History of Modern Architecture
ARC4010 Rosamund Benton-Hutchings S17101340
Digital Booklet
Contents 1. What is Modernism? 2. Influences of the Bauhaus 3. Contemporary influences of the Bauhaus 4. The Pre-Raphaelites and St Philips Cathedral 5. Buildings designed by Le Corbusier - Ronchamp 6. Buildings designed by Le Corbusier - Unite d’Habitation 7. Buildings designed by Le Corbusier - Chandigarh 8. Contemporary Avant Garde manifesto 9. The Healthy Body Culture 10-12. The Essay Plan 13-14. References
WHAT IS MODERNISM? Modernism has been redefined a number of times througout history so it is difficult to identify its origins. In England it began around 1850 with the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, a group who rebelled against conservatism in Victorian art. However, historians such as Giedion and Pevsner have proposed a continuous evolution of modernism begining in the 18th century.
Arts and Crafts
The Industrial Revolution (1760-1830s) meant that ideas could be transported further than before so traditions were being lost. The creative community began to oppose this change. John Ruskin (18191900), the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood and William Morris (1834-96) opposed new technology and promoted making things by hand, initiating the Arts and Crafts movement. Philip Webb, William Morris The Red House, Bexleyheath, Kent, 1859 Function was key in the design of this house, and classical traditions of symmetry have been disregarded.
Hoover Building, London (1931-8) Wallis, Gilbert & Partners
“Less is more.” Mies Van Der Rohe
Selection of Houses at Weissenhofsiedlung (from top) • Mies Ven Der Rohe • Le Corbusier & Pierre Jeanneret • Peter Behrens • Hans Scharoun
The Modern Movement
The Oxford Dictionary of Architecture describes Modernism as “a style of the 1920s and 30s” (Weston, 1996) and sites the Art Deco Hoover Building, London (1931-8) Wallis, Gilbert & Partners as a Modernist building. 1920-70 saw the Modern Movement. This was where many architects and designers attempted to remove any historical influence or decoration and create a new language of design. The ‘White Box’ image of the modernist era began around 1927 with exhibits at the Weissenhofsiedlung, a display of 33 houses by 17 architects (including Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, Le Corbusier and Walter Gropius). It aimed to provide ‘solutions for living arrangements of the modern big city dweller, coupled with the use and implementation of new building materials and effective construction methods.’
Penguin Pool, Berthold Lubetkin & Tecton, 1934, Regent’s Park Zoo, London
Modern Architecture-The Structures That Shaped The Modern World (Jonathan Glancey, 2013) suggests that “Modernism was not simply a style: but more of an attitude, a determination to break with the past and free the architect from the stifling rules of convention and etiquette.” Kaufmann House, Richard Neutra, 1947, Palm Springs, California, USA
1.
What is the Bauhaus?
The Bauhaus was a German school of art and design, founded in 1919 by Walter Gropius with the intention to “rethink design from the bottom up and to not accept any traditional certainties.” The image on the right shows a represents the unification of architecture, crafts and art, and was included in the Bauhaus’s founding manifesto, which states “Together, we are intending, concieving and creating the new building of the future.”. The school was only active from 1919-33 (it was forced to close by the Nazis). and had no department of architecture until 1927. The building used from 1926 was designed by Gropius.
Homage to the Square: Dissolving/Vanishing (1951) Josef Albers
Josef Albers was a German-born American painter. He worked on the ‘Homage to the Square’ series, which he described as “platters to serve colour.” from 1949 until his death in 1976. According to www.theartstory.org “The work is typical of the experimental, modernist approach to form and color that underpinned Bauhaus teaching.” I like these paintings because despite being repetitive, each one is very different from the next due to the colour combinations. There is beauty in their simplicity.
2.
