Cow signals seasonal calving by Roodbont Publishers

When observing cows it is important not to jump to conclusions immediately, but always to ask yourself three questions: What do I see? Why has this happened? What does this mean? What signals can you get from rumen, gut and body condition? They give you specific information on the feed intake of respectively today, last week and last month.

In seasonal calving systems cows utilize grass in a simple and low cost way. But this also requires special management. You have to focus on other issues than in farming systems where the cows are housed at least part of the day. Fertility management, feed availability, water supply, cow monitoring are very different. But also herding requires specific skill and special attention has to be given to cow tracks.

If you know what to look for, you can pick up the signals everywhere and any time. Cow Signals will show you how.

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Edition seasonal calving & grass based dairy farming A practical guide for dairy farm management

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Dutch vet and cow enthusiast Jan Hulsen has drawn on his expertise and wide experience to write Cow Signals: a richly illustrated farmerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s guide on how to interpret the behaviour, posture and physical characteristics of groups of cows and individual animals.

SIGNALS

Edition seasonal calving & grass based dairy farming

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d ai ry f a r me r i s ho w to i nte r pre t these signals and use them. '

Cow

Cow SIGNALS

w ell- b e in g , nutr i ti o n, a nd production. The challenge for the

Cow

S IGNALS

Edition seasonal calving & grass based dairy farming

A practical guide for dairy farm management

Jan Hulsen

'Co w s s e n d o ut s i g na l s c o nti nuously about their health,

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Cow

S IGNALS

Edition seasonal calving & grass based dairy farming

A practical guide for dairy farm management

Jan Hulsen

Special thanks to Neil Anderson, Sarah Baillie, Gerrit Hooijer, Paul Hulsen, Martin Kavanagh, Aart de Kruif, Dick de Lange, Marloes Leveling, Jos Noordhuizen, OMAFRA, Kees Peeters, QMPS, Nick Reynolds, Jack Rodenburg, Thomas Schonewille, Bill Tranter, Joe and Narelle Tranter, Terry Tranter, and numerous dairy farmers, veterinarians, farm advisors, and agricultural extensionists in many countries of the world.

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Cow Signals Edition seasonal calving & grass based dairy farming Author Jan Hulsen, Vetvice® Group

Photography Cover: Marcel Bekken All other pictures: Jan Hulsen (unless stated otherwise)

Illustrations Marleen Felius, Trudy Michiels, Herman Roozen and Dick Rietveld Design and layout Erik de Bruin and Dick Rietveld, Varwig Design

With contributions from • Andrea Murphy PGG Wrightson Technical Specialist - Animal Nutrition • Nadine Huitema, PGG Wrightston Technical Specialist - Animal Nutrition • Marloes Levelink, www.cows101.co.nz • DairyNZ • Neil Chesterton, www.lamecow.co.nz • Sue Macky Dairy Production Systems • Charlotte Westwood PGG Wrightston Seeds • Jackie Aveling, Ballance • Bas Schouten • Dirk Zaaijer (Future Fe rtility Systems, NL) • Joost de Veer (InterAct, NL) • Menno Holzhauer (GD, NL) • Otlis Sampimon (GD, NL) • Joep Driessen (Vetvice, NL) • Nico Vreeburg (Vetvice, NL) • Bertjan Westerlaan (Vetvice, NL) • Jan Rietjens (PTC+, NL)

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4 4

3 Seasonal Grazing Average and variation Selective eaters Be careful with lush grass Quick scan feed intake Risk periods are critical Body condition and cycling Body Condition Score (BCS) DairyNZ Body Condition Scoring Body Condition Gain decisions Body Condition Score Targets 'Hands on' condition scoring Dry period The transition period Around calving

36 41 41 42 43 44 45 47 48 49 49 50 52 53 55

6 The milking shed Learning to see more Behaviour entering the shed Behaviour leaving the shed Stress-free herding in six steps Driving cattle in a stress-free way Peace and quiet during milking Behaviour during milking Rumen fill in milking shed Cleanliness and hygiene Hocks Hooves Evaluating milk Teat health Teat score Robotic milking Know yourself

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Introduction Learning to observe purposefully A book on observing

1 Observing purposefully

From large to small Evaluating cow signals Look and compare Risk groups Indicator animals Risky locations Times of risk Intention movements Unexplained Notable Observations (UNO) Anatomy of a cow The skeleton Health: how do you assess this? Disease and discomfort: how do you assess this? Health and Welfare Checklist Sickness and Distress Checklist

6 8 9 10 12 12 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23

2 In the paddock and on the race 24

Health, standard values and risks 24 The ultimate grazer 25 The pasture 26 A cowâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s senses 27 Group behaviour 28 Heat (oestrus) 30 Attention to cow comfort 31 Water 32 Hoof health 33 The major types of lameness in New Zealand and their prevention 36 Lameness scoring 38

4 Housing and barns

Use a critical eye Differences between animals Space and social order Risk locations Light and climate Floors Success factors for hoof health in barns Cleanliness scoring Lying down and getting up The need to lie down Stalls Bedded packs

5 While eating and digesting

56 57 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 65 69

70 Rumen score: intake and digestion 72 Manure 74 Manure Score A 75 Manure Score B 76 Feeding the lactating cow 77 On the feed pad 79 In-shed feeding 80 Water 81 Risk groups 82

7 Calves and young stock Manage risk periods Monitoring performance The first days of life Changes Young calf health signals Heifer Learning Raising young stock

78 85 86 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 100 101 102 103 104 105 106

Postface: Looking and understanding

107

Index

108

Contents

The modern dairy farmer is hard working and needs to know a tremendous amount of information. These days there is an increasing volume of information: about animal husbandry, pasture management, the environment and running the farming business. There is so much to know that sometimes it is difficult to see the forest for the trees! With the expansion of farming enterprises, workloads, and the need for detailed knowledge, dairy farmers and their advisors could find themselves in the situation where they are losing sight of the cows. Remember, dairy farming is about the cows. A cow gives out signals about her well-being and health. She does this through behaviour, posture, and physical traits. You can make use of these cow signals to optimise your farm’s profitability. The first step involves

careful observation, followed by searching for causes, and then translating what you learn into practical solutions. You should be asking yourself certain questions over and over again: l What do I see? l How did this happen? l What does this mean?

losses, and improve the production of the cow.” This question actually touches on the issues that are fundamental to Cow Signals. The challenge is to pick up as many signs as possible before real problems occur, to evaluate risks before they claim victims, and to notice symptoms before the disease fully shows itself. Another reason to look more purposefully at cow signals is the danger of ‘farm blindness’: thinking that what you see every day on your farm is normal. This is a potential danger for everyone and means that there is a risk that you fail to notice what is happening around you. Making a point of including specific observation times in your daily routine, discussing matters critically with colleagues and advisors, and visiting other farms, all help to reduce this risk.

