The 5.0 Kingdom by Roxanna

THE

5KINGDOM .0

AN INTRODUCTORY STUDY TO THE WORLD OF FUNGI

THE 5 .0 KINGDOM

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AN INTRODUCTORY STUDY TO THE WORLD OF FUNGI

Dedicated to professionals and students in the field of biology and mycology.

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< Composition >

< Organic matter >

< Development >

AN INTRODUCTORY STUDY TO THE WORLD OF FUNGI

Contents < Spores > 06 Introduction 08 The Birth of Fungi 16 Fungal Structure 24 Classification 32 Uses and Benefits < Fungi Cells > 40 Bibliography 42 Colophon

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Introduction

1 >> Although the term “fungus” has at least some meaning to the average person, few people know very much about these widely distributed , ecologically very important , and often exceedingly common organisms. Fungi are abundant in nature, very often overlooked, usually under appreciated, and sometimes misunderstood. Their sudden appearance and disappearance, their frequent association with decaying organic matter, their vivid colors, fantastic shapes, and in some instances their poisonous properties, often cause fungi to be regarded as objects of mystery and sometimes even to be associated with the supernatural. Actually, fungi are among the most important inhabitants of the natural world, and their is little question that everyone should have a fundamental knowledge of what fungi are what they look like, where they occur, and what they do. 2 >> The formal study of fungi is termed “mycology,” and the scientists who consider at least some aspect of the biology or ecology of these organisms are known as mycologists. Mycology had its origin in botany, since fungi were once considered members of the plant kingdom As a result, some of the terms that have been applied to some structures found in fungi are the same to those used in plants. In some ways, fungi are indeed similar to plants, but unlike plants they lack the green pigment chlorophyll. Thus, fungi cannot produce their own food through photosynthesis. Instead, they obtain their food by breaking down dead organic matter or, in some cases, by attacking and living on, or within, living plants, animals, or even other fungi.

You probably use fungal products every day without being aware of it. Yeasts are used in making bread, wine, beer and solvents. Drugs made from fungi cure diseases and stop the rejection of transplanted hearts and other organs. Fungi are also grown in large vats to produce flavorings for cooking, vitamins and enzymes for removing stains.

AN INTRODUCTORY STUDY TO THE WORLD OF FUNGI

THE 5 .0 KINGDOM

Chapter

The Birth of Fungi

AN INTRODUCTORY STUDY TO THE WORLD OF FUNGI

THE 5 .0 KINGDOM

Dispersal

and Birth

1 >> A fungus is any member of a large group of eukaryotic organisms that includes microorganisms such as yeasts and molds (British English: moulds), as well as the more familiar mushrooms. These organisms are classified as a kingdom, Fungi, which is separate from plants, animals, protists, and bacteria. One major difference is that fungal cells have cell walls that contain chitin, unlike the cell walls of plants and some protists, which contain cellulose, and unlike the cell walls of bacteria. These and other differences show that the fungi form a single group of related organisms, named the Eumycota (true fungi or Eumycetes), that share a common ancestor (is a monophyletic group). This fungal group is distinct from the structurally similar myxomycetes (slime molds) and oomycetes (water molds). The discipline of biology devoted to the study of fungi is known as mycology. Mycology has often been regarded as a branch of botany, even though it is a separate kingdom in biological taxonomy. Genetic studies have shown that fungi are more closely related to animals than to plants. 2 >> Abundant worldwide, most fungi are inconspicuous because of the small size of their structures, and their cryptic lifestyles in soil, on dead matter, and as symbionts of plants, animals, or other fungi. They may become noticeable when fruiting, either as mushrooms or as molds. Fungi perform an essential role in the decomposition of organic matter and have fundamental roles in nutrient cycling and exchange. They have long been used as a direct source of food, such as mushrooms and truffles, as a leavening agent for bread, and in fermentation of various food products, such as wine, beer, and soy sauce. Since the 1940s, fungi have been used for the production of antibiotics, and, more recently, various enzymes produced by fungi are used industrially and in detergents. Fungi are also used as biological pesticides to control weeds, plant diseases and insect pests. Many species produce bioactive compounds called mycotoxins, such as alkaloids and polyketides, that are toxic to animals including humans. The fruiting structures of a few species contain psychotropic compounds and are consumed recreationally or in traditional spiritual ceremonies. Fungi can break down manufactured materials and buildings, and become significant pathogens of humans and other animals. Losses of crops due to fungal diseases (e.g., rice blast disease) or food spoilage can have a large impact on human food supplies and local economies.

