History Publication 2014

2 Histories History 2 Historical Research Rosa Luz Helesic Cecilia Seguezzo Liliana Barbieri Carolina Albornoz Pamela Cáceres Instituto Superior Ntra. Sra. de la Paz Profesorado de Inglés Cátedra de Historia II

2H2 2014 1st Edition buenos aires argentina

A Research on the Cultural Impact of Historical Events in the 19th and 20th Centuries Cecilia Seguezzo, Liliana Barbieri, Carolina Albornoz, Pamela Cáceres.

2014

2 histories History 2 Historical Research

A Research on the Cultural Impact of Historical Events in Argentina and Britain in the 19th and 20th Centuries

2H2 Instituto superior nuestra señora de la paz profesorado de inglés Historia II Buenos aires, argentina 20141st Edition

2 Histories History 2 Rosa Luz Helesic

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Acknowledgents The present collaborative work could no have been possible without the moral and technical support of the authorities of the Institution. First of all, for José María La Greca, President, and Laura Salemme, Vice-president of Nuestra Señora de la Paz Foundation for both material and humanitarian resources involving the development of education in Argentina.

A special gratitude is addressed to the Terciary level authorities of Nuestra Señora de la Paz Institute, Estrella Koira, who confers knowledge, authority and human kindness a commitment with the ones in need. Rodolfo Priano, who daily reminds me that warmth and good manners are not opposed to management, and for the recognition and moral support of the Coordinator of the Teacher training College, and personal friend, Adriana Hicawczuk, who has permanently guided our improving steps.

A Research on the Cultural Impact of Historical Events in the 19th and 20th Centuries Cecilia Seguezzo, Liliana Barbieri, Carolina Albornoz, Pamela Cáceres.

Acknowledgents Foreword 1. Argentine, British and American Music Cecilia Seguezzo Introduction Historical Background - Argentina, USA and England Music in the Nineteenth century First World War Neoclassicism in Argentina America's century Popular Music The Origin of Tango In Between wars The developing of Tango British orchestral music Foreign Influences Classic Struggle Nationalism and Populism – The Perón Age The Military Dictatorships Classical Music Scene Argentinean Rock – Early Years Folk and Protest songs The Birth of National Rock The British and American Scene The Iron Lady – The senseless War Malvinas War Argentina’s National Rock Argentina’s Classical Scene American and British Music Scene in the Seventies and Eighties The Classical Genre Conclusion Works Cited About the Author 2. Lights and Shadows of Powerful Figures in Society Liliana Barbieri Introduction Poverty in Argentina and Britain during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries

2014

2 5 9 9 9 10 11 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 20 22 23 25 26 27 28 29 30 33 34 36 38 39 40 42 43 44 46 46 46 46

State of affairs at the beginning of the twentieth century: Social classes in Britain.

47

Social classes in Argentina First World War and its Social Consequences Post War – What did it leave?

Post- World War I in Britain Post- World War I in Argentina Economy in Argentina and Britain in the Second World War World War II in Britain

48 50 55 55 56 58 58

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World War II in Argentina 59 The presidency of Juan Domingo Perón 60 Malvinas War: The Relationship of Galtieri and Thatcher 64 Conclusion 68 Works Cited 68 3. Argentine and British Art 72 Carolina Albornoz 72 Introduction: Painting is History 72 th Portray 20 Century Life on Canvas 73 WWI and its Art Representation 77 The Conflict Between Real and Ideal 77 C.R.W. Nevinson, Paths of Glory, 1917, oil on canvas, 467 x 609 mm (Imperial War Museum, London).

79 WWI and Women Artists 79 Argentine Art during WWI 80 World War II on Canvas.

83 A period of changes 88 Psychedelic Paranoia 93 Foreign Affairs 97 Conclusion: An artistic Overview 103 Works Cited 104 About the Author 104 4. Argentine and British Women’s Roles in Argentine and Britain 106 Pamela Cáceres 106 Introduction 106 Women’s Roles during the Eighteenth Century 107 The First World War: An Opportunity for Women?

109 Women in the Second World War 111 In Britain 112 The Women's Land Army 112 Factory Work 113 The Auxiliary Territorial Service 114 The Women's Auxiliary Air Force 114 Secret Agents 115 Entertainment 115 Argentina 115 The Perón Era 117 The dirty war 119 The Falkland war 121 Fighting for the Falklands 121 Conclusion 123 Works cited 124 About the author 126

A Research on the Cultural Impact of Historical Events in the 19th and 20th Centuries Cecilia Seguezzo, Liliana Barbieri, Carolina Albornoz, Pamela CĂĄceres.

2014

“To see a world in a grain of sand; and heaven in a flower.�

Blake, Auguries of Innocence.

Foreword

Explorations in Historical Research Many teaching techniques concerning the involvement of the students in social sciences have been tested during the last years. Nevertheless, the attempt to present historical facts in an appealing and significant form for the students has represented a challenge to overcome.

I have been rewarded with a dedicated group of senior students in this current year. Their increasing abilities and continuous dedication have resulted in the work presented this year, after the unceasing collaborative work involved in the process writing portfolio.

These devoted students which have confide me with the edition task, have cover the twentieth century and its antecedents focusing on diverse cultural aspects of their own interests and concern. These history students, provided with bibliography, illustrated timelines, pictures and videos, covered what they considered the most significant facts of the century.

Furthermore, writing requirement standards of College essays were increased, while at the same time, the technology for collaborative work as the use of Google Docs and Calendar was also a requirement of the subject. The originality of the production of the students represented also a compelling aspect for promotion.

Nevertheless it is considered that one of the most appealing resources applied

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might have been the possibility for the students to compare the same historical periods both in the native country and in Britain. The research on Argentine history has supported the acquisition of a global notion of the historical periods and it has also provided a personal significance of the different historical events.

Considering the high standards required for the subject promotion, the students have not only proved efficient in research abilities, but also in writing skills as well. It is worth mentioning that one of the students, MarĂ­a Salomone, has not finish her writing process research, due to personal problems which have affected her work continuity. Although her hard work is not published in this edition, she is committed to be published in the next edition of the publication.

To introduce the present work, Cecilia Seguezzo has been selected for the first chapter, not only for her natural ability to express original ideas in the second language, but for the originality of the selected topic: British, Argentine and American Music as a different language to express the sensitivity and needs of the different peoples involved in her research. Her responsibility and generosity for material exchange, applied technology shared, and her kindness allow us to predict a successful future.

Following this first chapter, Liliana Barbieri focuses in the social aspects in both countries, and how peoples find themselves affected in their wellbeing by political and economic decisions of their leaders. Her chapter Lights and Shadows of Powerful Figures in Society, deals with social situations an adjustments in the different historical periods involved. Her persistence and dedication together with her endless predisposition have led her path to an objective piece which, at the same time depicts controversial social issues.

The subsequent piece, written by Carolina Lourdes Albornoz, enlighten our knowledge and sensitivity purporting the development of Painting movements as an expression history as it has been perceived by the inhabitants of Britain and Argentina. Her previous Art education and writing ability, is displayed in her chapter Argentine and British Art, by the accurate selection of the abundant

A Research on the Cultural Impact of Historical Events in the 19th and 20th Centuries Cecilia Seguezzo, Liliana Barbieri, Carolina Albornoz, Pamela Cáceres.

2014

artistic production of the century. Her manifested commitment and creativity along the year ensures her a great success.

Finally, with a recurrent but fundamental topic of our times, Pamela Cáceres in her Argentine and British Women’s Role in History, explores the different positions and circumstances experienced by women in the different historical periods. Undoubtedly, women have improved their standard position acquired sometimes imperceptibly but steadily along history. This development is thoroughly depicted by this young, dedicated and perseverant person, who has splendidly grown along the year.

To conclude, I express my gratitude to all of my students for allowing me to learn and grow every class and share a significant part of my life: teaching.

Rosa Luz Helesic Instituto Superior Ntra. Sra. De la Paz

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Argentine, British and American Music

A Research on the Cultural Impact of Historical Events in the 19th and 20th Centuries 2014 HISTORY British History.

Nuestra Señora Profesorado de Historia II- Rosa Cecilia M.

Argentine and Instituto Superior de la Paz. Inglés. Cátedra de Luz Helesic- 2014seghezzo

Content Introduction Historical Argentina, USA

Background and England

Music in the CXIX First World War Neoclassicism in

Argentina

America's

century

Popular Music The origin of

Tango

In Between wars The developing

of Tango

British orchestral

music

Foreign

Influences

Classic Struggle Nationalism and Peron Age

Populism – The

The military

dictatorships

Classical Music

Scene

Argentinean

Rock – Early Years

Folk and Protest

songs

Cecilia M. Seghezzo

A Research on the Cultural Impact of Historical Events in the 19th and 20th Centuries Cecilia Seguezzo, Liliana Barbieri, Carolina Albornoz, Pamela CĂĄceres.

2014

1. Argentine, British and American Music Cecilia Seguezzo

Introduction The idea of this book arose as a joint effort of the 2014 La Paz teacher training college History class with the intention to depict some of the most relevant historical and cultural events of the past century through a particular guiding paradigm.

Under the firm belief that music faithfully illustrates the struggles and highlights of the human condition I chose to investigate the impact of British, American and Argentinean history and culture in its musical compositions and expressions.

Like all art, music preference is highly subjective and the mere intention of this research, to try to compile over 100 years of song into a single chapter, is a monumental if not impossible endeavor. I have then approached this task with no other intention than to single-point significant moments in History and explain the grounds and manner through which they inspired artists to create memorable melodies that in many cases became a recognizable soundtrack to each era.

In reading this paper, I have no doubt many will question some of the choices I made in choosing the representatives of each era, while possibly objecting also to some of the

absences, for which I deeply apologize firsthand. I have

reviewed the material time and time again and still find some ‘unforgivable’ omissions.

I invite you however, to consider the melodies which you do recognize as an intrinsic part of your history, for I am sure you will find some, and reflect on the sheer amount of melodies and songs that we all share in our common background. And how, despite of other many instances in which we might disagree, we can all agree that music is, was and will remain an uncanny

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expression of our most virtuous human traits.

Historical Background - Argentina, USA and England

1 - Mendelssohn - Songs without Words Op. 19 No. 1 (Gortler).wav

The fundamental characteristics of the 19th century are its many drastic and rapid changes. Science and economy had begun to feedback on each other; the term ‘scientific’, coined on 1833 by William Whewell, would become fundamental to the language of the era; and the economy would undergo two major industrial revolutions, the first taking place between 1750 and 1840, and the second between 1880 and 1914. Regarding politics, the new ideas from the previous century would set the basis for the bourgeois revolutions that would spread across the world through imperialism and find alliance with the labor movement, to which they would eventually grant the right of universal suffrage so as to prevent their success. In philosophy, the principles for most of the contemporary schools of thought would arise, trends such as absolute idealism, dialectic materialism, nihilism and nationalism. The arts would delay in accompanying this vanguard, but movements such as impressionism would ground its process.

The 20th century was characterized by advances in technology, medicine and science in general. Such accomplishments, as well as the end of slavery in the so-called developed countries and woman liberation around most countries of the world were undermined, however, by crisis and totalitarian regimes resulting in tragic events as the World Wars, genocide and the generalization of poverty and unemployment worldwide. These events would then account for the deepening in social, economic and technological development inequalities, and the wide differences in the quality of life of people in regions around the globe.

In the dawn of the 20th century, the Manchu dynasty in China, the Ottoman Empire several European empires controlled most of the world. The British Empire only ruled over a fourth of the world and its inhabitants. Way before the end of the century, these great Empires had been relegated to History books.

A Research on the Cultural Impact of Historical Events in the 19th and 20th Centuries Cecilia Seguezzo, Liliana Barbieri, Carolina Albornoz, Pamela Cáceres.

2014

‘By 1945 – states The Times Atlas of the 20th Century – the age of imperialism had ended’.

In the last years of the century, especially with the collapse of the European collectivist regimes, the phenomenon of globalization started and the United States of America became the first world power. (Evans, 2011) Music in the Nineteenth century Nineteenth-century music extends from Beethoven to Wagner. This period was, of course, the century of romanticism, and music, the most romantic of all the arts, assumed a dominating position and acquired a far greater listening public.

Instead of being associated most entirely with church or court, music became one of the most prized possessions of the new middle class. People of the day performed music for their own pleasure as never before, whether as amateur pianists playing the Songs Without Words or four-hand arrangements of Mozart symphonies, or as parlor singers rendering one of the hundreds of love songs that were published at the time, or as members of a municipal chorus.

Toward the mid nineteenth century, different musical languages coexisted alongside the Río de la Plata. Among them several particular styles started to stand out; the folklore, on one hand, recreated the Spanish heritage from a new horizon, and the candombe represented the development and genuine expression of the popular sectors. The expansion of a more refined practice of chamber music in the city’s halls was realized with the Esnaola’s ornamented re-version of the Argentinean National Anthem. After the battle of Caseros, and with Buenos Aires stranded from the rest of the Confederation, the ‘old’ Colon theatre – privately funded on the public grounds that the national Bank occupies today– is erected by the Victoria park as a new space for the development of musical and social life.

In the 1980’s there were many fully functional opera theatres in the city of Buenos Aires, and even though it was a private venture, the construction of the new Colon Theater was debated in the National Congress. This new theatre, constructed between 1886 and 1908, was built after a national law authorization

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over the grounds which previously held the western railroads train station, and the successive business failures throughout its construction were always salvaged by funds authorized by the Congress. (Bardin, 2008) Towards the end of the century, a group of European composers, called the nationalists – such men ad Smetana, Dvořák, Grieg and the Russian “Five” (Balakirev, Borodin, Moussorgsky, Cui and Rimsky-Korsakov), made strong contributions to music with their folk-inspired melodies, rhythms and colorful orchestrations.

2 - Debussy, Clair de lune (piano music).wav

The composers of the late nineteenth century were the culminating figures of romantic music because their fulfillment of romantic ideals was so complete that a change in ideal and style would inevitably follow them (Peter S. Hansen, 1961). To find the direction of this change was the task of the next generation whose leaders were Debussy, Stravinsky, and Schoenberg – all of whom were born between 1862 and 1882. These men were somewhat contradictory, each had deep roots in his respective national heritage and each grew up in the period of greatest popularity of Wagner and colorful nationalism, evident in their early works. As they matured in the new century they developed their own highly original and influential styles, partly as a continuation of romanticism, and partly as a reaction against it.

The expression fin de siècle, originally applied to the 1890’s, not only names a decade but also describes a mood or attitude toward life which prevailed until the outbreak of the First World War in 1914, when the nineteenth-century way of living finally came to an end. The term connotes an attitude of decadence and over refinement, and suggests a time when youthful enthusiasm and striving to improve had been replaced by exquisite sensitivity and selfindulgence.

In 1899 Edward Elgar’s Enigma Variations immediately captured the public

A Research on the Cultural Impact of Historical Events in the 19th and 20th Centuries Cecilia Seguezzo, Liliana Barbieri, Carolina Albornoz, Pamela Cáceres.

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imagination. This series of orchestral portraits of the composer’s friends was simultaneously intimate and epic, with a distinctively “English” sound. For the first decade of the 20th century, Elgar was the undisputed senior figure of British music. His works from this period more than justify the reputation, his two symphonies; the Pomp and Circumstance marches and his Violin Concerto, embodied the confidence and vigor of a nation now approaching the peak of its colonial power.

First World War In the decades between the wars, British music began to diversify. An “English Pastoral” style developed, partly from the invocations of Englishness in the music of Elgar and Vaughan Williams, but also from the study of English folk music undertaken by composers including Gustav Holst, Cecil Sharp and Percy Grainger. This pastoral style predominated in British music throughout the 20th century.

3 - William Walton's Spitfire Prelude and Fugue.wav

But Britain was not immune to developments on the continent. In 1920s Paris, jazz was beginning to infiltrate classical music, and Stravinsky’s neoclassicism was challenging musical tastes. Some British composers picked up on these trends, most notably Constant Lambert and William Walton. Walton was a versatile figure, and as well as Façade, his jazz-themed collaboration with poet Edith Sitwell from 1923, he also wrote major works that sit just outside the pastoral style, adding a distinctively modern edge to this otherwise traditionally English sound. His First Symphony and oratorio Belshazzar’s Feast are among the finest examples. The turbulence in continental Europe before and during the Second World War meant that many musicians fled to the UK, significantly enriching the country’s musical culture.

Pressing political causes of the day found a voice in the work of some 20thcentury British composers, including Ethel Smyth, a leading figure with the suffragettes. Her The March of the Women, written in 1910, became the

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movement’s rallying cry and was regularly sung at protests and demonstrations.

(Dixon, 2013) In the United States in these rich years of the the early twentieth century, the lack of musical environment such as that enjoyed by Berlin, Paris, or Vienna, with their great opera houses, orchestras, and well-stablished conservatories, made the creation of musical masterpieces virtually impossible. This is not to say, however, that there was no musical activity at all. A few of their larger communities had orchestras, conservatories and opera houses, but in most cases these were but pale copies old European organizations. (Hansen, 1961)Since broadcasts and recordings had not yet appeared on the scene “serious” musical experiences were limited to those living in one of not more than a dozen cities. Considering the vastness of the American territory, it is clear that most of the population lived without hearing concert music.

4 - Roberto Garcia Morillo - Romances del amor y la muerte.wav

Neoclassicism in Argentina Already consolidated in Europe, Neoclassicism arrived in Argentina as a promising possibility to those who would risk their adhesion. The first to adopt it were the members of the Renovation Group, who soon became referents to the new static of the musical modernity. It was not a simple adoption of the European model, but ‘an operational appropriation of the style as a technical and symbolic reserve of multiple uses’ . Juan Carlos Paz, leader of the Renovation Group and a staunch advocate of the Neoclassic sthetic, expresses that it was ‘a music of intellectualistic formation, not made to dream, but to like and

understand;

contrary

to

the

romantic

tendency,

redundant

and

extemporary, and initiative of a true musical art.’ Luis Gianneo entered the group in December 1931, he was residing in Tucumán, where he had displayed a marked nationalist inclination as well as neoclassicists trades in his piano works, presumably influenced by the arrival to the American continent of the musicians bearing the characteristics of what would become the neoclassicist

A Research on the Cultural Impact of Historical Events in the 19th and 20th Centuries Cecilia Seguezzo, Liliana Barbieri, Carolina Albornoz, Pamela Cáceres.

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movement.

After Stravinsky’s visit to Buenos Aires, in 1936, Gianneo admits in an article published by Sarmiento magazine in Tucumán, the renovating influence that this artist had in Argentinean composers. (Pickenhayn. 1980:26). The admiration towards the Russian musician was reflected in pieces such as “Obertura para una comedia infantil” (1937), and “Sinfonietta en Homenaje a Haydn”(1940) (Corrado, 2001) America's century In what popular music is concerned, the 20th century was seen for many as "America's century." It was a century in which the United States' influence would be felt around the globe. From jazz to rock, America was the birthplace to some of the most influential music the world had seen-aided, of course, by the popularity of new technologies such as phonographs, and radios. Incidentally, the most successful distributor of American tunes were the American soldiers, who brought their music with them wherever they went. At first, cylinders were released sparingly, but as their sales grew more profitable, distribution increased.

These

early

recorded

songs

were

a

mix

of

vaudeville, barbershop quartets, marches, opera, novelty songs, and other popular tunes. Many popular standards, such as "The Good Old Summertime", "Shine On Harvest Moon", and "Over There" come from this time. There were also a few early hits in the field of jazz, beginning with the Original Dixieland Jazz Band's 1917 recordings, and followed by King Oliver's Creole Jazz Band, who played in a more authentic New Orleans jazz style.

Jazz's influence on the world music scene would be nothing short of transformational. Jazz saw its early development in the African American communities all throughout the South – with rhythms reflecting the diversity of cultural influences from West Africa to the West Indies, from ragtime to the blues.

With similar roots to blues (and blues as one of its roots), jazz also took from another American art form – ragtime – to create its unique syncopated sound.

Its early detractors were many, from Henry Ford to Thomas Edison, but racism

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was often the reason for cries of "it's immoral." Yet the insistent, danceable, heartfelt sounds quickly spread American culture to the far corners of the globe.

(Burns, 2001) The progenitor of Argentine national music in the early 20th century, Alberto Williams, exerted a fundamental influence in his country by relying on the music of the gauchos. This gauchesco tradition was evident in his Aires de La Pampa (1944; “Songs of the Pampas,” a collection of more than 50 piano pieces). Juan José Castro and Luis Gianneo drew on the folk music and folklore of specific Argentine provinces. But Alberto Ginastera established himself in the 1940s as the leader of the national movement in Argentine music, which continued to be based on the gauchesco tradition. Others in Argentina, such as Roberto García Morillo and Julián Bautista, cultivated neoclassicism. Some Uruguayan composers of the period, such as Luiz Cluzeau Mortet and Eduardo Fabini, also based compositions on gauchesco and other mestizo elements.