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Introduction

Learning to observe purposefully This practical guide was compiled for and with dairy farmers along with veterinarians and nutritionists to provide farmers with additional tools for observing and using cow signals. Our goal is to prevent diseases, improve cow comfort and optimise production. “How can I tell a couple of days before a cow becomes sick that something is already wrong?” a dairy farmer asked me recently. “That way, I would be able to save on vet bills, prevent production

Introduction

viewpoints (sometimes literally). In the paddock cows will show signals relating to feed intake, on the races you can evaluate locomotion, in the milking shed you can see all four legs in detail. When picking up feet the sole provides additional information. The format of Cow Signals will encourage you to ‘graze’ through the book more than once. As a result, every time you pick up the book you will find something new and interesting. The text can be searched easily using the index at the back.

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A book on observing Cow Signals is not a textbook. It’s about observing and evaluating. Therefore, there are more than 250 pictures and illustrations that clearly show the observations that can be made about cows. Looking at the examples and working through the picture puzzles will help you to start looking at your own cows from a new perspective. Ultimately you will look at the farm and your management through the eyes of a cow. When writing this book, we made a conscious decision not to approach the subject by focusing on individual aspects of farm enterprises, disciplines, or the anatomy of the cow. So, you won’t find chapters about milk production, housing or lameness. The book focuses on both the place where you make the observations and the reason why you are looking. Lameness, for example, will be mentioned in various places, but from different

Wishing you pleasant reading and viewing. Jan Hulsen, author, veterinarian, and cow person

‘Not know ing some t h in g happens to anyon e .

But not seeing some t h in g that is stupid’

A farmer

CHAPTER 1

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Observing purposefully

Set aside time each day to carefully observe your animals.

Aim to observe and note everything that you can about a cow, a calf, a bull, or a group of cattle. Try to pick up the signals that cows are giving out all the time; that is the challenge of cow-

focused management. Then use the information

you gather to improve and maintain the health,

welfare, and productivity of your herd â&#x20AC;&#x201C; that will pay!

In order to understand why a cow behaves in a particular way, you should consider literally getting under her skin. However, as this is not possible, you have to make sure that you notice all of the signals given out by the cow. Cow signals provide important information for farm management. Observing and looking are not the same. You can look at something without really noticing anything. Observing purposefully provides information that can directly improve management.

Observing purposefully can be done in two ways:

1. Focused observation You are looking for things to evaluate. Is everything as it should be or are there situations present that might pose a potential risk? 2. Open-minded observation Forget about any excuses and preconceived ideas you might have, and look around as if you were viewing the situation for the very first time.

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When making your observations, always ask the following questions:

those that can be changed. Clearly, the measurements chosen will vary depending on the particular situation.

What do I see? Describe the situation objectively. How did this happen? Try to identify the cause.

What does this mean? a. Is this a signal from a single animal or are more animals involved (group signal)? b. Is this acceptable or do I need to take action?

When evaluating â&#x20AC;&#x153;Is this normal or do I need to take action?â&#x20AC;?, you compare the observation with a standard. In this book, we present these standards as cow signals, since they provide measurable parameters for our goal: a comfortable, healthy, and productive cow. In our daily lives, many standards are expressed as measurable units, such as square meters (for the size of a break), and kilograms (dry matter intake). These are derived standards because they provide information about the means and not the goal. For this reason, the standards should always be a matter for discussion. In practice, the measurements that we choose depend on our own situation. You only need to select the most relevant ones and

Observing purposefully

Asking questions

1. What do I see? A calf sucking another calf. 2. How does this happen? The calf has a behavioural need to suck and satisfies this desire, nearly always choosing the same calf. 3. What does this mean? The teats of the calf being sucked can become injured and therefore susceptible to infections or growths. The solution: Separate the calf doing the sucking because it will just find another calf to suck.

1. What do I see? This manure is very watery, has gas bubbles (blue arrows) and yellow barley grain particles (orange arrows). 2. How does this happen? The gas bubbles come from fermentation of starch particles in the large intestine. The grain particles are not digested, so are wasted. Either the starch passes through the rumen too rapidly, the type of starch is not suited for rumen digestion (bypass) or the cow has eaten too much starch. 3. What does this mean? Find the most likely cause and act to improve it.

CHAPTER 2

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In the paddock and on the race

Pasture is the foundation of the NZ dairy system;

it always has been and it always will be. Watching cows in the paddock and on the race is the opti-

mal location to observe the natural behaviours of a cow. This is true for various aspects of social

behaviour, such as cows on heat, herd dynamics,

and establishing pecking order. The cow’s movement on pasture is natural.

It is easy for you, the farmer, to notice how the cow is feeling out in the paddock. Which cow signals can you observe when you take the time to look at the cows over the fence or when you walk among the herd?

Health, standard values and risks Managing cows in a pasture based system also presents several risks.

Consider intestinal and lung worms, disease transfer between neighbouring herds during ‘over the fence’ contact. Pregnant heifers and dry cows are at an even greater risk. The way a cow walks, her rumen fill and an animal standing alone all represent signals that could indicate that there is a need to keep a closer eye on individuals or groups of animals.

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Cows on pasture will spend up to 11 hours per day grazing and 7 hours ruminating. This only leaves 6 hours for walking to the shed, milking, sleeping and social behaviours. With this schedule, cows do not have time to wait.

In the paddock and on the race

The ultimate grazer Cows have evolved with an incredible ability to adapt their grazing behaviour to extract the most out of the pasture. Under set stocking conditions, cows will have three to five grazing events. The most intense grazing period will be at dusk, when the energy density in the plant is greatest.

