng bieän Hy Laïp ñaõ daãn ñeán heä thoáng lyù luaän cuûa tröôøng phaùi Socrates, nhöõng cuoäc tranh luaän cuûa caùc giaùo phaùi ôû AÁn Ñoä cuõng ñöa ñeán vieäc hình thaønh trong Phaät giaùo nhöõng lyù thuyeát veà lyù luaän vaø nhaän thöùc. Khuynh höôùng môùi naøy ñaõ coù töø thôøi ngaøi Long Thoï,1 nhöng ngöôøi ñaàu tieân giaûng daïy moät heä thoáng maïch laïc veà lyù luaän chính laø ngaøi Traàn-na2 (vaøo khoaûng naêm 450), moät ñeä töû cuûa Boà Taùt Voâ Tröôùc.3 Ngaøi cuõng khôûi xöôùng nhöõng nghieân cöùu coù heä thoáng veà nhaän thöùc luaän trong Phaät giaùo, baøn luaän veà nguoàn goác cuûa tri thöùc, giaù trò cuûa söï nhaän hieåu vaø suy luaän, cuõng nhö ñoái töôïng cuûa tri thöùc vaø tính hieän thöïc cuûa theá giôùi ngoaïi vi. 1 2

established many religious schools with provisions for teaching the Madhyamika logic. He conjured up large quantities of the elixir of life, and distributed it to others, so that old people, 150 years old and more, became young again.” This Pala synthesis of Mahāyāna thought has shown an astounding vitality. Though destroyed by the Muslims in Bengal, it spread to Java and Nepal, and in Tibet it continued as a living tradition up to recent years. As the Buddhists preceded the Hindus in the development of Tantras, so also in that of logic. The social standing, as well as the income, of religious groups in the Indian Middle Ages depended to sorne extent on the showing they could make in the religious disputations which were about as popular at that time as tournaments were in the European Middle Ages. In this context, a knowledge of the rules by which valid can be distinguished from invalid inferences would be a definite advantage. Just as the disputes of the Greek sophists led to the logical systems of the Socratic schools, so disputes of the Indian religious sects led to the formulation of logical and epistemological theories among the Buddhists. This new trend goes back to Nagarjuna, but the first Buddhist to teach an articulate system of logic was Dinnaga (c. 450), a pupil of Asanga. He also initiated systematic epistemological studies among the Buddhists, discussing the sources of knowledge, the validity of perception and inference, as well as the object of knowledge, and the reality of the external world.

400 vaø maát naêm 480. Nhöng theo tö lieäu cuûa Taây Taïng thì ngaøi laø ñeä töû cuûa

Boà Taùt Theá Thaân (320 – 400), nieân ñaïi phaûi laø töø 380 ñeán 460. Hai thuyeát thoáng nhaát ôû khoaûng thôøi gian taïi theá cuûa ngaøi laø 80 naêm. Ngaøi laø ngöôøi ñaàu tieân caûi caùch vaø phaùt trieån boä moân lyù luaän Nhaân minh hoïc noåi tieáng cuûa Phaät giaùo. Taùc phaåm quan troïng nhaát laø Taäp löôïng luaän (Pramānasamuccaya). Tuy nhieân, tröôùc taùc cuûa ngaøi chæ coøn laïi trong caùc baûn dòch chöõ Haùn vaø Taây Taïng maø thoâi. 3 Khoâng bieát Conze caên cöù vaøo ñaâu, nhöng Phaät Quang Töø ñieån vaø moät soá tö lieäu khaùc ñeàu noùi ngaøi Traàn-na laø ñeä töû Boà Taùt Theá Thaân, em ruoät ngaøi Voâ Tröôùc.

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Nāgārjuna Dinnāga, Haùn dòch aâm laø Traàn-na (陳那), cuõng dòch theo nghóa laø Vöïc Long (域龍), nieân ñaïi cuûa ngaøi chöa ñöôïc roõ laém. Coù thuyeát noùi ngaøi sanh naêm

Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

Traûi qua thôøi kyø thöù ba, nhöõng nghieân cöùu veà lyù luaän naøy ñaõ ñaït nhöõng thaønh töïu lôùn lao vôùi Dharmakirti (khoaûng naêm 600 – 650) vaø Dharmottara (khoaûng naêm 850), nhöõng ngöôøi ñaõ ñeà caäp ñeán nhieàu vaán ñeà töøng laøm baän taâm caùc trieát gia chaâu AÂu, chaúng haïn nhö vaán ñeà töï ngaõ duy nhaát vaø söï hieän höõu cuûa caùc taâm thöùc khaùc. Moái quan taâm naøy vaãn coøn ñöôïc duy trì cho ñeán giai ñoaïn cuoái cuûa Phaät giaùo AÁn Ñoä, roài töø ñoù truyeàn sang Taây Taïng, vaø coù phaàn naøo giaûm nheï khi sang ñeán Trung Hoa vaø Nhaät Baûn.

In the course of this third period these logical studies reached great maturity with Dharmakfrti (c. 600-50) and Dharmottara (c. 850), who dealt with many of the problems which have occupied modern European philosophy, such as the problem of solipsism and the existence of other minds. This interest continues right to the end of Buddhism in India, and it was from there carried to Tibet and to a lesser extent to China and Japan.

Nhöõng nghieân cöùu veà lyù luaän cuûa Duy thöùc toâng ñöôïc phaùt trieån moät caùch hoaøn toaøn töï nhieân töø moät soá vaán ñeà maø Tyø-baøsa boä ñaõ töï ñaët ra tröôùc ñaây,1 vaø chuùng ñaõ giöõ cho tö töôûng trieát hoïc Phaät giaùo luoân luoân tieán tôùi, vaø thöôøng laø vöôït leân tröôùc thôøi ñaïi.

The logical studies of the Yogacarins developed quite naturally from some of the questions which the Vaibhashikas had asked themselves and they kept Buddhist philosophical thinking abreast, and often ahead, of the time.

Ngay taïi AÁn Ñoä, nhöõng ngöôøi Ñaïi thöøa döôøng nhö vaãn chæ laø thieåu soá. Chaúng haïn nhö, vaøo naêm 640 ngaøi Huyeàn Trang ñaõ tính trong soá 250.000 vò taêng, vaø chæ coù töø 70.000 ñeán 100.000 vò thuoäc Ñaïi thöøa. Vaø nhö vaäy, haún laø söï vieäc coù veû nhö khoâng hoaøn toaøn coâng baèng khi chuùng ta chaúng coù gì ñeå noùi veà Tieåu thöøa maø chæ ñeà caäp ñeán Ñaïi thöøa, boä phaùi ñoái nghòch cuûa hoï.

In India itself the Mahayanists appear to have remained numerically a minority. In AD 640, for instance, out of 250,000 monks counted by Yuan-tsang, only 70,000 to 100,000 belonged to the Mahāyāna. It must seem definitely unfair therefore that I can find nothing to say about the Hinayanists, and that all the space is given to their Mahāyāna rivals.

Söï khoâng caân ñoái naøy coù leõ do moät sai laàm trong caùch tieáp caän vaán ñeà ñaõ aûnh höôûng ñeán haàu heát caùc coâng trình söû hoïc. Ñoù laø, söï tieáp tuïc cuûa moät truyeàn thoáng, cho duø coù giaù trò ñeán ñaâu ñi nöõa, thöôøng ñöôïc xem laø taát nhieân vaø khoâng coù gì ñaùng noùi, vaø seõ coøn tieáp tuïc qua ñi maø khoâng coù baát cöù moät lôøi nhaän xeùt naøo. Thôøi ñieåm khôûi ñaàu cuûa moät cuoäc soáng môùi bao giôø cuõng thu huùt hoaøn toaøn moïi söï chuù yù. Vaø nhö moät caùch ñeå ñieàu chænh sai laàm naøy, ñoâi khi chuùng ta cuõng neân nhôù laïi raèng, vaøo baát cöù giai ñoaïn naøo cuõng luoân luoân hieän höõu moät ña soá tín ñoà Phaät giaùo coù ñöùc ñoä, nhöõng ngöôøi vaãn tieáp tuïc ñi theo truyeàn thoáng cuõ vaø khoâng nhaän ñöôïc baát cöù moät söï ñaùnh giaù naøo,2 cuõng gioáng nhö nhöõng ngöôøi ñaøn baø ñöùc haïnh thöôøng khoâng ñöôïc ai noùi ñeán giaù trò ñöùc haïnh aáy.

This disproportion is perhaps due to a fault in perspective which affects most historical works. The continuing tradition, however praiseworthy, is taken for granted and passed over without comment. The life sprouting out at the growing points gets all the limelight. By way of correction it is sometimes good to remember that at any given time the majority of Buddhists were virtuous people who just carried on in the old ways, and who have no news value, just as virtuous women are said to have none. 1 2

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Xem laïi phaàn 2, Chöông II Töùc laø nhöõng ngöôøi theo Tieåu thöøa.

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Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

2. NEPAL VAØ KASHMIR

2. NEPAL AND KASHMIR

Phaät giaùo Nepal tieáp tuïc phaùt trieån maïnh nhö laø moät chi nhaùnh cuûa Phaät giaùo Baéc AÁn, vaø ñaïi hoïc Pātan laø söï raäp khuoân theo moät trong nhöõng ñaïi hoïc thôøi ñaïi Pāla. Giöõa theá kyû 7 vaø 9, nhöõng quan heä maät thieát vôùi Taây Taïng ñöôïc phaùt trieån, vaø nhieàu ngöôøi Taây Taïng ñeán Nepal ñeå hoïc hoûi Phaät giaùo AÁn Ñoä. Chính taïi Nepal, ngaøi Tòch Hoä1 ñaõ gaëp ngaøi Lieân Hoa Sanh2 khi vò naøy chuyeån ñeán ngaøi lôøi thænh caàu cuûa vua Taây Taïng.3

The Buddhism of Nepal continued to flourish as an offshoot of that of Northern India, and Patan became a replica of one of the Pala universities. Between the seventh and ninth centuries close ties were developing with Tibet, and many Tibetans came to Nepal to learn about the Buddhism of India. It was in Nepal that Santaraksita encountered Padmasambhava when he conveyed to him the invitation of the king of Tibet. At the beginning of this period, the Sańgha of Kashmir suffered a serious setback from the invasions of the Huns, who under Mihirkula (c. 515) devastated the country and persecuted the monks. After their departure Meghavahana, a Buddhist ruler, forbade all slaughter of animals, while compensating butchers and fishermen for the resulting loss. This king erected many religious buildings and his successors continued to patronize the Church. Yuan-tsang remained for two years in Kashmir. He found about 5,000 monks, but noted that “at the present time this kingdom is not much given to the faith”. New prosperity began in the seventh and eighth centuries with the Karkota rulers. The faith revived again, though in a form which brought it nearer to Hindu cults. This shows itself in Sarvaj-namitra, and his Hymns in praise of Tara. Sorcery and miracle-working spread and the monks practised how to make or stop rain, how to check the flow of flooded rivers, etc. The spread of Tantrism and Devotionalism brought Buddhism nearer to Sivaism, which in its turn in the ninth and tenth centuries developed, with

Vaøo ñaàu thôøi kyø naøy, söï phaùt trieån cuûa Taêng-giaø ôû Kashmir bò trì treä moät caùch nghieâm troïng do nhöõng cuoäc xaâm laêng cuûa ngöôøi Hung Noâ, döôùi söï chæ huy cuûa Mihirakula (khoaûng naêm 515) ñaõ taøn phaù ñaát nöôùc vaø ngöôïc ñaõi taêng só. Sau khi hoï ruùt ñi, moät tín ñoà Phaät giaùo leân naém quyeàn cai trò laø Meghavahana ban haønh leänh caám gieát haïi moïi loaøi vaät, ñoàng thôøi coù chính saùch boài thöôøng cho nhöõng ngöôøi laøm ngheà baùn thòt vaø ñaùnh caù chòu thieät haïi bôûi leänh caám naøy. Nhaø vua cho xaây nhieàu töï vieän, vaø nhöõng ngöôøi noái nghieäp oâng cuõng tieáp tuïc uûng hoä taêng ñoaøn. Ngaøi Huyeàn Trang coù löu laïi 2 naêm ôû Kashmir. ÔÛ ñaây, ngaøi thaáy coù khoaûng 5.000 vò taêng, nhöng nhaän xeùt raèng “... hieän nay vöông quoác naøy khoâng coù khuynh höôùng suøng ñaïo laém”.4 Söï phaùt trieån maïnh meõ cuûa Phaät giaùo laïi baét ñaàu vaøo theá kyû 7 vaø 8 vôùi caùc vua doøng Karkota. Nieàm tin ñöôïc hoài phuïc, nhöng vôùi moät hình thöùc gaàn gioáng hôn vôùi söï thôø cuùng cuûa ñaïo Hindu. Ñieàu naøy boäc loä roõ ôû Taùt-baø-nhaõ-maät-ña5 vaø nhöõng baøi tuïng ca cuûa oâng, xöng taùn thaàn nöõ Ñaø-la. Vieäc thöïc hieän nhöõng pheùp thuaät huyeàn bí vaø maàu nhieäm lan roäng, vaø caùc taêng só ñeàu hoïc caùch caàu möa hoaëc caàu taïnh, laøm theá naøo ñeå chaën ñöùng côn luõ luït cuûa nhöõng doøng soâng.v.v... Söï lan truyeàn cuûa giaùo lyù Tan-tra vaø chuû nghóa suøng tín ñaõ mang Phaät giaùo ñeán gaàn hôn vôùi ñaïo Shiva. Vaø ñeán löôït mình, trong theá kyû 9 vaø 10, giaùo phaùi naøy ñaõ phaùt trieån nhöõng neàn 1

Śāntarakşita, Haùn dòch nghóa laø Tòch Hoä (寂護), moät vò taêng AÁn Ñoä xuaát thaân töø vieän Phaät hoïc Nālanda. 200

Padma-sambhava, Haùn dòch nghóa laø Lieân Hoa Sanh (蓮華生), ngöôøi Taây

Taïng, laø Toå khai saùng Hoàng phaùi cuûa Taây Taïng. Vua Taây Taïng thænh ngaøi Tòch Hoä ñeán Taây Taïng ñeå giaùo hoùa. 4 Töùc laø vaøo thôøi ñieåm maø ngaøi löu laïi ñoù. 3 5

Sarvajñamitra

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Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

taûng trieát hoïc vöõng chaéc vôùi Vasugupta vaø moät soá ngöôøi khaùc nöõa. Khoaûng naêm 1000, Kshemendra vieát ra quyeån Avadanas, nhöõng truyeàn thuyeát Phaät giaùo, töông töï nhö quyeån Mahatmyas cuûa ñaïo Baø-la-moân. Trong theá kyû 9, coù nhieàu taêng só Kashmir ñaõ sang Taây Taïng.

Vasugupta and others, firm philosophical foundations. About 1,000 we have Kshemendra, who wrote Avadanas, Buddhist legends resembling Brahminic Mahatmyas. In the ninth century many Kashmiri monks went to Tibet. 3. CEYLON

3. TÍCH LAN

Vaøo thôøi ñieåm naøy, Thöôïng toïa boä tìm caùch phaùt trieån ra beân ngoaøi Tích Lan qua con ñöôøng noái giöõa Tích Lan vaø nhöõng thaùnh ñòa ôû Ma-kieät-ñaø. Nhieàu taêng só cuûa boä phaùi naøy xuaát hieän ôû Nam AÁn vaø trong khu vöïc 2 beán caûng maø hoï ñi qua, nghóa laø vuøng ñoàng baèng soâng Haèng (Tamralipti) ôû phía ñoâng vaø Bharukaccha ôû phía taây. Ngay taïi Tích Lan, boä luaän A-tyø-ñaït-ma raát ñöôïc toân suøng, nhöng ñoàng thôøi vieäc luyeän taäp caùc phaùp thuaät cuõng baét ñaàu ñöôïc khuyeán khích. Khoaûng naêm 660, laàn ñaàu tieân chuùng ta nghe noùi ñeán vieäc taùn tuïng Paritta nhö moät nghi leã, vaø töø ñoù veà sau ñaõ trôû thaønh moät thoâng leä cuûa Phaät giaùo Tích Lan. Coù moät luùc Ñaïi thöøa phaùt trieån khaù maïnh, vaø coù nhöõng trung taâm ôû ñaûo quoác naøy daønh cho caû giaùo lyù Baùt-nhaõ vaø caùc kinh Tan-tra. Nhöõng chieác ñóa ñoàng Indikutasaya ñaõ giöõ laïi cho chuùng ta nhieàu phaàn cuûa moät trong nhöõng baûn kinh Baùt-nhaõ ñoà soä vieát baèng tieáng Tích Lan cuûa theá kyû 8 hoaëc 9. Nhöõng ngöôøi ôû Abbhayagiri1 vaãn tieáp tuïc tieáp thu nhieàu ñaëc ñieåm cuûa Ñaïi thöøa, vaø moái quan heä giöõa hoï vôùi Mahā-vihāra2 vaãn khoâng ñöôïc thaân thieän. Khoaûng naêm 620, caùc vò taêng ôû Mahā-vihāra töø choái yeâu caàu cuûa nhaø vua veà vieäc toå chöùc leã Boátaùt cuøng vôùi caùc vò taêng ôû Abhayagiri. Vaø ñeán khoaûng naêm 650, taêng só ôû Mahā-vihāra ñaõ töùc giaän vì nhöõng aân hueä nhaø vua ban cho Abhayagiri ñeán noãi töø choái khoâng nhaän vaät thöïc cuùng döôøng cuûa nhaø vua. Haønh ñoäng naøy ñoái vôùi moät cö só cuõng töông ñöông nhö vieäc bò truïc xuaát ra khoûi haøng nguõ tín ñoà. 1

At this time the Theravadin sect managed to expand beyond Ceylon itself on the route between Ceylon and the places of pilgrimage in Magadha, and many were found in Southern India and in the region of the two ports through which they went, i.e. the Ganges delta (Tamralipti) in the East and Bharukaccha in the West. In Ceylon itself the Abhidhamma was greatly honoured, but at the same time magical practices began to be encouraged. About 660 we hear for the first time of the chanting ofParitta as a ceremony, which became a regular feature of later Buddhism in Ceylon. For a time the Mahāyāna was fairly strong, and both Prajnaparamita and Tantra had their centres in the island. The Indikutasaya Copper Plates have preserved for us parts of one of the large Prajnaparamita Sutras in Sinhalese script of the eighth or ninth century. The Abhayagiri continued to import many Mahāyāna features and its relations to the Mahavihara remained unfriendly. About 620 the members of the Mahavihara refused the king’s request that they should hold the uposatha -ceremony together with those of the Abhayagiri, and about 650 the Mahavihara were so incensed with the king for the favours he bestowed on the Abhayagiri that they applied to him the “turning down of the alms-bowl”, an act equivalent to the excommunication of a layman.

Haùn dòch aâm laø Da-kì-ly, (耶祇釐) dòch nghóa laø Voâ UÙy Sôn (無畏山), teân

moät ngoïn nuùi ôû Tích Lan, thuoäc vuøng Anuradhapura, laø nôi xuaát phaùt moät chi nhaùnh lôùn cuûa Thöôïng toïa boä, cuõng laáy teân ngoïn nuùi naøy. 2 Xem laïi phaàn 4, Chöông II, noùi veà Phaät giaùo Tích Lan.

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Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

Vaøo naêm 536, moät quyeån kinh coù teân goïi Phaùp Giôùi1 ñöôïc mang ñeán Tích Lan, coù leõ laø noùi veà Tam thaân Phaät.2 Quyeån kinh naøy ñöôïc nhaø vua raát toân troïng, vaø trôû thaønh ñoái töôïng thôø kính. Vaøo theá kyû 9, giaùo lyù Kim cang thöøa ñöôïc moät nhaø sö AÁn Ñoä ñeán nguï ôû Abhayagiri truyeàn daïy, vaø nhaø vua ñaõ bò cuoán huùt maïnh meõ bôûi giaùo lyù naøy. Theo nhö bieân nieân söû ghi cheùp laïi thì giaùo lyù naøy “cuõng trôû neân phoå bieán trong soá nhöõng ngöôøi ngu muoäi, thaáp trí ôû ñaây nöõa”, vaø ñaõ daãn ñeán söï hình thaønh moät taêng ñoaøn ñaëc bieät cuûa caùc taêng só maëc aùo maøu xanh ñaäm. Trong theá kyû 7, phaûn öùng cuûa nhöõng vò taêng khoå haïnh choáng laïi loái soáng tieän nghi cuûa chö taêng ñaõ loä roõ ôû Abhayagiri. Nhöõng vò taêng muoán khoâi phuïc neáp soáng khaéc khoå xöa kia ñaõ töï taùch rieâng ra vaøo theá kyû 9 thaønh phaùi Pamsukulikas vaø noåi baät leân trong nhieàu theá kyû. Teân goïi cuûa hoï ñöôïc xuaát phaùt töø vieäc maëc y may baèng nhöõng mieáng gieû vuïn ñaõ boû ñi, theo nhö truyeàn thoáng nguyeân thuûy. Trong thôøi kyø Polonnaruva, töø cuoái theá kyû 8 trôû ñi, aûnh höôûng cuûa ñaïo Hindu vaøo nhöõng taäp tuïc cuûa Phaät giaùo baét ñaàu xuaát hieän.

4. CENTRAL ASIA

4. TRUNG AÙ

Vaøo ñôøi nhaø Ñöôøng, Trung AÙ laïi moät laàn nöõa trôû neân vuøng moâi giôùi giöõa Trung Hoa vaø AÁn Ñoä. Bôûi vì töø naêm 692 cho ñeán khoaûng naêm 800, Trung AÙ moät laàn nöõa laïi phuï thuoäc ñeá quoác Trung Hoa. Ngöôøi Taây Taïng cuõng coù moät thôøi gian kieåm soaùt vuøng naøy, vaø nhieàu taøi lieäu quyù giaù cuûa Taây Taïng ôû nhöõng vuøng nhö Ñoân Hoaøng3.v.v... töø theá kyû 7 ñeán theá kyû 10 ñaõ ñöôïc khaùm phaù trong nhöõng naêm gaàn ñaây.

2 3

Under the T’ang dynasty, Central Asia once more became an intermediary between China and India, for between 692 and c. 800 it was again part of the Chinese empire. The Tibetans held sway for some time and many valuable Tibetan documents from Tun-huang, etc., dating from the seventh to tenth centuries, have been recovered in recent years. The empire of the Uigurs,

Phaùp thaân, Baùo thaân vaø ÖÙng hoùa thaân, nhö ñaõ noùi roõ ôû tröôùc. Thaønh phoá thuoäc tænh Cam Tuùc, vuøng Taây Baéc cuûa Trung Hoa, laø nôi ñaõ

khai quaät ñöôïc raát nhieàu di tích vaên hoùa Phaät giaùo töø khoaûng theá kyû thöù 5 ñeán nay. 4 Moät ñeá quoác thôøi coå, coù teân goïi tröôùc ñaây laø Yuechi, thuoäc saéc daân Thoå, soáng veà phía taây baéc cuûa Trung Hoa. Theo nhöõng tö lieäu coå, hoï ñaõ töøng lieân minh vôùi nhaø Ñöôøng cuûa Trung Hoa vaøo theá kyû thöù 7. Vaøo naêm 744 hoï ñaõ ñaùnh chieám Moâng Coå vaø cai trò cho ñeán naêm 840.

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Ñeá quoác cuûa nhöõng ngöôøi Uighur,4 cöïc thònh vaøo khoaûng 1

In 536 a book called Dharmadhdtu was brought to Ceylon, which probably dealt with the Three Bodies of the Bhudda and this book was greatly honoured by the king and became an object of ritual worship. In the ninth century Vajrayana tenets were spread by an Indian monk residing in Abhayagiri and the king was greatly attracted to the teaching. In the words of the Chronicle, “it also became prevalent among the foolish and ignorant people of this country” and led to the formation of a special order of monks clad in dark blue robes. During the seventh century an ascetic reaction against the generally comfortable life of the monks made itself felt at the Abhayagiri. Those who strove to revive the rigours of old separated themselves in the ninth century and as Pam-sukulikas they were prominent for centuries, deriving their name from the ancient practice of wearing robes made from rags collected on rubbish heaps. In the Polonnaruva period, from the end of the eighth century onwards, Hindu influences on Buddhist practices began to come in.

Dharmadhātu, Haùn dòch laø Phaùp giôùi (法界).

Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

naêm 744 ñeán 840, cuõng coù phaàn aûnh höôûng quan troïng ñoái vôùi lòch söû Phaät giaùo. Naêm 840, sau khi bò ngöôøi Kirgiz ñaùnh baïi, ngöôøi Uighur beøn laäp moät vöông quoác môùi trong vuøng Turfan, Bechbaliq, Karachar vaø Kucha, roài toàn taïi ôû vuøng Turfan vaø moät soá vuøng khaùc cho ñeán theá kyû 14.1 Töø theá kyû 8, nhöõng ngöôøi Uighur voán tin theo ñaïo Mani. Vaøo theá kyû 9, hoï quay sang tin theo Phaät giaùo, vaø raát nhieàu kinh vaên Phaät giaùo ñöôïc dòch sang tieáng Uighur töø caùc baûn vaên tieáng Phaïn, tieáng Kucha, tieáng Khotan vaø tieáng Trung Hoa. Tuy nhieân, khoaûng sau naêm 900, noùi chung thì ôû vuøng Trung AÙ nhöõng ngöôøi goác Thoå theo Hoài giaùo ñaõ thay theá ngöôøi AÁn AÂu theo Phaät giaùo.

5. SOUTH-EAST ASIA

5. ÑOÂNG NAM AÙ

Phaät giaùo truyeàn ñeán Ñoâng Nam AÙ laø keát quaû nhöõng hoaït ñoäng thuoäc ñòa hoùa cuûa ngöôøi AÁn. Hoï khoâng chæ thieát laäp nhöõng cô sôû thöông maõi, maø coøn mang theo caû neàn vaên hoùa vaø tín ngöôõng cuûa hoï ñeán nöõa. Töø theá kyû 3 trôû ñi, vuøng Ñoâng Nam AÙ cuõng ñöôïc bieát nhö laø moät “AÁn Ñoä môû roäng”, ngaøy caøng bò thoáng trò nhieàu hôn bôûi nhöõng trieàu ñaïi hoaëc laø coù goác AÁn, hoaëc ít nhaát cuõng laø chòu söï thuùc ñaåy bôûi nhöõng lyù töôûng cuûa vaên hoùa AÁn. Cho ñeán theá kyû 5 vaø 6, caû Phaät giaùo Ñaïi thöøa vaø Tieåu thöøa ñeàu ñaõ truyeàn vaøo Mieán Ñieän. Ban ñaàu laø truyeàn ñeán töø xöù Pallava ôû Nam AÁn (Magadha), vaø nhöõng ngöôøi thuoäc Nhaát thieát höõu boä coù leõ ñaõ taïo ñöôïc vò trí vöõng chaéc trong moät thôøi gian. Töø theá kyû 9 trôû ñi, Phaät giaùo cuûa thôøi ñaïi Pāla truyeàn ñeán töø Bihar vaø Bengal vaø daãn ñeán söï thaønh laäp moät toå chöùc taêng ñoaøn maïnh meõ töï goïi laø Ari (töø chöõ ārya coù nghóa laø cao thöôïng). Chuùng ta khoâng coù thoâng tin gì veà nhöõng giaùo lyù sieâu hình cuûa hoï, nhöng bieát raèng hoï thôø phuïng theo tín ngöôõng Ñaïi thöøa, say meâ vieäc thöïc haønh caùc kinh Tan-tra, bieän minh cho vieäc thay ñoåi giaùo lyù baèng caùch thænh thoaûng “khaùm phaù” ra moät baûn kinh vaên bò 1

at its height between 744 and 840, is also of some importance for the history of Buddhism. Defeated in 840 by the Kirghiz, the Uigurs then founded a new kingdom in the region of Turf an, Bechbaliq, Karachar and Kucha, which persisted in Turfan and some other areas until the fourteenth century. The Uigurs, from the eighth century onwards Manichaeans, were in the ninth century converted to Buddhism and an abundance of Buddhist works was translated into Uigur from the Sanskrit, Kuchean, Khotanese and Chinese. Generally speaking, however, after 900 Turkish Islamic populations displaced the Buddhist IndoEuropeans in Central Asia. Buddhism reached South-East Asia as the result of the colonizing activities of Hindus, who not only founded trading stations, but also brought their cults and culture with them. From the third century onwards the area, also known as “Further India”, was increasingly ruled by dynasties which could either claim Indian descent, or which were at least motivated by the ideals of Hindu civilization. By the fifth and sixth century both Mahāyāna and Hīnayāna Buddhism had filtered into Burma. At first it came from the Pallava country of Southern India (Magadha) and the Sarvastivadins may well have established themselves for a time. From the ninth century onwards, Pala Buddhism was imported from Bihar and Bengal. It led in Burma to the formation of a powerful organization of monks who called themselves “Aris” (from ārya, “noble”)- We have no information about their metaphysical teachings, but we know that they worshipped the Mahāyāna pantheon, were addicted to Tantric practices, justified doctrinal innovations by occasionally discovering some “hidden scripture”

Sau khi bò ngöôøi Kirgiz ñaùnh baïi vaø phaûi ruùt chaïy ra khoûi Moâng Coå, ngöôøi Uighurs phaân taùn ra vaø thaønh laäp hai vöông quoác môùi, moät thuoäc vuøng tænh

Cam Tuùc cuûa Trung Hoa ngaøy nay, vaø moät ôû vuøng Taân Cöông. Vuøng Taân Cöông naøy bò ngöôøi Moâng Coå chieám maát vaøo theá kyû 13.

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A short history of Buddhism

choân giaáu naøo ñoù, vaø tieáp thu nhieàu taäp tuïc ñòa phöông, chaúng haïn nhö taäp tuïc ñeâm taân hoân,1 ñöôïc hoï xem nhö moät nghi leã toân giaùo. Quay sang Ñoâng Döông, chuùng ta nhaän thaáy raèng vaøo khoaûng naêm 400 thì ôû Kam-pu-chia nhöõng doøng hoï cai trò, quyù toäc vaø taêng löõ laø ngöôøi AÁn Ñoä. Chuùng ta cuõng thaáy moät söï pha troän giöõa Phaät giaùo Ñaïi thöøa vôùi ñaïo Shiva xuaát hieän ñaàu tieân ôû ñaây, khi ñoù laø Phuø Nam,2 vaø sau naêm 540 laø vöông quoác Khmer, vôùi Angkor trôû thaønh thuû ñoâ vaøo naêm 802. Ngöôøi Khmer ñaõ xaây döïng nhieàu kieán truùc ñoà soä, moät soá ñöôïc duøng ñeå thôø kính caùc vò thaùnh cuûa Phaät giaùo Ñaïi thöøa, trong ñoù ñöùc Quaùn Theá AÂm3 vaø ñöùc Döôïc Sö4 ñöôïc ñaëc bieät ngöôõng moä. Cho ñeán khoaûng naêm 1000, söï pha troän giöõa ñaïo Shiva vaø Ñaïi thöøa cuõng lan truyeàn khaép vöông quoác Chieâm Thaønh,5 maëc duø nôi ñaây yeáu toá Ñaïi thöøa khoâng maïnh laém, vaø coøn coù söï hieän dieän cuûa caû Chính löôïng boä6 vaø Nhaát thieát höõu boä nöõa. AÛnh höôûng cuûa Srivijaya caøng cuûng coá theâm söùc maïnh cuûa Ñaïi thöøa trong suoát theá kyû 9 ôû Ñoâng Döông. Töông töï, Indonesia cuõng bò cai trò bôûi nhöõng ngöôøi AÁn Ñoä vaø moät hình thöùc Phaät giaùo du nhaäp töø vuøng ñoâng nam AÁn Ñoä ñöôïc xaùc nhaän laø ñaõ hieän dieän ôû ñaây töø theá kyû 5 trôû ñi. Sau naêm 675, theá löïc cai trò cuûa Srivijaya ñaõ thay theá Baø-lamoân giaùo,7 voán raát ñöôïc phoå bieán töø tröôùc cho ñeán luùc naøy, baèng Phaät giaùo. ÔÛ Sumatra, Nhaát thieát höõu boä phaùt trieån maïnh vaøo theá kyû 7. Sau ñoù, Kim cang thöøa ñöôïc truyeàn vaøo töø caùc ñaïi hoïc Phaät giaùo thôøi Pāla. Ñieàu naøy cuõng dieãn ra ôû Trung boä Java döôùi trieàu ñaïi Sailendra töø theá kyû 8 trôû ñi, maëc duø ñaïo Shiva ôû ñaây vaãn luoân duy trì söùc maïnh. Caùc vua trieàu Sailendra xaây döïng khaép vuøng bình nguyeân Kedu nhöõng ñeàn thôø xinh ñeïp, ñöôïc chaïm troå heát söùc tinh vi. Noåi tieáng nhaát trong soá naøy laø ngoïn thaùp khoång 1

and absorbed many local customs, for instance the jus primae noctis, which they considered as an act of religious worship. Turning to Indo-China, we find that in Cambodia about AD 400 already the reigning house, the nobility and the priesthood are Hindus. We also find a mixture of Sivaism and Mahāyāna first in Fu-nan, and then, after 540, in the Khmer kingdom, of which Angkor became the capital in 802. The Khmers erected many huge buildings, some of which were devoted to Mahāyāna deities, among whom Lokesvara and Bhaisajyaguru were specially popular. Up to about AD 1000 the syncretism of Sivaism and Mahāyāna also dominated the Champa kingdom, although the Mahāyāna element was less strong there, and also the Sammitivas and Sarvastivadins were represented. The influence of Srivijaya greatly strengthened the Mahāyāna during the ninth century also in Indo-China. Indonesia was likewise ruled by Indian emigrants, and a Buddhism imported from South-East India is attested there from the fifth century onwards. The imperial power of Srivijaya after 675 replaces by Buddhism the Brahminism prevalent until then. In Sumatra the Sarvastivadins were strong in the seventh century. Later on the Vajrayana was brought in from the Pala Universities. The same happened in Central Java under the Sailendra dynasty from the eighth century onwards, although Sivaism always remained fairly strong. The Sailendras filled the Kedu plain with beautiful temples, adorned with exceptionally

Nguyeân taùc duøng jus primae noctics, chæ moät taäp tuïc ôû chaâu AÂu thôøi Trung Coå. Theo ñoù, vò Chuùa ñaát coù theå nguû tröôùc vôùi coâ daâu cuûa thuoäc haï mình

trong ñeâm taân hoân. Khoâng bieát laø ôû ñaây chæ ñeán taäp tuïc naøo cuûa Mieán Ñieän. 2 Funan, Haùn dòch aâm laø Phuø Nam (扶南). 3 Lokesvara 4 Bhaisajyaguru 5 Champa 6 Sammityas 7 Brahminism

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A short history of Buddhism

loà Borubudur, ñöôïc xaây döïng vaøo theá kyû 9,1 kieán truùc theo kieåu moät maïn-ñaø-la khoång loà baèng ñaù, töôïng tröng cho vuõ truï vaø con ñöôøng ñi ñeán giaûi thoaùt. Vì theá, nhöõng ai böôùc ñi trong ñeàn, qua caùc haønh lang, veà maët nghi leã seõ laø traûi qua tieán trình chuyeån bieán töø luaân hoài leân ñeán caûnh giôùi Nieát-baøn, vöôït qua ba coõi2 traàn tuïc ñeå leân ñeán caûnh giôùi sieâu nhieân.3 Moät soá nhöõng kinh vaên quan troïng cuûa Ñaïi thöøa ñöôïc minh hoïa ôû ñaây baèng caùc hình chaïm noåi treân töôøng, chaúng haïn nhö kinh Baûn sanh,4 kinh Phoå diệu,5 kinh Hoa nghieâm vaø kinh Phaân bieät nghieäp baùo.

fine sculptures. The most famous of these is the gigantic Borobudur, a Stupa built in the sixth century, which is a mandala in stone, and symbolizes the cosmos as well as the way to salvation. Those who walk mpradaksind through its galleries will thereby ritually undergo the process of moving out of Samsara into Nirvāṇa, ascending through the three levels of the triple world to the supramundane transcendental realm. Some of the great Mahāyāna texts are here illustrated on bas-reliefs, i.e. the Jātakamāid, Lalitavistara, Gandavyuha and Karmavibhanga.

6. TRUNG HOA VAØ TRIEÀU TIEÂN

6. CHINA AND KOREA

Khoaûng thôøi gian 3 theá kyû töø naêm 500 ñeán naêm 800 laø nhöõng naêm höng thònh vaø saùng taïo nhaát cuûa Phaät giaùo Trung Hoa. Phaät giaùo luùc baáy giôø ñaõ hoøa nhaäp vaø trôû thaønh moät phaàn trong ñôøi soáng daân toäc. Trong giai ñoaïn naøy, coù 8 toâng phaùi ñöôïc laäp ra taïi Trung Hoa. Ñoù laø: 1. Luaät toâng, do ngaøi Ñaïo Tuyeân (596-667) saùng laäp.6

The three centuries between 500 and 800 were the most prosperous and creative years for Chinese Buddhism. The religion was now assimilated, and became an integral part of national life. Eight indigenous schools arose during this period. They were:

2. Tam luaän toâng, do ngaøi Caùt Taïng (549-623) saùng laäp.7

(1) the Lu-tsung, founded by Tao-Hsuan (595-667);

Nguyeân taùc ghi laø vaøo theá kyû thöù 6, nhöng khoâng ñuùng. Trieàu ñaïi Sailendra baét ñaàu trong theá kyû thöù 8, vaø coâng trình naøy do hoï thöïc hieän vaøo khoaûng giöõa theá kyû thöù 9. 2 Töùc laø Tam giôùi, goàm Duïc giôùi, Saéc giôùi vaø Voâ saéc giôùi. 3 Kieán truùc Phaät giaùo ñoà soä naøy naèm gaàn Magelang, treân ñaûo Java ôû Indonesia. Ñöôïc caùc vua trieàu Sailendra cuûa Java xaây döïng vaøo khoaûng giöõa theá kyû thöù 9, bò boû hoang pheá vaøo theá kyû thöù 11, vaø bò caùc nhaø khaûo coå hoïc khai quaät moät phaàn vaøo ñaàu theá kyû 20. Chòu aûnh höôûng loái kieán truùc thôøi Gupta cuûa Baéc AÁn, ngoâi ñeàn naøy ñöôïc xaây döïng treân moät ngoïn ñoài cao 46 meùt vaø coù taùm taàng baèng ñaù theo kieåu baäc thang, taàng naøy xaây choàng leân ñænh taàng kia. Naêm taàng döôùi ñöôïc xaây hình vuoâng vaø bao quanh baèng nhöõng böùc töôøng coù raát nhieàu kieán truùc Phaät giaùo ñöôïc chaïm noåi leân treân beà maët. Ba taàng treân hình troøn, moãi taàng ñeàu coù thaùp thôø Phaät. Toaøn boä kieán truùc naøy ñöôïc ñaët döôùi moät ngoïn thaùp lôùn xaây leân töø trung taâm ñieåm cuûa ñænh cao nhaát. Ñöôøng ñi leân töø chaân ñeán ñænh qua caùc baäc thang vaø haønh lang daøi toång coäng khoaûng 4,8 kilomet. Thieát keá cuûa ñeàn Borobudur laø moät söï töôïng tröng cho caáu truùc cuûa vuõ truï, vaø chòu aûnh höôûng cuûa nhöõng ñeàn ñaøi ñöôïc

xaây ôû Angkor, Kam-pu-chia. Vaøo naêm 1983, Borobudur ñöôïc ñöa vaøo söû duïng nhö moät töôïng ñaøi kyû nieäm quoác gia cuûa Indonesia, sau raát nhieàu noã löïc khoâi phuïc vôùi söï taøi trôï cuûa chính phuû Hoa Kyø. 4 Noùi veà caùc truyeän tieàn thaân cuûa ñöùc Phaät. 5 Cuõng goïi laø Thaàn thoâng du hyù kinh, noùi veà hieän thaân hai ñôøi cuoái cuûa ñöùc Phaät tröôùc khi thaønh chaùnh quaû. 6 Ngaøi Ñaïo Tuyeân (道宣) saùng laäp Luaät toâng döïa treân cô sôû giôùi luaät Ñaïi thöøa. 7 Caùt Taïng (吉藏), moät vò luaän sö noåi tieáng, ñaõ töøng ôû chuøa Gia Töôøng (嘉祥寺) neân coøn ñöôïc goïi laø Gia Töôøng Ñaïi Sö. Cha meï ngaøi ñeán töø xöù An Töùc (Parthia). Ngaøi theo hoïc vôùi Phaùp Laõng töø naêm leân 7, vaø khi lôùn leân noåi tieáng vì söï uyeân baùc phi thöôøng, nhaát laø veà giaùo lyù cuûa phaùi Trung quaùn. Ngaøi ñaõ giaûng daïy vaø chuù giaûi nhieàu kinh vaên cuûa phaùi Trung quaùn, vaø nhôø ñoù cuûng coá ñöôïc neàn taûng ñeå thaønh laäp Tam luaän toâng (三論宗), döïa treân ba boä luaän laø Trung quaùn luaän, Thaäp nhò moân luaän vaø Baùch luaän. Taùc phaåm Tam luaän huyeàn nghóa (三論玄義) cuûa ngaøi ñöôïc xem laø moät neàn taûng vöõng chaéc cho giaùo lyù cuûa toâng naøy. Ngaøi coøn chuù giaûi cho boä kinh Phaùp Hoa nöõa.

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3. Phaùp töôùng toâng, do ngaøi Huyeàn Trang (596-664)1 saùng laäp. 4. Maät toâng, do ngaøi Baát Khoâng (705-774) saùng laäp.2 5. Hoa nghieâm toâng, do ngaøi Ñoã Thuaän (557-640) saùng laäp.3

(2) the San-lun, founded by Chi-tsang (549-623); (3) the Weih-shih, founded by Yuan-tsang (596-664); (4) the Mi-tsung, founded by Amoghavajra (705-74); (5) the Hua-yen tsung, founded by Tu-shun (557-640);

Theo Phaät Quang Töø ñieån thì ngaøi Huyeàn Trang (玄奘) sinh khoaûng naêm 602, nhöng coù thuyeát cho laø vaøo naêm 600. ÔÛ ñaây khoâng bieát Conze caên cöù vaøo ñaâu ñeå ñöa ra nieân ñaïi naøy. 2 Ngaøi Baát Khoâng laø ngöôøi AÁn Ñoä, teân laø Amoghavajra, Haùn dòch nghóa laø Baát Khoâng (不空), laø moät ngöôøi phieân dòch raát nhieàu kinh ñieån Phaät giaùo vaø laø moät trong nhöõng cao taêng coù nhieàu aûnh höôûng trong lòch söû Phaät giaùo Trung Hoa. Ngaøi sinh ôû Samarkand, cha laø ngöôøi AÁn Ñoä vaø meï laø ngöôøi Khang Cö (Sogdian), ñeán Trung Hoa naêm 10 tuoåi sau khi cha ngaøi qua ñôøi. Naêm 719, ngaøi xuaát gia hoïc ñaïo vôùi ngaøi Vajrabodhi (Kim Cang Trí - 金剛智). Naêm 741, khi taát caû caùc taêng só ngoaïi quoác ñeàu bò truïc xuaát khoûi Trung Hoa, ngaøi cuøng vôùi moät soá ngöôøi toå chöùc haønh höông ñeå thu thaäp kinh ñieån, ñi qua caùc vuøng Tích Lan, Ñoâng Nam AÙ vaø AÁn Ñoä. Trong chuyeán ñi naøy, ngaøi ñaõ gaëp ngaøi Nagabodhi (Long Trí -龍智), thaày cuûa ngaøi Kim Cang Trí, töùc laø sö toå cuûa ngaøi, vaø ñöôïc hoïc moät caùch chi tieát heä thoáng Kim Cang Ñaûnh Kinh (金剛頂經 - Tattvasamgraha). Ngaøi trôû veà Trung Hoa naêm 746, mang theo khoaûng 500 boä kinh. Naêm 754, ngaøi baét ñaàu dòch phaàn ñaàu boä Kim Cöông Ñaûnh, kinh ñieån coát loõi cuûa Phaät giaùo Maät Toâng, vaø coâng trình naøy laø moät trong nhöõng thaønh quaû ñaùng keå nhaát cuûa ngaøi. Ngaøi xem giaùo phaùp naøy nhö laø phöông phaùp tu taäp hieäu quaû nhaát ñeå ñaït ñeán giaùc ngoä, vaø ñaõ keát hôïp nhöõng neàn taûng cuûa giaùo lyù naøy trong moät soá tröôùc taùc cuûa mình. Ngaøi bò baét trong cuoäc noåi loaïn cuûa An Loäc Sôn (安祿山), nhöng ñöôïc caùc löïc löôïng cuûa trieàu ñình giaûi cöùu vaøo naêm 757. Khi ngaøi maát ñi vaøo naêm 774, trieàu ñình ban leänh caû nöôùc ñeå tang 3 ngaøy, vaø truy taëng raát nhieàu danh hieäu. Theo söï ghi nhaän cuûa chính baûn thaân ngaøi, thì ñaõ coù 77 boä kinh ñöôïc ngaøi phieân dòch, maëc duø con soá ñöôïc chính thöùc ñöa vaøo Haùn taïng vôùi teân ngaøi laø vöôït xa hôn nhieàu, hieän trong Ñaïi Taïng Kinh coøn giöõ laïi ñöôïc ñeán 166 boä ghi teân ngaøi. Maät Toâng ñöôïc truyeàn ôû Trung Hoa bôûi ngaøi Thieän Voâ UÙy vaø sau ñoù laø Kim Cöông Trí, nhöng vôùi nhöõng ñoùng goùp noåi baät cuûa ngaøi Baát Khoâng, ngöôøi ta ñaõ xem ngaøi nhö vò Toå saùng laäp toâng naøy. 3 Toâng naøy ñöôïc hai ngaøi Trí Nghieãm (智儼 – 602-668) vaø Ñoã Thuaän (杜順 – 557-640) khôi nguoàn, nhöng phaûi ñeán ngaøi Phaùp Taïng (法藏 – 643-712)

môùi chính thöùc hình thaønh, vaø laø moät trong nhöõng toâng chính taïo ñöôïc aûnh höôûng saâu roäng nhaát ñoái vôùi Phaät giaùo cuûa caû vuøng Ñoâng Nam AÙ. Ñöôïc thaønh laäp vaøo khoaûng cuoái ñôøi Tuøy, ñaàu ñôøi Ñöôøng, toâng naøy taäp trung chuù troïng vaøo trieát lyù noäi haøm, cho raèng vaïn vaät trong vuõ truï ñeàu haøm chöùa laãn nhau, laø nhöõng yeáu nghóa maø vò Toå saùng laäp ñaõ tieáp nhaän ñöôïc töø boä kinh Hoa nghieâm (華嚴經). Tuy nhieân, söï noåi baät cuûa toâng naøy khoâng chæ laø ôû nôi boä kinh naøy, maø thaät söï laø nhôø vaøo caùc tröôùc taùc ôû daïng chuù giaûi cuûa caùc vò toå sö saùng laäp, vôùi raát nhieàu danh töø, khaùi nieäm chöa heà xuaát hieän trong kinh. Theo truyeàn thoáng, coù ñeán 5 vò cao taêng ñöôïc xem laø ñaõ goùp phaàn saùng laäp toâng naøy. Caùc vò aáy laø Ñoã Thuaän (杜順), Trí Nghieãm (智儼), Phaùp Taïng (法藏), Tröøng Quaùn (澄觀 – 738-839) vaø Toâng Maät (宗密 –780-841). Moät hoïc giaû cö só cuõng goùp phaàn quan troïng trong tö töôûng Hoa nghieâm cuûa toâng naøy laø Lyù Thoâng Huyeàn (李通玄 – 635-730). Caùc moân ñoà cuûa toâng naøy coøn xem hai vò Maõ Minh (馬鳴 - Aśvaghosa) vaø Long Thoï (龍樹 – Nāgārjuna) cuõng laø nhöõng vò toå saùng laäp ban ñaàu. Tuy coù phaàn naøo roõ raøng laø khoâng xaùc thöïc trong vieäc gaùn gheùp toå vò cho taát caû caùc vò nhö treân, nhöng hoaøn toaøn coù theå chaáp nhaän ñöôïc moät ñieàu laø moãi ngöôøi trong soá hoï ñeàu ñaõ giöõ moät vai troø quan troïng ñaùng keå trong söï phaùt trieån cuûa toâng naøy. Chaúng haïn nhö, ngaøi Ñoã Thuaän laø ngöôøi ñaõ bieán tö töôûng Hoa nghieâm thaønh moät laõnh vöïc nghieân cöùu chuyeân bieät; ngaøi Trí Nghieãm thieát laäp nhöõng giaùo lyù cô baûn cuûa toâng; ngaøi Phaùp Taïng ñaõ goùp phaàn bieän giaûi hôïp lyù caùc giaùo lyù cuûa toâng, taïo ra söï chaáp nhaän roäng raõi trong xaõ hoäi; hai ngaøi Tröøng Quaùn vaø Toâng Maät ñaõ phaùt trieån vaø chuyeån hoùa giaùo lyù ôû moät möùc ñoä cao hôn. Sau thôøi ngaøi Toâng Maät vaø cö só Lyù Thoâng Huyeàn, toâng Hoa nghieâm cuûa Trung Hoa noùi chung khoâng coøn böôùc phaùt trieån môùi naøo nöõa, vaø cuoái cuøng böôùc vaøo giai ñoaïn phai nhaït daàn. Maëc duø vaäy, giaùo lyù sieâu hình cuûa toâng naøy, chaúng haïn nhö quan nieäm veà Töù phaùp giôùi (四法界) vôùi söï dung thoâng laãn nhau, ñaõ taïo aûnh höôûng raát saâu ñaäm ñoái vôùi nhöõng toâng phaùi Phaät giaùo Ñoâng AÙ coøn toàn taïi, ñaëc bieät laø Thieàn toâng. Ñoùng goùp quan troïng nhaát cuûa Hoa nghieâm Toâng veà maët trieát hoïc laø khía caïnh sieâu hình, vôùi giaùo lyù veà phaùp giôùi dung thoâng vaø heát thaûy moïi hieän töôïng ñeàu khoâng ngaên ngaïi laãn nhau (söï söï voâ ngaïi - 事事無礙): moät laø taát caû, vaø taát caû laø moät.