606 Universal Shelving System, Dieter Rams
This shelving system was designed by German designer Dieter Rams in 1960. After working for Braun, he became involved with the Ulm School of design (the successor to the Bauhaus). His design philosophy is driven by the statement: “I imagine our current situation will cause future generations to shudder at the thoughtlessness in the way in which we today fill our homes, our cities and our landscape with a chaos of assorted junk.” I chose this piece of furniture because of it’s simplicy and flexibility, and the fact that it is beautifly designed. The philosophy and attention to detail in these shelves sums up the Bauhaus ethos.
Avraham Soskin House, 12 Lilienblum Street, by Zeev Rechter, 1933
This building was commissioned by photographer Avraham Soskin in 1933. Half is Soskin’s family home and half is his photography studio. It is located in Tel Aviv, Israel, where there is a large number of Bauhaus inspired buildings in the ‘International Style’ due to architects moving there to escape the Nazi regime. Zeev Rechter was a Ukranian architect, born 1899, who moved to Israel in 1919. The building clearly fits into the Modernism category, due to the lack of detail and colour, and its flat roof. Although I am usually drawn to Modernist buildings, this house looks like it would be dark inside as it has small windows, and I think the two sides of the house look mismatched.
R.I.G. “Rudimentary Interior Geometry” shelving system Designer / Mikal Harrsen & Adam Hall Manufacturer / MA/U Studio Dimensions / Unit widths 110 x depth 38.4 cm. Heights of 75.6, 146.4 or 217.2 cm.
The R.I.G. shelving system was designed in 2012 to combine “optimized use of materials, enhanced functionality and a minimalistic expression.” It is a good example of the Minimalist ethos that the Bauhaus made so popular. Harrsens intention was “to design something as fundamental as possible.”, which echoes Mies van der Rohe’s statement “Less is More”.
Spirit Shelter Architect / Allergutendinge Area / 8m2
This shelter was designed and built by students of the Bauhaus University in Weimar in 2010 as a meditation space. Unsuprisingly, it captures the Arts and Crafts ethos that the Bauhaus promoted, and it is a simple construction, made of timber, plastic and fibreglass. The white exterior mimics buildings of the 1920s-30s Modernist movement. Also, the paired back timber interior has a similar esscence to the R.I.G. shelves (above).
3.
The Pre-Raphealite Brotherhood was a group of seven idealistic young artists formed in London in 1848. They didn’t like the conservative art being produced at the time and decided to express this by making their own art inspired by medieval Italian painting from before the time of Italian Renaissance painter and architect Raphael (1483-1520), hence the title ‘Pre-Raphaelites’. Ford Madox Brown (1821-1893), An English Autumn Afternoon, 1852-3, Oil on canvas
The Pre-Raphaelites and St Philip’s Cathedral Sir John Everett Millais, Ophelia 1851–2
St Philip’s cathedral
The Ascension window The Ascension
The Nativity
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St Philip’s cathedral
In 1885, Pre-Raphaelite artist Sir Edward Burne-Jones designed four stained glass windows for St Philip’s Cathedral in Birmingham. The Grade I listed cathedral was designed by architect Thomas Archer in the English Baroque style, influenced by his tour of Europe, and completed in 1715. Burne-Jones’ windows were designed and installed towards the end of the 19th century, and manufactured by Arts and Crafts firm Morris & Co. They are titled The Ascension, The Nativity, The Crucifixion and The Last Judgement.
The Crucifixion
d e n g i s e D s g n i d l i u B
r e i s u b r o by Le C
Chapelle Notre-Dame du Haut, Ronchamp, 1955
In 1950, Le Corbusier was commissioned to design a new Catholic church to replace the previous church that had been destroyed in the second world war. Where Ronchamp is located had been a pilgrimage site for many years, but despite this deep tradition the church wanted Le Corbusier to design a space with no extravagant detail or ornamental religious figures, which instead tends towards the Modernist style. However, Ronchamp does not fit in with Corbusier’s other buildings or the International style. Corbusier removed the traditional modern features and disregarded his Five Points, to create a calm meditative space. The irregular placement of the windows gives a magical and spiritual atmosphere when light enters the building, and the walls are designed to enhance the accoustics. Ronchamp’s location, on top of a hill, gives a higher status. Plan of the Ronchamp Chapel 1 main entrance 2 nave 3 main altar 4 grand chapel Irregular windows 5 confessionals 6 evening chapel 7 morning chapel 8 sacristy 9 choir 10 back choir external space
View towards main altar
5.