During sunny, hot periods cows try to find shade to keep cool. During extreme weather, cows reduce their food intake considerably. Rumen fill then becomes an important cow signal to check.

Checks on pasture

When on pasture checks are invaluable. A number of traits require special attention. Hair colour, shine, abnormal behaviour and diarrhoea. Changes in behaviour are the first signs of disease, discomfort and pain. The animal is slow, has difficulty keeping up with the group, eats and drinks less or at different times, and separates itself from the herd. Rumen fill, abdominal fill, and condition score. These all provide information about feed intake over the last 24 hours, the last couple of days and recent weeks, respectively. Uniformity of the herd. Are there differences between cows? What are they? How did this happen? What does this mean?

Grazing behaviour. Grazing behaviour provides information about feed intake, risks from poisonous plants and internal parasites. Where and what are the animals eating? Specific checks for animals that are being grazed very extensively. Special attention is required when the cows late in pregnancy are approaching calving. Pay particular attention to dry matter intake during periods of reduced grass growth. The availability of total energy, protein, and minerals also requires consideration. Noteworthy observations. Make a point to watch for wounds and injuries, ticks, signs of fly irritation, itching, eye infections, mastitis and lameness.

This bull is itchy because of a lice infestation. He has scratched his ribs bare with his horns, and he has repeatedly licked his rump. 25

Social order Social order among cows can vary greatly in structure. If there is no competition for food or space, then the order will be simple and linear. For example, on pasture when there is plenty of grass. However, the more competition, the more complex the order and the more social conflicts.

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Group behaviour Every herd has a social structure. Most of the time, each animal is part of a group of ten to twelve animals. This group often contains animals that are of the same age and were reared together. This group is then part of a larger group of fifty to seventy cows. We think this is the maximum number of animals that a cow can remember. Herds of up to 260 cows can maintain a set social structure. Mob size over 400 cows increases tension and stress. In large herds, cows need space and time to find their social group.

➤

All intermediate forms are possible

➤

Threatening behaviour is a subtle means of confirming social order. Here, the cow on the right threatens the cow on the left, who then displays submissive behaviour.

Basing management on natural behaviour Some starting points for cow management: l all animals in a mob want to rest and to eat at the same time l cows can not see where they place their feet when they have their heads up l anxiety, pressure and abrupt movements create risks for foot problems: heads up, pushing, fleeing, backing up l anxious cows behave unpredictably and will want to flee l young animals learn from older cows l cows should get acquainted with new situations at their own pace For instance: let heifers quietly go through the milking shed with some older cows in the 2-3 weeks before calving.

Complex order (competitive environment)

➤

Cows match each other’s behaviour. They eat at the same time; they lie down at the same time. This is important for them.

Linear order (stable environment)

J K

Social order does not have to be linear. Very complex orders frequently exist in larger herds due to pressure from competition for food and space. Source: Cattle behaviour (Beilharz and Mylrea, 1963).

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Every animal has an imagined personal space or escape zone. Within this space, the cow will respond to an intruder either by escaping, socia lizing, or attacking. The size of this space varies. In an environment with little competition, cows are calm and have a small personal space. There is also a difference between breeds. When a cow encounters people or animals she doesn’t know, or mixes with horned cattle, she feels threatened and will adopt a larger escape zone. Stability is created through security and trust. Cows feel more secure if they know that there is plenty of food, where the escapes routes are, and have confidence in the behaviour of people. This explains why cows are anxious when on slippery surfaces, when very lame, or in the presence of unpredictable personnel. The more you are around the cows, the calmer they will be. You may be able to get closer to timid cattle by motorbike or tractor than on foot because you are perceived as less of a threat. Heifers are always more timid than mature cows. However, on account of their natural curiosity and after positive experiences, they become more confident.

Affection and fear Licking each other confirms a social bond but does not play a role in establishing order; neither does mooing. When mooing, an animal is trying to say, “Here I am”. This is important between a dam and a calf, for bulls, and for animals that are separated from their group. Cows also tend to moo when they are in heat and/or are hungry.

In the paddock and on the race

Establishing position Social order is about the right to exert social dominance: eating first when hungry, drinking first when thirsty, lying on the best spot. Apart from a cow’s character, ranking is determined by age, size and weight. Older cows are often at the top, while heifers start at the bottom. Dominant cows are usually surrounded by low ranking animals. Cows regularly compete to improve or maintain their position. Conflicts occur especially among animals that have virtually the same rank. When new animals are introduced, competition for position takes place and is often decided in the course of one day. Using subtle signals, cows continually reaffirm their position. A dominant cow can do this with the swing of her head, and the lower ranking animal then makes an evasive move. For smooth social interaction, sufficient space is necessary so that the animals can avoid each other and easily display their dominance or subjection.

An illustration of a cow’s personal space. As soon as someone enters the imaginary dark green space, the cow will attack or flee. Only trusted friends are allowed to enter.

Teach your cows to trust you by not hurting them and being clear in what you want them to do. You will get tame cows that show predictable behaviour.

CHAPTER 3

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Seasonal calving

Be prepared and think ahead. Has every cow eaten her allocated amount of grass? Is the amount allocated enough?

Seasonal calving cows utilise grass growth in a simple and low cost way. The idea is to calve a

herd at the beginning of the grass growing season and manage the herd as one group, using

the available grass to drive production. Within such a system, there will always be groups of

cows in the herd at risk of poor health, fertility and production. Identification of cow signals and acting upon those observations will help you make management decisions and keep ahead of problems. 40

Seasonal calving is about seamlessly managing the herd as one group through the calving season, peak production, the breeding season, late lactation and the dry period. In this system the focus of the management is on the average cow rather than the individual. But don’t forget the animals at the ends of the spectrum; the “at risk cows”. These animals are the first to tell you that you are pushing the limits. When they are doing well, all are doing well. When they have problems, you are losing time, money and cows.

Measuring the grass and calculating what the cows are eating, is an essential practice for successful grazing. Another essential chore is ensuring that every cow is eating what you think she is eating.

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DM/ha) cows intake may appear higher but as pasture covers increase, the fibre content increases, thus decreasing the amount of grass the cows can physically consume. At the same, time energy density is reduced. To optimise digestible energy intake target a pre-grazing cover of 2700-3000 kg DM/ha. Pasture with more energy and less fibre drives better milk production.