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6. Thieân thai toâng, do ngaøi Trí Khaûi (538-597) saùng laäp.1

(6) the T’ien-t’ai, founded by Chih-k’ai (538-597);

7. Tònh ñoä toâng, Do ngaøi Thieän Ñaïo (613-681) saùng laäp.

(7) the Ching-t’u, founded by Shan-tao (613-81); and

8. Thieàn toâng, ñöôïc cho laø do ngaøi Boà-ñeà Ñaït-ma saùng laäp vaøo khoaûng naêm 520.3

(8) the Gh’an school, said to have been founded by Bodhidharma about 520.

Ngaøi Trí Khaûi (智顗) vaãn ñöôïc xem laø toå thöù tö cuûa toâng Thieân thai (天台), nhöng thaät ra ngaøi môùi chính laø ngöôøi thaønh laäp toâng naøy ôû Trung Hoa. Ngaøi noåi tieáng vì laø ngöôøi ñaàu tieân trong lòch söû Phaät giaùo Trung Hoa ñaõ ñöa ra moät söï phaân loaïi troïn veïn, quan troïng vaø coù heä thoáng caùc giaùo phaùp cuûa Phaät giaùo, nhaèm giaûi thích nhöõng phaàn giaùo lyù coù veû nhö maâu thuaãn nhau. Ngaøi cuõng ñöôïc xem nhö laø ngöôøi ñaàu tieân döùt boû nhöõng troùi buoäc theo truyeàn thoáng AÁn Ñoä ñeå coù theå hình thaønh neân moät heä thoáng Phaät giaùo mang baûn saéc rieâng cho Trung Hoa. Ngaøi chòu aûnh höôûng raát nhieàu töø vò thaày ñaàu tieân laø Nam Nhaïc Hueä Tö (南嶽慧思 – 515-577), moät thieàn sö veà sau ñöôïc xem nhö vò toå khai saùng toâng Thieân Thai tröôùc ngaøi. Sau khi hoïc vôùi Hueä Tö, ngaøi ñeán Nam kinh vaø truï taïi nuùi Thieân Thai ñeå daønh troïn thôøi gian cho vieäc haønh trì vaø nghieân cöùu saâu xa kinh ñieån cuøng vôùi moät soá moân ñeä, vaän duïng phöông phaùp Chæ quaùn (止觀) cuûa thieàn AÁn Ñoä vaøo phöông thöùc tu taäp cuûa chính mình. Trong soá caùc taùc phaåm quan troïng cuûa ngaøi coù caùc boä Ma-ha chæ quaùn (摩訶止觀) Luïc dieäu phaùp moân (六妙法門). Vì ngaøi truï ôû nuùi Thieân Thai, neân thöôøng ñöôïc bieát vôùi danh xöng laø Thieân Thai Ñaïi sö (天台大師). Coù 28 taùc phaåm ñöôïc cho laø cuûa ngaøi coøn ñeå laïi trong Ñaïi Taïng Kinh cho ñeán nay, nhöng trong soá ñoù coù theå coù nhieàu baûn do moân ñoà cuûa ngaøi vieát ra veà sau. 2 Thaät ra, ngaøi Thieän Ñaïo (善導) ñöôïc xem laø toå thöù 3 cuûa Tònh Ñoä Toâng (淨土宗), vaø lòch söû hình thaønh cuûa toâng naøy coù leõ phaûi nhìn ngöôïc laïi ñeán ngaøi Ñaïo An (道安– 314-385), vaø ñeä töû noái phaùp laø ngaøi Hueä Vieãn (慧遠 – 334-416), ngöôøi ñaõ thaønh laäp Baïch Lieân Xaõ vaøo naêm 402 ñeå thöïc haønh vieäc nieäm Phaät A-di-ñaø caàu vaõng sanh veà Tònh Ñoä. Tuy nhieân, ngaøi Thieän Ñaïo vaãn giöõ moät vò trí voâ cuøng quan troïng trong vieäc phaùt trieån vaø truyeàn baù roäng raõi giaùo lyù Tònh ñoä toâng. Ngaøi xuaát gia töø luùc coøn treû vaø chuyeân taâm thieàn quaùn veà Phaät A-di-ñaø vôùi coõi Tònh ñoä cuûa ngaøi. Khi nghe danh Ñaïo Xöôùc (道綽 – 562-645), ngaøi ñaõ tìm ñeán tham hoïc vaø ñöôïc truyeàn daïy giaùo lyù Tònh ñoä. Töø ñoù ngaøi daønh troïn phaàn ñôøi coøn laïi cho vieäc haønh trì vaø phoå bieán giaùo phaùp naøy. Töông truyeàn ngaøi ñaõ sao cheùp hôn 100.000 baûn kinh A-di-ñaø vaø thöïc hieän hôn 300 böùc veõ caûnh Tònh ñoä trang nghieâm. Ngoaøi vieäc kieân trì tuïng kinh vaø nieäm Phaät, ngaøi coøn raát thaønh coâng trong thieàn

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quaùn, vaø ñaõ coù laàn trong thieàn ñònh ngaøi nhìn thaáy Phaät A-di-ñaø vôùi coõi Tònh ñoä. Ngaøi coù vieát ra 5 boä saùch, saép xeáp thaønh 9 taäp, bao goàm caû phaàn chuù giaûi cho kinh Quaùn Voâ Löôïng Thoï (觀無量壽經). Ngaøi thöôøng ñöôïc toân xöng baèng nhieàu danh hieäu nhö Quang Minh Töï Hoøa Thöôïng (光明寺和尚), Chung Nam Ñaïi Sö (終南大師)... Boà-ñeà Ñaït-ma (菩提達磨), cao taêng AÁn Ñoä. Nieân ñaïi cuûa ngaøi khoâng roõ raøng laém. Coù thuyeát cho laø vaøo khoaûng 470 – 543, nhöng theo Phaät Quang Töø ñieån thì ngaøi maát vaøo naêm 535, coøn naêm sinh khoâng roõ. Tuy nhieân, caùc thuyeát ñeàu thoáng nhaát vieäc ngaøi töø AÁn Ñoä sang Trung Hoa laø vaøo naêm 520. Ngaøi laø toå thöù 28 cuûa doøng Thieàn AÁn Ñoä, vaø laø Sô toå cuûa Thieàn toâng Trung Hoa. Ngaøi laø ñeä töû cuûa Toå thöù 27 laø Baùt-nhaõ Ña-la (Prajnādhāra) vaø laø thaày cuûa Hueä Khaû (慧可), toå thöù hai cuûa thieàn Trung Hoa. Sau khi ñeán mieàn Nam Trung Hoa vaøo naêm 520, gaëp gôõ vua Löông Vuõ Ñeá vaø nhaø vua khoâng ñuû söùc tieáp nhaän giaùo phaùp cuûa ngaøi, ngaøi lieàn ñeán Laïc Döông, leân chuøa Thieáu Laâm treân nuùi Tung Sôn. Nôi ñaây, ngaøi ngoài chín naêm lieàn quay maët vaøo vaùch khoâng giao tieáp vôùi ai, cho ñeán khi gaëp ñöôïc ngaøi Hueä Khaû vaø truyeàn phaùp. Coù truyeàn thuyeát cho raèng ngaøi ñaõ soáng ñeán 150 tuoåi, cuoái cuøng bò ñaàu ñoäc cheát vaø ñöôïc choân ôû Hoà Nam. Sau ñoù moät vò taêng ñi haønh höông ôû AÁn Ñoä veà gaëp ngaøi treân nuùi Huøng Nhó, tay caàm moät chieác deùp, cho bieát mình ñang treân ñöôøng veà AÁn Ñoä. Veà tôùi Trung Hoa, vò taêng naøy keå laïi chuyeän naøy vôùi moïi ngöôøi. Khi aáy, aùo quan ñöôïc môû ra thì khoâng thaáy gì caû, chæ coøn moät chieác deùp. Vì tích naøy, tranh töôïng cuûa ngaøi hay ñöôïc veõ vai vaùc gaäy mang moät chieác deùp. Boà-ñeà Ñaït-ma truyeàn pheùp thieàn ñònh mang truyeàn thoáng Ñaïi thöøa AÁn Ñoä, ñaëc bieät chuù troïng ñeán kinh Laêng-giaø (Lakvatra-sutra), laø boä kinh duy nhaát ngaøi mang theo khi ñeán Trung Hoa. Tuy nhieân, Thieàn toâng Trung Hoa chæ thaønh hình thaät söï vôùi Hueä Naêng, Toå thöù saùu, ñöôïc xem laø moät tröôøng phaùi ñaëc bieät naèm ngoaøi giaùo phaùp nguyeân thuûy. Thieàn toâng Trung Hoa phaùt trieån röïc rôõ keå töø ñôøi Ñöôøng. Theo giaùo sö Nguyeãn Lang trong Vieät Nam Phaät giaùo söû luaän thì Boà-ñeà Ñaït-ma coù theå ñaõ töøng ñeán Vieät Nam (Giao Chaâu) vaøo cuoái ñôøi nhaø Toáng (420 – 447), cuøng vôùi moät vò taêng AÁn Ñoä khaùc teân laø Phaùp Thieân (Dharmadeva) tröôùc khi sang Trung Hoa.

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Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

Toâng phaùi thöù nhaát, Luaät toâng, khoâng coù moät giaùo lyù rieâng bieät ñaùng keå, chæ ñöa ra muïc ñích laø thuùc ñaåy vieäc tuaân thuû giôùi luaät moät caùch nghieâm ngaët hôn, ñaëc bieät laø vieäc thoï giôùi vaø khaát thöïc. Toâng phaùi naøy coù thaønh coâng phaàn naøo trong vieäc naâng cao nhöõng chuaån möïc nghieâm tuùc trong caùc töï vieän, nhöng chaúng bao laâu ñaõ trôû neân môø nhaït. Ba toâng phaùi tieáp theo laø nhöõng heä thoáng hoïc thuaät AÁn Ñoä, ít nhieàu vaãn laø nhöõng heä thoáng ngoaïi lai cuûa Phaät giaùo Trung Hoa, vaø khoâng toàn taïi quaù moät vaøi theá kyû. Tam luaän toâng laø bieán daïng kieåu Trung Hoa cuûa phaùi Trung luaän, hay Trung quaùn toâng cuûa AÁn Ñoä. Ñuùng nhö teân goïi, toâng naøy döïa treân ba boä luaän, moät boä cuûa ngaøi Long Thoï1 vaø hai boä cuûa ngaøi Thaùnh Thieân,2 ñöôïc ngaøi Cöu-ma-la-thaäp hoaøn taát vaøo khoaûng naêm 400.3 Caùt Taïng, ngöôøi saùng laäp toâng naøy, laø ngöôøi coù raát nhieàu tröôùc taùc, phaàn lôùn laø nhöõng boä chuù giaûi vaø nhöõng saùch trình baøy kieán thöùc toång quaùt. Muïc ñích chung cuûa toâng naøy laø loaïi boû heát thaûy moïi quan ñieåm ñeå taùnh khoâng coù theå hieån hieän.

The first school, or Vinaya sect, had no doctrinal significance, its purpose being to work for a stricter observance of the Vinaya rules, particularly as regards ordination and the begging of food. The school had some success in raising the standards of monastic strictness, but it soon passed to the periphery of the Buddhist world. The next three schools are Indian scholastic systems, which remained more or less foreign bodies in Chinese Buddhism and did not endure for more than a few centuries. TheSanlun is the Chinese form of the Madhyamikas. It is based, as the name says, on “three treatises”, one by Nagarjuna and two by Aryadeva, and continues the work done by Kumarajiva about 400. Chi-tsang, its founder, was a most prolific writer of books, chiefly commentaries and encyclopaedias. The general purpose of the school is to discard all views, so that emptiness may prevail.

Muïc ñích cuûa Phaùp töôùng toâng laø phuû nhaän taát caû ñoái töôïng,

The Weih-Shih is the Chinese form of the Yogacarins and its basic textbook is the Ch’eng Weih-shih Lun, “The Completion of the Doctrine of mere ideation”. The great pilgrim Yuantsang had brought with him from Nālandā ten commentaries to Vasubandhu’s “Thirty Stanzas”, and he combined them into one work, generally giving preference to the interpretations of Dharmapala (sixth century). It is the purpose of this school to discard all objects, to see that they all “are mental representations

Nagarjuna Aryadeva 3 Thaät ra, hai trong soá 3 boä luaän cuûa toâng naøy ñöôïc xem laø cuûa ngaøi Long Thoï. Ñoù laø boä Trung luaän vaø Thaäp nhò moân luaän. Boä thöù ba laø Baùch luaän cuûa ngaøi Thaùnh Thieân. Ñoùng goùp cuûa ngaøi Cöu-ma-la-thaäp laø dòch sang Haùn vaên vaøo khoaûng naêm 400, vaø truyeàn daïy ba boä luaän naøy cho ba vò ñaïi ñeä töû laø Ñaïo Sinh (道生), Taêng Trieäu (僧肇) vaø Taêng Laõng (僧朗). Trong soá naøy, ngaøi Taêng Laõng laø ngöôøi ñaõ neâu baät ñöôïc söï khaùc bieät giöõa Tam luaän toâng

vaø Thaønh thaät toâng, neân coù theå xem laø ngöôøi thaät söï saùng laäp toâng naøy. Phaùp Laõng (法朗) vaø Caùt Taïng (吉臧) laø hai vò noåi baät trong khoaûng theá kyû thöù 6, laø thôøi hoaøng kim cuûa giaùo lyù toâng naøy. Dharmapāla, Haùn dòch nghóa laø Hoä Phaùp (護法). Boä Duy thöùc tam thaäp luaän tuïng (唯識三十論頌) do ngaøi Theá Thaân tröôùc taùc, ñaõ ñöôïc raát nhieàu ngöôøi luaän giaûi. Ngaøi Hoä Phaùp chæ laø moät trong soá ñoù, nhöng luaän giaûi cuûa ngaøi ñöôïc ñaùnh giaù raát cao vaø ñöôïc ngaøi Huyeàn Trang choïn ñeå ñöa vaøo taùc phaåm cuûa mình.

Phaùp töôùng toâng laø bieán daïng kieåu Trung Hoa cuûa Duy thöùc toâng hay Du-giaø haønh toâng cuûa AÁn Ñoä, vôùi neàn taûng caên baûn laø boä Thaønh duy thöùc luaän. Ngaøi Huyeàn Trang, moät nhaø chieâm baùi vó ñaïi, ñaõ mang veà töø ñaïi hoïc Phaät giaùo Nālanda 10 cuoán chuù giaûi boä Duy thöùc tam thaäp tuïng cuûa ngaøi Theá Thaân, vaø keát hôïp taát caû laïi thaønh moät cuoán, nhìn chung laø nghieâng theo nhöõng luaän giaûi cuûa ngaøi Hoä Phaùp4 (theá kyû 6).

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A short history of Buddhism

xem ñoù chæ laø söï bieåu loä cuûa tinh thaàn tuøy thuoäc vaøo nhöõng dieãn tieán cuûa thöùc, vaø nhaém ñeán vieäc hoøa nhaäp vaøo moät taâm duy nhaát, trong ñoù chæ coù coù thöùc laø duy nhaát. Tuy nhieân, nhöõng giaùo lyù vaø vieäc laøm cuûa hoï khoâng hoøa hôïp vôùi khuynh höôùng chung cuûa tinh thaàn ngöôøi Trung Hoa. Vôùi Khuy Cô (632-682), ñeä töû haøng ñaàu cuûa ngaøi Huyeàn Trang, tröôøng phaùi naøy coù theâm moät boä oùc sieâu vieät nöõa, nhöng chaúng bao laâu roài laïi bò suy thoaùi thaønh nhöõng cuoäc tranh caõi mang tính caùch hoïc thuaät veà thöùc thöù baûy, thöùc thöù taùm vaø thöùc thöù chín, noùi chung laø chaúng ñöa ñeán keát quaû gì maø chæ phaûn aùnh nhöõng truyeàn thoáng raát khaùc bieät cuûa AÁn Ñoä, khoâng phaûi bao giôø cuõng ñöôïc hieåu moät caùch roõ raøng. Maät toâng laø hình thöùc cuûa nhöõng Tan-tra khi ñeán Trung Hoa, cuõng ñöôïc goïi laø Chaân ngoân toâng, toâng phaùi cuûa nhöõng caâu thaàn chuù. Vaøo theá kyû 8, ba vò taêng AÁn Ñoä laø Thieän Voâ UÙy1 (637735), Kim Cang Trí2 (670-741) vaø Baát Khoâng (705-774) ñaõ ñöa vaøo Trung Hoa heä thoáng kinh Tan-tra vaø gaây ñöôïc aûnh höôûng raát lôùn ñoái vôùi trieàu ñình caùc vua Ñöôøng. Hoï thieát laäp raát nhieàu nghi leã khaùc nhau, moät phaàn laø nhaém ñeán vieäc ngaên ngöøa caùc tai hoïa cho vöông trieàu, vaø moät phaàn laø ñeå taïo aûnh höôûng toát cho nhöõng ngöôøi ñaõ cheát. Toâng phaùi naøy toàn taïi khoâng hôn moät theá kyû, vaø trong nhöõng giai ñoaïn veà sau, truyeàn thoáng Maät giaùo ôû Trung Hoa chòu aûnh höôûng cuûa caùc vò Laït-ma töø Taây Taïng ñeán. Ba tröôøng phaùi tieáp theo coù möùc ñoä hoaø nhaäp toát hôn. Tröôùc heát laø Hoa nghieâm toâng, tieâu bieåu cho moái lieân heä giöõa Duy thöùc toâng vaø giaùo lyù Tan-tra, trong ñoù toâng naøy ñöa moät söï dieãn giaûi coù tính caùch vuõ truï ñoái vôùi nhöõng tö töôûng veà baûn theå cuûa phaùi Du-giaø. Toâng phaùi naøy xuaát phaùt töø vieäc nghieân cöùu kinh Hoa nghieâm.3 ÔÛ ñaây, söï töông ñoàng hay gioáng nhau cuûa vaïn höõu ñöôïc hieåu nhö laø söï dung thoâng, haøm chöùa cuûa moãi moät yeáu toá trong theá giôùi vôùi heát thaûy moïi yeáu toá khaùc. Nguyeân lyù duy nhaát cuûa vuõ truï hieän dieän trong muoân loaøi muoân vaät, theo nghóa 1 2

Śubhakarasimha Vajrabodhi – theo Phaät Quang Töø ñieån thì nieân ñaïi cuûa ngaøi laø 671 – 741. 218

dependent upon the evolutions of consciousness”, and to merge into the one Mind in which everything is mere ideation. Its tenets and attitudes were, however, not in harmony with the general tendencies of Chinese mentality. In K’uei-chi (632-82), Yuantsang’s leading disciple, this school attracted another first-class mind, but soon it degenerated into scholastic disputes about the “seventh”, “eighth” and “ninth” consciousness, which generally did nothing but reflect divergent Indian traditions, not always clearly understood. The Mi-tsung, or “School of the Mysteries”, is the Chinese form of the Tantra. It is also known as Chen-yen, the school of the “Mantras”. In the eighth century, three Indians, Subhakarasimha (637-735), Vajrabodhi (670-741) and Amoghavajra (705-74), imported into China Tantric systems of the non-Shaktic type, and won great influence at the Court of the T’ang emperors. They there established a great variety of rites, partly designed to avert catastrophes from the Empire, and partly to favourably influence the fate of people after their death. The school lasted not much longer than a century, and in later times the Tantric tradition in China fell into the hands of Lama monks from Tibet. The next three schools attained a greater degree of assimilation. First among these is the Hua-yen-tsung, literally the “Wreath” school, which represents the link between Yogacara and Tantra, in that it gives a cosmic interpretation to the ontological ideas of the Yogacarins. It is derived from a study of the Indian Avatamsaka Sutra. Here the sameness, or identity, of everything is interpreted as the interpenetration of every element in the world with every other element. The one principle of the cosmos is present in all beings and in all 3

Avatamsaka Sutra 219

Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

laø moïi thöù ñeàu hoøa hôïp vôùi heát thaûy nhöõng thöù khaùc. Moãi moät haït buïi cuõng haøm chöùa taát caû caùc coõi Phaät, vaø moãi moät yù töôûng ñeàu höôùng ñeán taát caû trong quaù khöù, hieän taïi vaø töông lai. Theá giôùi cuûa giaùc quan laø söï phaûn aùnh cuûa chaân lyù vónh cöûu vaø huyeàn bí coù theå ñöôïc nhìn thaáy ôû khaép nôi. Khoâng gioáng nhö giaùo lyù Tan-tra, Hoa nghieâm toâng khoâng nhaém ñeán vieäc söû duïng vaø kieåm soaùt caùc söùc maïnh cuûa vuõ truï baèng nhöõng phöông thöùc maàu nhieäm, maø nhaém ñeán vieäc nghieàn ngaãm vaø ñaùnh giaù söï töông taùc cuûa chuùng. Giaùo lyù naøy aûnh höôûng raát maïnh meõ ñeán caùch nhìn veà theá giôùi töï nhieân cuûa ngöôøi Vieãn Ñoâng, vaø cuõng mang laïi caûm höùng cho nhieàu ngheä só ôû Trung Hoa, roài sau ñoù laø Nhaät Baûn. Thaønh laäp vaøo khoaûng naêm 630, Hoa nghieâm toâng toàn taïi cho ñeán khoaûng naêm 1000. Moät trong nhöõng cao taêng loãi laïc nhaát cuûa phaùi naøy laø ngaøi Phaùp Taïng (643-712), ngöôøi nöôùc Khang Cö,1 vaø ban ñaàu laø ñeä töû cuûa ngaøi Huyeàn Trang.2 Theo Duy thöùc toâng, ngaøi noùi ñeán moät caùi taâm duy nhaát taïo thaønh tính khaû höõu cho theá giôùi vaïn töôïng. Nhöng roài ngaøi vöôït xa hôn giaùo lyù Duy thöùc khi cho raèng heát thaûy vaïn vaät ñeàu coù ba ñaëc ñieåm sau ñaây: 1. Veà maët hieän höõu, moãi moät vaät theå rieâng bieät, cho ñeán moãi moät haït buïi, ñeàu haøm chöùa trong baûn thaân noù moät caùch troïn veïn toaøn theå theá giôùi thöïc taïi. 2. Veà maët saùng taïo, moãi moät vaät theå rieâng bieät, cho ñeán moãi moät haït buïi, ñeàu coù theå taïo ra ñöôïc heát thaûy moïi phaåm chaát coù theå coù, vaø vì theá maø moãi moät vaät theå ñeàu coù theå boäc loä nhöõng bí aån cuûa toaøn boä theá giôùi. 3. Trong moãi moät vaät theå rieâng bieät, cho ñeán moãi moät haït buïi, ñeàu coù theå nhaän ra ñöôïc taùnh khoâng cuûa thöïc taïi.

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Sogdian

things, in the sense that everything harmonizes with everything else. Each particle of dust contains all the Buddha-lands, and each thought refers to all that was, is and will be. The sensory universe is a reflex of the eternal and the mysteries of the truth can be beheld everywhere. Unlike the Tantra this school did not aim at the manipulation and control of cosmic forces by magical means, but was content with the contemplation and aesthetic appreciation of the interplay of these forces. This doctrine greatly influenced the attitude to nature in the Far East, and also inspired many artists in China and later on in Japan. The Hua Yen school, founded about 630, lasted until about AD 1000. One of its greatest teachers was Fa-tsang (643-712), the descendant of a Sogdian family and originally a disciple of Yuan-tsang, who wrote an important work called “Meditation which extinguishes false imaginations, and by which one returns to the source”. With the Yogacarins he speaks of one mind which makes possible the world of particulars. But then he goes beyond the Yogacarin doctrine by claiming that everything has the following three marks, or characteristics: 1. Existentially, each particular object, each “particle of dust”, contains in itself the whole realm of reality (dharmadhatu) in its entirety; 2. Creationally it can generate all possible kinds of virtue, and any object may therefore reveal the secrets of the entire world; 3. In each particle the emptiness of true reality is perceivable.

Ñuùng ra, Phaùp Taïng, hay Hieàn Thuû Phaùp Taïng (賢首法藏) laø ñeä töû cuûa ngaøi Trí Nghieãm (智儼), vaø coù giuùp ngaøi Huyeàn Trang dòch kinh ñieån, nhöng

khoâng ñöôïc bao laâu. Chuùng toâi chöa thaáy tö lieäu noùi ngaøi laø ñeä töû cuûa Huyeàn Trang.

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Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

Moân ñoà Hoa nghieâm toâng ñöôïc gôïi yù nghieàn ngaãm veà 6 vaán ñeà sau: 1. Quaùn saùt söï tónh laëng cuûa taâm thöùc, nôi maø taát caû vaïn phaùp ñeàu quy veà. 2. Nhaän roõ söï hieän höõu cuûa theá giôùi vaïn töôïng chæ laø do töø taâm thöùc. 3. Quaùn saùt söï dung thoâng toaøn haûo vaø vi dieäu cuûa vaïn phaùp. 4. Quaùn saùt vaïn phaùp ñeàu chæ laø moät theå chaân nhö, ngoaøi ra khoâng coù gì caû. 5. Quaùn saùt raèng trong taám göông lôùn cuûa söï töông ñoàng phaûn chieáu ñöôïc hình aûnh cuûa heát thaûy vaïn vaät, maø vì theá chuùng khoâng heà ngaên ngaïi laãn nhau. 6. Quaùn saùt raèng khi moät phaùp khôûi leân thì taát caû caùc phaùp cuõng ñoàng thôøi sanh khôûi vôùi noù. Thieân thai toâng ñöôïc mang teân naøy vì toå sö khai saùng laø ngaøi Trí Khaûi ñaõ soáng vaø giaûng ñaïo ôû nuùi Thieân Thai, tænh Trieát Giang. Toâng naøy coøn ñöôïc goïi laø Phaùp hoa toâng, vì laáy boä kinh Dieäu phaùp lieân hoa1 laøm neàn taûng. Ngaøi Trí Khaûi coù tröôùc taùc moät soá luaän giaûi cöïc kyø giaù trò veà phöông thöùc tu thieàn. Trong giaùo lyù cuûa mình, Thieân thai toâng nhaém ñeán vieäc toång hôïp taát caû caùc tröôøng phaùi Ñaïi thöøa khaùc nhau. Vaø trong khuynh höôùng chung, hoï taùn thaønh vieäc naâng cao ñòa vò xaõ hoäi baèng caùch coäng taùc vôùi trieàu ñình. Tinh thaàn naøy töông ñoàng vôùi Hoaøng phaùi cuûa Taây Taïng, maëc duø nhöõng ñieàu kieän ôû Trung Hoa lieân tuïc taïo ra söï ngaên chaën aûnh höôûng chính trò cuûa toâng naøy. Trong giaùo lyù mang tính trieát hoïc saâu xa vaø phöùc taïp cuûa mình, Thieân thai toâng cho thaáy nhöõng daáu hieäu aûnh höôûng raát maïnh meõ khoâng chæ cuûa Phaùp töôùng toâng vaø Hoa nghieâm toâng, maø coøn laø cuûa boä Ñaïi thöøa khôûi tín luaän, moät taùc phaåm ñöôïc cho laø cuûa ngaøi Maõ Minh nhöng raát coù theå ñöôïc vieát taïi Trung Hoa. 1

Saddharmapundarika, thöôøng goïi laø kinh Phaùp Hoa. 222

Six kinds of contemplation are recommended to the disciple: 1 To look into the serenity of Mind to which all things return; 2 To realize that the world of particulars exists because of the One Mind; 3 To observe the perfect and mysterious interpenetration of all things; 4 To observe that there is nothing but Suchness; 5 To observe that the mirror of Sameness reflects the images of all things, which thereby do not obstruct each other; 6 To observe that, when one particular object is picked up, all the others are picked up with it. The T’ien-t’ai school is so called because its founder, Chilik’ai, lived and taught in the T’ien-t’ai mountains in Chekiang. It is also known as the Fa-ma, or “Lotus” school, because it took the Saddharmapundarika as its basic text. Chih-k’ai wrote some extremely valuable treatises on the art of meditation. In its doctrines the T’ien-t’ai aimed at a syncretism of all the different Mahāyāna schools and in its general policy it tended to promote social order in collaboration with the secular authorities. Its mentality is akin to that of the Yellow Church of Tibet, although Chinese conditions produced constant checks on its political influence. In its profound and complicated philosophical teachings the T’ien-t’ai shows strong traces of the influence not only of the Weih-shih and Hua-yen schools, but also of the Awakening of Faith in the Mahay ana, a work falsely ascribed to Asvaghosha, which may very well have originated in China. 223

Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

Thieân thai toâng thieân nhieàu veà khuynh höôùng goïi caùi tuyeät ñoái laø chaân nhö hoaëc Nhö Lai taïng, haøm chöùa trong ñoù heát thaûy moïi vaät trong saïch vaø khoâng trong saïch, vaø vì theá coù theå taïo ra ñöôïc nhöõng gì thuoäc theá giôùi naøy cuõng nhö theá giôùi khaùc. Lyù thuyeát nhò nguyeân naøy laø ñieåm ñaëc bieät cuûa Thieân thai toâng. Heát thaûy söï vaät trong theá giôùi hieän töôïng ñeàu hoøa nhaäp, haøm chöùa trong nhau, vaø khoâng heà coù söï ngaên ngaïi naøo giöõa söï vaät naøy vôùi söï vaät khaùc. Thieân thai toâng coù khuynh höôùng tin vaøo moät möùc ñoä thöïc taïi lôùn hôn trong theá giôùi hieän töôïng, so vôùi giôùi haïn cuûa nhöõng tröôøng phaùi AÁn Ñoä. Trong quan heä vôùi hoaït ñoäng xaõ hoäi, hoï nhaán maïnh raèng Nieát-baøn dieät tröø heát moïi khoå naõo, nhöng khoâng gioáng nhö caùi ñaïi duïng cuûa vuõ truï. Theo hoï, chính caùc ñöùc Phaät coù theå laø ñang hoaït ñoäng vaø löu laïi trong voøng sinh töû, bôûi vì ngay caû sau khi giaùc ngoä caùc ngaøi vaãn coøn khaû naêng haøm chöùa nhöõng ñieàu baát tònh, voán chaúng bao giôø coù theå huûy hoaïi ñöôïc, vaø vì theá, gioáng nhö nhöõng ngöôøi bình thöôøng, caùc ngaøi coù theå can döï vaøo nhöõng haønh ñoäng baát tònh vaø taàm thöôøng.1 Vaø bôûi vì moãi vaät theå rieâng bieät ñeàu haøm chöùa troïn veïn taâm theå tuyeät ñoái, cho neân khoâng nhöõng laø, nhö ngaøi Ñaïo Sinh ñaõ noùi, moïi höõu tình ñeàu coù Phaät taùnh, maø nhö ngaøi Traïm Nhieân (711-782), Toå thöù 9 cuûa Thieân thai toâng, cuõng giaûi thích raèng, ngay caû nhöõng vaät voâ tri giaùc cuõng coù Phaät taùnh, vaäy taïi sao laïi coù theå coù ngoaïi leä, ngay caû laø vôùi moät haït buïi nhoû? Trong Tònh ñoä toâng, giaùo thuyeát veà Phaät A-di-ñaø ñaõ toàn taïi qua nhieàu theá kyû nhö moät traøo löu phoå bieán, vaø ngaøy caøng ñöôïc toå chöùc chaët cheõ hôn. Toâng phaùi naøy ñöôïc ngaøi Ñaïo Xöôùc (562-645) thaønh laäp, vaø ñöôïc cuûng coá bôûi ngaøi Thieän Ñaïo (613-681). Hai vò naøy ñöôïc tieáp noái bôûi moät soá caùc teân tuoåi xuaát chuùng khaùc, ñeàu ñöôïc toân xöng danh hieäu Toå sö. Ngöôøi cuoái cuøng laø ngaøi Thieáu Khang,2 maát naêm 805. 1

The T’ien-t’ai had a strong preference for calling the Absolute “true or genuine Suchness” or also the “Womb of the Tathagata”, which contains within itself all the pure and impure potentialities and is thus capable of generating both this-worldly and other-worldly things. This dualistic theory is special to the T’ien’t’ai school. All things and events of the phenomenal world are “harmoniously integrated”, and there is no barrier between one thing and another. The T’ien-t’ai tend to ascribe a greater degree of reality to the phenomenal world than the Indian schools would allow. In their concern with social activity they emphasized that Nirvāṇa eliminates all ills, but not likewise “the great functioning” of the universe. According to them even the Buddhas can work and stay within the circle of birth and death, because even after enlightenment they retain their impure potentialities, which cannot ever be destroyed and therefore they may, like ordinary people, be engaged in impure or mundane acts. And because every single thing contains the absolute Mind in its totality, not only, as Tao-sheng had said, all sentient beings have the Buddha-nature in them, but also, as Chan-jan (711-82), the ninth patriarch of the T’ien-t’ai explained, “even inanimate things possess the Buddha-nature”, “and why should exception be made of even a tiny particle of dust?” In the Ching-t’u (“Pure Land”) school Amidism, which had for centuries existed as a popular trend, became more strictly organized. This school was founded by Tao-ch’o (562-645), and consolidated by Shan-tao (613-81). These two were followed by a few more outstanding figures, called “patriarchs”, the last of whom, Shao-k’ang, died in 805.

Trong ñoaïn naøy caùch dieãn giaûi cuûa taùc giaû coù veû khoâng hoaøn toaøn phuø hôïp vôùi giaùo lyù Thieân thai toâng. Döôøng nhö oâng ñaõ suy dieãn töø quan ñieåm “taát caû chuùng sanh ñeàu coù taùnh Phaät” ñeå hieåu ngöôïc laïi raèng “taát caû Phaät ñeàu coù taùnh chuùng sanh”. Vaø caùch hieåu naøy chöa thaáy ñöôïc ñeà caäp ñeán tröôùc

ñaây bao giôø. Hình töôùng traàn tuïc chæ coù theå hieåu laø hoùa thaân cuûa caùc ñöùc Phaät maø thoâi. 2 Thieáu Khang (少康) laø ngöôøi ñaõ thaønh laäp Tònh Ñoä Ñaïo Traøng ôû Muïc Chaâu, thuoäc tænh Trieát Giang, ñeå truyeàn baù toâng chæ cuûa ngaøi Thieän Ñaïo. Ngaøi maát naêm 805 nhöng khoâng roõ sinh naêm naøo.

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Töø sau theá kyû 9, giaùo thuyeát A-di-ñaø khoâng toàn taïi rieâng bieät nhö moät toâng phaùi nöõa, maø ñaõ hieän dieän trong moïi hình thöùc Phaät giaùo ôû Trung Hoa. Giaùo lyù A-di-ñaø daïy raèng, nhôø nguyeän löïc cuûa Phaät A-di-ñaø maø vieäc xöng danh hieäu ngaøi coù theå loaïi tröø moïi chöôùng ngaïi ñeå ñi ñeán giaûi thoaùt, vaø chæ caàn nieäm danh hieäu ngaøi laø coù theå chaéc chaén seõ ñöôïc vaõng sanh veà coõi Phaät cuûa ngaøi. Thuyeát A-di-ñaø chuû yeáu döïa vaøo kinh A-di-ñaø,1 moät baûn kinh baèng Phaïn ngöõ coù vaøo khoaûng theá kyû thöù nhaát. Trong kinh noùi raèng, caùch ñaây voâ soá kieáp, Boà Taùt Phaùp Taïng2 ñaõ laäp 48 lôøi nguyeän lôùn, trong ñoù coù lôøi nguyeän raèng: taát caû chuùng sanh naøo xöng danh hieäu ngaøi ñeàu seõ ñöôïc cöùu ñoä; vaø raèng sau naøy vò Boà Taùt aáy thaønh Phaät hieäu laø A-di-ñaø; vaø cuoái cuøng, trong kinh noùi raèng caùch ñaây 10 kieáp, theo ñuùng lôøi nguyeän cuûa mình, ñöùc Phaät A-di-ñaø ñaõ hoùa hieän coõi Tònh ñoä phöông Taây, caùch xa nôi ñaây möôøi vaïn öùc coõi Phaät. Toâng phaùi naøy toân kính ñöùc Phaät A-di-ñaø baèng caùch sao cheùp thaät nhieàu aûnh töôïng cuûa ngaøi vaø nhöõng baûn kinh noùi veà ngaøi, cuõng nhö nhöõng tranh veõ ñeå minh hoïa vaø nhöõng baøi tuïng taùn ca ngôïi veû trang nghieâm cuûa coõi Tònh ñoä. Moät cuoäc nghieân cöùu caùc vaên baûn coù ghi ngaøy thaùng ôû Long Moân3 cho thaáy laø söï thôø cuùng Phaät A-di-ñaø ñaõ raát thònh haønh ôû xöù naøy vaøo khoaûng naêm 647 ñeán naêm 715. Nhöõng tín ñoà tin Phaät A-di-ñaø coøn thôø caû ñöùc Quaùn Theá AÂm, moät vò Boà Taùt AÁn Ñoä maø qua thôøi gian ñaõ chuyeån ñoåi töø nam tính thaønh nöõ tính ôû Trung Hoa.

After the ninth century Amidism ceases to have a separate corporate existence as a sect and becomes an influence which pervades all forms of Buddhism in China. Amidism taught that the power inherent in the name of the Buddha Amitabha can remove all obstacles to salvation and that the mere utterance of His name (O-mi-to-fo) can assure rebirth in His kingdom. The legend of Amitabha is based chiefly on the Sukhavativyuha, a Sanskrit text of the first century AD. It tells us that inconceivable aeons ago the Bodhisattva Dharmakara made forty-eight vows, among them the promise that all who call on his name shall be saved; that later on he became the Buddha Amitabha; and that finally, ten aeons ago, in accordance with his vows, he established the Pure Land or Western Paradise which lies one million billion Buddha-lands away. This sect honoured Amitabha by multiplying copies of His statues as well as of the Sutras which deal with Him, and also by paintings which depict and by hymns which sing the splendours of the Pure Land. A study of the dated inscriptions at Long-men shows that the cult of Amitabha flourished there particularly between 647 and 715. The Amidists also worshipped Kuan-yin, the Indian Avalokitesvara, who in the course of time changed his sex in China, and became a feminine deity.

Söùc maïnh cuûa thuyeát A-di-ñaø Phaät naèm trong tính caùch phoå caäp vôùi taát caû moïi ngöôøi. Tri thöùc cuûa haøng taêng só cao quyù aån mình trong nuùi saâu laø hoaøn toaøn vöôït quaù khaû naêng cuûa nhöõng ngöôøi bình daân phaûi soáng trong caûnh bon chen cuûa cuoäc soáng taàm thöôøng. Moät toân giaùo thu huùt ñoâng ñaûo giôùi bình daân tröôùc heát phaûi nhaém ñeán söï ñôn giaûn cöïc kyø, vaø theo nhöõng ngöôøi khôûi

The strength of Amidism lies in its democratic spirit. The intellectualism of religious aristocrats who retire into solitary mountain places is quite beyond the reach of the common people who must live in the bustle of ordinary life. A religion which appeals to the masses must above all aim at extreme simplification, and the great merit of the Ching-t’u teaching,

Sukhāvativyuha Sutra, Haùn dòch laø A-di-ñaø Kinh (阿彌陀經), cuõng goïi laø Tieåu Voâ löôïng thoï kinh (小無量夀經) hay Xöng taùn tònh ñoä Phaät nhieáp thuï kinh (稱讚淨土佛攝受經). 226

Dharmakara

Khu vöïc coù nhieàu hang ñoäng ñöôïc khai quaät thaáy raát nhieàu di tích vaên hoùa Phaät giaùo, thuoäc Laïc Döông.

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xöôùng thì lôïi theá lôùn lao cuûa giaùo lyù Tònh ñoä chính laø vieäc noù heát söùc ñôn giaûn vaø deã theo. Taát caû nhöõng gì ñöôïc ñoøi hoûi veà maët ñöùc haïnh chæ coù duy nhaát laø ñöùc tin, vaø nhöõng ngöôøi khôûi xöôùng döôøng nhö ñaõ ñaûm baûo raèng ñieàu ñoù deã tìm thaáy hôn nhieàu so vôùi khaû naêng nhaäp ñònh hoaëc trí thoâng minh. Tuy nhieân, Thieàn toâng môùi laø quan troïng nhaát trong taát caû caùc toâng phaùi ôû Trung Hoa. Ñaây laø söï taùi taïo ñoäc ñaùo nhöõng tö töôûng trong kinh Phaät laàn thöù tö, vaø cuõng laø laàn cuoái cuøng. Ba söï taùi taïo tröôùc ñoù ñaõ saûn sinh boä luaän A-tyø-ñaït-ma, giaùo lyù Ñaïi thöøa vaø nhöõng kinh ñieån Tan-tra. Thieàn toâng gaàn nhö ñoàng thôøi vôùi giaùo lyù Tan-tra, vaø caû hai coù raát nhieàu ñieåm chung. Lòch söû Thieàn toâng Trung Hoa baét ñaàu vôùi ngaøi Hueä Naêng (638-713), cuõng ñöôïc bieát vôùi danh xöng laø Luïc Toå. Tröôùc ngaøi Hueä Naêng, chuùng ta coù moät giai ñoaïn chuaån bò kieåu tieàn lòch söû cuûa Thieàn toâng, ñöôïc cho laø baét ñaàu töø Boà-ñeà Ñaït-ma, moät cao taêng Nam AÁn coù phaàn naøo mang tính caùch huyeàn thoaïi, ñaõ ñeán Trung Hoa vaøo khoaûng ñaàu theá kyû 61 vaø traûi qua 9 naêm ôû kinh ñoâ Laïc Döông ñeå chæ nhìn vaøo böùc töôøng.2 Taàm quan troïng cuûa Boà-ñeà Ñaït-ma naèm ôû vieäc ngaøi ñaõ taïo ra cho Thieàn toâng Trung Hoa moät moái lieân heä cuï theå vôùi truyeàn thoáng AÁn Ñoä, moät moái lieân heä maø Thieàn toâng raát traân troïng, baát chaáp nhöõng saùng taïo ñi khaù xa cuûa mình. Nhö chuùng ta ñöôïc nghe, ñöùc Thích-ca Maâu-ni ñaõ truyeàn giaùo phaùp bí maät cho ngaøi Ñaïi Ca-dieáp, vaø töø ngaøi Ca-dieáp truyeàn daàn qua töøng vò toå sö, nhöng chæ “laáy taâm truyeàn taâm, khoâng duøng ñeán vaên töï”.3 Cho ñeán ngaøi Boà-ñeà Ñaït-ma laø toå sö thöù 28 ñöôïc truyeàn thöøa. Töø Toå Boà-ñeà Ñaït-ma ñeán Toå Hueä Naêng, chuùng ta coøn coù boán vò toå sö nöõa, laø nhöõng ngöôøi giaûng giaûi Phaät giaùo coù pha laãn phaàn naøo vôùi Laõo giaùo, theo truyeàn thoáng cuûa ngaøi Ñaïo Sinh tröôùc ñaây. Trong soá naøy, Toå thöù ba laø Taêng Xaùn (maát naêm 606)4 raát ñaùng chuù yù vôùi baøi Tín taâm minh, moät trong nhöõng taùc phaåm coå ñieån vó ñaïi cuûa vaên hoïc Phaät giaùo. 1 2

according to its propounders, is that it is simple and easy to follow. All that is required by way of virtue is just faith, and the Ching-t’u authors seem to assume that that is more commonly found than the capacity for trance or wisdom. The most important of all Chinese schools is, however, the Ch’an school. It is the fourth and last of the original recreations of the Buddha’s thought, the first three being the Abhidharma, the Mahāyāna and the Tantra. With the Tantra Ch’an is nearly contemporary and the two have much in common. The history of the Ch’an school begins with Hui-neng (638-713), also known as the “sixth Patriarch”. Before Hui-neng we have a kind of prehistory of Ch’an, which is said to begin with Bodhidharma, a more or less legendary Southern Indian who came to China at the beginning of the sixth century and spent nine years in Lo-yang, the capital, in “wall-gazing”. The importance of Bodhidharma lies in providing the Ch’an sect with a concrete link with the Indian tradition, a link which the school in spite of its profound originality greatly cherished. The Buddha Sakyamuni, so we are told, had given the secret doctrine to Mahakasyapa, and from him it was transmitted to one “patriarch” after the other, but “from mind to mind, without the use of written texts”, until it reached Bodhidharma, the twenty-eighth of the line. Between Bodhidharma and Hui-neng we have four more “patriarchs” who taught a Buddhism strongly tinged with Taoism in the tradition of Tao-sheng. Among them the third patriarch, Seng-t’san (died 606), is noteworthy for his superb poem on “Believing in Mind”, which is one of the great classics of Buddhist literature.

Nhieàu tö lieäu ñoàng yù chính xaùc laø vaøo naêm 520. Chuyeän “cöûu nieân dieän bích” cuûa ngaøi Ñaït-ma ñöôïc bieát laø taïi ñoäng Thieáu

Thaát treân Tung Sôn, cuõng chính laø nôi ngaøi truyeàn phaùp cho Nhò toå Hueä Khaû. 3 Dó taâm aán taâm, baát laäp vaên töï (以心印心, 不立文字). 4 Theo Phaät Quang Töø ñieån thì Tam Toå Taêng Xaùn (僧粲) sinh naêm 529 vaø maát naêm 613.

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Tuy nhieân, caùc vò toå sö naøy noùi chung khoâng taïo ñöôïc bao nhieâu aûnh höôûng ñoái vôùi xaõ hoäi, vì hoï soáng trong thanh baàn, khoâng coù truï xöù coá ñònh, vaø thöôøng theo moät nguyeân taéc laø khoâng nguû laïi baát cöù nôi naøo quaù moät ñeâm.1 Nhöõng ghi cheùp trong lòch söû coøn ñi xa hôn nöõa khi cho thaáy raèng söï giaûng giaûi giaùo lyù cuûa caùc vò toå naøy ñaõ ñöa ñeán söï baát ñoàng giöõa moät chi phaùi ôû mieàn Baéc, ñöùng ñaàu laø ngaøi Thaàn Tuù (khoaûng 600-706),2 vôùi moät chi phaùi ôû mieàn Nam, ñöùng ñaàu laø ngaøi Hueä Naêng ôû Quaûng Chaâu. Ñieåm chính trong söï tranh luaän giöõa ñoâi beân laø tieäm ngoä vaø ñoán ngoä. Moân ñoà phía baéc theo chuû tröông tieäm ngoä, cho raèng nhöõng ñieàu baát tònh cuûa chuùng ta phaûi ñöôïc tröø boû moät caùch daàn daàn, nhôø vaøo noã löïc coâng phu chuyeân caàn.3 Khoâng bao laâu thì chi phaùi naøy taøn luïi. Thieàn toâng maø chuùng ta noùi ñeán ôû ñaây bao goàm caùc ñeä töû raát ña daïng cuûa ngaøi Hueä Naêng. Veà maët toå chöùc, Thieàn toâng chæ trôû neân ñoäc laäp vaøo thôøi cuûa ngaøi Baùch Tröôïng Hoaøi Haûi4 (720-814). Tröôùc ñoù, haàu heát caùc thieàn sö ñeàu soáng trong nhöõng töï vieän cuûa Luaät toâng vaø tuaân theo giôùi luaät cuûa phaùi naøy. Ngaøi Baùch Tröôïng ñaõ ñöa ra moät loaït nhöõng quy taéc môùi ñoái vôùi taêng só cuûa Thieàn toâng, nhaèm khoâi phuïc nhöõng ñieàu kieän soáng khaéc khoå vaø ñôn giaûn cuûa Taêng-giaø nhö thuôû ban ñaàu, vaø cuõng keát hôïp giôùi luaät Phaät giaùo vôùi nhöõng khuoân pheùp öùng xöû cuûa Khoång giaùo. Thanh quy cuûa taát caû caùc thieàn vieän ñeàu ñöôïc ruùt ra töø caùc quy taéc cuûa ngaøi Baùch Tröôïng.5 Ngaøi ñaõ aùp duïng moät söï caûi caùch raát hieäu quaû, giuùp ñaûm baûo ñöôïc söï toàn taïi vaø thaønh coâng trong xaõ hoäi cho toâng phaùi cuûa mình. 1

These patriarchs had, however, little influence on society in general, because they lived in poverty without a fixed residence and generally made it a rule not to spend more than one night in any one place. History further records that the interpretation of the teachings of these patriarchs led to a rift between a Northern branch, headed by Shen-hsiu (c. 600706), and a Southern branch, headed by Hui-neng, of Canton, the main point in dispute being the question of “gradual” and “sudden” enlightenment. The Northern followers of “gradual enlightenment”, who assumed that our defilements must be gradually removed by strenuous practice, soon died out. What we call the Ch’an school consists of Hui-neng’s numerous disciples. Organizationally, Ch’an became independent only at the time of Po-chang Huai-hai (720-814). Up to then, most Ch’an monks had lived in monasteries of the Lu-tsung under the regulations of its Vinaya. Now Po-chang made a new set of rules for Ch’an monks, which tried to revive the austerity and simplicity of living conditions in the early Order, and also combined the Buddhist Vinaya with Confucian rules of etiquette. The regulations of all Ch’an monasteries are derived from Pochang. He introduced an innovation which did much to ensure the survival and social success of his sect. 2

Ñieåm naøy coù veû khoâng ñöôïc roõ raøng laém. Nhö chuùng ta bieát, caùc Toå sö ñeàu coù truï xöù ñeå hoaèng hoùa, vaø nhö theo kinh Phaùp Baûo Ñaøn coøn ghi laïi thì nuùi Hoaøng Mai nôi Nguõ Toå truyeàn phaùp laø moät ngoâi chuøa lôùn vôùi taêng chuùng hôn ngaøn ngöôøi, coøn coù caùc cö só tuï taäp ñeå giuùp vieäc taïp dòch haøng ngaøy. Luïc toå ban ñaàu cuõng laø moät trong nhöõng cö só ñoù. Veà ñieåm “khoâng nguû moät nôi quaù hai ñeâm” laø theo ñuùng truyeàn thoáng Phaät giaùo nguyeân thuûy, nhö caùc vò sö khaát thöïc cuûa Thöôïng toïa boä, khoâng phaûi quan ñieåm cuûa caùc thieàn sö. Vieäc Toå Ñaït-ma chín naêm ngoài ngoù vaùch (cöûu nieân dieän bích) cuõng ñuû noùi leân ñieàu naøy.

