Archaeolog No 13 February 1980

The Royal Pi1otogra.1hic Socie ty of Great Britain

ISSN: 0143-0661

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ARCHAEOLOG No.13 February 1980

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Excavation of Wick Barrow, Somerset, 1907. Photograph H. St. G. Gray, National Monuments Record.

Editorial The photography of waterlogged wood An introduction to scales and their use in

archaeological photography The archaeological section of the National Monuments Record The Durness wheelhouse The Tournai fonts The industrial archaeology of 'the Peak' English theatres Correspondence Notices

Last Autumn our editorial predecessor circulated questionnaires to all our readers asking them for their views on Archaeolog as it then was and fc;,rtheir suggestions for its improvement. About a quarter of these were returned completed, mostly with brief additional comments and three readers took the trouble 'to write at some length. The letters were critical in varying degrees, but also constructive: all have now been published. As a result of all this Archaeolog greets 1980 with a new face ('we don't like the oldfashioned Gothic' they said) and a new two-column lay-out ('the long lines are hard to read' they said). Otherwise the format is much as before since we agree with the majority that in terms of quality Archaeolog was on the good side of average, with occasional flashes of brilliance and a few lapses which we would rather forget. As far as content is concerned we also agreed that as a photographic/ archaeological magazine Archaeol og is ( or should be) out on its own. Cu"ent Archaeology, Rescue New s, Popular Archaeology all have their roles which may overlap to some extent with ours, but fundamentally archaeological photography is not their prime concern. Which, for us, it is.

Given the above we have two difficulties to overcome. The first is that the hard-core 'professional' archaeological photographers who have the knowledge and experience to write for us are a busy and diffident lot, slow to come forward in print for one reason or the other . This means that it is hard for us to meet the criticism, largely justified in our view, that we do not publish enough detailed information about the taking of archaeological photographs. We are working on this and have our hopes since although archaeological photographers make poor volunteers they are not incapable of reacting to appropriate appeals (blackmail and such). Our second difficulty is lack of cash.

If we produce a better journal we get more subscribers and if we can get more subscribers we can publish a better journal. This is where readers can heip - enro) one new subscriber per head and Archaeolog will be saved!

Taking our duties seriously, as we do we attended in November a one day 'ro und table ' (whatever that means) in Paris on the scientific contributi on to archaeological photography . Our prime object was to mark down possible future contributors to Archaeol og, but we listened with interest to what we could understand, and rather less to what we.c;ouldn't (some of the Englisl: translation was particularly incomprehensible). A number of papers dealt with the recording or strengthenin of images invisible to the human eye using infra-red and ultra violet light, with which we were up to a point familiar, but also scanning method s, developed we ima ine. in connecti on with space technology. Particular!} impressive was the perfect image produced from an under-exposed air photograph of a factory taken in a fo ! The chrono logy of rural development was analysed b} emphasising the orientation of one set of field systems ag inst anoth er, and the photogrammetri c production of maps from pairs of oblique photogr aphs was also demonstrated. Compared with this the recording of reliefs at Karnak proved to be a relatively mundane affair, with massive stone block s photographed individually under standard conditio ns in an open-air studio, although even here computerisa tion is being used, we understand , to help reassemble the resultant images in their correct position in relation to each other. We also heard of semi-conventional developments such as the flying camera, and were interested to see one such (albeit still under development) demonstrated not long ago on the Telly.

All this should bear fruit in the future. In the meanti me we hope that you are already enjoying Archaeolog as it is and will be hurrying off to renew your subscription if you have not already done so.

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Archaeolog is produced by the Royal Photographic Society Archaeological Group and printed by Wellington Bureau , 23/25 Craven Street , London W.C.2.

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Subscriptions (other than RPS members) to Miss Mary Mitchell, 3 Lorraine Court, Talbot Road, Wembley, Mddx, HAO 4UF. Contributions to Editor, Dr M. R. Apted, 29 Cavendish Drive, Claygate, Esher, Surrey KTIO 0QE.