AN INTRODUCTORY STUDY TO THE WORLD OF FUNGI

Mature Mushroom Spores Gills Annulus (ring)

Stipe (stem)

Mushroom Primordia

The fungus kingdom encompasses an enormous diversity of taxa with varied ecologies, life cycle strategies, and morphologies ranging from unicellular aquatic chytrids to large mushrooms. However, little is known of the true biodiversity of Kingdom Fungi, which has been estimated at 1.5 million to 5 million species, with about 5% of these having been formally classified.

Spore Germination

Mycelium

This diagram represents one of the more complex structures. Mushrooms with all the features mentioned belong to the famous Amanita group which includes the most famous and probably the most photographed and illustrated mushroom the fly Agaric.

THE 5 .0 KINGDOM

AN INTRODUCTORY STUDY TO THE WORLD OF FUNGI

A mushroom develops from a nodule, or pinhead, less than two millimeters in diameter, called a primordium, which is typically found on or near the surface of the substrate. It is formed within the mycelium, the mass of threadlike hyphae that make up the fungus. The primordium enlarges into a roundish structure of interwoven hyphae roughly resembling an egg, called a â&#x20AC;&#x153;buttonâ&#x20AC;?. The button has a cottony roll of mycelium, the universal veil, that surrounds the developing fruit body.

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the mycelium of a fungus reaches a certain stage of growth, it begins to produce spores either directly on the somatic hyphae or, more often, on special sporiferous (spore-producing) hyphae, which may be loosely arranged or grouped into intricate structures called fruiting bodies, or sporophores.

Spores are less subject to animal

In fungi, both asexual and sexual

This ejection ensures exit of the

predation than seeds because they

spores or sporangiospores of

spores from the reproductive

contain almost no food reserve;

many fungal species are actively

structures as well as traveling

however they are more subject to

dispersed by forcible ejection from

through the air over long distances.

fungal and bacterial predation.

their reproductive structures.

AN INTRODUCTORY STUDY TO THE WORLD OF FUNGI

< These mechanisms include, for example, forcible discharge of ascospores enabled by the structure of the ascus and accumulation of osmolytes in the fluids of the ascus that lead to explosive discharge of the ascospores into the air. >

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Chapter

Fungal Structure

AN INTRODUCTORY STUDY TO THE WORLD OF FUNGI

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Structure

and Life cycle

1 >> The mushroom life cycle simplified. It all starts when the spores are released from the gills, (or whichever surface the mushroom happens to carry spores on). Millions of spores are released into the elements, (air, water, animals..) these spores are dispersed by various methods, (depending on the kind of mushroom). When the conditions are right, the spores germinate sending out tiny threads called hyphae (single: hypha). In order for the hyphae to develop and eventually produce a mushroom it has to find other hyphae that are compatible. When two compatible hyphae meet, they fuse together to form a network or threads called a mycelium. This mycelium eventually forms what is known as a hyphal knot which grows and develops into a pinhead which in turn grows and develops into a mushroom and then it all starts again. A mushroom develops from a nodule, or pinhead, less than two millimeters in diameter, called a primordium, which is typically found on or near the surface of the substrate. It is formed within the mycelium, the mass of threadlike hyphae that make up the fungus. The primordium enlarges into a roundish structure of interwoven hyphae roughly resembling an egg, called a “button”. 2 >> The button has a cottony roll of mycelium, the universal veil, that surrounds the developing fruit body. As the egg expands, the universal veil ruptures and may remain as a cup, or volva, at the base of the stalk, or as warts or volval patches on the cap. Many mushrooms lack a universal veil, therefore they do not have either a volva or volval patches. Often, a second layer of tissue, the partial veil, covers the blade like gills that bear spores. As the cap expands, the veil breaks, and remnants of the partial veil may remain as a ring, or annulus, around the middle of the stalk or as fragments hanging from the margin of the cap. The ring may be skirt-like as in some species of Amanita, collar-like as in many species of Lepiota, or merely the faint remnants of a cortina (a partial veil composed of filaments resembling a spiderweb), which is typical of the genus Cortinarius. Mushrooms lacking partial veils do not form an annulus. The stalk (also called the stipe, or stem) may be central and support the cap in the middle, or it may be off-center and/or lateral, as in species of Pleurotus and Panus. In other mushrooms, a stalk may be absent, as in the polypores that form shelf-like brackets. Puffballs lack a stalk, but may have a supporting base. Other mushrooms, such as truffles, jellies, earth stars, and bird’s