Theo Phaät Quang Töø ñieån thì nieân ñaïi cuûa ngaøi Thaàn Tuù (神秀) laø 605 – 706. 3 Theå hieän roõ neùt cho quan ñieåm naøy laø baøi keä noåi tieáng cuûa ngaøi Thaàn Tuù, ñöôïc Nguõ Toå cho raèng ngöôøi sau chæ caàn “Y theo keä naøy tu khoûi ñoïa neûo aùc. Y theo keä naøy tu, ñöôïc lôïi ích lôùn.” Baøi keä naøy ñöôïc taïm dòch nhö sau: Thaân laø caây Boà-ñeà, Taâm nhö ñaøi göông saùng. Thöôøng sieâng lau sieâng röûa, Chôù ñeå baùm buïi nhô. 4 Baùch Tröôïng Hoaøi Haûi (百丈懷海), laø ñeä töû noái phaùp cuûa ngaøi Maõ toå Ñaïo Nhaát. 5 Töùc laø boä Baùch Tröôïng thanh quy (百丈清規), moät taùc phaåm noåi tieáng vaø ñaõ ñöôïc choïn laøm khuoân maãu trong vieäc toå chöùc caùc thieàn vieän.

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A short history of Buddhism

Taêng só trong thieàn vieän ñi khaát thöïc vaøo moãi buoåi saùng, nhöng ngoaøi ra coøn phaûi laøm vieäc nöõa. Chaâm ngoân cuûa ngaøi Baùch Tröôïng laø “Moät ngaøy khoâng laøm, moät ngaøy khoâng aên.”1 Ñaây laø moät ñieàu maø tröôùc ñoù cuõng chöa töøng nghe noùi ñeán. Thieàn toâng coù hai thôøi kyø phaùt trieån maïnh meõ. Thôøi kyø thöù nhaát vaøo ñôøi Ñöôøng vaø thôøi kyø thöù hai vaøo ñôøi Toáng. Thôøi kyø thöù hai seõ noùi ñeán trong chöông IV, vaø ôû ñaây chuùng ta chæ giôùi haïn trong thôøi kyø thöù nhaát. Töø laâu, vieäc caân nhaéc giöõa trau gioài tri thöùc vaø coâng phu haønh trì xem ñieàu naøo quan troïng hôn ñaõ laø moät vaán ñeà khoù khaên. Thieàn toâng, ngöôïc laïi vôùi phaùi Dhammakathika cuûa Tích Lan, ñaõ coù quyeát ñònh hoaøn toaøn döùt khoaùt trong vieäc chuù troïng ñeán coâng phu thöïc haønh. Thieàn toâng nhaän ra raèng, coù ñoâi khi loøng nhieät thaønh cuûa tín ñoà ñaõ laøm gia taêng quaù nhieàu caùc phöông tieän tìm caàu giaûi thoaùt, nhö caùc hình thöùc kinh keä, sôù giaûi, nhöõng söï phöùc taïp veà trieát hoïc, nhöõng hình töôïng vaø nghi leã... cho ñeán noãi chính baûn thaân muïc ñích giaûi thoaùt coù theå bò khuaát laáp ñi, vaø ñôøi soáng taâm linh coù nguy cô phaûi cheát ngaït trong chính nhöõng ñieàu ñaõ ñöôïc vaïch ra ñeå nuoâi döôõng noù. Trong phaûn öùng choáng laïi söï thöøa thaõi quaù ñoä veà phöông thöùc tu taäp do söï nhieät thaønh, Thieàn toâng nghieâng haún veà moät söï ñôn giaûn cöïc kyø trong phöông thöùc ñaït ñeán giaùc ngoä. Hoï khoâng ngöøng pheâ phaùn söï vaän duïng sai laàm caùc phöông thöùc tu taäp, voán töï noù ñaõ coù theå deã daøng trôû neân beá taéc. Ñaëc bieät, Thieàn toâng töï mình choáng laïi vieäc thôø kính quaù ñaùng ñoái vôùi nhöõng truyeàn thoáng theo kinh ñieån, vaø luoân cho raèng söï giaûi thoaùt khoâng theå tìm thaáy trong vieäc nghieân cöùu kinh saùch. Ñieàu ñoù khoâng coù nghóa laø hoï khoâng hoïc taäp kinh saùch. Traùi laïi, nhöõng thuyeát giaûng cuûa hoï duøng ñeán raát nhieàu trích daãn töø kinh ñieån, nhö kinh Kim cang vaø kinh Laêng-giaø laø hai boä kinh ñöôïc Thieàn toâng chuoäng duøng nhaát trong giai ñoaïn ban ñaàu. Nhöng hoï tin chaéc raèng vieäc nghieân cöùu kinh saùch chæ ñoùng moät vai troø hoaøn toaøn thöù yeáu so vôùi yeâu caàu coâng phu thieàn ñònh vaø chöùng ngoä. 1

The monks went on their begging round each morning, but in addition they were expected to work. “A day without work, a day without eating” was Po-chang’s watchword. This was something unheard of so far. The Ch’an school has had two periods of vigorous development, the first in the T’ang, the second in the Sung period. The second phase belongs to chapter IV, and here we confine ourselves to the first. It had long been a problem whether learning or practical realization is more important. The Ch’an sect, as against the Ceylonese Dhammakathikas, uncompromisingly decided in favour of practical realization. They found a situation in which the fervour of the faithful had so multiplied the means of salvation, in the form of Sutras, commentaries, philosophical subtleties, images and rites, that the goal itself was apt to be lost sight of; the spiritual life was in danger of being choked by the very things which were designed to foster it.

Nhaát nhaät baát taùc, nhaát nhaät baát thöïc. (一日不作, 一日不食.) Chaâm ngoân naøy ñaõ trôû thaønh phoå bieán ngay caû trong caùc töï vieän ôû Vieät Nam ta.

In their reaction against the overgrown apparatus of piety they advocated a radical simplification of the approach to enlightenment. They never tired of denouncing the misuse of this apparatus, which could so easily have become an end in itself. In particular they set themselves against the excessive worship paid to the scriptural traditions and insisted that salvation could not be found by the study of books. That did not mean that they studied no books at all. On the contrary their own sayings are saturated with references to such works as the Vajracchedikd Sutra, and the Lankdvatdra Sutra, the two favourites of the school in its early days. But they felt strongly that the study of these Sutras should play only quite a subordinate role compared with the demands of meditation (Ch’an means dhydna) and spiritual realization.

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Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

Nhöõng lyù thuyeát phöùc taïp veà vuõ truï vaø taâm lyù cuûa caùc toâng phaùi Phaät giaùo khaùc ñeàu bò phuû nhaän nhö laø nhöõng thöù raùc röôûi vaø voâ duïng. Ñeå phaûn ñoái söï suøng kính quaù ñaùng vaø nhöõng kieán giaûi sai laàm luùc ñoù veà vai troø cuûa ñöùc Phaät, moät thieàn sö noåi tieáng ñôøi Ñöôøng laø Ñan Haø Thieân Nhieân,1 vaøo theá kyû 8, ñaõ ñoát moät töôïng Phaät ñeå söôûi aám khi oâng thaáy laïnh. Vì söï troùi buoäc hoaøn toaøn vôùi nhöõng moái quan taâm vaøo moät ñoái töôïng tuyeät ñoái coù theå laø moät raøo chaén, neân moät thieàn sö khaùc ñaõ laïnh luøng noùi raèng “neáu nhö coù gaëp Phaät ngaên ñöôøng, haõy gieát vò Phaät aáy ñi”.2 Ít phaàn quyeát lieät hôn laø nhöõng caâu traû lôøi cuûa thieàn sö Nam Vieän Hueä Ngung.3 Khi ñöôïc hoûi “Phaät laø gì?”, ngaøi chæ hoûi laïi: “Caùi gì khoâng phaûi laø Phaät?”, hoaëc laø: “Ta chöa töøng bieát oâng aáy.”, hoaëc “Ñôïi khi naøo coù ñöôïc moät vò, ta seõ cho oâng bieát.” Nhöõng caâu traû lôøi naøy gaàn nhö khoâng mang laïi gì ñeå trí oùc coù theå baùm víu vaøo. Thieàn toâng nhaém ñeán khoâi phuïc Phaät giaùo nhö moät giaùo lyù taâm linh. Theá giôùi taâm linh coù nhöõng quy luaät rieâng, kích thöôùc rieâng vaø caùch thöùc hieän höõu rieâng. Ñieàu naøy khieán trôû neân khoù hieåu ñoái vôùi caùch nhaän thöùc cuûa theá tuïc, vaø coù theå noùi chính xaùc raèng taâm linh chæ coù theå nhaän hieåu ñöôïc baèng con maét taâm linh. Thieàn toâng bieát raát roõ raèng hoï tieâu bieåu cho moät söï khôûi ñaàu hoaøn toaøn môùi. Nhö nhöõng tín ñoà tu taäp Tan-tra tin theo ñöùc Lieân Hoa Sanh xem ngaøi nhö vò Phaät thöù hai, cuõng ñaùng tin caäy nhö ñöùc Thích-ca Maâu-ni, thì cuõng treân tinh thaàn ñoù, tín ñoà Phaät giaùo Thieàn toâng ñaõ coá yù goïi taäp saùch ghi cheùp nhöõng lôøi thuyeát giaûng cuûa ngaøi Hueä Naêng laø moät quyeån kinh,3 danh töø chæ duøng cho nhöõng giaùo lyù do chính ñöùc Phaät noùi ra. Vì Thieàn toâng khoâng thích söï tri thöùc hoùa vaø heä thoáng hoùa, neân vaên chöông 1 2

Ñan Haø Thieân Nhieân (丹霞天然 – 739 – 824). Phuøng Phaät saùt Phaät (逢佛殺佛)

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The complicated cosmological and psychological theories of the other Buddhist schools are rejected as just so much “rubbish” and “useless furniture”. By way of protest against the excesses of devotion and the current misunderstandings of the Buddha’s role, a famous Ch’an master of the T’ang dynasty, Tan-hsia T’ien-jan, in the eighth century, when he was cold, burned a statue of the Buddha and warmed himself by it. Because a definite fixation of the affections on a definite object might act as a fetter, another Ch’an master coldly informs us that, if you meet the Buddha, you ought to kill Him if He gets in your way. Less drastic are the replies of another Ch’an master Nan-yuan Hui-yung, to the question, “What is the Buddha?” He just said, “What is not the Buddha?”, or “I never knew Him”, or “Wait until there is one, then I will tell you”. All this hardly gives the mind very much to rest upon. Ch’an was intent on restoring Buddhism as a spiritual doctrine. Spiritual things have their own laws, their own dimensions, and their own mode of being. This makes them rather indefinite for mundane perception, and it has been rightly said that the spirit can be apprehended only by the eyes of the Spirit. The Ch’an school well knew that it represented a quite new departure. Just as the Tantric followers of Padmasambhava regarded him as a second Buddha, equal in authority to Sakyamuni, so in the same spirit the Ch’an Buddhists deliberately called a collection of Hui-neng’s sermons a “Sutra”, a term reserved for the Buddha’s own utterances. Because the Ch’an school abhorred all intellectualization and systematiza3

Hueä Ngung (860-950), thieàn sö Trung Hoa, ngöôøi xöù Haø Baéc, ñeä töû noái phaùp thieàn sö Höng Hoaù Toàn Töông, thuoäc toâng Laâm Teá. Ngaøi hoaèng hoùa ôû Nam Vieän thuoäc Thieàn vieän Baûo ÖÙng ôû Nhöõ Chaâu (nay laø huyeän Laâm An, tænh Haø Nam) neân ñöôïc goïi laø Nam Vieän. 4 Töùc laø cuoán Phaùp Baûo Ñaøn Kinh

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Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

Thieàn toâng, trong chöøng möïc coù ñöôïc, hoaøn toaøn khaùc haún vôùi nhöõng maãu möïc cuûa AÁn Ñoä.

tions, its own literature, insofar as it had any, widely departed from the Indian models.

Moät soá ít thieàn sö döôøng nhö coù soaïn ra caùc baøi thuyeát giaûng vaø nhöõng keä tuïng ñeå daïy cho moân ñoà, nhöng ñaïi ña soá caùc thieàn sö ñôøi Ñöôøng ñeàu töø choái khoâng ghi cheùp laïi baát cöù ñieàu gì. Hoï töï giôùi haïn trong moät soá raát ít nhöõng lôøi daïy ngaén nguûi vaø khoù hieåu, maø veà sau naøy ñöôïc goùp nhaët laïi thaønh nhöõng cuoán ngöõ luïc cuûa coå ñöùc. Hoï khoâng tin vaøo nhöõng hieäu quaû bò boùp meùo cuûa ngoân ngöõ, neân coá gaéng daãn daét ñeä töû ñeán choã giaùc ngoä khoâng chæ laø baèng nhöõng lôøi nhaän xeùt voâ nghóa, maø coøn baèng nhöõng caùch nhö duøng gaäy ñaùnh vaøo nhöõng luùc thích hôïp, vuoát muõi, hoaëc taïo ra nhöõng tieáng ñoäng ñoät ngoät vaø voâ nghóa, nhö tieáng heùt noåi tieáng cuûa ngaøi Maõ Toå .v.v...

A few Ch’an monks seem to have composed sermons and didactic hymns, but the great majority of the T’ang masters refused to write down anything at all. They confined themselves to a few brief and cryptic sayings, which at a later age were collected as “Sayings of the Ancient Worthies”. So much did they distrust the distorting effect of words, that they tried to induce enlightenment in their pupils not only by nonsensical remarks, but by beating them at appropriate moments with a stick, pulling their noses, or making rude and inconsequential noises, like Ma-tsu’s famous “Ho”, etc. Their method of teaching was technically known as “strange words and stranger actions”. Because no written work can contain them, these teachings were held to be something outside the scriptures. They are regarded as instances of the “Buddha-mind” speaking directly to the “Buddha-mind”, and they transmit the “Seal of Mind” directly from teacher to pupil. It is, of course, not easy to distil from such unpromising material a rationally formulated philosophical doctrine. But, attempting the impossible, one may well say that these were the chief tenets of Ch’an.

Phöông phaùp truyeàn daïy cuûa Thieàn toâng ñöôïc hieåu theo thieàn ngöõ laø “lôøi noùi kyø ñaëc vaø haønh ñoäng kyø ñaëc hôn”. Vì khoâng moät vaên baûn naøo coù theå haøm chöùa nhöõng ñieàu ñoù, cho neân söï truyeàn daïy nhö theá naøy ñöôïc xem laø naèm ngoaøi kinh vaên. Chuùng ñöôïc xem nhö laø nhöõng tröôøng hôïp maø taâm Phaät töông giao tröïc tieáp cuøng taâm Phaät, vaø Thieàn toâng trao truyeàn taâm aán laø tröïc tieáp töø thaày ñeán troø. Dó nhieân laø khoâng deã gì ñeå ruùt ra töø nhöõng caùch truyeàn daïy khoâng troïn veïn nhö treân moät giaùo lyù coù tính caùch trieát hoïc ñöôïc hình thaønh hôïp lyù. Nhöng, trong moät coá gaéng thöû laøm ñieàu khoâng theå ñöôïc, coù theå noùi raèng sau ñaây laø nhöõng giaùo lyù chính cuûa Thieàn toâng. 1. Tröôùc heát, coù moät lôøi daïy noåi tieáng raèng “Quaû Phaät ñöôïc thaønh töïu qua vieäc giaùc ngoä töùc thì.” Tuy nhieân, laø nhöõng ngöôøi thöïc tieãn, caùc thieàn sö khoâng quan taâm nhieàu ñeán caùc lyù thuyeát giaùc ngoä so vôùi söï thaønh töïu thöïc tieãn. Phaùi Tieåu thöøa coù quaù nhieàu ñieàu ñeå noùi veà giaùc ngoä, nhöng khoâng coøn ñaøo taïo ra vò thaùnh giaùc ngoä naøo nöõa caû, cho duø laø A-la-haùn hay Phaät. Ñaïi thöøa truyeàn thoáng cuõng khoâng khaù gì hôn, vaø phaûi bieän minh cho söï khoâng thaønh töïu roõ raøng naøy baèng caùch khaúng ñònh raèng baát cöù moät vò Boà Taùt naøo cuõng phaûi traûi qua voâ soá kieáp tu taäp tröôùc khi coù 236

First of all, there is the famous teaching that “Buddhahood is achieved through instantaneous enlightenment”. As practical people, the Ch’an Buddhists were not, however, so much interested in theories about enlightenment, as in its practical achievement. The Hinayana had much to say about “enlightenment”, but could no longer produce any fully enlightened people, be they Arhats or Buddhas. Nor was the traditional Mahāyāna in any better position and had to justify its apparent sterility by asserting that any given Bodhisattva would have to still pass through aeons and aeons of preparation before 237

Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

theå thaønh töïu quaû Phaät. Vaøo theá kyû 7 vaø 8, moät soá tín ñoà Phaät giaùo coù phaàn naøo maát kieân nhaãn vôùi nhöõng giaùo lyù ñaõ ñöa muïc tieâu giaùc ngoä veà ñeán moät töông lai voâ haïn, vaø ñoøi hoûi nhöõng keát quaû nhanh choùng hôn. Ñieàu naøy daãn ñeán saùng taïo nhöõng kinh ñieån Tan-tra vôùi phöông thöùc ñeå thaønh töïu quaû Phaät ngay trong thaân naøy, vaø nhöõng noã löïc cuûa Thieàn toâng ñeå giaùc ngoä ngay trong ñôøi naøy.

he could become a Buddha. In the seventh and eighth centuries a number of Buddhists became rather impatient with doctrines which deferred the attainment of the goal to an indefinite future and insisted on quicker results. This led to the Tantra devising methods for winning Buddhahood “in this very body”, and to the Ch’an working for enlightenment “in this very life”.

Thieàn toâng noùi raèng trong toâng moân cuûa hoï luùc naøo cuõng coù raát nhieàu ngöôøi ñaït ñeán giaùc ngoä. Nhöng veà ñieàu naøy, hoï khoâng duøng töø giaùc (bodhi - boà-ñeà) nhö truyeàn thoáng ñeå chæ traïng thaùi giaùc ngoä, maø duøng moät töø môùi laø ngoä,1 ñöôïc bieát nhieàu hôn2 vôùi daïng tieáng Nhaät laø satori. Moái quan heä giöõa ngoä cuûa Thieàn toâng vôùi traïng thaùi chöùng ngoä trong yù nghóa truyeàn thoáng cuûa AÁn Ñoä vaø vôùi naêng löïc nhaát thieát trí cuûa ñöùc Phaät chöa bao giôø ñöôïc nhaän roõ trong kieán thöùc cuûa ngöôøi vieát saùch naøy, maëc duø caùc vò toå sö Thieàn toâng ñöôïc nhaéc ñeán nhö caùc vò Phaät ñaùng toân kính. Ñieàu naøy coù nghóa laø moät kieåu thaùnh giaû môùi ñaõ xuaát hieän trong lòch söû Phaät giaùo. Sau caùc vò A-la-haùn, Bích Chi Phaät, Boà Taùt vaø Taát-ñaït, giôø ñaây chuùng ta coù theâm caùc Laõo sö3 cuûa Thieàn toâng nhö moät kieåu thaùnh giaû thöù naêm.

The Ch’an claimed that within their ranks numerous people attained “ enlightenment” all the time, but for this they did not use the traditional term p’u-fi, which corresponds to bodhi, but a new word, wu, “comprehension, awareness”, better known in its Japanese form as satori. Its relation to “enlightenment” in its traditional Indian sense and to the Buddha’s omniscience has never to my knowledge been clarified,,although the Ch’an Patriarchs are referred to as “venerable Buddhas”. This signifies that in the history of Buddhism a new type of “saint” had arisen. After the Arhats, Pratyekabuddhas, Bodhisattvas and Siddhas we now have the Ch’an Roshis as a fifth type.

2. Thöù hai, nguyeân lyù cao toät nhaát khoâng theå dieãn taû ñöôïc. Moät laàn nöõa, Thieàn toâng khoâng baèng loøng vôùi vieäc chæ noùi suoâng nhö nhieàu trieát gia Phaät giaùo ñaõ laøm tröôùc hoï, maø muoán bieán nhaän thöùc noäi taïi ñoái vôùi chaân lyù naøy thaønh moät kinh nghieäm cuï theå, baèng caùch duøng caùc phöông phaùp dieãn ñaït “voâ ngoân”, hoaëc noùi theo caùch khaùc laø taïo ra moät söï kyø ñaëc naøo ñoù vaø coù veû nhö moät kieåu noùi khoâng quan heä gì ñeán vaán ñeà nhöng laïi coù theå noùi leân ñöôïc ñieàu muoán noùi. Chaúng haïn nhö:

Secondly, the highest principle is inexpressible. Again, Ch’an was not content to just say so, as many Buddhist philosophers had done before them, but it tried to make the insight into this truth into a concrete experience, by evolving methods of “stating it through non-statement”, by in other words designing some extraordinary and on the face of it quite irrelevant kind of statement which would do justice to it. Like for instance: In the square pool there is a turtle-nosed serpent.

Trong caùi ao vuoâng coù moät con raén muõi ruøa. 1

Ngoä (悟), töø coù xuaát xöù Trung Hoa, ban ñaàu ñöôïc duøng ñaëc bieät trong Thieàn toâng. Veà sau môùi keát hôïp vôùi töø giaùc (覺) voán ñaõ ñöôïc duøng trong truyeàn

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thoáng ñeå dòch chöõ bodhi cuûa tieáng Phaïn, vaø hình thaønh cuïm töø giaùc ngoä (覺

2 3

悟) nhö hieän nay ñöôïc duøng phoå bieán.

Taùc giaû muoán noùi ñeán ôû phöông Taây. Trong nguyeân taùc duøng theo tieáng Nhaät laø Roshis, nghóa laø caùc Laõo sö.

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A short history of Buddhism

Thaät buoàn cöôøi khi nghó ñeán noù! Ai ñaõ keùo ñaàu con raén leân? Moät caùch töông töï, söï haønh trì phaûi ñöôïc thöïc hieän bôûi vieäc khoâng haønh trì. Cuõng nhö moät taám göông khoâng theå ñöôïc laøm baèng caùch nghieàn gaïch, quaû Phaät khoâng theå ñaït ñöôïc baèng caùch haønh thieàn.

Analogously, “cultivation must be carried out by noncultivation”. Just as a mirror cannot be made by grinding a brick, so a Buddha cannot be made by practising meditations.

Ñieàu naøy khoâng coù nghóa laø moïi coâng phu thieàn ñònh ñeàu phaûi töø boû, maø laø phaûi ñöôïc thöïc haønh vôùi khoâng coù baát cöù söï duïng taâm naøo ñeå phaûi coá gaéng ñaït ñeán hoaëc töï khaúng ñònh. Nhö vaäy tieâu tröø ñöôïc nhöõng nghieäp löïc cuõ vaø khoâng taïo ra nghieäp môùi. Haønh giaû phaûi ôû trong traïng thaùi voâ taâm, nghóa laø taâm luoân tænh giaùc maø khoâng coù yù töôûng naøo, vaø ngaên giöõ taâm yù khoâng coøn laêng xaêng ñaây ñoù.

This does not mean that all meditation should be discarded, but that it should be carried out without any striving, selfassertion or deliberate purpose, thus exhausting the old karma and creating no new karma. One must be established in “nothought”, which means “to be in thought yet devoid of thought” and to “stop the mind dashing hither and thither”.

Do keát quaû haønh trì theo caùch naøy, haønh giaû ñaït ñeán söï giaùc ngoä, khoâng coøn nghi hoaëc, vaø taát caû moïi vaán ñeà ñoät nhieân ñöôïc hoùa giaûi. Khoâng phaûi vì ñaõ tìm ra ñöôïc giaûi phaùp cho nhöõng vaán ñeà aáy, maø laø vì chuùng khoâng coøn laø vaán ñeà ñoái vôùi haønh giaû nöõa. Vaø cho duø tri kieán môùi ñaït ñöôïc naøy laø khaùc vôùi söï meâ toái cuûa ngöôøi thöôøng, nhöng xeùt cho cuøng thì haønh giaû chaúng ñaït ñöôïc gì caû. Vaø ñôøi soáng cuûa baäc thaùnh naøy cuõng khoâng khaùc gì vôùi nhöõng ngöôøi thöôøng. Theo nhö caùch noùi cuûa thieàn sö Laâm Teá (maát naêm 867)3 laø: “Chæ laøm nhöõng vieäc bình thöôøng khoâng coù noã löïc ñaëc bieät naøo, nhö ñaïi tieåu tieän, maëc aùo quaàn, aên côm, vaø khi meät moûi thì naèm nghæ. Nhöõng keû taàm thöôøng seõ cöôøi nhaïo, nhöng ngöôøi trí seõ hieåu.” Bôûi vaäy, thaät ra laø chaúng coù gì nhieàu trong giaùo phaùp cuûa Phaät. Bí phaùp maø ñöùc Phaät truyeàn cho Ñaïi Ca-dieáp thöïc ra laø moät bí maät ñaõ tieát loä, vaø cuõng chaúng coù gì trong ñoù caû, ngoaïi tröø moät ñieàu laø ña soá moïi ngöôøi khoâng theå hieåu ñöôïc noù. Moät khi ñaït ngoä, baäc thaùnh giaû coù theå deã daøng keát hôïp söï thoaùt tuïc aån maät vôùi nhöõng öùng xöû thích hôïp khoâng giaùn ñoaïn ñoái vôùi cuoäc soáng. Traïng thaùi khoâng hoaït 1

Ridiculous indeed when you come to think of it! Who pulled out the serpent’s head?

Laâm Teá Nghóa Huyeàn (臨濟義玄), thieàn sö khai saùng toâng Laâm Teá. Ngaøi maát naêm 867 nhöng khoâng roõ naêm sinh.

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As a result of this kind of cultivation, a man gains enlightenment, he has no more doubts and all his problems are suddenly solved, not because he has found a solution for them, but because they have ceased to be problems for him. And although his new-found knowledge is different from the ignorance of ordinary people, nevertheless, in the last resort, he has gained nothing at all, and the life of the sage is not different from that of ordinary men. As Yi-hsuan (died 867) put it: “Only do ordinary things with no special effort: relieve your bowels, pass water, wear your clothes, eat your food, and, when tired, lie down! Simple fellows will laugh at you, but the wise will understand.” So “there is really nothing much in the Buddhist teaching”. The secret which the Buddha gave to Mahakasyapa is really an open secret, and there is nothing to it, except that the mass of people fail to understand it. Once enlightened, the sage can without any effort combine a mysterious aloofness with a constant response to the calls of the world. Non-activity has 241

Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

ñoäng ñaõ trôû thaønh gioáng nhö hoaït ñoäng. Vaø theo nhö caùch noùi cuûa Baøng Uaån1 laø “taâm tri kieán vaø dieäu duïng naèm ôû vieäc gaùnh nöôùc vaø boå cuûi”. Vaø coù theå keát thuùc vôùi caâu noùi naøy cuûa thieàn sö Hai-yun: “Suoát ngaøy aên maø chaúng nuoát moät haït côm; suoát ngaøy ñi maø chaúng nhích moät ly; suoát thôøi gian ñoù khoâng coù söï phaân bieät giöõa khaùch theå vaø chuû theå; vaø suoát ngaøy khoâng taùch rôøi söï vaät maø vaãn khoâng bò chuùng doái gaït. Ñaây chính laø ngöôøi töï taïi.” Thieàn hoïc quaû thaät laø moät giaùo lyù raát saâu xa. Maëc duø boái caûnh vaên hoùa vaø nhöõng ñieàu kieän xaõ hoäi cuûa Trung Hoa vaøo ñôøi Ñöôøng hoaøn toaøn khaùc bieät veà moïi maët vôùi AÁn Ñoä vaøo thôøi cuûa ñöùc Phaät Thích-ca Maâu-ni, nhöng söï gaàn guõi vôùi tinh thaàn cuûa ñöùc Boån sö maø caùc vò ñaïi thieàn sö cuûa Thieàn toâng ñaït ñeán quaû laø raát hieám thaáy trong nhöõng ngöôøi hoïc Phaät ôû baát cöù thôøi ñaïi naøo. Treân ñaây laø noùi veà nhöõng phaùt trieån veà maët tö töôûng cuûa thôøi kyø naøy. Veà maët hình thöùc, giaùo hoäi Phaät giaùo ñôøi Ñöôøng cuõng ñaït ñöôïc moät vò trí saùng choùi, sung tuùc vaø maïnh meõ hôn baát cöù giai ñoaïn naøo khaùc trong lòch söû ñaõ traûi qua. Tuy vaäy, söï thaønh coâng naøy phaûi traû vôùi moät giaù ñaét. Söï thònh vöôïng cuûa caùc töï vieän ñe doïa laøm suy thoaùi neàn kinh teá quoác gia. Vieäc xaây döïng raát nhieàu töï vieän, veà maët kinh teá laø khoâng taïo ra gì caû, vaø coøn phaûi ñöôïc duy trì nhôø vaøo giôùi cö só, nghóa laø nhôø vaøo trieàu ñình, caùc gia ñình quyù toäc hoaëc daân cö trong thoân laøng. Nhöõng kieán truùc xaây döïng voâ cuøng toán keùm ñaõ thu huùt raát nhieàu nhaân coâng töø caùc vuøng queâ, khieán hoï phaûi töø boû vieäc laøm ruoäng. Vaø cuoái cuøng laø nguoàn döï tröõ kim loaïi cuûa ñaát nöôùc phaûi caïn kieät vì ñöôïc duøng vaøo vieäc ñuùc töôïng vaø caùc moùn ñoà duøng trong nghi leã thôø cuùng. Tieán trình naøy daãn ñeán söï ngöôïc ñaõi Phaät giaùo vaøo naêm 845. Trieàu ñình tòch thu taát caû taøi saûn cuûa caùc töï vieän, buoäc giôùi taêng ni phaûi hoaøn tuïc, vaø thu laáy caùc taùc phaåm ngheä thuaät ñeå duøng kim loaïi vaøo nhöõng muïc ñích theá tuïc. 1

become identical with action, and, as P’ang-yun put it, “spiritlike understanding and divine fuctioning lies in carrying water and chopping wood”. To conclude with a saying of Hai-yun: “To eat all day yet not to swallow a grain of rice; to walk all day yet not tread an inch of ground; to have no distinction during that time between object and subject, and to be inseparable from things all day long, yet not be deluded by them, this is to be the man who is at ease in himself.” Ch’an is a very profound doctrine indeed. Although the cultural background and social conditions of the China of the T’ang differed in almost every way from those of the India of the Buddha Sakyamuni, rarely have Buddhists at any time come as near to the spirit of their Founder as the great masters of the Ch’an school. So far about the intellectual developments of the period. Outwardly also under the T’ang the Buddhist Church attained a position of greater brilliance, wealth and power than it has probably experienced at any other time during its long history. This success was, however, bought at a heavy price. The prosperity of the monasteries threatened to ruin the economy of the country. The vast monastic establishments were economically unproductive, and had to be maintained by the lay community, i.e. by the Imperial Court, by aristocratic families or by villages; the expensive architectural enterprises deflected huge numbers of the rural population from work in the fields, and finally the metallic reserves of the country were drained away, being used to cast images and other ritual objects. This process led to the great persecution of 845. The Government confiscated the property of the monasteries, forced the monks and nuns to return to secular life, and seized the works of art in order to use the metal for more secular purposes.

Baøng Uaån (龐蘊), moät cö só noåi danh veà Thieàn hoïc. Theo Phaät Quang Töø ñieån thì oâng maát naêm 808 vaø khoâng roõ naêm sinh. Ñaõ töøng tham hoïc vôùi

thieàn sö Thaïch Ñaàu Hy Thieân (石頭希遷) vaø sau ñoù laø Ñan Haø Thieân Nhieân (丹霞天然).

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Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

Phaät giaùo chính thöùc ñeán Trieàu Tieân naêm 372, vaø cho ñeán naêm 525 ñaõ lan truyeàn ra khaép nöôùc naøy. Töø naêm 550 ñeán naêm 664, Phaät giaùo trôû thaønh quoác giaùo vaø gia taêng söùc maïnh moät caùch oån ñònh, vôùi vieäc taêng só khoáng cheá caùc nhaø cai trò qua töøng thôøi kyø. Caùc vò vua, hoaøng töû vaø coâng chuùa thöôøng xuaát gia,1 vaø caùc töï vieän nguy nga, töôïng thôø vaø nhieàu coâng trình khaùc ñöôïc xaây döïng khaép nôi. Khoâng coù söï phaùt trieån ñaùng chuù yù naøo veà giaùo lyù. Phaät giaùo Trieàu Tieân coù giaù trò ñaùng keå nhaát nhö laø moät gaïch noái trung gian giöõa Trung Hoa vaø Nhaät Baûn. Ngoaøi ra, coøn phaûi keå ñeán loøng nhieät thaønh trong vieäc haønh trì Phaät phaùp, vaø trong nhieàu theá kyû, taát caû taøi saûn dö thöøa cuûa nöôùc naøy ñeàu ñöôïc duøng vaøo Phaät söï.

Buddhism came to Korea officially in AD 372, and by about 525 it had penetrated the entire country. Between 550 and 664 it became the state religion and steadily grew in power, with the monks periodically dominating the rulers. Kings, princes and princesses often became bonzes and everywhere magnificent temples, statues and other monuments were erected. There were no notable developments in doctrine. Korean Buddhism was chiefly significant by acting as an intermediary between China and Japan. Apart from that it was noteworthy for the fervour with which it was practised, and for centuries all the surplus wealth of the country was expended on religious purposes.

7. NHAÄT BAÛN

7. JAPAN

Vaøo khoaûng naêm 550, Phaät giaùo töø Trieàu Tieân truyeàn sang Nhaät Baûn nhö moät yeáu toá cuûa neàn vaên minh Trung Hoa. Moät chính khaùch lôùn laø Thaùnh Ñöùc Thaùi töû2 (523-621) ñaõ nhaän Phaät giaùo laøm tín ngöôõng. Khoâng bao laâu, Phaät giaùo hoøa hôïp vôùi Thaàn ñaïo3 cuûa baûn xöù, toân giaùo maø ban ñaàu ñaõ choáng ñoái kòch lieät vôùi Phaät giaùo.

About 550 Buddhism came to Japan from Korea, as one of the constituent elements of Chinese civilization and a great statesman, Shotoku Taishi (523-621), adopted it as a kind of religion. Soon it fused with the indigenous Shinto which had at first fiercely opposed it. At first it was said, as in Tibet of the indigenous deities, that the Shinto gods are the guardians and protectors of Buddhism. Then the pantheon of the two schools was slowly identified and it was taught that they were just the same deities under different names. In the ninth century this amalgamation received the name of Ryobu-Shinto. The Ryobu Shinto is a remarkable achievement not only for the reason that it effectively fused the two religions for the time being, but also because it fused them in such a way that 1,000 years later it was quite easy to separate them again.

Thoaït ñaàu, gioáng nhö caùc vò thaàn baûn xöù cuûa Taây Taïng, caùc vò thaàn cuûa Thaàn ñaïo cuõng ñöôïc cho laø nhöõng vò hoä phaùp cuûa Phaät giaùo. Roài sau ñoù, nhöõng vò thaàn thaùnh cuûa caû hai toân giaùo daàn daàn ñöôïc xaùc ñònh roõ, vaø khi aáy tín ñoà ñöôïc daïy raèng thaàn thaùnh cuûa ñoâi beân voán chæ laø moät, nhöng mang teân khaùc nhau. Vaøo theá kyû 9, söï keát hôïp hai toân giaùo naøy ñöôïc mang teân laø Ryobu-Shinto. Ñaây laø moät thaønh töïu raát ñaùng keå, khoâng chæ vì ñaõ hoøa nhaäp ñöôïc hai toân giaùo moät caùch hieäu quaû vaøo luùc ñoù, maø coøn bôûi vì ñoù laø moät caùch thöùc hoøa nhaäp maø 1000 naêm sau vaãn coù theå deã daøng taùch rôøi caû hai ra. 1

Ñieàu naøy gôïi söï lieân töôûng ñeán hoaøng toäc ñôøi Traàn ôû Vieät Nam.

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Shotoku Taishi, con vua Yōmei. Theo Phaät Quang töø ñieån thì nieân ñaïi cuûa

Shinto

oâng laø 572 – 621.

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Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

Ñaây laø thôøi kyø cuûa söï moâ phoûng. Tröôùc naêm 700, coù 4 toâng phaùi ñöôïc hình thaønh. Tuy nhieân, ñoù khoâng phaûi laø taäp hôïp cuûa nhöõng ngöôøi theo ñuoåi moät giaùo lyù cuï theå, maø chæ ñôn giaûn laø nhöõng tröôøng phaùi trieát hoïc nhaèm nghieân cöùu moät soá kinh vaên nhaát ñònh naøo ñoù. Caùc toâng phaùi ñoù laø: 1. Thaønh thaät toâng1 (thaønh laäp naêm 625), döïa treân boä Thaønh thaät luaän2 cuûa Ha-leâ-baït-ma3 do ngaøi Cöu-ma-lathaäp dòch. 2. Tam luaän toâng4 (thaønh laäp naêm 625), nghieân cöùu ba taùc phaåm cuûa hai ngaøi Long Thoï vaø Thaùnh Thieân, cuõng laø caên baûn cuûa Tam luaän toâng Trung Hoa. 3. Phaùp töôùng toâng5 (thaønh laäp naêm 654) ñaët neàn taûng treân boä Duy thöùc,6 giaûi thích nhöõng nguyeân taéc cuûa Thöùc toâng7 theo hai ngaøi Huyeàn Trang vaø Khuy Cô. 4. Caâu-xaù toâng8 (thaønh laäp naêm 658), taäp trung nghieân cöùu chi tieát boä A-tyø-ñaït-ma Caâu-xaù luaän cuûa ngaøi Theá Thaân. Tieáp ñeán laø Hoa nghieâm toâng (thaønh laäp naêm 730),9 toàn taïi trong nhieàu theá kyû, thôø ñöùc Phaät Ñaïi Nhaät.10 Coøn coù Luaät toâng (thaønh laäp naêm 753)11 nhaém ñeán vieäc ñöa ra nhöõng giôùi luaät nghieâm khaéc hôn cho taêng ñoaøn, nhöng khoâng bao laâu thì suy thoaùi. Quan troïng hôn nhieàu laø nhöõng toâng phaùi hình thaønh trong thôøi ñaïi Bình An12 (794-1186), vôùi söï laán aùt cuûa Thieân thai toâng13 vaø Chaân ngoân toâng,14 ñaët trung taâm treân hai ngoïn nuùi.

This was a period of copying. Before 700 four “sects” were introduced, which were not however corporations pledged to support particular doctrines, but simply philosophical schools which expounded certain textbooks. They were: - The Jojitsu (625) based on Kumarajiva’s translation of Harivarman’s “Satyasiddhi”; - The Sawron (625) which studied the three works of Nagarjuna and Aryadeva which were the basis of the Chinese San-lun school; - The Hosso (654) which has for its textbook the Yuishiki, which expounds the principles of Vijnanavada after Yuan-tsang and K’uei-ki; - and the Kusha (658) which was devoted to the exposition of Vasubandhu’s Abhidharmakosa. Then came the Hua-yen (730), now called Kegon, which lasted for many centuries, and worshipped Vairocana, as Roshana or Birushana; and also the Vinaya sect (753) which was called Risshu tried to introduce stricter rules of ordination, and declined soon. Much more substantial were the sects introduced during the Heian period (794-1186), which was dominated by the Tendai and Shingon who had their centres on two mountains. 9

Kegon-shū Vairocana, Haùn dòch aâm laø Tì-loâ-giaù-na (毗盧遮那), trong tieáng Nhaät laø Roshanabutsu hay Biroshanabutsu. 11 Risshū 12 Heian - Thôøi ñaïi naøy coøn ñöôïc chia laøm ba phaân kyø nhoû hôn. Sô kyø (794897) cuõng goïi laø Hoaèng Nhaân thôøi ñaïi (Kōnin), Trung kyø (898-1068) cuõng 10

Jōjitsu-shū Satyasiddhi-śāstra, Haùn dòch laø Thaønh thaät luaän (成實論). 3 Harivarman, Haùn dòch aâm laø Ha-leâ-baït-ma (呵棃跋摩), dòch nghóa laø Sö Töû Khaûi (獅子鎧). 4 Sanron-shū 5 Hossō-shū 6 Yuishiki 7 Vijñānavāda 8 Kusha-shū

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13 14

goïi laø Ñaèng Nguyeân tieàn kyø thôøi ñaïi, Haäu kyø (1069-1186) cuõng goïi laø Ñaèng Nguyeân haäu kyø thôøi ñaïi. Hai giai ñoaïn Ñaèng Nguyeân tieàn kyø vaø haäu kyø ñeàu goïi chung laø Fujiwara.

Tendai-shū Shingon-shū

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Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

Thieân thai toâng ñöôïc saùng laäp bôûi ngaøi Toái Tröøng1 (767822), ngöôøi ñaõ mang giaùo lyù cuûa Thieân thai toâng töø Trung Hoa veà. Chaân ngoân toâng ñöôïc saùng laäp bôûi ngaøi Khoâng Haûi2 (774835), ngöôøi ñaõ hoïc ñöôïc nhöõng bí truyeàn cuûa Chaân ngoân toâng Trung Hoa ôû Tröôøng An. Nhöõng ngoïn Thieân Thai linh thieâng trong vuøng nuùi Tæ Dueä3 gaàn kinh ñoâ môùi Kyoto chaúng maáy choác ñaõ coù treân 3.000 töï vieän vaø giaûng ñöôøng. Thieân thai toâng khoâng nhöõng coù aûnh höôûng raát lôùn veà phöông thöùc tu taäp, maø coøn laø coäi nguoàn phaùt sinh ra taát caû caùc boä phaùi veà sau naøy, trong yù nghóa laø, nhöõng ngöôøi saùng laäp caùc boä phaùi ñoù ñeàu ñaõ töøng coù moät thôøi gian theo hoïc vôùi Thieân thai toâng. Khi töø Trung Hoa trôû veà, Hoaèng Phaùp Ñaïi Sö4 khoâng nhöõng ñöôïc trieàu ñình ngöôõng moä, maø coøn taïo ñöôïc aán töôïng maïnh meõ nhaát trong taâm töôûng cuûa ngöôøi daân Nhaät so vôùi baát cöù vò taêng naøo tröôùc ñoù. Ñoái vôùi daân chuùng, ngaøi trôû thaønh moät vò anh huøng vôùi voâ soá nhöõng truyeàn thuyeát; ñoái vôùi tín ñoà thì ngaøi laø hieän 1

The one was founded by Dengyo Daishi (767-822) who had brought the T’ien-t’ai doctrine from China, the other by Kobo Daishi (774—835) who had learned the mysteries of the Chen-yen in Chang-an. The sacred Tendai mountains of Hieizan near the new capital of Kyoto were soon covered by no fewer than 3,000 temples or halls. The Tendai not only had a great influence on art, but all later sects arose from within it, in the sense that their founders had for a time belonged to this sect. Kobo Daishi on his return from China not only became a great favourite at the imperial court, but he also impressed the popular imagination more than any other Japanese teacher has done. For the people he is the hero of countless legends,

Baéc toâng. Ngaøi chính thöùc xuaát gia naêm 14 tuoåi, vaø thoï Tyø-kheo giôùi naêm 19 tuoåi ôû chuøa Tōdaiji (Ñoâng Ñaïi Töï - 東大寺), sau ñoù ñeán ôû nuùi Hiei (Tæ Dueä Sôn - 比叡山). Nôi ñaây ngaøi thöïc haønh thieàn ñònh vaø nghieân cöùu giaùo lyù Hoa nghieâm toâng. Nhöng ngaøi bò loâi cuoán nhieàu hôn bôûi giaùo lyù cuûa Thieân Thai toâng, vaø trôû neân uyeân baùc sau khi ñoïc qua caùc tröôùc taùc cuûa ngaøi Trí Khaûi (智顗). Danh tieáng veà söï uyeân baùc cuûa ngaøi lan roäng ñeán noãi Nhaät Hoaøng baáy giôø laø Kammu chính thöùc ñeà nghò ngaøi ñi ñeán Trung Hoa ñeå hoïc hoûi veà Phaät giaùo, nhaèm khi trôû veà nöôùc coù theå thieát laäp ñöôïc moät hình thöùc Phaät giaùo thích hôïp vôùi Nhaät Baûn. Ngaøi sang Trung Hoa baèng ñöôøng bieån vaøo naêm 804, ñi cuøng chuyeán taøu vôùi moät ngöôøi baïn noåi tieáng laø ngaøi Kūkai (Khoâng Haûi - 空海). Ñeán Trung Hoa, ngaøi theo hoïc vôùi ngaøi thieàn sö Tieâu Thieàn (翛禪) vaø hoïc giaùo lyù Thieân Thai toâng vôùi ngaøi Ñaïo Thuùy (道邃), toå thöù 10 cuûa toâng naøy ôû Trung Hoa. Ngaøi cuõng hoïc giaùo lyù Chaân ngoân toâng vôùi ngaøi Thuaän Hieåu (順曉). Taát caû nhöõng giaùo lyù naøy ñeàu chöa ñöôïc truyeàn

daïy nhö moät toâng ñoäc laäp taïi Nhaät Baûn trong thôøi ñaïi Thieân Bình (hay Naïi Löông thôøi ñaïi, töùc laø giai ñoaïn töø naêm 710 ñeán naêm 784). Ngaøi trôû veà Nhaät Baûn vaøo naêm 806 vaø chính thöùc thaønh laäp Thieân Thai toâng ôû Nhaät. Maëc duø chòu aûnh höôûng raát lôùn cuûa giaùo lyù Thieân Thai toâng, nhöng thoâng qua moái quan heä vôùi ngaøi Khoâng Haûi, ngaøi cuõng raát quan taâm ñeán Chaân ngoân toâng. Vaø vì vaäy, heä thoáng giaùo lyù cuûa ngaøi cuõng coù khuynh höôùng pha troän. Ngaøi daønh troïn phaàn ñôøi coøn laïi ñeå truyeàn baù choã sôû ñaéc veà Phaät hoïc cuûa mình ngay taïi vuøng nuùi Tæ Dueä, nhöng cuõng thöôøng xuyeân gaëp phaûi söï choáng ñoái töø nhöõng toâng ñaõ thaønh laäp tröôùc, ñaëc bieät laø veà nhöõng söï caûi caùch maø ngaøi noã löïc thöïc hieän khi muoán hôïp lyù hoùa moät soá nghi thöùc truyeàn giôùi xuaát gia cuûa Ñaïi thöøa. Ngaøi tröôùc taùc raát nhieàu, trong soá ñoù quan troïng hôn heát laø caùc taùc phaåm Shugo kokkaishō (Thuû hoä quoác giôùi chöông - 守護國界章), Hokkeshūku (Phaùp Hoa tuù cuù - 法華秀句) vaø Kenkai ron (Hieån giôùi luaän - 顯戒論). 2 Kobo Daishi, hay Kūkai, Haùn dòch laø Khoâng Haûi (空海), cuõng goïi laø Hoaèng Phaùp Ñaïi Sö (弘法大師), ngöôøi saùng laäp Chaân ngoân toâng ôû Nhaät Baûn sau khi ñaõ nhaän ñöôïc chaân truyeàn töø ngaøi Hueä Quaû (惠果) ôû Trung Hoa. Taïi Nhaät Baûn, truyeàn thoáng Chaân ngoân toâng ñaõ ñöôïc ngaøi thieát laäp vöõng chaéc thaønh moät toâng ñoäc laäp, chuû yeáu döïa treân neàn taûng cuûa boä kinh Ñaïi Nhaät (大日經- Mahāvairocana Sūtra) vaø kinh Kim cöông ñaûnh (金剛頂經 – Vajraśekharasūtra). 3 Sau khi Thieân Thai toâng ñöôïc thaønh laäp vaø ñaët trung taâm treân nuùi Tæ Dueä, nhöõng ngoïn nuùi ôû ñaây cuõng ñöôïc goïi teân laø Thieân Thai nhö ôû Trung Hoa. 4 Laø moät danh xöng cuûa ngaøi Khoâng Haûi.

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Dengyo Daishi, hay Saichō, Haùn dòch laø Toái Tröøng (最澄), cuõng ñöôïc goïi laø Truyeàn Giaùo Ñaïi Sö (傳教大師), laø ngöôøi saùng laäpThieân Thai toâng (天台宗) ôû Nhaät. Ngaøi hoïc ñaïo töø naêm 12 tuoåi, laø moân ñeä cuûa ngaøi Gyō hyō (Haønh Bieåu - 行表) taïi chuøa Kokubunji (Quoác Phaàn Töï - 國分寺) ôû Ōmi (Caän Giang - 近江), vaø hoïc ñöôïc nhöõng höôùng daãn ban ñaàu veà Thieàn hoïc

Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

thaân cuûa ñöùc Phaät Tyø-loâ-giaù-na, vò Phaät chöa vieân tòch maø coøn chôø ñôïi söï xuaát hieän cuûa ñöùc Phaät töông lai.

for his followers a manifestation of Vairocana not yet dead, but awaiting within his tomb the cdming of the future Buddha.

Trung taâm cuûa Chaân ngoân toâng ñöôïc ñaët treân ngoïn nuùi Cao Daõ1 ñôn ñoäc. Vieäc thöïc hieän caùc nghi leã laø hoaït ñoäng chính cuûa toâng naøy, nhöng ngoaøi ra coøn coù vieäc saùng taïo nhöõng tranh töôïng caùc vò thaàn theo caùc kinh Tan-tra.

