Turkey Signals by Roodbont Publishers

Turkey Signals follows the cycle on a commercial turkey farm. The book describes how turkey focused management will improve production and welfare of the turkeys and thus the turkey farmer’s financial results.

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TURKEY SIGNALS yr

A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO TURKEY FOCUSED MANAGEMENT

Turkey Signals is part of the Poultry Signals series©. Poultry Signals presents practical knowledge of animal oriented poultry farming in an easy, accessible format.

Turkey Signals is a practical guide that shows you how to pick up the signals given by your animals at an early stage, how to interpret them and what action to take. This is a book with over 850 photographs and illustrations; a must-have for anyone involved in turkey farming.

Did you know that without your help, sick and weak day-old poults will almost certainly die. Place them in a sanitary box and mortality rates are reduced by 50%. Good care pays off!

A practical guide to turkey focused management

On a global scale, turkey production volumes are relatively stable. Efficiency improvement is the main challenge for every turkey farmer. This starts with reducing unnecessary losses. One dead turkey is a relatively high cost for a turkey farmer, compared to a broiler chicken. Turkeys live for longer, so its death after 20 weeks of feeding and care is a significant loss... Reducing mortality should therefore obtain your full attention. Average turkeys weigh twice as much as they did 75 years ago, in a much shorter production period. This means higher demands on farmer skills and more focus on stress reduction for the turkeys.

SIGNALS

o f y o u r flo ck. And t hi s st ar t s w i t h obser vat i on .’

TURKEY

TURKEY SIGNALS

‘ M a n a g e me n t is th e key t o mai nt ai ni ng t he heal t h

ISBN 978-90-8740-262-4

www.roodbont.com

9 789087 402624

Contents 1. Turkey history and market

Rodent control

Turkey meat

Rodent prevention and eradication

Global trends

Insect control

Wild turkey and heritage turkeys

Bird control

Cleaning and disinfection program

Turkey Signals

Cleaning the house

Signal turkeys

Drying the house

Farm blindness

5. Turkey house climate

2. The turkey

Microclimate

Anatomy

Floor temperature

Skeleton

Air temperature

The digestive tract

Relative humidity

Gut development

Comfortable climate

Plumage

Air quality

Rate of feathering

Ventilation system choice

Turkey physiology

Minimum ventilation

Airtight and well insulated houses

Negative pressure is the key

Air velocity and trajectory

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Breeding programs

Senses Natural behavior Eating behavior

Turkey curiosity

Possible air distribution scenarios

Interaction of temperature, RH and air velocity

Inlets

Heating systems

Indirect heaters (boilers)

Jet heaters

Cooling system

Commercial production systems

Lighting

Stocking density

30 6. Litter management

Litter storage

Walking behavior Roosting behavior Dust bathing, sunning and preening Bird handling procedures

Stampeding (piling up)

Handling turkeys

31 32

Litter on concrete floors

Egg transport and storage

Litter materials

Setting

Wood shavings

Candling and breakout

Straw

Hatching

Litter quality

Hatched poults harvesting

Litter management

Poult quality

Litter management during rearing

Abnormalities

Litter management in grow-out

Sexing

Beak treatment

7. Feed and water

Claw treatment

Phase feeding

Snood treatment

Adjusting the feeding program

Poult delivery

Transition from crumb to pellet

Feed structure

3. Hatchery and day-old poults

Alternative systems

4. Biosecurity for profit

Segregation: nutrients separate

Farm location

Turkey target weight and recovery

Farm entrance

Whole wheat

Equipment and materials

Feed safety

Vermin

Mycotoxins

Mold/mycotoxin risks on-farm

Temperature during grow-out

142

Nutritional disorders

Consequences of poor litter quality

143

Grit

Water in grow-out

145

100

Feeding in grow-out

146

Water quality characteristics

101

Behavior in grow-out

147

Biofilm development

102

Dealing with male aggression

149

Water sanitation: key for flock health

103

Preventing pecking â&#x20AC;&#x201C; enrichment

Adding sanitizers

104

Hens in grow-out: fat deposition

Flushing

104

Preparing for slaughter: feed withdrawal

152

Water quality testing

105

Careful catching and loading

153

Loading and transport

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Water

150 151

154

8. Brooding period

106

Arrival at the slaughterhouse

Heaters/brooders

107

Slaughter report information

Floor temperature

108

Preparing the bedding/litter

109

11. Gut health 160

Feeder and drinker requirements

110

Signals from droppings

161

Feed availability

110

Cecal function

161

Drinkers

111

Abnormal droppings

162

Pendulum drinkers with float ball

112

Abnormal cecal droppings

163

Poult transport

113

Stomach content

163

Culling day-old poults

114

Poult placement

115

Flip-overs

116

Recovery/sanitary pen

117

Maintaining an optimal climate

118

Litter quality during the first week

165

Coccidiosis

166

Characteristics of Eimeria species

167

Anticoccidial programs

168

119

Coccidiosis vaccination

169

120

Histomonosis (Blackhead)

170

121

9. Rearing period (weeks 2-5) 122

Hemorrhagic enteritis (HE)

171

Necrotic enteritis (NE)

172

Other gut infections

173

124

Feeder management

164

Infectious causes of wet droppings

Management â&#x20AC;&#x201C; the first week

156

Gut examination

Supplementary feeders

155

125

12. Health and disease 174

Prevention of manure in feeders

126

Diagnosis 176

Prevent water spillage

127

Classification of diseases

177

Clean and cool water

128

Leg problems

177

Protect equipment

129

Respiratory problems

181

Protect climate sensors

130

Sudden death and infectious diseases with high mortality 185

Keep feeders clean

Pecking 131 132

13. Vaccination 188

Preparing for transfer

133

Timing 189

Examples of loading/transferring equipment

134

Injection in the hatchery

190

Loading and unloading

135

Injection in the turkey house

191

Eye/nose drop vaccination

192

Transfer from brooding to grow-out

10. Grow-out (week 5 to slaughter)

136

Spray vaccination

193

Flock management

136

Spray vaccination in the hatchery

195

Monitoring growth and development

137

Drinking water vaccination

196

Sexing errors

138

Water vaccination and behavior

197

Bird inspection

139

Animals for potential culling

140

Euthanasia

141

Index 198

CHAPTER 1

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Turkey history and market

John James Audubon, around 1830.