AN INTRODUCTORY STUDY TO THE WORLD OF FUNGI

19 nests, usually do not have stalks, and a specialized mycological vocabulary exists to describe their parts. The way the gills attach to the top of the stalk is an important feature of mushroom morphology. Mushrooms in the genera Agaricus, Amanita, Lepiota and Pluteus, among others, have free gills that do not extend to the top of the stalk. Others have decurrent gills that extend down the stalk, as in the genera Omphalotus and Pleurotus. There are a great number of variations between the extremes of free and decurrent, collectively called attached gills. Finer distinctions are often made to distinguish the types of attached gills: adnate gills, which adjoin squarely to the stalk; notched gills, which are notched where they join the top of the stalk; adnexed gills, which curve upward to meet the stalk, and so on. These distinctions between attached gills are sometimes difficult to interpret, since gill attachment may change as the mushroom matures, or with different environmental conditions.

fungi cell

cell wall

cell surface membrane cytoplasm

vacuole

nucleus

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20 3 >> A mushroom develops from a nodule, or pinhead, less than two millimeters in diameter, called a primordium, which is typically found on or near the surface of the substrate. It is formed within the mycelium, the mass of threadlike hyphae that make up the fungus. The primordium enlarges into a roundish structure of interwoven hyphae roughly resembling an egg, called a “button”. The button has a cottony roll of mycelium, the universal veil, that surrounds the developing fruit body. As the egg expands, the universal veil ruptures and may remain as a cup, or volva, at the base of the stalk, or as warts or volval patches on the cap. Many mushrooms lack a universal veil, therefore they do not have either a volva or volval patches. Often, a second layer of tissue, the partial veil, covers the blade like gills that bear spores. As the cap expands, the veil breaks, and remnants of the partial veil may remain as a ring, or annulus, around the middle of the stalk or as fragments hanging from the margin of the cap. The ring may be skirt-like as in some species of Amanita, collar-like as in many species of Lepiota, or merely the faint remnants of a cortina (a partial veil composed of filaments resembling a spiderweb), which is typical of the genus Cortinarius. Mushrooms lacking partial veils do not form an annulus. 4 >> The stalk (also called the stipe, or stem) may be central and support the cap in the middle, or it may be off-center and/or lateral, as in species of Pleurotus and Panus. In other mushrooms, a stalk may be absent, as in the polypores that form shelflike brackets. Puffballs lack a stalk, but may have a supporting base. Other mushrooms, such as truffles, jellies, earth stars, and bird’s nests, usually do not have stalks, and a specialized mycological vocabulary exists to describe their parts. The way the gills attach to the top of the stalk is an important feature of mushroom morphology. Mushrooms in the genera Agaricus, Amanita, Lepiota and Pluteus, among others, have free gills that do not extend to the top of the stalk. Others have decurrent gills that extend down the stalk, as in the genera Omphalotus and Pleurotus. There are a great number of variations between the extremes of free and decurrent, collectively called attached gills. Finer distinctions are often made to distinguish the types of attached gills: adnate gills, which adjoin squarely to the stalk; notched gills, which are notched where they join the top of the stalk; adnexed gills, which curve upward to meet the stalk, and so on. These distinctions between attached gills are sometimes difficult to interpret, since gill attachment may change as the mushroom matures, or with different environmental conditions Many species of mushrooms seemingly appear overnight, growing or expanding rapidly. This phenomenon is the source of several common expressions in the English language including “to mushroom” or “mushrooming” (expanding rapidly in size or scope) and “to pop up like a mushroom” (to appear unexpectedly and quickly). In reality all species of mushrooms take several days to form primordial mush-