5 - Crazy Blues - Mamie Smith (1920).wav

The most important influence on 20th century music was African Americans and the musical culture they brought to the country, developed within the bonds of slavery. Even before the 20th century began, blues music was evolving across the country out of the traditional African slave spirituals, work calls and chants.

Of all the developing genres, the blues would be the most far-reaching, with its influence felt in everything from jazz to rock, country music to rhythm and blues, and classical music. The first explosion of recorded popular music in American history came in the 1920s, when classic female blues singers like Ma Rainey, Bessie Smith and Mamie Smith grew very popular; the first hit of this field was Mamie Smith's "Crazy Blues". These urban blues singers changed the idea of popular music from being simple songs that could be easily performed by anyone to works primarily associated with an individual singer Popular Music In the sense of commercial music enjoyed by the people, British popular music

A Research on the Cultural Impact of Historical Events in the 19th and 20th Centuries Cecilia Seguezzo, Liliana Barbieri, Carolina Albornoz, Pamela Cáceres.

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can be seen to originate in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries with the arrival of the broadside ballad, which were sold cheaply and in great numbers until the nineteenth century. Further technological, economic and social changes led to new forms of music in the nineteenth century, including the brass band, which produced a popular and communal form of classical music. Similarly, the music hall came up to supply entertainment for new urban societies, adapting existing forms of music to produce popular songs and acts.

In the 1930s the influence of American Jazz led to the creation of British dance bands, who provided a social and popular music that began to dominate social occasions and the radio airwaves. (Barker, Jeffcock, & Sommers, 2013).

Forms of popular music, including folk music, jazz, pop and rock music, have particularly flourished in Britain since the twentieth century. Britain has had an impact on popular music disproportionate to its size, due to its linguistic and cultural links with many countries, particularly the United States and many of its former colonies like Australia, South Africa, and Canada, and its capacity for invention, innovation and fusion, which has led to the development of, or participation in, many of the major trends in popular music.

6 - Astor Piazzolla - Naranjo en flor (voz de Goyeneche).wav

The Origin of Tango In the lasts decades of the nineteenth century and the first of the twentieth the city of Buenos Aires was the main setting of the emergence and development of the Tango. The gestation and expansion process of this new music form brought about in close relation to the radio and the emerging cinematographic industry, but completely at distance from the State’s musical cultural politics till late 1940’s. Tango arose in the brothels, bars and port areas of Buenos Aires, where waves of Europeans poured into the country mixing various forms of music. The result, tango, came about as a fusion of disparate influences including: Old Milonga - songs of the rural gauchos (originating in Andalucía) Habanera - Cuban music, Polka and Mazurka - Slavic music, Contredans Spanish music, Flamenco - from Andalucía, and Italian folk music. (Dennisto)

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The combination of European rhythms, brought to Argentina and Uruguay by traders and immigrants, developed into the swinging milonga around 1900.

The milonga quickly became the popular dance of Buenos Aires and slowly evolved into modern tango; since 1930, tango has changed from a dancefocused music to one of lyric and poetry, thanks to vocalists like Carlos Gardel, Roberto

Goyeneche, Hugo

del

Carril, Tita

Merello, Susana

Rinaldi, Edmundo Rivero and Ignacio Corsini, was equally well known as a folk singer. The golden age of tango (1930 to mid-1950s) mirrored the golden age of Jazz and Swing in the United States, featuring large orchestral tango groups, too, like the bands (known as "Orquestas típicas") led by Francisco Canaro, Julio de Caro, Osvaldo Pugliese, Aníbal Troilo and Juan d'Arienzo.

7 - Lía Cimaglia Espinosa Tango 70 Lía Cimaglia Espinosa piano.wav

In Between wars The First World War closed off the XIX C. The governing ideas of the century were called into question: its progress, civilization, rationality and objectivity. If the ‘European barbarians had committed suicide in a war’ as Jose Ingenieros hopelessly wrote, the idea of civilization could now be revised, and even reversed, as Albert Einstein could with the very notion of time. During the Great War, the world famous physicist published his General Theory of Relativity. This notion permeated the fields of knowledge, philosophy and esthetics.

With its colors, words and manifestos, the esthetic avant-garde expressed that state of crisis, a state that further deepened a decade later with the 1929 world economic crack of Black Monday. (Duiker & Spielvogel, 2012).

During the World Wars, new technologies brought unthinkable horror to soldiers and civilians alike. In previous wars, soldiers had relied on single-shot rifles, hand-to-hand combat or limited artillery; now, chemical weapons, mortars, machine guns and tanks began to be widely used. For the first time, entire companies of soldiers could be killed before they could draw their weapons or even catch sight of their enemies. Though the wars eventually ended, many

A Research on the Cultural Impact of Historical Events in the 19th and 20th Centuries Cecilia Seguezzo, Liliana Barbieri, Carolina Albornoz, Pamela Cáceres.

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veterans felt that those at home could not truly understand the suffering caused by modern mechanized warfare.

Throughout the wars, music overcame a series of gigantic convulsions. Change came in many different forms, some exiting, some bewildering. Revolution was in the air, and all of music’s laws and traditions were about to be shaken to their roots. What happened was a series of musical rebellions. During WWII, Argentina witnessed the rise of talented pianists such as Marisa Regules, Lía Cimaglia-Espinosa, a very young Pía Sebastiani and Antonio De Raco. In 1944 Juan Carlos Paz starts the New Music Aggrupation which will produce works of avant-garde for a long time. Also in those war years, emerged several long standing publications ‘Ars, Lyra & Polifonía’ (Corrado, 2001).

The developing of Tango In Buenos Aires, the main purpose of Tango had always been the search of contact with the opposite sex. After the world wars the main challenge was that the genders weren’t proportional; the men would arrive as immigrants in large numbers and women were to be competed for. These disputes often occurred with knives and guns, and social order could have suffered immensely.

Fortunately, a cultural ability was chosen as a value to compete with. To be an expert ‘tanguero’ also provided a way for young hard-working men to gain the respect and appreciation among his peers.

Bearing that in mind, it is of no big surprise that the Argentinean tango shows a considerable chauvinism in its lyrics. In its original context, the man was to lure the woman and did so by displaying his tango skills. Women, however, weren’t just a passive object, they wore accessories to guild themselves and attract men, showing their interest whenever they chose. The development of Tango during the 30’s and 40’s stressed the need to include the different musical characteristics or states of mind in a single piece, so that the dancers could showcase their skills, grace and imagination. (Dennisto).

8 - Benjamin Britten - Four Sea Interludes from Peter Grimes.wav

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British orchestral music Although British orchestral music had enjoyed a significant revival in the early 20th century, the country’s contribution to serious opera still rested largely on Purcell. That all changed in 1945 with the premiere of Britten’s Peter Grimes.

Benjamin Britten had been a rising talent in the decades between the wars, but Peter Grimes signaled both the start of his artistic maturity and the rebirth of English-language opera. Britten wrote in a style recognizably English, yet with a thoroughly modern psychological edge. For the next 30 years, he would remain the most significant figure in British music, continuing to write operas of international stature while also excelling in other fields, particularly orchestral music, chamber works and song. (Barker, Jeffcock, & Sommers, 2013).

Foreign Influences The world was becoming a smaller place, with millions of poor European immigrants seeking refuge in the new world to join the white settlers, African American and Chinese workers already there. From this rich mix of musical cultures, soon to be heard on the new record players and radios: spring the blues, ragtime and jazz. The musical cultures they had left behind found a home In New York’s Ellis Island, where Europe´s exhausted and oppressed peoples sought refuge and a new start.

The advantage of recording made the huge wealth of music already available in the early 1900’s increasingly available to millions of people across the world, vastly expanding their musical horizons, and turning something expensive and elitist into an ordinary commodity. Recording also began to place in front of a mass audience, forms of folk and ethnic music that were up to then unknown outside their local community. The music that was boosted, most of all by recording, was that produced by African Americans, beginning with spiritual songs.

9 - Swing Low Sweet Chariot Civil War Songs and Stories NPT.wav

A Research on the Cultural Impact of Historical Events in the 19th and 20th Centuries Cecilia Seguezzo, Liliana Barbieri, Carolina Albornoz, Pamela Cáceres.

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African American slaves and their descendants, living in conditions of oppressive poverty, developed a form of religious song; the Spiritual, which seem to have been an amalgam of half-remembered African chants and missionary hymns. These spirituals of the Deep South were rich with Old Testament references to the slavery of the Israelites, visions of redemption, and heavenly justice. The existence of the spiritual was for a long time mostly unknown to the white population of the United States, let alone the rest of the world. But a long fuse had lit. (Burns, 2001).

The Fisk Jubilee singers, who were themselves children of slaves, began to make fund-raising tours singing what was called at the time ‘negro spiritual’.

Strangely, one of the first musicians to put this music in front of a middle class American audience was an Englishman. Samuel Taylor was a sensation of three trips to the USA, conduction his own compositions. In one of them early and tantalizing evidence of the melodic style of what came to be known as the blues could be heard, although in different disguises it went on to dominate the music of the 20th century and beyond.

The blues developed slowly among former slave communities in the USA. Spirituals and songs of the deep south, all derived from their African origins, went into the mixing pot of the early blues, but also mixed in were chords borrowed from hymns and parlor and boudeville songs, and the songs of other members of the American underclass.

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There’s been considerable research into song forms of the poorest Americans of all ethnic groups in the 19th century. It reveals the influence of Anglo-Celtic folk music from the growth of the blues. This folk music was learned from the African American’s co-workers in the cotton fields and on the railroads, many of whom were from the British Isles. Among these songs, there are hundreds which lament the burdens and misery of the laborious life. Typical is the iconic American work song the ballad of John Henry, the steel driving man, which eventually became a blues standard. It celebrates the futile battle between an

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African American railroad worker and a new machine designed to replace him.

Music historians have traced the shape back to the much earlier British ballad The Birmingham Boys. (Barker, Jeffcock, & Sommers, 2013).

Despite any influences the blues might have had, the early blues musicians made something unique and lasting of their own. This same intermingling of style and traditions can be seen in the arrival, around the same time of Ragtime, which became a common craze. Rag, or ragtime music originated in Saint Luis and Chicago bars and brothels, copying the popular marching bands of the 1880’s and 90’s, a fashion that reached its peak with the band leader John Phillipe Soussa. In order to emulate a whole band, the pianists had to leap across the keys franticly, resulting in a quite virtuoso left hand motion. On top of this, they wove a catchy tune accompanied that pulled the rhythm around, a technique called syncopation. This playful jumping ahead of the tune was taken from the banjo or piano accompaniments for cakewalks, a jokey form of dancing that plantation workers had invented for their own amusement Along with the cakewalk, another offspring of ragtime was a hyper syncopated form of piano and band playing that flickered into life in the district of New Orleans, charismatic performers like Jelly Morton took it on tour around the southern states in traveling boudeville shows. Though Morton called a lot of his numbers ‘blues’, we now know this is the beginning of a distinct genre of its own: jazz. From now on this music took on a life of its own.

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Classic Struggle As the new styles began to revolutionize popular music, classically trained composers found themselves outflanked and increasingly unloved. The century would see popular music, especially American popular music sweeping the planet, and yet, faced with the twin rebellion of dissident modernism and the mass market, the classical tradition found an ace up its sleeve, and played it with impeccable timing. In a world of turmoil and change, its response was

A Research on the Cultural Impact of Historical Events in the 19th and 20th Centuries Cecilia Seguezzo, Liliana Barbieri, Carolina Albornoz, Pamela Cáceres.

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nostalgia; Edward Elgar’s most famous piece ‘Enigma variations’ embodies this response. As the world began to slide towards the final showdown of the European empires, this music reminded people of what they were about to lose.

From Elgar and Williams in Britain and other composers in Eastern Europe, a musical style of tender, old fashioned melancholy seemed to want to hold back the relentless passage of time and progress.

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Nationalism and Populism – The Perón Age Juan Domingo Perón is among the most controversial figures in the modern political history of South America. On the one hand, many are prepared to argue that he was a fascist, but others see in Peronism, which long retained the support of the Argentinean working class, real elements of a social justice movement combined with severely compromised leadership.

Perón, an army officer, seized power in 1944 with a group of other military officers. During the Argentine presidential election of 1946, Perón won quite easily with the support of his hugely popular wife Eva Duarte de Perón (Evita, 1919-1952). His government was characterized by genuine efforts to raise the living standards of the urban poor, but also quite dramatic levels of petty corruption. He was initially supported by the army, nationalists, and the Catholic hierarchy as well as the trade union. (McKenna, 2010).

Throughout the Latina American continent are taking into their hands or intervening in numerous public services and natural resources. Nationalism will be the banner for regimes as different as Argentinean Peronism, the Cuban revolution and the fascism influenced dictatorships in the 70’s.

The sentiment and rhetoric of patriotism surfaced strongly in response to the European neocolonialism, mainly British, which had given way to the American, much more radical in its interventionism of Latin American countries. England’s policy had been one of exerting pressure indirectly in order to favor the British private companies. But the upcoming world power, United States systematically

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developed political and military alliances with local groups and came to frequently intervene in numerous campaigns and even military coups in Central and Latin America.

The military regime of General Alejandro Lanusse, which took power in March 1971, proclaimed its intention to restore constitutional democracy by the end of 1973

and

allowed

the

reestablishment

of

political

parties,

including

the Peronist party. Upon invitation from the military government, Perón returned to Argentina for a short time in November 1972. In the elections of March 1973, Peronist candidates captured the presidency and majorities in the legislature, and, in June, Perón was welcomed back to Argentina with wild excitement. In October, in a special election, he was elected president and, at his insistence, his wife—whom the Argentineans disliked and resented—became vice president While in exile Perón had wooed the left-wing Peronists and had supported the most belligerent labor unions. Once returned to power, however, he formed close links with the armed forces and other previously opposition right-wing groups. Taking office in October 1973, he continued the campaign against the left, and in May 1974 the victims of the purge acknowledged the break with their former leader and passed into (still legal) opposition. Montonero activity increased, and the Triple A, suspected by many of being close to the police and intelligence branches of the administration, began to crack down on political, student, and union leaders.

Perón’s economic policies from 1973 included monetary stabilization, rigid control of prices and wages in order to favor wage earners, and limitations on the profits of agrarian exporters. Within a year the balance of payments suffered, however. The price of petroleum imports increased sharply, owing to the Arab oil embargo of 1973, and outbreaks of foot-and-mouth disease in Argentina caused many European nations to ban shipments of Argentine meat.

When Perón died on July 1, 1974, he left to his widow a deeply compromised inheritance, yet the transition of power was smooth, and Isabel Perón was

A Research on the Cultural Impact of Historical Events in the 19th and 20th Centuries Cecilia Seguezzo, Liliana Barbieri, Carolina Albornoz, Pamela Cáceres.

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sworn in as the world’s first woman president. Under the influence of López Rega, the government became even more inflexibly oriented toward the right, and violence reached new heights. López Rega, who used the rightist crusade to consolidate his power base, favored labor and army leaders who personally supported him, and this style of favoritism created hostility among union, political, and military leaders. In 1975 he supported a drastic devaluation and a steep drop in real wages, upon which inflation soared. Isabel Perón was persuaded to dismiss López Rega, but the unrest deepened. On March 24, 1976, military officers deposed the president and took over the government

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The Military Dictatorships During the 1960’s there was a proliferation of guerrilla movements spurred by the considerable social inequalities, the influence of the leftist movements, the inflexibility

of

local

regency

and

the

resentment

towards

American

neocolonialism, the violence often exerted by the State, the disillusionment in what many considered the failure of the populist attempts to better the life conditions of vast segments of the population, and the popularity of leading figures like Che Guevara and Fidel Castro. Inspired by the soviet system and the Cuban experience, and often supported by Cuba (directly or indirectly), these movements gained popularity in the urban middle class.

The guerrilla was, however, not the only reason for political commotion in the 60’s; workers protests, generally coordinated by the powerful national unions, multiplied and often combined university student demonstrations, resulted in violent confrontations with the police and army.

Whereas in 1930 the protagonists of the military coup were retired general and cadets at the Military College, in 1976 the instigators were the commanders-inchief of the military establishment. This process led to the gradual emergence of norms of social behavior and shifts in meaning that created a political and ideological culture which naturalized the recourse to violence as an efficient,

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legitimate means of resolving conflicts.

Both the French and the North American schools were decisive in the consolidation

of

a more

professional approach

to

counter-insurgency

techniques in Argentina. The coup that lasted from 1966 to 1973 saw the introduction of the repressive technique of ‘disappearance’.

With the March 1976 coup d’état, the system of ‘disappearing’ people was employed on a national scale, with a complex bureaucracy that made use of state resources and installations: it became the chosen method of repression.

By now, the repressive strategy was no longer based on the legal prison system but became structured around the clandestine system of detention and disappearance. This strategy later came to be conceptualized as ‘State Terrorism’. (Catoggio, 2010).

In spite of the intensity of the guerrilla movements, practically all of them failed, mainly due to the military and traditional elite opposition, supported in many cases by the staunchly anti-communist American government. In South America popular governments succumbed to the military pressure which took power in almost every country. In the 70’s, successive coups ended some of the most progressive administrations in the continent.

Classical Music Scene A particularly interesting phenomenon takes place in the years of Perón’s first presidency. Although the great majority of the classical music audience was politically contrary to Peronism, and one of the most prominent musicians of the time, composer and orchestra director Juan Jose Castro was openly antiPeronist, in 1946 Peron’s administration creates the Buenos Aires Philharmonic Orchestra, and soon after the National Symphonic Orchestra, the Blind National Choir, the Blind Symphonic Band and finally the Argentinean Music National Orchestra.

During these years the Colon Theater first opens its doors to the popular sectors of society, through performances for unions and schools, among others.

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In the mid 50’s, after the Peron administration had been overthrown, the National Arts Fund is instilled. (Bardin, 2008).

During the 60’s and with private funding, the Di Tella Institute is opened, where it would take place some of the most important manifestations of plastic arts, music, theater and arts in general. Particularly in the case of music this experience became transcendental through the inauguration of the Latin American High Musical Studies center (CLAEM), were dozens of the most accomplished composers and teachers of several Latin American countries were formed.

In the coming years, the military regimes of the second half of the 20th c. in Argentina expressed the most negative cultural policies conceivable. The prohibitions went from the 1956 decree (4161) that banned even whistling the Peronist march, to the prohibition of the Bomarzo opera during Ongania’s administration and finds its darkest times during the prohibition of songs, persecution of artists and disappearances that took place in the last military dictatorship.

Argentinean Rock – Early Years In the emerging rock scene, the first Argentinean rockers like Sandro and Johny Tedesco started to emerge, influenced by American musicians like Elvis Presley and Bill Haley, with a rock, twist and blues style that opened a path for rock to settle and continue its permanent evolution in the country. One of the first rock and roll groups to arise in Argentina was Mr. Roll and The Rockers, a band formed in 1956, led by Eddie Pequerino which had Lalo Schiffrin as pianist.

An important phenomenon for the national rock scene in the late 50’s and early 60’s was the influence of Mexican musicians, such as Ritchie Valens with his first Spanish world hit ‘La Bamba’. Also bands like ‘Los Teen Tops’, ‘Los Blue Caps’ and ‘Los Locos del Ritmo’ made Spanish adaptations of songs by Elvis, Little Richard and Chuck Berry among others.

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Folk and Protest songs Unlike in other regions, most prominent Hispanic American artists and writers openly supported or showed certain sympathy towards the leftist movements, probably as a reaction against the American policies in the Latin-American continent. This resulted in a search for European historical and cultural referents and the eventual notion of a Latin-American spirituality against AngloSaxon tradition and mentality, which soon incorporated the native cultures as well.

In the 60’s Latin-America’s historical, social and cultural wealth, along with the solid formation of many intellectuals and the enthusiasm linked to the Cuban Revolution contributed to the emergence of revolutionary movements and ideas which sprung to life a musical genre called ‘protest song’ or ‘new song’. The audience of this genre continued to expand in the early 1970s as the music became an increasingly potent political force. In Argentina, Mercedes Sosa emerged as one of the most popular artists, passionately reinterpreting the songs of others to deliver a powerful populist message.

With the exception of the Cuban administration, which generally supported the populist message of the ‘new song’, the governments of many Latin American countries viewed the music and its musicians as a serious threat to national stability. Consequently, during the tumultuous 1970s ‘new song’ artists were often imprisoned or exiled, if not killed. In Uruguay, Viglietti was imprisoned, and his songs were banned. His incarceration sparked an international outcry, however, and the government consented to release him. Yupanqui was repeatedly exiled from Argentina (and ultimately died in Paris in 1992). Sosa fled to Europe after being arrested by the military in the middle of a concert; she remained in Paris and Madrid for three years, returning to Argentina in 1982. It was perhaps the Chilean performers who were treated most harshly. In conjunction with the coup, led by Gen. Augusto Pinochet, that ended the Allende administration in 1973, Victor Jara was tortured and killed by the new military regime and subsequently was buried unceremoniously—almost secretly—by his wife in Santiago’s general cemetery.