Unité d’Habitation is a housing block in Marseilles, built for people who had lost their homes in World War II. It was completed in 1952, and was one of a number of housing blocks based on the principle of ‘a vertical garden city’ by Le Corbusier which included shops, restaurants and hotels. The building sits in a large park, with a footprint is 165x24m and a height of 56m, and 18 floors. It features pilotis, large pillars at the base of the building, which are included in Corbusier’s Five Points of Architecture. They raise the building off the ground to create space for car and bicycle parking. All of Corbusier’s Five Points are included - the horizontal windows, pilotis, free facade, free plan, and roof garden. The building contains 337 apartments of 23 types, accommodating 1600 residents, and the healthy body culture at the time means there is also a solarium and a range of sports facilities on the roof.
Unité d’Habitation, Marseilles, 1952
In Unité d’Habitation Le Corbusier aimed for: a) the creation and development of bands of friendship between the inhabitants. b) the organization of collective activities (social, cultural, artistic and recreational). c) the defense, in all spheres, of the interests of its members, with regard to the standard of living in the Unité. Le Corbusier, Oeuvre complète, volume 7, 1957-1965
Section
6.
Rooftop swimming pool
The Unité at Marseilles is built of reinforced concrete, which Corbusier describes as ‘reconstructed stone, worthy of being exposed in it’s natural state’. He dismisses accusations thet the colour is dreary, saying ‘colours have value only in relation to their surroundings’.
Chandigarh, India, 1955-7
The Palace of Assembly
Open hand sculpture, 1985
In 1947, India’s independence from the UK meant that a new capital was needed. India’s first prime minister, Jawaharlal Nehru, wanted the project to express “the nation’s faith in the future” and to be “a new town, symbolic of the freedom of India, unfettered by the traditions of the past”, meaning Le Corbusier was the perfect candidate to design the city. The original population of the city, 500,000, has now tripled, meaning it has expanded beyond Le Corbusier’s planned boundaries. Le Corbusier was reluctant to take on the job, but it was a chance to realise his Ville Radieuse concept that he had been thinking about for decades. It is believed that the inspiration for Chandigarh is taken from three major capitals, Paris (although Le Corbusier hated it), New Delhi and Beijing.
The Secretariat
The Capitol Complex (below) includes the Governor’s Palace, High Court, Palace of Assembly and Secretariat, which contain classical and Indian influences, and are built of concrete. However, Nehru called the Govenor’s Palace ‘undemocratic’ and it was replaced by a large sculpture of a hand that Le Corbusier explains, “It was not a political emblem…[but] an architect’s creation… Open to receive the wealth that the world has created, to distribute to the peoples of the world… It ought to be the symbol of our age.” The most obvious of Le Corbusier’s Five Points in Chandigarh is the horizontal windows, but the other points are also incorporated.
Tower of Shadows monument, Capitol Complex
The High Court
The Secretariat
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8.
The Healthy Body Culture
All words from: Chapter 7. Healthy Body Culture Wilk, C. 2006, Modernism: designing a new world, 1914-1939, V&A, London.
• A defining element of Modernism was a direct response to the interrelated problems of health and poor housing affecting large segments of the population in the early 20th century. The aim was to design spaces and furnishings filled with light and fresh air that would not accumulate dirt and dust. • Key building types were sanatoria, hospitals, health centres, schools, sports facilities and swimming pools. • Images of sports people were everywhere - mass-circulation magazines, newsreels, design publications and art galleries.