Turkeys are grown commercially in most parts of the world and new turkey operations are being intro-

duced to countries without an established industry. The turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) was originally domesticated by the indigenous peoples of North America. The wild turkey contains 5 sub-species. Its territory included all of Mexico, except the extreme southern and western parts, and all over the

United States, south of the Great Lakes and from the Atlantic coast west to Arizona.

The wild turkey is a poor flyer but it can run very fast and once airborne, can soar for long distances. Settlers in North America consequently found them quite easy to shoot and decimated entire flocks. By 1900, only small populations of the once numerous flocks still existed. The domestication of the modern turkey owes much to European influence. It is thought that the first turkeys were brought to Europe by Spanish explorers early in the 16th century. A Yorkshireman, William Strickland, introduced the domesticated turkey to England. They soon

became the favored meat of royalty and nobility. The domesticated European turkey recrossed the Atlantic with the early European settlers. A further significant importation was that of a broad breasted strain brought in from England during the 1920’s. The North American turkey industry proceeded to develop much faster than that of Europe, which suffered shortages of feedstuffs during and after the Second World War. Since the 1960’s, there has been an interchange of genetic material and the genetic stock is now very similar on both sides of the Atlantic.

Turk ey S i gnal s

Turkey meat

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There is no religious taboo about turkey meat. In countries which do not normally eat pork meat, and where beef is very expensive, the turkey can be marketed heavy enough to produce joints which replicate those seen in beef and pork e.g. steaks, chops, mince and sausages. It is also seen as an alternative to the ever popular chicken. Turkey meat production compared to other species Turkey Hens

Turkey Toms

Pork

Beef

Slaughter age, days 36

105

140

173

540

FCR

1.68

2.55

2.53

2.87

7.60

Daily gain, g (oz)

67 (2)

100 (4)

150 (5)

584 (21)

760 (27)

Carcass yield, %

74.0

74.4

76.0

71.0

48.0

Greenhouse gas emissions, kg CO2/kg

4.4

4.2

4.5

12.1

27.0

Chicken

Parameter

Source: AGRIFOOD Strategies, 2015; Newcastle University, 2014

The turkey and Thanksgiving Thanksgiving is celebrated on the fourth Thursday of November in the United States. It originated as a harvest festival. For over 50 years, the National Turkey Federation has presented the President of the U.S. with a live turkey and two dressed turkeys in celebration of Thanksgiving. Harry Truman was the first president to receive this honor in 1947. Each year, the live turkey is ‘pardoned’ by the president.

The turkey can be grown and killed at a range of ages from 10 to 26 weeks resulting in a wide range of oven ready weights from 3-20 kg (7-44 lb). The breeds used for lower weights have very good breast conformation and have a smaller frame. For the heavier weights, faster growing, later maturing breeds are used. Heavy hens are killed at 15-16 weeks and toms at 20-21 weeks. The turkey is used as a festive meat in some countries. In the USA it is the main meat at Thanksgiving time. In the UK it is the meat of choice for Christmas. Because the breast meat is the most popular part of the turkey, a trade has developed in ‘turkey crowns’. A crown is the breast meat still attached to the breast bone. White meat (breast) is generally the most expensive part of the turkey carcass, though there are markets where red meat (thighs and drums) is the preferred cut (e.g. Israel, Turkey and Mexico). In the UK a specialty market exists at Christmas where the turkey is not eviscerated directly after killing but ‘hangs’ for a week or so similar to the technique used with game birds. This process supposedly makes the meat more tender and increases the flavor.

Turkey is included in the Top 10 foods which promote and maintain ocular health due to its rich zinc content and the B-vitamin niacin; this combination is known to combat cataracts.

1 . Tu r k e y h i s to ry an d m arket

President Harry S. Truman receiving a Thanksgiving turkey outside the White House.

Global trends

Emerging markets In the Middle East the demand for turkey products is increasing. Paired with a strong economy this means that prices are good and the industry is slowly growing. South-East Asia has tremendous potential, being 44% of the World’s population. Even a moderate increase of market share will trigger a significant boost of import volume. In these areas, turkey meat fits perfectly with the local tastes and cooking traditions, however, the low average income of the population still restrains an increase in consumption growth as seen in other markets. In some Chinese provinces there is a strong and growing demand for smoked shanks and wings, and the Indian market, with its ban on beef and otherwise limited pork consumption, is a market with huge future potential.

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The global demand for turkey meat has significant potential for growth. The current global turkey meat production of 5.6 million MT/year makes up only 5.2% of total poultry meat production. Historically the bulk of turkey production is located in two regions: North America (USA, Canada) and Europe. However, growing markets are increasingly becoming players; the most impressive growth has been seen in Russia and Spain. Over the last ten years production in Russia increased almost tenfold. This has raised them from the 9th to 6th position in the global turkey producers list. Consumption in Russia has increased from 0.4 kg to 1.7 kg (14 oz to 4 lb) per capita and is forecasted to reach 4 kg (9 lb) by 2026. The consumption in North America has been stable for several years at 7.7 to 8.0 kg (17 to 18 lb) per capita. The growth of turkey meat consumption is mainly due to: • Historical use of whole turkeys as a holiday meal in countries with highly developed economies. • Use of turkey meat in sausages, ham and delicacy products for retail and food services. • The increasing competitiveness of turkey, pricewise, compared to beef and pork. • Growth of the Muslim population in countries with an otherwise high pork consumption. • Increasing demand among the middle class for healthy products with low fat/high protein content.

Chicken

110 eggs per year

325 eggs per year

Turkey

Turkey eggs are full of nutrients and used to be a menu staple in North America. When Europeans brought turkeys back from America in the 16th century, turkey eggs became popular to eat. They are rarely consumed now, mainly because they are too expensive to produce compared to chicken eggs: it takes seven months for a turkey to start laying and she will only produce 110 eggs in one lay cycle (26 weeks of production).

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

USA

2834

2569

2560

2627

2707

2633

2611

2552

2713

2728

2650

Germany

436

438

478

467

464

458

469

465

487

465

468

100

129

145

162

179

332

380

Country

Poland

France

449

419

405

398

387

340

378

353

393

330

340

Italy

311

305

298

309

322

311

310

313

332

308

290

Russia

109

150

226

231

271

Spain

129

149

174

157

159

171

193

221

232

Brazil

465

466

337

305

442

364

372

327

367

390

181

Canada

180

166

158

159

161

168

171

183

171

168

135

157

162

171

196

187

172

181

169

171

157

The USA is the largest producer of turkey meat in the world. 8

Turk ey S i gnal s

Source: AGRIFOOD Strategies

Global turkey meat production, 2008-2018 (thousands of MT/year)

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Feather color Various sub-species of M. gallopavo carry different feather genes. The inheritance of feather color is a complicated subject. In the past, varieties of turkey were created, distinguished mainly by feather color.