A Research on the Cultural Impact of Historical Events in the 19th and 20th Centuries Cecilia Seguezzo, Liliana Barbieri, Carolina Albornoz, Pamela Cáceres.

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The Birth of National Rock In 1964 The Beatles phenomenon was a boom in Argentina as in the rest of the world. International rock merged with a politicized generation moved through student and union organizations, which started to confront the military dictatorships out in the streets, with an active participation of middle class youngsters, both male and female. This generation symbolized its identity through rock and roll and the sexual revolution, opposed in a radical rupture against tango and the previous generations’ sexist double standards.

In the coup led by Juan Carlos Onganía, some of the prohibitions aimed to keeping the young population’s ‘high morals and good habits’ included a ban to long hair and a preoccupation with the loose moral behavior of couples in parks.

There was, however, a growing underground musical scene taking place in bars and parks as ‘La Cueva’, ‘La Perla’ and ‘Plaza francia’. In 1964 musicians Litto Nebbia and Ciro Fogliatta decide to form the band ´Los Gatos´ inspired by their common admiration to the Beatles, their debut album ‘La Balsa’ sold 200,000 copies. In this way National Rock had its first massive hit and the movement was gaining strength. Producers started to

give greater attention to the

phenomenon giving way to festival and publications like ‘Pinap’ magazine, which in turn attracted a further audience and paved the way for bands like ‘Manal’ and ‘Almendra’.

In 1972 and 73, there was a sub-genre that, firstly opposed by its contemporary rockers eventually managed to pave the way to the massivity of national rock; Accustic Rock. With leading bands as ‘Pescado rabioso’and ‘Vox Dei’, soon followed newcomers Leon Gieco and ‘Sui Generis’. Electric instruments were no longer needed to communicate rock’s message and with the overthrowing of Isabel Peron in March 24th, 1976 the national rock movement was automatically considered subversive. An atmosphere of repression and terror began to have an impact, although many artists were forced to exile, many stayed, fulfilling the needs of an ever-growing audience. (Ezzaoui, 2009).

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The British and American Scene While classical music found its niche in the cinema industry, popular music post war was thriving as well. Better microphones and recording techniques, the arrival of the long playing record, and in particular a new breed of musical virtuoso would all lay the groundwork for the blossoming of electrifying new popular forms. One of them was the jazz style known as bebop, a frantic groove of the late 40’s and 50’s. Where whole tracks where devoted to a jumble of instruments, sometimes solo, sometimes in coordinated groups, tumbling across notes at high speed, willfully oblivious at the harmonies they once belonged to. In the music of Charlie Parker1, Thelonious Monk and Dizzy Gillespie, bebop became the most influential form of jazz in the 50’s and beyond. (Burns, 2001).

Whilst bebop relied for its forward momentum on giddy chaos, other forms of popular music wanted to go on another direction, towards a thumping regularity.

Rocket 88 was released in 1951 and it is generally reckoned to be the first rock and roll record. Unlike the unpredictability of bebop, rock and roll’s appeal laid in the clockwork rigidity of four beats to a bar. Rock and roll quickly became popular amongst teenager as music they could dance and date to.

The music industry would quickly realize of this unexploited market. America’s affluent society, and eventually Europe in the post war period provided plenty of teenagers willing to spend their pocket money in transistor radios and record players. Increasingly, albums were made for adults and singles in the hit parade were aimed at youth.

As time went by, other elements were added to the recipe of rhythm and blues; the simplicity and liveliness of country music and the soaring passion of gospel with musicians as Ray Charles with his 1959 classic What’d I say. In the late 50’s, the best pop songs were well-crafted packages still aimed at a teenaged market, but often possessed a sharp emotional intelligence as portrayed in all girl groups as The Shirelles.

1

American saxophone player whose life inspired Julio Cortazar’s renowned short story ‘El Perseguidor’

A Research on the Cultural Impact of Historical Events in the 19th and 20th Centuries Cecilia Seguezzo, Liliana Barbieri, Carolina Albornoz, Pamela Cáceres.

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Not only the popular songs became more sophisticated, in the 1960’s it was popular music too that became the voice of political opposition. In the hand of artists like Bob Dylan, it supported the civil rights movement. It was popular song as well that spoke out against the Vietnam War. Americas’ conscience in the period of the civil rights movement and the Vietnam War was carried out not by their leading classical composers, but by popular music, which says something about the changing status of the two genres in the 1960’s.

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Classical music had by this time lost its ability to voice the hopes and fears of the majority of the population. That is not to say, however that pop songs were anything like as musically complicated as the classical music they were fast surpassing in the public’s affection. The sheer volume of songs composed, albums recorded, and careers launched in the blossoming of the pop age, should not blind the fact that in purely musical terms the melodies, harmonies and rhythms of the vast majority of those songs were both relatively limited and relatively static. Large parts of the pop, rock and soul repertoire are variants on the basic blues templates, with a straight forward drumbeat, the use of three to twelve chords and a small number of instruments to choose from, revolving around guitar, bass, keyboard and drums.

One group that started out as a no-thrills guitar and drums band, not only became the most famous musicians on the planet; The Beatles revolutionized pop music. Their music swiftly moved from catchy, simple rhythm and blues to a sophisticated musical mix that encompassed all the styled they had grown up with, as well as new ones they invented. From the beginning of their careers they happily plundered musical influences from a plethora of earlier genres. No other group of musicians in History did as much to expand the possibilities of recording technology as did The Beatles.

At this stage, it looked as if American and British rock and pop music was becoming a kind of a world standard. But then traffic started arriving from the other direction, with styles from nonwestern cultures vastly enriching music´s

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palate. Once again the Beatles started a trend with the music of India. In the mid 70’s Stevie Wonder brilliantly adapted the street rhythms of Cuba in a series of hugely influential albums. Since then, thanks partly to immigration, but mainly due to the evermore globalized culture, world music has become a flourishing reality.

In the mid-20th C it seemed as if the two traditions of music, classical and nonclassical, were drifting further and further apart, as if they were speaking different, untranslatable languages. But then a strange thing happened, in America the two zones, contemporary pop and contemporary classical, gave birth to a style that was half one, half the other; its name was minimalism. And its arrival provoked a major change in the relationship between musical genres.

It ushered in an age of musical conversions; the age in which we are now.

Minimalism emerged quietly in the 1960’s and flourished in the 1970’s, headed

by American composers like Terry Riley, Philip Glass, and most of all Steve Reich. Reich has been described as the single most influential composer of the late 20th C, bringing fresh ideas and impetus to both popular and classical music.

He

derived

his

inspirations

from

African

drumming

and

Balinese Gamelan music, and he applied their approach to western music.

Reich is also the godfather of a technique called ‘sampling’, where a sample of recorded sound is chopped up and recycled into a musical pattern. ‘Sampling’ is practically the bedrock of every hip-hop track ever heard. (Barker, Jeffcock & Sommers, 2013).

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David Bowie integrated minimalist styles from Reich and his fellow newyorker Philip Glass into his 1977 album recorded in the shadow of the Berlin wall ‘Low’.

Then fifteen years later, Philip Glass composed a ‘Low’ symphony based on material from the Bowie album. With exchanges like this between what used to be seen as polar opposites, classical and pop becoming more common, the split between the two wings of music is, after a century, finally beginning to

A Research on the Cultural Impact of Historical Events in the 19th and 20th Centuries Cecilia Seguezzo, Liliana Barbieri, Carolina Albornoz, Pamela Cáceres.

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close.

The Iron Lady – The senseless War Between 1964 and 1979, the Conservative and Labour Parties alternated in power. Neither could solve the problem of fighting between Catholics and Protestants in Northern Ireland. Violence increased as the Irish Republican Army (IRA) staged a series of dramatic terrorist acts in response to the suspension of Northern Ireland´s Parliament in 1972 and the establishment of direct rule by London. None of the parties were able either to deal with Britain’s needed economy. Failure to modernize made British industry made it less and less competitive. Moreover, Britain was hampered by frequent labor strikes, many of them caused by conflicts between rival labor unions.

In 1979, the Conservatives returned to power under Margaret Thatcher, who became the first woman to serve as prime minister in British history. Thatcher pledged to lower taxes, reduce government bureaucracy, limit social welfare, restrict union power and end inflation. The “Iron Lady”, as she was called, did break the power of the labor unions. Although she did not eliminate the basic components of the social welfare system, she did use austerity measures to control inflation. “Thatcherism”, as her economic policy was termed, improved the British economic situation, but at a price. The south of England, for example, prospered, but the old industrial areas of the Midlands and North declined and were beset with high unemployment, poverty, and sporadic violence. Cutbacks in education seriously undermined the quality of British education, long regarded as among the world’s finest. (Duiker & Spielvogel, 2012).

In the area of foreign policy, Thatcher, like Ronald Reagan in the United States, took a hard approach toward communism. She oversaw a large military buildup aimed at replacing older technology and reestablishing Britain as a world police officer. In 1982, when Argentina attempted to take control of the Malvinas Islands (one of Britain’s remaining colonial outposts) 300 miles off its coast, the British successfully rebuffed the Argentinean, although at considerable economic cost and the loss of 255 lives.

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Malvinas War Between April 2nd and June 14th 1982, the Republic of Argentina was involved with Great Britain in a military conflict over the sovereignty of the Malvinas Islands. This tragic decision was taken by a military dictatorship that had been engaging in State terrorism since 1976. The reclamation of the islands was considered reasonable by part of the population who took the streets in demonstrations. The ill-fated decision by the military regime provoked the loss of hundreds of lives and the subsequent defeat was one of the facts that precipitated its end and cleared the way for the democratic transition.

On April 2nd 1982, around 5000 soldiers under the command of Gen. Mario Benjamín Menéndez disembarked in Port Stanley, Malvinas Island’s capital, since then renamed Puerto Argentino. The 49 British sailors that formed the small garrison in charge of the archipelago custody were taken into custody and moved to Montevideo along with Governor Rex Hunt. Gen. Menéndez took office as Governor of the islands.

The British administration faced a severe political crisis which caused the immediate resignation of foreign affairs Minister, Lord Carrington. In order to improve her public image First Minister Margaret Thatcher decided to take military actions to liberate the islands and had her first diplomatic triumph in succeeding that the United Nations Security Council declare Argentina “aggressor country” and obtaining USA and the European Economic Community unabashed endorsement.

Latin American support towards Argentina was nearly unanimous. Nicaragua offered troupes; Venezuela, oil and Peru, replacement aircrafts. Only Pinochet’s regime in Chile adopted a conflicting position, supplying the British army with provisions and bases for command units. (Pellini).

In Great Britain, a detachment of 28,000 men and 2 aircraft carriers was soon

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deployed as USA’s secretary of State, Alexander Haig, was involving in intensive diplomatic activities to persuade the Argentinean administration that there would be a greater chance of success through diplomatic negotiations.

Having failed to succeed in his attempts, he formally announced the American administration´s support to the British government on April 30th.

On April 25th, Britain’s armed forces took back the island of South Georgia, and after the deployment of the majority of the troupes in the beginning of May, the RAF aircrafts began the attack to the Argentinean military posts, Port Stanley (Puerto Argentino) in particular. Although the British could not manage to expel the Argentinean air and naval forces, the nuclear submarine Conqueror prompted the sinking of the General Belgrano cruiser, killing 368 men.

Following this attack, an Exocet missile, launched by an Argentinean craft sank the British destroyer HMS Sheffield.

Britain set out then on a military operation of great difficulty, the amphibious assault on the Gran Malvina, one of the biggest islands in the archipelago.

Special forces scouted the island to determinate the location of Argentinean military troupes and identify possible landing sites. Meanwhile, diplomatic actions carried on, first initiated by the Peruvian administration and later through the United Nation Secretary-General, Javier Perez de Cuéllar. Once again the Argentinean military junta refused the possibility of a military retreat without a guaranty that direct negotiations would result in granting the island’s sovereignty.

A few days after the conclusion of the UN efforts, on May 21st, and without having obtained any meaningful progress, British troupes successfully disembarked in San Carlos (Gran Malvina). In the unceasing aerial attacks in the following days against the British ships trying to deliver supplies 3 crafts and a merchant ship, the Atlantic Conveyor, were sank and numerous helicopters and planes were taken down.

The most important land combat, took place in March 28th, when, after a harsh battle, a British contingent of 600 men defeated a more numerous Argentinean garrison in Goose Green (in South Malvina). The British advanced towards the

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Argentinean’s main garrison, deployed at Port Stanley (Puerto Argentino) and faced their greatest disaster in the Malvinas conflict, when the transport ship Sir Galahad was taken down by Argentinean aircrafts in Port Fitzroy.

Through combined artillery and infantry attacks to eliminate Argentina’s resistance, the British forces took in time the high grounds surrounding Port Stanley (Puerto Argentino). On June 14th, the Argentinean garrison under the commands of Gen Menéndez surrendered and the military junta resigned soon after. The islands were fortified by the British and kept their colony status, although their inhabitants were granted full British citizenship.

The war amounted to the reoccupation of the three archipelagos by the United Kingdom and a final dead toll of 649 Argentinean soldiers, 255 British soldiers and 3 islanders.

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Argentina’s National Rock The military coup of 1976 gave way to one of the darkest and bloodiest periods in the history of Argentina. Rock musicians, considered ‘subversive’, suffered the brunt of the military dictatorship and many were forced to flee the country. In many aspects, being young was immediately associated with being suspicious.

This approach becomes evident when analyzing the speech given by Ad Emilio Massera at the El Salvador University in 1977, where he urges the youth not to follow the example of ‘those who take up rock and end up in the guerrilla’.

(Vivas, Bruno, & Rodriguez, 2013).

Listening to rock music or attending the concerts was a symbol of resistance. It became in teenagers a way to forge their identities and establish their peer group. León Gieco, a folk based rocker, became an essential pillar during this period, his songs were often censored, but audiences could not be kept from his performances.

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Charly García input was crussial, alongside of David Lebón, Pedro Aznar and Oscar Moro, he formed the band Serú Girán, who many would define as the ‘Argentinean Beatles’. Charged with subtlety, energy and wit, their lyrics avoided state terrorism and came to be anthems of the youth. There was music to suit all tastes at bars and recitals, but national broadcastings would turn their backs to it. That all changed with a military move that would open an unexpected door to the national rock industry.

The Malvinas in 1982 brought with it the prohibition to play music in English, programmers turned then to the recordings of Argentinean artists providing the key push for mass audiences to know the before marginalized groups. On May 16th 1982 the Latin-American Solidarity festival took place in the ‘Obras Sanitarias’ stadium to gather clothes and food for the troupes fighting in Malvinas, over 60 thousand people crowded the venue, and many more tuned to the live broadcast. The age of massivity had arrived.

The defeat in Malvinas marked the beginning of the end for the military junta, with the consequent political and ideological liberalization. Already settled National Rock started to grow in quantity and quality, the new bands added to the old and the landscape broaden. On October 30th 1983 the Argentineans went back to the voting polls with a rocking soundtrack. The tragic move of the Malvinas war had as a foundation a nationalistic and anti-British boom

that

allowed the ‘inside enemies’- as young rockers were considered by the military administration- to be recognized and endorsed. Groups and soloists of the rock and popular song circuit that had been previously persecuted to a point where giving a concert had a dangerous and uncertain outcome to themselves and their audience, were now integrated and encouraged as a result of the prohibition to English music in radios and TV. (Vivas, 2013).

That is how both rockers and singer-songwriters, pinpointed as ‘young’ or ‘foreign-sounding’ managed to claw their way into a previously banned formal circuit and even, amidst the Malvinas craze, were able to sneak in trends and songs that also questioned the military regime.

Leon gieco established his

hymn ‘Solo le pido a Dios’, but also sang ‘El pais de la libertad’; Pedro and Pablo questioned Margaret Thatcher in ‘Señora violencia e hijos’ but did not left

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out ‘La marcha de la bronca’; and Charly García conjured fierce critic and devastating irony in ‘No bombardeen Buenos Aires’, without leaving aside the condemn of ‘Inconciente colectivo’ or ‘Canción de Alicia’.

In this broad span, Victor Heredia’s song ‘Aquellos soldaditos de plomo’ emerged also and he released as well ‘Informe de la situacion’ while even bands like Los Violadores were praised for making ‘Argentinean Punk’, even though one of

their hits was the explicit ‘Represión’. The cultural

democratization not only gave new life to the previously silenced, but enabled an opening to the rest of the provinces whose highest form of expression was the arrival of what came to be known as the ‘Trova Rosarina’ with artists such as Juan Carlos Baglietto, Fito Páez and Silvina Garré among others. (Vivas, Bruno & Rodriguez, 2013).

Through the painful and foreseeable toll of the Malvinas war, the unapologetic vibe brought about by the few months of the conflict, an esthetic force previously silenced for years, helped bring an end to the dark empire of the military regime.

Argentina’s Classical Scene In the first years of Argentina’s new found democracy there was a cultural rebirth that was characterized by the need to retake the public spaces, the return from exile and the reclaiming of the politic field but not for the State cultural and structural policies related to the classical music scene. In 1985 the National Youth Choir is created through the Ministry of Culture.

Perhaps the more meaningful transformations performed during the 1980’s are related to advances in the field of musical education, the renovation of musical syllabus in the conservatories as well as the reopening of the musical degrees in the universities of Litoral and La Plata and the creation of musical orientation as part of the degree in Art history of the Buenos Aires University and the height of the popular music schools like the one of Avellaneda township. (Bardin, 2008).

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20 - Bee Gees - Stayin' Alive (1977).wav

American and British Music Scene in the Seventies and Eighties The 1970’s produced a perfect musical link from the rebelliousness of the 1960’s and the cheerful songs characteristic of the 1980s. Following the counterculture of the 50’s and the 60’s, the 70’s music created a trend of relaxing music as well as dance music. People had grown tired of the belligerent previous decade and many of them sought a refuge in dance clubs.

Out of this idea emerged the Disco movement. Disco was the definition of the 1970’s. Although its popularity was relatively short-lived, the genre hosted a great deal of songs and artists that people are still dancing to today and had a large influence on the fashions of the decade, too. Gloria Gaynor enjoyed disco popularity with her anthem "I Will Survive" and The Bee Gees also helped to define the disco genre and their blockbuster "Stayin' Alive" is often synonymous with the disco musical era.

Of course, there were still bands and artists that continued to speak of the ills of society, typically characterized by the punk music in the latter part of the decade. Although the rebellious idea had died down shortly following Woodstock in 1969, there were still many people that disagreed with the establishment and government policies.

The 1970's was not a unique decade in terms of creating innovations in musical styles and genres, but it was unique in that it was a musical bridge connecting the hippie lifestyle of the 1960’s with the characteristic yuppie lifestyle that was about to occur in the 1980’s.

21 - The Ramones - I Wanna Be Sedated MP3 Clear.wav

The punk rock genre also emerged in the 1970’s with a upbeat and hard style.

Heavy guitar riffs and more decibels helped to motivate those who were still upset about the status quo in the country. The Ramones are often referred to as

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the original punk band. Their song "I Wanna Be Sedated" became a generational anthem depicting the feeling of jaded youth. In Britain, the Sex Pistols also enjoyed a short-lived success releasing two hit albums, "God Save the Queen" and "Never Mind the Bullocks", that created a wave of rebellion throughout the United States and the UK. (Pearson).

It is important to note that these were not the only popular genres during the decade. Singers and songwriters were quite popular in the 1970s as well, with artists like Joni Mitchell, Carly Simon, Elton John, Carole King and Billy Joel, sharing time in the spotlight too. Their music reflected deep themes with simple musical arrangements and many of these artists had already been prominent in the songwriting scene but relatively unknown as they were not often the face of their own music. The seventies more than any other decade gave them a chance to go solo and gain recognition.

22 - Forrest Gump Theme by Alan Silvestri.wav

The Classical Genre Classical music continues to be current and available to main stream audiences, specially through many feature films that have music scores tailormade for them by distinguished composers in the medium, as well as many blockbusters that also continue to call on pieces from the classical repertoire to provide the supporting ambience.

As one of the best known, awarded, and financially successful composers in US history, John Williams is easy to recall. He is undoubtedly one of the most respected composers for Cinema and is the composer of some of the most recognizable and popular themes in the history of film such as the ones for Raiders

of

the

Lost

Ark

(1981), E.T.

the

Extra-Terrestrial (1982),

Superman (1978), Jurassic Park (1993), and the Harry Potter saga.

Immensely talented, the Argentinian pianist Lalo Schifrin, is a conductor and composer who has written over 100 scores for both television & the cinema

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including the memorable theme to Mission: Impossible (1966). During his illustrious career, Schifrin has received four Grammy Awards, and has received six Oscar nominations.

In over thirty years as a film composer, also Alan Silvestri has blazed an innovative trail with his exciting and melodic scores, winning the applause of Hollywood and movie audiences all over the world, one of his most recognizable is the music score for Forest Gump (1994) (Barker, Jeffcock, & Sommers, 2013).