The Photographyof WaterloggedWood (Wooden pile driven timbers from Runnymede Bridge, Egham, Surrey) A.D.o.E. funded archaeological excavatiqn took place at Runnymede Bridge, Egham in 1978. The site was situated on the southern bank of the Thames under the new M25 bridge abuttment. Evidence of a Late Bronze Age (9th-8th cent'tlries BC) settlement had been revealed by an excavation in 1976 some one hundred metres further back from the river bank. But in a silted up river channel, below the water table and between the 1976 excavation site and the present day course of the Thames the 1978 excavation made an important and somewhat startling discovery: a double row of pile driven timbers revetting the bank of the ancient water channel. The timber formation can be seen as the foundation of a simple landing stage linked to the river bank by horizontal planking or split logs. This discovery added factual evidence to support the possibility of late Bronze Age involvement in a far reaching trading network . About 80 timbers were removed from the site varying in length from 150 ems to fragments (mainly worked tips) of 20 ems approx. The waterlogged conditions had preserved the worked wood surface faceting which is still a compari.tively rare phenomenon on archaeological sites.

The wood was brought to the Ancient Monuments Laboratory of the Directorate of Ancient Monuments and Historic Buildings in Fortress House, Savile Row, London WI where a procedure had to be established (as a first priority) for its recording, sampling and conservation. Key examples of the wood had to be isolated for later publication drawing and future further analysis. The practical difficulties of simultaneously sxposing and displaying some 80 large waterlogged timbers (packed in sealed polythene tubes since excavation to prevent drying out) for selection were seen as insurmountable. An alternative had to be found. It was decided photograph the wooden piles and to select examples for detailed examination from the set of photographic prints. The photographs had to achieve maximum detail of axe facets, surviving bark or unworked parts of the piles and also show the differential colouring tones of the heartwood.

The final set of prints had therefore all to reach publication standard.

Every wooden pile was to be photographed from each side (so four views) to record as clearly as possible all surface detail but also to highlight any twisting and/or warping of the timber trunks themselves.

The required photography posed both technical and practical difficulties. The technical problems were those of photographing any very dark and potentially shiny object to show surface detail when strong directorial lighting would be inadvisable due to a loss of information in the resultant deep shadow areas. As the wood had to be kept wet one photographic sef must be created to suit (with only minor alterations) all the wooden piles as speed of operation was crucial to the continuing well-being of the wood. The practical difficulties included limited studio area and access the weight and bulk of the timbers themselves and the possibility of having to take down the wood set for other urgent photographic tasks \o be completed during the weeks allocated primarily to the wood.

It became apparent, therefore, that a semi-permanent construction such as a large light tent, completely surrounding the piles would be impractical as it would take

by Elizabeth

Lawler

too long to dismantle and rebuild if interruptions in the work flow occurred and also the tent itself would create access ¡ problems to the shooting area. From previous studio experience on much smaller waterlogged fragments the even illumination created by use of a light tent did appear very desirable, however, for the present photographic project.

The solution seemed to be in the construction of a 'portable light tent' which could be easily and conveniently stored when out of use. It was decided to construct a series of portable perspex diffusing screens which could be positioned surrounding the wood which would be placed on a suitable background on the floor of the studio . The camera, a Sinar F with 90mm super angulon lens would be mounted vertically on the horizontally extended arm of the studio tripod. (See diagram) Four sheets of 6' x 4' Opal 030 Grade 3mm thick perspex were purchased. One sheet was left at 6' x 4' to form a long unbroken back diffuser. Two sheets were cut in half to form four 3' x 4' screens to be positioned two on either side of the wood. The fourth perspex sheet was used as part of the base background for the wood itself.

The diffusing screens were constructed by mounting the perspex on to three sided frames (the tops left open) of plain metal tubing called Handy Tube (manufactured by Handy Angle). Rubber washers were used to cushion the stress effects of the metal screwed to the perspex.

Supporting cross pieces were added at right angles to the bottom of the screen frames and wheels mounted on each end of each of these cross pieces. This achieved complete portability and the cross supports were set at decreasing heights so that the screens would effectively stack into each other against a wall when not in use.

The wood itself, although having been scrubbed and washed by the conservation staff in the laboratory , was still apt to deposit muddy marks and to shed small fragments of itself on any background when moved to achieve the four views required in the photography. The background would therefore have to be easily cleaned but be plain and as least distracting as possible. It was agreed that as near to a shadowless white must be achieved. To this end the remaining uncut piece of perspex was placed on the floor and covered with a layer of Jiffy foam (a white material used mainly for packing) which had been found to be remarkably resilient to dirt and surprisingly easy to clean effectively with a dampened sponge and some determination. The wooden piles, in pairs of similar size and length together with a suitable scale and the appropriate laboratory inventory numbers were then placed on the Jiffy foam.