Examples are Bronze, Norfolk Black, Bourbon Red, Slate and Buff. These and other varieties are being maintained by enthusiasts in both North America and Europe, particularly the UK. Exhibition competitions are held at agricultural events and specialist poultry shows. The original domesticated turkeys were colored bronze, the dominant feather color being black, with the tips of the feathers overlaid with iridescent red-green bronzing and some feathers having terminal edging and barring in white. Because of the difficulty in removing all the small developing black feathers, which then spoiled the appearance of the carcass, the white feathered turkey now completely dominates the industrial market. However, alternative premium markets have been developed using black or bronze feathered birds, using the colored feathers to identify them as having a traditional farm produced background.

The wild turkey (M. gallopavo) is indigenous to much of the eastern and southwestern US, northern Mexico, and southeastern Canada. The ocellated turkey (Agriocharis ocellata or Meleagris ocellata) is considerably different in size and coloration and thought to be a completely separate species. It is native to the Yucatรกn peninsula of Mexico. The ocellated turkey is more resistant to domestication than the gallopavo subspecies, but nevertheless Spanish explorers noted that it was among the turkeys kept in pens by the Aztecs. It is now rare in the wild but can be seen in some zoos around the world.

Wild turkey and heritage turkeys

A heritage turkey retains historic characteristics that are often no longer present in commercial turkeys. There is a lot of interest in heritage turkeys. More than ten different turkey breeds are classified as heritage turkeys, including the Auburn, Buff, Black, Bourbon Red, Narragansett, Royal Palm, Slate, Standard Bronze, and Midget White. These breeds are defined and recognized by the American Poultry Association in the Standard of Perfection. Heritage turkeys are said to be richer in flavor than the commercial breeds, but of course have a much slower growth rate.

Heritage turkeys

Black

Bourbon Red

White Holland

Broad Breasted Bronze

Narragansett

1 . Tu r k e y h i s to ry an d m arket

Source: WATT Global Media

Painters: A.O. Schilling: White Holland (1927), Black (1937), Broad Breasted Bronze (1943). L.A. Stahmer: Bourbon Red (year unknown), Narragansett (1930).

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The future of turkey breeding In evolutionary terms, the turkey is recently domesticated. Breeding programs have only been in existence for less than 100 years. With the new techniques now available, progress in reducing the cost of production should continue at a faster pace than will be achieved with other meat producing animals. Turkey meat consumption should therefore be expected to increase around the world in future years.

Genomics in turkey selection

The turkey genome project published the sequence of a hen named Nici in 2010. The turkey was the fifth farm animal to have its genome sequenced, following the pig, cow, sheep, and chicken. In a joint project between both turkey breeding companies and several universities and research institutes, over 5 million differences on the genome were identified between different individual turkeys. Breeding companies have implemented technology within their breeding programs to use a subset of these differences to quantify variation between breeder candidates and identify the turkeys with the best genetics in the most accurate way. This technology is used to improve traditional quantitative traits (e.g. body weight and feed conversion), but also allows implementation of difficult to measure or new selection traits (welfare, meat quality, behavior, robustness, disease resistance etc.) in the genetics program.

♂

After World War II, breeding companies aimed to develop bigger, more fertile and faster-growing turkeys. They were successful, perhaps too much so, as by the 1950’s, turkeys were becoming so big that the birds were having problems mating. The first response was to build little saddles for the hens. Eventually, artificial insemination techniques were developed. Without artificial insemination the modern turkey industry would be non-existent. The current breeding programs are based around breeding specialized lines selected for reproduction to provide the parent hens. These are then crossed with toms from lines which have been selected mainly for growth rate and breast conformation. In all lines, fitness, robustness and mobility are key traits for improvement because it is important for the birds to survive a full breeding season. The relative selection pressure on reproduction or growth rate differs for the various market segments that commercial turkeys are designed for. Female domestic turkeys are referred to as hens, and the chicks are called poults or turkeylings. In the United States, the males are referred to as toms or gobblers, while in the United Kingdom and Ireland, males are stags. In this book the terms hens, toms and poults are mainly used.

Breeding programs

♀

1 day

1 week

♂ 50 g/2 oz ♂ 180 g/7 oz ♀ 50 g/2 oz ♀ 170 g/6 oz 10

3 weeks

5 weeks

7 weeks

9 weeks

11 weeks

♂ 750 g/25 oz ♀ 650 g/23 oz

♂ 2 kg/4 lb ♀ 1.5 kg/3 lb

♂ 4 kg/9 lb ♀ 3 kg/7 lb

♂ 6 kg/14 lb ♀ 5 kg/11 lb

♂ 9 kg/20 lb ♀ 7 kg/15 lb

Turkey signals

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Look-Think-Act The red thread running through this book is ‘look, think, act’. Often turkey farmers are so involved in their business that they can’t see the forest for the trees. Open your mind to new things, be critical, and don’t be afraid to change your plans! In short, keep asking yourself: Is what I’m seeing normal or should it be different? Ask the following questions about everything you see: 1. What am I seeing, hearing, smelling, or feeling? What is my flock signaling? 2. Why is this happening? Is there an explanation? 3. What should I do? Can it wait or should I take immediate action?

♂

tions without distractions. The more active you are in the turkey house the more you disrupt the birds’ behavior, causing relevant signals to be lost. Make sure you pay attention to all the birds and all areas of the house. The sickly bird you overlook in the corner may be the clue to a disaster you could have avoided.

Your turkeys will tell you a great many things through the signals they send out in both their behavior and physical characteristics. This is precisely what Turkey Signals is all about. You want to identify irregularities as soon as possible in order to mitigate further problems, and where you can, recover from such issues. Turkey Signals is not a textbook full of tables, standards and guidelines. The main aim of this book is to attune you to the signals your birds are providing. There are two important things to remember: the turkey is always right, and the only one who can make decisions is yourself. This book is just an aid and everyone who has worked on it hopes that it will benefit your birds and help you understand what they are telling you. The book follows the operations on a turkey farm. You’ll pick up a lot of signals during the daily routine of feeding, removing dead and abnormal birds, and adding extra litter. But make sure you also leave some time to complete some inspec-

♀

13 weeks

15 weeks

17 weeks

19 weeks

21 weeks

♂ 12 kg/26 lb ♀ 9 kg/20 lb

♂ 14 kg/31 lb ♀ 10 kg/22 lb

♂ 17 kg/37 lb ♀ 12 kg/26 lb

20 kg/44 lb

23 kg/51 lb

Signal turkeys

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There will always be some vulnerable birds in a flock. They will be the first to suffer from disease, lack of water or other shortcomings. These are the signal birds, they are the first ones to tell you that something is wrong; pay attention to them, and you will be peering into your flockâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s future. Signal birds will also tell you if an infection is looming; catch them early and you can save yourself a lot of hardship.