The centre of the Shingon sect was on the lonely mountain of Koyasan, and the performance of ritual has been its main activity, apart from the execution of paintings and sculptures of Tantric deities. Not all the monks of Tendai and Shingon resided in monasteries, and there was a strong movement within both schools to revive the ardours of the early Buddhist community, when the monks actually dwelled in the forest. There was a considerable number of Yama-bushi, “those who sleep on mountains”, or Shugenja, “those who practise austerities”, who lived alone or in little groups in the wild mountains and forests. On the whole, both Tendai and Shingon chiefly addressed themselves to the educated classes and their popular appeal was not very strong. To those who desired an easier way they held out the invocation of Amida’s name which would lead to rebirth in the Western Paradise. Both the Nara and Heian sects built special halls for recitation of the Nem-butsu, accompanied by hymns and musical services. At the same time during the tenth century itinerant preachers brought the message of Amida’s saving grace to the masses in a language which they could understand. Buddhism took on the colouring of the social conditions in whicli it lived. The esteem in which the religion was held was to a large extent a tribute to its beneficial magical effects on the welfare of the nation. Monasteries were by their very presence preserved from the noxious influences which arise out of the earth in certain places, and the recital of the great Mahāyāna

Khoâng phaûi taát caû taêng só cuûa Thieân thai toâng vaø Chaân ngoân toâng ñeàu cö truù trong töï vieän. Coù moät phong traøo maïnh meõ trong caû hai toâng phaùi naøy muoán khoâi phuïc söùc soáng cuûa coäng ñoàng Phaät giaùo thôøi nguyeân thuûy, khi caùc vò taêng só ñeàu aån cö trong röøng saâu. Moät soá ñoâng ñaùng keå caùc vò taêng ñöôïc goïi laø Yamabushi, nhöõng ngöôøi chæ nguû treân nuùi cao; hay caùc vò Shugenja, nhöõng ngöôøi thöïc haønh loái soáng kham khoå. Taát caû nhöõng vò taêng naøy soáng ñôn ñoäc hoaëc hoïp thaønh nhöõng nhoùm nhoû trong vuøng röøng nuùi hoang vaéng. Nhìn chung, caû hai toâng phaùi naøy ñeàu chæ nhaém ñeán taàng lôùp trí thöùc. Söï loâi cuoán cuûa hoï ñoái vôùi quaûng ñaïi quaàn chuùng khoâng ñöôïc maïnh meõ laém. Vôùi nhöõng ai mong muoán moät phöông thöùc tu taäp deã daøng hôn, hoï ñöa ra vieäc caàu nguyeän baèng caùch nieäm danh hieäu Phaät A-di-ñaø ñeå ñöôïc vaõng sanh veà coõi Taây Phöông Cöïc Laïc. Caùc boä phaùi trong caû hai thôøi ñaïi Thieân Bình2 vaø Bình An ñeàu coù xaây döïng nhöõng phoøng lôùn daønh rieâng cho vieäc nieäm Phaät,3 keøm theo coù caû tuïng taùn vaø leã nhaïc. Song song theo ñoù, trong theá kyû 10 coøn coù caùc vò taêng du hoùa mang giaùo lyù veà ñöùc Phaät A-di-ñaø truyeàn daïy cho daân chuùng baèng nhöõng caùch dieãn ñaït deã hieåu ñoái vôùi ngöôøi bình daân. Phaät giaùo chòu aûnh höôûng cuûa nhöõng ñieàu kieän xaõ hoäi chung quanh. Söï toân kính maø toân giaùo naøy coù ñöôïc phaàn lôùn laø nhôø vaøo vieäc mang laïi nhöõng hieäu quaû lôïi ích kyø dieäu cho söï an laønh cuûa ñaát nöôùc. Söï hieän dieän cuûa caùc ngoâi chuøa ñöôïc tin laø coù theå ngaên ngöøa ñöôïc tai hoïa xuaát phaùt töø trong loøng ñaát, vaø vieäc ñoïc tuïng 1 2

Kōyasan Nara, cuõng goïi laø Naïi Löông (奈良) thôøi ñaïi, laø giai ñoaïn töø naêm 710 cho 250

ñeán naêm 784, cuõng coù theå xem laø giai ñoaïn ñaàu tieân cuûa Phaät giaùo taïi Nhaät Baûn.

Nem-butsu

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Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

kinh ñieån Ñaïi thöøa thöôøng ñöôïc thöïc hieän vôùi muïc ñích ngaên chaën nhöõng côn dòch beänh, ñoäng ñaát, vaø caùc tai hoïa khaùc.

Sutras was regularly carried out for the purpose of averting plagues, earthquakes, and other disasters.

Nhöng maët khaùc, nhöõng giôùi luaät ñaïo haïnh khoâng phaûi bao giôø cuõng ñöôïc tuaân theo moät caùch chaët cheõ. Trong thôøi ñaïi Bình An, ñaõ coù nhöõng cuoäc tranh chaáp kòch lieät giöõa nhöõng töï vieän lôùn, luùc naøy ñaõ trôû thaønh nhöõng ñaïi laõnh chuùa quyeàn löïc vaø cö xöû nhö nhöõng taäp ñoaøn phong kieán. Nhöõng ñoaøn quaân ñaùnh thueâ coù toå chöùc do taêng só chæ huy ñaõ ñoát phaù chuøa chieàn cuûa nhau, vaø xuaát hieän thaønh nhöõng toaùn voõ trang ôû Kyoto ñeå gaây aùp löïc vôùi chính quyeàn. Vaên hoùa thaåm myõ laø neùt noåi baät cuûa thôøi ñaïi naøy, vaø phaàn lôùn kieät taùc ngheä thuaät ñeán nay vaãn toàn taïi.

The moral precepts, on the other hand, were not always closely observed. In the Heian period there were violent quarrels between the monasteries, who had become huge territorial magnates, and behaved as feudal institutions usually do. Organized bodies of mercenaries commanded by priests burned down each other’s monasteries, and appeared in armed bands in Kyoto to force the hands of the government. Aesthetic culture was the chief note of the age, and much of its wonderful art has survived.

8. TAÂY TAÏNG

8. TIBET

Phaät giaùo ñöôïc xem laø baét ñaàu ôû Taây Taïng vaøo khoaûng naêm 650, nhöng chæ thöïc söï phaùt trieån sau ñoù moät theá kyû. Ban ñaàu, Phaät giaùo gaëp phaûi söï choáng ñoái maõnh lieät cuûa nhöõng tu só ñaïo Bon taïi baûn ñòa, nhöõng ngöôøi ñöôïc ña soá giôùi quyù toäc uûng hoä. Tuy nhieân, söï uûng hoä cuûa nhaø vua ñaõ taïo ñieàu kieän ñeå tín ñoà Phaät giaùo daàn daàn taïo ñöôïc choã ñöùng cho mình. Cho ñeán trieàu vua Ral-pa-can (817-836), aûnh höôûng cuûa Phaät giaùo ñaït ñeán ñænh cao. Naêm 787, ngoâi chuøa ñaàu tieân ñöôïc hoaøn thaønh ôû Bsam-yas,1 vaø khoâng bao laâu sau ñoù, nhöõng vò taêng ñaàu tieân ñöôïc thoï giôùi vôùi ngaøi Tòch Hoä.2 Chuøa chieàn ñöôïc döïng leân khaép nôi, nhieàu cao taêng ñöôïc môøi töø AÁn Ñoä sang,3 chöõ vieát ñöôïc saùng taïo vaø raát nhieàu taùc phaåm ñöôïc phieân dòch. Ñaõ coù nhöõng noã löïc raát lôùn ñeå ñaûm baûo tính chính xaùc cho caùc baûn dòch, vaø caùc thuaät ngöõ ñöôïc

In Tibet Buddhism is said to have begun about 650, but it made real headway only a century later. At first it met with fierce resistance from the shamans of the native Bon religion, who had the support of the greater part of the nobility. The patronage of the king, however, enabled the Buddhists gradually to establish themselves, and under King Ral-pa-can (817-36) they reached the height of their influence. In 787 the first monastery was completed at Bsam Yas and soon after the first monks were ordained by Santarakshita. Everywhere temples were erected, many teachers invited from India, a script was invented and numerous works were translated. Great endeavours were made to ensure the accuracy of the translations and the terminology

Ñaây laø chuøa Tang-duyeân (Samye), naèm veà phía ñoâng nam cuûa thuû ñoâ Lhasa, nôi ngaøi Tòch Hoä hoaèng hoùa trong suoát 13 naêm sau ñoù. 2 Śāntarakşita, Haùn dòch laø Tòch Hoä (寂護), laø cao taêng cuûa AÁn Ñoä, thuoäc Trung quaùn toâng, ngöôøi ñaõ truyeàn Phaät giaùo sang Taây Taïng trong thôøi kyø ñaàu tieân. Tuy coù moät soá taêng só truyeàn giaùo ñaõ ñeán Taây Taïng tröôùc ñoù, nhöng ngaøi

laø ngöôøi ñaàu tieân coøn ñeå laïi daáu veát cho ñeán nay. Nieân ñaïi cuûa ngaøi khoâng ñöôïc roõ raøng. Coù thuyeát cho laø ngaøi sinh naêm 725 vaø maát trong khoaûng naêm 784 hoaëc 788 (Trung Hoa Phaät hoïc toaøn thö). Nhöng theo Phaät Quang Töø ñieån thì nieân ñaïi cuûa ngaøi laø 700 – 760. Vaø coøn coù moät thuyeát nöõa cho laø ngaøi sinh naêm 750 vaø maát naêm 802 (Töø ñieån Phaät hoïc – Chaân Nguyeân). 3 Chính ngaøi Tòch Hoä cuõng ñaõ ñeán Taây Taïng sau khi nhaän ñöôïc lôøi môøi chính thöùc cuûa vua Taây Taïng luùc ñoù laø Ngaät-laät-sang Ñeà-taùn (Trhisong Detsen).

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A short history of Buddhism

tieâu chuaån hoùa vaøo khoaûng naêm 835 bôûi moät uûy ban goàm nhöõng hoïc giaû1 AÁn Ñoä vaø caùc nhaø thoâng thaùi2 Taây Taïng, ñaõ phaùt haønh cuoán Mahāvyutpatti ñeå höôùng daãn cho caùc dòch giaû. Caùc ñoái thuû ñaïo Bon döôøng nhö ñaõ thaát baïi. Taêng só Phaät giaùo naém ñöôïc nhöõng nguyeân taéc hieäu quaû cuûa ñaát nöôùc naøy. Nhöng roài ñeán ñôøi vua Lang-dar-ma (836-842), moät giai ñoaïn ngöôïc ñaõi Phaät giaùo ñaõ xoùa saïch ñi taát caû nhöõng gì vöøa ñaït ñöôïc. Trong khoaûng moät theá kyû, Phaät giaùo laïi moät laàn nöõa bieán maát taïi Taây Taïng. Giai ñoaïn maø chuùng ta ñang xem xeùt laø moät giai ñoaïn tieáp nhaän. Trong giai ñoaïn naøy coù boán heä thoáng hay doøng tö töôûng chính ñöôïc ñöa vaøo Taây Taïng: 1. Töø phía taây, töø vuøng thung luõng Swat, laø nhöõng tö töôûng Tan-tra cuûa ngaøi Lieân Hoa Sanh, ngöôøi ñaõ cö nguï ôû Taây Taïng trong moät thôøi gian ngaén. Tinh thaàn cuûa ngaøi Lieân Hoa Sanh gaàn guõi ñaùng keå vôùi ñaïo Bon, vaø ngaøi ñaõ thaønh coâng vöôït böïc ôû Taây Taïng. Ngaøi dieãn giaûng moät heä thoáng thuoäc Kim cang thöøa, nhöng chuùng ta khoâng bieát chính xaùc nhö theá naøo. AÁn töôïng maø ngaøi taïo ra ñoái vôùi Taây Taïng phaàn lôùn laø nhôø vaøo vieäc thöïc hieän nhöõng pheùp maàu, vaø huyeàn thoaïi ñeå laïi ñaõ vöôït quaù nhöõng söï kieän lòch söû. Toâng Nyingmapa, hay Ninh-maõ, ñöôïc thaønh laäp töø thôøi cuûa ngaøi Lieân Hoa Sanh vaø coøn maõi ñeán ngaøy nay. 2. Töø phía nam laø söï toång hôïp caùc tö töôûng Ñaïi thöøa thôøi ñaïi Pāla do moät soá hoïc giaû haøng ñaàu cuûa caùc ñaïi hoïc ôû Ma-kieät-ñaø truyeàn ñeán. Söï keát hôïp tö töôûng Baùt-nhaõ vôùi Tan-tra ñaõ trôû thaønh truyeàn thoáng trung taâm cuûa Phaät giaùo Taây Taïng, vaø ñaõ nhieàu laàn ñoåi môùi maõi cho ñeán nay. Doøng tö töôûng naøy luoân ñaùnh giaù cao boä Hieän quaùn trang nghieâm luaän,3 moät taùc phaåm cuûa AÁn Ñoä vaøo theá kyû 4, saép xeáp noäi dung boä Baùt-nhaõ Ba-la-maät-ña thaønh 25.000 caëp caâu theo theå keä, thaønh moät baûng keâ roõ raøng coù ñaùnh soá 1

Pandits 2 Lotsabas 3 Abhisamayālańkāra, Haùn dòch laø Hieän quaùn trang nghieâm luaän (現觀莊 254

was standardized about 825 by a commission consisting of Indian pandits and Tibetan Lotsabas, which published the Mahāvyutpatti for the guidance of translators. The Bon rivals seemed defeated, the monks seized the effective rule of the country, but then under Glang-dar-ma (836-42) a persecution wiped out everything that had been gained. For about one century Buddhism once more vanished from Tibet. The period under review is for Tibet one of reception. In the course of it four principal systems, or lines of thought, were introduced: 1. From the West, from the Swat valley, came the Tantric ideas of Padmasambhava, who himself stayed in Tibet for a short while. Padmasambhava’s mentality had considerable affinities with that of the Bon and he had a striking success in Tibet. He expounded some kind of Vajrayanic system, but we do not know exactly which one. The impression he made on Tibet was chiefly based on his thaumaturgical activities and the legend has quite overgrown the historical facts. The school of the Nyingmapa, or “Ancient Ones”, goes back to Padmasambhava and has persisted continuously up to today. 2. From the South came the Pdla Synthesis of the Mahāyāna, brought by some of the leading scholars of the universities of Magadha. This combination of Prajnaparamita and Tantra has become the central tradition of Tibetan Buddhism, and has renewed itself again and again up to the present day. It has always attached a special value to the Abhisamaydlankdra, an Indian work of the fourth century, which arranges the contents of the “Prajnaparamita in 25,000 Slokas” in definite numerical 嚴論), teân ñaày ñuû laø Abhisamayālaṃkāra-nāma-prajñāpāramitopadeśaśāstra, Haùn dòch laø Hieän quaùn trang nghieâm Baùt-nhaõ ba-la-maät-ña Öuba-ñeà-xaù luaän (現觀莊嚴般若波羅蜜多優波提舍論), ñöôïc cho laø boä luaän

cuûa ngaøi Di-laëc.

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Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

ñeå coù theå ghi nhôù ñöôïc, nhö laø böôùc ñaàu tieân trong vieäc thieàn quaùn veà boä kinh naøy, vaø ñoàng thôøi cuõng dieãn giaûi theo tinh thaàn cuûa Trung quaùn toâng vôùi moät söï dung hôïp cuøng truyeàn thoáng oân hoøa hôn cuûa Duy thöùc toâng. Voán ñaõ ñöôïc chuù giaûi raát nhieàu ôû AÁn Ñoä töø tröôùc ñoù, khi ñöôïc truyeàn ñeán Taây Taïng thì boä Hieän quaùn trang nghieâm luaän trôû thaønh neàn taûng cho söï ñaøo luyeän nhöõng tö töôûng cao hôn khoâng thuoäc heä thoáng Tan-tra, vaø raát nhieàu chuù giaûi cho boä luaän naøy ñaõ ñöôïc caùc hoïc giaû Taây Taïng bieân soaïn. 3. Töø phía taây nam laø Nhaát thieát höõu boä cuõng ñaõ noã löïc tìm ñöôïc choã ñöùng ôû Taây Taïng. Töø raát sôùm, theo lôøi môøi cuûa nhaø vua, boä phaùi naøy ñaõ ñeán xaây döïng moät tu vieän. Nhöng söï coù maët cuûa hoï khoâng bao laâu ñaõ môø nhaït, vì daân chuùng khoâng maáy quan taâm ñeán nhöõng giaùo lyù thieáu vaéng yeáu toá pheùp maàu. Maëc duø khoâng theå töï duy trì söï hieän dieän cuûa mình ñöôïc laâu trong moät theá giôùi cuûa nhöõng phaùp thuaät vaø söï maàu nhieäm, nhöng Nhaát thieát höõu boä cuõng taïo ñöôïc moät aûnh höôûng ñaùng keå ñoái vôùi tö töôûng cuûa Taây Taïng, bôûi vì kinh vaên cuûa boä phaùi naøy gaàn nhö laø phieân baûn duy nhaát cuûa Phaät giaùo thuoäc thôøi kyø tröôùc kia ñaõ ñöôïc ñöa vaøo trong soá nhöõng kinh ñieån phieân dòch sang tieáng Taây Taïng. 4. AÛnh höôûng thöù tö ñeán töø phía ñoâng. Raát nhieàu thieàn sö Trung Hoa ñaõ ñeán Taây Taïng vaø ra söùc giaùo hoùa daân chuùng ôû ñaây theo giaùo lyù Thieàn toâng. Chaúng bao laâu hoï gaëp phaûi söï baát ñoàng vôùi nhöõng hoïc giaû chính thoáng cuûa AÁn Ñoä theo khuynh höôùng Pāla vaø bò thaát baïi hoaøn toaøn tröôùc Hoäi ñoàng Bsam-yas1 noåi tieáng vaøo nhöõng naêm 793794. Sau ñoù hoï phaûi rôøi khoûi Taây Taïng hoaëc hoaït ñoäng khoâng coâng khai, vaø aûnh höôûng cuûa hoï ñoái vôùi lòch söû Taây Taïng veà sau khoâng ñaùng keå.

lists, that make it possible to memorize the text as a preliminary step to meditation on it, while at the same time interpreting it in the spirit of the Madhyamikas with some admixture from the more moderate Yogacarin tradition. Frequently commented upon already in India, the Abhisamayalankara now in Tibet became the cornerstone of the more advanced non-Tantric training and innumerable commentaries have been composed on it by the learned men of Tibet. 3. Thirdly, from the South-West the Sarvdstivddins also attempted to gain a foothold in Tibet. Quite early on the king invited them to establish a monastery, but their settlements soon withered away, the surrounding population remaining indifferent to a teaching which lacked in magical practices. Although they could not maintain themselves for long in this world of magic and witchcraft, the Sarvastivadins have nevertheless exerted a considerable influence on the thought of Tibet, because their literature is practically the only version of the older type of Buddhism to find its way into the Canon of translated scriptures. 4. The fourth influence came from the East. Numerous Chinese monks of the Ch’an Sect appeared in Tibet and attempted to convert its inhabitants to their tenets. They soon came into conflict with the Indian pandits of the Pala orthodoxy, and were decisively defeated at the famous Council of Bsam Yas in 793-4. After that they had to leave the country, or go underground, and their influence on later Tibetan history is negligible.

Hoäi ñoàng naøy ñöôïc thaønh laäp nhaèm muïc ñích keát taäp kinh ñieån.

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A short history of Buddhism

CHÖÔNG IV: MOÄT NGAØN NAÊM CUOÁI

CHAPTER 4: THE LAST ONE THOUSAND YEARS

(TÖØ NAÊM 1000 ÑEÁN NAÊM 1978)

AD 1000 to 1978

1. AÁN ÑOÄ: SÖÏ SUY SUÏP VAØ NHÖÕNG NGUYEÂN NHAÂN

1. INDIA: THE COLLAPSE AND ITS CAUSES

Ngay taïi AÁn Ñoä, Phaät giaùo ñaõ maát ñi vaøo khoaûng naêm 1200, maëc duø ôû moät soá vuøng nhö Ma-kieät-ñaø, Bengal, Orissa vaø Nam AÁn, Phaät giaùo vaãn coøn laây laát trong khoaûng 200 hay 300 naêm nöõa.

In India itself, Buddhism came to an end about 1200, though in some districts, as in Magadha, Bengal, Orissa and South India, it lingered on for a further 200 or 300 years.

Nguyeân nhaân chính gaây ra söï bieán maát ñoät ngoät cuûa Phaät giaùo taát nhieân laø do nhöõng cuoäc xaâm laêng cuûa ngöôøi Hoài giaùo. Vôùi söï caêm gheùt phi lyù vaø cuoàng nhieät cuûa hoï ñoái vôùi nhöõng gì maø hoï cho laø “cuoàng tín”, nhöõng keû chinh phuïc taøn nhaãn naøy ñaõ ñoát saïch caùc töï vieän ñang phaùt trieån maïnh meõ, caùc ñaïi hoïc Sind vaø Bengal, gieát saïch nhöõng taêng só voán khoâng heà choáng traû. Moät phaàn vì caùc vò muoán giöõ troïn taâm nguyeän cuûa mình,1 vaø moät phaàn vì hoï tin raèng nhöõng tính toaùn theo chieâm tinh hoïc ñaõ cho bieát tröôùc ngöôøi Hoài giaùo duø sao cuõng seõ chinh phuïc AÁn Ñoä.

The main cause which precipitated its disappearance was, of course, the Mohammedan invasions. In their fanatical hatred for what seemed to them ‘idolatry’, these ruthless conquerors burned down the flourishing monasteries and universities of Sind and Bengal, and killed the monks, who offered no resistance, partly in obedience to their vows, and partly because they believed that astrological calculations had shown that the Muslims would in any case conquer Hindustan.

Tuy nhieân, vôùi moät söï xem xeùt kyõ hôn thì söï taøn baïo cuûa nhöõng ngöôøi Hoài giaùo khoâng theå giaûi thích ñöôïc toaøn boä vaán ñeà, vì hai lyù do: 1. Tröôùc heát, ñaïo Hindu vaø ñaïo Jaina cuõng laø ñoái töôïng cuûa söï taøn baïo naøy, nhöng vaãn tieáp tuïc phaùt trieån sau ñoù. 2. Thöù hai, ôû nhöõng vuøng khoâng heà bò ngöôøi Hoài giaùo taùc ñoäng ñeán, chaúng haïn nhö Nepal vaø Nam AÁn, Phaät giaùo vaãn dieät vong, cho duø laø chaäm hôn nhieàu. Nhö vaäy, ngoaøi nguyeân nhaân taùc ñoäng töø beân ngoaøi, söï suy thoaùi cuûa Phaät giaùo caàn phaûi ñöôïc xem xeùt ôû nhöõng nguyeân nhaân noäi taïi nöõa. Xeùt veà maët toå chöùc xaõ hoäi, moät toân giaùo thoaùt tuïc chæ coù theå toàn taïi ñöôïc khi baèng caùch naøo ñoù coù ñöôïc söùc uûng hoä töø moät thaønh phaàn naém quyeàn löïc hoaëc giaøu coù trong xaõ hoäi. Neáu trong soá raát nhieàu toân giaùo thôøi coå cuûa AÁn Ñoä chæ coøn rieâng coù ñaïo Jain 258

On further consideration Muslim savagery cannot, however, be the whole explanation and that for two reasons: Firstly, Hinduism and Jainism, subjected to the same fury, managed to carry on. Secondly, in regions which were not touched by the Muslim invasions, as in Nepal and South India, Buddhism also steadily died out, though much more slowly. Hence the cause of this decline must be sought as much within Buddhism as without it. As a social force an unworldly religion can only survive if by some accident it is able to enlist the support of some powerful or wealthy section of society. If the Jains alone among the numerous ancient sects of India are still a power in that 1

Vì söï saùt haïi laø moät trong nhöõng ñaïi caám giôùi cuûa chö taêng, cho duø laø ñeå töï veä.

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A short history of Buddhism

vaãn duy trì ñöôïc söùc maïnh, ñoù laø vì trong soá nhöõng tín ñoà cuûa ñaïo naøy coù nhöõng thöông gia giaøu coù, xem vieäc uûng hoä cho nhöõng tu só khoå haïnh laø moät vinh döï. Nhìn chung, Phaät giaùo döïa vaøo söï uûng hoä cuûa caùc vò vua chuùa, vaø ôû nôi naøo thieáu söï uûng hoä naøy, ôû ñoù Phaät giaùo thöôøng gaëp khoù khaên. Nhö chuùng ta ñaõ thaáy, Phaät giaùo chöa bao giôø laøm ñöôïc gì nhieàu cho taàng lôùp cö só bình daân (xem trang 86). Vaø do ñoù, taêng só thöôøng khoâng theå soáng nhôø vaøo söï uûng hoä töï nguyeän cuûa hoï. Giôùi cö só Phaät giaùo chöa bao giôø hoïp thaønh moät ñoaøn theå trong xaõ hoäi, hoaëc thaønh moät nhoùm thoáng nhaát soáng taùch bieät vôùi nhöõng tín ñoà cuûa ñaïo Baø-la-moân. Hoï tuaân theo heä thoáng giai caáp cuûa ñaïo Baø-la-moân, vaø theo nhöõng nghi leã cuûa ñaïo Baø-la-moân trong nhöõng dòp sinh con, cöôùi hoûi vaø tang cheá. Vì vaäy, baát cöù moät söï suy yeáu naøo cuûa caùc töï vieän Phaät giaùo thöôøng ngay laäp töùc daãn ñeán vieäc caùc cö só bò thu huùt vaøo nhöõng toå chöùc xaõ hoäi chaët cheõ hôn cuûa ñaïo Baø-la-moân.

country, it is because by some accident wealthy merchants are numbered among its adherents, merchants who regard it as an honour to support the ascetics. Buddhism has generally relied on the support of kings and where that was wanting it has usually been in difficulties. It has, as we saw (p. 87), never succeeded in doing very much for the average lay follower, and therefore the monks cannot normally live on their voluntary patronage. The Buddhist laity never formed a corporate social entity, or a homogenous group living apart from the followers of the Brahminical sects, and it had throughout conformed to the Brahminical caste system and followed Brahminical rites in ceremonies at birth, marriage, and death. So any weakening of the monasteries would automatically lead to the absorption of the lay followeres into the closely knit social structure of Brahminism.

Ñaïo Jain toàn taïi ñöôïc nhôø coù moät coäng ñoàng sinh hoaït giöõa caùc tu só vaø tín ñoà, coøn Phaät giaùo laïi thieáu ñieàu ñoù. Tính quoác teá cuûa Phaät giaùo ñaõ giuùp toân giaùo naøy chinh phuïc chaâu AÙ, nhöng ñoàng thôøi cuõng thuùc ñaåy söï dieät vong ôû AÁn Ñoä. Phaät giaùo luoân khoâng phaân bieät vieäc taêng só sinh soáng ôû baát cöù quoác gia naøo, vaø vì vaäy nhöõng taêng só soáng soùt ñaõ saün saøng rôøi boû ñaát nöôùc khi hoï khoâng theå thöïc haønh ñôøi soáng töï vieän theo giôùi luaät, vaø hoï ñaõ ñeán Nepal, Taây taïng, Trung Hoa .v.v... Trong khi ñoù, nhöõng keû ñoàng caûnh ngoä vôùi hoï laø ñaïo Hindu vaø Jain, baûo thuû vaø thöïc tieãn hôn, ñaõ baùm truï laïi vaø cuoái cuøng vaãn toàn taïi ñöôïc ôû nôi ñaõ sinh ra.

The Jains survived because a living community existed between monks and laymen, but the Buddhists were lacking in that. The international character of Buddhism, which had enabled it to conquer Asia, also favoured its extinction in India. The Buddhist religion had always inculcated indifference to the particular country in which the monks were living, and so the surviving monks left the country in which they could no longer practise their monastic rules, and went to Nepal, Tibet, China, etc. Their less flexible and more earth-bound Hindu and Jain brethren stood their ground, and in the end they survived where they were.

Xeùt veà maët söùc maïnh taâm linh, Phaät giaùo ñaõ töï ñaøo thaûi mình. Sau naêm 1000, taêng só ñaõ löôøi nhaùc hoaëc thoaùi hoùa ñeán möùc khoâng sao coù theå toài teä hôn ñöôïc nöõa, so vôùi baát cöù thôøi ñieåm naøo. Nhöng duø sao ñi nöõa, lòch söû Phaät giaùo chöùng toû nhieàu tröôøng hôïp söï thoaùi hoùa ñöôïc söûa chöõa baèng nhöõng caûi caùch. Trong thöïc teá, khi nhìn vaøo khaû naêng cuûa nhöõng taêng só maø caùc töï vieän AÁn Ñoä vaãn coøn coù theå choïn ñeå göûi sang Taây Taïng, thaät

As a spiritual force Buddhism had played itself out. There is no reason to believe that after 1,000 the Buddhist monks were any lazier or more corrupt than at any time, and in any case the history of religion knows numerous cases where corruption has been healed by reformation. In fact, when we see the calibre of the men whom the Indian foundations could still send to Tibet,

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A short history of Buddhism

khoù coù theå tin vaøo söï suy ñoài hay toài teä cuûa nhöõng töï vieän naøy. Nhöng yeáu toá khoâng coøn nöõa ôû ñaây laø ñoäng löïc saùng taïo. Nhöõng ngöôøi Phaät giaùo khoâng coøn gì môùi ñeå noùi theâm. Baèng vaøo vieäc so saùnh vôùi nhöõng gì ñaõ xaûy ra vaøo theá kyû 1 vaø 6, moät söï boäc phaùt môùi cuûa hoaït ñoäng saùng taïo ñöôïc tin laø seõ xaûy ra vaøo theá kyû 11, vaø ñieàu naøy laø caàn thieát cho söï hoài sinh cuûa Phaät giaùo. Nhöng döï baùo naøy ñaõ khoâng xaûy ra. Vaø ñieàu taát nhieân ñaõ xaûy ra laø, trong suoát 1700 naêm cuøng toàn taïi, ñaïo Hindu ñaõ nhaän laáy raát nhieàu töø Phaät giaùo. Töông töï, Phaät giaùo cuõng coù söï tieáp nhaän nhö vaäy töø ñaïo Hindu. Keát quaû laø söï chia caùch giöõa hai toân giaùo naøy ngaøy caøng giaûm ñi, vaø khoâng coù gì quan troïng laém khi moät Phaät töû bò loâi cuoán vaøo haøng nguõ cuûa ñaïo Hindu, voán ñaõ bò Phaät giaùo hoùa phaàn lôùn. Ñöùc Phaät vaø moät soá vò thaùnh cuûa Phaät giaùo ñaõ hoøa nhaäp vaøo vôùi nhöõng thaàn thaùnh cuûa ñaïo Hindu. Trieát hoïc cuûa ngaøi Long Thoï ñöôïc Gaudapada, thaày cuûa Sankara, ñöa vaøo boä Vedanta,1 cuõng gioáng nhö cuoán Vaishnavas cuûa thôøi sau naøy phaàn lôùn laø vay möôïn töø Phaät giaùo. Nhöõng kinh Tan-tra cuûa Phaät giaùo taùc ñoäng ñeán kinh chuù töông ñöông cuûa ñaïo Hindu, voán cuõng coù raát nhieàu lieân heä ñeán caùc vò thaàn thaùnh cuûa Ñaïi thöøa. Giöõa hai toân giaùo luoân coù söï tieáp thu cuûa nhau veà hình töôïng vaø huyeàn thoaïi. Quy luaät cuûa lòch söû laø, söï toàn taïi song song cuûa hai quan ñieåm ñoái nghòch chaéc chaén seõ daãn ñeán moät hình thöùc choïn löïa chung naøo ñoù. Ñieàu naøy hoaøn toaøn phaùt sinh töø keát quaû cuûa nhöõng aùp löïc lieân tuïc keùo daøi trong laõnh vöïc tinh thaàn. Nhöõng heä thoáng trieát hoïc trong theá giôùi Hy-La cuõng ñaõ traûi qua quaù trình nhö vaäy. Ñieàu töông töï cuõng xaûy ra vôùi nhöõng ñaûng phaùi chính trò ôû Anh Quoác vaøo nhöõng naêm 50,2 khoù khaên chính cuûa hoï laø laøm sao tìm ra ñöôïc ñieàu gì ñoù ñeå baát ñoàng vôùi nhau. Ñieàu naøy cuõng xaûy ra vôùi ñaïo Hindu vaø ñaïo Phaät. Söï toàn taïi rieâng bieät cuûa Phaät giaùo AÁn Ñoä giôø ñaây khoâng coøn ích lôïi gì nöõa. Vì theá, söï dieät vong khoâng laø ñieàu maát maùt cho baát cöù ai caû. Chuùng ta cuõng khoâng queân moät nieàm tin cuûa tín ñoà Phaät giaùo, raèng ñaây laø thôøi kyø maït phaùp. ÔÛ Orissa, tín ñoà Phaät giaùo 262

it is difficult to believe in their depravity or degeneracy. But what had ceased was the creative impulse. The Buddhists had nothing new to say any more. By analogy with what happened in the first and sixth centuries, a new outburst of creative activity was due in the eleventh, and was necessary to the rejuvenation of the religion. It failed to take place. What had of course happened was that in the course of 1,700 years of co-existence the Hindus had taken over a great deal from the Buddhists and the Buddhists likewise from the Hindus. In consequence the division between them had increasingly diminished and it was no great thing for a Buddhist to be absorbed into the largely Buddhified Hindu fold. The Buddha and some Buddhist deities were incorporated into the Hindu pantheon. The philosophy of Nagarjuna had been absorbed into the Vedanta by Gaudapada, Sankara’s teacher, just as the Vaishnavas of later times were greatly indebted to the Buddhists. The Buddhist Tantras had provoked their Hindu counterparts, which abound with references to Mahāyāna deities. There had been a constant assimilation in the iconography and mythology of the two religions. It is a law of history that the co-existence of rival views must lead to some form of eclecticism. This is merely the reproduction of the effects of osmotic pressure in the intellectual field. So it was in the Greco-Roman world with the philosophical systems, and so with the political parties in England in the fifties, their main difficulty being to find something to disagree on. The same happened to Hinduism and Buddhism. The separate existence of Buddhism no longer served a useful purpose. Its disappearance thus was no loss to anyone. We must also not forget the Buddhist conviction that this is a period of religious decline. In Orissa the Buddhists said 1 2

Vedanta, thaùnh kinh cuûa ñaïo Hindu Töùc laø thaäp kyû 50 cuûa theá kyû 20

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A short history of Buddhism

noùi raèng vaøo thôøi ñaïi tuyeät voïng cuûa aùc ma Kali,1 Phaät töû phaûi töï giaáu mình ñi vaø thôø cuùng thaàn Hari, kieân nhaãn chôø ñôïi cho ñeán luùc ñöùc Phaät xuaát theá moät laàn nöõa. Nhöõng nhaø pheâ bình thieáu thieän caûm noùi chung thöôøng phaân tích chi ly söï suïp ñoå cuûa Phaät giaùo AÁn Ñoä theo giaû ñònh laø chaéc chaén phaûi coù sai laàm naøo ñoù trong vieäc naøy. Chính moät trong nhöõng söû gia loaïi naøy ñaõ töï thuù nhaän raèng “Chaúng coù gì khoù khaên khi pheâ phaùn moät chuyeän ñaõ roài” vaø ñònh kieán cuûa Darwin veà “söï toàn taïi cuûa nhöõng gì thích hôïp nhaát”2 coù theå laø sai laàm khi aùp duïng vôùi toân giaùo. Moïi vaät ñeàu coù moät thôøi gian toàn taïi, moät thôøi gian soáng nhaát ñònh – caây coái, ñoäng vaät, caùc quoác gia, nhöõng theå cheá xaõ hoäi vaø caùc toân giaùo... ñeàu khoâng coù ngoaïi leä. Nguyeân nhaân dieät vong cuûa Phaät giaùo AÁn Ñoä chæ laø vì ñaõ quaù giaø coãi, hay ñaõ hoaøn toaøn kieät queä. Phaät giaùo cuõng chöa bao giôø tin raèng chính baûn thaân Phaät giaùo laïi thoaùt ra khoûi ñònh luaät voâ thöôøng cuûa vaïn vaät maø toân giaùo naøy thuyeát giaûng. Thaät ra, baèng vaøo trí hueä cuûa mình, nhöõng cao taêng cuûa Phaät giaùo ñaõ thaáy tröôùc ngaøy dieät vong. Töø nhieàu theá kyû tröôùc, söï suïp ñoå cuûa Taêng-giaø ñaõ ñöôïc tieân ñoaùn laø rôi vaøo khoaûng 1500 naêm sau khi Phaät nhaäp Nieát-baøn. Vaø ngaøi Huyeàn Trang khoâng nhöõng ñaõ thuaät laïi raát nhieàu huyeàn thoaïi ôû khaép nôi treân xöù AÁn Ñoä vaøo theá kyû 7, cho thaáy söï chôø ñôïi tröôùc moät thôøi ñieåm chaám döùt saép ñeán cuûa Phaät giaùo, maø chính ngaøi cuõng ñaõ coù moät giaác moäng, ngay giöõa caûnh nguy nga ñoà soä cuûa ñaïi hoïc Nālandā, raèng moät ngaøy kia löûa seõ thieâu saïch trung taâm hoïc thuaät noåi tieáng naøy, vaø caùc giaûng ñöôøng nôi ñaây roài seõ bò boû pheá. Bôûi vaäy, khi söï dieät vong xaûy ñeán, khoâng coù gì laø baát ngôø caû, vaø taát caû nhöõng gì coøn laïi chæ laø choïn moät caùch ra ñi sao cho toát ñeïp.3

that in the inauspicious Kali Yuga the Buddhists must disguise themselves and worship Hari, waiting patiently for the time when the Buddhas will reappear. Hostile critics generally scrutinize the collapse of Buddhism in India on the assumption that there must have been something wrong with it. “It is always so easy to flog a dead horse”, as one of these historians himself admits, and Darwinian preconceptions about the “survival of the fittest” may mislead when applied to religions. Everything has its duration, its allotted life-span - trees, animals, nations, social institutions, and religions are no exception. What Buddhism in India died from was just old age, or sheer exhaustion. Nor had it ever believed that it was exempt from the impermanence of all conditioned things which it had preached so often. In fact, in their wisdom, its teachers had foreseen the coming end. For centuries the fall of the Order had been predicted for a period about 1,500 years after the Buddha’s Nirvāṇa and Yuantsang not only recounts many legends current in many places in India in the seventh century which showed an expectation of the coming end, but he himself had, amidst the grandeurs of Nālandā, a dream to the effect that fire would devastate this celebrated centre of learning, and that its halls would one day be deserted. So when the end came it was in no way unexpected and all that was left was to disappear gracefully from the scene. 2

vò nöõ thaàn hung aùc, ñaùng khieáp sôï nhaát. Baø thöôøng ñöôïc mieâu taû döôùi hình töôïng ñen ñuûi, traàn truoàng, xaáu xí giaø nua, vôùi moät voøng ñeo coå keát baèng soï ngöôøi, vaø löôõi daøi theø ra ñaày maùu töôi.

Töùc laø quy luaät choïn löïa töï nhieân, hay quy luaät ñaøo thaûi trong thuyeát tieán hoùa cuûa Darwin. 3 Ñaây cuõng coù theå laø lyù do vì sao chö taêng Phaät giaùo chaáp nhaän söï thaûm saùt maø khoâng heà coù moät söï choáng cöï, vuøng vaãy naøo. Hoï khoâng muoán ñeå laïi nhöõng aán töôïng khoâng hay ñi ngöôïc vôùi nhöõng lôøi Phaät daïy.

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Kali Yuga. Theo truyeàn thuyeát cuûa AÁn Ñoä, Kali laø vôï cuûa thaàn Śiva, vaø laø

Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

2. NEPAL VAØ KASMIR

2. NEPAL AND KASHMIR

Nhöõng cuoäc thaûm saùt cuûa ngöôøi Hoài giaùo ñaõ buoäc nhieàu taêng só vaø hoïc giaû cuûa vuøng Baéc AÁn phaûi chaïy qua Nepal, mang theo kinh saùch vaø thaùnh töôïng. Vaø nhö vaäy, Nepal trôû thaønh nôi baûo toàn cuûa Phaät giaùo Pāla. Tuy nhieân, ngay caû vieäc chö taêng töø AÁn Ñoä ñeán cuõng khoâng taïo ra ñöôïc moät söùc soáng môùi cho Phaät giaùo Nepal. Vaø sau naêm 1000, toaøn caûnh Phaät giaùo nôi ñaây ngaøy caøng suy thoaùi. Söï uûng hoä cuûa hoaøng gia ñaõ giöõ cho Taêng-giaø toàn taïi ñöôïc moät thôøi gian, vaø trong vaøi theá kyû, ñaát nöôùc naøy vaãn tieáp tuïc laø moät trung taâm vaên hoùa Phaät giaùo.

The Moslem persecutions induced many monks and scholars of Northern India to flee to Nepal, bringing their books and holy images with them. Nepal thus became a repository of Pala Buddhism. Nevertheless even the arrival of the refugees from India failed to infuse new vigour into the Buddhism of Nepal, and after AD 1000 it presents a picture of increasing decay. Royal patronage kept the Sańgha alive for some time, and for a few “centuries the country remained a centre of Buddhist culture. Scholars can determine the extent of the decadence by the condition of the Sanskrit manuscripts. These are very good about AD 1200, they become fair in the seventeenth century, and in the nineteenth they become so careless and slovenly that little reliance can be placed on them. Likewise the quality of the art goes steadily down and down. With the collapse of Buddhism in India the Buddhists of Nepal had to rely on their own strength. Reduced to one small valley, they capitulated to Hinduism within a hundred years or so. In the course of the fourteenth century the monks decided that the monastic rules were too difficult to keep, and they transformed themselves into a Hindu caste, calling themselves the banras (“honourable ones”)- They gave up their celibacy, moved into the vihdras with their families, and have ever since continued to earn their living as metal workers. Deprived of its elite, Nepalese Buddhism could only preserve some of the outward forms of the religion. A number of deities are worshipped in the manner of Hindu gods and for centuries lay Buddhism alone has prevailed in Nepal. The most popular deities are Matsyendranath, “Lord Indra of

Caùc hoïc giaû coù theå xaùc ñònh ñöôïc möùc ñoä suy thoaùi baèng vaøo chaát löôïng caùc baûn cheùp tay kinh ñieån tieáng Sanskrit.1 Vaøo khoaûng naêm 1200, caùc baûn vaên naøy raát hoaøn haûo. Ñeán theá kyû 17, chuùng ñöôïc ñaùnh giaù laø taïm ñöôïc, vaø qua theá kyû 19 thì trôû neân quaù caåu thaû vaø luoäm thuoäm ñeán noãi gaàn nhö khoâng coøn ñaùng tin caäy. Töông töï nhö vaäy, chaát löôïng ngheä thuaät cuõng xuoáng doác moät caùch ñeàu ñaën. Vôùi söï suïp ñoå cuûa Phaät giaùo AÁn Ñoä, tín ñoà Phaät giaùo Nepal giôø ñaây phaûi döïa vaøo söùc maïnh cuûa chính mình. Sau khi thu heïp veà moät vuøng thung luõng nhoû, hoï daàn daàn nhöôïng boä tröôùc nhöõng ngöôøi theo ñaïo Hindu trong chöøng treân döôùi moät traêm naêm. Cho ñeán theá kyû 14, caùc taêng só ñi ñeán quyeát ñònh raèng nhöõng giôùi luaät trong ñôøi soáng tu vieän laø quaù khoù khaên khoâng theå tuaân theo, neân hoï töï chuyeån sang thaønh moät nhoùm cuûa ñaïo Hindu, töï goïi laø banras (nhöõng ngöôøi ñaùng kính). Hoï töø boû neáp soáng giöõ tònh haïnh,2 vaøo soáng trong nhöõng tinh xaù3 cuøng vôùi gia ñình, vaø töø ñoù tieáp tuïc kieám soáng baèng caùch haønh ngheà nhö nhöõng thôï kim loaïi. Thieáu ñi thaønh phaàn öu tuù, Phaät giaùo Nepal chæ coøn coù theå giöõ laïi moät vaøi hình thöùc beân ngoaøi maø thoâi. Moät soá caùc thaàn thaùnh ñöôïc thôø cuùng theo kieåu cuûa caùc vò thaàn Hindu, vaø trong nhieàu theá kyû, chæ coøn rieâng coù giôùi cö só Phaät giaùo hieän dieän ôû Nepal. Nhöõng vò thaàn phoå bieán nhaát laø Matsyendranath, “Ngö 1

Hai loaïi chöõ vieát chính ñöôïc duøng trong caùc kinh vaên coå laø tieáng Sanskrit vaø tieáng Pāli.

Tònh haïnh (淨行): giôùi haïnh trong saïch, ôû ñaây coù nghóa laø khoâng phaïm vaøo daâm duïc. 3 Vihāras, nguyeân nghóa laø tinh xaù (精舍), truï xöù cuûa chö taêng, vaãn thöôøng bò ñoïc sai laø tònh xaù. Tuy nhieân, ôû Thaùi Lan vaø Tích Lan, danh töø naøy chæ chaùnh ñieän, nôi thôø Phaät.

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vöông thaàn”, moät vò tu thieàn hoùa thaønh thaàn, ñöôïc xem nhö laø ñöùc Quaùn Theá AÂm, vaø thaàn Ñaø-la,1 “Nöõ thaàn cöùu khoå”. Tuy nhieân, sau nhieàu theá kyû vò thaàn nöõ naøy ñaõ nhöôøng choã cho thaàn nöõ Kali cuûa ñaïo Shiva. Trong söï thôø cuùng cuûa daân gian, nhöõng ñöôøng phaân chia vôùi ñaïo Hindu ngaøy caøng trôû neân môø nhaït. Trong moät soá tröôøng hôïp, cuøng moät hình töôïng ñöôïc thôø cuùng ôû caû hai toân giaùo. Chaúng haïn nhö, ñaïo Hindu xem vò hoä phaùp Ñaïi Haéc2 nhö laø thaàn Shiva hay Vishnu, coøn tín ñoà Phaät giaùo goïi vò naøy laø Kim cang thuû; hoaëc nhöõng tín ñoà Hindu ñi haønh höông ôû Tundiktel leã cuùng vò thaàn baûo veä cuûa Nepal, vaø cuõng vò thaàn ñoù, tín ñoà Phaät giaùo goïi laø Lieân hoa thuû.3 Nhöng khoâng phaûi ñôøi soáng tinh thaàn vaø hoïc thuaät ñaõ hoaøn toaøn maát haún. OÂng Hodgson, moät toaøn quyeàn Anh,4 cho chuùng ta bieát raèng vaøo ñaàu theá kyû 19 coù 4 tröôøng phaùi trieát hoïc. Ñoù laø Svabhavikas, Aisvarikas, Karmikas vaø Yatnikas. Tuy nhieân, cuõng gioáng nhö nhieàu vieân toaøn quyeàn ngöôøi Anh khaùc, oâng khoâng thích trieát hoïc, töø choái khoâng muoán bò loâi keùo vaøo nhöõng chuyeän phi lyù dai daúng cuûa heä thoáng Phaät giaùo, vaø nhöõng ñieàu ghi laïi cuûa oâng veà söï khaùc bieät giöõa caùc tröôøng phaùi naøy khoâng coù yù nghóa maáy. Thaät kyø laï laø keå töø ñoù veà sau cuõng khoâng coù ai coá gaéng xaùc ñònh nhöõng ñieåm tranh caõi ñoù. Naêm 1768, söï chinh phuïc cuûa daân Gurkha ñaõ ñaåy nhöõng tín ñoà Phaät giaùo Newar vaøo hoaøn caûnh cuûa keû bò trò. Vaø ñoù laø ñoøn keát lieãu cuoái cuøng, ñaåy nhanh hôn nöõa söï dieät vong voán dó ñaõ laø moät keát quaû khoâng theå naøo traùnh ñöôïc, daãn ñeán töø söï bieán maát cuûa Taêng-giaø, nhöõng vò taêng só theo neáp soáng khoâng gia ñình. Trong nhöõng naêm gaàn ñaây, nhieàu ñoaøn truyeàn giaùo töø Tích Lan vaø Taây Taïng ñaõ coá gaéng thaønh laäp moät giaùo hoäi Taêng-giaø môùi ôû Nepal, vaø baát cöù söï hoài sinh naøo cuûa Phaät giaùo nôi ñaây ñeàu tuøy thuoäc vaøo söï thaønh coâng töø nhöõng noã löïc cuûa hoï. 1 2

the Fish”, a deified Yogin, identified with Lokesvara, and also Tara, the “Saviouress”, who, however, as the centuries passed on, has lost ground to the Sivaite Kali. In the popular cult the dividing lines from Hinduism have become more and more blurred. In some cases the same image does service for both, e.g. the Hindu looks upon Mahakala as Shiva or Vishnu, the Buddhist as Vajrapani; or Hindu pilgrims at Tundiktel worship the guardian deity of Nepal, Buddhists the same image as Padmapani. Not that all scholarship and intellectual life has been completely extinct. Hodgson, the British Resident, tells us that early in the nineteenth century there were four philosophical schools, called the Svabhavikas, Aisvarikas, Karmikas and Yatnikas. But, like so many other English Proconsuls, he had no taste for philosophy, refused to be drawn into “the interminable absurdities of the Bauddha system”, and his account of their differences gives little sense. Curiously enough, no one since has tried to determine the points in dispute. The conquest of the country by the Gurkhas in 1768 reduced the Buddhist Newars to the status of a subject race, and that was the final blow which further accelerated the decay which was the inevitable consequence of the disappearance of the Sańgha of homeless monks. In recent years missionaries from both Ceylon and Tibet have attempted to found a new Sańgha in Nepal, and any revival of the religion will depend on the success of their endeavours.

Tārā Mahākāla, Haùn dòch laø Ñaïi Haéc (大黑), laø vò hoä phaùp chính theo truyeàn

thoáng Kim cang thöøa, cuõng ñöôïc xem laø hoùa thaân cuûa Boà Taùt Quaùn Theá AÂm. 3 Padmapāņi, Haùn dòch laø Lieân hoa thuû (蓮華手), ngöôøi caàm hoa sen, cuõng laø moät teân khaùc cuûa Boà Taùt Quaùn Theá AÂm. 4 Ñaïi dieän chính phuû Anh giöõ quyeàn cai trò ôû caùc thuoäc ñòa tröôùc ñaây.