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Conclusion Classical and popular music have been drawn closer together mostly through advances in musical technology. Either for recording, amplification or editing, music technology has been developing in the past decades at an amazingly accelerated pace, right up until our own time, and continues to drive music in countless different directions. New technologies like synthesizers and drum machines, to sampling, mash-ups and the spread of auto-tune software seem to have taken over. What the musical past tells us is that there is no point in worrying too much about what is to follow. For every movement, there is a counter-movement, for every fear a reassuring song that addresses it.

Music in our civilization started out as a free-flowing, unwritten, spontaneous oral tradition, based entirely on the lives, loves and expectations of ordinary people. In truth, its fundamental purpose has not changed in all these centuries, despite the many layers of complexity it has come to have along the way. J.S. Bach was probably one of the most talented composer who ever lived, and he gave his performers almost no instructions as to how they should interpret his sublime music. He wrote down the notes, and left them to it, as if he was saying ‘Don’t worry, just play’. We, more than any previous generation can identify with Bach’s request, we press ‘play’, and a million styles, sounds, colors and voices find their way towards us. We have at last reached a point where there are no wrong or right decisions about what music we may or may not enjoy, just the gratifyingly simple notion; ‘play’.

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Works Cited Bardin, P. (2008). La influencia de la música europea sobre los argentinos. In M. Jujuy, Los caminos de la música. Europa y Argentina. Editorial de la Universidad Nacional de Jujuy.

Barker, A., Jeffcock, D., & Sommers, P. (Directors). (2013). Howard Goodall's Story of Music. [Motion Picture].

Burns, K. (Director). (2001). Jazz series [Motion Picture].

Corrado, O. (2001). Música culta y política en Argentina entre 1930 y 1945. Música e Investigación .

Dennisto, C. (n.d.). History of Tango. Retrieved 06 2014, from Couple Dancing and the Beginning of Tango : http://www.history-of-tango.com/ Dixon, G. (2013). British music through the ages. Limelight Magazine .

Duiker, W., & Spielvogel, J. (2012). World History, Volume II: Since 1500. Cengage Learning.

Evans, E. (2011, 03 29). BBC . Retrieved 06 2014, from Overview: Victorian Britain, 1837 – 1901: http://www.bbc.com/ Funes, P., & López, M. P. (2010). Historia social argentina y Latinoamericana. .

Instituto nacional de formación docente Ministerio de Educación de la Nación.

Grimson, E. (2013). Música y políticas culturales en la Argentina. El espíritu de la colmena. Voces en el Fénix, 29 .

Hansen, P. S. (1961). An introduction to twentieth century music. Allyn and Bacon, inc.

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About the Author

Cecilia Seghezzo is a senior student in Nuestra Se単ora de la Paz Teachers training College where she has attended several conferences and has recently taken part in the organization and presentation of a seminar on Student Evaluation. She obtained her Communication Orientation Secondary School Degree in 1997 and completed two years of Literary Translation at UMSA. Throughout the last decade, she has worked as an English tutor and teacher at the Liverpool and Wall Street institute. She is currently working at the Pio XXIII Commerce Secondary School as an English teacher.

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LIGHTS AND SHADOWS OF POWERFUL FIGURES IN SOCIETY A Research on the Social Impact of Historical Events in the 19th and 20th Centuries

Liliana A. Barbieri

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2. Lights and Shadows of Powerful Figures in Society Liliana Barbieri Introduction To begin with the most defining characteristic of British and Argentine society in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries was the class system. It was a complex hierarchy of social and economic order which had evolved over the centuries out of the feudal system of the Middle Ages.

Harder time had arrived, and another impact shocked the society and their lifestyles. It was World War I and the use of weapons of mass destruction had left millions of people despoiled of their homes and families after having finished it. Time passed, and people had to suffer another collision because of a power elite: the World War II, which left poverty, starvation and the problem of trading between countries and the hard problems which it brought.

On the other hand, this paper also reflects what happened only in Argentina during the twenty century. One of the facts, is based on the presidency of Juan Domingo Peron and his relationship with Argentinean society but basically, his mind was concentrated on the working class of the country. Besides, during his rule a terrorist group made the country unstable, bringing a chaos on the city.

And another sadness fact of this time is related to the missing people which a group of women being it alive with the search of them.

Finally, I will conclude this paper with one of the most important facts for the government of Argentina which is Malvinas War. Both Thatcher and Galtieri’s speeches were loaded with patriotic terms and convey an exalted nationalist mood and both leaders came to power with the aim of reversing what they had perceived as a steady national decline.

Poverty in Argentina and Britain during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries Perhaps the most defining characteristic of British and Argentinian society in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries was the class system. It was a complex

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hierarchy of social and economic order which had evolved over the centuries out of the feudal system of the Middle Ages. This paper will provide an overview of the British and Argentinian class system.

State of affairs at the beginning of the twentieth century: Social classes in Britain.

During the 19th century life was transformed by the Industrial Revolution. At first, it caused many problems but in the late 19th century life became more comfortable for ordinary people. Meanwhile, Britain became the world's first urban society. By 1851 more than half the population lived in towns. The population of Britain boomed during the 1800s. In 1801 it was about 9 million.

By 1901 it had risen to about 41 million. This was despite the fact that many people emigrated to North America and Australia to escape poverty. About 15 million people left Britain between 1815 and 1914. However, many people migrated to Britain in the 19th century. In the 1840s many people came from Ireland, fleeing a terrible potato famine. In the 1880s the Tsar began persecuting Russian Jews. Some fled to Britain and settled in the East End of London. (Lambert, n.d.).

In the early 19th century Britain was ruled by an elite. Only a small minority of men (and no women) were allowed to vote. The situation began to change in 1832 when men were granted votes by means of constituencies and many industrial towns were represented for the first time. The franchise was extended again in 1867 and 1884. In 1872 the secret ballot was introduced. ( ibid n.d.).

However, within families in the 19th century, at least 80% of the population was working class. In order to be considered middle class you had to have at least one servant. Most servants were female. (Male servants were more expensive because men were paid higher wages). Throughout the 19th century 'service' was a major employer of women. In the 19th century families were much larger than today. That was partly because infant mortality was high. People had many children and accepted that not all of them would survive. ( ibid n.d.).

At the end of the 19th century more than 25% of the population was living at or

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below subsistence level. Surveys indicated that around 10% were very poor and could not afford even basic necessities such as enough nourishing food.

Between 15% and 20% had just enough money to live on -- provided they did not lose their job or have to take time off work through illness--. If you had no income at all you had to enter the workhouse. The workhouses were feared and hated by the poor. They were meant to be as unpleasant as possible to deter poor people from asking for help from the state. ( ibid n.d.).

However, during the late 19th century workhouses gradually became more humane. British society changed greatly during the 20th century. In 1914 only about 20% of the population was middle class. By 1939 the figure was about 30%. At the beginning of the 20th century surveys showed that 25% of the population of Britain were living in poverty. They found that at least 15% were living at subsistence level. They had just enough money for food, rent, fuel and clothes. ( ibid n.d.).

A Liberal government was elected in 1906 and they made some reforms. From that year poor children were given free school meals. In January 1909 the first old age pensions were paid. Also in 1909 the government formed wages councils.

In those days some people worked in the so-called 'sweated industries' such as making clothes and they were very poorly paid and had to work extremely long hours just to survive.

The wages councils set minimum pay levels for certain industries. Things greatly improved in Britain after the First World War. A Survey in 1924 showed that 4% of the population were living in extreme poverty. ( ibid n.d.).

Poverty had by no means disappeared by the 1930s but it was much less than ever before.Pensions and unemployment benefits were made more generous in 1928 and in 1930. In 1931 unemployment benefit was cut by 10% but it was restored in 1934. ( ibid n.d.).

Social classes in Argentina

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While independence from Spain was achieved in 1816, Argentina did not become a unified nation until 1880. Confrontations between those who wanted greater regional autonomy (federalist) and those who wanted more centralized forms of government (unitarians) characterized the early post-independence years. (Solberg,1890).

Argentine history, mainly written by the victorious liberal elite sectors, refers to theses schisms in Argentine society as civilization and barbarism- the modern Europeanized sectors against a traditional rural society characterized as violent, primitive, and vagrant. Some analysts assert that this antinomy is misleading because it masks the continuity in the maintenance of power in the hands of landed elites until well into the twentieth century. (Ibid 1890).

During the nineteenth century, local identities prevailed, and men were generally recruited by force to participate in armed confrontations. The term patria -motherland- was generally used to refer to the native province, rather than to the Argentine nation.

The Argentine elites who started to organize the nation after the defeat of what they saw as backwards social

forces

and

gauchos

deliberately

Indians and

attempted

to whiten and modernize the

country

promoting

by

European

immigration. (Ibid,1890).

The newly arrived immigrants changed both the rural and urban landscape of the litoral and pampas regions. By the 1880s, the majority of the indigenous populations were domĂ­nated and pushed to marginal and inhospitable regions.

Victory over the Indians of the Pampas and Patagonia was described as the Conquest of the Desert. Vast tracts of land were distributed among the conquerors. The gauchos, who had roamed in open spaces and sometimes

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escaped into Indian lands to avoid the militia, gradually disappeared from the countryside as a social group. They competed with the immigrants for salaried work in the ranches that were demarcated with barbed wire fences. Many landowners believed that gauchos were ill-suited for agricultural labor and favored the hiring of foreigners. (ibid, 1890).

Immigrants arrived by the thousands, to the point that in cities like Buenos Aires foreign-born residents outnumbered the Argentines. Many immigrants joined the industrial labor force apart from shocking the social order with their labor strikes, and their public behavior. Little by little they became part of the mainstream nacional society and joined the rising middle class.( ibid 1890).

Argentina had a very large middle class. Upper-class and lower-class sectors could trace their origins to more than five generations in the country. Originally, the upper class was mainly formed by landowners of large estates. Urbanization and industrialization processes intensified in the early decades of the twentieth century and greatly affected Argentina´s social structure.

On the other hand, middle class which was formed mainly by the descendants of immigrants who came to Argentina either at the end of the nineteenth or beginning of the twentieth century, settled in cities, and worked in the newly created jobs in the industrial, commercial, and public sectors of the economy.

(Ibid, 1890).

First World War and its Social Consequences Do you happen to have a relative who participated in World War I? Perhaps a great-grandfather? Very few World War I veterans are still living. World War I was one of the first events in modern history that was both concentrated in global time and scope. And it was a hugely important turning point in world history. Consider the world scene in 1914, the year the war broke out.

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The First World War was a cataclysm that disrupted countless lives. As a modern, total war, it brought men and women into active battle zones across Europe as well as in parts of Africa and Asia. New technology further extended the borders of the war. Civilian women and men in Belgium, the north and east of France, Serbia, and different locations of the Russian empire among others came under the control of occupying powers.

Consequently, the war destroyed so many lives reshaping the international political order, it is understandable to view it as a catalyst for enormous changes in all aspects of life, including ideas about gender and the behavior of women and men. The messy reality of the lives of individual men and women is much harder to generalize about. There were visible changes in European politics, society, and culture but also a certain degree of continuity. Most notably, the aftermath of the war witnessed women gaining voting rights in many nations for the first time. Yet women’s full participation in political life remained limited, and some states did not enfranchise their female inhabitants until much later (1944 in France).

Grounded on the impact of the First World War on food consumption and nutrition mostly derives from the findings of The Working Class Cost of Living Committee of 1918 (hereafter the Sumner Committee).

The Sumner Committee was appointed by the Government to enquire into the living standards impact of the increase in the cost of living since July . They had no suitable 1914 benchmark, so they extrapolated from the published results of the Board of Trade's 1904 survey of expenditures by working-class households, adjusting for changes in prices, incomes, and family size. The Sumner enquiry was carried out a few weeks before the imposition of a national rationing scheme.

The Committee concluded that in June 1918, “the working classes, as a whole, were in a position to purchase food of substantially the same nutritive value as in June 1914” and that “families of unskilled workmen were slightly better fed at the later date, in spite of the rise in the cost of food.” The question of the impact

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of food policy is of interest because recent contributions to the literature on the “Home Front” in Britain during the First World War have emphasized the way in which political and economic spheres were increasingly entwined, especially in the period after the fall of the Asquith Liberal government at the very end of 1916.

The formation of Lloyd George's coalition government is typically seen as marking a shift to one in which political and military leaders more fully embraced the needs of “total war”. From the beginning of 1917, it is argued that the government adopted a “statist-corporatist” approach to wartime production and the direction of labor (Millman, 2000:167).

According to Gregory (2008, p. 196), in the first 2 years of the war, food shortages were localized and of relatively short duration, as high prices had “provided incentives for increased supply.” But as the war progressed, shortages and inflationary pressure increased, and demands for state intervention became more persistent.

The 1917 enquiry into industrial unrest pointed to increases in the cost of living, along

with

deep-rooted

suspicion

of

profiteering, as the primary causes of discontent, although local factors also played their part in some regions. As a consequence, state control of food prices and food distribution networks was seen as

vital

industrial

to

combat

unrest

that

this had

widespread increased

sharply in the spring of 1917 and continued to significantly disrupt production until the end of the year (Millman, 2000: 167). In November 1917, more than 0.5 million working days were lost due to strike action, before strike activity declined early in 1918 (Waites, 1987:232).

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On the other hand, Argentina's economy in 1914 was based on agricultural exports, mainly of grain and beef. The Argentine bourgeoisie was composed of landowners, and export businessmen, and confronted a huge number of discontented agricultural workers whose pay and conditions were appalling but whose dispersion in a large backward countryside was a great obstacle in their attempts to organize.

Besides, in the rural region of Patagonia the meat-processing, service and transport workers of the small towns of Rio Gallegos and Puerto Deseado were already developing organizations based on small federations. Patagonia's largest union organization, the Sociedad Obrera de Río Gallegos, was centered in the small capital, Rio Gallegos, and had been active since 1911.

Meanwhile Argentina's rural hinterland was left under developed, the agrobusiness trade had necessitated the development of some subsidiary industries and services, such as meat-processing plants, cargo transport, railways, docks, triggering the expansion of a few coastal cities and a growing urban proletariat.

The urban workers could organize more easily and by 1914 they were already a combative force and a challenge to the status.

Besides, the urbanization of the coast, functional to the export-oriented economy, involved the growth of an urban middle class and petit bourgeoisie composed of shop-keepers, petty businessmen, professionals, and civil servants. The development of the urban middle classes and the threat of the proletariat gradually started undermining the power of the agrarian oligarchy.

By 1911, the conservative government had to concede to the struggles of the middle classes and the petit bourgeoisie and extended the electoral franchise to include middle classes and to the bulk of the working class with the law Saenz Peña (1912).

In 1916, Hipólito Yrigoyen, candidate for the Radical Party, which represented the middle classes, was elected President of Argentina. Yrigoyen's populist government would combine repression with attempts to recuperate urban and rural working class struggles.

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Moreover, the dominant agrarian and mercantile bourgeoisie had little interest in promoting industrial production or the development of the countryside.

However, the viability of Argentina's agrarian export economy depended on the ability of the Argentine exporters to realize profits by selling on the world market.

The vulnerability of this economy, and of the class settlement which it expressed, was exposed by the First World War. Causing disruption to international trade, the war stirred up in Argentina a wave of strikes and insurrections which seriously threatened the bourgeois order. This was the beginning of the end of the era of an economy which was golden only to the extent of the Argentine agrarian oligarchy's pockets.

Thus, with his 1916 election, the Radical President Yrigoyen sought a conciliatory approach with the working class and started a 'special relationship' with the unions of FORA IX. The Radical government took steps towards introducing labour reforms and intervened in industrial disputes through a representative of the President (the governor), sometimes on the side of the workers. On the other hand, Yrigoyen's government severely repressed strikes when no political gain or conciliatory agreements could be obtained or when important interests of capital were at stake.

Although FORA IX found it difficult to bridle the proletariat into submission and compromise. After 1918 news of the Russian Revolution added to the material conditions of crisis by encouraging the Argentine proletariat towards a uncompromising confrontation with the system.

It was the revolutionary FORA V which took the lead of the new offensive. In January 1919 a major insurrection, which would be known as the Tragic Week, exploded in Buenos Aires, provoked by the death of workers during armed confrontations between the police and strikers in the occupied metallurgical plant Pedro Vasena & Hijos.

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FORA V called for a general strike and the on the 9th of January a march of 200,000 people led by about a hundred armed workers turned to a victorious battle with the police, while looters raided the city.

FORA IX was obliged to join FORA V in calling a general strike for the 10th, whilst at the same time opening negotiations with the government. With conviction the struggle continued for the next four days and strikes paralyzed the city, while FORA IX, who were able to negotiate and obtain petty concessions limited to the dispute within Vasena, tried to discourage the workers from carrying on and appealed for a return to work - but in vain.

The insurrection was not really about one isolated dispute in an isolated factory, but about the general discontent shared by everyone, and the workers felt strong enough to prosecute the strikes while FORA V was pushing for the extension of the strikes to the revolution. Only the intervention of the army was able to reimpose social peace.

Post War – What did it leave?

Post- World War I in Britain In Britain, the war caused a minor redistribution of income, mainly due to progressive taxation also due to flat-rate pay increases for manual workers narrowed some pay differences. After 1921 the inequalities widened again, however in families where the wage earner was employed, the incidence of poverty had notably diminished. Most manual working-class wages kept pace with inflation and in 1919 - 1920 working hours were cut substantially, for those out of work, unemployment insurance was extended to cover two-thirds of the

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male labour workers in 1920.

Unemployment was a major problem after the war due to the large loss of life and wounded soldiers, who were now unable to work due to their extensive injuries or psychological disorders such as shell shock or insomnia. In June 1921 a crisis figure was reached as 2 million people were now unemployed, this now affected the British people dramatically, the pressure on the British people increased with the depression in 1920, resulting in unemployment remaining at 10 percent or more of the workforce for two decades.

Therefore the class divisions were not as evident after the war due to increased government intervention for the working class and increased taxation on the upper class or aristocracy. Differences within the working class became less obvious as a result of the development of skilled workers and the progression of a more consistent pay rate. Also due to the greater achievements taking place which were stimulated through trade union activity and a growth of political awareness within the working class.

Besides, for the middle and upper classes there was a distinct shift in power from the landed gentry to the business and industry owners, there was little change in the ratio of population to land ownership by the upper class, the noticeable difference for the post war class structure was higher taxation rates for the wealthy. The main change for the middle class was the large increase in the number of people working in the professions, in the civil service and as managers due to the increase of welfare standards and the growth of modern industry.

Post- World War I in Argentina After the end of the First World War, a fall of international wool and meat prices affected the rural region of Patagonia.

Unemployment and the general

worsening of the conditions of rural workers caused by the crisis encouraged

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the Sociedad Obrera de Rio Gallegos, affiliated to FORA IX, to call for a regional strike of ports and hotels in July 1920.

The repressive response of the State triggered an escalation of the struggle, which extended among the rural workers in the hinterland. Armed nuclei composed of rural workers raided the countryside, spreading terror among the landowners and the bosses, recruiting, and propagating the struggle from hacienda to hacienda. Presidential appeals for reconciliation to the 'genuineand-peaceful' workers were answered with armed defiance both in the coastal towns and in the countryside, and scabs sent from Buenos Aires were shot at by the workers of Rio Gallegos.

Moreover, Patagonia did not want a compromise, they wanted to go further: "This is not a working-class movement" said the governor Correo Falcon "but something much worse".

The strike ceased first in the capital Rio Gallegos and later in the countryside in front of a total lack of support from the central FORA IX and of the promises of generous concessions by the new governor, Varela, who presented himself as a defender of workers' rights and was able to obtain an agreement with the rural workers.

The promises were not met; but another attempt to organize strikes and armed struggles in 1921 was murderously repressed by the governor Varela. The upsurge was over, to the relief not only of the Argentine bourgeoisie but also of the English and the German bourgeoisie, who had appealed to the Argentine chancery to protect their property in Patagonia.

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Economy in Argentina and Britain in the Second World War World War II in Britain During World War II, a key aspect of almost every country’s wartime strategy focused heavily on limiting domestic consumption. One method governments employed to enforce control was to forcibly reduce their citizens’ consumption through the implementation of rationing, a tactic that allowed governments to equally apportion a certain amount of a particular resource to many people, rather than allowing a free-for-all atmosphere when resources were limited. An Economic Intelligence Service of the League of Nations publication from 1942 details the importance of rationing during wartime, stating, “the control of consumption is a necessary condition…[for] the effective mobilization of resources for war purposes.” Governments who effectively employed rationing programs domestically were better able to manage resources for their war efforts abroad.

The Second World War forced the British Government to make drastic cuts in consumption. British Citizens were placed under enormous strain during this time−British policymakers subjected many facets of normal everyday life to cuts

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and quotas. In the beginning stages of the war, Great Britain was blockaded by German U-boats, which created a huge barrier to trade. As a result, Great Britain had to find a way to equally distribute limited domestic resources to its population; the solution to this problem was widespread rationing. In 1940 the British Government began to ration foods, a policy that would continue through the end of the war.