Franz Tschackert, De Glazen man, 1930 © Deutsches Hygiene Museum, Dresden, inv. Volker Kreidler 1962
• Not all who were concerned with health during this period were Modernists. It was a new way of life characteristic of the post war population. The roots of the healthy body culture can be traced back to the Enlightenment, gaining popularity in the 19th century. • During the 20th century the body was a site of preocupation, alteration, transformation and even reinvention. Widespread participation in sport and excercise saw men, and even more so women, dressing in both practical and fashionable sportswear which drew attention to their bodies. • The machine analogy suggested the body was capable of all manner of productivity, that it could be improved and repaired. A striking representation of the human body as revealed and understood by science was the Transparrent Man (pictured left), created for the new German Hygiene Museum in Dresden in 1930. It was an attempt to make the body and its relationship to health and hygiene comprehensible to a wider public.
• In the 1920s, sun care (heliotherapy) became popular. Sanatoria of the years around 1930 featured sun balconies where patients could lie in the sun. • Sanatoria and social housing can be said to most fully reflect the concerns of Modernism. It was a Johannes Duiker and Bernard Bijvoct’s Zonnestraal in Hilversum common criticism of Modernist buildings and their interiors that they resembled hospitals, operating theatres or denstist surgeries. • In his Five Points of a New Architecture Le Corbusier called for roof gardens and long windows ‘through which light can come flooding in’. The CIAM (Congres Internationaux d’Architecture Moderne) decleration of 1928 urged the establishment of ‘a body of fundamental truths forming the basis of domestic science’ including the effects of sunlight, the ill effects of darkness, essential hygiene.
The German Hygiene Museum, Dresden, 1930
Alvar Aalto’s Paimio Sanatorium in Finland
Jaromir Krejcar’s sanatorium in Slovakia
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The Question
Choose two of the national Avant Garde movements in Architecture from the beginning of the 20th Century. Describe and compare both movements and consider how the political, social and cultural events of the countries they emerged in shaped their development. Make reference to at least two built or un-built projects from each movement. Your essay should include illustrations, at least two of which must be your own drawings. 1. De Stijl/Neo Plasticism 2. Deconstructivism 3. Futurism 4. German Expressionism
a)
Write down in your own words what you think the assignment is asking you to do.
The assignment is asking me to find out if there were any political conflicts at the time and what social change was happening that influenced any of the Avant Garde artwork and architecture. I will research and write about famous artworks from each movement because they will give me an idea of each movement’s aesthetic. Also, I should research the countries that the various movements were centred around and how the cultural and political differences between these countries inspired people of the Avant Garde movements. b)
What do you already know about the subject matter of the essay?
There were many Avant Garde movements from 1910-1930 in Europe which influenced art, architecture and design. c)
What background information do you need to help you to complete this essay?
I need to understand the key events and social and political context at the time of the Avant Garde period because they are they are the basis of the formation of the movements. d)
How do you think this essay differs from or is similar to other assignments that you are working on at the moment?
My other assignments primarily use drawings and photos to explain concepts, but this task requires a lot of text and fewer images. Also, I will have to a lot more reading and research for this assignment. e)
How are you going to choose your reading material?
I will read a combination of books and websites and cross reference to make sure the information is correct.
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Introduction • Dictionary definition: Avant-garde ideas, styles, and methods are very original or modern in comparison to the period in which they happen. • De Stijl was most active from 1917 to 1931. Neo-placticism was the type of art produced by De Stijl artists. • Italian poet Filippo Tommaso Marinetti started Futurism in 1909. It was the movement that most strongly wanted to be different from the past. • The two other movements were German expressionism also in the early 20th century, and deconstructivism in the late 20th century.