The lighting circuits were checked for maximum loading capacity and then three 500w photofloods positioned behind the 6' x 4' diffusing screen. One 650w spotlamp was placed behind each pair of 3' x 4' side screens and two 500w spotlamps were placed at a very low level on each side of the tripod stand at the front of the set. These front spots were turned to flood but did add just a little surface texture and highlight to counterbalance the otherwise extremely diffuse lighting. The studio colorama roll of white paper was unwound and used to create a lowered false ceiling. Two redhead 800w lights were directed on to this lowered ceiling

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one from each side of the set thus completing the required tent effect. (See diagram) Again, from previous experience of smaller objects it had been decided to open up two stops (increase exposure x 4) on any incident light reading (Lunar 6) and slightly cut the development time in Microphen. FP4 had to come out on to top of the previously conducted film suitability tests for the photography of the wood. The exposure on 5 x 4 FP4 was 10 sees at f45 and a development of 4 mins at 20 .. (68°F).

This procedure produced a pleasantly lightened subject surface tone, good surface detail and the required plain shadowless background .

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From the resulting set of photographs selection of wood for drawing, sampling and further study will take place, as mentioned earlier. The piles selected be subjected to destructive testing (ie. dendro-chronology) to gain information concerning growth patterns, habitat and treefelling patterns and carbon 14 dating to refine the absolute chronology of the Runnymede Bridge site. It is apparent therefore that the photographic prints will ultimately form the only complete reference record of this extremely rare Late Bronze Age timber which provides justification, if any were needed, for the time and care taken to achieve the desired photographic standard.

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Acknowledgements I wot1ld like to thank Stuart Needham, of the Surrey Archaeological Unit, Director of the Runnymede Bridge excavation for the archaeological site details included in the above article and for his patience and interest during the photography of the wood. Also Cliff Birtchnell, my photographic colleage, for his hard and dedicated work throughout the project and Glynis Edwards, Jaqui Watson, Vanessa Fell and Ann~ Bennett for their valiant and unflagging efforts in cleaning, packing and unpacking, carrying and positioning the wood for photography.

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Scales

In Photography

ERIC Scales serve two purposes. The first and obvious one is to give the viewer an accurate idea of the relative sizes of the various features in the picture. The second, and more important, is to enable future workers to reconstruct photogrammetrically all aspects of a site visible in the photographs. For this purpose, the accuracy of the reconstruction will be largely dependent upon the number and placing of the scales.

In an issue of the Photographic Journal which appeared shortly after the formation of our Group, there was some discussion on the matter of scales in archaeological photography 1 • As I remember, a picture was described as 'Over-scaled' by the author of an article, and a correspondent-in a subsequent issue took umbrage. Let me emphasise here that to my mind there is no such thing as an overscaled photograph.

Obviouslr, different features require different scales, and Cookson is still one of the best guides as to the use of ranging poles and the production of the smaller types.

Nowadays a superior form of scale can be produced by a label-making machine, especially the type which produces formica labels. Some machines cannot fill in the black squares, and in this event black paint or paper will suffice. One point worth making is the convention for the placing of small scales in close-up work. In general, the scale should be parallel to the edge of the frame, though occassionally circumstances dictate that it is not. One rule which cannot be broken is that the scale should be in the same plane as the chief plane of the subject.

One well known text book has beautifully arranged objects pictured in excellent colour; but with scales between the camera and the subjects!

For large areas such as on site, the ubiquitous ranging poles are no longer sufficient . To reconstruct accurately the contoured plan of a site, the best scale is a hollow square. A recent note in Antiquity 3 discusses the use of such a scale and its improvisation from two drawing grids and dowelling.

The ultimate objective should be to enable a three dimension dimensional perspective grid to be projected on to and into all site photographs whenever required. If any reader be unsure of the necessity for this, he or she should consult the reading recommended below.

LRPS

BOULDER

to the number and placing of the scales. A major requirement at this time is a simple, strong, and easily packed box-scale which could become a standard feature in much the same way as the ranging-pole has. The design and production of this could form a useful project for any Group member with time and engineering skill.

Footnotes:!. R. F. Pitt, ARPS,in The Photographic Journal, May, 1974. See caption to picture on p . 243 and letter by E. Sarnmes in Oct. 74 issue.

2. Cookson, M. B. Photography for Archaeologists.1954 3. Hood, J. S. R., 'Photogrammetry and Field Archaeology', a note in Antiquity, U, No. 202 .

Further Reading:Williams, J.C. Simple Photogrammetry, 1969

20 CENTIMETRE

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CENTI METRES

Formica scales used by author for close-up work - one black and white, the other red and white. These could be rephotographed and enlarged to correct size on matte paper.