The Government categorized different foods into three categories: the first was guaranteed rationed food, comprised of rare and scarce items, the second included foods like milk, eggs, fish, fruits, and vegetables whose availability fluctuated, and the third encompassed staple foods such as bread and potatoes, which remained uncontrolled, a policy designed to stave off widespread hunger.

Evidently British legislators found it necessary to impose harsh restrictions on wartime food consumption to maintain a successful war effort.

World War II in Argentina In June 1943, during the Second World War, in the face of a bourgeoisie split by conflicting interests, the army, led by Generals Rawson and Rami-rez, took power a second time in order to ensure Argentina maintained a neutral position in the Second World War. There was an ideological motive in the coup, since the right-wing army was inclined to maintain a friendly relationship with the fascist side and many among them, Peron included, openly expressed their admiration of Mussolini. In fact the military was looking at fascism and corporatism as an answer to growing working class militancy. In 1942 the number of working days lost to strikes in Argentina was three times higher than in the past two years.

Indeed, in 1943, the new Labour and Social Security Secretary, Juan Domingo Peron, started a coherent economic and political policy based on the introduction of protective tariffs to support national accumulation and industrial development and on a corporatist compromise with the industrial working class.

By 1944 he had become Vice President of Argentina. His popularity with the

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working class became so high that when the army tried to remove him from his post and send him into internal exile in 1945, a wave of grass-root struggles spread through the country obtained his return. In 1946, he was elected President with the support of the urban working class. In 1946 Peron initiated an industrialization plan, based on the income from the State monopoly of the agro-export, which would be reinvested in new industries through State-owned bank.

The presidency of Juan Domingo Perón

Peronists remember and celebrate every 17th of October as “Loyalty Day”—the day that, in 1945, would change Argentine history forever. The coup d’etat that brought the so-called “Década Infame” to an end in 1943, was headed by a group of Army officials known as GOU (Grupo de Oficiales Unidos). General Pedro Ramirez became president after the coup, but was removed in 1944 and replaced by General Edelmiro Farrell. During Farrell’s presidency, Colonel Juan Domingo Perón —who was a member of the GOU— became Vice-president, Minister for War and Labor Secretary, simultaneously. (Hang, n. d.).

The new regime sought to implement a change in the country’s social and economic structures, based on strong State intervention, where the long-term goals of the workers coincided with the nation’s need for economic development. Perón’s work from the Labor Secretariat helped organize the

A Research on the Cultural Impact of Historical Events in the 19th and 20th Centuries Cecilia Seguezzo, Liliana Barbieri, Carolina Albornoz, Pamela Cáceres.

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workers’ movement (until then divided into Communist, Socialist, and Revolutionary factions) into strong, centralized unions that cooperated with the government in solving labor disputes and establishing collective bargaining agreements, and whose leadership was under government influence.(ibid n. d.).

It was during this time that Perón would establish a strong alliance with the unions, who would later become the backbone of peronism. Workers started seeing that many of their historic demands were finally being attended to, including severance pay, retirement benefits, and regulation for rural labor. The images of 17th October 1945 continue to depict the deeper historical meaning of peronism: the inclusion of the working class in the country’s social, political and economic life. (ibid n. d).

The period 1946-1955 marked a turning point in the economic development of the country. Up until that point, the economy had been characterized by a model based around agricultural exports, dominated by large landowners and a strong intervention of foreign companies—British, and increasingly from the US. This model had started to weaken during the 1930’s, but it was not until the mid1940s that it was replaced by what became known as “import substitution industrialization”. (ibid n. d.).

This new economic paradigm was based around the development of laborintensive, light industry to create jobs and produce domestic goods for the internal market. The State played an important role in channeling income from agricultural exports to industry, raising import tariffs, and nationalizing foreignowned companies such as the railways, gas, phone and electricity. (ibid n.d.). https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iYb6fSRBAn8 During this period, Perón’s charismatic wife, Eva Perón —or “Evita” as her followers called her— played a prominent role, and it is widely acknowledged that she was the main link between the president and the workers’ movement.

Evita also had an active role in the development of women’s’ rights, such as the right to vote (1947) and the equality of men and women in marriage and in the care of children -even fighting internal opposition to achieve these goals. (ibid,

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n. d.).

The Eva Perón Foundation channeled the social policies of the government, emphasizing the concept of social justice as opposed to charity. Evita was loved and admired by the people as much as she was derided by the opposition and by the more conservative factions within the Peronist Movement, whose power and influence in government were being diminished by her growing profile. (ibid n.d.).

Missing People - Where are they?

On

the

16th

June

1955,

the

political

opposition

(conservative, radicals and socialists) together with the Navy and with the support of the Church carried out a botched coup d’etat against Perón. Navy planes bombed Plaza de Mayo, where a rally was taking place, killing more than 300 people. Perón’s attempt to appease the crowd failed and that very same night groups of peronist activists took to the streets of Buenos Aires and burnt several churches.

After the failed coup, Perón tried to keep the situation under control and called for a truce with the opposition. However on 31st August, after talks with the opposition failed, the president hardened his position when, during a public speech, he pronounced the now famous phrase: “for each one of us who fall, five of them will follow”. Seventeen days later, on 16th September, a new military uprising — led again by the Navy— succeeded in deposing Perón, who asked for political refuge in Paraguay and left the country on 20th of September.

It would be 17 years until he stepped on Argentine soil again. (ibid n.d.). https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=osHwvWxpxE8

In 1971, General Lanusse took control of the government and started the

A Research on the Cultural Impact of Historical Events in the 19th and 20th Centuries Cecilia Seguezzo, Liliana Barbieri, Carolina Albornoz, Pamela Cáceres.

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Process of Democratic Transition: re-establishing the activity of political parties that Onganía had banned and promising free elections, to take place in March 1973. He also made some gestures towards Perón, such as restoring the body of Eva Perón, which had been stolen from the CGT headquarters in 1955, mutilated, and hidden in a cemetery in Rome.

On 20th June 1973, Perón made his final return to the country. A massive welcome was prepared for him at Ezeiza airport, where his plane was due to land. But this triumph for peronism also brutally exposed the contradictions that had grown within the movement, which had splintered into wildly divergent and incompatible ideologies during the leader’s long exile. (ibid n.d.).

The final break-up came on the 1st May 1974, during a Worker’s Day rally at Plaza de Mayo. Throughout the rally, Montoneros and the Peronist Youth whistled and chanted against Isabel Perón and the Minister for Social Welfare López Rega, who represented the right wing of the movement within the government. Perón reacted angrily, attacking the “brats who expect to have more merits than those who have been fighting for the last twenty years”. In the middle

of

Perón’s

speech,

Montoneros and the Peronist Youth abandoned Plaza de Mayo, leaving it half empty.

This marked a point of no return between

in

the

relationship

Perón

and

the

Peronist left. (Ibid, n. d.).

Two months later, on the 1st July 1974, Perón died and his widow

and

Vice-president

Isabel took office. Despite the fight between Perón and the Peronist left, he was the glue

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that -barely- kept the movement together. His death left a void that would very quickly be filled up by the ultra-right wing of the Peronist movement, with dramatic consequences. (Ibid n.d.).

In 1975 the national GDP —Gross domestic product— fell by 1.4 percent, and predictions for 1976 were for a 6 percent decrease. By the end of 1975, salaries were 25 percent lower than in 1973. The dollar, worth $1,000 per unit in 1973, was worth $35,000 in December 1975; inflation reached 334.8 percent. There were ministerial changes, the tax deficit grew uncontrollably, and attempts at devaluation did not improve the economy. Everything appeared to be out of control. Collective insecurity manifested itself in all kinds of unrest. (ibid n.d.).

As an attempt to fight communism, the government created an underground paramilitary movement called the Argentine Anti-Communist Alliance, or Triple A, which consisted of ultra-right groups that fought terrorists using similar brutal methods. Many ministers resigned, and businesses locked out employees, forcing them to accept decreased wages and benefits. (Ibid, n. d.).

A massive action seemed unavoidable, when on March 24, 1976, a military junta took charge with the specific aim of “ensuring the subsequent establishment of a republican, representative, and federal democracy.”

Widespread violence continued for several years. The armed forces, police, and security forces acted together to restore order. The country was divided into zones, subzones, and areas and the local units of the security forces acted autonomously in their jurisdictions.

This period came to be known as the Dirty War. There were no checks on the actions of military and security units; crime and human rights abuses were rife, especially in urban areas. Many members of both the security forces and insurgent groups died, and a large number of people “disappeared” during this war. (Ibid n.d.).

Malvinas War: The Relationship of Galtieri and Thatcher

A Research on the Cultural Impact of Historical Events in the 19th and 20th Centuries Cecilia Seguezzo, Liliana Barbieri, Carolina Albornoz, Pamela Cáceres.

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The Malvinas War (2 April-14 June, 1982) was, to a certain extent, welcomed by the leaders of Argentina and Britain (Leopoldo Galtieri and Margaret Thatcher) because it united people by offering them a common outside enemy.

The war became not only a battle between two armies which struggled for power over the small islands in the South Atlantic, but also a war of words.

Newspapers, radio, and television combined forces to promote nationalist feelings or –whenever possible– challenge the war. This paper will compare the presidential speeches from both sides of the Atlantic and will show how Thatcher and Galtieri used similar mechanisms to trigger patriotism and gain public support. (Bellot, A.)

Jus ad bellum is Latin for “law to war”. It is an old concept with a set of principles that define a fair war and try to validate in which cases wars should be fought. Some of these principles are: having a just cause, being a last resort, being declared by a proper authority, and possessing the right intention, among many others (Moseley 2009). Some of these principles are controversial and may lead to different interpretations, especially the ones concerning a just cause or possessing the right intention: most nations or authorities that go to war claim to possess the truth. Both Thatcher and Galtieri believed that the Malvinas War was just and acknowledged so in their speeches. Moreover, they both talked about peace, when in fact they were declaring war. (Ibid n.d.).

On 3 July 1982, in the aftermath of the Falklands battle, Margaret Thatcher gave a major speech to the Conservative Rally at Cheltenham. This speech is considered to be “one of the most remarkable speeches in recent British politics, in which Thatcher gives her interpretation of the True Meaning of the war” (Barnett 1982: 63).

She is convinced that the war fought in the South Atlantic is fair. She declares: “… we fought to show that aggression does not pay and that the robber cannot be allowed to get away with his swag … we fought for our own people and for our own sovereign territory” (Thatcher: 3 July 1982). She daringly defines the

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Argentine as robbers and assures that the Falklands are British domain.

According to the just war theory, initiating acts of aggression is unjust and gives the attacked group a rightful cause to defend itself. Thatcher believed that British territory was being invaded and that the British counterattack was a legitimate one. (Ibid, n.d.).

Similarly, General Galtieri had no doubts about the sovereignty of the islands.

On 2 April 1982, the day the islands were invaded by the Argentine troops, he delivered a speech from the balcony of the presidential house, the Casa Rosada, to the euphoric crowds that gathered in the Plaza de Mayo to celebrate the recovery of the islands and to express full support to the government and the cause.

Both Thatcher and Galtieri’s speeches are loaded with patriotic

terms and convey an exalted nationalist mood. Both leaders came to power with the aim of reversing what they had perceived as a steady national decline. (Ibid, n.d.).

Thatcher refers to Great Britain as a “nation” or “our country”. She says: “Our country has won a great victory and we are entitled to be proud”; “The nation had the resolution to do what it knew was right”; “Britain [still is] the nation that built an Empire and ruled a quarter of the world”. Her words are loaded with traditional British sentiments of superiority and patriotism.

The nation/country should be proud because it acted with bravery: “The British are competent, courageous and resolute”. She is not only praising the latest victory, but also the British characteristics that had led to the formation of the Empire. She continues: “The lesson of the Falklands is that Britain has not changed and that this nation still has those sterling qualities which shine through our history”. (Ibid n.d.).

Looking back at the past with nostalgia to recall the great deeds of the nation is a very common technique used by politicians to arouse nationalist feelings.

Although by that time the British had already withdrawn from most of their former colonial territories, the Prime Minister is evoking memories of British supremacy and hegemony in international contexts. In her speech, Thatcher

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attempts to create a strong Britain, but leaves aside –or consciously covers up– the major problems the country was facing at that moment, such as immigration, racial conflicts, social unrest, and confrontation with the trade unions. (ibid n.d.)

Moreover, she talks about the “spirit of the South Atlantic” or the “Falklands factor” to increase the confidence of the people and make them recover their faith in the nation. Britain, she claims, is still strong, courageous and resolute to expel “the robbers” that dared to invade British territory. The spirit of the Falklands became the umbrella term that defined the resistance of a united and powerful nation against the usurping enemy: “The spirit has stirred and the nation has begun to assert itself”; “We have ceased to be a nation in retreat”.

Thatcher is telling the British to wake up from their years and years of apathy, to be the nation they used to be during the British Empire. Why, she wonders, is war necessary to bring out those qualities that reflect Britishness and reassert their pride? The nation has found itself again in battle, and its strength has been reborn. (Ibid n.d.).

On the other hand, Galtieri also uses the word “patria” to refer to the nation, and “compatriotas” when naming the citizens. He does not use “Madre Patria”, since in Argentina, Spain is considered to be the Motherland. Thatcher’s patriotic discourse is careful not to use terms such as Fatherland because

these

terms

in

English

have

negative associations with a Nazi past and discourse.

Galtieri also evokes the nostalgic past when saying: “[E]stamos reunidos en esta histórica Plaza de Mayo”. The Plaza de Mayo is an iconic place for the nation, since the first steps towards the country’s independence from the Spanish colonizers were taken there. In this case, he is trying to make the Argentine recall previous great deeds of the nation in order to

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use their support to overthrow the British colonizers. (ibid n.d.) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mGqF_zK3NBg Conclusion This work has shown that power problems in different governments have always existed and probably will always do so. It is society itself which must stop this from happening, as laws and regulations are often ineffective.

However, in an increasingly 'global' world, controlled by fewer and fewer corporations and individuals eager to please the governments of the major world powers. And, who are more than willing to use stereotyping as a tool in the control of society, we must be more and more vigilant to avoid this cynical manipulation.

And as an example of that you will read about what society suffered during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries in Argentina and Britain. The clash between different social classes also shows how people have had to change their lifestyles, adapting to diverse hard circumstances along the different historical periods.

Ironically, welfare of a country is apparently not coincident with the welfare of the whole nation: that means that peoples of different countries have made huge sacrifices to improve the common welfare of their homelands. Support for improving social conditions requires the generosity to produce incomes not at expense of others, but with the convictions and enthusiasm to produce together.

Works Cited Lambert,T. Daily life in Britain in the 20th century : http:// www.localhistories.org/20thcent.html.

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Solberg.(n.d ). Countries and their Culture : http:// www.everyculture.com/A-Bo/Argentina.html.

The consequences of the First World War for British people : http://www.123HelpMe.com/view.Asp?id=156661.

Gazeley, I., Newell, A. (2014). The first World War and working-class food consumption in Britain: http//www.ereh.oxfordjournals.org.

Hang, J. (n.d). A transition without conditions: http//www.ccd21.org/military_handbook/volume_two/3_argentina.pdf.

Andreassi, C.(2011). The history of Peronism (Part 1): http//www.argentinaindependent.com Bellot, A. (n. d.). War Speeches and National discourse in The malvinas/ falklands wars: http//www.aedean.org/pdf.

Thatcher, M. (1982). Total Politics: http//www.totalpolitics.com/quotes/page_2.

Galtieri, L. (1982). Teachwar: http//www.teachwar.wordpress.com/resources/war-justifications- archive/ falklandsmalvinas-war-1982.

10. About the Author

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Liliana Barbieri is a senior student in Nuestra Se単ora de la Paz Teachers Training College where she is attending the last term of this course of studies.

She finds it pleasurable to study with kind and wonderful teachers who work there.

Liliana

is

as

an

working

English teacher at Domingo

Savio

School, where she has been teaching English there since 2003.

A Research on the Cultural Impact of Historical Events in the 19th and 20th Centuries Cecilia Seguezzo, Liliana Barbieri, Carolina Albornoz, Pamela Cáceres.

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Carolina Lourdes Albornoz

Argentine and British Art 2014

2014 HISTORY –Argentine and British Art. Instituto Superior Nuestra Señora de la Paz. Profesorado de Inglés. Cátedra de Historia II- Rosa Luz Helesic- 2014. Carolina Lourdes Albornoz

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3. Argentine and British Art Carolina Albornoz

Introduction: Painting is History

Illustration from the Ancient Egypt.

From Ancient times, Art has been a silent spectator of history. For better or for worse, Paint has participated actively in all major events in history. What is more, Art has been important to the study of history because the paintings created by man show how humans were reacting to the world around them. It could be think in terms of cause and effect: history and art.

According to the Encyclopedia of Art, there is no universally accepted definition of Art. Although commonly used to describe something of beauty, or a skill which produces an aesthetic result. The original classical definition derived from the Latin word "ars" (meaning "skill" or "craft") - is a useful starting point. This broad approach leads to art being defined as: "the product of a body of knowledge, most often using a set of skills.�

Nevertheless, during the first half of the 20th century, the proliferation of new styles and artistic techniques led to a new broadening of the meaning and definition of art. Artists suddenly found themselves with far greater freedom to create paintings according to their own subjective values. In fact, one might say

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that from this point "art" started to become "indefinable".

The cataclysm of WWII encouraged art to become more of a commercial product, and loosen its connection with existing traditions of aestheticism. All of a sudden, even the most mundane items and concepts became elevated to the status of "art". Under the influence of this populist approach, conceptualists introduced new art forms, like assemblage, installation, video and performance.

The redefinition of art during the last three decades of the 20th century has been lent added intellectual weight by theorists of the postmodernist movement. According to the postmoderns, the focus has shifted from artistic skill to the "meaning" of the work produced. In addition, "how" a work is "experienced" by spectators has become a critical component in its aesthetic value.

Another important thing to mention is the fact that Art, and even more, Painting, is one of the most significative issues in history because, even though the historical events had passed, canvas remained and the artistic styles are shown to the next generations.

Because of all these reasons, this topic has been chosen and it is developed through the following work.

Portray 20th Century Life on Canvas The late 19th century and early 20th century is marked with revolution and change all over the world. This change was not restricted to the political and economic landscape of that time: there was a large cultural response to the revolutionary ideas of the time instead. These cultural responses can be seen in the art of this time period. One of the major artistic style of the era was Romanticism. Nevertheless, an enlarging of this topic; a definition of Neoclassicism is needed for a better understanding. The purpose for this writing is to explore the different aspects of the XX’s Century painting in Britain and in Argentina.

Neoclassicism began in Europe in the late 1700's and lasted until the early 1800's. The movement revived ancient Greek and Roman stylization in European art. Neoclassical art emphasized courage, sacrifice, nationalism, and tradition. Neoclassicism spread throughout Europe, but England was the

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country that used neoclassical art the most. (Gontar, C. Department of European Sculpture and Decorative Arts, The Metropolitan Museum of Art).

“David Garrick between Tragedy and Comedy” Sir Joshua Reynolds.

There are few reasons for the start of neoclassicism. The discovery of ancient artefacts at the ruins of Herculaneum and Pompeii was a big inspiration for neoclassicism. It was also created to replace the ostentatious rococo art style. Some famous artists of this stylistic era include David and Jean Auguste; Dominique Ingres and Sir Joshua Reynolds in Britain.

In Britain, Romanticism emerged as a response to the disillusionment with the Enlightenment values of reason and order in the aftermath of the French Revolution of 1789; in opposition to Neoclassicism. (Galitz, Kathryn Calley. 2000).

In Romantic art, nature—with its uncontrollable power, unpredictability, and potential for cataclysmic extremes—offered alternative world

to

of

an

the

ordered

Enlightenment

thought. In British painting of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth

centuries,

recurrence

of

shipwrecks

the

images and

of

other

representations of man's struggle against the awesome power of nature manifest this sensibility. Théodore Gericault's Raft of the Medusa (Louvre) became

an

icon

of

the

British

Romantic

style.

(Galitz,K.

“Raft of the Medusa” Théodore Gericault (Louvre Museum, Paris)

2000).

A Research on the Cultural Impact of Historical Events in the 19th and 20th Centuries Cecilia Seguezzo, Liliana Barbieri, Carolina Albornoz, Pamela Cáceres.

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On the other hand, Argentina went through a key historical moment in the nineteenth century; in 1816 she acquired her independence. With it came many issues. Amongst them were disputes about having a centralized or a federal government (one of the causes of the civil war), boundary disputes (one of the causes of the Triple Alliance War, and the Conquest of the Desert), and later, with the expansion of the territory the need for populating the deserted areas and modernizing the country which led to migratory politics that gave incentives to Europeans so that they would relocate in Argentina. All of this led to probably one of the most important issues of the century, which was the imminent need for a national identity that would make people feel a part of the new country.

Because of the Avellaneda Law of Immigration, many foreign Romantic artists visited and resided in Argentina, melting their works with the local.