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ÔÛ Kashmir, nhöõng theá kyû cuoái cuøng döôùi söï cai trò cuûa ngöôøi AÁn noùi chung laø toài teä. Töø naêm 855 ñeán naêm 1338 laø thôøi kyø lieân tuïc suy thoaùi vaø phaân taùn veà chính trò. Phaät giaùo vaø ñaïo Shiva hoøa laãn vaøo nhau, vaø tín ñoà cuûa hai ñaïo thöôøng chung soáng vôùi nhau trong caùc tu vieän. Sau naêm 1000, coù nhieàu hoïc giaû Kashmir vaø caùc thôï thuû coâng boû sang Taây Taïng, Ladakh, Guge vaø Spiti. Töø naêm 1204 ñeán 1213, Skyasribhadra, moät hoïc giaû Kashmir vó ñaïi, ñaõ noåi tieáng ôû Taây Taïng. Naêm 1339 ñaùnh daáu thôøi ñieåm baét ñaàu söï cai trò cuûa Hoài giaùo. Ban ñaàu, tín ñoà Phaät giaùo nhaän ñöôïc söï khoan nhöôïng. Nhöng ñeán khoaûng naêm 1400, söï ngöôïc ñaõi baét ñaàu moät caùch thaûm khoác. Caùc tranh töôïng, ñeàn ñaøi vaø töï vieän ñeàu bò huûy dieät moät caùch coù heä thoáng. Caùc nghi thöùc haønh leã vaø ñaùm röôùc ñeàu bò caám. Khoaûng naêm 1500, Phaät giaùo khoâng coøn laø moät tín ngöôõng rieâng bieät, chæ ñeå laïi nhöõng daáu aán saâu ñaäm ñoái vôùi ñaïo Hindu trong vuøng vaø nhöõng daáu veát môø nhaït hôn ngay caû trong Hoài giaùo. Ngoaøi ra, taát caû ñeàu hoaøn toaøn bò huûy dieät.

In Kashmir, the last centuries of Hindu rule were on the whole years of misrule, and the years between 855 and 1338 represent a period of continuous decline and of. political disintegration. Buddhism and Sivaism fused and Buddhists and Sivaites often lived together in the same religious foundations. After 1000, many Kashmiri scholars and craftsmen went to Tibet, Ladakh, Guge and Spiti, and between 1204-13 Skyasribhadra, “the Great Kashmiri Scholar” was prominent in Tibet. The year 1339 marked the beginning of Muslim rule. At first that was tolerant to the Buddhists, but about 1400 the persecution began in earnest, images, temples and monasteries were systematically destroyed, religious ceremonies and processions were forbidden, and about 1500 Buddhism came to an end as a distinct faith, not without leaving strong traces on the Hinduism in that region and fainter traces even on the Muslims. For the rest everything was totally wrecked.

3. TÍCH LAN

3. CEYLON

Naêm 1160, moät hoäi ñoàng keát taäp kinh taïng ôû Anuradhapura ñaõ chaám döùt nhöõng baát ñoàng giöõa nhöõng ngöôøi ôû Mahā-vihāra vaø nhöõng ngöôøi choáng ñoái hoï, baèng caùch baùc boû yù kieán cuûa nhöõng ngöôøi naøy. Khoâng bao laâu sau naêm 1200, moät quaù trình suïp ñoå dieãn ra, khoâng haún laø cuûa Phaät giaùo, maø laø cuûa heä thoáng xaõ hoäi uûng hoä Phaät giaùo.

In 1160 a council at Anuradhapura terminated the dissensions between the Mahavihara and its rivals by the suppression of the latter. Soon after 1200 there was a collapse, not so much of Buddhism, as of the social system which supported it.

Nhöõng cuoäc xaâm laêng töø AÁn Ñoä laøm suy yeáu chính quyeàn trung öông, voán khoâng coøn thöïc hieän noåi nhöõng coâng trình daãn nöôùc vaøo ruoäng nöõa, vaø chaúng bao laâu boïn cöôùp bieån theo Hoài giaùo, vaø ngay caû boïn hoaïn quan cuûa Trung Hoa ñaõ ñeán chieám cöù nhieàu vuøng ñaát ñai roäng lôùn. Theo chieàu höôùng naøy, choã döïa veà kinh teá cuûa Taêng-giaø trôû neân raát mong manh.

Invasions from India weakened the central power, which could no longer enforce the irrigation works and soon Muslim pirates and even Chinese eunuchs ruled over large stretches of the land. The economic basis of the Sańgha in this way became extremely precarious.

Veà sau, khoaûng ñaàu theá kyû 16, ngöôøi Boà Ñaøo Nha choáng phaù Phaät giaùo. Hoï tuyeân boá ñaõ phaù huûy ñöôïc chieác raêng thieâng lieâng

Later on, beginning in the sixteenth century, the Portuguese persecuted Buddhism, claimed to have destroyed the Sacred

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cuûa ñöùc Phaät ñeå laïi, vaø eùp buoäc nhieàu ngöôøi Tích Lan theo ñaïo Thieân Chuùa. Tieáp ñeán laø ngöôøi Haø Lan, vaø sau cuøng laø ngöôøi Anh (cho ñeán naêm 1948). Trong nhieàu theá kyû daøi, söï cai trò cuûa ngöôøi chaâu AÂu ñaõ gaây thieät haïi naëng neà cho toå chöùc Phaät giaùo. Taêng-giaø nhieàu laàn bò huûy dieät, vaø chö taêng phaûi ñöôïc môøi ñeán töø Mieán Ñieän, Thaùi Lan1 vaøo caùc theá kyû 17, 18 vaø 19. Söï hoài phuïc baét ñaàu vaøo khoaûng naêm 1880, tröôùc heát ñöôïc khuyeán khích bôûi hoäi Thoâng thieân hoïc,2 vaø sau ñoù ñöôïc tieáp tuïc döôùi söï thoâi thuùc cuûa vieäc thöùc tænh tinh thaàn daân toäc. Keå töø thôøi ñoù, tín ñoà Phaät giaùo Tích Lan ñaõ trôû neân ngaøy caøng naêng ñoäng hôn, vaø thöïc hieän nhieàu coâng trình hoïc thuaät raát coù giaù trò, maëc duø noùi chung chæ giôùi haïn trong phaïm vi khaù chaät heïp cuûa kinh ñieån chính thoáng.3 Naêm 1950, Tích Lan ñi ñaàu trong noã löïc ñoaøn keát taát caû caùc quoác gia theo Phaät giaùo, vaø thaønh laäp Hoäi AÙi höõu Phaät giaùo Theá giôùi.4

Tooth, and forced many Ceylonese to become Roman Catholics. Then followed the Dutch, and finally the English (until 1948). The long centuries of European rule did great harm to the Buddhist cause. The Sańgha often died out completely, and monks had to be repeatedly imported from Burma and Siam, in the seventeenth, eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. The revival began about 1880, first stimulated by the Theosophical Society, and then carried out under the impulse of awakening nationalism. Since that time Ceylonese Buddhists have become increasingly active and have done a great deal of valuable scholarly work, though generally within the limits of a rather narrow orthodoxy, and in 1950 they took the lead in trying to bring all Buddhist countries together, and set up the World Fellowship of Buddhists.

4. ÑOÂNG NAM AÙ

4. SOUTH-EAST ASIA

Vaøo ñaàu thôøi kyø naøy, Phaät giaùo Mieán Ñieän ñaõ thay ñoåi tính caùch, vaø keå töø ñoù höôùng söï phaùt trieån cuûa mình theo Phaät giaùo Tích Lan. Naêm 1057 vua Anawrahta5 xöù Pagan chinh phuïc Thaton ñeå chieám laáy Ñaïi taïng kinh tieáng Pāli vaø ngoïc xaù-lôïi ñöôïc caát giöõ ôû ñoù. Roài oâng cho thænh chö taêng vaø Ñaïi taïng kinh töø Tích Lan veà, vaø söû bieân nieân ghi roõ raèng nhaø vua ñaõ truïc xuaát nhöõng taêng só Ari thuoäc Kim cang thöøa. Tuy nhieân, vaãn coù nhieàu baèng chöùng cho thaáy veà söï toàn taïi cuûa Ñaïi thöøa sau thôøi ñieåm ñoù. Khaûo coå hoïc ñaõ cho thaáy chính laø trong thôøi gian cai trò cuûa trieàu ñaïi Anawrahta (1044–1283) maø Ñaïi thöøa ñaõ phaùt trieån maïnh meõ nhaát, song song vôùi Thöôïng toïa boä6 ñöôïc öa chuoäng roäng raõi hôn. Nhieàu pho töôïng caùc vò thaùnh thuoäc Ñaïi thöøa ñaõ

At the beginning of this period the Buddhism of Burma changes its character, and draws its inspiration henceforth from Ceylon. In 1057 King Anawrahta of Pagan conquers Thaton to take possession of the Pali Tipitaka and the relics stored there. He then has monks and scriptures brought from Ceylon, and the chronicles assure us that he “drove out” the Ari priests of the Vajrayana. There is, however, much evidence for the persistence of the Mahāyāna after that date. Archaeology has shown that it was during the suzerainty of the Anawrahta dynasty (1044—1283) that the Mahāyāna flourished most, side by side with the more popular Theravada. Many sculptures of Mahāyāna deities date back to that time, Mahāyāna texts

Vaøo thôøi ñoù vôùi teân laø Siam. Theosophical Society 3 Ñaây muoán noùi ñeán heä thoáng kinh ñieån Tieåu thöøa. 4 The World Fellowship of Buddhists 2

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Vò vua ñaàu tieân thoáng nhaát ñöôïc Mieán Ñieän, ñaõ cai trò trong thôøi gian töø naêm 1044 ñeán 1077. Trieàu ñaïi cuûa oâng ñöôïc keùo daøi cho ñeán khi Mieán Ñieän bò xaâm löôïc bôûi ngöôøi Moâng Coå. 6 Teân goïi naøy coù veû nhö ñöôïc duøng ñeå chæ Phaät giaùo Tieåu thöøa taïi ñaây.

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Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

coù töø thôøi ñoù. Kinh vaên Ñaïi thöøa ñöôïc tìm thaáy trong caùc töï vieän vaøo khoaûng theá kyû 15, vaø caùc böùc hoïa Tan-tra khoâng sao nhaàm laãn ñöôïc vaãn coù theå nhìn thaáy treân caùc böùc töôøng cuûa nhöõng ngoâi ñeàn gaàn Pagan, tröôùc heát laø theo phong caùch Bengal, vaø veà sau laø phong caùch Nepal. Caùc taêng só Ari chaéc chaén laø khoâng thích nhöõng ngöôøi Thöôïng toïa boä ôû ñaây, bôûi vì nhöõng ngöôøi naøy aên thòt, uoáng röôïu, duøng buøa chuù ñeå giaûi toäi, gieát suùc vaät ñeå teá leã vaø meâ ñaém aùi duïc. Nhöng maëc duø vaäy, hoï vaãn tieáp tuïc toàn taïi cho ñeán cuoái theá kyû 18. Tuy nhieân, söï uûng hoä cuûa trieàu ñình vaãn daønh cho Thöôïng toïa boä, vaø tröôùc khi bò ngöôøi Moâng Coå taøn phaù naêm 1287 thì Pagan vaãn laø moät trung taâm vaên hoùa Phaät giaùo raát lôùn. Suoát trong 3 theá kyû, trung taâm naøy ñaõ chöùng kieán moät trong nhöõng söï boäc phaùt cuûa loøng moä ñaïo, gioáng nhö chuùng ta töøng thaáy ôû Trung Hoa, Trieàu Tieân vaø Taây Taïng. Treân moät daûi ñaát daøi 12 kilomeùt ñaõ coù ñeán 9.000 ngoâi chuøa vaø ñeàn thôø, trong ñoù noåi tieáng nhaát laø ñeàn Ananda thuoäc theá kyû 11. Treân nhöõng maët phaúng ñöôïc traùng men treân töôøng, coù 547 caâu chuyeän veà tieàn thaân ñöùc Phaät ñöôïc mieâu taû baèng hình veõ. Sau khi trieàu ñình trung öông bò suïp ñoå, suoát trong 500 naêm Mieán Ñieän bò phaân chia thaønh nhöõng laõnh ñòa nhoû, chieán tranh trieàn mieân. Nhöng truyeàn thoáng Thöôïng toïa boä vaãn ñöôïc duy trì, maëc duø khoâng ñöôïc huy hoaøng nhö tröôùc. Cuoái theá kyû 15 laø söï thaønh coâng röïc rôõ cuoái cuøng cuûa tröôøng phaùi Tích Lan, khi vua Dhammaceti cuûa xöù Pegu laïi mang trôû veà moät loaït nhöõng kinh ñieån giaù trò töø Tích Lan. Naêm 1752, Mieán Ñieän laïi ñöôïc thoáng nhaát. Sau naêm 1852, trieàu ñình nhieät thaønh uûng hoä cho Taêng-giaø vaø moät hoäi ñoàng tieán haønh keát taäp kinh ñieån ôû Mandalay töø naêm 1868 cho ñeán naêm 1871, nhaèm chænh söûa nhöõng sai soùt veà maët vaên baûn trong Ñaïi taïng kinh, sau ñoù mang khaéc taát caû leân treân 729 phieán ñaù caåm thaïch. Ngöôøi Anh ñeán Mieán Ñieän vaøo naêm 1885, ñaõ gaây nhieàu thieät haïi cho Taêng-giaø qua vieäc huûy boû quyeàn löïc giaùo hoäi trung 274

were found in the monasteries up to the fifteenth century, and unmistakably Tantric paintings can still be seen on the walls of temples near Pagan, first in the style of Bengal, and later in that of Nepal. The Aris were certainly abhorrent to the Therava-dins, because they ate meat, drank spirits, used spells to remove guilt, practised animal sacrifices and indulged in erotic practices, but nevertheless they continued to exist until the end of the eighteenth century. The patronage of the Court went, however, to the Theravadins, and Pagan, until its destruction by the Mongols in 1287, was a great centre of Buddhist culture, and witnessed during three centuries one of those outbursts of devotion of which we have seen other examples in China, Korea, and Tibet. For eight miles the land was filled with 9,000 pagodas and temples, among which the most famous is the Ananda temple of the eleventh century. The 547 Jataka stories are here represented on glazed plaques. After the collapse of the central dynasty Burma was for 500 years divided into warring kingdoms, but the Theravada tradition continued, though less splendidly than before. The end of the fifteenth century saw the final triumph of the Sinhalese school, when king Dhammaceti of Pegu reintroduced a canoni-cally valid monastic succession from Ceylon. In 1752 Burma was united again, after 1852 the dynasty vigorously patronized the Sańgha and a Council at Mandalay in 1868-71 corrected the text of the Tipitaka, which was then incised on 729 marble slabs. The coming of the English in 1885 did much harm to the Sańgha by destroying the central ecclesiastical authority. In 275

Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

öông. Trong cuoäc ñaáu tranh giaønh ñoäc laäp, taêng só ñaõ ñoùng moät vai troø noåi baät. Trong nhöõng naêm gaàn ñaây, ñaõ coù nhöõng noã löïc ñeå keát hôïp Phaät giaùo vôùi chuû nghóa Maùc. Vaø cuõng coù moät phöông phaùp thieàn ñònh môùi ñaõ ñöôïc coå xuùy, keát hôïp aùp duïng coâng phu theo Maät giaùo, ñöôïc cho laø daãn ñeán nhöõng keát quaû nhanh choùng hôn. Phaät giaùo Mieán Ñieän nghieâng veà vieäc duy trì tính chính thoáng cuûa Thöôïng toïa boä, vaø khoâng coù moät ñoùng goùp saùng taïo naøo cho tö töôûng Phaät giaùo. Nhöõng cuoäc tranh luaän luoân ñöôïc giôùi haïn ôû tính hình thöùc cuûa Luaät taïng, vaø neàn vaên hoïc môû roäng bao goàm caû nhöõng taùc phaåm veà ngöõ phaùp, thieân vaên hoïc vaø y hoïc, caùc baûn sôù giaûi vaø nhöõng chuyeän moâ phoûng theo tieàn thaân ñöùc Phaät. Coù 37 vò thaàn, ñöôïc goïi laø Nat, thöôøng ñöôïc caàu khaán roäng raõi ñeå mong caùc vò ban phuùc cho, nhöng muoán coù nhieàu coâng ñöùc thì phaûi goùp söùc xaây döïng chuøa chieàn, vaø keát quaû laø chuøa ñöôïc xaây döïng khaép nôi trong nöôùc.

the struggle for independence the monks played a prominent part. During recent years attempts have been made to combine Buddhism with Marxism, and also a new method of meditation has been advocated which by employing Tantric practices is said to lead to speedier results.

Trong thôøi kyø naøy, Phaät giaùo Tieåu thöøa phaùt trieån töông töï ôû Thaùi Lan vaø Ñoâng Döông. Nhöõng ngöôøi Thaùi soáng ôû Trung Hoa ñaõ mang veà queâ höông moät hình thöùc Phaät giaùo naøo ñoù, nhöng trong theá kyû 14 thì Thöôïng toïa boä cuûa Tích Lan ñöôïc thieát laäp. Nhöõng vuøng thuû ñoâ, tröôùc laø Ayuthia (1330-1767) vaø sau laø Bangkok (sau naêm 1770) ñeàu laø nhöõng ñoâ thò Phaät giaùo roäng lôùn, nguy nga, vôùi nhöõng kieán truùc toân giaùo ñoà soä vaø caùc töôïng Phaät to lôùn.

Burmese Buddhism is bent on preserving Theravada orthodoxy and it has made no creative contribution to Buddhist thought. Disputes have always been confined to the externalities of the Vinaya and the extensive literature consists of works on grammar, astrology and medicine, of commentaries and of adaptations of Jatakas. The thirty-seven Nats, or “spirits”, are universally asked for their favours, but the chief means of acquiring merit is to build a pagoda, with the result that the country is covered with them. The Sańgha is not estranged from the people, monasteries and shrines are placed near the centres of habitation, so as to be easily accessible to laymen, every layman becomes a novice for a time, and receives some education in the monasteries. The population, 85 per cent Buddhist, has been distinguished by its high degree of literacy for a long time. Buddhism has been a great civilizing force in the life of Burma, has helped to tone down racial rivalries, fostered a democratic social life by minimizing the importance of wealth and caste, brought much beauty and knowledge with it, and above all, it has created a singularly cheerful, polite and likeable people. Theravada Buddhism during our period likewise took over in Thailand and Indo-China. The Thais brought from their home in China some form of Buddhism, but in the fourteenth century the Ceylonese Theravada was established. The capitals - first Ayuthia (1330-1767) and then Bangkok (after 1770) - are large, magnificent Buddhist cities with immense religious edifices and great Buddhas.

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Taêng-giaø khoâng soáng caùch bieät vôùi daân chuùng. Caùc töï vieän, ñeàn thôø ñeàu ñöôïc xaây caát gaàn nhöõng trung taâm daân cö ñeå cö só deã daøng tìm ñeán. Moãi cö só ñeàu coù moät thôøi gian soáng trong chuøa, vaø ñöôïc chö taêng truyeàn daïy cho moät soá kieán thöùc. Coù 85% daân soá theo Phaät giaùo, trong moät thôøi gian daøi ñaõ ñöôïc bieát ñeán vôùi söï noåi baät veà trình ñoä hoïc vaán cao. Phaät giaùo laø moät löïc löôïng khai hoùa vó ñaïi trong ñôøi soáng cuûa daân toäc Mieán Ñieän, ñaõ giuùp laøm giaûm nheï nhöõng xung ñoät saéc toäc, nuoâi döôõng moät ñôøi soáng xaõ hoäi daân chuû baèng caùch giaûm thieåu ñeán möùc thaáp nhaát taàm quan troïng cuûa söï giaøu coù vaø giai caáp, mang ñeán raát nhieàu veû ñeïp vaø kieán thöùc. Vaø quan troïng hôn heát, Phaät giaùo ñaõ taïo ra moät daân toäc ñaëc bieät vui tính, lòch söï vaø deã meán.

Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

Phaät giaùo laø quoác giaùo. Toaøn boä neàn vaên hoùa baûn ñòa gaén lieàn vôùi Phaät giaùo, vaø nhaø vua laø moät vò hoä phaùp, khoâng nhöõng baèng lôøi noùi maø baèng caû vieäc laøm. Truyeàn thoáng ñöôïc tuaân theo nghieâm ngaët, vaø vieäc tuïng taùn nhöõng ñoaïn kinh vaên baèng tieáng Pāli raát ñöôïc chuù troïng. Gioáng nhö ôû Mieán Ñieän, nhöõng lôøi caàu khaán khoâng tröïc tieáp höôùng veà ñöùc Phaät, maø laø qua caùc vò thaàn baûn ñòa vaø thaàn caây coái.

Buddhism is the state religion, all indigenous culture is bound up with it and the king is the “Protector of Dhamma” not only in word but also in deed. Tradition is strictly followed and the rhythmical recitation of Pali texts is greatly stressed. Petitions, as in Burma, are not directed to the Buddha but to local genii and tree spirits.

Trong khi vaøo theá kyû 11 Maät toâng vaãn coøn höng thònh ôû Kampu-chia,1 thì sau naêm 1300, do aùp löïc cuûa ngöôøi Thaùi, Thöôïng toïa boä cuûa Tieåu thöøa ñaõ daàn daàn thay theá cho toâng naøy, vaø vaøo theá kyû 15, Phaät giaùo chính thoáng cuûa Tích Lan ñöôïc du nhaäp. Cuõng taïi ñaây, vieäc giaùo duïc do chö taêng ñaûm nhaän, vaø Phaät giaùo ñaõ töï chöùng toû ñöôïc moät aûnh höôûng höôùng thöôïng vaø hoaøn thieän, ñaõ taïo ra ñöôïc moät daân toäc hieàn hoøa, nhaân töø vaø vò tha. Caùc vò thoå thaàn, ñöôïc goïi laø Neaca-ta, cuõng giöõ moät vai troø nhaát ñònh, vaø coù söï pha troän nhöõng aûnh höôûng töø Trung Hoa (chaúng haïn nhö söï hieän dieän cuûa Mi-lei-fo2 trong caùc ñeàn chuøa) vaø töø AÁn Ñoä (chaúng haïn nhö söï hieän dieän cuûa Nagas,3 Garudas4 vaø thaàn Shiva boán maët trong caùc coâng trình kieán truùc).

Whereas in the eleventh century the Tantrayana still flourished in Cambodia, after 1300 the Theravada as a result of the Thai pressure slowly replaced it and in the fifteenth century the Ceylonese orthodoxy was imported. Also here the education is in the hands of the monks and Buddhism has proved itself an elevating and ennobling influence, and has produced a mild, kindly and helpful people. The Neaca-ta, or spirits of the land, also play their part and there is some blending of influences from China (e.g. the presence of Mi-lei-fo in the temples) and from India (e.g. the Nagas, Garudas and four-faced Sivas found in architecture).

Lòch söû Phaät giaùo ôû Laøo bao truøm trong huyeàn thoaïi. Döôøng nhö Phaät giaùo ñaõ ñöôïc nhöõng ngöôøi di cö Khmer mang ñeán vaøo khoaûng theá kyû 14, vaø hieän nay laø hình thöùc Phaät giaùo Thaùi Lan vôùi söï chuù troïng nhieàu hôn ñeán vieäc thôø Long thaàn. Cuoái cuøng laø Vieät Nam, ñoäc laäp töø naêm 1000,5 chòu aûnh höôûng moät phaàn cuûa Trung Hoa veà maët vaên hoùa, vaø Ñaïi thöøa ñaõ toàn taïi ôû ñaây trong moät thôøi gian daøi. Taïi Indonesia, Phaät giaùo Maät toâng toàn taïi cho ñeán khi bò Hoài giaùo ñaøn aùp: ôû Sumatra laø cuoái theá kyû 14, coøn ôû Java thì töø theá kyû 15 trôû ñi. Söï suïp ñoå cuoái cuøng cuûa Maät toâng ôû ñaây ñöôïc daãn tröôùc bôûi vieäc suy giaûm daàn daàn aûnh höôûng cuûa cuûa ñaïo Hindu ñoái vôùi neàn vaên hoùa, vaø vieäc taùi khaúng ñònh nhöõng yeáu toá gaàn

The history of Buddhism in Laos is shrouded in legend. It seems to have been introduced in the fourteenth century by Khmer immigrants, and at present is of the Siamese type, with greater emphasis on the Nagas. Vietnam finally, independent since 1000, is culturally a part of China, and the Mahāyāna has existed there for a long time. In Indonesia Tantric Buddhism persisted until it was suppressed by Islam, in Sumatra at the end of the fourteenth century, in Java from the fifteenth century onwards. Its final collapse was preceded by a slow decline in the Hindu impact on the culture and a re-assertion of the more indigenous elements. 4 5

Luùc ñoù laø Cambodia 2 Boà Taùt Di-laëc 3 Long thaàn

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Kim sí ñieåu Thaät ra, duø khoâng keå ñeán nhöõng laàn khôûi nghóa thaønh coâng taïm thôøi tröôùc ñoù, neàn ñoäc laäp laâu daøi cuûa Vieät Nam phaûi ñöôïc xaùc ñònh töø naêm 939, khi Ngoâ Quyeàn giaønh ñöôïc chieán thaéng vaø xöng vöông.

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Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

guõi hôn vôùi vaên hoùa baûn ñòa. Hình thöùc Maät toâng chieám öu theá trong thôøi kyø naøy laø moät hình thöùc cöïc ñoan, baét buoäc thöïc haønh 5 giôùi caám,1 lìa boû aùi duïc, vaø xem ñöùc Phaät Ñaïi Nhaät laø vò Phaät töø nguyeân thuûy. Boä phaùi naøy keát hôïp bieåu töôïng Thôøi luaân vôùi söï suøng baùi Shiva Bhairava thaønh hình töôïng Phaät-Shiva.2 Vaø ñeå phuø hôïp vôùi truyeàn thoáng baûn ñòa, boä phaùi naøy chuû yeáu nhaém ñeán vieäc sieâu ñoä cho linh hoàn ngöôøi cheát. Moät soá taùc phaåm ñieâu khaéc ñeïp nhaát cuûa Phaät giaùo ñöôïc thöïc hieän ôû Java döôùi trieàu ñaïi Singhasari (1222-1292), trình baøy caùc vò vua cuûa trieàu ñaïi naøy ñöôïc ñieâu khaéc thaønh nhöõng pho töôïng phoûng theo nhö laø caùc vò Phaät Baát Khoâng, Phaät Baát Ñoäng .v.v... vaø caùc vò hoaøng haäu thì gioáng nhö laø nöõ thaàn Baùt-nhaõ .v.v...

The Tantrism prevalent in this period was an extremist form, which enjoined the practice of the five makaras, “free from all sensualities”, and regarded Vairocana as the primordial Buddha. It syncretized the Kalacakra with the devotion to Shiva Bhairava into a cult of Shiva-buddha and, in keeping with the native Indonesian tradition, it was chiefly devoted to the redemption of the souls of the dead. Some of the loveliest pieces of Buddhist sculpture were made in Java under the dynasty of Singhasari (1222-92), which represented its kings on statues as Amoghapasa, Aksobhya, etc., and its queens as Prajnaparamita, etc.

5. TRUNG HOA VAØ TRIEÀU TIEÂN

5. CHINA AND KOREA

ÔÛ Trung Hoa, maëc duø caùc vò vua ñôøi Toáng noùi chung ñeàu höôùng veà Phaät giaùo, nhöng söùc soáng cuûa Phaät giaùo suy giaûm daàn ñi trong suoát thôøi kyø naøy. Khoaûng sau naêm 1000, coù hai toâng phaùi noåi baät hôn haún so vôùi nhöõng toâng phaùi khaùc, ñoù laø Tònh ñoä toâng vaø Thieàn toâng. Trong Thieàn toâng coù naêm doøng truyeàn thöøa ñaõ hình thaønh goïi laø Nguõ gia.3 Taát caû tín ñoà Thieàn toâng ñeàu gioáng nhau ôû ñieåm hoï tin raèng töï taâm moãi ngöôøi ñeàu coù taùnh Phaät, nhöng roõ raøng laø coù nhöõng khaùc bieät tuøy theo taâm cuûa moãi ngöôøi, vaø chaéc chaén nhöõng khaùc bieät aáy phaûi ñöôïc phaûn aùnh trong nhöõng phöông phaùp vaø caùch tu taäp khaùc nhau. Do ñoù, nhöõng gì khaùc bieät giöõa naêm nhaø chính laø veà phöông caùch tu taäp hôn laø veà giaùo lyù. Ba nhaø trong soá ñoù laø caùc toâng Quy Ngöôõng, Vaân Moân vaø Phaùp Nhaõn ñaõ taøn luïi vaøo khoaûng giöõa ñôøi Toáng. Ñaëc ñieåm cuûa toâng Quy Ngöôõng laø phöông phaùp truyeàn daïy 1 2 3

Although the Sung emperors were on the whole well disposed towards Buddhism, its vigour declined during this period. After about AD 1000 two schools ousted all the others, the Amidism of Faith, and the meditational school of Ch’an. Within Ch’an, five lines of transmission, called the “Five Houses”, had taken shape. All Ch’an Buddhists alike believe that one’s own heart is the Buddha, but there are obviously great differences in the hearts of men and these must inevitably reflect themselves in different methods and approaches. What therefore differentiated the “Five Houses” were less differences in doctrine than differences in style. Three of the five, the Weiyang-tsung, the Yun-men-tsung and the Fa-yen-tsung, died out already by the middle of the Sung period. Characteristic of the Wei-yang sect was a special method of teaching by drawing

Nguõ gia laø “naêm nhaø” ñöôïc chia ra töø Thieàn toâng sau ñôøi Luïc Toå. Ñoù laø: 1. Toâng Quy Ngöôõng (歸仰宗), do hai ngaøi Quy Sôn Linh Höïu (潙山靈祐–771-853) vaø Ngöôõng Sôn Hueä Tòch (仰山慧寂– 807-883, cuõng coù caùc

thuyeát khaùc cho laø 813 hay 814 cho ñeán 890 hoaëc 891) saùng laäp. 2. Toâng Laâm Teá (臨濟宗), do ngaøi Laâm Teá Nghóa Huyeàn (臨濟義玄 – ? – 866 hoaëc 867) saùng laäp. 3. Toâng Taøo Ñoäng (曹洞宗), do hai ngaøi Ñoäng Sôn Löông Giôùi (洞山良价– 807-869) vaø Taøo Sôn Baûn Tòch (曹山本寂– 840-901) saùng laäp. 4. Toâng Vaân Moân (雲門宗), do ngaøi Vaân Moân Vaên Yeån (雲門文偃– 864-949) saùng laäp. 5. Toâng Phaùp Nhaõn (法眼宗), do ngaøi Phaùp Nhaõn Vaên Ích (法眼文益– 885-958) saùng laäp.

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A short history of Buddhism

baèng caùch veõ nhöõng voøng troøn khaùc nhau trong khoâng khí hay treân maët ñaát. Toâng Vaân Moân nhìn chung gioáng nhö toâng Laâm Teá, nhöng moät trong nhöõng phöông caùch ñaëc bieät cuûa hoï laø traû lôøi nhöõng caâu hoûi baèng moät töø hoaëc moät aâm duy nhaát. Toâng Phaùp Nhaõn höôùng ñeán vieäc hoïc taäp kinh ñieån nhieàu hôn so vôùi caùc toâng khaùc, vaø chòu aûnh höôûng raát ñaäm neùt töø giaùo lyù cuûa toâng Hoa nghieâm. Hai toâng vaãn toàn taïi ñeán nay laø toâng Taøo Ñoäng, saùng laäp bôûi ngaøi Ñoäng Sôn Löông Giôùi (807-869) vaø toâng Laâm Teá, saùng laäp bôûi ngaøi Laâm Teá Nghóa Huyeàn (maát naêm 867). Vaøo luùc baáy giôø, hai toâng phaùi naøy thaät ra chæ laø coù söï khaùc bieät veà khuynh höôùng maø thoâi, vaø söï khaùc bieät taêng daàn cho ñeán khi coù söï chia taùch thöïc söï thaønh hai toâng khaùc nhau laø vaøo khoaûng naêm 1150. Ñaëc ñieåm cuûa toâng Taøo Ñoäng laø söï yeân laëng. Thieàn sö Hoaèng Trí Chính Giaùc (maát naêm 1157)1 ñaõ goïi phöông phaùp thieàn cuûa toâng Taøo Ñoäng laø “Tòch chieáu thieàn”, nghóa laø laúng laëng maø soi saùng. Ñieàu naøy cho thaáy hoï chuù troïng nhieàu ñeán vieäc tónh toïa thieàn quaùn, ñeå nhôø vaøo ñoù, hay chính trong traïng thaùi ñoù maø ñaït ñeán söï giaùc ngoä, hay söï tænh giaùc noäi taâm veà taùnh khoâng tuyeät ñoái. Ngöôøi saùng laäp ra phaùi thieàn naøy ñaõ oân hoøa trong vieäc vaän duïng caùc phöông phaùp. OÂng cuõng ñeå laïi cho toâng phaùi moät giaùo lyù ñaëc bieät lieân quan ñeán 5 caáp ñoä, phaân bieät roõ 5 giai ñoaïn cuûa tieán trình ñaït ñeán giaùc ngoä, theo phong caùch thuaàn tuùy Trung Hoa vôùi aûnh höôûng raát lôùn töø Kinh Dòch. Nhöõng giai ñoaïn naøy ñöôïc töôïng tröng baèng caùc voøng troøn traéng vaø ñen. Coù boán hoïc thuyeát coù theå ñeà caäp ñeán nhö laø nhöõng neùt ñaëc thuø cuûa toâng Taøo Ñoäng: 1. Taát caû chuùng sanh töø khi sanh ra ñeàu saün coù Phaät taùnh, vaø do ñoù taát nhieân laø seõ giaùc ngoä. 1

various circles in the air or on the ground; the Yiin-men sect generally resembled the Lin-chi, but one of its special devices was the reply to questions with one single word of one syllable; the Fa-yen was more favourable to the study of the Sutras than the other Ch’an sects and the influence on it of the Hua-yen doctrines was particularly marked. The two schools which have survived to the present day are the Ts’ao-tung-tsung, founded by Tung-shan Liang-chieh (80769), and the Lin-chi-tsung, which goes back to his contemporary Lin-chi-I-hsuan (died 867). The differences between these two, which had been just distinctive tendencies so far, hardened into different sects in the proper sense of the term only about 1150. The Ts’ao-tung was always characterized by quietism and Hung-chih Cheng-chueh (died 1157) gave it the special name of Mo-chao ch’an “silent-illumination Ch’an”. This indicated that the school stressed the quiet sitting still in silent meditation, by or in which enlightenment, or spiritual insight into absolute emptiness, is attained. The founder of this sect was mild and gentle in his methods. He also bequeathed to his school a special doctrine concerning the “Five Ranks”, which distinguishes five stages of the movement towards enlightenment in a thoroughly Chinese manner which was greatly indebted to the Book of Changes, and the stages were represented by white and black circles. Four doctrines are mentioned as characteristic of the Ts’ao-tung: (1) All beings have the Buddha-nature at birth and consequently are essentially enlightened;

Thieàn sö Chính Giaùc, töùc Hoaèng Trí Chính Giaùc (宏智正覺– 1091-1157) thuoäc toâng Taøo Ñoäng. Ngaøi laø ngöôøi Thaáp Chaâu, Sôn Taây, tö chaát thoâng

minh töø nhoû, naêm leân 7 tuoåi ñaõ tuïng ñoïc moãi ngaøy caû ngaøn caâu kinh. Naêm 11 tuoåi xuaát gia taïi chuøa Tònh Minh, 14 tuoåi ñeán chuøa Töø Vaân thoï giôùi cuï tuùc vôùi ngaøi Trí Quyønh (智瓊). Naêm 18 tuoåi töø bieät thaày ñi tham hoïc khaép nôi. Ngaøi laø moät trong caùc cao taêng noåi danh ñôøi Toáng.

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A short history of Buddhism

2. Chuùng sanh coù theå hoaøn toaøn ñaït ñeán söï an laïc cuûa Phaät taùnh khi ôû trong traïng thaùi thieàn quaùn tónh laëng. 3. Coâng phu haønh trì vaø söï trau gioài tri thöùc phaûi luoân luoân boå khuyeát cho nhau. 4. Caùc nghi thöùc coâng phu leã saùm haøng ngaøy caàn phaûi ñöôïc tuaân theo moät caùch nghieâm ngaët. Ngöôøi saùng laäp phaùi thieàn Laâm Teá thì ngöôïc laïi, thöôøng vaän duïng tính caùch maïnh meõ vaø ñoät ngoät, vôùi nhöõng tieáng heùt vaø thieàn tröôïng giöõ moät vai troø quan troïng trong coâng phu thöïc haønh. Trong taát caû caùc toâng phaùi, ñaây laø toâng phaùi choáng laïi vieäc chaïy theo söï lyù giaûi cuûa tri thöùc moät caùch maïnh meõ nhaát, vaø cuõng laø toâng phaùi chuù troïng nhieàu nhaát ñeán tính chaát baát ngôø vaø tröïc tieáp trong kinh nghieäm thieàn quaùn. Trong ñôøi nhaø Toáng, Thieàn toâng trôû thaønh moät yeáu toá vaên hoùa cöïc kyø quan troïng. Trong soá caùc hoïa só danh tieáng cuûa thôøi naøy coù nhieàu thieàn sö, vaø aûnh höôûng cuûa thieàn ñoái vôùi ngheäâ thuaät raát ñaùng keå. Ngay caû söï phuïc höng Khoång giaùo cuûa nhoùm Taân hoïc goàm Chu Hy vaø nhöõng ngöôøi khaùc cuõng nhôø vaøo Thieàn toâng raát nhieàu, töông töï nhö söï phuïc höng boä Vedanta cuûa Sankara ñaõ döïa raát nhieàu vaøo Phaät giaùo Ñaïi thöøa. Söï thöïc haønh tónh nieäm, suy ngaãm moät caùch laëng leõ, raát quan troïng ñoái vôùi thieàn, ñaõ daãn ñeán söï luyeän taäp pheùp tónh toïa cuûa Khoång giaùo. Söï thaønh coâng noåi baät naøy ñaõ mang ñeán cho Thieàn toâng ñôøi Toáng nhöõng moái nguy hieåm vaø söï khuûng hoaûng saâu xa. Caùc thieàn sö ñôøi Ñöôøng luoân xa laùnh kinh ñoâ, nhöng giôø ñaây caùc thieàn vieän laïi duy trì nhöõng moái quan heä toát ñeïp vôùi trieàu ñình vaø daây döa khaù nhieàu vaøo chính söï. Caùc thieàn vieän nguy nga moïc leân khaép nôi trong nöôùc vaø trôû thaønh nhöõng trung taâm ñieåm cuûa ñôøi soáng vaên hoùa xaõ hoäi. Trong Thieàn toâng ñaõ coù nhieàu nhaân nhöôïng vôùi chuû nghóa tri thöùc vaø vieäc nghieân cöùu kinh ñieån. Ngay trong nhaø thieàn ñaõ naûy sinh moät söï baát ñoàng maïnh meõ veà taàm quan troïng cuûa kinh ñieån.1 1

(2) They can enjoy fully the Bliss of the Buddha-nature while in a state of quiet meditation; (3) Practice and knowledge must always complement one another; (4) The strict observance of religious ritual must be carried over into our daily lives. The founder of the Lin-chi sect by contrast favoured the use of rudeness and abruptness and the “shout and the stick” played a great part in the practices of this school. It was the most hostile of them all to rationalization and the most emphatic in stressing the suddenness and directness of Ch’an experience. During the Sung the Ch’an school became a cultural factor of great importance. Many Ch’an monks were found among the painters of the period, and its influence on art was considerable. Even the Neo-Confucian Renaissance of Chu-hsi and others owed much to Ch’an Buddhism, just as the Vedantic Renaissance of Sankara had been greatly indebted to Mahāyāna Buddhism. The practice oftso-ch’an, quiet contemplation, so important in Ch’an, found its way into the practices of Confucianism as ching-tso, or “quiet-sitting”. This outward success brought its dangers and led to a deep crisis within Ch’an. The T’ang masters had always avoided the capital, but now the Ch’an monasteries maintained excellent relations with the Court and meddled much in politics. Magnificent Ch’an monasteries arose throughout the country and became focal points of social and cultural life. Many concessions were made to intellectualism and to the study of the Sutras, and within the Ch’an camp a vigorous controversy arose about their importance.

Ñaây laø daáu hieäu suy thoaùi cuûa Thieàn toâng, vì söùc soáng ban ñaàu cuûa Thieàn naèm ngay trong vieäc töø boû chuû nghóa tri thöùc vaø chuù troïng ñeán coâng phu

thöïc haønh vôùi nhöõng kinh nghieäm thöïc tieãn. Tinh thaàn “baát laäp vaên töï” ñeán ñaây ñaõ bò lung lay bôûi nhöõng aûnh höôûng vaên hoùa töø xaõ hoäi.

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A short history of Buddhism

Töø choái maïnh meõ nhaát ñoái vôùi giaù trò cuûa kinh ñieån laø toâng Laâm Teá, choáng laïi nguy cô suy suïp ñang ñeán gaàn cuûa Thieàn toâng baèng caùch ñöa ra moät heä thoáng caùc coâng aùn.1 Danh töø coâng aùn bao goàm hai töø: “coâng”, hay coâng khai, cuûa chung, vaø “aùn”, hay phaùn quyeát veà moät vuï vieäc, vaø haøm yù chæ cho moät khuoân maãu ñaõ coù töø tröôùc hoaëc ñaùng tin caäy. Trong thöïc haønh, coâng aùn laø moät kieåu caâu ñoá, thöôøng lieân quan ñeán lôøi noùi hoaëc haønh ñoäng cuûa moät trong nhöõng thieàn sö ñôøi Ñöôøng. Giôø ñaây, nhöõng boä söu taäp caùc coâng aùn nhö vaäy ñöôïc in aán ra, moãi moät coâng aùn ñöôïc theâm vaøo phaàn giaûi thích, ñöôïc vieát ra theo caùch laø khoâng giaûi thích gì caû.2 Ñieån hình ñaàu tieân cuûa loaïi vaên chöông môùi naøy laø moät tuyeån taäp goàm 100 coâng aùn, goïi laø Bích nham luïc,3 xuaát hieän naêm 1125. Taäp coâng aùn noåi tieáng khaùc laø Voâ moân quan,4 goàm 48 coâng aùn, xuaát hieän sau ñoù hôn moät theá kyû. Ngöôïc laïi vôùi söï yeân tónh maø toâng Taøo Ñoäng aùp duïng, toâng Laâm Teá chuû tröông khoâng ngöøng hoaït ñoäng vôùi moät coâng aùn ñöôïc löïa choïn cho ñeán khi ñaït ñeán giaùc ngoä. Theo nhö caùch noùi cuûa ngaøi Ñaïi Hueä Toâng Caûo (1089-1163) laø: “Chæ moät coâng aùn, troïn moät ñôøi khoâng luùc naøo buoâng boû. Ñi ñöùng naèm ngoài, chuù taâm khoâng döùt. Khi thaáy ñaõ heát söùc nhaøm chaùn, laø luùc giôø phuùt cuoái cuøng saép ñeán, ñöøng ñeå lôõ maát. Khi taâm thöùc ñoät nhieân böøng saùng, aùnh saùng aáy seõ soi saùng toaøn vuõ truï, vaø caûnh giôùi giaùc ngoä cuûa chö hieàn thaùnh hieän ra töôøng taän nhö töøng sôïi toùc, baùnh xe chaùnh phaùp ñöôïc chuyeån ngay trong moät haït buïi.”

Most radical in its rejection of the authority of the Sutras was the Lin-chi, which countered the impending decadence by evolving the kung-an system. The word Kung-an consists of two characters, for “government” and “legal case” and denotes a precedent or authoritative model. In practice a kungan is a riddle, usually connected with a saying or action of one of the T’ang masters. Collections of such kung-ans were now published and to each was added an explanation which deliberately never explained anything at all. The first example of this new literary genre was a collection of 100 riddles, called the Pi-yen-lu, which appeared in 1125. The other famous collection is the “Gateless Gate”, or Wu-men-kuan, comprising 48 cases, and which appeared more than a century later. In opposition to the quietism advocated by the Ts’ao-tung, the Linchi advocated ceaseless activity on the chosen kung-an which must be carried on until sudden enlightenment supervenes. As Ta-hui tsung-kao (1089-1163) put it: “Just steadily go on with your kung-an every moment of your life! Whether walking or sitting, let your attention be fixed upon it without interruption. When you begin to find it entirely devoid of flavour, the final moment is approaching: do not let it slip out of your grasp! When all of a sudden something flashes out in your mind, its light will illuminate the entire universe, and you will see the spiritual land of the Enlightened Ones fully revealed at the point of a single hair and the wheel of the Dharma revolving in a single grain of dust.”

Coâng aùn (公案), moät thuaät ngöõ thuaàn tuùy cuûa Thieàn toâng. Nguyeân nghóa cuûa danh töø naøy laø moät baûn aùn coâng khai, coù giaù trò thi haønh, do moät vò quan coù thaåm quyeàn ñöa ra, nhöng Thieàn toâng duøng danh töø naøy vôùi nghóa ñaëc thuø nhö moät phöông tieän, moät ñoái töôïng thieàn quaùn, khoâng duøng theo nguyeân nghóa. Trong nguyeân taùc tieáng Anh, Conze duøng töø “government” ñeå dòch chöõ coâng (公), vaø “legal case” ñeå dòch chöõ aùn (案), e laø khoâng ñöôïc chính xaùc laém. 2 Ñaây laø nhöõng phaàn nieâm hoaëc tuïng, daønh cho moãi coâng aùn, maø thöïc chaát baûn thaân chuùng laø nhöõng coâng aùn môùi.

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Bích nham luïc (碧岩錄), xuaát phaùt töø moät taùc phaåm ñöôïc thieàn sö Tuyeát Ñaäu (雪竇 – 834-905) bieân soaïn vôùi teân laø Tuyeát Ñaäu tuïng coå (雪竇頌古), sau ñöôïc thieàn sö Vieân Ngoä (圓悟 – 1063-1135) söû duïng vaø bieân soaïn theâm vaøo, thaønh ra taäp Bích nham luïc löu haønh ñeán ngaøy nay. Ñaây laø moät quyeån saùch noåi tieáng trong giôùi thieàn hoïc, ñöôïc meänh danh laø Toâng moân ñeä nhaát thö (宗門第一書). 4 Voâ moân quan (無門關), do thieàn sö Voâ Moân Hueä Khai (無門慧開 – 11831260) bieân soaïn.

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A short history of Buddhism

Nhö theá, vaøo ñôøi Toáng phöông phaùp thieàn ñònh coù heä thoáng ñaõ thay theá cho phöông phaùp öùng taùc caù nhaân cuûa caùc thieàn sö ñôøi Ñöôøng. Nhöng chính söï heä thoáng hoùa naøy, vaø trong moät chöøng möïc naøo ñoù laø tính chaát maùy moùc, khuoân thöôùc, ñaõ ñaûm baûo cho söï soáng coøn cuûa Thieàn toâng. Bao giôø cuõng vaäy, khi nhöõng tröôøng phaùi trieát hoïc cuøng song song toàn taïi, cho duø laø trong moät thôøi gian bao laâu ñi nöõa, keát quaû vaãn laø seõ coù moät söï hoøa hôïp ngaøy caøng gia taêng. Veà nhieàu phöông dieän, Thieàn toâng ñöôïc keát hôïp vôùi Hoa nghieâm toâng vaø Thieân thai toâng; vaø pheùp nieäm Phaät cuõng thöôøng ñöôïc ñöa vaøo Thieàn toâng ñeå laøm taêng theâm söùc maïnh thieàn ñònh. Trong caùc trieàu ñaïi nhaø Nguyeân vaø nhaø Minh, söï keát hôïp hoaøn toaøn caùc khuynh höôùng khaùc nhau cuûa Phaät giaùo Trung Hoa ñaõ dieãn ra. Nhaø Minh vaø Maõn Chaâu ñeàu chuoäng Khoång giaùo, nhöng vaãn chaáp nhaän vaø ñoâi khi cuõng khuyeán khích Phaät giaùo. Hai vò hoaøng ñeá Ung Chính (1723-1735) vaø Caøn Long (17361795) ñaõ coá gaéng taïo ra moät kieåu Phaät giaùo keát hôïp giöõa Phaät giaùo Trung Hoa vaø caùc yeáu toá cuûa Laït-ma giaùo. Vì vaäy, moät maët loâi cuoán ñöôïc ngöôøi Trung Hoa, trong khi maët khaùc cuõng keâu goïi ñöôïc ngöôøi Taây Taïng vaø Moâng Coå. Chuøa Yung-ho-kung, ngoâi chuøa Laït-ma giaùo ôû Baéc Kinh, laø moät coâng trình theå hieän roõ nhöõng coá gaéng naøy. Trong ñoù, nhöõng vò thaàn thuoäc veà hai phong caùch thôø kính cuûa Phaät giaùo Trung Hoa vaø Laït-ma giaùo ñöôïc hoøa laãn vôùi nhau moät caùch caån thaän. Ngay caû Quan Coâng (moät vò voõ thaàn cuûa Trung Hoa) vaø Khoång Töû cuõng ñöôïc thôø ôû ñaây trong soá caùc vò Boà Taùt. Söï höng thònh cuûa caùc töï vieän khoâng bao giôø phuïc hoài ñöôïc nöõa sau cuoäc noåi loaïn cuûa giaëc Thaùi Bình, “nhöõng ngöôøi Coâng Giaùo toùc daøi”.1 Trong 15 naêm (1850-1865), hoï ñaõ taøn phaù 16 tænh, huûy hoaïi 600 thaønh phoá vaø haøng ngaøn ñeàn ñaøi, töï vieän. Cho duø vaäy, cho ñeán ngaøy nay Phaät giaùo vaãn khoâng heà bò queân laõng trong ñôøi soáng vaên hoùa vaø tín ngöôõng cuûa ngöôøi Trung Hoa. 1

In Sung times systematic method thus replaced the individualistic spontaneity of the T’ang masters. But it was this systematization and to some extent mechanization which assured the survival of Ch’an. Whenever philosophical schools coexist for any length of time, the result will be an increasing syncretism between them. In many ways Ch’an was combined with Huayen and T’ien-t’ai, and the practice of the Nembutsu was often brought in to strengthen the Ch’an meditation. During the Yuan and Ming dynasties a fairly complete fusion of the different trends of Chinese Buddhism actually took place. The Ming and Manchus favoured Confucianism, but tolerated, and occasionally encouraged Buddhism. Two emperors, Yungcheng (1723-35) and Ch’ien-lung (1736-95), tried to create a type of Buddhism which combined Chinese Buddhist (Fo-ist) and Lamaist elements, thus appealing to Chinese on the one hand, and Tibetans and Mongols on the other. The Yung-hokung, the Lamaist Cathedral in Peking, is a visible monument to these endeavours and in it the deities proper to these two types of Buddhist cult are carefully blended. Even Kuan Ti, the Chinese War God, and Confucius are there enlisted among the Bodhisattvas. The prosperity of the monasteries has never recovered from the Taiping rebellion of the “long-haired Christians”, who for fifteen years (1850-65) devasted sixteen provinces, destroyed 600 cities, and thousands of temples and monasteries. Nevertheless, until the present day Buddhism has remained a by no means negligible factor in the cultural and religious life of China.