This healthy cow has shiny hair, well-filled rumen and belly, and a BCS of 4.5. The neck bump could be indicate the neck rail on the feed pad is too low and a damaged hock indicates uncomfortable stalls in the barn.

Photo: Mette Bouwman

What do you see? How does this happen?

Picture puzzle

Selective eaters Cows will graze selectively when they can. They avoid poorer and less palatable grass. They will avoid grass contaminated by mud or manure. Pushing cows to graze out pastures closely forces them to graze close to dung pats and muddy areas, restricting intakes of â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;at riskâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; cows and increasing the risk for all cows from parasites. Grazing the pastures too short also creates the risk of a reduction in the overall yield of pasture through the season. On longer grass (e.g. perennial ryegrass diploid pasture covers greater than 3000 kg

Seasonal calving

Average and variation Working with large herds means that most of the management practices are suitable for the average animal. Variation within the group creates animals that have special needs. The aim in seasonal herds is to have all the cows calving in a short period of time which requires that you do an excellent job at everything all the time. When you see variation in the herd, ask yourself what has caused it and what do you need to change to improve the management of these animals. Be prepared and think ahead.

On wet areas, areas the udders get dirtier, leading to an increased risk of mastitis. Also hooves get wet and softer, and are more prone to wear, bruising and infections. 41

'Hands on' condition scoring Long Ribs As BCS falls, long ribs gradually become more apparent. The last rib closest to the tail is the first to be seen and then more ribs appear toward the head as BCS falls shadow, cow colour and whether the cow is wet or dry can influence this observation. Can the ribs be easily seen and, if so, how many? If the long ribs cannot be seen from a distance can they be felt?

Short ribs The `short ribs' are not ribs, but part of the spine (transverse processes). As BCS falls, the ends become more pronounced and sharp to the touch. When the rumen is full, the `triangle' below the short ribs is filled on the animal's left-hand side, giving the impression of more condition than there actually is. Can the short ribs be easily felt? Are the ends sharp, smooth or rounded?

Hip Bones Sometimes referred to as “hooks” or “hook bones”. Are the hip bones angular and sharp or are they smooth and rounded?

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Back Bone When assessing the backbone, look at the ridge formed by the spine above the short ribs (loin). From the rear of the animal, is the backbone ridged and prominent or rounded and flat? From the side of the animal, are notches formed by the individual vertebrae visible or is the ridge of the back smooth?

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Tail head When assessing the tailhead, we are looking at the presence and depth of the hollows between the pin bones and the tail itself.

Tigh Best viewed from the side and rear of the animal, the thigh can be the hardest area to assess. As BCS increases, the areas below the rump and above the hocks fills out. Are they indented, flat or rounded?

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Pin bones The pin bones protrude either side of the tailhead and become rounded with fat deposits as BCS increases. Are there dimples/indents between the points of the pin bones? Are the pin bones angular or rounded?

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Seasonal calving

Rump The rump is the area between the hip bone and the pin bones. As BCS increases, this area fills from hollow to dished then flattened to bulging and â&#x20AC;&#x153;beefâ&#x20AC;? like. Is the area deeply sunken, hollow or flat?

Every cow must have unlimted access to water and a balanced, palatable ration throughout the day.

CHAPTER 5

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While eating and digesting

Cow nutrition focuses on achieving maximum dry matter intake and maintaining a healthy rumen.

A number of factors contribute to rumen health.

Nutritionists look at the ratio of energy to protein

and ensure that the ration contains sufficient fibre

and minerals. And when that is done correctly, we

need to remember to think of all the factors which impact the eating behaviour of the cow.

Feed budget information and calculated rations rarely correspond exactly to what the cow actually eats, due to factors such as cows not eating all the grass (incomplete utilization), cows that are different from the average of the herd (natural variation), and the need to make assumptions.Therefore feed budgets and ration checks act as a starting point, which needs to be verified and possibly modified on the farm.

Steps in the feeding process

Feed budget

Ration Calculation

Feeding

Intake

Digestion

The structure of this chapter follows this table

total number of disease and lameness cases l number of cows culled and the reason for culling l reproductive records such as the InCalf Fertility Focus Report (FFR)

Information derived from production data Milk production data provides valuable information about individual cows (herd testing) as well as by group (bulk milk). The standard values are impacted by the genetic potential of the herd as well as feed intake.

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When looking back, important cow signals include: l body condition score changes l annual, monthly and 10 day average production figures l incidence of metabolic diseases (retained placenta, milk fever, ketosis)

When assessing the current situation and making changes, the important cow signals are: l rumen fill (intake and passage) l daily milk production (intake; energy to protein ratio) l manure scores (intake; digestion) l wastage of grass in the paddock (intake) l sorting (selective feeding; uniformity of supplemental feeds and palatability) l cud chewing (intake) l locomotion score (hoof health)

The cows have finished their food. Have all of the animals had enough to eat and in the correct proportions? Should they be given more food now or later? Only with superb feed quality and availability, the cows can be held to -almost- clean the bunk.

Problem or risk Severe negative energy / Ketosis

Check point High fat tests in early lactation may mean cows are burning fat reserves at an accel- erated rate â&#x20AC;&#x201C; check for ketosis.

Acidosis

Low milk fat % may be an indicator to look for other signs of acidosis e.g. % Fat - % Protein < 0.4% or Protein: Fat ratio > 0.87.

Depressed milk protein

Protein:Fat ratio < 0.73 Are cows eating to their full intake potential? Are average. covers and residuals increasing? Is there enough energy for the rumen bugs?

While eating and digesting

When evaluating nutrition, health and production, you look to the past as well as the present with the goal of achieving even better results in the future. Information from the past helps you to learn and to understand the current situation. In addition, it can be used as the basis from which to set goals â&#x20AC;&#x201C; for example: "next year I want to produce 20 kg more milk solids per cow and reduce lameness by half". The cow signals you are picking up at the moment can be used to evaluate the current situation and to make healthy production a reality for the future.

Poorly grown heifers Poor 1st lactation heifer production; 6-week in-calf and empty rate below expectation Notes, action lists, and checklists are helpful in organizing farm and animal inspections.