Futurism
Essay Plan
De Stijl
Context • Political influence from World Wars. Destruction created a need for new architecture and opportunities for modernisation. • The period between wars was most influential. • The main countries were Germany, Britain, France, Italy and the US. • The Second World War brought art back to the same questions it was addressing during the First World War. • The power and financial status of countries influenced the art that came out of them. German Expressionism
Umberto Boccioni Unique Forms of Continuity in Space 1913, cast 1972, Tate
Piet Mondrian Composition B (No.II) with Red 1935, Tate
Main Body • Explanations of the movements. De stijl: Founded by Piet Mondrian and Theo van Doesburg in 1917 when they released a publication, also named De Stijl. They used intersecting horizontal and vertical lines and primary colours. The De Stijl style of art, Neo-plasticism and had theosophical connections. Futurism: Marinetti published his Manifesto of Futurism in 1909 in a Paris newpaper. Futurists believed in the importance of war and that violence is art, and they rejected the past. They were influenced by cumism and neo-impressionism. • Compare political positions and cultural differences between countries of origin. Briefly explain lives of key people. • Examine three or four projects from each movement. • Include examples of architecture.
The Einstein Tower in Potsdam, Germany
Deconstructivism
Conclusion • Link to introduction. • Summarise the key points and refer back to projects mentioned in the essay • Show how the movements have continued to influence art, design and architecture after they ended. The Guggenheim Museum Bilbao by Frank Gehry in Bilbao, Spain.
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• Books Authorship (Year) Title. Edition. (if not first) Place of Publication: Publisher. • Websites Authorship (Year) Title. Available at: URL [Accessed date]. • Photographs available online Artist (Year) Title. Available at: URL [Accessed date] • Journal article Authorship (Year) Article Title. Journal Title. Volume (Issue), pp.pages.
A citation is when the name of author(s) or organisation responsible for the source and the year published are incleded in the text. • Direct Name of author(s) are included in a sentence. • Indirect Name of author(s) are at the end of the sentence before the full stop.
Information should be ordered alphebetically by the last name of authors or name of organisations.
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References What is Modernism? • Wailes, M. (2013) Red House. Available at: https://michaelwailes.wordpress.com/2013/11/26/red-house/ [Accessed 01/10/2017] • Weissenhofseidlung (n.d.) Weissenhofsiedlung. Available at: http://www.weissenhof2002.de/english/weissenhof.html [Accessed 01/10/2017] • Lerner, E. (2017) The Redevelopment of the Art Deco Hoover Building in London. Available at: https://www.guidelondon.org.uk/blog/around-london/redevelopment-art-deco-hoover-building-london/ [Accessed 01/10/2017] • V&A (2016) Engineering the Penguin Pool at London Zoo. Available at: https://www.vam.ac.uk/articles/engineering-the-penguin-pool-at-londonzoo [Accessed 01/10/2017] • Curl, J. S. (1999) Dictionary of Architecture. Great Clarendon Street: Oxford University Press. • Glancey, J. (2013) Modern Architecture: Structures That Shaped the Modern World. 