Growth of Filamentous Fungi

Germination (%)

100

Time (h)

AN INTRODUCTORY STUDY TO THE WORLD OF FUNGI

21 room fruit bodies, though they do expand rapidly by the absorption of fluids. The cultivated mushroom as well as the common field mushroom initially form a minute fruiting body, referred to as the pin stage because of their small size. Slightly expanded they are called buttons, once again because of the relative size and shape. Once such stages are formed, the mushroom can rapidly pull in water from its mycelium and expand, mainly by inflating preformed cells that took several days to form in the primordia. Similarly, there are even more ephemeral mushrooms, like Parasola plicatilis (formerly Coprinus plicatlis), that literally appear overnight and may disappear by late afternoon on a hot day after rainfall. The primordia form at ground level in lawns in humid spaces under the thatch and after heavy rainfall or in dewy conditions balloon to full size in a few hours, release spores, and then collapse. They “mushroom” to full size. Not all mushrooms expand overnight; some grow very slowly and add tissue to their fruit bodies by growing from the edges of the colony or by inserting hyphae. For example Pleurotus nebrodensis grows slowly, and because of this combined with human collection, it is now critically endangered. 5 >> Though mushroom fruiting bodies are short-lived, the underlying mycelium can itself be long-lived and massive. A colony of Armillaria solidipes (formerly known as Armillaria ostoyae) in Malheur National Forest in the United States is estimated to be 2,400 years old, possibly older, and spans an estimated 2,200 acres (8.9 km2). Most of the fungus is underground and in decaying wood or dying tree roots in the form of white mycelia combined with black shoelace-like rhizomorphs that bridge colonized separated woody substrates. It has been suggested the electrical stimulus of a lightning bolt striking mycelia in logs accelerates the production of mushrooms.

Mushrooms are a fungus, and unlike plants, mushrooms do not require sunlight to make energy for themselves The term “mushroom” can also designate the entire fungus when in culture; the thallus (called a mycelium) of species forming the fruiting bodies called mushrooms.

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AN INTRODUCTORY STUDY TO THE WORLD OF FUNGI

23 related. The term “fungophobia” was coined by Wil6 >> The terms “mushroom” and “toadstool” go back liam Delisle Hay of England, who noted a national centuries and were never precisely defined, nor superstition or fear of “toadstools” He described was there consensus on application. The term the “fungus-hunter” as being contemptible and “toadstool” was often, but not exclusively, applied detailed the larger demographics attitude toward to poisonous mushrooms or to those that have the mushrooms as “abnormal, worthless, or inexplicaclassic umbrella-like cap-and-stem form. Between 1400 and 1600 AD, the terms tadstoles, frogstooles, ble”. Fungophobia spread to the United States and frogge stoles, tadstooles, tode stoles, toodys hatte, Australia, where it was inherited from England. The paddockstool, puddockstool, paddocstol, toad- underlying cause of a cultural fungaphobia may also be related to the exaggerated importance placed on stoole, and paddockstooles sometimes were used synonymously with mushrom, mushrum, musche- the few deadly and poisonous mushrooms found in the region of that culture. In these regions, mushron, mousheroms, mussheron, or musserouns. The rooms were also sometimes regarded as magic or word has apparent analogies in Dutch paddenstoel (toad-stool/chair, mushroom) and German Kröten- satanic, their fruiting bodies appearing quickly schwamm (toad-fungus, alt. word for panther cap). overnight from underground. Some believed they were the Devil’s fruit, and others that mushroom In German folklore and old fairy tales, toads are rings were magical portals. “Mushroom” describes a often depicted sitting on toadstool mushrooms variety of gilled fungi, with or without stems, and the and catching, with their tongues, the flies that are term is used even more generally, to describe both said to be drawn to the Fliegenpilz, a German name the fleshy fruiting bodies of some Ascomycota and for the toadstool, meaning “flies’ mushroom”. This is how the mushroom got another of its names, the woody or leathery fruiting bodies of some Basidiomycota, depending upon the context of the word. Krötenstuhl (a less-used German name for the mushroom), literally translating to “toad-stool”. Forms deviating from the standard morphology 7 >> The term “mushroom” and its variations may have usually have more specific names, such as “puffball”, been derived from the French word mousseron in “stinkhorn”, and “morel”, and gilled mushrooms reference to moss (mousse). The toadstool’s con- themselves are often called “agarics” in reference to their similarity to Agaricus or their place Agaricales. nection to toads may be direct, in reference to some species of poisonous toad,or may just be a case of phonosemantic matching from the German word. However, delineation between edible and poisonous fungi is not clear-cut, so a “mushroom” may be edible, poisonous, or unpalatable. The term “toadstool” is nowadays used in storytelling when referring to poisonous or suspect mushrooms. The classic example of a toadstool is Amanita muscaria. Cultural or social phobias of mushrooms and fungi may be