Spoiling and heating reduce palatability, which in turn decreases intake. Good ration management begins with good quality feed. 71

Rumen score: intake and digestion

Score 2 The skin under the short ribs curves inwards. The skin fold from the hip bone runs diagonally forward towards the last rib. The rumen fossa behind the last rib is one hand width deep. Viewed from the side, this part of the flank has a triangular appearance. This score is often seen in the first week after calving. Later in lactation, this is a signal of insufficient feed intake or a rate of passage that is too high.

Score 1 A deep dip in the left flank. The skin under the short ribs curves inwards. The skin fold from the hip bone goes vertically downwards. The rumen fossa behind the last rib is more than one hand width deep. Viewed from the side, this part of the flank has a rectangular appearance. This cow has eaten little to nothing, which could be due to sudden illness, or insufficient or unpalatable food.

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The rumen score is an indication of the dry matter intake and the rate of passage over the last few hours. When standing on the left side behind the cow, in effect you are evaluating the rumen fill. The fill is based on a combination of the amount and type of feed consumed, the rate of digestion, and the rate of passage through the abomasum into the intestines. The rates of digestion and passage are impacted by the characteristics of the ration components (rapidly or slowly degradable in the rumen), the particle size, and the ratio of dietary components in the rumen.

Score 3 The skin under the short ribs curves vertically down for one hand width and then curves outwards. The skin fold from the hip bone is not visible. The rumen fossa behind the last rib is still just visible. This is the desired score for milk cows who have sufficient intake and the feed spends the correct amount of time in the rumen.

Source: D. Zaaijer, W.D.J. Kremer, J.P.T.M. Noordhuizen (2001)

Score 4 The skin under the short ribs curves outwards. Behind the last rib, there is no rumen fossa visible. This is the correct score for cows nearing the end of lactation and dry cows.

Score 5 The short ribs are not visible as the rumen is filled. The skin over the whole belly is quite tight. There is no visible transition between the flank and the ribs. This is the correct score for dry cows.

Bloat also creates a full rumen, resembling score 5 or more. Bloat is caused by gas in the rumen, trapped in foam. Because of the foam the cow is not able to burp the gas out.

Rumen fossa Last rib

Diaphragm

When to score?

if there is a reason; to train yourself; as part of your daily/weekly observations.

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Standing behind a cow that is at least 20 days into lactation, the abdomen should be visible on both the left and right sides, protruding past the thighs. That is not the case here. The rumen and intestines are empty; this cow has not eaten enough in the last few days, or there is not enough fibre in the ration. Her dirty rear end suggests very loose manure. Look for answers to the following questions: How did this happen? Is the food not palatable? Is this cow sick or seriously lame? Is she scared to eat? Or is there something else wrong?

While eating and digesting

What do you notice about the abdominal fill of this cow?

Stifle

The rumen is located on the left side of the cow against the body wall. A cow weighing 500 kg has a rumen volume of 150 - 200 L. Such a cow has a dry matter intake potential of 20 kg DM.

Picture puzzle

Hook bone/hip bone Short ribs

CHAPTER 6

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The milking shed

Plenty of light in the shed (minimum of 250 lux) provides a pleasant working environment and means you will be able to see everything clearly.

The cows enter the shed one by one. Then they stand for at least 5 minutes, during which you

can get a good view of the udder, belly and legs.

Before you put the cups on take a few seconds to

look at her purposefully. Then the cow is milked. How much does she give? As a daily routine,

milking provides many opportunities to watch for cow signals.

For many farmers, milking is the best part of the day. They enjoy the peace and quiet, as well as the close contact with the cows. Peace and quiet in the milking shed is a good sign. The animals are relaxed and therefore it is easier to notice whether they are healthy or showing signs of illness. Restlessness occurs when there is fear, pain or irritation. Milkers who are relaxed and â&#x20AC;&#x153;cow-focusedâ&#x20AC;? enhance the calmness of the cows. Often, they have a good feel for the cows,

and know a lot about many animals. However, not all farmers have this knack and, instead, they have to work hard to collect and remember the information. When several people are milking the cows, it is important that information, such as those cows that have been treated with antibiotics, is recorded and passed on effectively. Keep track of cows who may not be treated but should be identified for careful observation again at the next milking.

Is the milking shed comfortable and the milking calm?

Photos: Mette Bouwman

The left photo shows a shed where every cow has a feed trough and neck rail in the right position and the cows canâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t steal from each other. When the shed isnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t comfortable, the cows are reluctant to enter, will be restless during milking and may be hesitant to exit.

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Know your cows. This herd uses an automatic cow identification system. The cow behind the marked cow is number 103. Many farmers can recognise their cows just as quickly from their udders as from their heads or other markings.

The milking shed

Learning to see more Only when you take enough time, can you teach yourself to become aware of the things you are looking at. This is partiÂcularly true in the shed. You need to develop good routines. For example, routine evaluation forestripping, rumen fill, hocks and hooves. If the milker is relaxed, this will have a positive effect on the task. Ensure that there is good lighting, especially at the most important area: the bottom of the udder. A good milking shed should be warm in the winter and cool in the summer, free from draughts and flies, and provide a pleasant working environment.

and pain cause the stress hormone adrenalin to be released. This in turn inhibits the release of oxytocin, the hormone that makes a cow let down her milk. As well as causing milk let down and uterine contractions, oxy tocin also creates thirst. This explains why cows like to drink during and after milking, and after calving.

the highest point. Jumpy cows and sudden movements are the first signs that the animals are unsettled. Sharp protrusions, electric wires, and traffic jams at the exit, all act as obstacles. Avoid risks and remove any obstacles.

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Behaviour entering the shed The cows shouldn’t be nervous at milking time. Pay close attention to their behaviour: how keen are they to come in? If they are nervous, what is the cause? Is milking painful? Do they have an unpleasant experience in the shed? Or is the floor too slippery? Cows often enter the shed in the same order. This is a reflection of the social order in the herd. If a cow doesn’t enter in her normal position, then something unusual is probably going on. Rough handling while rounding cows up leads to conflicts and some cows having to take off abruptly. Cows will injure themselves and will have more hoof and leg problems. They will also be more anxious. Restlessness, fear

Behaviour leaving the shed Cows should be able to leave the shed quietly and in a relaxed manner. This means that they should not have to worry about slipping or being chased. Sharp bends and slippery floors are risk locations for cows and make them nervous. Cows also dislike steps. A slope (< 5%) is an acceptable alternative, with the milking area at

Most common problems with the collecting yards:

l l l l

l l l l l l

Where there are design problems it is still possible to achieve reasonable cow flow if the people understand where the problems are. Patience is the answer until the facility can be upgraded.