Risk areas In every turkey house there are areas where you can expect problems. Places you know could pose a risk should be a permanent part of your daily inspections. Make improvements if there is something you can do to mitigate these risks. Examples of such places are corners, draughty areas, the litter under the drinkers and feeders, and so on.

Always walk quietly without scaring the birds.

Critical times There are certain times of the day, season or cycle that can be particularly risky. Feeding time is an example: are the feeders and the weigh scales working properly? But critical times can also be longer periods of time. Winter is a critical time as it is more difficult to keep the climate in the house and the litter in optimal condition. Moisture is harder to remove, leading to a whole host of issues. In the summer, heat stress lies in waiting. Be vigilant and you can beat the conditions.

Weak and sick birds often gather in corners of the house.

LOOK-THINK-ACT

What happened to this bird? Sometimes you see something that you canâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t easily explain. In this case a ruptured air sac in the body resulted in the air moving to other places under the skin. You can separate the bird, carefully puncture the skin with a needle and push the air out. If the bird is developing well - there is nothing wrong with keeping it in the flock till slaughter. If it is weak and retarded - cull it.

Turk ey S i gnal s

Farm blindness

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If you only look out for technical aspects (growth, feed and water consumption, etc.), you may miss other important signals from the turkeys and their living environment. Always use all your senses. Even before you enter the turkey house, you can hear if the birds sound different. When you go in, you’ll smell whether the climate in the house is OK or if there is a problem with the manure or the ventilation. Use your eyes and ears to see and hear how active the birds are and whether they are reacting less or differently to your arrival than usual. Also, use your senses to observe the temperature or presence of draft in the house. Every irregularity needs to be attended to.

Signs humans can’t see

How to observe turkeys in a structured way 1. Listen to the sounds inside the house before entering. 2. Smell the air in the house. 3. Watch the flock’s behavior, no matter what you are doing in the turkey house. 4. Dedicate some time every day for observation only. 5. Look at the whole flock, at the individual turkeys, and then back to the flock as a whole. 6. Have a walk routine. Start along the right wall, then return past feed line or drinkers, then return along another feed line and then back up the other wall of the house. 7. Pay particular attention to the appearance of droppings. 8. Look at different times and in different circumstances. 9. At regular intervals, stand still and get down to bird level. 10. Identify critical times, susceptible birds and risk areas. 11. Do not spend too much time in each location inside the house - avoid birds overcrowding around you.

Use all your senses

You can only recognize an irregularity if you know what is normal. You will learn what is normal by observing as often and as objectively as possible. But be aware of the dangers of farm blindness! Farm blindness is when you see the situation on your own farm as the norm; limit farm blindness by talking to colleagues and advisors, and by visiting other turkey premises.

Aids such as an infrared camera show what the human eye can’t see. This roof is not properly insulated. The blue parts are cold. Result: condensation forms, possibly dripping down onto the floor. Limit farm blindness by talking to colleagues and advisors. 1 . Tu r k e y h i s to ry an d m arket

CHAPTER 2

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The turkey

A turkey is not a BIG chicken. Chickens and turkeys display fundamental differences and these

predetermine the way they are fed and raised. If you have poultry farming experience and think you can simply switch from broilers to turkeys â&#x20AC;&#x201C; then thatâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s a worrying delusion! You will be surprised how different these species are, how much more attention and care turkeys require, and how stress

susceptible and unpredictable they can sometimes be.

The turkey has many characteristics that distinguish it from other fowl. The unmistakable snood, caruncles, head coloring and beard truly set it apart. As the turkey gets older and heavier the costs incurred increase. Therefore the economic risk of turkey farming towards the end of the production period increases. Understanding the turkey and its characteristics is important in order to know how to deal with them.

The snood is the most obvious difference between a turkey poult and broiler chick.

Turk ey S i gnal s

Anatomy 1 9 12

13 24

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9 3

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13.

Cranium Eye socket Nasal captivity Nostrils Cervical vertebrae Thoracic vertebrae Elbow Radius Metacarpus Ulna Humerus Pelvis Tailbone

10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18.

Major caruncles Tail Nostril Beak Breast Keel Hock joint Toe Toenail

19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25.

Foot Saddle Wingbow Back Shoulder Cape Ear

Head crown Eye Snood (dewbill) Wattle (dewlap) Minor caruncles Beard Spur Shank Neck

Skeleton

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

2. The turkey

12 13

14 15 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23.

Ischium Pubis Femur Tibiotarsus (Tibia+Fibula) Tarsometatarsus Knee joint Sternum Clavicle Coracoid Scapula

The digestive tract

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acids). The amount and type of motility stimulated by feed in the intestine varies depending upon the type of nutrients ingested. Thus, individual nutrients can have a major effect on gastrointestinal motility. Slowing contractile frequency or stimulating duodenal refluxes slows the passage rate. This exposes the intestinal contents for a longer period to gastric digestive enzymes. Fasting or darkness, also result in increased digestion. In nature, this would be beneficial when a bird is unable to find its feed (feed availability, darkness).

The roughage that the turkey eats is processed mechanically (gizzard) and chemically (proventriculus/small intestine) in the digestive system to break it down into small components. Unique to birds is the antiperistaltic action of the intestine. The antiperistalsis or duodenal reflux action of the poultry digestive system improves digestion. Gastrointestinal contractions (motility) move ingesta through the gastrointestinal tract, reduce the size of swallowed feed components and mix ingesta with digestive secretions (enzymes,

Ceca The ceca are two blind sacs at the junction between the small intestine and the colon. Together with the colon, the ceca act as sites for absorption of water and short chain fatty acids produced in microbial fermentation. They are emptied twice a day.

Beak and oral cavity Saliva in the oral cavity contains enzymes that trigger digestion and helps the feed travel onwards.