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Chapter

Classification

AN INTRODUCTORY STUDY TO THE WORLD OF FUNGI

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< The part of the fungus that we see is only the “fruit” of the organism. The living body of the fungus is a mycelium made out of a web of tiny filaments called hyphae. The mycelium is usually hidden in the soil, in wood, or another food source. >

AN INTRODUCTORY STUDY TO THE WORLD OF FUNGI

Types of

Fruiting Bodies

1 >> As is the case for all organisms, for a particular kind of fungus to be formally recognized by mycologists, it must have been given a taxonomic name in accordance with certain internationally accepted rules. This name a binomial that consist of a unique combination oa a generic name (genus) followed by a specific epiphet (species). For example, Agaricus is the genus name and bisporus the specific epiphet of the mos common cultivated mushroom. The binomial that has been given to a particular species is complete only when it is followed by the authority name, the last name (or abbreviation of the name) of the person (or persons) who first described the species in question. Since taxonomic concepts are subject to change, a species can sometimes be transferred to a genus othen than the one to which it was assigned when originally described. When this happens, the name of the person who formally proposed the change is added to the authority, and the original name is placed in parenthesis. For example, Agaricus bisporus (J.E. Lange) Pilat indicates that the Danish mycologist Jakob Lange was the first to apply a name to this fungus, but he considered it to be a member of the genus Psalliota, which is no longer recognized. Later, the Czech mycologist Albert Pilat placed the fungus in the genus Agaricus, which is the concept still recognized by modern mycologists. 2 >> Genus and species are but two levels in a hierarchical system of classification in which organisms are grouped on the basis of common characteristics. Two or more species that share many of the same characteristics are placed in the same genus (plural: genera), while genera with common characteristics are grouped in the same family. For example, Agaricus bisporus and the closely related and morphologically very similar A. campestris (meadow mushroom) are both members of the genus Agaricus. The genus belongs to the family Agaricaceae, which includes such other genera as Chlorophyllum Lepiota, and Leucoagaricus. Likewise, families with common characteristics are grouped in the same order. Correspondingly, orders that share the same characteristics are grouped in the same class, classes with common characteristics in the same phylum (plural: phylla), and phyka in the same kingdom, in this case the kingdom Fungi.

Since taxonomic concepts are subject to change, a species can sometimes be transferred to a genus other than the one to which it was assigned when originally described.

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28 3 >> On some occasions, a subdivision of one of the seven main levels of classification is used. For example, three subphyla have been recognized for the phylum Basidiomycota. One of these the sub phylum Agaricomycotina, includes most of the fungi that people usually consider as mushrooms. As such, Agaricus bisporus belongs to this sub phylum. • The term “taxum” (plural: taxa) can be used in a general sense to refer to any level of classification. Agaricus bisporus and the sub phylum to which it belongs are two different taxa, and the same would be true for any two of the genera mentioned above (for example, Chlorophyllum and Lepiota). Conversely, all true fungi since they are all placed in the same kingdom, make up a single taxon. In most treatments of the kingdom Fungi, four phyla have been accepted as being “true” fungi. These are the Chytridiomycota, Zygomycota, Ascomycota, and Basidiomycota. However, research into fungal phylogenetics carried out by numerous mycologists in the context of two projects (“Deep Hypha” and “Assembling the Fungal Tree of Life”) funded by the National Science Foundation has provided additional insight into the possible evolutionary relationships of the various members of this phyla. In brief, some of the organisms traditionally assigned to two of the phyla (Chytridiomycota and Zygomycota) have been remove and placed elsewhere, sometimes in their own phylum. It now appears appropriate to recognize the members of the Zygomycota and the phylum Basidiomycota for some of the fungi once considered to belong to the Chytridiomycota. In addition, numerous classes and orders within the Chytridiomycota, Zygomycota, Ascomycota, and Basidiomycota have been redefined. To the extent possible, the taxonomic treatment used herein reflect these recent changes. 4 >> Note should be made of the fact that the groups of fungi recognized as phyla in the system of classification outlined above were once considered as taxonomic classes. For example, the fungi now placed in the Ascomycota made up the class Ascomycetes, while members in the Basidiomycota were assigned to the class Basidiomycetes. These terms are still used in an informal sense (that is “ascomycetes” and “basidiomycetes”), especially by amateur mycologists but also by some professional mycologists. Oftentimes, the terms are further abbreviated to “ascos” and “basidios,” which are not officially sanctioned technical names. Nevertheless, they are convenient to use when referring to a particular example from one of the two phyla.