Cows need to get used to a footbath. They should go through it calmly so they don’t have a bad experience (slippery bottom, irritating solution in bath). The floor of the foot bath should be at the same height as the floor before and after it. In a well designed footbath, cows should have to take at least two steps in the bath and the coronary band should be submerged, even for the last cow going through it (approx. 3 m long and 15 cm deep).

the entrance is in the wrong place in relation to the bail entry the collecting yard is too small for the number of cows (≥1.5 sqm/cow) the concrete is silppery concrete slopes are too steep sideways slope of the concrete approaching the milking shed or on the exit sharp bends dark sheds stray electricity poor gate design - motorised backing gates that are too fast sharp turns at the exit from the bails pipework that will injure hips

Neil Chesterton (www.lamecow.co.nz) Photo: Neil Chesterton - www.lamecow.co.nz 86

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1. The cows walk at their own pace; no heads up

2. Routines: everything always happens in the same way

3. Wide tracks: dry and clean with no sharp edges or rocks

Let cows walk at their pace, which is slower than yours. Chasing cows only drives the cows directly in front of you, not the whole herd. Cows must hold their heads down to carefully place their feet. Heads up is a sign of stress and panic. The same goes for cows pushing other cows. When cows panic they fail to place their feet properly. They will have more hoof damage and bruising of the soles.

Every time cows are handled everything should happen in the same way and at the same time. Also different people need to behave the same way around the cows. Cows are creatures of habit. Allow a group of cows the time to develop good routines. After 2 weeks they know exactly what goes on and what to do, like walking into the milk shed.

Ensure that the tracks are wide enough and in excellent condition (5m minimum, + 0.5 m for every 100 cows over 150). Hard surfaces need attention every time the cows pass, to remove stones and keep them clean. Pay specific attention to risk areas such as entrances and the transition area between hard and soft surfaces. Rubber provides good grip and reduces hoof wear and bruising.

4. The herd should drift smoothly

5. Let the cows flow into and out of the shed and donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t go in between the cows

6. Calm people create calm cows

Use a backing gate to reduce space, not to push up cows. Milk at least 2 rows of cows before moving up the gate. Use an alarm sound when the gate moves and move the gate for no longer than 5 seconds at a time. Donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t use a gate with an electric shock! Don't step from the shed into the holding pen to gather cows. Cows will back up and push other cows aside. Walk around to the side of the holding pen.

Always be calm and predictable in your actions. Don't use a loud voice and don't use aggression. Breed from calm cows and bulls. Creating calm cows starts with intensive, predictable and effective contact with young calves. Spend time with them as they grow and go in amongst the young stock regularly to get them used to people.

Source: Dr. Neil Chesterton (www.lamecow.co.nz)

Gentle herding creates calm cows and less hoof problems. Calm cows are easier to handle and more predictable in their behaviour. The quality of the races and the herding should be good enough to prevent problems during long periods of rain when the herd is most at risk of getting foot problems. Hoof horn wears off faster when it is wet. Hooves wear more and are prone to bruising. Rain damages the integrity of the track and can cause more loose stones to appear.

A herd of cows should move as a stream. Ensure that this stream always flows smoothly forward, without hassle. Remove obstacles, disturbances, dead ends and objects that can scare the cows. In the yards, there needs to be enough space for the cows to walk from the back to the front through the herd. No heads up.

The milking shed

Stress-free herding in six steps

CHAPTER 7

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Calves and young stock

Heifer rearing is a process of care, and checking if you reach the right results at the right moments.

Producing heifers is producing the future of your dairy farm. This starts with a 4 month-period in

which calves are vulnerable and dependent. Then comes a long period in which young stock just

need to stay healthy, reach growth targets and get pregnant at the right time. The young stock signals tell you all you need to know. So know your checkpoints, check them at pre-set intervals and act effectively when indicated. 100

The key to raising excellent heifers with minimal problems and workload, is setting targets. Then you make a plan how to reach these targets, that you execute as planned. There should be no excuses accepted for not following the plan. For example, the young calves you check every day, but how often do you check young stock away grazing? Can you weigh them monthly?

Manage risk periods When you know and specify the risk periods, you can manage them. Success in heifer rearing also depends on reducing and managing risks. Examples of times of risk are birth and the first few days of life, but also disease outbreaks, moving, weaning, feed changes, mixing groups, drought, a different calf rearer, â&#x20AC;Ś.

Growth Chart for Heifers calving at 24 months of age 600

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For most breeds and farms, the following rules apply:

500

Kg Liveweight

2 months: 2x birth weight 6 months: 30% of mature weight puberty: 40-50% of mature weight mating (15 months): 60% of mature weight calving (24 months): 90% of mature weight

Calves and young stock

Monitoring performance On pre-set regular intervals, you measure how you and your heifers are performing. This means measuring growth, body condition, health and perhaps other aspects of the growing heifer. So at the end, you are sure you have reached your target: a healthy, welldevelopped heifer calving at the right date, and fully ready to start a successful career in the milking herd. This too you check! And when you have succeeded, be sure to celebrate with your calf rearer, grazier, and and your staff.

400 300 200 100 0

Age (months)

Source: DairyNZ

400 kg mature weight

450 kg mature weight

500 kg mature weight

550 kg mature weight

This graph compares weight with age for young stock. A single measurement determines whether growth is on track.

Bodyweight at 1st calving

birth weight

days to 1st calving

weight to grow:

growth/ day

400 450 500 550

30 33 36 40

720 720 720 720

370 417 464 510

0.514 0.579 0.644 0.708

As the growth chart above shows, in order to achieve target rates, calves and heifers need to grow more than 0.5 kg per day, every day.