Among them were English mariner Emeric Essex Vidal (1791–1861), a watercolorist who left important graphic evidence of Argentine history, such as “El Matadero del S.O. en Buenos Ayres” and “South Matadero (Public Buchery)”; and the mariner Adolfo D'Hastrel (1805–1875), who published his drawings and watercolors in the book Colección de vistas y costumbres del Río de la Plata (1875).

“South Matadero” Emeric Essex Vidal.(Public Buchery) In the 1830s, and inspired by British Romantic painters, Argentinian Artistic institutions

such

as

Sociedad

Estímulo

the de

Bellas Artes and the Museo de Bellas Artes were founded, and the first postcolonial Argentine artists appeared. On one hand, art documented the different defining historical events, and on the other, it helped build the artistic identity by creating its imagery and

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visual language. The most relevant artists of this period were Carlos Morel (1813–1894), who was considered the first strictly Argentine painter; Prilidiano Pueyrredón (1823–1870) and Cándido López (1840–1902), who painted the life of gauchos and the wars of pre modern Argentina (Mandryk, J; 2000) .

“Interior del Fuerte de Curuzú”. Candido Lopez.

As it was said before, the period between 1800 and the beginning of the 1900 was full of revolutionary movements that changed the flow of the events in Argentina and in Britain. Thanks to the French Revolution, painters could stand against Neoclassicism and express their feelings at the same time. Although the different historical contexts, both Argentine and British painters could portray the social life and the situation of these centuries.

A Research on the Cultural Impact of Historical Events in the 19th and 20th Centuries Cecilia Seguezzo, Liliana Barbieri, Carolina Albornoz, Pamela CĂĄceres.

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WWI and its Art Representation When shots rang out in Sarajevo on June 28, 1914, Europe began hurtling towards one of the deadliest conflicts the world has ever seen. The assassination of Austro-Hungarian Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife, Sophie, brought long-brewing political tension to a head. By August 4, 1914, the Central Powers (Germany, Bulgaria, Austro-Hungary, and the Ottoman Empire) and the Entente or Allied Powers (France, Britain, Russia, Italy, and later the United States), were officially engaged in the First World War. The crisis would last until November 11, 1918 and claim millions of lives, with battlefronts in Europe, European waters, and in the Middle and Near East. World War I, also known as the Great War, was a distinctly modern conflict in many ways.

However, like wars throughout history, it inspired a tremendous amount of creative output from artists and writers, civilians and combatants, men and women.

The

varied

art

perspectives

represented in the First World War art show us that British artists and writers witnessed and experienced different wars even though only one conflict is recorded in history. War-related art also had many purposes, whether to document, commemorate, appeal, revise, expose, obscure, or protest. (Dr. Robinson, F. 2010) The Conflict Between Real and Ideal Propaganda posters often urged men to enlist in the British Army by appealing to ideals of masculinity, heroism, pride, and loyalty. These widely circulated posters relied on a viewer’s positive response to imagery of healthy, stalwart soldiers or emblems of the British nation.

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In contrast, many war artists offered harsh but realistic visual depictions of the death and destruction that resulted from combat. For example, when we look at C.R.W. Nevinson’s stark painting, Paths of Glory, irony comes to the forefont. Though the piece has an idealistic-sounding title, we shudder at the sight of two dead soldiers lying in the battlefield mud. Their faces are obscured and their bodies merge with the murky earth, suggesting the loss of identity and

A Research on the Cultural Impact of Historical Events in the 19th and 20th Centuries Cecilia Seguezzo, Liliana Barbieri, Carolina Albornoz, Pamela CĂĄceres.

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the waste of young lives. (Dr. Robinson, F. 2010)

C.R.W. Nevinson, Paths of Glory, 1917, oil on canvas, 467 x 609 mm (Imperial War Museum, London).

WWI and Women Artists Women artists played a significant role in documenting civilian and service experiences.

Flora Lion for example, shows us a canteen for women munitions (weapons) workers in her painting, Women’s Canteen at Phoenix Works, Bradford. We can see the exhaustion that the workers are feeling. The women here look somewhat relieved for their tea break. Their resigned expressions and slouching posture underscore the mental and physical fatigue of this critical but dangerous line of work, but they also make us recognize the more emotional weariness of the civilian war experience. (Dr. Robinson, F: 2010).

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Flora Lion, Women's Canteen at Phoenix Works, Bradford, 1918, oil on canvas, 1066 x 1828 mm (Imperial War Museum) Argentine Art during WWI Meanwhile, in Argentina, Irigoyen's success in 1916 brings his party fourteen years in office. In relation to WWI; Irigoyen detested the Anglophile (meaning they were on the side of Britain), cattle barons and the Francophile (meaning they were on the side of France) intellectuals and despised the many Argentines who looked to Italy as their mother country. He saw no reason to have his country do anything but profit from the sale of her war materials, which she was doing on an enormous scale. Probably the majority of the population supported Irigoyen but there were great pressures on him to join the Allies. To Irigoyen, the entrance of the United States into the war was merely another good reason for Argentina to stay out. (Hopkins, J. 1925).

During four decades, taking advantage of an association with Great Britain viewed as mutually beneficial by both countries; Argentina had grown spectacularly and had become wealthy.

This was a period which sets the confrontational pattern of Argentina's political life during the rest of the 20th century. The Radical party wins wide popular support by representing the interests of the new urban and industrial classes in Argentina's first period of democracy. (Hopkins, J. 1925).

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The early 1900´s were very significant in terms of cultural production.

Concerning art, the Florida group and La Boca group were created. The first was characterized for paying special attention to style and looking to incorporate innovative vanguard uses of the art technique. Its members, including Jorge Luis Borges, Antonio Berni, Emilio Pettorutti and Xul Solar, amongst others, were from the upper classes and they regularly met at the Richmond Café on Florida Street (which has recently been closed down).

(Galitz, K. 2000) Antonio Berni is one of Argentina’s most emblematic artists. He was a painter, an illustrator and an engraver and was influenced by the European cubists, surrealists and Dadaists. His style was mainly surrealist with an important social thematic that later developed into his defining style, Social Realism. He was also increasingly active from the thirties onwards as crises and political unrest took over the country. Amongst his most well known works are Desocupado, the Juanito Laguna and Ramona Montiel series. A few of his paintings are displayed at the Museo Nacional de Bellas Artes, the MALBA and Museo de Artes Plásticas Eduardo Sivori.

Manifestación, Antonio Berni, photo by Carlos Adampol On the other hand, La Boca group was made up of mostly Italian immigrants and developed a unique style with common themes being the port, the workers and immigrant neighborhoods. It is amongst this last group that

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Benito Quinquela Martín is associated with. Other important artists at the time were Fernando Fader, Raul Soldi who belonged to the Pintura Sensible tradition and Medardo Pantoja who portrayed the indigenous people, amongst many others. (Galitz, Kathryn Calley: 2000).

Benito Quinquela Martin was an emblematic Argentine artist and is synonymous to La Boca. His colorful paintings of La Boca port have earned him international acclaim, and he is remembered locally for having founded the Pedro de Mendoza museum-school in La Boca with the profit he made from his paintings. He himself was a port worker and was a self- taught artist. He also popularized the use of bright colors for the facade of houses, which is one of the characteristics of the La Boca neighborhood even today. The Quinquela Martin museum in La Boca displays a large collection of his work. (Galitz, K. 2000).

Left: La Boca buildings, painted by Benito Quinquela Martín; Right: Dia gris.

Benito Quinquela Martín.

As it is seen along the text, for UK and Argentina was an extensive period of changes and revolutionary movements that came from the previous century. With the arousal of WWI, british painters were divided, some of them, using their talents to produce War Propaganda and others illustrating the reality of the war. In Argentina, even though there were two different groups with different techniques, they painted the argentinian social situation during this period. To conclude, although there were a variety of art styles in UK and Argentina, painters from both sides of the Atlantic had only one purpose: to express themselves against the events that were occurring in their countries.

A Research on the Cultural Impact of Historical Events in the 19th and 20th Centuries Cecilia Seguezzo, Liliana Barbieri, Carolina Albornoz, Pamela Cรกceres.

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World War II on Canvas.

On September 3, 1939; Britain declared war on Germany. Preparations for war had been in progress for some time and the government expected major air attacks on all Britain's cities, particularly London.

Mass evacuation from London began on the day that war was declared.

London was not attacked early in the war and many evacuees returned.

However flurries of evacuation took place after the fall of France and with the arrival of the flying bombs in 1944.

Men and women were conscripted into civil as well as military occupations on the Home Front. Women joined the workforce in jobs left vacant by enlisted men. They became firefighters, bus conductors, munitions workers and truck drivers: jobs previously dominated by men. (Ramos, R, 2001).

During the Second World War, the British government took a more structured approach to collecting official war art than it had during the First World War. The Ministry of Information set up the War Artists' Scheme (W.A.S) in 1939. It was devised by Sir Kenneth Clark, the then Director of the National Gallery and the dominant figure of the British art world.

The Blitz was a source of inspiration for many artists. John Piper, Graham Sutherland, Henry Moore, Paul Nash, Stanley Spencer, Carel Weight, Evelyn Dunbar and Laura Knight were among artists commissioned to record the effects of the Blitz and the war effort on the home front.

At the outbreak of war, both Henry Moore and Graham Sutherland were teaching at Chelsea School of Art. They both volunteered to take the precision tool-making course at the attached polytechnic to join in the war effort, but the course never materialised. The school closed and they lost their teaching posts.

(Lewis, C. 2010).

Moore decided to occupy himself with drawing instead, taking over studios in Hampstead. One evening, travelling on the Underground, Moore noticed crowds of people at each station, lying all over the platforms. When he got out at Belsize Park, he too was confined in the tube station because of bombing above. (Lewis, C. 2010) Inspired by the rows of reclining figures and the grim tension, Moore took notes and sketched scenes of swaddled forms as if they were in a burial tomb.

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Four grey sleepers, Henry Moore, 1941. © Henry Moore Foundation, courtesy Wakefield Museum & Art Gallery.

Devastation 1941, An East

End

Graham

Street, Sutherland

Courtesy

Dulwich

Picture Gallery © Tate Graham Sutherland

moved

to

rural Gloucestershire when the Chelsea School of Art closed. He was contacted in 1940 by the WAAC and agreed to take on the subject of armament transport by rail – the start of a fruitful wartime career. In more than 150 works, Sutherland covered bomb damage in South Wales and London, tin mining in Cornwall, V2 rocket sites and railway sites bombed by the RAF in France. (Lewis, C. 2010) Towards the end of 1944, just after Paris was liberated, Sutherland was sent to France. When he found the flying-bomb sites he had been asked to record, at St Leu d’Esserent and the marshalling yards at Trappes, he was greeted by up heaved engines, broken boilers and strewn parts. Here, he created some of his most forceful gouaches of devastation.

Ravilious’ former teacher at the Royal College of Art, Paul Nash, took a rather different and safer approach to recording action in the air. A veteran and soldier-artist of the First World War, he was suffering from bronchial asthma

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when the WAAC approached him to work for the Air Ministry. He contented himself with working chiefly from photographs, talking to pilots and looking at technical magazines. (Lewis, C. 2010).

Totes

meer,

Paul

Nash,

1940-41. Nash was determined that his artwork be put to use, always hoping it could boost the British With mind,

morale. this

in he

produced some of the most iconic images of the war artists’ scheme. Totes meer (Dead sea, 1941) is Nash’s famous image of an aircraft dump near Cowley, in which the wreckage of German planes appears as an undulating sea under an eerie silver moon.

His next major work was The Battle of Britain – a large canvas with the focus on fighter planes’ swirling vapour trails and black plumes of smoke from a plummeting bomber. He was commissioned in 1944 to make a sequel, which he entitled Battle of Germany. It was his most abstract piece, with a sky half-filled with deep red over a brown

foreground.

In

1946, Nash contracted pneumonia

and

died. (Lewis, C. 2010) Battle of Britain, Paul Nash, 1941. © IWM. As a counterpart, during

World

War

II

some artists coming from

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Europe, decided to settle in South America, bringing their knowledge and artistic techniques. As a consequence, they created new schools of art in the whole continent, especially in Argentina. The light, the beautiful landscapes and the wonderful cities like Buenos Aires, influenced their art. After a few decades, new generations of painters started from a new point of view, not strictly linked to European art, creating a new way, giving new powerful strength to their works.

During this period André Lhote, a french painter who arrived in Argentina in 1942, created a group called Grupo de París, where artists like horacio Butler, Aquiles Badi, Héctor Basaldúa, Emilio Centurión, Víctor Pissarro y Jorge Larco received his influence. thanks to this, it could be recognized the characteristics of cubism and postexpressionism. (Alonso, M. 2012) In fine art, the term Cubism describes the revolutionary style of painting invented by Pablo Picasso (1881-1973) and Georges Braque (1882-1963). Their Cubist methods - initially influenced by the geometric motifs in the landscape compositions of the Post-Impressionism,

radically

redefined

the

nature and scope of fine art painting and heralded entirely new ways of representing reality. (Alonso, M. 2012) Les Demoiselles D'Avignon (1907) by Pablo Picasso. MoMA, New York.

Broadly speaking, until the end of World War II, the expressionist movement remained an aesthetic development of the Saxon Worpswede Group and the Parisian Fauvist movement. It was also influenced by Van Gogh's pioneering expressionist paintings like Wheatfield with Crows, and Starry, Starry Night. Unlike Impressionists, who sought merely to imitate nature, expressionist painters typically distorted colour, scale and space to convey their subjective feelings about what they saw. However, when war scarred many of these artists for good, expressionism became a bitter protest movement. (Alonso, M. 2012)

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Taking all these characteristics, Argentinian artists Domínguez Neira y Forner were a testimony of Grupo de Paris. Domínguez Neira in La guitarra outlines braking shapes, causing a multiview, typical of the Cubist fragmentation. In a closest line to expressionism the Autorretrato of Raquel Forner is one of the most important works of her career because it presents several elements. First of all, establish a contact with the European and Argentinian vanguard, redefine the artist's place and introduce the problematic of the women's role by presenting herself as a woman and an artist. (Alonso, M. 2012)

Pedro Domínguez Neira, La guitarra, óleo sobre tela, 71.5 x 127 cm. Colección Museo Provincial de Bellas Artes “Emilio Pettoruti”

.

Raquel Forner, Autorretrato 1941. Óleo sobre tela, 186 x 141 cm. Colección Museo Provincial de Bellas Artes “Emilio Pettoruti”.

As it is seen along the text, UK and Argentina had a lot of revolutionary artist movements because of the World War II, being them internal or external. With the arousal of WWII, and having experimenting a previous war, British painters were not divided, even more; they were more organized and compiled all the paintings in one place. In Argentina art movements had evolved, thanks to the external influences. To conclude, although there were a variety of art styles between UK and Argentina, both painters had only one purpose: to express themselves against the events that were occurring in their countries.

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A period of changes The aftermath of World War II was the beginning of a new era. It was defined by the decline of the old great powers and the rise of two superpowers; the Soviet Union (USSR) and the United States of America (US) creating a bipolar world. The war also increased the rate of decolonization from the weakened great powers with India (from Great Britain), Indonesia (from the Netherlands), the Philippines, a number of Arab nations, and Israel being created in the years immediately following the war.

For Great Britain the 1950s and 1960s were, however, relatively prosperous times and continued a path of modernization, as seen in the construction of its first motorways for example. Britain maintained and increased its financial role in the world economy, and used the English language to promote its educational system to students from around the globe.

Leisure activities became more accessible to more people after the war.

Holiday camps, which had first opened in the 1930s, became popular holiday destinations in the 1950s — and people increasingly had money to pursue their personal hobbies. The BBC's early television service was given a major boost in 1953 with the coronation of Elizabeth II, attracting a worldwide audience of twenty million, plus tens of millions more by radio, providing an impetus for middle-class people to buy televisions. (Wolf: 2009) Britain in the mid 1950s was still emerging from the austerity of the postwar years, and its citizens were ambivalent about American popular culture. As

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a consequence, during the mid 50’s and 60’s, a gathering of artists in London calling themselves the Independent Group, began meeting regularly to discuss topics such as mass culture's place in fine art, the found object, science and technology. Members included Edouardo Paolozzi, Richard Hamilton, architects Alison and Peter Smithson, and critics Lawrence Alloway and Reyner Banham.

While the britons were suspicious of its commercial character, they were enthusiastic about the rich world pop culture seemed to promise for the future.

The imagery they discussed included what they had found in Western movies, science fiction, comic books, billboards, automobile design, and rock and roll music. (Wolf: 2009).

Thanks to the ideas of the Independent Group (IG), the term and the movement “Pop Art” appeared. Pop Art as an artistic movement is a direct descendant of Dadaism in the way it mocks the established art world by appropriating images from the street, the supermarket, the mass media, and presents it as art in itself. "Pop art" as a term, was used in discussions by IG members in the Second Session of the IG in 1955, and the specific term "pop art" first appeared in published print in an article by IG members Alison and Peter Smithson in Arc, 1956. However, the term is often credited to British art critic/curator, Lawrence Alloway in a 1958 essay titled The Arts and the Mass Media, although the term he uses is "popular mass culture". Nevertheless, Alloway was one of the leading critics to defend the inclusion of the imagery found in mass culture in fine arts. (Wolf: 2009).

The members of the Independent Group were the first artists to present mass media imagery, acknowledging the challenges to traditional art categories occurring in America and Britain after 1945. The Pop art collages of Paolozzi and Hamilton convey the mixed feelings Europeans maintained toward American popular culture; both exalting the mass-produced objects and images while also criticizing the excess.

In his collage, Just What Is It That Makes Today's Homes So Different, So Appealing??, Hamilton combined images from various mass media sources, carefully selecting each image and composing the disparate elements of popular imagery into one coherent survey of post-war consumer culture. (Wolf: 2009).

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Eduardo Paolozzi is an Italian Scottish artist, born in Edinburgh to Italian parents and is considered the father of British Pop Art due to his childhood. From a very young age Eduardo Paolozzi was in close contact with the mass culture and its products, in fact, his parents own an ice cream shop and other consumer assets, to which the child approaches with an amazing curiosity. In particular, he was attracted to the figures contained in the packages of cigarettes, which are movie stars, comic book superheroes, robots and symbols of the Great War that had ended a few years before. (Wolf: 2009).

A Research on the Cultural Impact of Historical Events in the 19th and 20th Centuries Cecilia Seguezzo, Liliana Barbieri, Carolina Albornoz, Pamela Cáceres.

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I was a Rich Man's Plaything is his main piece of art. It was made from different pieces of commercially printed paper stuck onto a single piece of card that is slightly narrower than a single page of a tabloid newspaper. It is the cover of a magazine called ‘Intimate Confessions’ with the image of a smiling woman. She is sitting on a cushion and looks like a Hollywood starlet in the mould of Ava Gardner. She is positioned in the bottom left of the magazine cover and opposite her there are a list of sensationalist bullet points which advertise the magazine’s contents. Stuck on top of the magazine cover and around the bottom of the picture are a number of other collage elements. These include in the bottom left corner a postcard of a World War II fighter bomber and in the bottom right corner, a small piece of advertising for Coca-Cola. (Wolf: 2009).

Argentina, on the other hand, was in a continuum change, being Juan Domingo Peron its main figure. He was a military officer and politician. who served in several government positions, including those of Minister of Labor and

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Vice President of the Republic. He also was elected President of the Republic three times.

During his first presidential term, Perón was supported by his second wife, Eva Duarte ("Evita"), and the two were immensely popular among many Argentines. Eva died in 1952, and Perón was elected to a second term, serving from 1952 until 1955. During the following period of two military dictatorships, interrupted by two civilian governments, the Peronist party was outlawed and Perón was exiled. When the left-wing Peronist Hector Cámpora was elected President in 1973, Perón returned to Argentina and was soon after elected President for a third time. His third wife, María Estela Martínez, known as Isabel Perón, was elected as Vice President on his ticket and succeeded him as President upon his death in 1974.

In this period of deep changes, Argentina developed their own vision of Pop Art. The icons of Che Guevara, Coca-Cola, and the dollar bill are images of resistance and struggle. Familiar bold fonts and cartoon images meet a carnal, visceral movement rooted in the wounds of dictatorship and repression. The happening and participation art left institutional spaces behind to take to the spaces of daily life. Aesthetic practices partook of pop culture and the power of reality organized artistic experience. Last but not least, experimentation was bound to commitment. (Beioley: 2012).

“South America produced two key symbols in those years, one local, in the form of Ché Guevara, who represents change, liberation and social revolution and another international, in the form of Coca-Cola which appears in general as a symbol of American imperialism and economic domination,” explains Adriana Rosenburg, president of Fundación PROA. (Beioley, K. 2012).

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Thanks to technological developments, popular culture started to evolve in a new form of art, called “Pop Art”. In both cases, it was used to express against the dominion of U.S.A after World War II. In the UK, people continued a path of modernisation, started at the beginning of the century, and started to be ambivalent with the new popular dominion of the U.S.A. In Argentina, painters decided to express themselves against the popular dominion of U.S.A and also to use this kind of art as a social revolution because of the repetitive changes in their governments, a mixture between two Peronist presidencies and two military dictatorships.