Crop Temporary storage that contains lactic acid-producing bacteria for initial fermentation of the feed.

Esophagus A flexible tube from the mouth to the gastrointestinal system.

Proventriculus In the proventriculus (glandular stomach) the feed is mixed with gastric acid and digestive juices in a low pH environment. The acid stomach contents kill a large number of harmful pathogens.

Gall bladder Excretes bile to the intestines, a dark green fluid that aids the digestion of fats in the small intestine.

Liver The liver is - amongst others - responsible for bile formation, the metabolism of carbohydrates, lipids and proteins, storage of glycogen, fat and fat-soluble vitamins and detoxification.

Gizzard In the gizzard (muscular stomach) the feed is ground up finely and further mixed with the gastric juices.

Small intestine In the first section (duodenum) the gizzard content is mixed with bile salts and digestive enzymes. The nutrients are absorbed by microvilli of the middle and final sections (jejunum and ileum).

Pancreas A very important organ that secretes enzymes for carbohydrates, fats and proteins digestion. The pancreas is attached to each side of the duodenal loop and lies between the two arms. Large intestine/Colon The turkeyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s large intestine is very short. Its only function is water absorption. Cloaca (vent) This is where the residual material from the digestive process is mixed with uric acid, which is the white fraction in the droppings.

Feces The feces consist of waste (dead intestinal cells and bacteria) and undigested feed, and are mixed with the uric acid in the cloaca. The main intestinal feces are a rounded, brown to grey mass topped with a cap of white uric acid. Cecal droppings look different: brown colored with a more homogeneous, more viscous consistency.

Turk ey S i gnal s

Natural barriers of the gastrointestinal tract food particles in digestive track bacteria

intestines

mucous membrane epithelial cells

bloodstream

tight junctions between epithelial cells

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lymphoid tissue

liver (blood filtration)

immune cells

intestinal tissue

lymphoid node

You have to realize that inside the gastrointestinal tract is in fact the outside world! The gut has 5 biological barriers for the bird’s protection against various negative influences. 1. competitive microbiota 2. mucous membrane with mucus producing goblet cells 3. tight junctions between cells 4. liver (blood filtration) 5. lymphoid tissue

Assessing the moisture content

Balance The balance of the microbiota in the gut can be affected by factors such as: • Periods of high challenge (e.g. feed change over and vaccination) • Feed (quality of raw materials, crude protein level, digestibility, presence of mycotoxins) • Poor hygienic conditions (environment, feed, water) • Microclimate (temperature, humidity, noxious gases) • Brooding conditions (starvation, stress) • Infections with viruses, bacteria, parasites

goblet cell

The young poult has not yet developed its own gut microbiota and picks up all kinds of bacteria, both good and bad. Pathogens are continually trying to gain access. If poults do not receive appropriate brooding management or feed intake does not increase at a normal rate, development will be impaired, resulting in a poorly functioning gut. Besides the feed, don’t underestimate the effect of stress on gut health. In nature, the poults obtain microbiota from the hen and her environment. The absence of the hen on a farm is a risk that is often underestimated. The balance of the poult is upset if it goes without feed and water for a longer period so this must be guarded against. Some people advocate probiotics from a day old (sprayed or via drinking water), often with strains of vegetative Lactobacillus or Bifidobacterium spp. or spored Bacillus spp.

Gut development

1. Manually Pick up a dropping and squeeze it. In this photo you can see that the pellet contains water. If it drips when you squeeze it, it is too wet!

Stress causes liquid droppings In the case that a bird is stressed (for one reason or another), a higher number of cecal droppings (or sudden change in consistency), are excreted. Cecal droppings have undergone a bacterial transformation in the cecum, which results in the droppings having a higher moisture content. There is a close relationship between stress level and water intake. Water intake in turkeys with elevated corticosterone concentrations (stress hormone) increases on average by 88%. The amount of water consumed and excreted can therefore be a useful parameter for indicating stress in birds.

2. The turkey

2. Paper Lay out paper in the brooding house to observe fresh droppings. If large water rings appear round the droppings, as shown in the photo, then that is a strong indication of impaired gut health.

3. Moisture meter You can check the moisture content of droppings quickly and objectively with a handy device.

CHAPTER 3

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Hatchery and day-old poults

Hatcheries fall into three main types: as part of an integrated company, belonging to an independent

company with breeding farms and a hatchery to sell poults on the open market, or the hatchery purchases hatching eggs (often from abroad) and sells the poults. No matter the source of poults, good poult quality is the basis for good performance in brooding and grow-out. Breeder management (e.g.

flock health, nutrition, egg management) and hatchery (e.g. incubation profiles, poult treatment and

delivery) play an important role in supplying good quality day-old turkey poults.

Healthy breeders = safe and vital poults

Before delivery of hatching eggs make sure the supplier guarantees that the flocks from which the eggs originate are free from: Mycoplasma meleagridis, synoviae, gallisepticum and iowae. These can be vertically transmitted via infected parent stock to the hatching eggs. It is the responsibility of the primary breeding company and multiplier company to supply clean poults and the responsibility of the commercial breeder to keep them clean.

Floor eggs and dirty eggs harbor large numbers of bacteria on the shell surface. These can penetrate into the egg leading to massive proliferation and finally to explosion of the infected egg. Pathogens kill the embryo usually after a couple of days of incubation: early embryonic mortality. Washing and disinfecting dirty eggs reduces the risk of explosion. Dirty eggs should not be incubated. In case you still decide to do so, do this in separate setters, so that poults from dirty eggs do not contaminate the ones from clean eggs. However, these poults are often still mixed with a batch of poults from prime hatching eggs, which increases the risk of losses due to possible harmful pathogens. Turk ey S i gnal s

Storage conditions Storage period Temperature Relative humidity Egg orientation (days) (°C/°F) (%*) 0-3

18-21 / 64-70

75 - 85

Blunt end up

15-17 / 59-63

75 - 85

Blunt end up

12-14 / 54-57

80 - 85

Blunt end up

> 10

12-14 / 54-57

80 - 85

Small end up or alternatively turning the eggs every 24 hours

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4-7 8-10

* Recommended range for eggs stored on paper trays is 50 - 75%: the risk for dehydration is much smaller and the occurrence of floppy trays due to too high relative humidity should be avoided.

An unacceptable temperature fluctuation up to 33°C (91°F). The forecast for these eggs’ hatchability is poor. You can’t store these eggs – set them immediately to minimize damage. Notify the supplier. The cause of the temperature fluctuation should be investigated to reduce the risk of a reoccurrence.