This shed is a good working environment. The milk is pumped from the dairy shed to the calf rearing facility so the calf rearers only need to use hoses and not lift heavy buckets of milk. Gates swing both ways allowing for easy movement of calves. Races and floors are easily cleaned. Doors and windows open to adjust ventilation. Both the people and the calves are happy being here. 101

Photo: Marloes Leveling - www.cows101.co.nz

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The first days of life The first days in a calf pen are a challenging time for a new born calf. Make sure the calf gets sufficient, good quality colostrum: at least 10% of birth body weight within the first 12 hours (e.g. 3.5 l for a 35 kg calf). It is best to deliver the colostrum as soon as possible after birth (i.e. 4 hours). This, together with clean comfortable housing, is the key to success during the first month of life. The following signals are good indicators of the quality of the care of the newborn calves:

Check navels regularly, say every Monday and Thursday. The cord should be dry, soft, thin and not painful. The calf shows pain by kicking and struggling. Navel infections weaken and sicken calves. 102

Number of cases of diarrhoea Mortality rate (record age) Number of navel infections Growth and feed intake

During the transport, ensure that the newborn calves do not infect their navels or trample the navels of other calves. Use a cart with compartments and a thick dry layer of straw on the floor. And drive carefully, so you give the calves a stress-free ride.

Newborn calves are very vulnerable. Their challenge is to get eating and drinking, and to stay healthy. Group pens should be draft free and provide soft and dry resting place (1.5 sqm/calf), fresh water and feed for every calf.

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Times when the most common types of diarrhoea occur:

Clay-like manure caused by milk clotting in the rumen. Affected calves are thin, have a pot belly, and a dull coat.

Every calf must have it’s own teat. Distance between teats should equal the width of the calves just before weaning (28-30 cm). Compartments in the feeder reduce the possibility that strong calves drink part of the milk of weak calves.

Observations While you are feeding out it is important to observe the signals the calves are sending. Are they drinking as they should be? Are all well today? Will it be the same tomorrow?

E. coli: less than 5-7 days. Cryptosporidiosis: from 5-7 days on. Rota or Corona virus: 7-14 days. Nutritional diarrhoea (when milk ends up in the rumen): 2 weeks – weaning. Coccidiosis: 1 month of age on.

The esophageal groove ensures that milk goes directly into the abomasum and does not end up in the rumen. For it to function properly,suckling on a teat with the head up is the most important factor. Also the milk needs to be of good and constant quality, and a strict daily feeding routine should be followed.

Calves and young stock

Changes During times of risk, you should try to minimise the consequences for the animals. One way to do this is to make changes gradually, and not to combine changes such as weaning and moving out to the paddock; instead, spread them out. Changes take many forms: at a social level and in feeding, care, housing, and climate. The first change for a calf often involves moving pens or moving from the pens to an outdoor environment. After weaning, there is clearly a change in the calf’s life: no more milk. From this point on, the calf will move regularly and there will be many feed changes, and each change presents a risk.

103

Young calf health signals Use these checkpoints for your daily checks of every calf.

Head

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Good

Hair

Head up, ears up and eyes out.

Body

Flat, shiny, clean and clear

Back flat, belly filled.

Manure

Firm, formed and correct color.

Not good: action

Hair

Body

Manure

Head

Head down, ears down and eyes in. 104

Dull, dirty, hair up and discoloration.

Back arched, belly in.

Too thin and/or wrong colour: white, yellow, grey, blood.

The relative curiosity of cattle at different ages

What do you see?

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Notice the variation in size within this mob. To ensure the smaller calves get enough feed, it is important that there is enough space so all calves can eat the supplement at the same time. If not the weak ones will not eat enough, have poor growth and will not be big enough at calving.

Heifer Learning Rising 2 year old heifers (R2s) are a highly inquizative group.This creates an opportunity to work with their natural curiosity as they are introduced to the milking herd.We can start by giving them good teachers.Adult cows show the heifers how to behave and what to do.Put 1-2 adults per 25 heifers.These ‘matriarchs’ should be calm, social, and easily handled in the shed.

Relative curiosity level

80 60 40 20

0 Age groups

A B C D E

Younger

A= milk drinking calves B= weaned calves C= heifers D= fresh heifers E= mature cows

Older

Source: Murphey et al (1981)

From this graph it appears that heifers are the most eager to learn. Of all the age groups, they display the most inquisitive behaviour.

It is important to let the R2’s go through the shed in the two to three weeks leading up to calving. Let these heifers learn to walk on concrete in their own group, without pressure.The first time through the shed leave the gates all open so they can explore the space.The second time turn the milking machine on and close the backing gate.The third time, you can start gentle handling such as teat dipping.Bringing heifers into the shed pre-calving also creates an opportunity to safely introduce concentrates leading up to milking.Preparing heifers early makes the busy calving period far less stressful for everyone.

Water intake of a calf is 15% of the bodyweight daily. Which is 7.5 l for a 50 kg calf. The water should be easy to access, fresh and palatable.

Calves and young stock

Picture puzzle

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Raising young stock The aim of heifer raising is to produce an animal that is prepared for a long profitable life as a milking cow. Therefore, she must be mature enough when she calves. If she still needs to do a lot of growing in her first and second lactations, she may have a low social rank and produce less milk. A heifer should have grown her frame before entering the milking herd. For instance a Holstein heiferâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s height at the withers should not increase by more than 3 cm during this period. In addition, a heifer in her first lactation should be in good condition, and have strong hooves. At the beginning of lactation, the health of her hooves is under a lot of pressure. In order to build up resistance against pathogens in the herd, it is a good idea to let heifers have contact with manure from mature cows a few weeks before calving. This will also result in better colostrum with more farm specific antibodies.

106

Can you spot the heifers? They have their heads up, are positive and curious. They have been well grown and are the same height as the mature cows in the mob.

When heifers are away at grazing ensure they have access to plenty of clean, palatable water.

All yearlings must be able to eat at the same time. Check rumen fill and gut fill every time you move the wire. Monitor body condition every week. Increase the allowance of feed when some calves have poor rumen fill. When a group of calves starts losing body condition score, graze these as a separate group and consider supplementary feed options.

In order to develop a rumen with a large capacity, a heifer needs to consume plenty of forage. Palatability and availability of feed are therefore important. Manure as well as rumen and abdominal fill provide daily information about this.