Psychedelic Paranoia The 1970s for Britain began with Ted Heath as Prime Minister. Heath was a liberal Conservative who believed in a “third way”. He favored devolution of power to Scotland and Wales. When Rolls-Royce aircraft engines was about to go bankrupt, he led a successful move to nationalize the company until it could be returned to a stable financial footing. Communism was still alive then, and seemed like it might survive. Feminist and gay rights groups were founded; apparently Time Out magazine in the 70s had a “Revolution” section, with details of sit-ins and other direct political action events. Change was happening.

Meanwhile, the big, vague concern throughout the 70s was “declinism”, an obsession with the idea that Britain had “no future”–-the phrase which ultimately became a rallying cry of punk rock. And yet the strange thing about the 1970s is that although many people vividly remember the power cuts, strikes and shocking headlines, they often have surprisingly affectionate personal memories of the decade that taste forgot. (Sandbrook, 2012).

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In the same way, the commentaries of Pop Art found a counterpart in the abstractions of Bridget Riley. Riley has

been

a

single-minded

exponent of the international Op Art

movement.

approach

to

This

was

abstraction

an that

concentrated on rigid but subtle geometry and optically startling colour combinations and relies on optical illusions in order to fool the eye of the viewer. (Riggs, 1998).

Riley began painting in black and white alone, titillating the eye with finely modulated stripes or dots that seem to flicker fade or fold out of view as one looks. Her cool, hard objectivity took her so far as to employ assistants in the actual application of paint: the artist's personality and all representational reference is deliberately eliminated to an extent that has been unusual in British abstraction. (Riggs, T. 1998) Movement In Squares By Bridget Riley

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The 1970’s for Argentina are marked with what is known as the “Proceso de Reorganización Nacional”. It started when Isabel Martínez de Perón, succeeded Juan Domingo Peron and immediately she proved to be a weak, ineffectual ruler. A number of revolutionary organizations – chief among them Montoneros, a group of far-left Peronists – escalated their wave of political violence (including kidnappings and bombings) against the campaign of harsh repressive and retaliatory measures enforced by the military and the police. In addition, right-wing paramilitary groups entered the cycle of violence, such as the Triple A death squad, founded by José López Rega, Perón's Minister of Social Welfare and a member of the P2 masonic lodge. The situation escalated until Mrs. Perón was overthrown. She was replaced on 24 March by a military junta led by Lieutenant General Jorge Rafael Videla.

The expression "National Reorganization Process" was used to imply orderliness and control of the critical socio political situation of Argentina.

Forced disappearances on ideological grounds and illegal arrests, often based on unsubstantiated accusations, became common. Armed soldiers arrived at randomly selected people's houses to rob them. The police would pull over cars for no reason, beat the occupants senseless, and leave without explanation, as part of a program to intimidate the populace and decrease its willingness to protest against the government. (Daniels, A.: 2008).

Official investigations undertaken after the end of the Dirty War by the National Commission on the Disappearance of Persons documented 8,961 desaparecidos (victims of forced disappearance) and other human rights violations, noting that the correct number is bound to be higher. Many cases were never reported, when whole families were disappeared, and the military destroyed many of its records months before the return of democracy. Among the "disappeared" were pregnant women, who were kept alive until giving birth under often primitive circumstances in secret prisons. The infants were generally illegally adopted by military or political families affiliated with the administration, and the mothers were generally killed. (Daniels, A.: 2008).

Inside of all this paranoia, there was a woman who was locked in a tiny dark cell, kept hooded and chained to the wall and tortured with electric shocks.

Miriam Lewin, 49, one of only 150 Esma (Escuela de Mecanica de la Armada) survivors. A student activist of the Montoneros, a Marxist offshoot of the

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Peronist movement that led a guerrilla struggle against the government, was arrested and taken there.(Daniels, A 2008).

She is part of a family of Jewish immigrants who arrived in the country in the 1920s from Poland. She explains how, despite having since married (her husband is also a torture victim) and having two children, her past still haunts her.

'I will never forget how, purely to humiliate us, they took me and some other female prisoners to have dinner in a restaurant in the centre of town with a group of armed plain-clothes officers. We would be sleeping in the middle of the night and a guard would shake us and say, "Wake up, you have to go." We didn't know if we were going out for a meal or to die. A girlfriend of mine was taken dancing by the guy who had killed her husband two weeks earlier,' she says with a wry smile. (Daniels,A. 2008)

Another torture victim, Patrick Rice, 62, an Irish priest considered a 'subversive' because of his work in a slum, recalls how one of the nuns, Sister Alice Domon, was kidnapped.

“It was a Saturday and there were a lot of people around, and when they left the church, there were cars parked here…and Alfredo Astiz, who had infiltrated the group, pretending to be a relative of a disappeared, came and marked several of them by greeting them with a kiss. It was almost biblical. Then they were shoved into the cars and taken away.”

Today one of the French sisters, Léonie Duquet, is buried in the nearby garden; the body of the other, Alice Domon, is still missing.

With this terrible context, there is a little bit of space for art. Nevertheless, Op Art settled in Argentina, too. Inspired in Bridget Riley, Julio Le Parc was a major figure in Argentinian modern art history. The socially conscious artist was expelled from France in May 1968, after participating in the Atelier Populaire and its protests against major institutions. A defender of human rights, he fought

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against the dictatorship in Argentina. (Riggs, T. :1998).

Julio Le Parc pursued his research on the paintings’ surface with color, to which he applied the same treatment as he had with shapes: he choose a unique scale of fourteen colors. He worked on several series of paintings that explored the almost infinite combinations of these colors. Similar to the rest of his works, each ‘target’ painting creates a minimalist and deductive structure where every new element stems from the previous one. It is systematically constituted of fourteen concentric circles of solid colours on a white background of a square canvas: according to a simple combinatorial scheme, each one of the fourteen circles is painted in one of the fourteen colours of the spectrum.

(Riggs, T. 1998) Julio Le Parc: Surface couleur - Série 14 n°5 Even though there were different variations in both countries, artistic movements were present in this period. Either to reflect or fight against the social and political changes of this period, Op Art tried to create a new way of expression in which the artists’ personalities and ideas were shown in an abstract way.

Foreign Affairs The Falklands war of April-June 1982 was the turning point in Mrs Thatcher's premiership, indeed in her political career. To Argentina's military junta, the British government was patently eager to dispose of the Falklands.

The invasion was named Operation Goa. Even with tension mounting, Thatcher turned a deaf ear to pleas from the Foreign Office to reinforce the islands and

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deploy ships to the area. (Jenkins, 2013).

While Thatcher could hardly be held directly responsible for the Argentinian invasion, it was certainly the result of her style of rule and one-track approach to policy. (Jenkins, 2013).

She had failed to defend the islands from surprise attack and many in Argentina thought she had recklessly drawn the junta "on to the punch". The war brought out the best in Thatcher. She knew she was out of her depth, consulting Harold Macmillan (British Conservative politician) and others on how to conduct herself. He advised her to establish a war cabinet, never quibble about money and always cover her diplomatic and legal flanks. The hardpressed chancellor, Sir Geoffrey Howe, later recalled the war as "like being on sabbatical". In stark contrast to her approach to domestic affairs, Thatcher scrupulously deferred to her military commanders and supported their decisions to the hilt. (Jenkins, 2013).

Victory was finally achieved on 14 June, when the dejected Argentine garrison surrendered in Port Stanley. An opposed landing thousands of miles from Britain was dangerous, and left 255 dead and a ÂŁ3bn hole in the defence budget. It was a hole that remained gaping three decades later, as service chiefs constantly lobbied for "Falklands-style" capability, and politicians felt they had to capitulate. (Jenkins, S. 2013).

In relation to Art, The Young British Artists (YBAs) or “Britart� appeared on the scene, owing much to early 20th century styles like Dada and Surrealism. The group comprised a number of painters, sculptors, conceptual and installation artists working in the United Kingdom, many of whom attended Goldsmiths College in London. (Collins, N. 2008) Like the pop movement before it, artists

were

not

afraid

to

mix

unconventional media with art, including video, photography, painting, collage, sculpture

and

However,

this

installation movement

pieces. goes

far

beyond the restrictions of pop art,

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allowing for any means of expression through any possible medium.(Collins, N.

2012) My Bed’ by Tracey Emin.

In making a Britart painting, Stephen McKenna was full aware of the importance of the oak tree as an English national symbol. The artist made drawings of a particular oak tree in Dulwich Park, south London, and developed the painting from them. The landscape background is imaginary. McKenna has painted several pictures of city parks, being interested in their combination of the natural and the man-made. (© Tate Gallery, London, 2004).

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An English Oak Tree, Stephen McKenn As a counterpart, the ownership of the Falkland Islands had always been an issue in Argentina. Leopoldo Galtieri decided to occupy Port Stanley, on April 2nd, 1982. There were joyous celebrations in Argentina and to Galtieri it must have seemed that his gamble had been successful especially as he believed that London had little interest in the islands. The man seen as the person who had spearheaded repression against his own people was now seen as a national hero. (Trueman, C. 2013).

In June 1982, the British had retaken the Falklands and Galtieri’s fall from power was swift and decisive. He was retired to a well-defended country retreat and held under house arrest. In 1983, Galtieri was tried in a military court for human rights violations and the mismanagement of the Falklands War. He was cleared of human rights abuses but found guilty, with others, of mishandling the war. (Trueman, 2013).

During the early years of 1980, it is imposed an Argentine return to

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national painting; at one point framed by a context that seek to enshrine international trans-vanguard practices or Painting renewal. The young artist Guillermo Kuitca appeared as the representative of an emerging new generation of artists. (Fressoli, 2013).

Guillermo Kuitca's work was representative of an art scene emerging during the 80. He proclaimed the return of paintings and with it the withdrawal from the artist to the study in a more introspective look; and the “siluetazo”- that was one of the Urban collective intervention first works during the 80’s.

(Fressoli, 2013).

“Nadie Olvida Nada” is the name of the art collection that the artist made during 1982 and the imminent fall of the military government after Malvinas. This collection is characterized by the austerity of a painting that covers the canvas in a careless way but revealing the texture of a striped canvas. In the paintings that Kuitca made entered the 80s, materiality revealed a expression of reluctance and obfuscation. (Fressoli, 2013).

Like "Nunca Más", "Nadie Olvida Nada” installed an authority of a social certainty, taking a position: the certainty of a past on which people do not want to go back. (Fressoli, 2013).

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“Nadie Olvida Nada” Art Collection. Guillermo Kuitca Malvinas War was a serious event that changed the relationship between Argentina and UK. What is more, this affair brought a lot of inner changes for both countries. On one hand, the War had brought out Thatcher's best features and victory brought out many of her worst, in particular intolerance of those who talked back.

Nevertheless, it gave her the confidence and political strength to press ahead with a programme that was otherwise inert. On the other hand, Galtieri’s ideas of heroism and patriotism were defeated and he ended up under house arrest, after being tried in a military court for human rights violations and the mismanagement of the Falklands War. As a consequence, artists from UK and Argentina tried to find their own identity, and to present a more national art technique. In the UK case, the Britart appeared; used in all the artistic expressions. In Argentina’s case, painters portrayed a past social event, in order to express and cope with his tragic situation.

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Conclusion: An artistic Overview As it has been seen in the previous chapters, Art has influenced History and the other way around. Art is an essential part of the human experience. It is seen and made everywhere. Works of art provide people with a means of understanding cultural and ideological changes in society through the ages.

What is more, in the different paintings shown in this work, it can be seen the different periods of the 20th century, and how they were —and remain nowadays— as perfect examples of diverse turbulent moments.

Despite the fact that Argentina and UK are two different countries with two different historical periods, concerning art, both countries had shared the same artistic techniques in the same period, such as the Dada movement in the WWI and Pop Art in the 60s, and also they sought to express the same feelings throughout their paintings. An example of this can be seen in the paintings of C.R.W. Nevinson, who portrayed the brutality of WWI, and Antonio Berni, who create the Social Realistic movement.

.

Left, C.R.W. Nevinson, Paths of Glory. Right: Antonio Berni Manifestación These perceptions had changed during the 20th century. At the beginning different artists tried to look for a new perspective in art, creating new techniques or reviving others. There, they tried to find their own identity. Then with the arousal of WWI and WWII, painters had to change that view and they illustrated their disagreement with the severe changes that Argentina and UK were living.

Last but not least with the origination of a new era, painters had to reawaken themselves and look for another fresh uniqueness. That is the reason

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why during the 60’s, 70’s and 80’s, painters created different artistic movements that coexisted; and some of them, like the Op Art and the Brit Art, remain in force.

To sum up, the 20th century was an era of unstable and abrupt changes throughout the world, where Argentine and British artists had the need to fit in while expressing their own selves in canvas.

Works Cited Gontar, C. (2000). Neoclassicism. In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art Galitz, K. (2000). Romanticism. In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Mandryk, J. 2000. Nineteen Century Argentine Art. Inside Buenos Aires.

Dr. Robinson, F. 2010. British Art and Literature during WWI. SmartHistory.

Mandryk, J. 2000. Early 20th Century Argentine Art. Inside Buenos Aires.

Hopkins, J. 1925. A Terrible Beauty: British Artists in the First World War. Bristol: Sansom and Company.

Ramos, R. 2001. World War Two, Introduction. Culture 24.

Lewis, C. War Artists- World War Two On Canvas. Culture 24.

Alonso, M. 2012. Arte Argentino del Siglo XX: figuración, invención, diversidad.

Uade Art Institute.

Wolf, I. 2009. Pop Art. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Mandryk, J. 2000. Late 20th Century Argentine Art. Inside Buenos Aires.

Daniels, A. 2008. Argentina’s Dirty War: the museum of horrors. The Telegraph.

Tate Gallery, Modern Exibition. 2009. © Tate Gallery, London.

Jenkins, S. 2013. How Margaret Tatcher’s Falklands gamble paid off. The Guardian.

About the Author

A Research on the Cultural Impact of Historical Events in the 19th and 20th Centuries Cecilia Seguezzo, Liliana Barbieri, Carolina Albornoz, Pamela Cáceres.

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Carolina Lourdes Albornoz is a senior student in Nuestra Señora de la Paz Teachers training College where she has attended several conferences and has recently taken part in the TICS para la Enseñanza Conference. She obtained her Art, Design and Communication Orientation Secondary School Degree in 2010 and has finished her first degree in the Teacher Training College.

Throughout the last years, she has worked as an English teacher institute,

at

the

located

EF in

Villa Celina. She is currently working at Instituto Tierra Santa as an English Teacher and at Green Highland College as a Kindergarten teacher.

A Research on the Social and Political Impact of Historical

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Pamela Cáceres PAMELA CÁCERES 4. Argentine and British Women’s Roles in Argentine and Britain Pamela Cáceres Introduction

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The idea of this book arose as a joint effort of the 2014 Nuestra Señora de la Paz Teacher Training College History class with the intention to depict some of the most relevant historical, social and political events on the past century through a particular guiding paradigm. In order to understand the advancement done in the women’s roles history, first of all it is necessary to outline some general historical characteristics of Argentina and Britain during the nineteenth and twentieth century.

Along this work, it will be explored the most important contributions made by women in order to stop human, and particularly, women rights violations. The next issue to be discussed will be the contribution made by different movements to the voice of women in Argentina and in Britain, for both civil and political human rights issues and economic and social issues too.

Women’s Roles during the Eighteenth Century The feminist movement in Argentina and in Britain was, and still are, truly grassroots movements, an on-going series of efforts made by individuals groups of women to improve the lives of Argentine women in some way.

Although the individual efforts may have seemed small, unrelated, and often ultimately fruitless, when one studies these events and pulls them all together, there is indeed a realization that much has been accomplished by women. The purpose of this work is to show how women’s role changes along the centuries.

To begin with, the novels Pride and Prejudice, Little Women and The Edible Woman, by Jane Austen, Louisa May Alcott, and Margaret Atwood respectively, describe the roles of middle to upper class women in the 18th and 19th century in Britain. Women’s education in the 18th century was largely limited to feminine arts. A woman of high social status was taught either in a seminary or by a governess. Women of the middle class taught themselves as best as they could by reading while those of the lower class were not educated

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in the finer feminine arts at all. A woman had to be competent in all the aforementioned arts along with being sociable and beautiful to be considered accomplished. (Austen, 1983).

Meanwhile, the position of women in Argentina was based on Spanish Law, in which women were considered property of the men. Most of the Argentine upper classes did not consider public education or literacy necessary for other segments of the female population, but they wanted upper class girls “not only to be literate, but to be educated to behave in a proper, virtuous and rational way." They also thought the Church should offer vocational training to the lower classes, because "it was believed that ignorance and lack of skills led women to a life of prostitution." (Carlson, 1988).

Apart from this, in Britain, upper class women, or the nobility, were required to manage the home, with its many attendant domestic servants, and to work tirelessly toward the promotion of their husbands careers (Steinbach 2013). Social networking in the form of dinner parties and balls, and philanthropic work in the community kept upper

class

woman

far

from

idle

(Steinbach, 2005). Woman in both the upper and middle classes were regarded as morally superior to men and expected to maintain a higher level of decorum in public and at home (Barrera, 2013).

In the same way, in Argentina families attempted to get their daughters married at between fifteen and eighteen years of age, often to a man fifteen to

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thirty years her senior. Women could not inherit land grants under the colonial system, nor could widows become heads of their estates. In order to avoid property confiscation, women were under pressure to remarry. Even after independence from Spain, when inheritance laws became more equitable, families found ways to circumvent them in order to give the bulk of the estates to male heirs, in order to assure that the wealth stayed within the patrimony.

(Carlson, 1988).

However, these attitudes began to change with the American Civil War in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries due to the influences of foreign cultures, especially French. The foreign ideas were seen as progressive and modern, and Spanish customs began to look backward and old-fashioned.

Upper class Argentine women began to organize cultural gatherings where men and women would be able to interact through informal intellectual discussions and the performance and enjoyment of music and poetry, just as was taking place in French salons of the day. (Carlson, 1988).

As regards as Britain, Women have come a long way since the 18th century and progress in workplace equity had occurred since the 1960s. Being able to support oneself earned a woman independence. She no longer had to depend on a man for survival. In the 18th century, it was vital that a woman become married. Often, a woman’s life revolved around capturing a husband.

To conclude, the role of the woman changed significantly since the 18th century. Women have changed from an inferior and repressed condition into a less than equal, but certainly more independent and liberated person.

The First World War: An Opportunity for Women?

During World War I (1914-1918), large numbers of women were recruited into jobs vacated by men who had gone to fight in the war. New jobs were also created as part of the war effort. The high demand for weapons resulted in the munitions factories becoming the largest single employer of women during

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1918. Though there was initial resistance to hiring women for what was seen as ‘men’s work’, the introduction of conscription in 1916 made the need for women workers urgent. Around this time, the government began coordinating the employment of women through campaigns and recruitment drives.

As Malcolm Chandler points out, “In 1914 at the outbreak of the First World War nearly 5.9 million women were working in Britain, out of a total female population of 23.7 million. The most common job was domestic service.

About 1.5 million women worked as domestic servants. About 900,000 women also worked in textiles and another 500,000 in the ‘sweated trades’.” (Malcolm, 1914).

The outbreak of war changed everything. Family life was severely disrupted. Women had to struggle to maintain the family and the household after the departure of their men folk. With men fighting in the muck and blood of the trenches, for the first time women were forced to work. The government launched a propaganda campaign to attract women into the workforce. The First World War mobilized women in unprecedented numbers on whichever side they were on. Some women even joined the armed forces mainly in support roles such as nurses and auxiliaries. Most of these women came from the middle class.

On the other hand, in Argentina, the accession of General Julio A. Roca to the presidency that year ended seven decades of political turmoil that had prevented national consolidation. The nation-state was firmly under the control of the PAN (Partido Autonomista Nacional, or National Autonomist Party), a political vehicle of the landowners. The PAN assured orderly presidential succession until 1916, followed by a peaceful broadening of political participation up to 1930. Restricted suffrage and official electoral lists became the rule under the Generation of Eighty, and promotion of the import-export economy, the policy.

Indeed, the liberal age is known for its economic transition. Argentina became a modern nation based on exports of agricultural products and imports of European technology, capital, entrepreneurship, and labor. Liberalism refers

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to an ideological program that dominated two generations of oligarchs and politicians. In broad terms, their brand of liberalism stood for economic progress, open trade and open markets, foreign investment, and a strong central government. The Argentine brand of liberalism should not be confused with broadening political participation and instituting social reforms. For the most part, this was a regime of the elites and for the elites.

In Argentina, economic modernization meant immigration, the formation of a middle class, and the mobilization of labor. The landed oligarchy that benefited most from the liberal age was forced to make significant concessions to the new political and social forces their self-serving economic policies had generated. Nonetheless, no period of Argentina’s history before or since has equaled the liberal age for political stability and material growth.