Small temperature logger with an integrated printer. This one does not register humidity, so you won’t obtain complete information.

The temperature during egg transportation should never exceed the ‘physiological zero’ of the embryo (20°C/68°F). Above this temperature embryos start developing and, if followed by a temperature drop, this can lead to early embryonic mortality. For the embryos that survive and hatch, the consequence can be a poor vitality and low performance. The optimal egg transportation temperature is 15-17°C (59-63°F). Always use temperature loggers and check them at arrival. Storage is done on the breeder farm as well as in the hatchery. Egg storage leads to increased embryonic mortality both at the beginning and the end of incubation and to a reduced growth rate of the embryo leading to a delayed hatch. There are several known ways how to maintain the hatchability of eggs after long storage times: turning them every 24 hours, covering with plastic to maintain high CO2 levels, pre-storage incubation for 3-6 hours (after achieving 32-35°C/90-95°F egg shell temperature), and humidity control.

Egg transport and storage

Check the temperature and relative humidity in the storage room regularly. Make sure that while the eggs are kept in a humid environment, they don’t get wet! This is an ideal environment for fungal and bacterial colonies which can have a strong influence on embryonic quality and development. 3 . H a t c h e r y an d day-o l d po u l ts

Electronic temperature/relative humidity logger with a PC reader. 33

Setting

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All or some eggs on a tray are printed or otherwise identified with the day of production, to make sure the eggs are set in the order in which they were laid.

The incubator manufacturer’s or egg suppliers’ recommended temperature and relative humidity should be followed, but needs to be fine-tuned per hatchery. The correct settings can be achieved by measuring the embryo or eggshell temperature at different stages of incubation and adjusting incubation regimes based on the actual results. In the past, incubation regimes were often based on set air temperature. Infertile eggs and dead embryos will result in egg shell temperatures lower than that of the other eggs and lower than the profile temperature. Overheated/underdeveloped poults have compromised skeletal (leg problems), cardio-vascular, gastro-intestinal and immune systems, and are at a higher risk of disease and mortality at a later stage of growth due to sudden death syndrome, ascites or ‘round heart’ disease, immunosuppression and secondary infections. Regularly calibrate your T/RH sensors, check the fan speed, belts and air speed.

After eggs arrive at the hatchery make a thorough selection. Setting only high-grade eggs will reduce the chance of hatching poor quality poults.

Example of critically overheated batch of eggs Top

Middle

Bottom

Egg shell temp. (°F)

102.9 102.6 101.4 102.5 101.9 100.6 101.4 100.0 100.4 100.2

104.0 104.0 104.1 102.3 103.5 103.1 101.7 102.2 101.2 101.6

102.4 103.7 104.1 103.3 103.4 101.3 103.1 102.0 102.0 101.8

Average temp. (°F)

101.4

102.9

102.8

Manual egg shell temperature measurement can be performed by an IR thermometer on the egg equator.

Automatic egg shell temperature sensor.

Always measure eggshell temperature in 3 zones: bottom, middle and top of the setter. Often the Fahrenheit temperature scale is used for temperature measurements. Turk ey S i gnal s

Typical items in a hatching report: Fertility %

Hatch %

Hatch of fertiles %

Infertile %

Early mortality %

Middle mortality %

Late mortality %

Pipped live/dead %

Cull chicks %

Cracks %

Cull eggs %

Upside down %

Exploded %

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Flock age (weeks)

Manual candling at 13 days. The eggs that are completely clear are not fertilized or there was early embryonic death.

Egg candling at 13-15th day of incubation allows for evaluation of the clear (infertile) and dead embryos and to thereby forecast the hatchability rate. For a good hatch it is desirable to have at least 92% of eggs fertile as an average per batch. Remove all clear and dead-in-shell eggs from the trays. Otherwise, these eggs will create cold spots, which, when in contact with living embryos, slow down their development and thus ‘widen’ the hatch window. It will eventually increase the number of weak dehydrated poults at hatch. Candling eggs does not distinguish, ‘true’ and ‘false’ infertiles (early embryonic mortality). Breaking eggs at candling or after the hatch to check the contents helps to classify the stages and possible reasons of embryonic mortality, and to react accordingly: make adjustments to the breeders’ health status, nutrition management, egg collections, transportation and storage regimes and general hygiene or incubation regimes.

Candling and breakout

Clear eggs with no embryonic development (true infertiles)

The obvious first place to look is at the fertility of the toms, but there are many other possible factors. Improper artificial insemination techniques can also seriously hurt your flock’s fertility.

Dead embryos at early stages

Dead embryos at middle/late stages

Early stage death often signals an issue after laying during transportation. Improper or long storage, and inappropriate incubation conditions are often the cause. Nevertheless, watch for nutritional deficiencies and sources of contamination in the breeder house.

Mid- late stage embryo death can often be rooted in nutritional deficiencies: either a vitamin or trace mineral deficiency or a high level of a mycotoxin. On dead-in-shell examination, a high level of deformity is usually seen.

Infertile

Not all of your infertile eggs are unfertilized. Overlong or improper storage, or damage during collection or transportation may have caused embryonic death at a stage before it is visible to the eye. If there has been any development, it will show up as a milky appearance on the yolk. These types of losses will be marked as infertiles and you may spend a long time chasing down a problem that doesn’t exist. Collect your eggs frequently and always be proactive with storage conditions.

A set of eggs with early - mid - late embryonic mortality. 3 . H a t c h e r y an d day-o l d po u l ts

CHAPTER 4

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Biosecurity for profit

The day-old poults should arrive at a clean farm and it should remain that way. The goal of a biosecurity

program is to minimize the risk of bird sickness from outside sources as well as internal contamination. Biosecurity is often the cheapest and most effective management intervention for achieving better results, but sticking to all the procedures can be difficult if things are not carefully planned from the

start. No system can be 100% secure. The risks decrease in relation to the amount of money invested. The more valuable the turkeys on the farm in terms of numbers and types of turkey (pedigree breeding

stock and parent stock being extremely valuable), the more expenditure that can be justified.

To understand the measures taken to ensure biosecurity, you have to understand the risk factors involved. The bottom line is that you want to prevent disease transmission before you have a problem. Ideally this starts long before farm construction, to reduce the potential future risks. If there are special circumstances, e.g. indications of an increased â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;field virus-pressureâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; all hygienic procedures should be intensified.