Töùc laø cuoäc noåi loaïn cuûa nhoùm goïi laø Thaùi Bình Thieân Quoác, choáng laïi trieàu ñình Maõn Thanh ñang caàm quyeàn. Hoï thaønh coâng trong moät thôøi gian vaø

chieám cöù, taøn phaù nhieàu vuøng roäng lôùn. Nhöng veà sau, vôùi söï giuùp ñôõ cuûa caùc theá löïc nöôùc ngoaøi, trieàu ñình ñaõ deïp tan cuoäc noåi loaïn naøy. Tuy vaäy, ñaây ñöôïc xem laø moät trong nhöõng nguyeân nhaân gaây suy yeáu vaø daãn ñeán söï suïp ñoå cuûa cheá ñoä phong kieán Trung Hoa sau ñoù khoâng ñaày 50 naêm (1911).

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A short history of Buddhism

Taïi Trieàu Tieân, Phaät giaùo cöïc thònh döôùi trieàu ñaïi Koryo,1 ñaëc bieät laø töø naêm 1140 ñeán 1390. Ngöôøi saùng laäp trieàu ñaïi naøy laø moät Phaät töû chí thaønh, cho raèng söï thaønh coâng cuûa mình chính laø nhôø vaøo söï che chôû cuûa Phaät phaùp. Nhöõng ngöôøi keá nghieäp oâng cuõng khoâng bao giôø ngaàn ngaïi trong vieäc uûng hoä Phaät giaùo. Moãi vò vua ñeàu choïn moät taêng só laøm quoác sö, hay ngöôøi coá vaán. Khi vua ngöï giaù ra ñi, kinh ñieån thieâng lieâng ñöôïc mang ñi tröôùc. Nhieàu aán baûn Kinh taïng ñöôïc in ra vôùi chaát löôïng cao baèng vaøo phí toån cuûa Nhaø nöôùc. Moät aán baûn trong soá ñoù coù ñeán 81.258 tôø. Trong nhieàu giai ñoaïn keùo daøi raát laâu, quyeàn chính hoaøn toaøn naèm trong tay taêng só. Cho ñeán theá kyû 12, giai caáp quyù toäc vaãn laø nguoàn löïc uûng hoä chính cuûa Phaät phaùp, nhöng töø ñoù trôû ñi thì Phaät giaùo cuõng ñaõ trôû thaønh toân giaùo chung cho toaøn daân. Nhöõng yeáu toá phaùp thuaät maïnh meõ ñaõ thaâm nhaäp vaøo Phaät giaùo, nhö ñaõ töøng xaûy ra cho toân giaùo naøy ôû baát cöù nôi ñaâu khi noù thöïc söï ñöôïc phoå caäp. Nhieàu taêng só trôû neân gioûi luyeän pheùp tröôøng sanh, thöïc hieän pheùp maàu, caàu hoàn, choïn giôø toát xaáu, xem höôùng ñaát .v.v... Naêm 1036, moät ñaïo luaät huûy boû aùn töû hình vaø quy ñònh trong 4 ngöôøi con trai phaûi coù moät ngöôøi xuaát gia. Trieàu ñaïi Koryo chi tieâu nhieàu tieàn baïc cho vieäc toå chöùc nhöõng buoåi leã toân giaùo long troïng vaø xaây caát töï vieän. Voâ soá taùc phaåm ngheä thuaät ñöôïc saùng taïo trong thôøi naøy. Vaøo ñôøi Nguyeân, nhaát laø sau naêm 1258, Laït-ma giaùo ñaõ taïo ñöôïc moät aûnh höôûng ñaùng keå. Vaøo theá kyû 14, Phaät giaùo hoaøn toaøn chinh phuïc Trieàu Tieân. Naêm 1310, nhaø vua ban chieáu leänh raèng taêng só khoâng caàn phaûi leã chaøo baát cöù ai, trong khi moïi ngöôøi khaùc ñeàu phaûi toû loøng kính troïng ñoái vôùi hoï. Nhöõng ai choïn theo ñôøi soáng toân giaùo ñeàu khoûi phaûi baän taâm ñeán caùc nhu caàu vaät chaát. Söï öu ñaõi vöôït möùc ñoái vôùi Phaät giaùo boãng ñoät ngoät chaám döùt vôùi söï thay ñoåi trieàu ñaïi vaøo naêm 1392.2 Khoång giaùo giôø ñaây chieám öu theá. Chö taêng khoâng coøn ñöôïc söï uûng hoä cuûa Nhaø nöôùc,

In Korea, Buddhism reached the height of its power under the Koryo dynasty, particularly between 1140 and 1390. The founder of the dynasty was a pious Buddhist, who attributed his success to the Buddha’s protection. His successors never wavered in their support of the religion. Each king chose a bonze as his “preceptor”, or advisor. The holy scriptures were carried in front of the kings when they travelled. Fine editions of the Canon were printed at the expense of the state, one of them comprising 81,258 leaves. For long stretches of time the government was entirely in the hands of the bonzes. Up to the twelfth century the aristocracy had been the main support of Buddhism, but now it became the religion of the common people as well. Strong magical elements entered into Buddhism, as has happened to this religion wherever it became really popular. Many bonzes became experts in prolonging life, in working miracles, evoking spirits, distinguishing between auspicious and inauspicious times and places, and so on. In 1036 an edict abolished the death penalty and decreed that out of four sons one must become a monk. The Koryo dynasty expended much wealth on magnificent religious ceremonies and buildings, and innumerable works of art were created under it. During the Yuan dynasty, especially after 1258, Lamaism exerted a considerable influence. In the fourteenth century the Buddhists dominated Korea almost completely. In 1310 it was decreed that the monks need not salute anyone whereas everyone else must show respect to them. Those who had chosen the religious life were exempt from all material cares. The excessively privileged position of the church came to an abrupt end with the change of the dynasty in 1392. Confucianism now gained the upper hand, the monks were deprived of 2

Trieàu ñaïi Koryŏ keùo daøi töø naêm 918 cho ñeán naêm 1392.

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Trieàu ñaïi thay theá laø trieàu ñaïi Chosŏn, keùo daøi töø naêm 1392 cho ñeán naêm 1910.

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A short history of Buddhism

vaø khoâng ñöôïc tham döï vaøo chính trò. Ñaát ñai bò tòch thu, vaø bò caám khoâng ñöôïc laøm leã caàu sieâu taïi caùc tang leã. Taïi Seoul, 23 töï vieän ñang hieän höõu bò ñoùng cöûa, vaø noùi chung Phaät giaùo bò ngaên trôû. Maëc duø vaäy, vì laø moät toân giaùo cuûa quaàn chuùng, neân Phaät giaùo vaãn toàn taïi trong raëng nuùi Diamond hieåm trôû, caùch xa nhöõng thaønh thò. Veà maët giaùo lyù thì Phaät giaùo ôû Trieàu Tieân laø söï pha troän thoâng thöôøng theo kieåu Trung Hoa, giöõa Thieàn toâng, Tònh ñoä toâng vaø nhöõng tín ngöôõng baûn ñòa. Töø naêm 1810 ñeán 1945, ngöôøi Nhaät uûng hoä Phaät giaùo. Nhöng Phaät giaùo vaãn ôû trong tình traïng suy yeáu. Naêm 1947, taïi Trieàu Tieân coù khoaûng 7.000 taêng só. 6. NHAÄT BAÛN

Trong thôøi kyø naøy, moät söï phaùt trieån maïnh meõ laàn thöù hai cuûa Phaät giaùo Nhaät Baûn laïi dieãn ra. Töø naêm 1160 ñeán 1260, nhöõng boä phaùi môùi hình thaønh laøm thay ñoåi hoaøn toaøn tính caùch cuûa Phaät giaùo Nhaät Baûn, giôø ñaây ñaõ ñaït ñeán ñænh cao cuûa naêng löïc saùng taïo ñoäc ñaùo. Vaøo thôøi ñaïi Lieâm Thöông (1192-1335), caùc toâng Tònh ñoä vaø Thieàn noåi baät leân haún, cuõng gioáng nhö ôû Trung Hoa sau naêm 1000. Toâng Tònh ñoä ñaàu tieân, ñöôïc bieát vôùi teân laø Yuzu Nembutsu,1 ñaõ ñöôïc Ryonin saùng laäp töø tröôùc naêm 1124. Vò naøy ñaõ ñaït ñöôïc giaùc ngoä nhôø vaøo vieäc nieäm Phaät lieân tuïc. Cuï theå laø oâng ñaõ nieäm caâu Nam-moâ A-di-ñaø Phaät ñeán 60.000 laàn moãi ngaøy. OÂng coøn daïy raèng, vieäc nieäm Phaät nhö theá naøy seõ taïo ñöôïc coâng ñöùc voâ cuøng lôùn lao neáu ngöôøi nieäm phaùt taâm vì ngöôøi khaùc chöù khoâng vì mong caàu cho rieâng mình. Toâng phaùi naøy maëc duø vaãn toàn taïi, song chöa luùc naøo thu huùt ñöôïc soá ñoâng tín ñoà. Gaây ñöôïc aûnh höôûng lôùn hôn nhieàu laø moät toâng Tònh ñoä khaùc, saùng laäp bôûi ngaøi Phaùp Nhieân2 (1133-1212) moät vò taêng raát thoâng thaùi vaø nhaân töø. Naêm 1175, luùc 43 tuoåi, nhöõng taùc phaåm 292

official support and a share in political life, their lands were confiscated, they were forbidden to pray at funerals, the twentythree convents existing in Seoul were closed, and Buddhism was generally discouraged. As a religion of the masses it nevertheless persisted, away from the cities, in the rather inaccessible Diamond Mountains. Doctrinally, this Buddhism was the usual Chinese mixture of Ch’an, Amidism and local superstitions. Between 1910 and 1945 the Japanese fostered Buddhism, but it remained in a rather debilitated condition. In 1947, about 7,000 monks were counted in Korea. 6. JAPAN

During this period a second flowering of Buddhism took place in Japan. Between 1160 and 1260 new sects arose which entirely changed its character, and Japanese Buddhism now reached the height of its originality and creative power. In the Kamakura period (1192-1335) the Amida schools and Zen came into the foreground, just as they did in China after AD 1000. The first Amida sect, known as the Yuzu Nembutsu, was founded already in 1124 by Ryonin, who saw the way to salvation in the constant recitation of the “Nembutsu”, i.e. of the formula Namu Amida Butsu, up to 60,000 times a day. He also taught that this invocation was infinitely more meritorious if repeated on behalf of others than for one’s own selfish ends. His sect, though still in existence, never commanded a large following. Far more influential was the Jodo, or “Pure Land”, school, founded by Honen (1133-1212), an exceptionally learned and gentle priest. In 1175, at the age of 43, Shan-tao’s 1 2

Nembutsu trong tieáng Nhaät coù nghóa laø nieäm Phaät. Hōnen 293

Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

cuûa ngaøi Thieän Ñaïo1 ñöa oâng ñeán keát luaän raèng, vaøo thôøi kyø maït phaùp naøy, nhöõng chuaån möïc ñaïo ñöùc truyeàn thoáng vaø caùc nguyeân taéc tinh thaàn cuûa Phaät giaùo ñaõ khoâng coøn ñuû ñeå mang laïi hieäu quaû nöõa. Trong thôøi maït phaùp, duø chuùng ta coù coá gaéng laøm gì ñi nöõa baèng vaøo töï löïc2 cuûa mình cuõng chæ laø voâ ích. Söï bình yeân chæ coù theå coù ñöôïc nhôø vaøo tha löïc,3 trong söï buoâng xaû baûn thaân vaø nöông töïa vaøo moät söùc maïnh cao caû hôn, ñoù laø nguyeän löïc cuûa ñöùc Phaät A-di-ñaø. Vì theá, ngaøi Phaùp Nhieân töø boû taát caû nhöõng coâng phu haønh trì tu taäp khaùc vaø ñeå heát taâm trí vaøo vieäc chuyeân caàn nieäm danh hieäu Phaät A-di-ñaø. Ñieàu quan troïng duy nhaát laø phaûi “nieäm danh hieäu Phaät vôùi söï taäp trung hoaøn toaøn taâm yù – duø khi ñi hay ñöùng, khi naèm hay ngoài, ñeàu khoâng giaùn ñoaïn chuùt naøo”. Trong thôøi ñaïi ñaày daãy nhöõng ñieàu xaáu aùc, caùch giaûi thoaùt duy nhaát laø noã löïc ñeå ñöôïc vaõng sanh veà coõi Taây phöông Tònh ñoä cuûa Phaät A-di-ñaø,4 vaø nhöõng phöông phaùp tu taäp,5 bao goàm caùc vieäc thieän vaø coâng phu haønh trì tu taäp, khoâng coøn ñuû taùc duïng nöõa. Ñieàu caàn thieát laø chæ caàn ñaët heát loøng tin vaøo ñöùc Phaät A-di-ñaø. Ñöùc tin naøy coù theå giuùp cho ngay caû ngöôøi ñaõ phaïm vaøo toäi loãi naëng neà nhaát cuõng coù theå sanh veà coõi Cöïc Laïc cuûa Phaät A-di-ñaø. Tuy nhieân, töø nhöõng khaúng ñònh naøy, ngaøi Phaùp Nhieân khoâng heà ñöa ra haøm yù ñaû kích vieäc nghieâm trì giôùi luaät. Ngaøi buoäc caùc tín ñoà tin theo mình phaûi xa laùnh ñieàu aùc, vaâng giöõ giôùi luaät vaø cuõng khoâng ñöôïc ñaùnh maát loøng kính troïng ñoái vôùi caùc vò Phaät khaùc cuõng nhö vôùi kinh ñieån. Giaùo lyù cuûa ngaøi ñaõ ngay laäp töùc giaønh ñöôïc söï tin töôûng ôû trieàu ñình, trong giai caáp quyù toäc, giai caáp voõ só vaø taêng löõ. Vaø traøo löu môùi naøy töï noù ñaõ toàn taïi moät caùch deã daøng tröôùc söï ñoái nghòch cuûa nhöõng toâng phaùi tröôùc ñoù. Tònh ñoä toâng tieáp tuïc toàn taïi cho ñeán ngaøy nay maø khoâng coù thay ñoåi gì nhieàu. Nhöng vaøo theá kyû 14, vò toå thöù 7 laø Ryoyo Shogei ñaõ dieãn giaûi laïi giaùo lyù naøy theo moät caùch loâi cuoán hôn vaø taïo ñöôïc nhieàu aûnh höôûng hôn. Ngaøi noùi raèng, vaõng sanh veà Tònh ñoä khoâng coù nghóa laø ñöôïc chuyeån ñeán moät nôi naøo khaùc, maø thaät ra coõi Tònh ñoä ôû khaép moïi nôi, vaø sanh veà Tònh ñoä chæ 1

works led him to the conclusion that the traditional Buddhist moral and mental disciplines were no longer effective in this age of decay. Whatever in such an age we may do by our own efforts (jiriki) is of no avail. Peace can only be found through the strength of another (tariki), in self-surrender and in reliance on a higher power, that of the Buddha Amitabha. Honen therefore abandoned all other religious practices, and devoted himself exclusively to the recitation of Amida’s name. All that matters is to “repeat the name of Amida with all your heart - whether walking or standing still, whether sitting or lying, never cease to practise it for even a moment!” In these evil days the only way to obtain salvation is to strive to be reborn in Amida’s “Western Paradise” (Jo-do), and the “holy path” (sho-do), consisting of good works and religious exercises, no longer works. A simple faith in Amida is all that is needed. It will carry even the greatest sinner into Amida’s Blessed Land. Honen drew, however, no antinomian inferences from this assertion and enjoined his followers to avoid sin, to observe the monastic regulations, and also to show no disrespect to the other Buddhas and to the Sutras. His teaching had an instantaneous success at the Court, among the aristocracy, the Samurai and the clergy, and the new movement maintained itself easily against the hostility of the older sects. The Jodo school has continued to the present day without much modification. But in the fourteenth century the seventh patriarch Ryoyo Shogei made an interesting and influential re-interpretation. Rebirth in the Pure Land, so he said, does not mean that one is transported into another region, but the Pure Land is everywhere, and to go there is a change 2 3 4 5

Jiriki Tariki

Jōdo Shōdō, nguyeân nghóa laø thaùnh ñaïo, laø con ñöôøng cuûa baäc thaùnh, chæ nhöõng phöông phaùp tu taäp daãn ñeán giaûi thoaùt.

Shan-tao

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A short history of Buddhism

laø moät söï thay ñoåi cuûa taâm thöùc vaø hoaøn caûnh, chöù khoâng phaûi thay ñoåi nôi choán. Ñieàu naøy thaät raát phuø hôïp vôùi truyeàn thoáng cuûa Ñaïi thöøa.1 Moät söï ñôn giaûn hoùa hôn nöõa cuûa giaùo thuyeát A-di-ñaø ñöôïc Thaân Loan2 thöïc hieän coù hieäu quaû. OÂng sinh naêm 1173, laø ñeä töû cuûa ngaøi Phaùp Nhieân, vaø laø ngöôøi saùng laäp Chaân toâng.3 Teân goïi naøy laø ruùt goïn cuûa Tònh ñoä chaân toâng.4 OÂng phaù boû nhöõng truyeàn thoáng cuûa ñôøi soáng töï vieän, laäp gia ñình vaø khuyeân taêng só neân laøm theo nhö vaäy. OÂng coi vieäc nieäm Phaät lieân tuïc laø khoâng caàn thieát, vaø khaúng ñònh raèng chæ caàn moät laàn nhôù ñeán ñöùc A-di-ñaø vôùi söï thaønh taâm laø ñuû ñeå ñöôïc vaõng sanh veà coõi Cöïc Laïc cuûa ngaøi. Tuy nhieân, nieàm tin vaøo ñöùc Phaät A-di-ñaø laø aân hueä ñöôïc chính ngaøi ban taëng. Veà ñaïo ñöùc, Thaân Loan cho raèng moät ngöôøi ñoäc aùc coù nhieàu khaû naêng ñöôïc vaõng sanh veà coõi Tònh ñoä hôn laø moät ngöôøi thieän, vì ngöôøi naøy thöôøng ít töï tin vaøo naêng löïc vaø coâng ñöùc cuûa mình. Taêng só cuûa toâng phaùi naøy phuû nhaän moïi tri thöùc, nhöng vì nhöõng giaùo lyù cuûa hoï thöôøng deã bò hieåu sai, neân raát nhieàu lyù thuyeát phöùc taïp veà thaàn thaùnh daàn daàn ñöôïc ñöa vaøo theo thôøi gian. Loøng moä ñaïo cuûa toâng naøy vaø caùc toâng phaùi A-di-ñaø khaùc ñaõ daãn ñeán vieäc taïo ra raát nhieàu aûnh töôïng cuûa ñöùc Phaät A-di-ñaø, vaø nhieàu baøi tuïng taùn veà ngaøi cuõng ñöôïc vieát ra baèng tieáng Nhaät. Thaân Loan nhaém ñeán vieäc phaù boû raøo chaén giöõa toân giaùo vôùi nhöõng ngöôøi bình daân, vaø Chaân toâng thöïc söï ñaõ trôû thaønh moät trong nhöõng toâng ñöôïc öa chuoäng roäng raõi nhaát, vaø vaãn coøn giöõ ñöôïc tính phoå caäp aáy cho ñeán taän ngaøy nay. Toâng phaùi A-di-ñaø thöù ba, ít thaønh coâng hôn, ñöôïc Nhaát Bieán5 thaønh laäp vaøo naêm 1276, goïi laø Thôøi toâng,6 ñeå haøm yù ñaây 1

Tinh thaàn naøy cuõng hoaøn toaøn phuø hôïp vôùi caùch giaûng giaûi cuûa Luïc Toå Hueä Naêng trong kinh Phaùp Baûo Ñaøn, phaåm Nghi vaán. 2 Shinran, Haùn dòch aâm laø Thaân Loan (親鸞), ngaøi sinh naêm 1173 vaø maát naêm 1262, ñeå laïi khaù nhieàu tröôùc taùc baèng tieáng Nhaät. 3

Shin-shū Jōdo shinshū 5 Ippen, Haùn dòch laø Nhaát Bieán (一遍– 1239-1289), ngöôøi saùng laäp Thôøi toâng (時宗), toâng phaùi coù töï vieän chính laø Yugyōji (Du Haønh töï -遊行寺) ôû 4

Fujisawa. Nhaát Bieán sinh ôû vuøng maø ngaøy nay laø Ehime vaø theo hoïc töø nhoû vôùi moät moân ñoà cuûa ngaøi Hōnen (Phaùp Nhieân - 法然). OÂng ñaõ coù laàn hoaøn

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of mind and condition, and not of place. This is very much in agreement with the tradition of Mahāyāna. A further simplification of Amidism was effected by Shinran (born 1173), one of Honen’s disciples, and the founder of the Shin sect, the word shin being an abbreviation of Jodo Shinshu, “the True Jodo Sect”. Shinran broke with the monastic traditions, got married and advised his followers to do likewise. He regarded the constant repetition of the Nembutsu as unnecessary, and asserted that to call on Amida once only with a believing mind was sufficient to secure birth in His Paradise. The faith in Amida is, however, Amida’s own free gift. As to the problem of morality, Shinran maintained that a wicked man is more likely to get into Amida’s Land than a good man, because he is less likely to trust in his own strength and merits. The clergy of this sect disclaimed all learning, but as the teachings lend themselves to misunderstanding, great theological subtleties were evolved in the course of time. The devotional practices of this and other Amida schools led to the multiplication of images of Amida, to whom also hymns (wasan) in Japanese were written. Shinran aimed at breaking down the barriers between religion and the common people, and in fact the Shinshu became one of the most popular sects and has remained so to the present day. Less successful was the third Amidist sect, founded by Ippen tuïc, nhöng veà sau ñi tu laïi. Sau moät chuyeán haønh höông ñeán chuøa Zenkōji (Thieän Quang töï – 善光寺) ôû Nagano, oâng ñeán truù taïi moät ngoâi chuøa hoang vaéng ôû Ehime vaø coá heát söùc thöïc haønh coâng phu tu taäp, cuoái cuøng ñaït ñöôïc moät söï caûm öùng töông thoâng vôùi ñöùc Phaät A-di-ñaø. Qua kinh nghieäm giaùc ngoä cuûa mình, oâng cho raèng ngöôøi ta coù theå ñöôïc vaõng sinh veà Tònh ñoä, baát chaáp nhöõng coâng phu tu taäp tröôùc ñaây cuûa hoï laø nhö theá naøo, chæ caàn baèng vaøo coâng ñöùc nieäm Phaät hieän taïi laø ñuû. Sau ñoù, oâng lang thang du hoùa khaép nôi, baèng caùch phaân phaùt cho moïi ngöôøi nhöõng baûn höôùng daãn ngaén, trong ñoù chæ roõ caùch nieäm Phaät theo toâng phaùi mình. Töông truyeàn laø oâng ñaõ hoùa ñoä cho haøng ngaøn ngöôøi theo caùch naøy. Khi saép maát vaøo naêm 1289, oâng ñoát saïch taát caû nhöõng gì ñaõ vieát ra. Vì theá, khoâng coù taùc phaåm naøo cuûa oâng coøn giöõ ñöôïc ñeán nay.

Ji-shū

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laø toâng phaùi thích hôïp vôùi thôøi suy thoaùi naøy. Theo truyeàn thoáng cuûa Thaàn ñaïo, Nhaát Bieán xem moät soá thaàn linh cuûa ñaïo naøy nhö ñöùc Phaät A-di-ñaø, nhöng rieâng veà pheùp nieäm Phaät, oâng cho raèng ñöùc tin laø khoâng caàn thieát, vì ñoù chæ laø hoaït ñoäng cuûa moät taâm thöùc ñaõ hö hoûng. Vieäc nieäm danh hieäu ñöùc A-di-ñaø chæ coù keát quaû nhôø vaøo aâm thanh phaùt ra, nhö moät hoaït ñoäng cuûa beân ngoaøi, baûn chaát laø nhö vaäy. Toâng phaùi thöù tö ñöôïc Nhaät Lieân,1 con trai cuûa moät ngö phuû, thaønh laäp naêm 1253. Toâng phaùi naøy khaùc vôùi taát caû nhöõng toâng phaùi Phaät giaùo khaùc ôû ñieåm laø naëng veà tính daân toäc, hay tranh caõi vaø coá chaáp. Coù phaàn ñaùng ngôø laø toâng phaùi naøy coù neân xeáp vaøo lòch söû Phaät giaùo hay khoâng. Loøng nhieät thaønh yeâu nöôùc cuûa Nhaät Lieân laø do nhöõng tình caûm daân toäc luùc ñoù bò kích ñoäng maïnh bôûi moái ñe doïa keùo daøi veà söï xaâm laêng cuûa quaân Moâng Coå, sau cuøng ñaõ chaám döùt bôûi söï ruùt lui cuûa caùc haïm ñoäi Khubilai2 vaøo nhöõng naêm 1274 vaø 1281. Nhaät Lieân thay theá vieäc nieäm Phaät baèng caùch nieäm caâu “Nam Moâ Dieäu Phaùp Lieân Hoa Kinh” vaø tuyeân boá raèng chæ coù caâu naøy laø thích hôïp vôùi thôøi ñaïi naøy, thôøi ñaïi cuoái cuøng cuûa Phaät giaùo, thôøi maït phaùp, maø theo oâng ñaõ baét ñaàu töø khoaûng naêm 1050. Nhaät Lieân luoân noùi ra vôùi loøng tin tuyeät ñoái theo kieåu cuûa moät nhaø tieân tri Do Thaùi vaø ñoøi ngaên chaën taát caû caùc toâng phaùi, tröø ra toâng phaùi cuûa chính mình. Vì theo oâng thì “nieäm Phaät laø ñòa nguïc, Thieàn toâng laø ma quyû, Chaân ngoân toâng laø söï huûy hoaïi ñaát nöôùc vaø Luaät toâng laø nhöõng keû phaûn quoác”. Chính qua söï kieän naøy Phaät giaùo ñaõ töï ñöa ra ñöôïc nhöõng phaûn ñeà cho chính mình.

Nichiren, Haùn dòch laø Nhaät Lieân (日蓮 – 1222-1282), thaønh laäp toâng phaùi ñöôïc goïi laø Nichirenshū (Nhaät Lieân toâng– 日蓮宗). Ngaøi laø con moät ngö

in 1276, and called the Ji, or “the Time”, to indicate that it was the proper religion for these degenerate times. In the tradition of the Ryobu-Shinto he identified a number of Shinto deities with Amida, but as for the Nembutsu Ippen even regarded faith as unnecessary, for is it not an activity of the corrupt human mind? The recitation of Amida’s name is effective as a result of the sound alone, ex opere operate, as it were. The fourth devotionalist sect, founded in 1253 by Nichiren, the son of a fisherman, differs from all other Buddhist schools by its nationalistic, pugnacious and intolerant attitude and it is somewhat doubtful whether it belongs to the history of Buddhism at all. The patriotic fervour of Nichiren is accounted for by the fact that nationalist sentiments had at that time been greatly inflamed by the long-standing threat of Mongol invasion, which was finally dispelled by the repulsion of Khubilai’s armadas in 1274 and 1281. Nichiren replaced the Nembutsu with the formula Namu Mydhd Renge-kyo, “Homage to the Sutra of the Lotus of the Good Law!”, and declared that this phrase alone was suitable for this, the last period of Buddhism, which is that of mappo, “the destruction of the Law”, and which according to him began about AD 1050. Nichiren always spoke with the vehemence of a Hebrew prophet and demanded the suppression of all sects except his own. “For the Nembutsu is hell; the Zen are devils; Shingon is a national ruin, and the Risshu are traitors to the country.” On this occasion Buddhism had evolved its very antithesis out of itself.

phuû ôû vuøng Chiba, xuaát gia naêm 11 tuoåi taïi chuøa Seichoji (Thanh Tröøng töï - 清澄寺). Sau khi ñaõ nghieân cöùu Phaät phaùp qua nhieàu nôi khaùc nhau nhö Kamakura (Lieâm Thöông - 鎌倉), Kyoto (Kinh Ñoâ - 京都), Tæ Dueä Sôn (比叡山)... ngaøi ñi ñeán keát luaän raèng kinh Phaùp Hoa laø boä kinh haøm chöùa giaùo phaùp vi dieäu nhaát cuûa ñöùc Phaät. Sau ñoù, ngaøi duøng heát söùc mình ñeå truyeàn baù nhöõng ñieàu ñaõ bieát. Maëc duø loâi cuoán ñöôïc khaù nhieàu tín ñoà, ngaøi lieân tuïc

gaëp khoù khaên vôùi nhaø caàm quyeàn, ñaõ hai laàn bò baét vaø ñaøy ñi xa. Trong soá nhöõng tröôùc taùc cuûa ngaøi coù nhöõng taùc phaåm chính nhö Kanjin honzon shō (Quaùn taâm boån toân sao – 觀心本尊抄), Senji shō (Soaïn thôøi sao – 撰時抄), vaø Shugo kokka ron (Thuû hoä quoác gia luaän – 守護國家論). 2 Haïm ñoäi cuûa quaân Moâng Coå.

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Veà Thieàn toâng, ngaøi Vinh Taây1 (1141-1215) truyeàn toâng Laâm Teá vaøo Nhaät Baûn, ñöôïc goïi vôùi teân laø Rinzai vaø raát thaønh coâng. Trong khi ñoù, phaùi Taøo Ñoäng, hay Soto, ñöôïc ngaøi Ñaïo Nguyeân2 (1200-1253)3 ñöa vaøo nöôùc Nhaät ñaàu tieân, sau ñoù ñöôïc toå chöùc vaø truyeàn baù nhôø Keizan Jokin (1268-1325). Taùc phaåm chính cuûa ngaøi Ñaïo Nguyeân laø Chaùnh phaùp nhaõn taïng, ñöôïc vieát 1

As for the Zen school, Eisai (1141-1215) introduced the Linchi sect into Japan, where it became known as Rinzai, and attained a great success, whereas the Ts’ao-tung, or Soto, was first introduced by Dogen (1200-33), and then organized and popularized by Keizan Jokin (1268-1325). Dogen’s principal work, “The Eye of the True Law”, was written in Japanese, so

Eisai, cuõng ñoïc laø Yōsai, Haùn dòch laø Vinh Taây (榮西– 1141-1215), ñöôïc xem laø ngöôøi saùng laäp toâng Rinzai, töùc laø toâng Laâm Teá (臨濟宗) ôû Nhaät

Baûn. Ngaøi sinh trong moät gia ñình theo Thaàn ñaïo, nhöng baét ñaàu hoïc Phaät phaùp töø nhoû, chuû yeáu laø giaùo lyù cuûa toâng Thieân Thai ôû nuùi Tæ Dueä (比叡山). Taïi ñaây, ngaøi thaát voïng vì söï thieáu trung thöïc cuûa moät soá vò taêng ñöùng ñaàu, neân tìm caùch sang Trung Hoa ñeå tìm hoïc giaùo lyù chaân thaät. Ngaøi ôû Trung Hoa khoâng ñaày moät naêm, nhöng coù aán töôïng raát maïnh vôùi nhöõng gì hoïc ñöôïc, vaø trôû veà nuùi Tæ Dueä mang theo raát nhieàu kinh vaên cuûa toâng Thieân Thai. Sau ñoù, ngaøi ñeán Kyushu ñeå tu taäp vaø giaûng daïy, roài laïi coù dòp sang Trung Hoa laàn nöõa vaøo naêm 1187. Laàn naøy, ngaøi coù döï tính seõ ñi xa hôn sang AÁn Ñoä, nhöng khoâng thaønh coâng vì gaëp nhöõng caûn trôû veà maët chính trò. Trong chuyeán ñi laàn naøy, ngaøi ñaõ gaëp ñöôïc Hö Am Hoaøi Söôûng (虚庵懷敞), moät thieàn sö cuûa chi phaùi Hoaøng Long (黄龍) thuoäc doøng thieàn Laâm Teá, vaø ñaõ theo hoïc vôùi vò naøy. Sau ñoù 4 naêm, vaøo naêm 1191, sau khi nhaän ñöôïc söï aán khaû cuûa Hoaøi Söôûng, ngaøi trôû veà Nhaät Baûn vaø thaønh laäp thieàn vieän ñaàu tieân taïi Nhaät laø chuøa Thaùnh Phuùc (聖福寺). Ngaøi coù theå tieáp tuïc hoaït ñoäng ôû vuøng Kyushu, nhöng do ñieàu kieän an ninh khoâng chaéc chaén ôû vuøng nuùi Tæ Dueä, neân ngaøi bò ngaên khoâng cho ñeán giaûng daïy ôû thuû ñoâ. Ñeå ñaùp laïi söï ngaên caám naøy, ngaøi ñi ñeán Kamakura (Lieâm Thöông - 鎌倉) vaø xaây döïng chuøa Kenninji (Kieán Nhaân töï – 建仁寺) ôû Kyoto. Ngaøi maát naêm 1215, sau khi ñaõ hoaøn taát vieäc xaây döïng theâm moät töï vieän nöõa laø chuøa Jufukuji (Thoï Phuùc töï – 壽福寺) ôû Kamakura. Ngaøi ñöôïc xem laø ngöôøi ñaàu tieân ñaõ ñöa vieäc troàng vaø söû duïng caây cheø (traø) vaøo Nhaät Baûn, ñaõ vieát moät cuoán saùch veà chuû ñeà naøy, trong ñoù coù ñeà caäp ñeán nhöõng tính naêng coù lôïi veà maët y hoïc cuûa loaïi thöùc uoáng naøy. Moät soá taùc phaåm khaùc cuûa ngaøi laø Bodaishinron kōketsu (Boà-ñeà taâm luaän khaåu quyeát – 菩提心論口訣), Kōzengokoku ron (Höng thieàn hoä quoác luaän – 興禪護國論), Shukke daikō (Xuaát gia ñaïi cöông – 出家大綱), vaø coøn coù moät soá taùc phaåm khaùc vieát veà toâng Thieân Thai vaø Maät giaùo. Dōgen, Haùn dòch laø Ñaïo Nguyeân (道元– 1200-1253), thieàn sö xuaát saéc cuûa Nhaät Baûn, ngöôøi saùng laäp toâng Sōto, töùc laø toâng Taøo Ñoäng (曹洞) ôû Nhaät. Ngaøi sinh trong moät gia ñình quyù toäc nhöng moà coâi cha meï töø thuôû

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nhoû. Ngaøi ñeán nuùi Tæ Dueä (比叡山) ñeå xin hoïc ñaïo töø naêm 13 tuoåi, vaø ôû ñoù trong khoaûng 2 naêm. Sau khi theo hoïc vôùi ngaøi Kōin (Coâng Daän – 公胤) ôû chuøa Miidera (Tam Tænh töï – 三井寺) moät thôøi gian, ngaøi tìm ñeán chuøa Kenninji (Kieán Nhaân töï – 建仁寺) vaø coù dòp theo hoïc vôùi ngaøi Eisai (Vinh Taây – 榮西), Toå khai saùng toâng Rinzai (Laâm Teá –臨濟). Sau khi thaày maát, ngaøi sang Trung Hoa cuøng vôùi truyeàn nhaân cuûa ngaøi Eisai laø Myōzen (Minh Toaøn – 明全). Taïi ñaây, ngaøi tieáp xuùc vôùi nhieàu doøng Thieàn coù aûnh höôûng taïi Trung Hoa, trong ñoù coù caû ngaøi Ñaïi Hueä (大慧). Tuy nhieân, söï ñaït ngoä cuûa ngaøi ñeán sau khi gaëp moät thieàn sö toâng Taøo Ñoäng laø ngaøi Nhö Tònh (如淨) ôû nuùi Thieân Ñoàng (天童山). Naêm 1227, ngaøi Ñaïo Nguyeân trôû veà Nhaät vaø baét ñaàu truyeàn daïy giaùo lyù toâng Taøo Ñoäng taïi Kenninji, vaø sau ñoù chuyeån ñeán Fukakusa, nôi ngaøi döïng leân chuøa Kōshōji (Höng Thaùnh töï – 興聖寺). Taïi ñaây, ngaøi daønh 10 naêm vieát ra raát nhieàu taùc phaåm, trong ñoù quan troïng nhaát laø Shōbōgenzō (Chaùnh phaùp nhaõn taïng – 正法眼藏). Giai ñoaïn tieáp theo laø giai ñoaïn quan troïng cuoái cuøng trong ñôøi ngaøi, khi ngaøi chuyeån ñeán nhöõng ngoïn nuùi ôû vuøng Echizen vaø laäp moät trung taâm thieàn vieän, traùnh xa taát caû nhöõng aûnh höôûng theá tuïc cuûa vuøng ñoâ thò. Thieàn vieän môùi naøy ban ñaàu goïi laø chuøa Daibutsuji (Ñaïi Phaät töï – 大佛寺), sau ñoù ñoåi teân thaønh chuøa Eiheiji (Vónh Bình töï – 永平寺), ñaõ toàn taïi maõi ñeán ngaøy nay. Ngoaøi boä Chaùnh phaùp nhaõn taïng (95 quyeån), ngaøi coøn bieân soaïn raát nhieàu taùc phaåm raát coù aûnh höôûng khaùc, nhö Fukanzazengi (Phoå khuyeán toïa thieàn – 普勸坐禪, 1 quyeån), Eiheishingi (Vónh Bình thanh quy – 永平清規 , 2 quyeån), vaø Gakudō yōshin shū (Hoïc ñaïo duïng taâm taäp – 學道用心集 , 1 quyeån). Trong caû hai baûn in tieáng Anh maø chuùng toâi ñaõ ñoïc, xuaát baûn naêm 1960 ôû Bombay, AÁn Ñoä, vaø naêm 1980 ôû London, Anh Quoác, ñeàu ghi naêm maát cuûa Ñaïo Nguyeân laø 1233. Ñoái chieáu Phaät Quang töø ñieån vaø nhieàu tö lieäu khaùc ñeàu thaáy ghi laø 1253. Hôn nöõa, naêm 1233, theo nhö caùc chi tieát trong cuoäc ñôøi ngaøi thì vaãn coøn trong giai ñoaïn tröôùc taùc taïi chuøa Höng Thaùnh. Vì theá chuùng toâi cho ñaây laø moät loãi in aán chöa ñöôïc chænh söûa – (nhieàu loãi in aán khaùc ñaõ ñöôïc söûa chöõa trong laàn taùi baûn). Vì theá, xin ñieàu chænh laïi laø 1253.

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baèng tieáng Nhaät, vì theá ai cuõng coù theå ñoïc ñöôïc. OÂng nhaán maïnh raèng, maëc duø theá heä naøy roõ raøng laø thuoäc veà thôøi kyø Phaät phaùp suy taøn, nhöng ñaây khoâng phaûi laø lyù do ñeå nhöõng taâm hoàn duõng maõnh laïi nhaém ñeán muïc tieâu naøo khaùc thaáp keùm hôn laø moät söï giaùc ngoä noäi taâm veà chaân lyù toái thöôïng. Choáng laïi nhöõng caùch hieåu leäch laïc veà Phaät giaùo, ngaøi cho raèng “giaùc ngoä chæ coù theå ñaït ñeán vôùi chính thaân xaùc naøy”. Vieäc ngoài thieàn, hay zazen, khoâng phaûi laø moät loaït nhöõng coâng phu thieàn ñònh trong ñoù ngöôøi ta chôø ñôïi söï giaùc ngoä töï noù tìm ñeán, maø söï giaùc ngoä chính laø nguyeân taéc thieát yeáu cuûa thieàn ñònh ngay töø luùc môùi khôûi ñaàu, vaø vieäc ngoài thieàn phaûi ñöôïc thöïc hieän nhö moät coâng phu tuyeät ñoái thuaàn tuùy tín ngöôõng, trong ñoù khoâng coù gì ñöôïc tìm kieám vaø cuõng khoâng coù gì ñaït ñöôïc. Vaïn phaùp ñeàu laø Phaät taùnh, vaø ñieàu ñoù töï noù chaúng laø gì khaùc hôn nhö “caùi caèm cuûa con löøa hoaëc caùi mieäng cuûa con ngöïa”. Phaùi Taøo Ñoäng Nhaät Baûn cho raèng hoï ñaõ tieán xa hôn caû nhöõng gì maø phaùi Taøo Ñoäng ôû Trung Hoa ñaõ ñaït ñöôïc. Ñeå daãn chöùng cho ñieàu naøy, hoï ñöa ra moät nieàm tin raèng, bôûi vì con ngöôøi voán ñaõ giaùc ngoä töø luùc sinh ra, cho neân moïi hoaït ñoäng haèng ngaøy phaûi ñöôïc xem nhö laø nhöõng coâng phu sau khi giaùc ngoä, vaø caàn ñöôïc thöïc hieän nhö nhöõng haønh vi nhaèm baøy toû loøng bieát ôn ñoái vôùi chö Phaät.

that all could read it. He insisted that, although his generation clearly belonged to the decline of Buddhism, this was no reason for heroic spirits to aim at less than insight into the highest Truth. Against the intellectualist distortions of Buddhism he maintained that “attainment of the Way can only be achieved with one’s body”. Zazen, or “sitting cross-legged”, is not a set of meditational practices in which one waits for enlightenment to come, but enlightenment is an inherent principle of Zen meditation from the outset, and it should be carried out as an absolutely pure religious exercise from which nothing is sought and nothing is gained. Everything is the Buddha-nature, and that in its turn is nothing more than “the chin of the donkey or the mouth of a horse”. The Soto sect claims that in Japan it went beyond the developments the parent sect had reached in China, and it gives as an instance of this its belief that, because man is already enlightened from birth, all daily activities should be regarded as post-enlightenment exercises, which should be performed as acts of gratitude to the Buddha (gyojiho-on).

Khoâng bao laâu, Thieàn lan roäng khaép trong giôùi Voõ só ñaïo, ñaëc bieät laø phaùi thieàn Laâm Teá, ñuùng nhö moät caâu tuïc ngöõ Nhaät ñaõ noùi leân raèng: “Laâm Teá cho töôùng laõnh, Taøo Ñoäng cho noâng daân”. Theo chieàu höôùng naøy, Thieàn daãn ñeán söï thôø kính gioáng nhö Voõ só ñaïo, vaø söï keát hôïp chaët cheõ vôùi nhöõng chieán só laø moät trong nhöõng chuyeån bieán ñaùng kinh ngaïc nöõa cuûa Phaät giaùo.

Zen soon spread among the Samurai, particularly in its Rinzai form, in accordance with the proverbial saying that “Rinzai is for a general, and Soto for a farmer”. In this way Zen led to the cult of Bushido, the “Way of the Warrior”, and this close association with the soldier class is one of the more astonishing transformations of Buddhism.

Thieàn ñoùng goùp nhieàu trong vieäc kích thích nhöõng rung caûm töï nhieân cuûa ngöôøi Nhaät tröôùc veû ñeïp. Cuõng gioáng nhö Thieàn ñaõ laøm ñöôïc ôû Trung Hoa, Thieàn ôû Nhaät töø cuoái trieàu ñaïi Lieâm Thöông trôû ñi khoâng nhöõng kích thích maïnh meõ caùc ngaønh ngheä thuaät nhö ñieâu khaéc, kieán truùc, hoäi hoïa, thö phaùp vaø goám myõ ngheä, maø coøn thuùc ñaåy caû thi ca vaø aâm nhaïc. Moái lieân heä gaàn guõi giöõa thieàn vaø tính caùch daân toäc cuûa ngöôøi Nhaät cuõng thöôøng

Zen did much to stimulate the innate Japanese sensitiveness to beauty (mono-no-aware). As Ch’an had done in China, so Zen in Japan from the end of the Kamakura period onwards greatly stimulated not only architecture, sculpture, painting, calligraphy and pottery, but also poetry and music. The close bonds between Zen and the Japanese national character have

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A short history of Buddhism

ñöôïc nhaán maïnh. Vaên chöông Phaät giaùo coøn ñöôïc laøm phong phuù theâm bôûi hai theå loaïi môùi: theå loaïi kòch Noh vaø moät theå loaïi ñöôïc goïi laø “ca töø”.1 Trong moät neàn vaên hoùa thoáng trò bôûi nhöõng ngöôøi Voõ só ñaïo, caùi cheát laø moät thöïc tieãn luoân luoân hieän dieän, vaø vöôït qua noãi lo sôï tröôùc caùi cheát trôû thaønh moät trong nhöõng muïc ñích cuûa coâng phu thieàn. Döôùi trieàu ñaïi Ashikage Shoguns (1335-1573), Thieàn ñöôïc trieàu ñình uûng hoä. AÛnh höôûng cuûa Thieàn ñoái vôùi vaên hoùa luùc ñoù leân ñeán ñænh cao, vaø Thieàn coù theå lan roäng trong toaøn xaõ hoäi bôûi vì söï nhaán maïnh ôû haønh ñoäng cuï theå hôn laø nhöõng yù töôûng suy dieãn. Haønh ñoäng caàn phaûi ñôn giaûn nhöng coù yù nghóa saâu xa, vaø nhöõng neùt ñeïp giaûn dò, thanh lòch trôû thaønh lyù töôûng ñöôïc chaáp nhaän trong öùng xöû. Vaøo theá kyû 16, nghi thöùc uoáng traø ñöôïc caùc thieàn sö heä thoáng hoùa. Cuøng luùc ñoù, nhieàu ngheä só tin raèng “Thieàn vaø ngheä thuaät chæ laø moät”. Sesshu (1420-1506) laø ngöôøi noåi tieáng nhaát trong soá naøy. Sau naêm 1500, moïi vieäc khoâng coøn troâi chaûy vôùi Phaät giaùo Nhaät Baûn nöõa. Naêng löïc saùng taïo cuûa Phaät giaùo ñaõ suy kieät, vaø quyeàn löïc chính trò bò xoùa boû. Nobunaga phaù huûy cô sôû chính cuûa phaùi Thieân thai treân nuùi Tæ Dueä vaøo naêm 1571 vaø Hideyoshi, trung taâm lôùn cuûa Chaân ngoân toâng ôû Negoro vaøo naêm 1585. Döôùi trieàu ñaïi Tokugawa (1603-1867), Khoång giaùo ñöôïc khoâi phuïc. Sau ñoù, vaøo theá kyû 18, chuû nghóa Thaàn giaùo quaân phieät hoài sinh. Phaät giaùo lui vaøo haäu tröôøng, moïi toå chöùc vaø hoaït ñoäng cuûa chö taêng ñeàu bò nhaø caàm quyeàn giaùm saùt caån thaän. Hoï vaãn ñaûm baûo cho nguoàn thu nhaäp cuûa Giaùo hoäi, nhöng laïi tìm ñuû moïi caùch ñeå ngaên ngöøa khoâng cho baát cöù moät sinh hoaït ñoäc laäp naøo coù theå phaùt trieån trong Giaùo hoäi. Phaät giaùo chìm vaøo söï ueå oaûi, trì treä. Tuy nhieân, truyeàn thoáng cuûa caùc toâng phaùi vaãn ñöôïc duy trì. Chæ duy nhaát Thieàn toâng laø coøn chöùng toû ñöôïc phaàn naøo söùc soáng. Vaøo theá kyû 17, ngaøi Baïch AÅn taïo ra moät söùc soáng môùi cho phaùi Laâm Teá, vaø toâng naøy xem ngaøi nhö vò toå saùng laäp thöù nhì. Nhaø thô Ba Tieâu saùng taïo moät theå loaïi thô môùi,2 vaø naêm 1655 1

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often been stressed. Buddhist literature was further enriched by two new literary forms, the Noh drama and the so-called “farewell songs”. In a culture dominated by the Samurai, death was an ever-present reality, and to overcome the fear of death became one of the purposes of Zen training. Under the Ashikaga Shoguns (1335-1573) Zen had the support of the government. Its cultural influence was then at its height and it could spread among society in general because it emphasized concrete action rather than speculative thought. Actions must be simple, and yet have depth, and “simple elegance” (wabi or sabi) became the accepted ideal of conduct. In the sixteenth century the tea ceremony was systematized by Zen masters. At the same time many artists believed that “Zen and art are one”, Sesshu (1420-1506) being the best-known among them. After 1500 things were no longer going so well with Japanese Buddhism. Its creative power had waned, and now its political power was broken. Nobunaga destroyed the Tendai stronghold on Hieizan in 1571, and Hideyoshi the great Shingon centre at Negoro,in 1585. Under the Tokugawa( 1603-1867) there was a revival of Confucianism and later on, in the eighteenth century, of militant Shintoism. Buddhism receded into the background, the organization and activities of the monks were carefully supervised by the government, which assured the income of the Church while doing everything to prevent any independent life from developing in it. Buddhism sank into a torpid condition. The traditions of the sects, were, however, maintained. The Zen sect alone showed some vitality. In the seventeenth century Hakuin introduced new life into the Rinzai sect, which regarded him as its second founder; the poet Basho evolved a new style of poetry; and in 1655 a third Zen sect, the Obaku, was 2

Theå thô naøy vaãn thöôøng ñöôïc ngöôøi Vieät Nam bieát ñeán vôùi teân laø Haøi Cuù, moät loaïi thô ngaén goïn nhöng voâ cuøng suùc tích, thaám ñaãm phong caùch Thieàn.