“Mushroom” has been used for polypores, puffballs, jelly fungi, bracket fungi, stink horns, etc. Thus, the term is more one of common application to macroscopic fungal fruiting bodies than one having precise taxonomic meaning. Some have pores underneath (and are usually called boletes), others have spines, such as the hedgehog mushroom and other tooth fungi, and so on.

AN INTRODUCTORY STUDY TO THE WORLD OF FUNGI

< Other mushrooms are not gilled, so the term “mushroom” is loosely used, and giving a full account of their classifications is difficult. >

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The fungal kingdom offers enormous biodiversity with over seventy thousand known species and an estimated 1.5 million species. According to molecular evidence, the fungi may have originated from protozoan ancestors before the kingdoms Animalia and Plantae split; there is strong evidence that Fungi are closer to Animalia than Plantae.

AN INTRODUCTORY STUDY TO THE WORLD OF FUNGI

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Chapter

Uses and Benefits

AN INTRODUCTORY STUDY TO THE WORLD OF FUNGI

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Nutrition

and Human Use

1 >> Mushrooms are used extensively in cooking, in many cuisines (notably Chinese, Korean, European, and Japanese). Though neither meat nor vegetable, mushrooms are known as the “meat” of the vegetable world. Most mushrooms sold in supermarkets have been commercially grown on mushroom farms. The most popular of these, Agaricus bisporus, is considered safe for most people to eat because it is grown in controlled, sterilized environments. Several varieties of A. bisporus are grown commercially, including whites, crimini, and portobello. Other cultivated species now available at many grocers include shiitake, maitake or hen-ofthe-woods, oyster, and enoki. In recent years, increasing affluence in developing countries has led to a considerable growth in interest in mushroom cultivation, which is now seen as a potentially important economic activity for small farmers. A number of species of mushrooms are poisonous; although some resemble certain edible species, consuming them could be fatal. Eating mushrooms gathered in the wild is risky and should only be undertaken by individuals knowledgeable in mushroom identification. Common best practice is for wild mushroom pickers to focus on collecting a small number of visually distinctive, edible mushroom species that cannot be easily confused with poisonous varieties. A. bisporus contains carcinogens called hydrazines, the most abundant of which is agaritine. However, the carcinogens are destroyed by moderate heat when cooking. 2 >> More generally, and particularly with gilled mushrooms, separating edible from poisonous species requires meticulous attention to detail; there is no single trait by which all toxic mushrooms can be identified, nor one by which all edible mushrooms can be identified. Additionally, even edible mushrooms may produce allergic reactions in susceptible individuals, from a mild asthmatic response to severe anaphylactic shock. People who collect mushrooms for consumption are known as mycophagists, and the act of collecting them for such is known as mushroom hunting, or simply “mushrooming”. China is the world’s largest edible mushroom producer. The country produces about half of all cultivated mushrooms, and around 2.7 kilograms (6.0 lb) of mushrooms are consumed per person per year by over a billion people. Many mushroom species produce secondary metabolites that can be toxic, mind-altering, antibiotic, antiviral, or bioluminescent. Although there are only a small number of deadly species, several others can cause particularly severe and unpleasant symptoms. Toxicity likely plays a role in protecting the function of the basidiocarp: the mycelium has expended considerable energy and protoplasmic material to develop a structure to efficiently distribute its spores. One defense against consumption and premature destruction is the evolution of chemicals that render the mushroom inedible, either causing the consumer to vomit the meal (see emetics), or to learn to avoid consumption altogether. In addition, due to the propensity of mushrooms to absorb heavy metals, including those that are radioactive, European mushrooms may, to date,