1. Location of the farm: preferably away from other (poultry) farms and roads so that airborne germs cannot infect the farm. And away from ponds and rivers, harboring wild waterfowl. 2. Effective layout: the farm is completely enclosed within a perimeter fence. The farm is divided into a clean part where the turkeys are kept and a dirty part, with access to the outside world. The dirty route is used by trucks to unload the feed, or to pick up dead birds, without coming into close proximity with the turkey houses. Turk ey S i gnal s

Farm location

DIRTY ZONE

BUFFER ZONE CLEAN ZONE turkey house

buﬀer zone access point

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parking external road

dead bird storage

turkey house

clean zone access point

vehicle disinfection bath

hygienic lock fence around the between ‘buﬀer’-zone operation indicates and ‘clean’ zone the ‘buﬀer’-zone

Example of a farm layout with the various biosecurity zones.

Dead bird storage The flock should be checked at least twice a day if they are healthy and up to four times a day in case of the outbreak of disease, so that dead or ailing birds can be quickly removed. Dead birds should be stored in a freezer or a chilled room in such a way that it can be closed to prevent contamination. The place where the dead birds are picked up for transport, should be as far as possible from the houses (in the dirty area).

feed silo ﬁlling pipe

public road

Distance is considered the most important factor for ensuring a good biosecurity. A poultry operation should be located in an area with low poultry density. Minimal distance between the operation and high-risk factors is about 5 km (3 mi), these include other poultry/game bird, pig operations, slaughterhouses etc. In most situations it is impossible to change the location of the premises. However, it is usually feasible to optimize performance and/ or to improve the equipment. With the ideal situation in mind, it is possible to make the correct decisions. All roads and places for loading and deliveries should be paved. After rainfall no pools of water should remain on the pavement. It is even advisable to include a paved strip of at least one meter around the houses to aid in rodent control.

By allowing feed trucks to unload the feed from an external road you prevent them entering the buffer zone of the farm.

4 . B i o s e c u r i t y f o r pro f i t

At the vehicle entrance, a method of disinfecting the vehicle wheels is required. When using a disinfectant bath, make sure it is well maintained (fresh water and disinfectant). Spraying the undercarriage and wheels with a hand-sprayer can be easily performed before allowing the truck to enter the premises.

High risk factors for disease transmission • Vertical transmission: eggs or poults from infected breeders • Infected birds within a flock • Multiple ages of the same species reared together or in close proximity • Newly acquired birds added to an existing flock • Different species of birds reared together or in close quarters • Humans; hands, hair, shoes and clothing can harbor infectious agents • Wild birds, rodents, flies, darkling beetles, other insects, and parasites • Contaminated feed, water or air • Contaminated vaccines and medications • Contaminated equipment brought onto the farm (trucks, tractors) • Private poultry/bird keeping in the neighborhood.

CHAPTER 6

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Litter management

Because turkeys spend far more time on the litter than the ‘short cycle’ broiler chickens, litter man-

agement is of key importance. Many issues with turkey health and meat quality originate from poor litter management. Make sure the turkeys house is well prepared before the arrival of day-old poults.

A nice layer of litter for a good start and after that the challenge is to maintain this level of litter quality.

Litter material insulates the floor and helps to conserve heat while providing increased comfort for the birds. It also dilutes and absorbs moisture from fecal matter, condensation from bird respiration, and water spilt from drinkers. Providing a soft, spongy surface on which turkeys can rest, aids the prevention of breast blisters, as well as helping to satisfy their dust bathing and scratching instincts. Fresh litter should be used for each crop. It should

be put down after cleaning and disinfection to prevent reinfection by pathogens. Litter should be spread to provide a smooth, even surface (min. 7 cm (3 in) in depth during the Spring/Summer – and at least 10 cm (4 in) for Autumn/Winter). Where underfloor heating is being used, litter depth can be reduced, but ensure there is enough to provide comfort for the birds.

Turk ey S i gnal s

Litter storage Make sure storage is performed correctly. It should be safely stored away in dry conditions, ideally not in contact with the birds. You may store just enough for the current flock in a fenced off area in the house. But don't use a storage area in the turkey house with the flock for consecutive flocks since you might carry over pathogens through this litter material. Wet, molded litter provides a very poor start for turkeys.

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The choice of good litter material is important, but if it is not used immediately, the material can deteriorate fast due to environmental influences. Storage is always necessary, since during the production cycle you will need to top up the litter layer regularly, especially when wet spots have appeared in the turkey house. Adding litter material is generally just part of routine litter management.

These wood shavings are well fenced off and will only be used for this flock. By storing litter for the whole period in the house, you avoid introducing new litter material into the sealed house and stressing the flock.

Litter should be stored in a facility protected from the weather and secure from access by vermin, birds or other animals.

Under no circumstances should it be stored outside! This will certainly lead to the development of molds and invite all kinds of creatures to make it their home.

6 . L i t t e r m a n ag em en t

Litter should be spread evenly throughout the house and smoothed to one level, especially within the initial brooding areas.

Litter on concrete floors

✓ 2

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If the floor is cold a thick layer of insulating litter can actually make it harder to warm up this floor. Warm litter on a cold surface can even result in condensation on the floor which can dampen the litter from underneath. So, it’s always better to start warming up the floor before spreading out the litter.

To prevent poults from eating litter, you can cover the litter with paper for the first 2-3 days. Extra benefit: it provides a surface for supplemental feeding. This paper should have a coarse surface to provide good grip for your poults. Be careful it doesn’t get slippery around the drinkers, since that would have the opposite effect...

Concrete floors need a special approach. A lot of heat from the previous batch of birds can be retained in the sand layer underneath the concrete floor. In some cases, you can keep your heating costs down by using this residual heat.

A cold spot under the litter caused local condensation. The moisture will make the litter wet and cold.