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A short history of Buddhism

phaùi thieàn thöù ba laø toâng Hoaøng Baù1 ñöôïc truyeàn ñeán töø Trung Hoa vaø luoân duy trì ñöôïc nhöõng tính caùch noåi baät cuûa thieàn Trung Hoa. Naêm 1868, Phaät giaùo bò suùt giaûm nguoàn taøi trôï ñeán möùc traàm troïng, vaø trong moät thôøi gian ngaén döôøng nhö ñaõ saép ñi ñeán choã bò huûy dieät hoaøn toaøn. Tuy nhieân, sau naêm 1890 aûnh höôûng cuûa Phaät giaùo laïi moät laàn nöõa gia taêng ñeàu ñaën, vaø vaøo naêm 1950 thì hai phaàn ba daân Nhaät ñeàu laø tín ñoà cuûa moät trong caùc toâng phaùi chính cuûa Phaät giaùo. Söï thích nghi vôùi ñôøi soáng hieän ñaïi vaø söï caïnh tranh vôùi Thieân Chuùa giaùo ñöôïc ñaåy nhanh hôn so vôùi baát cöù quoác gia theo Phaät giaùo naøo khaùc cho ñeán luùc naøy. Trong nhöõng naêm gaàn ñaây, thieàn Nhaät Baûn ñaõ thu huùt raát nhieàu söï quan taâm ôû chaâu AÂu vaø chaâu Myõ, vaø vôùi Daisetz Teitaro Suzuki,2 thieàn ñaõ ñöôïc dieãn giaûi moät caùch raát tuyeät vôøi. 7. TAÂY TAÏNG

Khoaûng naêm 1000, moät cuoäc hoài sinh cuûa Phaät giaùo dieãn ra ôû Taây Taïng, nhôø söï khôûi xöôùng cuûa moät soá ít tín ñoà nhieät thaønh soáng ôû vuøng cöïc ñoâng vaø cöïc taây cuûa nöôùc naøy, nhöõng nôi maø aùp löïc cuûa söï ñaøn aùp thaáp nhaát. Khoâng bao laâu, hoï taùi laäp moái quan heä vôùi AÁn Ñoä vaø Kashmir. Moät soá ngöôøi ñaõ töï mình ñeán vieáng thaêm caùc xöù naøy, vaø caùc vò taêng AÁn Ñoä laïi moät laàn nöõa ñöôïc môøi sang. Moät caù nhaân xuaát saéc nhaát trong soá nhöõng nhaø phuïc höng naøy laø Rin-chen Bzangpo (958-1055), khoâng nhöõng laø moät dòch giaû taøi ba maø coøn laø moät ngöôøi xaây döïng raát nhieàu ñeàn chuøa vaø töï vieän ôû mieàn taây Taây Taïng. Moät söï kieän mang tính quan troïng quyeát ñònh laø vieäc ngaøi A-ñeà-sa3 rôøi Vikramasila ñeå ñeán ñaây theo lôøi môøi cuûa vua mieàn taây Taây Taïng, vaø veà sau thaønh laäp Phaät giaùo Ñaïi thöøa theo kieåu Pāla cuõng ôû mieàn trung Taây Taïng. Naêm 1076, moät cuoäc keát taäp kinh ñieån lôùn dieãn ra ôû Tho-ling, 1 2

imported from China and has always retained marked Chinese characteristics. In 1868 Buddhism was to a great extent disendowed and for a short time it seemed that it would die out altogether. After 1890, however, its influence has again increased steadily and in 1950 two-thirds of the population were connected with one or the other of the chief sects. The adaptation to modern life and to the competition with Christianity, has gone further than in any other Buddhist country so far. In recent years, Japanese Zen has aroused great interest in Europe and America and in D. T. Suzuki it has found a very fine interpreter. 7 TIBET

About the year 1000 a revival of Buddhism took place, initiated by a few enthusiasts who lived in the utmost East and West of the country, where the pressure of persecution was least felt. They soon re-established contact with India and Kashmir, which some of them visited themselves, and also Indian teachers were again invited. The most outstanding personality among these revivers was Rin-chen bzang-po (9581055), who was prominent not only as a translator, but also as a builder of temples and monasteries in Western Tibet. Of decisive importance was also the coming of Atfsa in 1042, who left Vikramasila at the invitation of the king of Western Tibet, and later on established the Pala Mahāyāna also in Central

Otani, Kyoto. OÂng laø ngöôøi ñaõ vieát raát nhieàu taùc phaåm veà Thieàn hoïc baèng

tieáng Anh, ñöôïc bieát ñeán raát nhieàu ôû phöông Taây. Trong ñoù coù quyeån Essays in Zen Buddhism ñaõ ñöôïc dòch sang tieáng Vieät vôùi nhan ñeà Thieàn luaän ( 3 quyeån – Truùc Thieân dòch quyeån 1, Tueä Syõ dòch quyeån 2 vaø 3, NXB An Tieâm, 1971, NXB Thaønh phoá Hoà Chí Minh taùi baûn naêm 1993). 3 Atişa (982-1054)

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Ōbaku, töùc laø toâng Hoaøng Baù (黄檗宗). Daisetz Teitaro Suzuki (1870-1966), giaùo sö Trieát hoïc Phaät giaùo taïi ñaïi hoïc

Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

mieàn taây Taây Taïng, nôi caùc vò Laït-ma töø khaép nöôùc Taây Taïng ñaõ gaëp gôõ nhau. Vaø naêm naøy coù theå ñöôïc xem nhö ñaùnh daáu söï thieát laäp cuoái cuøng cuûa Phaät giaùo ôû Taây Taïng. Hoaït ñoäng cuûa ngaøi A-ñeà-sa khoâng chæ giôùi haïn trong vieäc taùi laäp Phaät giaùo treân khaép nöôùc, maø coøn saùng taïo caû moät heä thoáng tính toaùn nieân ñaïi, cho ñeán nay vaãn coøn ñöôïc söû duïng ôû Taây Taïng. Heä thoáng naøy xaùc ñònh moãi naêm theo vò trí cuûa noù trong moät chu kyø 60 naêm, ñöôïc thieát laäp töø söï keát hôïp naêm yeáu toá laø kim, moäc, thuûy, hoûa, thoå, cuøng vôùi 12 bieåu töôïng baèng nhöõng con vaät: Tuaát, Hôïi, Tyù, Söûu, Daàn, Meïo, Thìn, Tî, Ngoï, Muøi, Thaân vaø Daäu. Neáu khoâng coù heä thoáng tính toaùn nieân ñaïi naøy thì coâng trình cuûa caùc söû gia, maø veà sau trôû thaønh moät trong nhöõng ñieåm saùng röïc rôõ cuûa vaên chöông Taây Taïng, haún ñaõ khoâng theå naøo thöïc hieän ñöôïc. Vaãn chöa phaûi laø taát caû nhöõng gì ngaøi A-ñeà-sa ñaõ laøm ñöôïc. Moät trong nhöõng khoù khaên cuûa giaùo lyù Phaät giaùo laø coù quaù nhieàu giaùo phaùp vaø phöông thöùc thöïc haønh, nhieàu ñeán noãi raát caàn phaûi coù moät söï höôùng daãn vaø phaân loaïi. Ngaøi A-ñeà-sa ñaõ cung caáp ñieàu naøy qua taùc phaåm “Minh ñaêng thaùnh ñaïo”,1 trong ñoù oâng phaân bieät nhöõng phöông thöùc thöïc haønh döïa theo ba trình ñoä phaùt trieån taâm linh. Möùc ñoä thaáp nhaát laø nhöõng ngöôøi muoán tìm caàu haïnh phuùc trong theá gian naøy vaø chæ nghó ñeán lôïi ích cuûa rieâng mình. Möùc ñoä thöù hai laø nhöõng ngöôøi cuõng nghó ñeán lôïi ích cuûa rieâng mình, nhöng khoân ngoan hôn neân choïn moät cuoäc soáng ñôøi ñaïo ñöùc vaø tìm caàu söï trong saïch. Möùc ñoä cao nhaát laø nhöõng ngöôøi trong taâm ñaõ giaûi thoaùt ñöôïc taát caû. Thôøi ñieåm maø taùc phaåm naøy mang laïi keát quaû myõ maõn chæ ñeán vaøo 300 naêm sau ñoù, vôùi ngaøi Toâng-khaùch-ba. Trong boán traêm naêm tieáp theo, dieãn ra söï hình thaønh cuûa caùc toâng phaùi Taây Taïng, do chính nhöõng ngöôøi Taây Taïng thaønh laäp vaø coù söï ñieàu chænh thích hôïp theo vôùi nhöõng ñieàu kieän tinh thaàn vaø xaõ hoäi cuûa Taây Taïng. Moãi ngöôøi trong soá hoï ñeàu xuaát saéc veà moät trong nhöõng yeáu toá ñaõ goùp phaàn taïo neân ñôøi soáng taâm linh cuûa Phaät giaùo. Caùc toâng phaùi khaùc nhau veà loái toå chöùc töï 308

Tibet. The year 1076 saw a great council in mTho-ling, in West Tibet, where lamas from all parts of Tibet met, and this year can be regarded as marking the final establishment of Buddhism in Tibet. Atisa’s services were not confined to the re-establishment of the religion throughout the length and breadth of the country. He also created a system of chronology which is still used in Tibet, and which defines each year by its position in a cycle of sixty years, which results from combining five elements, viz. earth, iron, water, wood and fire with the twelve animals of the zodiac, i.e. dog, boar, mouse, ox, tiger, hare, dragon, serpent, horse, sheep, monkey and bird. Without this chronological system the work of the historians, which later on forms one of the glories of Tibetan literature, would have been impossible. This was not all. It is one of the difficulties of Buddhism as a doctrine that it is so profuse in its teachings and methods, that a guide to them and a classification is desirable. Atlsa provided this in his “Lamp illuminating the road to enlightenment”, in which he distinguishes the practices according to three levels of spiritual development. The lowest are those who seek happiness in this world and consider only their own interest; the second are those who are also intent on their own interest, but more intelligently, by leading a virtuous life, and seeking for purification; the last are those who have the salvation of all at heart. The full fruits of this manual came only 300 years later, with Tsong-kha-pa. The next four hundred years saw the formation of Tibetan sects, founded by Tibetans themselves and adjusted to their mental and social conditions. Each of them excelled in one of the things which make up the Buddhist spiritual life. The sects differ in their monastic organization, in their dress, in the tutelary deities, in their interpretation of the Adi-Buddha, in the methods 1

Ngoïn ñeøn chieáu saùng con ñöôøng ñi ñeán giaùc ngoä

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A short history of Buddhism

vieän, veà y phuïc, veà caùc vò thaàn baûo hoä, caùch giaûi thích veà Baûn sô Phaät,1 veà phöông phaùp thieàn ñònh maø hoï choïn .v.v... Nhöng hoï taùc ñoäng laãn nhau, vaø ñaõ coù raát nhieàu söï vay möôïn laãn nhau. Toâng phaùi ñaàu tieân laø Bka-gdam-pa, ñöôïc moät ñeä töû cuûa ngaøi A-ñeà-sa laø Brom-ston thaønh laäp vaøo khoaûng naêm 1050. Teân goïi cuûa toâng phaùi naøy haøm nghóa laø hoï tuaân theo nhöõng lôøi chæ daïy cuûa A-ñeà-sa, nhö ñöôïc trình baøy trong cuoán saùch cuûa oâng veà “Phöông thöùc ñaït ñeán giaùc ngoä”. Toâng phaùi naøy tieâu bieåu cho truyeàn thoáng trung taâm cuûa Phaät giaùo Taây Taïng, vaø taïo thaønh moái lieân heä giöõa caùc hoïc giaû AÁn Ñoä trong thôøi kyø ñaàu vôùi Hoaøng phaùi, toâng phaùi thoáng trò Taây Taïng sau naêm 1400. Hoï raát chuù yù ñeán ñaïo haïnh vaø giôùi luaät, giöõ gìn phaïm haïnh moät caùch nghieâm khaéc, vaø ñaõ saûn sinh nhieàu baäc thaùnh giaû uyeân baùc. Toâng phaùi Bka-rgyud-pa ñaït ñöôïc moät quan heä chaët cheõ hôn nhieàu vôùi ñôøi soáng quaàn chuùng. Toâng phaùi naøy ñöôïc ngaøi Marpa (1012-1097) saùng laäp, vaø traûi qua thôøi gian ñaõ trôû thaønh moät toâng phaùi mang ñaäm tính caùch Taây Taïng nhaát so vôùi taát caû caùc toâng khaùc. Coù moät thôøi gian hoï cuõng naém ñöôïc ít nhieàu quyeàn löïc xaõ hoäi, nhöng bao giôø cuõng keùm hôn so vôùi Hoàng phaùi vaø Hoaøng phaùi. Hoï khoâng nhaém ñeán quaù nhieàu nhöõng kieán giaûi veà lyù thuyeát, maø nhaém ñeán söï chöùng ngoä thöïc tieãn. Hoï vaãn coøn laø moät trong nhöõng toâng phaùi maïnh nhaát khoâng caûi caùch, vaø xem vieäc laäp gia ñình khoâng coù gì caûn trôû cho tín ngöôõng. Tieåu söû caùc ñaïi sö cuûa toâng phaùi naøy cho thaáy khoâng coù nhieàu thaùnh giaû, maø thöôøng laø nhöõng con ngöôøi bình thöôøng, vôùi taát caû nhöõng khieám khuyeát vaø nhöôïc ñieåm nhö voán coù. Nhöng trong boä phaùi naøy coù söï xuaát hieän cuûa Mila-ras-pa (1040-1123), thaùnh giaû vaø nhaø thô vó ñaïi, noåi tieáng nhaát cuûa Taây Taïng, ñeä töû tröïc tieáp cuûa Marpa. Moïi ngöôøi daân Taây Taïng ñeàu ñaõ töøng nghe qua moät phaàn naøo trong taùc phaåm noåi tieáng “100.000 baøi ca” cuûa ngaøi, vaø ai ai cuõng quen thuoäc vôùi nhöõng söï kieän chính trong cuoäc ñôøi ngaøi. Nhö vieäc ngaøi ñaõ hoïc ma thuaät nhö theá naøo, roài töï mình traû thuø nhöõng keû thuø cuûa gia ñình baèng caùch laøm cho nhaø saäp ñeø leân hoï, vaø laøm möa ñaù rôi treân ruoäng cuûa hoï. Vaø ngaøi ñaõ nhanh choùng nhaän thöùc ñöôïc toäi loãi cuûa mình, roài vì sôï phaûi bò ñoïa ñòa 310

of meditation they prefer and so on. But they have interacted on one another, and much mutual borrowing has taken place. The first of these sects were the Bka-gdam-pa, founded by ‘Brom ston, a pupil of Atlsa, about 1050. They derived their name from the fact that they followed the “authoritative word” of Atlsa as laid down in his book on the “Road to Enlightenment”. They represent the central tradition of Tibetan Buddhism, and form the link between the Indian pandits of the first period and the Yellow Church which dominated Tibet after 1400. They paid great attention to morality and monastic discipline, were strictly celibate, and produced many saintly and learned men. A much closer contact with the life of the people was achieved by the Bka-rgyud-pa. Founded by Mar-pa (1012-97) they became in the course of time the most Tibetan of all the sects. For some time they possessed some worldly power, but always less than the Saskyapa and Gelugpa. They aimed not so much at theoretical knowledge as at its practical realization. They are still one of the strongest “unreformed” sects, and regard marriage as no bar to sanctity. The biographies of their teachers show us no stock saints, but human beings as they actually are, with all their imperfections and foibles. From their ranks came Mila-ras-pa (1040-1123), Tibet’s greatest and most popular saint and poet, a direct disciple of Marpa. Everyone in Tibet has heard some of his famous “One Hundred Thousand” songs, and everyone is familiar with the main events of his life. How he learned the black arts and revenged himself on his family’s enemies by making a house collapse on them, and smashing their fields with a hailstorm. How he soon realized his 1

Ādibuddha, Haùn dòch aâm laø A-ñeà Phaät (阿提佛), dòch nghóa laø Baûn sô Phaät (本初佛). 311

Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

nguïc neân tìm caàu söï trong saïch baèng nhöõng phöông phaùp tröïc tieáp cuûa Kim cang thöøa. Roài naêm 38 tuoåi ngaøi tìm gaëp Marpa, ngöôøi ñaõ haønh haï ngaøi suoát trong 6 naêm ñeå giuùp ngaøi traû heát nhöõng nghieäp aùc ñaõ taïo. Vaø naêm 44 tuoåi ngaøi saün saøng ñeå ñöôïc khai ngoä, roài soáng 39 naêm coøn laïi nhö moät nhaø aån tu treân nuùi Hy-maõ-laïp gaàn bieân giôùi Nepal, hoaëc ñi laïi ñaây ñoù ñeå giaùo hoùa daân chuùng, cho ñeán khi ngaøi tòch vì uoáng söõa pha thuoác ñoäc do moät vò Laït-ma ganh gheùt trao cho. Moät soá nhöõng söï kieän coù kòch tính nhaát cuûa ñôøi ngaøi xaûy ra trong nhöõng naêm ñaàu sau khi ñöôïc khai ngoä, khi ngaøi soáng moät mình trong hang, chæ aên toaøn rau coû cho ñeán khi trôû neân xanh meùt vaø chæ maëc moät boä aùo quaàn baèng vaûi moûng trong reùt buoát cuûa muøa ñoâng. Ngaøi khoâng bao giôø quan taâm ñeán taøi saûn vaø tieän nghi, vaø luoân giöõ loøng töø bi ñoái vôùi taát caû chuùng sanh. Nhöõng taùc phaåm vaên chöông phong phuù cuûa toâng phaùi naøy bao goàm phaàn lôùn laø nhöõng taäp saùch moûng höôùng ñeán vieäc daïy caùch thöïc haønh nhöõng pheùp Du-giaø khaùc nhau. Vôùi tính thöïc tieãn, hoï luoân ñaëc bieät chuù yù ñeán pheùp gtum-mo, töùc laø caùch taïo ra hôi aám huyeàn dieäu trong thaân theå. Khoâng coù pheùp luyeän coâng phu naøy, ñôøi soáng trong caùc tuùp leàu aån daät seõ khoâng theå naøo chòu ñöïng ñöôïc. Ñaây cuõng laø ñieàu maø nhöõng ngöôøi ôû taàm möùc trung bình coù theå nhaän bieát ñöôïc, vaø coù theå laøm cho hoï tin ñöôïc vaøo söï chaân thaät vaø hieäu quaû cuûa pheùp Du-giaø. Moät hình thöùc ñaëc bieät cuûa giaùo lyù Baùt-nhaõ ñöôïc giôùi haïn cho moät soá ít nhöõng ngöôøi coù trình ñoä cao, thuoäc toâng phaùi Shibyed-pa, thaønh laäp khoaûng naêm 1090, noåi baät veà maët tín ngöôõng hôn nhieàu so vôùi maët xaõ hoäi. Hoï khoâng ñöôïc toå chöùc chaët cheõ baèng caùc toâng phaùi khaùc, vaø bao goàm nhöõng nhoùm ngöôøi luyeän Du-giaø, hoaëc caùc nhaø aån tu, hoaëc nhöõng ngöôøi tu theo Maät giaùo. Hoï daønh troïn taâm trí cho vieäc thöïc haønh thieàn ñònh ôû nhöõng nôi caùch bieät, vaø coù moái quan heä vôùi nhau khaù loûng leûo.

guilt, feared to be reborn in hell, and sought purification by the “direct methods” of the Vajrayana. How in his 38th year he found Marpa, who for six years tormented him, so as to allow him to work off his evil deeds. How, when he was 44, he was held ripe for initiation, and how he then spent the remaining 39 years of his life as a hermit on the high Himalayas near the Nepalese border, or wandering about and converting people, until he died from drinking poisoned milk, the gift of a jealous lama. Some of the most dramatic scenes of his life took place in the first years after his initiation, when he lived alone in a cave, ate only herbs until he turned green, and never wore more than his thin cotton cloth in the icy cold of the winter. His indifference to property and comfort, as well as his benevolence towards all that lives, never left him. The rich literature of this sect consists largely of short books aiming at teaching the practice of various kinds of Yoga. In their desire to be practical they have always given special attention to gtum-mo, the art of creating “magical heat”, without which life in the hermitages would be impossible. This is also something which the average person can appreciate, and which can convince him of the truth and effectiveness of Yoga. A special form of the Prajnaparamita doctrine was confined to a small elite, to the Shi-byed-pa (“The Pacifiers”) founded about 1090, who had a far greater religious than social significance. They were less well organized than the other sects, and consisted of loose groups of Yogins or hermits or mystics, who devoted themselves to solitary meditation.

Giaùo lyù cuûa toâng phaùi Shi-byed-pa tröôùc tieân do Pha-dam-pa ñeà ra. OÂng laø moät vò thaày ngöôøi Nam AÁn, vôùi nhöõng giaùo lyù aûnh höôûng raát nhieàu töø ngaøi Thaùnh Thieân vaø töø boä Trung quaùn luaän. Ñaây laø moät söï ñieàu chænh nhöõng ñieåm coát yeáu veà maët taâm linh

Their teaching was originally inspired by Pha-dam-pa, an Indian teacher from South India, who in his turn owed much to the doctrines of Aryadeva, the Madhyamika. It is a Tantric adaptation of the essential spiritual message of Buddhism. The

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Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

cuûa Phaät giaùo cho phuø hôïp vôùi giaùo lyù Tan-tra. Ñôøi soáng tinh thaàn ñöôïc chia thaønh hai giai ñoaïn: 1. Laøm trong saïch baèng caùch lìa boû duïc laïc. 2. Laøm an ñònh, bao goàm vieäc loaïi tröø moïi ñau khoå vaø ñaït ñeán taâm bình thaûn. Ñoái vôùi giai ñoaïn thöù nhaát, haønh giaû döïa vaøo caùc phöông phaùp thieàn quaùn nhaém ñeán deïp boû nhöõng aùc taâm voán luoân caùm doã con ngöôøi vaøo nhöõng tö töôûng xaáu. Ñoái vôùi giai ñoaïn thöù hai, haønh giaû chuû yeáu döïa vaøo vieäc trì tuïng caùc man-tra, chaúng haïn nhö man-tra cuûa Taâm kinh1 xoa dòu moïi ñau ñôùn, hoaëc tuïng ñoïc nhöõng caâu chaâm ngoân ngaén noùi veà beänh khoå, nieàm vui, caùi cheát vaø duïc laïc. Tröôùc veû huy hoaøng, röïc rôõ hôn cuûa caùc vò taêng naém quyeàn löïc xaõ hoäi, chuùng ta cuõng khoâng neân ñeå khuaát laáp ñi coâng vieäc thaàm laëng cuûa nhöõng vò tu só thoaùt tuïc naøy. Nhuoám muøi theá tuïc hôn laø toâng phaùi Sa-skya-pa, ñaët teân theo tu vieän Sa-skya thaønh laäp vaøo naêm 1073. Hoï taïo ra ñoái troïng caân baèng vôùi hai phaùi Bka-gdam-pa vaø Shi-byed-pa baèng söï hoaøn haûo trong caùch toå chöùc. Sau khi cheá ñoä quaân chuû suïp ñoå, Taây Taïng khoâng coù chính quyeàn trung öông. Caùc taêng só cuûa phaùi naøy naém laáy chính quyeàn, vaø truyeàn noái ngoâi vò cho con chaùu. Phags-pa (1235-1280) laø moät trong nhöõng ngöôøi xuaát saéc nhaát trong soá nhöõng nhaø cai trò môùi ñöôïc keá thöøa, vaø ñòa vò laõnh ñaïo naøy cuûa oâng ñaõ ñöôïc ñaïi ñeá Khubilai2 thöøa nhaän. Toâng phaùi naøy ñaõ ñaøo taïo ñöôïc nhieàu nhaø thoâng thaùi. Hieän nay hoï vaãn toàn taïi nhöng ñaõ töø laâu khoâng coøn naém quyeàn löïc nöõa. Quyeàn löïc coù ñöôïc phaûi traû giaù baèng vieäc gia taêng nhöõng coâng vieäc theá tuïc, vaø taêng só ôû caùc töï vieän lôùn – cuõng gioáng nhö taêng só Nhaät Baûn vaøo cuøng thôøi naøy – laäp thaønh nhöõng ñoäi quaân lôùn vaø ñaùnh laãn nhau, cöôùp phaù chuøa chieàn cuûa nhau, öùng xöû theo cung caùch khoâng xöùng ñaùng vôùi nhöõng giaùo lyù maø hoï truyeàn baù. 1

spiritual life consists of two stages: (1) purification, by cutting off the passions, and (2) pacification, which consists in the removal of all suffering and the attainment of even-mindedness. For the first they relied on meditational practices which aimed at driving away the evil spirits which tempt us to commit unwholesome thoughts and for the second they relied largely on the repetition of mantras, such as that of the “Heart Sutra” which appeases all ill, or of short sayings such as “illness”, “joy”, “death”, and “pleasure”. The greater splendours of priestly power should not blind us to the quiet work of these unworldly people. More worldly were the Sa-skya-pa, who derive their name from the monastery of Saskya which had been founded in 1073. They provided the counterweight to the Bka-gdam-pa and Shibyed-pa by excelling in social organization. After the destruction of the monarchy, Tibet was without a central authority. The Saskya abbots now took over the reins of government, each one handing the rule to his sons. ‘Phags-pa (1235-80) was one of the most prominent among these new hereditary rulers of the whole of Tibet and his position as such was recognized by the emperor Khubilai. The sect has produced many men of great learning, it is still in existence, but it lost its worldly power long ago. The power was bought by an increase in worldliness and the monks of the great monasteries, like those of Japan at the same time, formed themselves into great hordes who fought battles among themselves, sacked each others’ monasteries, and behaved in a manner unworthy of their professed teachings. 2

Töùc Baùt-nhaõ taâm kinh (般若心經), hay noùi ñuû laø Ma-ha Baùt-nhaõ Ba-la-maätña taâm kinh (摩訶般若波羅蜜多心經).

Cuõng vieát laø Kublai Khan hay Kubla (1215-1294), hoaøng ñeá ñaàu tieân (12791294) cuûa trieàu ñaïi do Moâng Coå thieát laäp cai trò Trung Hoa, coù theá löïc bao truøm vaøo thôøi ñoù. OÂng laø chaùu noäi cuûa Thaønh Caùt Tö Haõn, vaø laø ngöôøi ñaõ môû roäng ñeá quoác Moâng Coå thaønh moät trong nhöõng ñeá quoác lôùn nhaát theá giôùi.

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Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

Moät toâng phaùi raát maïnh nöõa laø Nying-ma-pa, laø nhöõng moân ñoà cuûa ngaøi Lieân Hoa Sanh. Chuùng ta thaät söï khoâng coù ñuû thoâng tin ñeå bieát ñöôïc laø baèng caùch naøo maø boä phaùi naøy coù theå toàn taïi ñöôïc qua moät thôøi gian daøi bò ñaøn aùp. Raát coù theå laø nhieàu ngöôøi trong soá hoï ñaõ giaû daïng nhö caùc giaùo só ñaïo Bon. Chuùng ta cuõng khoâng bieát chaéc ñöôïc nhöõng phaàn naøo trong giaùo lyù cuûa toâng phaùi naøy ñaõ ñöôïc phaùt trieån sau naøy, vaø nhöõng phaàn naøo laø thuoäc veà chính ngaøi Lieân Hoa Sanh. Söï toå chöùc cuûa boä phaùi naøy döôøng nhö ñaõ coù töø naêm 1250, vaø laø coâng trình cuûa Ñaïo sö Chos-dbyang. Chính boä phaùi naøy töï phaân chia truyeàn thoáng cuûa hoï thaønh hai phaàn. Nhöõng lôøi daïy roõ nghóa ñöôïc truyeàn bôûi caùc vò taêng AÁn Ñoä, vaø nhöõng “maät taïng” laø caùc kinh ñieån bí maät ñöôïc ngaøi Lieân Hoa Sanh hoaëc Phaät Baûn Sô caát giöõ. Töø naêm 1150 ñeán 1550, moät soá löôïng ñaùng keå nhöõng kinh ñieån thuoäc loaïi bí maät naøy ñöôïc khai quaät, vaø söï khaùm phaù ra nhöõng kinh ñieån naøy deã laøm che giaáu ñi nhöõng caûi caùch veà tín ngöôõng. Theo caùch naøy, tieåu söû ngaøi Lieân Hoa Sanh maø chuùng ta coù ñöôïc khaùm phaù vaøo khoaûng naêm 1350. Tuy nhieân, raát nhieàu kinh ñieån bí maät loaïi naøy thöïc söï giöõ laïi ñöôïc nhöõng truyeàn thoáng raát coå xöa, nhö ñöôïc thaáy roõ nhaát laø trong cuoán Töû thö1 noåi tieáng. Boä phaùi Nying-ma-pa phaân bieät coù 6 loaïi kinh nghieäm trung gian, hieåu theo nghóa laø chuùng naèm ñaâu ñoù ôû khoaûng giöõa, moät beân laø theá giôùi giaùc quan bình thöôøng naøy, vaø beân kia laø caûnh giôùi taâm linh thuaàn tuùy cuûa Nieát-baøn. Ba kinh nghieäm ñaàu tieân laø: 1. Trong baøo thai, keùo daøi nhieàu thaùng tröôùc khi sinh ra. 2. Trong moät soá nhöõng giaác mô coù söï kieåm soaùt cuûa taâm thöùc. 3. Trong traïng thaùi hoaøn toaøn xuaát thaàn. Vôùi 3 kinh nghieäm coøn laïi, yù nghóa trung gian coøn ñöôïc hieåu theâm laø vì chuùng xaûy ra trong khoaûng thôøi gian giöõa söï cheát vaø söï taùi sinh vaøo ñôøi soáng môùi, ñöôïc cho laø keùo daøi trong 49 ngaøy. Trong thôøi gian ñoù, thaân xaùc baèng xöông thòt thoâng thöôøng naøy ñöôïc thay theá baèng moät loaïi thaân xaùc raát tinh teá. Cuoán Töû thö 316

We are not really sufficiently informed about the very powerful Nying-ma-pa sect, the followers of Padmasambhava, to know how they survived the long persecution. Quite possibly many of them did so in the guise of Bon priests. Nor can we be sure what in their doctrines is actually due to later developments and what to Padmasambhava himself. The organization of the sect seems to go back to 1250, and is the work of Gu-ru Chos dbyang. The Nyingmapas themselves distinguish two stages of their tradition, the sayings (bka’-ma) of the Indian masters, and the “Buried Treasures” (gter-ma), which were scriptures hidden by Padmasambhava or the Adibuddha. Between 1150 and 1550 a considerable number of gtermas were unearthed, and their discovery made it easy to camouflage religious innovation. The biography we have of Padmasambhava was thus “discovered” about 1350. Many of these gtermas do, however, preserve traditions of great antiquity, as is particularly obvious in the famous “Book of the Dead” (bar do thos grol). The Nyingmapa distinguish six kinds ofbardo, or of experiences which are “intermediary” in the sense that they are somewhere in between this world of ordinary sensory awareness on the one hand, and the purely spiritual realm of Nirvāṇa on the other. The first three occur (1) in the womb during the months which precede birth, (2) in certain kinds of controlled dreams, and (3) during deep trance. The other three bardos are in addition “intermediary” in the sense that they take place in the interval between death and reconception, which is said to last forty-nine days. During that time the ordinary physical body is replaced by a kind of subtle or “ethereal” body. The “Book of the Dead” 1

Bardo Thődol – taäp saùch noåi tieáng moâ taû veà caùi cheát vaø nhöõng traïng thaùi taâm thöùc sau khi cheát, ñaõ ñöôïc dòch sang Anh ngöõ vôùi nhan ñeà “The Tibetian Book of the Dead”. Hieän ñaõ coù baûn dòch Vieät ngöõ cuûa Nguyeân Chaâu - Nguyeãn Minh Tieán, nhan ñeà “Ngöôøi Taây Taïng nghó veà caùi cheát” (hay Ngöôøi cheát ñi veà ñaâu), NXB Vaên hoùa Thoâng tin. 317

Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

ñaõ moâ taû raát tæ mæ moät soá chi tieát caùc hình aûnh raát coù theå seõ hieän ra vôùi nhöõng ai hieåu bieát nhieàu veà truyeàn thoáng cuûa Laït-ma giaùo trong suoát thôøi gian ñoù. Taùc phaåm naøy coøn giöõ laïi ñöôïc moät soá kieán thöùc coå xöa cuûa thôøi kyø ñoà ñaù veà ñôøi soáng sau khi cheát, vaø cho thaáy nhöõng ñieåm gioáng nhau ñaùng kinh ngaïc vôùi nhöõng truyeàn thoáng khaùc ñöôïc tìm thaáy trong caùc vaên baûn coå cuûa Ai Caäp, Ba Tö vaø Thieân Chuùa giaùo.

graphically describes in some detail the visions which are likely to befall those steeped in the traditions of Lamaism during that period. This work has preserved some of the ancient Stoneage knowledge about life after death and shows surprising similarities to other traditions found in Egyptian, Persian and Christian writings.

Cuõng raát coå xöa laø nghi leã gCod maø chuùng ta ñöôïc bieát ñeán qua söï mieâu taû cuûa moät taùc giaû töø theá kyû 14, nhaèm muïc ñích caét ñöùt moïi raøng buoäc vôùi töï ngaõ baèng caùch hieán mình cho quyû ñoùi ôû moät nôi hoang vaéng.

Very old is also the ceremony of gCod, about which we know from a description of a fourteenth century author, and which aims at “cutting off all attachment to self by offering one’s body to the greedy demons on a lonely and deserted site.

Toâng phaùi Nying-ma-pa khaùc bieät vôùi caùc toâng phaùi khaùc ôû ñieåm laø hoï söû duïng ñöôïc nhöõng gì maø noùi chung laø thöôøng bò cheâ boû. Chaúng haïn nhö söï saân haän vaø duïc voïng, vaø ngay caû xaùc thaân nhuïc duïc voán bò xem laø söï ngaên trôû, nguoàn goác cuûa toäi loãi, ñaõ ñöôïc toâng phaùi naøy söû duïng nhö moät phöông tieän ñeå laøm phong phuù hôn nöõa cho ñôøi soáng tinh thaàn. Noùi chung, nhöõng yù töôûng cuûa hoï ñeàu phuø hôïp vôùi quan ñieåm Tan-tra ñöôïc caûi tieán ôû AÁn Ñoä. Trình töï coâng phu cuûa toâng phaùi naøy laø nhö sau: 1. Söï saùng taïo tinh thaàn cuûa caùc vò hoä phaùp, nhôø vaøo söï trôï löïc cuûa caùc man-tra, caùc hình aûnh töôûng töôïng, vaø caùc vò Khoâng haønh nöõ. (Xem trang 186) 2. Söï kieåm soaùt ñöôïc thaân xaùc bí aån, goàm caùc maïch maùu, tinh dòch .v.v... 3. Söï nhaän thöùc ñöôïc baûn taùnh chaân thaät cuûa töï taâm. Boà Taùt Phoå Hieàn,1 moät vò Boà Taùt hoùa thaân raát gaàn guõi vôùi ñöùc Phaät Ñaïi Nhaät, laø nguoàn hieån loä cao caû nhaát veà giai ñoaïn thöù ba. “Chaân nhö, bao goàm caû töï thaân, veà baûn chaát khoâng phaûi laø söï troùi buoäc, taïi sao phaûi töï mình tìm caùch thoaùt khoûi söï troùi buoäc? Chaân nhö voán khoâng löøa doái, taïi sao laïi tìm kieám chaân lyù töø beân ngoaøi?” Vì vaäy, söï kieàm cheá bò phuû nhaän trong nhöõng nguyeân taéc ñaïo ñöùc Phaät giaùo. Moät ngöôøi hoaøn thieän veà moïi maët khoâng heà kieàm cheá duïc voïng, saân haän... maø chæ chuyeån hoùa chuùng moät caùch thích hôïp. 318

The Nyingmapa differ from the other sects in that they utilize that which is generally discarded, like anger or lust and also the physical body, which is generally looked upon as a shackle and a source of evil, is used here as a means to further an enriched life of the spirit. On the whole their ideas are in keeping with those of the left-handed Tantra in India. The order of their practice is (1) the mental creation of tutelaries (yi-dam) with the help of mantras, visions and the “sky-walkers” (p. 187); (2) the control of the occult body, with its arteries, semen virile, etc.; (3) the realization of the true nature of one’s own mind. Samantabhadra, the celestial Bodhisattva corresponding to Vairocana, is the source of the highest revelation about the third stage. “Suchness, including yourself, is not intrinsically entangled - so why should you try to disentangle yourself? It is not intrinsically deluded - so why should you seek the truth apart from it?” The repression involved in Buddhist morality is thus rejected. A well-rounded personality does not suppress lust, anger, etc., but puts them into their proper place. 1

Viśvabhadra hay Samantabhadra 319

Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

Trong nhöõng phaàn giaùo lyù cao nhaát, toâng phaùi naøy raát gioáng vôùi Thieàn toâng, theo ñoù hình thöùc cao nhaát cuûa Du-giaø haøm chöùa vieäc nhaän ra ñöôïc baûn taùnh chaân thaät cuûa töï taâm. Cuõng gioáng nhö Thieàn toâng, toâng phaùi naøy noùi ñeán söï giaùc ngoä vôùi yù nghóa coù phaàn naøo khaùc vôùi AÁn Ñoä. Moät ngöôøi ñaõ ñaït ñeán Nieát-baøn ngay taïi nôi naøy vaø trong hieän taïi, vôùi moïi haønh vi ñaõ thoaùt ra ngoaøi nhaân quaû, thì coù theå laøm tan bieán xaùc thaân cuûa mình vaøo moät veät saùng caàu voàng.

In its highest teachings this school has great affinity with the Ch’an sect, in that the highest form of Yoga consists in realizing the true nature of one’s own mind. Like the Ch’an school it also speaks of enlightenment in a somewhat non-Indian sense. The man who has won Nirvāṇa here-and now, and whose actions are free from causation, is able to make his body vanish in a rainbow.

Toâng phaùi Nying-ma-pa taäp trung nhieàu vaøo phaàn giaùo lyù bí truyeàn vaø söï chöùng ngoä töï thaân, nghieâng veà tröïc giaùc noäi taâm hôn laø nhöõng tri thöùc coù theå truyeàn ñaït ñöôïc. Maõi cho ñeán thôøi gian caùch ñaây chöøng moät theá kyû, toâng phaùi naøy khoâng heà coù nhöõng söï nghieân cöùu hoïc thuaät theo kieåu Hoaøng phaùi. Sau ñoù, coù moät vaøi nôi ñaõ thöïc hieän vieäc naøy, do baét chöôùc theo caùc toâng phaùi ñoái nghòch.

The Nyingmapa concentrated on esoteric teaching and personal realization, and preferred intuitive insight to communicable knowledge. Until about a century ago they had no academic studies in the Gelugpa sense. Then they were in some places introduced in imitation of their rivals.

Toâng phaùi naøy ñaõ tieáp tuïc söï ñaáu tranh giaønh quyeàn löïc, choáng laïi caùc toâng phaùi khaùc, vaø maëc duø ñaõ coù nhieàu laàn coá giaønh quyeàn kieåm soaùt ñaát nöôùc, nhöng chöa bao giôø laøm ñöôïc. Ñieàu naøy coù ít khaû naêng do caùc ñoái thuû cuûa hoï coù naêng löïc taâm linh maïnh meõ vaø ñöùc ñoä hôn, maø phaàn lôùn laø do söï vöôït troäi hôn veà naêng khieáu chính trò. Nhöng toâng phaùi naøy laïi naém ñöôïc aûnh höôûng raát lôùn ñoái vôùi daân chuùng, ñeán noãi caùc toâng phaùi khaùc ñeàu phaûi coù söï nhöôïng boä vôùi hoï. Nhöõng pheùp thuaät cuûa hoï thöôøng ñaùng ngôø ñoái vôùi caùc tín ñoà Phaät giaùo khaùc, thöôøng khoâng phaûi vì bò cho laø khoâng hieäu quaû, maø vì hoï döôøng nhö boäc loä moät söï quan taâm khoâng thích hôïp ñeán haïnh phuùc theá tuïc. Khi nhöõng ngöôøi Hoaøng phaùi muoán tieân ñoaùn töông lai, thöôøng hoï khoâng töï laøm ñieàu ñoù maø nhôø ñeán moät nhaø sö tieân tri cuûa boä phaùi coù nguoàn goác coå xöa naøy. Toâng phaùi Nying-ma-pa ñaõ haáp thuï raát nhieàu giaùo lyù cuûa ñaïo Bon, vaø chính trong toâng phaùi naøy Phaät giaùo vaø ñaïo Bon tieáp tuïc taùc ñoäng qua laïi vôùi nhau. Vieäc toâng phaùi Nying-ma-pa sa suùt xuoáng vò trí thaáp nhaát thöôøng ñöôïc neâu leân ñeå choáng laïi hoï. Tuy nhieân, ñieàu chaéc chaén laø, baát chaáp ñieàu ñoù, hoaëc coù leõ chính vì ñieàu ñoù, maø hoï cuõng ñuû naêng löïc ñeå coù theå ñaït ñeán ñòa 320

This sect has continually struggled for power against the others, and although it has several times attempted to gain control of the country, it could never hold it. This was due less to the greater spiritual power of their more virtuous rivals, as to their superior political gifts. So great is the hold of the Nyingmapa over the people that the other sects must make concessions to them. Many of their magical practices are suspect to the other Buddhists not so much because they regard them as ineffective, but because they seem to show an undue concern for worldly well-being. When the Gelugpas want to foresee the future, they normally do not do so themselves but employ an oracle-priest belonging to the ranks of the “Ancient Ones”. The Nyingmapas have absorbed many Bon teachings, and it is in their midst that Buddhism and Bon continuously interact. The fact that they go down to the lowest has often been held against them. There is, however, no reason to doubt that in 321

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vò cao nhaát nhö nhöõng ngöôøi ñoàng ñaïo thuaàn khieát hôn cuûa hoï ñaõ laøm ñöôïc.

spite, or perhaps because, of that they were as capable of winning the highest as their “purer” colleagues were.

Söï chieán thaéng toâng phaùi Nying-ma-pa cuoái cuøng ñaõ ñeán vôùi Hoaøng phaùi. Toâng phaùi naøy ñöôïc saùng laäp bôûi Toâng-khaùch-ba1 (1357-1419),2 nhaø tö töôûng vó ñaïi cuoái cuøng cuûa Phaät giaùo. Ngaøi laø moät nhaø caûi caùch, tieáp tuïc coâng vieäc cuûa ngaøi A-ñeà-sa tröôùc ñaây, nhaán maïnh ñeán vieäc tuaân theo caùc chuaån möïc ñaïo ñöùc vaø giôùi luaät, ñieàu haønh chaët cheõ coâng vieäc haøng ngaøy cuûa chö taêng, giaûm nheï aûnh höôûng cuûa phaùp thuaät baèng caùch nhaán maïnh vaøo khía caïnh taâm linh cuûa Phaät giaùo, vaø thaønh laäp Hoaøng phaùi, toâng phaùi ñaõ naém quyeàn cai trò Taây Taïng cho ñeán naêm 1950. Ngaøi laø hoïc giaû vó ñaïi, vaø baèng moïi caùch luoân coá gaéng ñeå tìm ñöôïc moät vò trí trung dung giöõa nhöõng cöïc ñoan, traùnh söï thieân leäch, vaø ñaït ñeán kieán thöùc bao quaùt toaøn dieän.

The victory over the Nyingmapa finally went to the Dge-lugspa, “The Virtuous Ones”, the sect founded by Tsong-kha-pa (1327-1419), the last great thinker of the Buddhist world. He was a reformer who carried on Atlsa’s work, insisted on the observance of the moral precepts and monastic rules, strictly regulated the daily routine of the monks, reduced the weight of magic by stressing the spiritual side of Buddhism and founded the “Yellow Church”, which ruled Tibet until 1950. He was a very great scholar and in every way he tried to find a position between the extremes, to avoid one-sidedness and to attain an encyclopaedic universality.

AÛnh höôûng cuûa ngaøi Toâng-khaùch-ba ñöôïc keùo daøi nhôø vaøo soá ñeä töû raát ñoâng, nhôø vaøo vieäc thaønh laäp caùc töï vieän sung tuùc, nhieàu theá löïc, vaø nhôø vaøo 16 boä söu taäp caùc taùc phaåm cuûa ngaøi. Trong soá ñoù, phaûi keå ñeán 2 taäp yeáu löôïc chæ roõ nhöõng phöông thöùc tu taäp ñeå ñaït ñeán söï giaûi thoaùt, moät taäp trình baøy ñaày ñuû veà saùu pheùp ba-la-maät cuûa Ñaïi thöøa, vaø taäp kia noùi roõ nhöõng phöông thöùc coâng phu theo Maät toâng. Taäp saùch ñaàu goïi laø “Töøng böôùc ñi leân giaùc ngoä”, döïa theo khuoân maãu töø taäp saùch chæ daãn cuûa A-ñeà-sa, nhöng chuù yù nhieàu hôn ñeán nhöõng ngöôøi khoâng coù naêng khieáu ñaëc bieät.

His influence was perpetuated by many pupils, by the foundation of rich and powerful monasteries and by the sixteen volumes of his Collected Works. Among these we must mention two compendia which show the way to salvation, the one through the six Mahayanistic perfections, the other through Tantric practices. The first, “The Steps which lead to Enlightenment”, is modelled on Atisa’s manual but greater attention is accorded to those who are not particularly gifted.