AN INTRODUCTORY STUDY TO THE WORLD OF FUNGI

35 include toxicity from the 1986 Chernobyl disaster and continue to be studied. 3 >> Mushrooms with psychoactive properties have long played a role in various native medicine traditions in cultures all around the world. They have been used as sacrament in rituals aimed at mental and physical healing, and to facilitate visionary states. One such ritual is the velada ceremony. A practitioner of traditional mushroom use is the shaman or curandera (priesthealer). Psilocybin mushrooms possess psychedelic properties. Commonly known as “magic mushrooms” or “’shrooms,” they are openly available in smart shops in many parts of the world, or on the black market in those countries that have outlawed their sale. Psilocybin mushrooms have been reported as facilitating profound and life-changing insights often described as mystical experiences. Recent scientific work has supported these claims, as well as the long-lasting effects of such induced spiritual experiences.

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Mushrooms contain some of the most potent natural medicines on the planet. Of the 140,000 species of mushroom-forming fungi, science is familiar with only 10 percent. About 100 species of mushrooms are being studied for their health-promoting benefits. Of those hundred, about a half dozen really stand out for their ability to deliver a tremendous boost to your immune system.

AN INTRODUCTORY STUDY TO THE WORLD OF FUNGI

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38 that can be toxic, mind-altering, antibiotic, antiviral, or bioluminescent. Although there are only a small number of deadly species, several others can cause particularly severe and unpleasant symptoms. Toxicity likely plays a role in protecting the function of the basidiocarp: the mycelium has expended considerable energy and protoplasmic material to develop a structure to efficiently distribute its spores. One defense against consumption and premature destruction is the evolution of chemicals that render the mushroom inedible, either causing the consumer to vomit the meal, or to learn to avoid consumption altogether. In addition, due to the propensity of mushrooms to absorb heavy metals, including those that are radioactive, European mushrooms may, to date, include toxicity from the 1986 Chernobyl disaster and continue to be studied. 4 >> Mushrooms with psychoactive properties have long played a role in various native medicine traditions in cultures all around the world. They have been used as sacrament in rituals aimed at mental and physical healing, and to facilitate visionary states. One such ritual is the velada ceremony. A practitioner of traditional mushroom use is the shaman or curandera (priesthealer). Psilocybin mushrooms possess psychedelic properties. Commonly known as “magic mushrooms” or “’shrooms,” they are openly available in smart shops in many parts of the world, or on the black market in those countries that have outlawed their sale. Psilocybin mushrooms have been reported as facilitating profound and life-changing insights often described as mystical experiences. Recent scientific work has supported these claims, as well as the long-lasting effects of such induced spiritual experiences.

In a comprehensive safety assessment of producing vitamin D in fresh mushrooms, researchers showed that artificial UV light technologies were equally effective for vitamin D production as in mushrooms exposed to natural sunlight, and that UV light has a long record of safe use for production of vitamin D in food.