However, the economic crisis of World War I put the state-labor alliance between the common people and the public officials to the test. In the early 20th century, a number of different measures were made to control women as well as to control immigrants that years ago had come to the country. They outlawed the white slave trade through which European prostitutes supposedly entered Buenos Aires. They inspected and regulated brothels. The police rounded up streetwalkers and jailed poor women for disturbing the peace. They used immigrant prostitutes as scapegoats and blamed them for the spread of venereal disease, even though most women in the sex trade after 1920 were native-born. Public health officials even sought to force prostitutes to submit to periodic physical examinations in order to protect their customers.

To sum up, the situation during the First War World was not the same for all women. In war time, as in peacetime class distinctions were the decisive factor. It was rare for middle and upper class women to work and when they did, it was mainly in lighter occupations. The expectations of them consisted in getting married, look after their children and to look after the home, or rather supervise their servants who did all the work.

Women in the Second World War

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The Second World War had a huge impact on everyone, even those who were not actually in the armed forces. Women, especially young women, found that their lives were dramatically changed by the war. Many of them worked in jobs which were traditionally men’s jobs before the war and many actually served in the armed forces and other important war effort services.

In Britain

As in World War One in Britain, women played a vital part in this country’s success in World War Two. But, at the end of this period, as in the first one, women found that the advances they had made were greatly reduced when the soldiers returned from fighting abroad.

At the end of World War Two, those women who had found alternative employments for common females lost their jobs. The returning soldiers had to be found jobs and many wanted society to return to normal. Therefore by 1939, many young girls found employment in domestic service —2 million of them, just as had happened in 1914. Wages were still only 25p a week. When women found employment in the Civil Service, in teaching and in medicine they had to leave when they got married. (Trueman, 2013).

However, between the wars, they had acquired full voting equality with men when in 1928 a law was passed which stated that any person over the age of 21 could vote - male and female. The war once again gave women the opportunity to show what they could do.

The Women's Land Army As in World War One, women were called on to help on the land and the Women’s Land Army (WLA) was re-formed in July 1939. Their work was vital as so many men were being called up into the military.

In August 1940, only 7,000 women had joined but with the crisis caused

by Hitler’s U-boats, a huge drive went on from this date on to get more women

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working on the land. Even Churchill feared that the chaos caused by the Uboats to their supplies from America would starve out Britain.

The government tried to make out that the work of the WLA was glamorous and adverts showed it as this. In fact, the work was hard and young women usually worked in isolated communities. Many old farm workers lived in cottages without running water, electricity or gas. Winter, in particular, could be hard especially as the women had to break up the soil by hand ready for sowing. However, many of the women ate well as there was a plentiful supply of wild animals in the countryside - rabbit, hares, pheasants and partridges. They were paid 32 shillings a week - about ÂŁ1.60.

In 1943, the shortage of women in the factories and on lands Army led to the government stop joining women in the armed forces. They were given a choice of either working on the land or in factories. Those who worked on land did a very valuable job for the British people.

Factory Work Many women decided that they would work in factories. So, they worked in all manners of production ranging from making ammunition to uniforms as well as to aeroplanes. As the hours they worked were long-lasting, some of them had to move to a nearest place to live because of the time they lost travelling. Skilled women could earn ÂŁ2.15 a week. To them this must have seemed a lot. But men doing the same work were paid more.

In fact, it was not unknown for unskilled men to get more money which skilled female workers. This clearly was not acceptable and in 1943, women at the Rolls Royce factory in Glasgow went on strike. This was seen as being highly unpatriotic in time of war and when the female strikers went on a street demonstration in Glasgow, they were pelted with eggs and tomatoes but after that, people stopped doing that when they found out how little they were being paid . At the end of their fight, women finally had a part- victory when returning to their works. They were paid as a male semi-skilled worker even though, it was not at the level of a male skilled, and they were better paid than before.

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The Auxiliary Territorial Service In the military, all three services were open for women to join - the army, air force and navy. Women were also appointed as air raid wardens. In the army, women joined the Auxiliary Territorial Service (ATS). Like soldiers, they wore a khaki uniform. The recruiting posters were glamorous - some were considered too glamorous by Winston Churchill - and many young ladies joined the ATS because they believed they would lead a life of glamour. They were to be disappointed. Members of the ATS did not get the glamour jobs - they acted as drivers, worked in mess halls where many had to peel potatoes, acted cleaners and they worked on anti-aircraft guns. But an order by Winston Churchill forbade ATS ladies from actually firing an AA gun as he felt that they would not be able to cope with the knowledge that they might have shot down and killed young German men. His attitude was seen unusual as ATS ladies were allowed to track a plane, fuse the shells and be there when the firing cord was pulled. (Ibid: 1).

The Women's Auxiliary Air Force Women who joined the Royal Air Force were in the Women’s Auxiliary Air Force (WAAF). They did the same as the ATS (cooking, clerical work etc) but the opportunities were there for slightly more exciting work. Some got to work on Spitfires. Others operated in the new radar stations used to track incoming enemy bomber formations.

These radar sites were usually the first target for Stuka dive-bombers so a post in one of these radar stations could be very dangerous. However, the women in these units were to be the early warning ears and eyes of the RAF during the Battle of Britain. For all of this, women were not allowed to train to be pilots of war planes. Some were members of the Air Transport Auxiliary (ATA) which flew RAF planes from a factory to a fighter squadron’s base.

There were 120 women in this unit out of 820 pilots in total. Women had fewer crashes than male pilots but they were not welcomed as the editor of the magazine "Aeroplane" made clear: they (women ATA) "do not have the intelligence to scrub the floor of a hospital properly." He, C.G. Grey, claimed that they were a "menace" when flying. (Ibid: 2).

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Secret Agents Women were also employed as secret agents. They were members of SOE (Special Operations Executive) and were usually parachuted into occupied France or landed in special Lysander planes. Their work was exceptionally dangerous as just one slip could lead to capture, torture and death.

Their work was to find out all that they could to support the Allies for the planned landings in Normandy in June 1944. The most famous female SOE members were Violette Szabo and Odette Churchill. Both were awarded the George Cross for the work they did - the George Cross is the highest bravery award that a civilian can get. Both were captured and tortured. Violette Szabo was murdered by the Gestapo while Odette Churchill survived the war.

Entertainment Women were also extremely important in entertainment. The two most famous female entertainers during the war were Vera Lynn (now Dame Vera Lynn) and Gracie Fields. Vera Lynn's singing ("There'll be bluebirds over the White Cliffs of Dover" and "We’ll meet again, don’t know where, don’t know when") brought great happiness to many in Britain. She was known as the "Forces Sweetheart". Gracie Fields was another favourite with the forces. (Ibid: 3).

The war in Europe ended in May 1945. At this time there were 460,000 women in the military and over 6.5 million in civilian war work. Without their contribution, their effort would have been severely weakened and it is probable that we would not have been able to fight to our greatest might without the input from women. Ironically, in Nazi Germany, Hitler had forbidden German women to work in German weapons factories as he felt that a woman’s place was at home. His most senior industry advisor, Albert Speer, pleaded with Hitler to let him use German female workers but right up to the end, Hitler refused. Hitler was delighted for captured foreign women to work as slaves in his war factories but not German. Many of these slave workers, male and female, deliberately sabotaged the work that they did - so in their own way they helped the war effort of the Allies.

Argentina

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On the other hand in Argentina, between 1850 and World War II, 3.5 million immigrants poured into Argentina. This has given Argentina a notably different character than much of the rest of Latin America. Both the cultural roots and the ethnic makeup of Argentina are predominantly European. The European immigrants displaced the vast majority of the native Indian population, and unlike much of the rest of Spanish America, very little Indian influence is present in either Argentine ethnicity or cultural behaviour. Today well over 85 percent of all Argentines consider themselves of fully European descent, while the majority of the remaining 15 percent view themselves as mestizo (mixed European and Indian) heritage. The number of Natives today has been estimated at under 100,000, and most Argentine Indians live in relatively remote areas. (Ibid: 4).

Argentina had never been a major centre of the slave trade, so that today Argentina has very little African influence, and with the exception of late 20th century immigrants, virtually there is no black population. The only notable nonEuropean influence in Argentina's ethnic joined with the Arabic and East Asian groups, many of whom have arrived in recent decades.

By the beginning of the 20th century, Argentina had become a rising economic power of considerable importance, in part fuelled by the entrepreneurial spirit of many of its new immigrants. The Great Depression, however, sent the country into considerable upheaval, which deepened during World War II. (Sawers, 1996).

After the end of the Second World War in 1945 it became clear that women would play a more important role in society. They had played a significant role during the war and had contributed in no small measure to win the war. Consequently, it was acknowledged that they would be given equal rights in all spheres of life. They were given the right to vote, and soon women were elected to the parliament and even became heads of nations. In the domestic front, the divorce laws were made simpler and they were given substantial benefits in case of divorce. Professionally, they competed with their male counterparts for all types of jobs.

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Women in World War II took a variety of roles from country to country.

World War II involved global conflict on an unprecedented scale; the absolute urgency of mobilizing the entire population made the expansion of the role of women inevitable. With this expanded perspective of opportunity and confidence, and with the extended skill base that many women could give to paid and voluntary employment, women's roles in World War II were even more extensive than in the First World War. By 1945, millions of women were working in industries, building ships, aircraft, vehicles, and weaponry. Women also worked in factories, munitions plants and farms, and also drove trucks, provided logistic support for soldiers and entered professional areas of work that were previously the preserve of men. In a way, not only did WW2 give women a job but also independence.

The Perón Era The economic and political upheaval fuelled by the Great Depression and World War II led to the rise of Argentina’s most controversial leader, Juan Domingo Perón. Even decades after his death, Perón’s legacy can provoke strong disagreement among Argentines. What is not subject to debate is the fact that Perón was the dominant figure in both Argentina’s political and economic arena for the next 30 years, and his legacy is still strongly apparent in the nation today.

Perón was an admirer of the Italian dictator Benito Mussolini. In his “cult of personality,” Perón brought the fascist leader’s concept of rule by grand show to Argentina. Perón and his followers led a coup d’état during World War II, seizing control of Argentina’s Labour Department in 1943. Perón ousted leftists and revamped Argentina's unions. As his influence grew, he was named Vice President and War Minister of the still-neutral nation. Opposition from military leaders as well as alienated left-wing politicians led to Perón’s resignation and imprisonment in October 1945. Eight day later his allies had forced the government to release him and before the month was over, Perón married María Eva Duarte.

His new wife, nicknamed Evita, was a highly charismatic figure who influenced the masses and remade Perón as a supporter of the dispossessed

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(called the descamisados -”the shirtless ones”). Evita had herself been among the country’s poor, and convincingly conveyed to disadvantaged Argentines that she understood their plight.

After Juan Perón’s election as President in 1946, Evita became a power in her own right. She worked with her husband to shape the Peronista policies toward social welfare programs. Evita was equally influential in promoting the rights of women. Under Perón, Argentina stayed neutral nearly until the war’s end. Despite this, Perón took strong measures against Nazis within Argentina who attempted to subvert his government. Soon after his election, Perón deported several Nazi spies and soon nationalized roughly 60 German-owned businesses. When it became clear that the Allies would defeat the Axis powers, Argentina joined the war, bettering his standing with the United States. When Perón rewrote Argentina’s constitution to enable himself to run for a second term, he attempted to run Evita as his Vice-President, but this move was blocked by the military.

Perón did not complete his second term. The opposition the Peronistas grew markedly, especially within Argentina’s business class and among its newspapers. In response, Perón censored the press and jailed many of his opponents. These ill-received moves were magnified when, in 1952, Eva Peron died, greatly weakening much of Peron’s popularity base.

Perón’s social welfare policies proved economically disastrous for Argentina, creating massive inflationary pressures. Finally, Peron ran into heavy opposition from the Roman Catholic Church leaders for, among other issues, his policies legalizing divorce and recognizing children born out of wedlock.

In 1955, Perón was overthrown in a coup d’état that left 4000 people dead in three days Peron went into exile and Argentina Remained dominated by the military, at times directly and at other times through weak and provisional presidents. The country remained economically and politically unstable for the next 18 years, torn by strikes, student protests, riots, and terrorism. Finally, in 1973 Peron returned to Argentina where he was elected to the presidency again by a large majority. His new wife, Isabel de Peron was elected as his Vice-

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President. Perón, however, soon died, and in June 1974, Isabel de Peron became the first Latin American female head of state. She was not able to hold on to her power, however, and faced with runaway inflation, political riots, and terrorist activities that left hundreds dead, she was overthrown by a military junta in 1976.

Women in World War II took a variety of role from country to country.

World War II involver global conflict on an unprecedented scale the absolute urgency of mobilizing the entire population made the expansion of the role of women inevitable. The World War II gave women not only to have a job but also to be independent and as a clear example it is Eva Peron.

The dirty war In order to understand the unique nature of the last military dictatorship in Argentina and the fact that, in terms of human rights violations, it was the cruellest ever experienced in the Southern Cone, it is necessary first of all to outline some general historical characteristics of Argentina in the twentieth century. The military regime which began in 1976 is not an isolated experience, but the most extreme expression of a series of military interventions The Dirty War as it was called, from 1976-1983, was a seven-year campaign by the Argentine government against suspected dissidents and subversives. During the military dictatorships in Argentina, the murder and disappearance of thousands silenced and terrified the nation. Civil society was forcibly closed by military regimes who implemented counter-insurgency tactics to suppress the opposition forces. Many innocent civilians were also affected by the violence despite their lack of involvement in either side of the conflict. These people were known as “los desaparecidos” or “the disappeared.” They were taken to secret government detention centers where they were tortured and eventually killed. (Bouvard, 2007).

Women, mainly mothers began to mobilise in response to the repressive military regimes. Argentinean organisation, the Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo (las Madres) are probably the most famous women’s group fighting for justice.

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They began to meet in the Plaza de Mayo in Buenos Aires and walk around the square alone or in pairs. Bosco described this public activity as a ‘performance’ of motherhood (Bosco, 2006, pp.343), a performance that the authorities in view of the plaza found difficult to ignore. Their campaign to identify the stolen children of their disappeared children has also grown and continues to be politically active today.

During the 1978 World Cup, the Madres appealed to the football teams and supporters who were in Buenos Aires. As a result of their advocacy work, a number of European players appeared in the plaza in a display of international condemnation for the actions of the military junta (Safa, 1990, p.3). Amplifying their concerns at the international level was a brave tactic that led to other domestic civil society actors finding their political activist voices.

Kurtz suggests that the Madres inspired clergymen and labour leaders across Argentina to speak out against the government (Kurtz, 2012, p.2), showing their social as well as political impact.

On April 30, 1977, four mothers gathered at Plaza de Mayo to bring attention to their plight as they attempted to find their missing children. They were soon joined by the "Grandmothers," women who had given up hope of finding their own children, but believed that their grandchildren might have survived. In October, 1977, this group of women founded the Association of Abuelas (Grandmothers) of the Plaza de Mayo. At this time, political change and an accompanying shift in government mentality was occurring in Argentina.

In July 1981, five political parties got together and created the Multipartidaria to negotiate the return to civilian power. (Bouvard, 2007).

Finding a political voice as a result of organising during the dictatorships not only changed the role of women but also gave women a voice for other human rights issues. As has been demonstrated in this paper, individual women and women’s groups continue to be active and have expanded their mandates to include economic, social and cultural rights.

This paper has analysed the contribution of women to the campaign for

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human rights in Argentina. Rather that viewing women through the lens of victimhood, this paper has shown the women’s groups that were founded during the conflicts in the country which have contributed to the contemporary campaigns, by women, that tackle gender inequality, impunity for past violations and other human rights issues that persist in our daily days.

The Falkland war The Falklands archipelago, 400 miles into the south Atlantic from the east coast of Argentina, has long been the subject of territorial dispute between Britain and Argentina, Although it has been occupied solely by people of British descent since 1833, Argentina maintains a claim to sovereignty based on an earlier brief occupation by Spain, and Argentineans are brought up to believe, essentially, that part of their historic homeland has been stolen from them. Most British people had never heard of the islands until the Argentine invasion of 1982. The Islanders themselves are unanimous in preferring to remain a British overseas territory rather than become a colony of Argentina.

Argentine had been under a military dictatorship since 1976, renewed by a further coup in 1981, but increasingly unpopular because of a ‘dirty war’ against perceived dissidents, involving murders and ‘disappearances’. Margaret Thatcher, British PM since 1979, was becoming increasingly unpopular because of hard-line monetarist policies. Both governments welcomed the opportunity of a populist cause. Both military establishments welcomed the opportunity to try out new ‘high-tech’ weaponry.

Fighting for the Falklands On 2nd April 1982, Argentina invaded the Falkland Islands, overpowered the small division of British marines stationed there, and installed an Argentine military governor. On the following day Argentina then occupied the South Georgia Islands, part of the Falklands dependencies. The Falklands were 8,000 miles away; there was no air base available to the British within the islands range and the only Royal Navy ship in the area was the Antarctic survey vessel HMS Endurance, which was soon to be withdrawn. However, Britain began an operation to recover the islands. (Miles & Stainer, 1997).

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The historiography of the Falklands reveals that shortly after the conflict ended a mass of literature concerning the war appeared. A search of the secondary sources reveals that this literature predominantly falls into one of four themes. (Max, 1985). Journalistic accounts of the war, written by members of the press who accompanied the Task Force. (Hastings & Jenkins, 1983).

Political interpretations, mostly on Prime Minister’s Margaret Thatcher’s role were made and how the conflict raised her popularity amongst the British electorate. One of the most frequent analyses appears to be on the media’s coverage of the war. (David & Howard, 1988). There is, however, no mention made of wives and families of the servicemen. Newspapers and television news reports did include features on wives and families, but they were always pictured in their role of supportive wife. Their thoughts and feelings concerning the conflict, and how they coped with their partner’s absence, especially when the realisation that we were at war set in, have been ignored.

On 12th June 1982, British troops took the key objectives of Mount London, Two Sisters and Mount Harriet from the Argentines after bloody handto-hand fighting. British destroyer HMS Glamorgan was badly damaged by a shore-launched Exocet missile. Three Falklands civilians, all women, were killed during a British naval bombardment of Stanley.

The Falklands War was a war in which gender divisions were strongly represented; men went to battle while women waited at home. While men were active, fighting for their country; women were passive, waiting for news of their men. The Task Force was perceived in a grand historical narrative; linked to such national heroes as Admiral Nelson (to remind the public of Britain’s seafaring traditions). Throughout the nineteenth -century the British public held the navy in high esteem; this high regard was reflected in one of my interviews.

Mrs. J claimed that at the beginning of the conflict, when her husband was out in uniform, people showed ‘reverence’ to him ‘touching his uniform and saying good luck mate’. (Riddell, 1983).

A Research on the Cultural Impact of Historical Events in the 19th and 20th Centuries Cecilia Seguezzo, Liliana Barbieri, Carolina Albornoz, Pamela Cáceres.

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The general election of May 1979 was momentous; Margaret Thatcher became the first female Prime Minister of the United Kingdom. Although Thatcher had made progress in getting her economic policies accepted, by the end of 1981 she was still a Prime Minister on trial. However, events in April 1982 changed the public’s perception of her and the press displayed her qualities of decision making, moral strength and determination. It must be said that many of the images of Thatcher ignored or played down feminine traits and instead portrayed her in masculine terms. A crusade to restore Britain to greatness was apparent from the beginning of Thatcher’s term in office. In 1979, in her final election broadcast she declared ‘Somewhere ahead lays greatness for our country again’. Ibid 1.

The Falklands War became the most blatant example of patriotic pride and a belief in ‘Great’ Britain during the 1980s. Thatcher’s popularity increased during this time and people from all social classes and political groups were united in Thatcher’s stand Argentinean invasion. There is widespread agreement amongst both historians and politicians that the conflict could have been avoided. According to Peter Riddell, the government had failed to deter the Argentine invasion due to weaknesses in intelligence and the failure of ministers to confront parliament with what was happening. Matters relating to the Falklands were not discussed outside the Foreign Office between the start of 1981 and the actual invasion; economic and social matters were deemed more important. (Riddell, 1989).

Conclusion The most important impact of the women's suffrage campaign can be found not only in question of voting, but also in the changing roles and identities of women in the modern state. The feminist movements of the twentieth century redefined the relationship between gender and politics. Women heads of state in Britain and women's resistance to authoritarian rule in Argentina illustrate their fights in order to be treated as equals in the social and political community.

I therefore conclude that women’s role in history reminds us of the

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difficulties they had to face to make their voice heard as well as the influence they had along the world. Even though there are still a number of changed to do, it is important to recognize and value all those people that have done their best in the past to have a better future.

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Hall, E. T. (1984). The Dance of Life: The Other Dimension of Time. New York: Anchor Press/Doubleday.

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About the author Pamela CĂĄceres, born in 1993 is a student in Nuestra SeĂąora de la Paz Teachers Training College where she has attended several seminars. She has completed her secondary school in XXIII Commerce Secondary School.

Throughout the last year, she has worked as a teacher of English at Primary School Number 15. She is currently working at Carlos Alberto Veronelli Primary School Number 15

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