Sau khi thò tòch, ngaøi Toâng-khaùch-ba ñöôïc daân chuùng thôø cuùng nhieät thaønh, vaø ñöôïc tin laø ñaõ sanh veà cung trôøi Ñaâu Suaát, cuõng gioáng nhö caùc vò Phaät töông lai. Ngoaøi vieäc thaønh laäp caùc toâng phaùi baûn xöù, Phaät giaùo Taây Taïng trong thôøi kyø naøy coøn ñaït ñöôïc ba thaønh quaû lôùn. Tröôùc heát laø vieäc heä thoáng hoùa toaøn boä kinh ñieån thaønh hai taïng ñoà soä, Kinh taïng3 vaøo theá kyû 13 vaø Luaän taïng4 vaøo theá 1

After his death Tsong-kha-pa became the object of a fervent religious cult, and he is believed to reside now in the Tusita heavens, as future Buddhas do. Apart from the formation of indigenous schools, three great achievements are to the credit of the Tibetan Buddhism of this period. First there is the codification of the canonical literature in

tieáng, theo ñoù taêng só ñöôïc ñaøo taïo ôû caùc töï vieän cho ñeán khi ñaït trình ñoä töông ñöông vôùi hoïc vò tieán só trieát hoïc Phaät giaùo. Ngaøy nay, taêng só thuoäc

toâng phaùi Gelukpa vaãn ñöôïc ñaøo taïo theo heä thoáng giaùo duïc naøy. Nguyeân taùc ghi laø 1327-1419. Chuùng toâi ñaõ ñoái chieáu nhieàu tö lieäu vaø xaùc ñònh ñöôïc nieân ñaïi chính xaùc phaûi laø 1357-1419. Ñaây coù theå chæ laø moät loãi in aán chöa ñöôïc phaùt hieän trong laàn taùi baûn cuûa saùch naøy. 3 Kanjur (bka-gyur) 4 Tanjur (bstan-gyur)

322

323

Tsongkhapa ( 1357-1419), ngöôøi ñaõ aùp duïng heä thoáng giaùo duïc Geshe noåi

Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

kyû 14. Kinh taïng ñöôïc in laàn ñaàu tieân ôû Baéc Kinh khoaûng naêm 1411, vaø laàn ñaàu tieân ôû Narthang, Taây Taïng vaøo naêm 1731. Luaän taïng ñöôïc in laàn ñaàu tieân cuõng ôû Narthang, Taây Taïng vaøo naêm 1742. Sau ñoù coøn ñöôïc in nhieàu laàn nöõa. Ñaïi taïng kinh vôùi hình thöùc ñöôïc goäp chung laïi, vôùi ñoä chính xaùc, ñaùng tin caäy vaø deã tra khaûo ñöôïc hình thaønh töø khoaûng theá kyû 13 ñeán 18, vaø ñaõ trôû thaønh choã döïa cho taát caû nhöõng coâng trình nghieân cöùu Phaät phaùp taïi Taây Taïng. Thöù hai laø vieäc saûn sinh ra moät neàn vaên hoïc baûn xöù ñoà soä – caùc taäp saùch chæ daãn, nhöõng taùc phaåm luaän giaûi, tieåu luaän .v.v... Moät laõnh vöïc vaên hoïc maø tín ñoà Phaät giaùo Taây Taïng ñaõ vöôït troäi hôn taát caû, ñoù laø vieäc vieát thaùnh söû Phaät Thích-ca. Moái quan taâm veà lòch söû naøy coù lieân quan ñeán caùch nhìn cuûa ngöôøi Taây Taïng veà söï phaùt trieån cuûa Phaät giaùo trong moái quan heä vôùi con ngöôøi thaät cuûa ñöùc Phaät Thích-ca. Hoï tin raèng vieäc du nhaäp hoaøn toaøn Phaät phaùp vaø yù nghóa cuûa giaùo phaùp ñaõ töï phaùt qua nhieàu theá kyû, vaø nhöõng khía caïnh khaùc nhau cuûa giaùo phaùp voâ cuøng phong phuù naøy chæ ñöôïc tín ñoà Phaät giaùo naém baét ñöôïc moät caùch raát chaäm chaïp, trong suoát moät giai ñoaïn keùo daøi ñeán 15 theá kyû. Moät ñieàu heát söùc kyø laï laø, moät ngöôøi Taây Taïng - chöù khoâng phaûi ngöôøi AÁn Ñoä - ñaõ vieát ñöôïc cuoán lòch söû Phaät giaùo hay nhaát ôû AÁn Ñoä. Thaät vaäy cuoán “Lòch söû Phaät giaùo ôû AÁn Ñoä vaø Taây Taïng” quaû laø moät kieät taùc thuoäc loaïi naøy, mang tính toång hôïp cao vaø noåi baät vôùi nhöõng kieán thöùc trieát hoïc saâu saéc. Taäp ñaàu khaûo saùt veà kinh ñieån. Taäp thöù hai ñeà caäp ñeán 12 söï kieän chính trong cuoäc ñôøi ñöùc Phaät Thích-ca Maâu-ni, tieáp ñeán laø ba laàn keát taäp kinh ñieån, vaø noái tieáp cho ñeán nhöõng döï baùo veà söï dieät maát cuûa giaùo phaùp ôû AÁn Ñoä, vaø söï keá tuïc ôû Taây Taïng. Taäp thöù ba giôùi thieäu veà aán baûn Ñaïi taïng kinh ôû Narthang, theo sau laø moät baûn muïc luïc coù heä thoáng. Coøn nhieàu taùc phaåm xuaát saéc khaùc ñeà caäp ñeán lòch söû Phaät giaùo Taây Taïng, hoaëc laø lòch söû cuûa caùc toâng phaùi khaùc nhau. Thaønh quaû thöù ba laø taêng ñoaøn Phaät giaùo ñaõ baùm reã vöõng chaéc trong ñôøi soáng daân chuùng. Trong theá kyû 15, nhöõng moân ñoà cuûa ngaøi Tsong-kha-ba ñaõ ñieàu chænh giaùo lyù coå xöa cuûa Phaät 324

two gigantic collections, the Kanjur (bka-’gyur) for the Sutras in the thirteenth, and the Tanjur (bstan ‘gyur) for the Sastras in the fourteenth century. The Kanjur was printed for the first time in Peking about 1411, and both collections were printed in Tibet for the first time in sNarthang in 1731 and 1742 respectively. Many other editions followed, and the Canon in the comprehensive, accurate, authoritative and easily accessible form which it achieved between the thirteenth and eighteenth centuries has formed the backbone of all Buddhist studies in Tibet. Secondly there is the production of an enormous indigenous literature - of manuals, commentaries, sub-commentaries and so on. In one field of literature the Buddhists of Tibet have excelled all others, and that was the writing of History. This historical interest is connected with the way in which the Tibetans see the development of Buddhism in relation to the historical Buddha. The full import and meaning of the Buddha’s Dharma, so they believe, has revealed itself over many centuries, and the many facets of its infinite richness were grasped by His followers only very slowly, over a period of 1,500 years. It is a curious fact that it was not an Indian but a Tibetan who wrote the best history of Buddhism in India. Bu-ston’s (1322) “History of Buddhism in India and Tibet” (chos-’byun) is indeed a masterpiece of its kind, comprehensive and marked by deep philosophical understanding. The first volume gives a survey of the Scriptures; the second deals with the “twelve principal events in the life of the Buddha Sakyamuni”, followed by the “three rehearsals of the doctrine”, and so on up to the “prophecies about the disappearance of the doctrine” in India, and its continuation in Tibet; the third volume gives an to the Narthang edition of the Canon, followed by a systematic table of contents. Many other first-class works deal either with the history of Buddhism in Tibet, or that of the different sects. Thirdly, the Buddhist Church became firmly rooted in the life of the people. In the course of the fifteenth century the disciples 325

Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

phaùp theo vôùi nhöõng nhu caàu toå chöùc xaõ hoäi. Theo ñoù thì chö Phaät, Thaùnh vaø chö Boà Taùt coù theå hoùa hieän ra nhöõng thaân xaùc hoaøn toaøn khoâng khaùc gì vôùi thaân xaùc cuûa ngöôøi thöôøng, vaø söû duïng nhöõng hoùa thaân aáy ñeå cöùu ñoä vaø giaùo hoùa moïi ngöôøi. Ñaây khoâng phaûi laø söï taùi sinh, maø laø söï saùng taïo voâ ngaïi baèng naêng löïc thaàn thoâng cuûa caùc ngaøi ñeå thöïc hieän nhöõng haïnh nguyeän cuûa mình, trong khi caùc ngaøi vaãn an truù trong traïng thaùi khoâng taïo taùc. Cuõng trong theá kyû 15, Hoaøng phaùi ñöa ra moät hình thöùc cuï theå cho giaùo thuyeát naøy, baèng caùch tuyeân boá raèng moät soá caùc vò Boà Taùt (nhö ñöùc Quaùn Theá AÂm vaø Di-laëc) vaø Phaät (nhö ñöùc A-diñaø) seõ göûi ñeán nhöõng nôi nhö Lhasa, Urga .v.v... nhöõng hoùa thaân cuûa caùc ngaøi ñeå laøm caùc vò giaùo chuû (xem trang 122). Theâm vaøo ñoù, hoï nghó raèng coù theå tìm ñöôïc hoùa thaân cuûa moät vò giaùo chuû vöøa qua ñôøi trong moät ñöùa treû ñöôïc thuï thai sau ñoù 49 ngaøy. Nhöõng hoùa thaân naøy ñöôïc caùc vò cao taêng choïn löïa heát söùc caån thaän, döïa treân nhöõng quy luaät cuõng chi ly vaø phöùc taïp nhö laø nhöõng quy luaät ñaõ giuùp cho Hoäi ñoàng Leã nghi coù theå phaân bieät ñöôïc nhöõng pheùp maàu chaân chính vôùi ma thuaät. Vai troø laõnh ñaïo cuûa nhöõng vò hoùa thaân naøy laø neùt ñaëc tröng cuûa theá giôùi Laït-ma trong suoát 450 naêm qua. Vai troø laõnh ñaïo naøy cuõng mang laïi moät söï oån ñònh xaõ hoäi, vaø ñeán naêm 1950 ñaõ baûo veä Phaät giaùo moät caùch coù hieäu quaû tröôùc söï traøn ngaäp cuûa neàn vaên minh hieän ñaïi. Hôn theá nöõa, Laït-ma giaùo coøn chöùng toû moät caùch ñaùng ngaïc nhieân laø hoï hoaøn toaøn khoâng bò aûnh höôûng cuûa loøng ham muoán nhö thoâng thöôøng, voán ñaõ daãn ñeán söï suïp ñoå cuûa taêng ñoaøn tröôùc ñaây ôû chaâu AÙ. Naêm 1953, ôû vuøng Ladakh theo Laït-ma giaùo, nhöõng taù ñieàn trung thaønh canh taùc treân caùc vuøng ñaát cuûa töï vieän ñaõ choáng laïi vieäc sung coâng ñaát ñai cuûa chö taêng. Chính phuû AÁn Ñoä ñaõ phaùi ñeán moät uûy ban, vaø hoï baùo caùo veà raèng “... thaät ñaùng ngaïc nhieân laø nhöõng ngöôøi taù ñieàn naøy coù theå giaønh ñöôïc nhöõng vuøng ñaát ñai töø caùc chuû sôû höõu1 baèng vaøo hieäu löïc cuûa Ñaïo luaät ñaát ñai (huûy boû caùc sôû höõu ñaát ñai quy moâ lôùn), nhöng hoï laïi thoáng nhaát quyeát ñònh laø nhöõng vuøng ñaát ñai naøy neân ñöôïc giöõ nguyeân 326

of Tsongkhapa adapted to the needs of social organization the old Buddhist doctrine according to which the Buddhas, saints and Bodhisattvas could conjure up phantom bodies, which to all intents and purposes are indistinguishable from ordinary bodies, and which they use as a kind of puppets to help and convert others. They are in no way “incarnations” of the saint in question, but free creations of his magical power, which he sends out to do his work, while he himself remains uncommitted. In the fifteenth century the Gelugpas gave a concrete form to this teaching by claiming that certain Bodhisattvas (like Avalokitesvara and Maitreya) and Buddhas (like Amitabha) would send into certain places, such as Lhasa, Urga, and so on, a certain number of phantom bodies (sprulsku, Tulku, see p. 123) to act as their priestly rulers. In addition they thought it possible to rediscover the phantom body of the deceased ruler in a child conceived forty-nine days after his death. The rule of the Tulkus, carefully chosen by skilled monks on the basis of rules as elaborate as those which enable the Congregation of Rites to distinguish genuine from spurious miracles, was the distinguishing feature of the Lamaist world during the last 450 years. It brought with it a great measure of social stability and up to 1950 protected Buddhism effectively from the inroads of modern civilization. What is more, Lamaism has proved surprisingly immune against the upsurge of popular cupidity which accompanied the breakdown of the old order in Asia. In Lamaist Ladakh the loyal tenants of monastic lands in 1953 resisted the expropriation of the monks. The Indian State Government sent a Commission which reported that “it was rather surprising that the tenants who were likely to gain by the operation of the Act (abolishing the big landed estates) on the lands attached to the gumpas have unanimously decided that these lands should remain attached to the gumpas and be free 1

ÔÛ ñaây laø chö taêng ôû caùc töï vieän.

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A short history of Buddhism

thuoäc quyeàn caùc chuû sôû höõu vaø neân ñöa ra ngoaøi aûnh höôûng cuûa Ñaïo luaät... ” (trang 30-31 trong baùo caùo cuûa UÛy ban Wazir).

from the operation of the Abolition Act” (pp. 30-1 of the Report of the Wazir Committee).

Tín ñoà Phaät giaùo tröôùc ñoù vaãn thöôøng coá naém laáy caû quyeàn löïc theá tuïc vaø quyeàn löïc taâm linh. Ñaây laø laàn ñaàu hoï thaønh coâng trong vieäc naøy. Lôïi theá coù theå nhìn thaáy raát roõ raøng. Nhöõng ñieàu kieän thuaän lôïi cho moät ñôøi soáng tín ngöôõng coù theå ñöôïc ñaûm baûo, chuû nghóa quaân phieät bò kieàm cheá ñeán möùc toái thieåu, suùc vaät ñöôïc baûo veä, naïn cöôùp giaät cuûa caûi bò ngaên chaën, söï naùo loaïn vaø baïo ñoäng bò loaïi tröø.

The Buddhists had often before attempted to combine both secular and spiritual power in their hands. This was the first time they succeeded in doing so. The advantages are obvious. Conditions favourable to a religious life can be assured, militarism reduced to a minimum, animals protected, acquisitiveness discouraged, noise and unrest suppressed. The undisputed rule of the Lamas was backed up by the universality of their intellectual interests, which can be seen in the programme of studies pursued by the Gelugpas, by a pantheon which was extensive and comprehensive, and by the omnipresence of the objects of faith.

Vai troø laõnh ñaïo ñöông nhieân cuûa caùc vò Laït-ma ñöôïc hoã trôï bôûi söï nôùi roäng caùc laõnh vöïc tinh thaàn maø hoï quan taâm, coù theå thaáy trong nhöõng chöông trình hoïc taäp maø Hoaøng phaùi aùp duïng, trong heä thoáng thaàn linh roäng raõi vaø ña daïng, vaø trong söï hieän dieän khaép nôi cuûa nhöõng ñoái töôïng tín ngöôõng. Tuy nhieân, baát chaáp söï thaønh coâng roõ neùt naøy, moät söï suy thoaùi tín ngöôõng ñaõ baét ñaàu töø sau theá kyû 17. Thoùi quen döïa vaøo baïo löïc cuûa vò Ñaït-lai Laït-ma thöù 5 (1617-1682)1 laø moät daáu hieäu xaáu cho töông lai. Heä thoáng Laït-ma daàn daàn trôû neân cöùng nhaéc. Cho ñeán theá kyû 18, nhöõng aûnh höôûng töø nöôùc ngoaøi ñaõ töøng ñöôïc ñoùn nhaän vaø khuyeán khích. Nhöng töø ñoù trôû ñi, Taây Taïng hoaøn toaøn kheùp kín, vaø bieän phaùp naøy phaûn aùnh moät söï e ngaïi nhaát ñònh töø trong nöôùc. Söï suy thoaùi töï noù ñöôïc boäc loä moät caùch roõ raøng qua caùc taùc phaåm ngheä thuaät, töø ñoù trôû ñi chæ cho thaáy moät kyõ naêng maùy moùc hôn laø taøi naêng saùng taïo. Daáu veát cuûa nhöõng phaåm chaát ñaõ töøng noåi baät trong neàn ngheä thuaät Taây Taïng ôû ñænh cao cuûa noù, giôø ñaây trôû neân raát hieám hoi, maëc duø laø vaãn coøn coù theå nhaän ra ñöôïc – vôùi söï chaùy boûng vaø veû quyeán ruõ gaàn nhö kyø dieäu, loøng töø bi vaø kinh haõi vöôït möùc, veû nheï nhaøng thanh thoaùt vaø söï rung ñoäng ma quaùi, vaø söï kheùo leùo gaàn nhö sieâu vieät trong vieäc phoái trí, ñieàu hoøa maøu saéc. Trong moät thôøi gian daøi, ñòa hình hieåm trôû vaø söï kình choáng nhau giöõa caùc theá löïc ñaõ giöõ cho nöôùc naøy khoâng bò chinh phuïc. 1

Nevertheless, in spite of this outward success, a religious decline set in after the seventeenth century. The Great Fifth Dalai Lama’s (1617-1715) habitual reliance on violence boded ill for the future. The Lamaist system gradually became fossilised. Up to the eighteenth century foreign influences had been welcomed and encouraged. From then onwards the country was shut off and this measure reflected a certain inward timidity. The decline shows itself clearly in the works of art, which from now on show more mechanical competence than creative genius. Rare, though still discernible, are the traces of the qualities which had marked Tibetan art at its height - with its fire and almost magical fascination, its overpowering compassion and horror, its ethereal lightness and demonic compulsion, and its nearly superhuman skill in the handling of proportions and colours. For a long time geographical inaccessibility and the rivalry of the powers prevented the country from being conquered. Now

Nguyeân taùc ghi laø 1617 - 1715 nhöng khoâng ñuùng, vì Ñaït-lai Laït-ma thöù 6 (ñöôïc tin laø hoùa thaân cuûa vò thöù 5) sinh naêm 1683 vaø maát naêm 1706. Chuùng

toâi caên cöù Töø ñieån Phaät hoïc cuûa Chaân Nguyeân (NXB Thuaän Hoùa, 1999) vaø moät soá taøi lieäu khaùc ñeå ñieàu chænh naêm maát cuûa vò Ñaït-lai Laït-ma thöù 5 laø 1682.

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Giôø ñaây, neàn vaên minh hieän ñaïi ñang traøn vaøo. Ñöôøng saù, y teá, caûi caùch ñaát ñai vaø söï phaùt trieån caùc nguoàn taøi nguyeân thieân nhieân ñeàu ñaõ baét ñaàu, vôùi nhöõng haäu quaû huûy dieät khoân löôøng ñoái vôùi caùc truyeàn thoáng toân giaùo.

modern civilization flows in. Roads, medicine, land reform and the development of natural resources have begun their work, with consequences quite disastrous to religious traditions. 8. MONGOLIA

8. MOÂNG COÅ

Ngöôøi Moâng Coå hai laàn ñöôïc giaùo hoùa bôûi caùc cao taêng Taây Taïng. Laàn ñaàu vaøo naêm 1261 laø vò ñöùng ñaàu doøng Saskya teân laø Thags-pa, vaø laàn tieáp theo vaøo naêm 1577 laø ñöùc Ñaït-lai Laït-ma.1 Trong khoaûng thôøi gian töø naêm 1368 ñeán naêm 1577, hoï laïi quay laïi vôùi ñaïo Shaman ôû baûn xöù. Chính khaû naêng laøm phaùp thuaät cuûa ngöôøi Taây Taïng ñaõ gaây aán töôïng maïnh nhaát ñoái vôùi ngöôøi Moâng Coå. Marco Polo ñaõ keå laïi nhieàu ñieàu kyø laï veà nhöõng phaùp thuaät ña daïng maø caùc vò Laïtma ñaõ laøm taïi trieàu ñình cuûa Ñaïi Haõn,2 vaø sau naøy, khi ñöùc Ñaïtlai Laït-ma du haønh ñeán thaêm Altan Chagan, thuû lónh cuûa mieàn ñoâng Moâng Coå, ngaøi cuõng boäc loä naêng löïc maàu nhieäm cuûa mình ôû khaép moïi nôi, nhö laøm cho nhöõng con soâng chaûy ngöôïc leân ñoài, nhöõng con suoái traøo leân giöõa sa maïc, vaø nhöõng daáu moùng ngöïa cuûa ngaøi ñeå laïi taïo thaønh haøng chöõ “AÙn Ma Ni Baùt Di Hoàng”.3 Do vieäc ngöôøi Moâng Coå tin theo Phaät giaùo, caùc vò Laït-ma giôø ñaây ñaûm nhaän nhöõng nghi leã phaùp thuaät maø tröôùc kia do ñaïo Shaman thöïc hieän. Vieäc coi troïng sinh maïng theo giaùo lyù ñaïo Phaät ñöôïc baét buoäc thöïc hieän theo luaät phaùp, caám haún vieäc hy sinh ñaøn baø, noâ leä vaø suùc vaät theo taäp tuïc cuûa ñaïo Shaman, vaø haïn cheá vieäc saên baén. Vôùi keát quaû cuûa laàn hoùa ñaïo ñaàu tieân, Laït-ma giaùo chia seû söï giaøu coù cuûa ñeá quoác Moâng Coå, coù theå laäp neân nhieàu chuøa vaø ñeàn thôø ôû Trung Hoa, ñaëc bieät laø ôû Baéc Kinh, vaø coù ñöôïc quyeàn löïc maïnh meõ döôùi trieàu nhaø Nguyeân (1279-1367).4

The Mongols were twice converted by the Tibetan hierarchs, first in 1261 by the Saskya ruler Thags-pa, then again in 1577 by the Dalai Lama. In the interval between 1368 and 1577 they had reverted to their native shamanism. It was the Tibetans’ ability to work magic which most impressed the Mongols. Marco Polo tells us wonderful things about the various magical tricks the Lamas performed at the court of the Great Khan, and later on, when the Dalai Lama journeyed to Altan Chagan, ruler of the Eastern Mongols, he everywhere showed his magical powers, forced rivers to flow uphill, made springs well up in the desert, and the traces of his horse’s hoofs formed the Om mani padme hum. As a result of the Mongol conversion to Buddhism the Lamas took over many of the magical rites which formerly the shamans had performed. Buddhist respect for life was enforced by legislation forbidding the shamanistic sacrifices of women, slaves and beasts, and restricting hunting. In consequence of the first conversion, Lamaism shared in the wealth of the Mongol Empire, could establish many monasteries and sanctuaries in China, particularly in Peking, and acquired great power under the Yuan dynasty (1260-1368). 3 4

Om mani padme hum – Luïc töï ñaïi minh chaân ngoân, Haùn dòch aâm laø AÙn ma ni baùt di hoàng (唵嘛呢鉢彌吽).

Töùc laø vò Ñaït-lai Laït-ma thöù 3, teân laø Sonam Gyatso (Toaû-laõng Gia-muïc-thoá), sinh naêm 1543 vaø maát naêm 1588. 2 Töùc Thaønh Caùt Tö Haõn.

ÔÛ ñaây nguyeân taùc coù söï nhaàm laãn. Thaät ra, naêm 1260 Hoát-taát-lieät leân ngoâi vua taïi Moâng Coå nhöng chöa ñaùnh chieám Trung Hoa, cuõng chöa laäp nhaø Nguyeân. Naêm 1271 môùi chính thöùc ñoåi quoác hieäu laø Nguyeân vaø tieán haønh xaâm löôïc Trung Hoa. Naêm 1279 môùi dieät nhaø Toáng, thieát ñaët söï cai trò cuûa nhaø Nguyeân taïi Trung Hoa vaø keùo daøi 88 naêm, cho ñeán naêm 1367 bò nhaø Minh (Chu Nguyeân Chöông) ñaùnh baïi phaûi ruùt veà Moâng Coå.

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Laàn hoùa ñaïo thöù hai ñöôïc theo sau bôûi moät söï nhieät thaønh tín ngöôõng cho thaáy nhöõng gì maø Phaät giaùo coù theå taïo ra ñöôïc treân khaép laõnh thoå cuûa moät quoác gia. Loøng suøng ñaïo cuûa daân Moâng Coå döôøng nhö laø khoâng coù giôùi haïn. Kinh ñieån ñöôïc dòch sang tieáng Moâng Coå, vaø haøng ngaøn töï vieän nguy nga ñöôïc xaây caát, vôùi soá ngöôøi xuaát gia chieám ñeán 45% soá nam giôùi trong nöôùc, vaø laø nhöõng trung taâm thöôøng xuyeân cuûa caùc sinh hoaït vaên hoùa ñaùng keå. Vaøo theá kyû 13, söï chinh phuïc Iran cuûa ngöôøi Moâng Coå ñaõ daãn ñeán vieäc thaønh laäp caùc trung taâm vaên hoùa Phaät giaùo treân laõnh thoå Iran khoaûng nöûa theá kyû tröôùc khi caùc laõnh tuï Moâng Coå chuyeån sang theo Hoài giaùo vaøo naêm 1295.1 Laàn thöù hai ngöôøi Moâng Coå quay sang vôùi Phaät giaùo ñaõ lan roäng toân giaùo naøy sang caùc saéc daân du muïc khaùc, nhö ngöôøi Buryat vaø Kalmuk. Urga trôû thaønh moät trung taâm lôùn cuûa Laïtma giaùo. Vò Hutuktu2 cuoái cuøng maát naêm 1924, vaø quyeàn haïn chuyeån sang nhaø nöôùc Coäng hoøa nhaân daân Moâng Coå. Suoát trong 300 naêm, loøng suøng kính cuûa ngöôøi Moâng Coå ñoái vôùi Phaät giaùo ñaõ theå hieän roõ qua söï nhieät thaønh maïnh meõ, vaø bôûi vì nieàm tin saâu xa, hoï ñaõ khoâng tính ñeán caùi giaù phaûi traû: moät möùc ñoä suy kieät nhaát ñònh cuûa ñaát nöôùc, nhö tröôøng hôïp töông töï cuûa Trieàu Tieân vaøo theá kyû 14. Leõ taát nhieân laø khi aáy hoï buoäc phaûi quay sang moät ñoái töôïng khaùc hôn. 9. THÖÏC TRAÏNG HIEÄN NAY

Trong suoát theá kyû vöøa qua, Phaät giaùo ñaõ phaûi daønh phaàn lôùn naêng löïc cuûa mình ñeå töï duy trì tröôùc nhöõng theá löïc maïnh meõ cuûa lòch söû hieän ñaïi, vaø quaû thaät ñieàu ñoù khoâng deã daøng. Khoâng coù nôi naøo Phaät giaùo giaønh ñöôïc theá chuû ñoäng. Vaøo thaäp kyû 50, nhieàu tín ñoà Phaät giaùo chaâu AÙ chaøo ñoùn leã kyû nieäm laàn thöù 2.500 söï giaùc ngoä cuûa ñöùc Phaät, ñöôïc bieát ñeán vôùi teân goïi laø Buddha Jayanti,3 haøm yù veà söï chieán thaéng cuûa ngaøi tröôùc Ma vöông, 332

The second conversion was followed by a religious fervour which shows what hold the Buddhist religion can have over the mind of a nation. There seemed to be no limits to the piety of the Mongol people. The holy scriptures were translated into Mongol and many thousands of often splendid monasteries were built, which contained up to 45 per cent of the male population and were not infrequently centres of considerable intellectual activity. In the thirteenth century the conquest of Iran by the Mongols had led to the establishment of centres of Buddhist culture in Iranian lands for about half a century before the Il-khanid rulers became Muslims in 1295. After their second conversion the Mongols spread Buddhism to other nomadic populations, like the Buryats and Kalmuks. Urga became a great centre of Lamaism. The last Hutuktu died in 1924, and his functions were taken over by the Mongolian Peoples Republic. For three hundred years the devotion of the Mongols to Buddhism had been distinguished by the intensity of its fervour, and because their deep faith had not counted the cost a certain degree of national exhaustion ensued, as in the parallel case of Korea in the fourteenth century. It is only natural that now they should have turned to something else. 9. THE PRESENT SITUATION

During the last century Buddhism had to spend most of its energies in maintaining itself, not without difficulties, against the driving forces of modern history. Nowhere has it had the initiative. In the nineteen-fifties many Asian Buddhists celebrated the 2,500th anniversary of the Buddha’s enlightenment, which was known as the “Buddha Jayanti”, because it implied His “victory” 1

Laõnh tuï Moâng Coå ñaàu tieân theo Hoài giaùo laø Ghazan Khan, vaøo naêm 1295. Laõnh tuï tröôùc ñaây cuûa ngöôøi Moâng Coå. 3 Leã Thaønh ñaïo, ñöôïc toå chöùc vaøo ngaøy moàng 8 thaùng 12 aâm lòch haèng naêm. 2

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töôïng tröng cho caùi cheát, cho toäi loãi, vaø cho theá giôùi traàn tuïc naøy. Tuy nhieân, söï kieän naøy ñöôïc ñaùnh daáu baèng loøng nhieät thaønh lôùn lao trong moái quan taâm ñeán Phaät giaùo khoâng phaûi veà maët tinh thaàn, maø laø moät löïc löôïng xaõ hoäi. Coù leõ coøn hôn caû ngöôøi chaâu AÂu, ngaøy nay ña soá ngöôøi chaâu AÙ khoâng coøn quan taâm ñeán caùc vaán ñeà toân giaùo. Nhöõng vaán ñeà xaõ hoäi vaø chính trò döôøng nhö ñoái vôùi hoï caáp thieát hôn nhieàu.

over Mara, who personifies death, evil and this world. The event was marked by great enthusiasm which did not, however, concern Buddhism as a spiritual but as a social force. More so perhaps even than Europeans, Asians as a mass have at present withdrawn their interests from religious matters. Social and political issues seem to them so much more urgent.

Phaät giaùo laø yeáu toá chung duy nhaát ñoái vôùi taát caû caùc neàn vaên hoùa chaâu AÙ, ít nhaát laø keå töø soâng Indus vaø raëng Hindu Kush cho ñeán Kyoto vaø ñaûo Java. Taát caû nhöõng ai soáng ôû chaâu AÙ ñeàu coù theå töï haøo veà moät toân giaùo khoâng nhöõng coù tröôùc toân giaùo cuûa phöông Taây ñeán 5 theá kyû, maø coøn ñöôïc truyeàn baù vaø toàn taïi maø khoâng döïa vaøo baïo löïc, khoâng vaáy maùu cuûa caùc cuoäc thaùnh chieán vaø khoâng söû duïng ñeán nhöõng bieän phaùp taøn baïo, cuoàng nhieät.

Buddhism is the only factor common to all Asian culture, at least from the Indus and Hindu Rush to Kyoto and Java. All those who dwell in Asia can take pride in a religion which is not only five centuries older than that of the West, but has spread and maintained itself with little recourse to violence and has remained unstained by religious wars, holy inquisitions, sanguinary crusades or the burning of women as witches.

Tinh thaàn daân toäc laø ñoäng löïc chính trong giai ñoaïn lòch söû naøy, vaø nhöõng thaønh quaû maø tín ñoà Phaät giaùo ñaït ñöôïc laø raát ñaùng töï haøo. AÁn Ñoä traân troïng ñöùc Phaät nhö moät trong nhöõng baäc ñaïo sö vó ñaïi nhaát cuûa hoï, vaø vua A-duïc, moät ngöôøi Phaät töû, laø moät trong nhöõng nhaø cai trò xuaát saéc nhaát cuûa hoï. Khoâng chæ ôû AÁn Ñoä, maø caû ôû Trung Hoa, Nhaät Baûn vaø Tích Lan, nhöõng giai ñoaïn lòch söû huy hoaøng nhaát ñeàu ñuùng laø nhöõng giai ñoaïn Phaät giaùo höng thònh nhaát.1 Nhöõng coâng trình kieán truùc nguy nga vaø voâ soá taùc phaåm ngheä thuaät cuõng nhö moät neàn vaên hoïc ñoà soä, tinh teá vaø hoaøn myõ ñaõ chöùng toû ñöôïc söùc phaùt trieån khoâng ngöøng cuûa nhöõng giaù trò vaên hoùa cao. Dó nhieân, theo quan ñieåm Phaät giaùo thì taát caû nhöõng ñieàu naøy chæ laø taàm thöôøng, laø nhöõng thaønh quaû phuï thuoäc coù ñöôïc nhôø vaøo söï taän löïc tu döôõng tinh thaàn. Nhöng quaû thaät, söï taàm thöôøng naøy laø quaù söùc röïc rôõ. Nhöõng lôøi tieân ñoaùn töø ñaàu Coâng nguyeân ñaõ ñöa ra moät haïn kyø 2.500 naêm nhö laø thôøi gian toàn taïi cuûa Phaät giaùo. Sau thôøi gian ñoù, ngay caû caùc vò taêng cuõng seõ chæ gioûi vieäc tranh chaáp vaø baát ñoàng, coøn giaùo lyù thì daàn daàn ngaøy caøng môø nhaït. 1

Lòch söû Vieät Nam vaøo hai ñôøi Lyù, Traàn cuõng chöùng minh ñieàu naøy.

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Nationalistic self-assertion is a prime motive at this stage of history and the achievements of the Buddhists are certainly something to be proud of. India cherishes the Buddha as one of her greatest religious teachers and Aśoka, and Buddhist emperor, as one of her most outstanding rulers. Not only in India, but also in China, Japan and Ceylon, the most brilliant periods of history were precisely those in which Buddhism flourished most. Splendid buildings and works of art in profusion, as well as a vast, subtle and often beautiful literature testify to the continuous outpouring of cultural values of a high order. From the Buddhist point of view all these things are, of course, mere trifles, accidental by-products of intense spiritual contemplation. But they are splendid trifles. Prophecies dating from the beginning of the Christian era have given 2,500 years as the duration of the teaching of the Buddha Sakyamuni. After that even the monks “will be strong only in fighting and reproving” and the holy doctrine will become more and more invisible. 335

Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

Thöïc teá quan saùt cuõng cho thaáy raèng, gioáng nhö nhöõng toân giaùo truyeàn thoáng khaùc, Phaät giaùo ñaõ chòu aûnh höôûng nghieâm troïng cuûa neàn vaên minh coâng nghieäp. Söï huûy hoaïi cuûa noù gaàn nhö ñaõ coù theå kòp hoaøn thaønh trong khoaûng 20 naêm keå töø dòp leã kyû nieäm 2.500 naêm cuûa Phaät giaùo. Cuõng phaûi ghi nhaän theâm raèng, ñaùng chuù yù nhaát laø nhöõng coâng trình ñaùng keå ñaõ ñöôïc thöïc hieän trong nhöõng naêm gaàn ñaây ôû Mieán Ñieän, Thaùi Lan, Nhaät Baûn vaø Tích Lan ñeå duy trì söï sinh ñoäng cuûa Phaät giaùo vaø khoâi phuïc nhöõng phöông phaùp thieàn ñònh coå xöa. Chính trong moâi tröôøng caùch bieät cuûa nhöõng trung taâm thieàn ñònh maø nieàm tin xöa kia ñöôïc khoâi phuïc, vaø mang laïi nhöõng lôïi ích môùi cho cuoäc soáng. Trong khi nhöõng neàn taûng vöõng chaéc cuûa Phaät giaùo ôû phöông Ñoâng daàn daàn theo nhau suïp ñoå, thì ñeå buø ñaép laïi, toân giaùo naøy ñaõ töøng böôùc, chaäm chaïp nhöng vöõng chaéc, lan roäng daàn ra khaép caùc nöôùc phöông Taây. Taïi ñaây, Phaät giaùo ñöôïc tieáp nhaän theo ba möùc ñoä khaùc nhau: trieát hoïc, hoïc thuaät vaø toân giaùo. 1. Söï tieáp nhaän veà maët trieát hoïc ñöôïc khôûi ñaàu vôùi Athur Schopenhauer1 vaøo naêm 1819, vaø tieáp tuïc duy trì vôùi moät toác ñoä khaù oån ñònh keå töø ñoù. Maëc duø chæ coù ñöôïc raát ít caùc kinh vaên nguyeân thuûy, Schopenhauer ñaõ taùi taïo heä thoáng tö töôûng Phaät giaùo cuûa nhöõng ngöôøi Kantian thôøi coå moät caùch chính xaùc ñeán noãi ngöôøi ta coù theå tin chaéc raèng oâng ñaõ nhôù laïi nhöõng ñieàu naøy töø trong tieàn kieáp. Veà phaàn mình, oâng ñaõ aûnh höôûng raát maïnh meõ ñeán caùc nhaïc só nhö Richard Wagner,2 trieát gia nhö Bergson,3 vaø raát nhieàu taøi naêng saùng taïo khaùc ôû Taây AÂu. Töø moät goùc ñoä khaùc bieät hôn, thieân taøi Helena Petrovna Blavatsky4 ñaõ giôùi thieäu vôùi phöông Taây nhieàu giaùo lyù cô baûn cuûa Phaät giaùo Ñaïi thöøa, vaø trong moät chöøng möïc naøo ñoù, toå chöùc Theosophical Society5 cuûa baø ñaõ taïo ñieàu kieän cho nhöõng 1

Trieát gia ngöôøi Ñöùc (1788-1860) 2 Richard (Wilhelm) Wagner, (1813-1883), nhaø soaïn nhaïc ngöôøi Ñöùc 3 Henri Bergson (1859-1941), trieát gia ngöôøi Phaùp vaø laø ngöôøi ñoaït giaûi Nobel vaên chöông naêm 1927

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It is also a fact of observation that, like the other traditional religions, Buddhism has suffered severely from the impact of industrial civilization which has nearly completed its work of destruction in the twenty years which have passed since the Buddha Jayanti. On the credit side what is chiefly to be noted is the considerable work done in recent years, in Burma, Thailand, Japan and Ceylon, to keep alive and to revive the ancient methods of meditation. It is in the seclusion of the meditation centres that the old faith will be recharged, and confer new benefits on the world. While the strongholds of Buddhism in the East were being destroyed one by one, it was some compensation that the religion has slowly but steadily spread to the capitalist countries of the West. There it has been absorbed on three different levels -the philosophical, the scholarly and the sectarian. 1. The philosophical reception began with Arthur Schopenhauer in 1819 and has continued at a fairly steady pace since. Although he had access to very few original documents, Schopenhauer reproduced the Buddhist system of thought from Kantian antecedents with such an accuracy that one may well believe that he remembered it from a previous life. He in his turn greatly influenced musicians like Richard Wagner, philosophers like Bergson, and many other creative people in Western Europe. From quite another angle the genius of Helena Petrovna Blavatsky introduced the West to many of the basic teachings of Mahāyāna Buddhism and her Theosophical Society has 4

Helena Petrovna Blavatsky (1831-1891). Baø laø ngöôøi Myõ goác Nga, ñaõ saùng laäp vaø ñöùng ñaàu moät heä thoáng trieát hoïc toân giaùo hieän ñaïi ñöôïc bieát vôùi teân goïi laø Theosophy (Thoâng thieân hoïc). 5 Thöôøng ñöôïc ngöôøi Vieät Nam bieát ñeán vôùi teân goïi laø Hoäi Thoâng thieân hoïc.

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Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

nghieân cöùu saâu xa hôn nöõa. Trong nhöõng naêm gaàn ñaây hôn, caùc trieát gia khaùc bieät nhau nhö Rickert, Jaspers,1 Wittgenstein2 and Heidegger3 ñaõ toû ra chòu nhieàu aûnh höôûng töø Phaät giaùo. Trong 20 naêm vöøa qua4 ñaõ hình thaønh moät soá löôïng taùc phaåm vaên chöông ñoà soä vieát veà moái quan heä giöõa caùc heä thoáng tö töôûng khaùc nhau cuûa Phaät giaùo vôùi heä thöïc hieänoáng tö töôûng cuûa caùc tö töôûng gia chaâu AÂu hieän ñaïi. Nhöõng taùc phaåm naøy haàu heát ñeàu coù giaù trò cao ñeán möùc ñaõ ñeå laïi nhieàu daáu aán trong tö töôûng trieát hoïc phöông Taây cuõng nhö phöông Ñoâng. 2. Trong voøng 150 naêm, voâ soá caùc tö lieäu trong lòch söû Phaät giaùo, cho duø laø döôùi hình thöùc vaên baûn hay caùc taùc phaåm ngheä thuaät, ñaõ loâi cuoán söï chuù yù cuûa raát nhieàu hoïc giaû. Trong moät chöøng möïc naøo ñoù, moái quan taâm naøy ñöôïc thuùc ñaåy bôûi nhu caàu cai trò cuûa nhöõng chính phuû xaâm löôïc, nhöõng ngöôøi ñaõ nhaän ra tín ñoà Phaät giaùo trong soá daân ôû nhöõng vuøng môùi bò chinh phuïc. Theo chieàu höôùng naøy, ngöôøi Nga baét ñaàu nghieân cöùu quan ñieåm tín ñoà Phaät giaùo vuøng Siberia cuûa hoï. Ngöôøi Anh, vôùi Rhys David laø moät trong soá ñoù, quay sang nghieân cöùu veà Phaät giaùo ôû Tích Lan ñeå tìm caâu traû lôøi cho thaùi ñoä cuûa ngöôøi daân veà quyeàn sôû höõu ñaát ñai ñaõ laøm hoï boái roái. Ngöôøi Phaùp ñaõ laøm vieäc naøy moät caùch xuaát saéc vôùi Vieän Vieãn Ñoâng5 ñaët truï sôû taïi Saøi Goøn cuõ. Veà sau, ngay caû ngöôøi Myõ cuõng ñöa vaøo trong quaân ñoäi cuûa hoï moät tröôøng hoïc daïy caùc ngoân ngöõ phöông Ñoâng, ñaõ ñaøo taïo ra tröôùc nhaát nhöõng nhaø Ñoâng phöông hoïc maø hieän nay ñang laøm vieäc taïi caùc tröôøng ñaïi hoïc Hoa Kyø. Sinh vieân toát nghieäp töø tröôøng naøy ñöôïc höôûng taøi trôï töø ngaân saùch quoác phoøng,6 ñöôïc höôûng trôï caáp laøm vieäc töø CIA, FBI vaø nhieàu toå chöùc lôùn. Nhöng vaãn chöa phaûi ñaõ heát. Vì Phaät giaùo toû ra laø hình thöùc deã truyeàn baù nhaát cuûa neàn vaên hoùa AÁn Ñoä, neân khoâng coù baát cöù moät hình thöùc tö töôûng naøo khaùc cuûa chaâu AÙ coù theå thu huùt ñöôïc nhieàu söï

fostered further research in many ways. In more recent years such divers philosophers as Rickert, Jaspers, Wittgenstein and Heidegger have testified to their having been influenced by Buddhism, and over the last twenty years there has grown up a vast literature on the relationship between various Buddhist thought systems and those of modern European thinkers. It is of such a consistently high quality that it cannot fail to leave its mark on Western, as well as Eastern, philosophical thought. 2. For 150 years the countless documents of Buddhist history, whether literary or artistic, have attracted the attention of many scholars. To some extent this interest was prompted by the administrative needs of imperialist governments who found Buddhists among their newly conquered subjects. In this way the Russians came to study the views of their Siberian Buddhists; puzzled by the Ceylonese attitude to land tenure the English in Ceylon, among them the Rhys Davids, turned to their religious books for an answer; the French did exceptionally fine work through the Ecole Frangaise d’Extreme Orient which was based on Saigon; lately even the Americans had attached to their Army a school of Oriental languages which first trained many of the Orientalists now at work in American universities, whose graduate students live on grants from the N(ational) D(efence) E(xpense) A(ccount), and who are heavily subsidized by CIA, FBI and the large Foundations. But this was not all. Just as Buddhism proved to be the most 4

Jaspers Karl (1883-1969), trieát gia ngöôøi Ñöùc. Ludwig Josef Johann Wittgenstein (1889-1951), trieát gia ngöôøi Anh goác AÙo. 3 Martin Heidegger (1889-1976), trieát gia ngöôøi Ñöùc.

Theo thôøi ñieåm taùi baûn saùch naøy, taùc giaû ñaõ tính töø naêm 1978. EÙcole Française d’Extreme Orient 6 Nguyeân taùc ghi laø National Defence Expense Account (NDEA). Chuùng toâi ngôø laø National Defence Education Act (NDEA), moät ñaïo luaät ban haønh naêm 1958 cuûa Hoa Kyø, coù lieân quan ñeán vaán ñeà ñang ñeà caäp.

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Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

quan taâm hôn ôû chaâu AÂu. Khoâng moät toân giaùo naøo khaùc coù theå thu huùt ñöôïc moät soá löôïng khoång loà caùc taøi naêng hoïc thuaät ñeán nhö vaäy. Khoâng chæ laø caùc nhaø ngoân ngöõ hoïc haøng ñaàu bò loâi cuoán vaøo nhöõng loaïi ngoân ngöõ, thöôøng laø raát khoù hieåu, maø Phaät giaùo söû duïng ñeå trình baøy, maø caû nhöõng trí hueä baäc thaày cuõng phaûi heát söùc taäp trung vaøo vieäc dieãn dòch söï tinh teá vaø thoâng tueä trong tö töôûng Phaät giaùo. Phaûi maát moät thôøi gian daøi ñeå coù theå hieåu heát ñöôïc caùch suy nghó cuûa tín ñoà Phaät giaùo, hay thaäm chí chæ ñeå hieåu ñöôïc nhöõng thuaät ngöõ maø hoï duøng. Ban ñaàu, ngöôøi chaâu AÂu xuaát phaùt töø vò trí töông töï nhö caùc nhaø nghieân cöùu Ai Caäp coå ñaïi, vôùi taát caû giaùo só ñeàu ñaõ cheát, buoäc phaûi suy ñoaùn böøa baõi vaø loay hoay ñeå giaûm thieåu nhöõng gì maø ñoái vôùi ngöôøi Ai Caäp laø nhöõng thaønh quaû trí hueä cao nhaát trôû thaønh moät môù hoãn ñoän phi lyù. Söï vieäc giôø ñaây cuõng töông töï vôùi nhöõng ngöôøi phieân dòch ñaàu tieân – caùc vieân toaøn quyeàn, caùc nhaø truyeàn giaùo, caùc vieân chöùc quaân söï vaø caùc nhaø quaûn lyù taøi chaùnh. Vôùi hoï, Phaät giaùo döôøng nhö laø moät söï voâ nghóa ñeán phi lyù. Dó nhieân cuõng coù moät vaøi ngoaïi leä, nhö tröôøng hôïp cuûa R. C. Childers (khoaûng naêm 1870) laø moät. Vaø noi theo daáu chaân oâng, sau moät thôøi gian thì nhöõng keû chinh phuïc chaâu AÙ ngaïo ngheã kia ñaõ phaûi cuùi xuoáng vaø coá tìm hoïc veà Phaät giaùo töø nhöõng taêng só coøn soáng soùt ôû Nhaät Baûn, Tích Lan vaø Siberia. Cho ñeán thaäp kyû 1930 thì moïi vieäc taïm oån, vaø ngöôøi phöông Taây giôø ñaây coù theå phaàn naøo töï tin trong vieäc naém baét nhöõng yù nghóa tinh thaàn maø caùc caùc giaû Phaät giaùo muoán truyeàn ñaït. 3. Töø ñænh cao thöôïng taàng trieát lyù, thaáp daàn xuoáng trieàn nuùi hoïc thuaät, vaø giôø ñaây chuùng ta xuoáng ñeán vuøng ñoàng baèng vôùi Phaät giaùo nhö moät toân giaùo phoå caäp cho moïi ngöôøi. Caùc toå chöùc Phaät giaùo ñaõ hình thaønh nhanh choùng trong khoaûng gaàn 80 naêm qua, chuû yeáu laø ôû caùc nöôùc theo ñaïo Tin Laønh. ÔÛ ñoù, hoï thaønh laäp moät trong nhöõng chi phaùi nhoû hôn khoâng theo toân giaùo chính.1 Hoï coá vöôït qua loøng baùc aùi cuûa Chuùa vôùi taâm töø bi cuûa Phaät voán oân hoøa 340

exportable form of Indian culture, so no form of Asian thinking has evoked more interest in Europe. No other religion has attracted such a galaxy of scholarly talent, not only first-class philologists drawn to the often difficult languages in which the Buddhists expressed themselves, but first-class minds bent on interpreting the subtleties and profundities of Buddhist thought. It took a long time to get to the bottom of Buddhist thinking or to even understand the terminology they employed. At first we were in the position of Egyptologists who, with all the priests dead, have to guess wildly and who have managed to reduce to a farrago of absurdities what to the best Greeks was the highest wisdom. Likewise to the first interpreters - proconsuls, missionaries, military men and financial administrators - the Buddhist religion seemed to be ludicrous nonsense. There were a few exceptions, of course, like R. C. Childers (c. 1870), and, following in his footsteps, after a time the proud conquerors of Asia unbent and tried to learn from Buddhist monks who survived in Japan, Ceylon and Siberia. By the 1930s things began to fall into shape, and we can now be fairly confident to catch the spiritual meaning which the Buddhist authors wished to convey. 3. From the stratospheric heights of philosophy and the mountainous terrain of scholarship we now descend to the lowflying flatlands of popular sectarian Buddhism. Buddhist societies have sprung up for nearly eighty years, chiefly in Protestant countries. There they form one of the smaller Nonconformist sects. They try to outshine active Christian Love with their more non-violent Mettd, to determine the meaning of the Holy 1

Nghóa laø khoâng theo ñaïo Tin Laønh.

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Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

hôn, coá xaùc ñònh yù nghóa cuûa kinh ñieån töø nhöõng baûn dòch Anh ngöõ thöôøng laø khoâng chính xaùc maø laïi khoâng duøng nhieàu ñeán nguyeân baûn, vaø coá ñöa theâm pheùp thieàn ñònh vôùi nhöõng söùc haáp daãn xa laï vaøo trong soá nhöõng vieäc thieän, moät cuoäc soáng khoâng loãi laàm vaø söï pheâ phaùn khoâng ngöøng cuûa haøng trí giaû. Trong voøng 20 naêm qua, caùc nhoùm naøy vaø nhöõng cuoäc hoïp maët trao ñoåi cuûa hoï ñaõ nhanh choùng gia taêng veà soá löôïng vaø söùc maïnh taøi chaùnh. Ban ñaàu, hoï khôi nguoàn cho nhöõng hoaït ñoäng cuûa mình haàu nhö chæ hoaøn toaøn töø nhöõng gì hoïc ñöôïc trong caùc kinh ñieån baèng tieáng Pāli. Nhö nhöõng tín ñoà Tin Laønh thuaàn thaønh, hoï tin raèng ñaây laø moät kieåu Phuùc AÂm nguyeân thuûy – giaùo phaùp cuûa ñöùc Phaät trong söï thuaàn khieát hoaøn toaøn. Vaø roài sau ñoù, nhöõng aán baûn ñaày aán töôïng tuyeät vôøi cuûa Daisetz Teitaro Suzuki vaøo thaäp kyû 1930 ñaõ khôi daäy moät cao traøo cuûa nhöõng gì ñöôïc töï moâ taû laø Zen (Thieàn hoïc). Conze vaø moät soá taùc giaû khaùc cung caáp theâm nhöõng kieán thöùc ñaày ñuû hôn veà kinh Baùt-nhaõ Ba-la-maät-ña vaø caùc kinh vaên Ñaïi thöøa khaùc cuûa giai ñoaïn ñaàu. Vaø töø naêm 1950, ñaõ coù nhieàu noã löïc ñeå ñöa theâm moät soá kinh ñieån Tan-tra vaøo. ÔÛ Hoa Kyø, cuøng vôùi nhöõng nhoùm Phaät giaùo coù toå chöùc, moät soá caù nhaân taøi naêng nhö Alan Watts vaø Gary Snyder ñaõ gieo raéc khaép nôi raát nhieàu yù töôûng môùi laï, nhö nhöõng haït gioáng ñöôïc tung veà moïi höôùng. Vaø ñeán thaäp kyû 1960, hoï taïo ñöôïc moät soá aûnh höôûng ñoái vôùi loái soáng “phaûn vaên hoùa” voán laø heä quaû keùo daøi cuûa söï choáng ñoái laïi aùp löïc töø moät xaõ hoäi tieâu thuï coâng ngheä vaø noãi kinh hoaøng tröôùc cuoäc chieán tranh ôû Vieät Nam. Tuy nhieân, noùi chung thì nhöõng tín ñoà Phaät giaùo thöôøng chæ soáng trong coäng ñoàng cuûa mình vaø coù raát ít aûnh höôûng ñoái vôùi theá giôùi beân ngoaøi. Hieän nay, khoâng ai coù theå öôùc ñoaùn ñöôïc nhöõng tieàm naêng cuûa hoï. Moïi thöù lieân quan ñeán hoï ñeàu khoù hieåu – cho duø ñoù laø soá löôïng tín ñoà, laø naêng löïc taøi chaùnh, nguoàn goác xaõ hoäi cuûa caùc thaønh vieân, nhöõng ñoäng löïc, söï tröôûng thaønh veà taâm linh, quan ñieåm veà giaùo lyù, hay möùc ñoä aûnh höôûng... Vaäy thì taïi sao laïi phaûi döï ñoaùn chuyeän töông lai? Tinh thaàn baát vuï lôïi vaø söï queân mình ñaõ töøng laø nhöõng vuõ khí coâng 342

Scriptures from often inaccurate English translations without much recourse to the originals, and to add meditation and some exotic glamour to good works, a blameless life and a ceaseless denigration of the intellect. Over the last twenty years these groups and conventicles have rapidly grown in numbers and financial weight. At first they took their inspiration almost exclusively from what they could learn about the Pali scriptures which, as good Protestants, they believed to be the original Gospel, the Buddha-dhamma in its pristine purity; then, in the wake of the magnificent publications of Daisetz Taitaro Suzuki in the thirties, there has been a flood of what describes itself as “Zen”; Conze and others added a fuller knowledge of the Prajnaparamita and other early Mahāyāna texts; and since 1950 there have been many attempts to add also some Tantra to the mixture. In America side by side with the organized Buddhist groups a few gifted individuals, like Alan Watts and Gary Snyder, liberally scattered a variety of unco-ordinated ideas like seed-pods in all directions. In the sixties they had some influence on the “counter culture” which fed on the revulsion against the strains of a technological consumer society and the horrors of the war in Vietnam. Generally speaking, however, sectarian Buddhists keep themselves to themselves and have little impact on the world in general. No one can at present estimate their potentialities. Everything about them is obscure - whether it be their numbers, their financial resources, the social origin of their members, their motivation, their spiritual maturity, their doctrinal stance or the range of their influence. So why pry into the future? Disinterestedness and self-effacement have been the most effective weapons of the Buddhists in 343

Löôïc söû Phaät giaùo

A short history of Buddhism

hieäu nhaát cuûa tín ñoà Phaät giaùo trong quaù khöù. Neáu giôø ñaây hoï laïi baét ñaàu lo laéng veà vieäc lieäu caùc toå chöùc Phaät giaùo coù toàn taïi noåi trong theá giôùi phöông Taây hay khoâng, hoï seõ khoâng coøn giöõ ñuùng theo ñöôïc nhöõng gì maø caùc baäc tieàn boái tinh thaàn cuûa hoï ñaõ vaïch ra.

the past. They would sadly depart from the outlook of their spiritual forebears if now they were to start worrying about whether Buddhist institutions can maintain a foothold in our present world.

Khi ñöôïc hoûi raèng: “Laøm theá naøo ñeå moät gioït nöôùc coù theå chaúng bao giôø khoâ ñi?” Ñöùc Phaät ñaõ traû lôøi: “Haõy cho noù vaøo bieån caû.” Chính vì nhöõng phaùt ngoân saâu saéc theo caùch nhö theá naøy maø ngaøi ñaõ ñöôïc toân xöng laø Ñaáng Giaùc Ngoä.

When asked “how a drop of water could be prevented from ever drying up”, the Buddha replied, “by throwing it into the sea”. It is for sayings such as this that he has been revered as the Enlightened One.

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