3rd edn. London: Goodman. Pre-Raphaelites and Cathedral • Birmingham Cathedral (2017) Our Story. Available at: http://www.birminghamcathedral.com/ [Accessed 1/12/2017] • Hicks, D. (2015) St Philip’s Cathedral in Birmingham. Available at: http://www.birminghammail.co.uk/news/nostalgia/gallery/st-philips-cathedral-in-birmingham-9230848 [Accessed 1/12/2017] • The Victorian Web (2016) Sir Edward Burne-Jones. Available at: http://www.victorianweb.org/painting/bj/glass/index.html [Accessed 1/12/2017] • Tate (n.d.) Pre-Raphaelite. Available at: http://www.tate.org.uk/art/art-terms/p/pre-raphaelite [Accessed 1/12/2017] Bauhaus items • Bauhaus-Archiv (n.d.) the Bauhaus. Available at: https://www.bauhaus.de/en/ [Accessed 05/10/2017] • Vistoe (2017) Vistoe. Available at: https://www.vitsoe.com/gb/606 [Accessed 05/10/2017] • Dan Howarth (2016) 10 of Tel Aviv’s best examples of Bauhaus residential architecture. Available at: https://www.dezeen.com/2016/08/24/1 0-tel-aviv-best-examples-bauhaus-residential-architecture/ [Accessed 06/10/2017] • Borteh, L. (2017) Important art and artists of Bauhaus. Available at: http://www.theartstory.org/movement-bauhaus-artworks.htm#pnt_2 [Accessed 06/10/2017} • Recter Architects (n.d.) Zeev Rechter. Available at: http://www.rechter-arch.com/zeev [Accessed 06/10/2017] • Yudina, A. (2015) Furnitecture: Furniture That Transforms Space. London: Thames & Hudson. • Viaduct (n.d.) R.I.G. Shelving System. Available at: https://www.viaduct.co.uk/rig-shelving-system-ma-u-mikal-harrsen-adam-hall [Accessed 09/10/2017] • Prüger, M. Rauwolf, M. Wetzel, U. (2015) Seelenkiste - Spirit Shelter Finding Arcadie / allergutendinge. Available at: https://www.archdaily. com/627266/seelenkiste-spirit-shelter-finding-arcadie-allergutendinge [Accessed 29/11/2017] Notre Dame du Haut • Kroll, A. (2010) A.D Classics: Ronchamp / Le Corbusier. Available at: https://www.archdaily.com/84988/ad-classics-ronchamp-le-corbusier [Accessed 27/11/2017] • Bianchini, R. (2017) Notre Dame du Haut Chapel by Le Corbusier. Available at: https://www.inexhibit.com/mymuseum/notre-dame-du-haut-lecorbusier-ronchamp-chapel/ [Accessed 27/11/2017] Unite d’Habitation • Frearson, A. (2014) Brutalist buildings: Unité d’Habitation, Marseille by Le Corbusier. Available at: https://www.dezeen.com/2014/09/15/ le-corbusier-unite-d-habitation-cite-radieuse-marseille-brutalist-architecture/ [Accessed 16/10/2017] • Kroll, A. (2010) AD Classics: Unite d’ Habitation / Le Corbusier. Available at: http://www.archdaily.com/85971/ad-classics-unite-d-habitation-le-corbusier [Accessed 16/10/2017] • Glancey, J. (2013) Le Corbusier’s Unité: Is it a modern classic? Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/culture/story/20130423-design-icon-or-concrete-horror [Accessed 16/10/2017] • Italian Ways (2013) PONTORMO, LE CORBUSIER, AND THE GALLUZZO CHARTERHOUSE. Available at: http://www.italianways.com/pontormo-la-corbusier-and-the-galluzzo-charterhouse/ [Accessed 16/10/2017] • Hatherly, O. (2016) The USSR in 10 buildings: Constructivist communes to Stalinist skyscrapers. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2016/oct/21/ussr-10-buildings-stalin-skyscrapers-constructivist-architecture [Accessed 16/10/2017] • Fondation Le Corbusier (n.d.) Unité d’habitation, Marseille, France, 1945. Available at: http://www.fondationlecorbusier.fr/corbuweb/morpheus. aspx?sysId=13&IrisObjectId=5234&sysLanguage=en-en&itemPos=58&itemCount=78&sysParentId=64&sysParentName=home [Accessed 28/11/2017] Chandigarh • Fracalossi, I (2011) AD Classics: Palace of the Assembly / Le Corbusier. Available at: https://www.archdaily.com/155922/ad-classics-ad-classics-palace-of-the-assembly-le-corbusier [Accessed 15/10/2017] • Fiederer, L. (2017) AD Classics: Master Plan for Chandigarh / Le Corbusier. Available at: https://www.archdaily.com/806115/ad-classics-master-plan-for-chandigarh-le-corbusier [Accessed 29/11/2017] • Taalman, L. (2013) The City of Chandigarh by Le Corbusier. Available at: https://www.dwell.com/article/the-city-of-chandigarh-by-le-corbusier3e798262 [Accessed 29/11/2017] • Ashton, I. (2016) Le Corbusier’s Chandigarh government buildings