AN INTRODUCTORY STUDY TO THE WORLD OF FUNGI

39 Psilocybin, a naturally occurring chemical in certain psychedelic mushrooms such as Psilocybe cubensis, is being studied for its ability to help people suffering from psychological disorders, such as obsessive-compulsive disorder. 5 >> Minute amounts have been reported to stop cluster and migraine headaches. A double-blind study, done by the Johns Hopkins Hospital, showed psychedelic mushrooms could provide people an experience with substantial personal meaning and spiritual significance. In the study, one third of the subjects reported ingestion of psychedelic mushrooms was the single most spiritually significant event of their lives. Over two-thirds reported it among their five most meaningful and spiritually significant events. On the other hand, one-third of the subjects reported extreme anxiety. However, the anxiety went away after a short period of time. Psilocybin mushrooms have also shown to be successful in treating addiction, specifically with alcohol and cigarettes. A few species in the Amanita genus, most recognizably A. muscaria, but also A. pantherina, among others, contain the psychoactive compound muscimol. The muscimol-containing chemotaxonomic group of Amanitas contains no amatoxins or phallotoxins, and as such are not hepatoxic, though if not properly cured will be non-lethally neurotoxic due to the presence of ibotenic acid. The Amanita intoxication is similar to Z-drugs in that it includes CNS depressant and sedative-hypnotic effects, but also dissociation and delirium in high doses. Some mushrooms or extracts are used or studied as possible treatments for diseases, such as cardiovascular disorders. Some mushroom materials, including polysaccharides, glycoproteins and proteoglycans are under basic research for their potential to modulate immune system responses and inhibit tumor growth, whereas other isolates show potential antiviral, antibacterial, antiparasitic, anti-inflammatory, and antidiabetic properties in preliminary studies. Currently, several extracts have widespread use in Japan, Korea and China, as adjuncts to radiation treatments and chemotherapy, even though clinical evidence of efficacy in has not been confirmed.

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American Mushroom Consumption 4.50

Pounds consumed per person

4.00 3.50 3.00 2.50 2.00 1.50 1.00 0.50 0.00 1965

1970

1975

1980

1985

1990

1995

2000 2005

2010

Year

Consuming organic mushrooms can be

Deadly poisonous mushrooms that

Great care should therefore be

as easy as taking a spring morel hike,

are frequently confused with edible

taken when eating any fungus

returning home and preparing the

mushrooms and responsible for many

for the first time, and only small

mushrooms for stuffing and baking.

fatal poisonings. Therefore itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s better

quantities should be consumed in

to eat only recognizable, species.

case of individual allergies.

AN INTRODUCTORY STUDY TO THE WORLD OF FUNGI

6 >> Commercial mushroom farming in the United States dates back to the activities of early 20st century entrepreneurs in Southeastern Pennsylvania. As the industry approaches its one hundredth anniversary, recent United States Department of Agriculture statistics explains some of the industryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s longevity. Between 1965 and 2010, American per capita consumption for fresh and processed mushrooms increased from 0.69 pounds/person to current estimates of 3.84 pounds/person. Over that same forty five year time span, American mushroom preferences expanded. Starting with the industryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s basic button mushroom, Americans began exploring many mushroom varieties. 7 >> By the 2010/2011 crop season, aggregate mushroom production statistics showed that button mushroom production (all fresh and processed varieties of Agaricus mushrooms) reached a shade under one billion pounds (844,893,000 pounds).

By comparison, specialty mushroom farming produced a much smaller 18,174,000 pounds during the same time frame. The chart compares specialty mushroom production over the past twenty years, showing growth in all three categories, shiitake mushrooms, oyster mushrooms and other specialty mushrooms, with oyster mushroom popularity recently surpassing shiitake mushroom popularity. The scalability of specialty mushroom farming accounts for some of its success. Mushroom growing kits, especially for shiitake and oyster mushrooms, can easily be purchased at many local garden shops and ecommerce sites. Whether grown singularly, as a hobby grow on a windowsill, or grown in groups of hundreds in an indoor mushroom farming operation, specialty mushroom farming done correctly, can produce continuous fresh harvests over the course of a typical crop year. The scope of North American specialty mushrooms extends beyond the major market varieties. Each season, public forest lands are open to the public, for the purpose of mushroom harvesting. The list of fresh harvested mushrooms reads like a menu from an upscale restaurant, with culinary delights.

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Colophon

Typefaces: The text is set in Chronicle Text . Chronicle was designed by Jonathan Hoefler and Tobias Frere-Jones, 2002. Issued by Hoefler and Co. New York, NY. The headings are set in Knockout designed by Jonathan Hoefler, 1994. Issued by Hoefler and Co. New York, NY. Software: Adobe Creative Cloud, Indesign and Illustrator. Equipment: iMac desktop 21.5 in, 2.7 GH z Paper: Moab Entrada Natural 190 Publisher: Timber Press, Portland, OR. Designer: Roxanna Robayna About the Project: This is a student project only. No part of this book or any other part of the project was produced for commercial use.

AN INTRODUCTORY STUDY TO THE WORLD OF FUNGI

< Spores >

< Growth >

< Composition >

< Nutrition >

< Development >