To prevent mold infections (e.g. aspergillosis) it is preferable, in addition to whole house fumigation and disinfection, to spray the litter on the floor (before poult delivery), with a fungicide, such as propionic acid. Turkeys are very susceptible to molds! Turk ey S i gnal s

Types of litter

Moistureabsorbing

Dust Turkey health, remarks +

+/-

Sawdust

Risk of crop blockage, gizzard impaction, respiratory disease

Sawdust pellets

Exceptional hygienic status, but dusty when pellets break

Chopped canola straw

+/-

Chopped wheat straw

+/-

Chopped flax

+/-

Rice hulls

+/-

Sunflower hulls

The sharp edges can damage the skin and cause wounds and infection

Ground corncobs maize chaff Peat

Good for intestinal health on account of acidity level

Reduces footpad lesions

Positive effect of raw fibers on intestinal health

+/-

Sand

+/-

Alfalfa

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Pinewood shavings ++

While it improves gizzard function it increases the risk of crop blockage, and pathogen contamination

Hardwood shavings

+/-

Possible contamination, higher risk of mold

Peanut Hulls

+/-

Possible contamination, higher risk of mold, more expensive outside the production regions

Good litter materials should be dry, absorbent and friable, provide insulation and be free from contaminants. The most important characteristics of litter are its ability to absorb and emit moisture along with the absence of dust. Cost, availability and your manure processing method are all factors that determine which litter you use. Wood shavings and chopped straw are commonly used litter materials for turkeys. Very coarse litter can also contribute to leg disorders, while fine materials can be too dusty. In addition, small-particle litter leads to an increased amount of caked litter around waterers and feeders. This, in turn, can lead to increased leg and foot problems if the cake is not removed. On the other hand, large-particle litter, such as wood chips or coarse straw, does not absorb moisture very well and can also lead to foot/breast problems. Find the middle ground for best effect. The litter must be 10-13 cm (4-5 in) deep from the start if the hens stay in the rearing house: the height of a fist. If the hens are moved during the grow-out phase, the litter must be at least 5â&#x20AC;Żcm (2 in) thick in the new house. Where underfloor heating is being used, litter depth can be reduced to 3 cm (1 in).

Litter materials

++very positive, + positive, +/- average, -negative, --very negative

Pinewood shavings

Straw

Rice hulls 6 . L i t t e r m a n ag em en t

Wood pellets 81

CHAPTER 7

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Feed and water

Efficient meat production from turkeys depends on a constant supply of high-quality feed that is balanced

in nutrients, amino acids, and minerals. It is also essential to have good quality water. From day-old up to slaughter age the specific feed requirements of turkey flocks must be met to reach the genetic potential of

the birds and stimulate the development of the gastrointestinal system.

Liebigâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s law of the minimum

Liebigâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s law: growth is not dictated by the total resources available, but by the scarcest resource (limiting factor). If one of the resources is not 100% available, then the other resources will not be used optimally (waste) and the maximum genetic growth potential not be reached. Any nutrient can become limiting: amino acids, minerals, vitamins, trace elements. The challenge is to meet the requirements of the bird.

All resources are available in sufficient amounts, but production (= water) level will not exceed the level that is determined by the limiting resources (= shortest stave). 88

Phase feeding The nutrient requirements of the birds change throughout the growth period. Therefore, most turkey flocks eat 4-7 different diets during the production period. It is even possible to have up to 20 feeding phases when diet transitions are made in a controlled way. The more transitions there are, the easier it is to match the feed to the birdsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; needs, but sudden changes in feed composition can disturb the gut flora (microbiota) and upset the birds. In addition, the flavor or the feed changes can affect feed intake. The transition between two different feeds must be gradual to minimize the stress on the gastrointestinal system and avoid digestive problems. Ideally they should be supplemented with a short course of anti-stress vitamin additives. Turk ey S i gnal s

Adjusting the feeding program

Phase

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• Crumb or mini-pellet (2.0-2.2 mm/0.08-0.09 in) gives better feed intake and end weight • Optimal development of organs, bones and muscles • High in protein, vitamins and minerals for maximum growth during this very critical period • Add no whole wheat • Expensive per ton, but not per turkey because of the small quantity eaten

Micro pellet 2.2 mm (0.09 in)

Crumb

Pellets (3.0-3.5 mm/0.12-0.14 in diameter) Gradually decrease protein content and increase energy Feed structure aimed at maximum intake Start and gradually increase wheat addition 5-15-20%

• • • •

Grower (29-70 days)

Example of a 6-phase feeding program

Starter (0-28 days)

To meet the birds changing feed requirements farmers often provide different nutritional values and pellet types throughout the various feed phases. Feeding programs are a starting point, but on top of that a thorough performance analysis is necessary to adjust the nutrient density of the feeds (protein, energy, minerals) as well as the feed phase duration. The first measurement should be the growth curve. Automatic weighing systems are available to monitor weight on a daily basis. A group of the turkeys can be weighed by hand (at least 25 birds per group). Another important consideration point is the slaughterhouse report regarding the carcass and breast meat yield, fat and protein content of the carcass, and liver condition. Excessive abdominal fat deposition and fatty livers can be a signal of an excessive metabolic energy (ME) in the finisher feed. However, waiting for the slaughter results to evaluate your feeding strategy for the previous five months can be unacceptably misleading. Therefore, daily monitoring of feed consumption and growth curve is required for successful turkey production and pre-emptive action.

Age (days) F

Sexes in one house (intermediate: F+M)

0-28

29-42

43-56

43-63

43-60

57-70

64-84

61-77

0-28

71-98

85-112

78-112

99-105

113-140

• • • •

Pellets (3.5-4.0 mm/0.14-0.16 in diameter) Continue to reduce protein and increase energy Maximum wheat addition 30-50% Metabolic conversion of protein to fat results in poorer feed conversion, so it is important to give enough energy in this phase • Highest feed costs due to high intake during this period

Standard feed phasing recommendations for heavy breeds can be used with separated males and females. If you have a mixed flock, intermediate phasing can be applied.

Finisher (71-slaughter)

Non-medicated finisher feed Comparison of pellets 3.0 vs 4.0 mm (0.12 vs 0.16 in). 7 . F e e d a n d water

Feed without medicines or anticoccidials must be given at the end right up to slaughter. Some anticoccidials have a withdrawal time of 0 days so they may be used in non-medicated finisher feed. 89

SIGNALS

o f y o u r flo ck. And t hi s st ar t s w i t h obser vat i on .’

Did you know that without your help, sick and weak day-old poults will almost certainly die. Place them in a sanitary box and mortality rates are reduced by 50%. Good care pays off!

ISBN 978-90-8740-262-4

www.roodbont.com

TURKEY SIGNALS A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO TURKEY FOCUSED MANAGEMENT

Turkey Signals is part of the Poultry Signals series©. Poultry Signals presents practical knowledge of animal oriented poultry farming in an easy, accessible format.

A practical guide to turkey focused management

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A practical guide to turkey focused management

TURKEY SIGNALS

TURKEY

‘ M a n a g e me n t is th e key t o mai nt ai ni ng t he heal t h

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