Postface: Looking and understanding

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In this book we have discussed a number of issues that might have provided you with new insights. However, not every question has been answered. As well as providing answers, observing critically will also lead to new questions and insights. Here are a few more examples of â&#x20AC;&#x153;Oh, now that makes sense!â&#x20AC;?.

Cows waiting, what do you see? Very dirty legs and tails due to a dirty yard. One cow clearly shows the danger triangle: she didn't eat properly. Spot the sick cow.

Empty rumen, head down, ears hanging, little attention to the environment, hair standing upright. It is the black and white cow on the left.

Picture puzzle

This cow demonstrates excellent gut fill. The protruding apple shape on the left and pear shape on the right is a signal that she has eaten well over the past week(s). She has manure on her udder, caused by very loose manure. This can be an indicator that pasture protein levels are too high.

By contrast, this cow has a very low gut fill. Her udder is wider than her abdomen. A sure signal that she has not eaten well over the past week.

107

Roodbont Publishers

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Roodbont Publishers considers its core business to be supporting agriculturalists by providing the right information at the right time. Its mission is above all to contribute to the long term sustainability of farmers and their working environment. Agricultural publications from Roodbont Publications from Roodbont can be ordered from bookstores or direct from Roodbont by phone: + 31 (0)575 54 56 88, e-mail: info@roodbont.com or from the website: www.roodbont.com Many of our publications are available in several languages. You can order books in other languages from www.roodbont.com COW SIGNALS® SERIES COW SIGNALS

ROBOTIC MILKING ISBN 978-90-8740-043-9 52 pages, € 24.90

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ISBN 978-90-8740-103-0 86 pages, € 49.90

Health and Welfare Checkpoints Steady breathing

Alert, active attitude

• rapid and shallow: heat stress or pain. Sometimes at start of rumination period as well. • normal: 10 to 30 times a minute

• distracted attitude: indicates poor health, low energy status and possibly rumen acidosis

Full belly

• belly too empty: hasn’t eaten enough last week Take account of the size of the calf, if any.

Straight back

• arched back: painful hooves or physical wear and tear • injuries: usually bruising against cubicle partition

Good rumen fill

• too empty: hasn’t eaten enough today • no discernable layered structure (apple shape): not enough fibre in diet

Clear, bright eyes

• deep-set eyes: the cow is sick/dehydrated

OTHER EDITIONS

PIG SIGNALS ISBN 978-90-75280-77-7 96 pages, € 29.90

Optimum condition

• too thin: inadequate energy intake • too fat: excessive energy intake • normal: good flesh cover with a little fat Good condition leads to improved disease resistance, fertility and health around calving (pay attention to breed).

Correct temperature

Clean hindquarters

Soft, symmetrical udder

• hard: due to oedema around calving, or mastitis (painful) • enlarged quarter: active mastitis • shrunken quarter: previous mastitis

Undamaged hocks with full hair covering

• bare hocks: scraping on cubicle floor; lack of grip • thick hocks: lack of space, cubicle floor too hard • scabs: inflammation due to dirt or moisture

Strong rumination activity

• reduced chewing: diet lacks effective fibre • spitting out the cud: tooth problems, prickly bits in the feed • normal: 55 to 75 chews per cud

Flat but formed, smooth dung

Undamaged knees with full hair covering

• bare knees: scraping on ground when getting up • swollen knees: bruising when getting up, lack of space in cubicle

Sound, fully weight-bearing hooves

• tiptoeing, standing on tips of hooves • injured or swollen coronary band • eczema or scabs in interdigital space

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BUILDING FOR THE COW

• dung on both sides of rump: dung too thin • asymmetrical soiling: environment too dirty

Closed mouth

• some drooling: usually hunger • lot of drooling: swallowing problems or mouth pain • coughing: due to cold air, dust or disease

Glossy, intact coat

• dull coat: poor health or nutrition • skin injuries: cause and result of agitation and reduced disease resistance

Undamaged teats and teat tips

• long stems: insufficient rumination activity • not too loose or too firm, always relate with ration components (e.g. grazing) and lactation stage (e.g. dry vs peak lactation) Use the dung feedback to assess the diet: feeding methods, feed intake, digestion, water intake and health. Discuss with your nutritionist when the dung doesn’t seem optimal.

• trodden teats: too much agitation, cubicles too narrow or too slippery Check milking machine and technique (dynamic test) if you see: • calloused teat tips: incorrect action of milking machine • swelling, redness, tiny blood spots (also due to udder oedema)

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The Cow Signals® concept includes books, lectures, posters and other communication media. Cow Signals® presents practical information on animal-oriented cattle farming. Roodbont Publishers B.V. / Vetvice B.V.

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• too high (> 39.0°C): fever • too low (< 38.0°C): milk fever or serious illness • normal: between 38.0 and 38.5°C Take temperature rectally.

Clean nostrils

• mucus with pus/blood and skin injuries: skin of the nose inflamed due to virus or cold • clear mucus doesn’t tell you much

FROM CALF TO HEIFER ISBN 978-90-75280-95-1 40 pages, € 14.90

ISBN 978-90-8740-073-6 72 pages, € 24.90

POSTER COW SIGNALS

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ISBN 978-90-8740-020-0 48 pages, € 24.90

ISBN 978-90-8740-156-6 80 pages, € 29.90 FERTILITY ISBN 978-90-8740-026-2 44 pages, € 18.90

POULTRY SIGNALS ISBN 978-90-8740-079-8 112 pages, € 29.90

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If you know what to look for, you can pick up the signals everywhere and any time. Cow Signals will show you how.

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Edition seasonal calving & grass based dairy farming A practical guide for dairy farm management

D ri R nt A er FT na C lu O P se Y on ly

SIGNALS

Edition seasonal calving & grass based dairy farming

D ri R nt A er FT na C lu O P se Y on ly

d ai ry f a r me r i s ho w to i nte r pre t these signals and use them. '

Cow

Cow SIGNALS

w ell- b e in g , nutr i ti o n, a nd production. The challenge for the

Cow

S IGNALS

Edition seasonal calving & grass based dairy farming

A practical guide for dairy farm management

Jan Hulsen

'Co w s s e n d o ut s i g na l s c o nti nuously about their health,