captured in new images by Benjamin Hosking. Available at: https://www. dezeen.com/2016/08/07/le-corbusier-capitol-complex-unesco-world-heritage-listing-chandigarh-india-benjamin-hosking/ [Accessed 29/11/2017] • Crabtree, J. (2015) Le Corbusier’s Chandigarh: an Indian city unlike any other. Available at: https://www.ft.com/content/2a194cb4-1a8d-11e5a130-2e7db721f996 [Accessed 29/11/2017] Brexit Manifesto • Fairs, M. (2009) British Design Classics Stamps by Royal Mail. Available at: https://www.dezeen.com/2009/01/13/british-design-classicsstamps-by-royal-mail/ [Accessed 30/10/2017] • Freepik (2014) Question Mark. Available at: https://www.freepik.com/free-icon/question-mark_731610.htm [Accessed 30/10/2017] • 123RF (n.d.) Stock Photo – Blue Puzzle. Available at: https://www.123rf.com/photo_9071493_blue-puzzle.html [Accessed 30/10/2017] Healthy Body Culture • V&A (2017) Modernism: Designing a New World. Available at: https://www.vam.ac.uk/shop/modernism-designing-a-new-world.html [Accessed 28/11/2017] • JE (2015) Vesalius: Imagining the Body Exhibition, Leuven, Belgium: A Guest Post by Michael Sappol, National Library of Medicine. Available at: http://morbidanatomy.blogspot.co.uk/2015/01/vesalius-imagining-body-exhibition.html [Accessed 28/11/2017] • DHMD (2017) About Us. Available at: http://www.dhmd.de/en/about-us/ [Accessed 28/11/2017] • Birmingham City University, Library and Learning Resources (2015) Harvard Referencing: Short GuideAvailable at: https://icity.bcu.ac.uk/Content/Document/HarvardReferencingShortGuideADM-6 [Accessed 20/12/2017]
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Essay plan references De Stijl • Tate, (n.d.) De Stijl. Available at: http://www.tate.org.uk/art/art-terms/d/de-stijl [Accessed 19/12/2017] • Tate, (n.d.) Neo-Plasticism. Available at: http://www.tate.org.uk/art/art-terms/n/neo-plasticism [Accessed 19/12/2017] • Contemporisticon, (2012) Neo-Plasticism, De Stijl and its contemporary influences. Available at: http://www.contemporisticon.com/neo-plasticism-de-stijl/ [Accessed 19/12/2017] • Wolf, J. (2017) De Stijl. Available at: http://www.theartstory.org/movement-de-stijl.htm [Accessed 19/12/2017] Deconstructivism • Designing Buildings Ltd. (2017) Deconstructivism. Available at: https://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Deconstructivism [Accessed 19/12/2017] • New World Encyclopedia (2017) Deconstructivism. Available at: http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Deconstructivism [19/12/2017] • World Museum (n.d.) History of Architecture – Deconstruction. Available at: http://www.historiasztuki.com.pl/kodowane/ARCHWSP-DEKONSTRUKCJA-eng [Accessed 19/12/2017] Futurism • Tate, (2017) Futurism. Available at: http://www.tate.org.uk/art/art-terms/f/futurism [Accessed 19/12/2017] • Casden, E. (2017) Italian Futurism: An Introduction. Available at: https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/art-1010/wwi-dada/art-greatwar/a/italian-futurism-an-introduction [Accessed 19/12/2017] • The Art Story (2017) Futurism. Available at: http://www.theartstory.org/movement-futurism.htm [Accessed 19/12/2017] • Sterling, B. (2011) Manifesto of Futurist Architecture. Available at: https://www.wired.com/2008/11/manifesto-of-fu/ [Accessed 19/12/2017] German Expressionism • Tate (2017) German Expressionism. Available at: http://www.tate.org.uk/art/art-terms/g/german-expressionism [Accessed 19/12/2017] • Przybylek, S. (2017) Expressionism: Architecture & Examples. Available at: https://study.com/academy/lesson/expressionism-architecture-examples.html [Accessed 19/12/2017] • Wolf, J. (2017) Expressionism. Available at: http://www.theartstory.org/movement-expressionism.htm [Accessed 19/12/2017]
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