Before using glue to wood or laminate to prevent bending etc etc. Photograph Eric Houlder.

In the absence of a box-scale when recording areas on site, the liberal use ofranging poles is recommended. Cookson advises that these be tilted to bring them parallel to the frame..edge, but this introduces distortion if the photograph is eventually submitted for photogrammetry. The idea1 layout would be to place them in the form of asquare with uprights at each corner, plumbed true, of course. Such a disposition would closely simulate the box-scale and be especially valuable if repeated in various parts of the site and aligned on the site grid .

...

To conclude, it should be obvious by now that there can be no such thing as over-scaling. Aesthetics have no place in archaeology. The value of site photographs varies according

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_ Design for simple box-scale. Eric Houlder._ .

Archaeolo~y and the N.M.R. 1

Until the Frere Report on Archaeological Publication suddenly gave it prominence, the Archaeology Section of the National Monuments Record received little publicity, and many archaeologists certainly did not give much thought to its role or potential development. Within the traditional concepts of British archaeology the Archaeology Division of the Ordnance Survey had always received greater consideration as an archive, although strictly speaking its invaluable indices and_bibliographies are not equivalent to a Record Office as a repository of records. This may also be reflected in the little space or thought given to the long term future of the excavation records in many archaeological manuals, when compared to the problems of making the record or ensuring the safety of the finds, and it must be admitted museums have not always been careful in providing for such records because of their own limited resources.

When the National Buildings and Monuments Record was established in 1964, the then President of the Council for British Archaeology, Professor C. F. C. Hawkes stressed that the whole matter of the archives of archaeology was one of concern which he hoped would now be tackled, while recognising with his usual percipience that "our friends are taking an extremely big thing on". These words are doubly true fifteen years later. Increased resources for rescue excavation have not been matched by increased resources for the National Monuments Record, and the problems of publication or access to the large volume of new information have suddenly thrust themselves into prominence. The crisis is also upon archaeologists at a time when rising costs in printing threaten to put a stop to traditional methods of communication in archaeology, and cause us to question the accepted means of making data permanently available.

When first established the Archaeology Section took over a limited collection of photographs of prehistoric, Roman and medieval sites from the National Buildings Record, and added to these copies of the Archaeology Index of the Ordnance Survey, ephemeral publications from the regions, and records donated or copied from public and other sources. As these and the concept of a national archaeological archive have developed, problems of staff, space and the retrieval of.information have confronted the Royal Commission on Historical Monuments and the archaeological profession in•general with critical choices and decisions.

The large photographic collection in the Archaeology Section now numbers some 80,000 negatives, of which _ approximately 10,000 remain unprinted be~ause of difficulties in cataloguing. An index exists for all the photographs printed and on file, but this can only be consulted by personal enquiry or visit, and it is obviously desirable that the index should be printed for wider circulation . This vexing problem has not been overlooked but has been set aside until-now because of inadequate resources, although a computerised index from which catalogues can be produced is being actively considered. The problem is the not unusual one of getting all the records plus the backlog into the present system, or altering the system to disseminate more information while maintaining the current workload. The unprinted photographs are in fact mainly part of one collection, that built up by'the archaeology surveyors of the Ordnance Survey during routine visits to monuments in all parts of Britain. All negatives from this source for England,

A.Aber~ Wales and Scotland are held in the N.M.R., and although on many occasions the sites were visited when conditions were far from perfect for good photography, these exposures are often the only ones in any public collection. For boundary stones, barrows , cross-bases or castie mottes in many counties, the O.S. surveyor has provided the only photograph. The topographic section of the N.M.R. also includes the photographs taken during the course of the R.C.H.M. investigations, and many of the orders for publication prints draw on this group. Their high standard and the choice of views available for any monument, such as Hod Hill or Hambledon Hill, mean that they are the most frequently used, and they are supplemented from R.C.H.M . sources by investigators' photographs taken as part of the field record.

The private collections of photographs donated to the N .M .R., or loaned for copying differ in their coverage of

monuments and excavations. Some sites can regrettably no longer be identified with certainty, but the views of well known and much photographed monuments such as Stonehenge offer in themselves an interesting history of the vicissitudes of its environment . Collections such as that of Father Romans illustrate a whole range of excavations and monuments in the north at one period between the two wars, and include i their less formal photographs, personalities and epi odes that now form part of the social history of archaeology. Half-tones have been used to illustrate excavatio 'l. reports for almost a century now, and it is now, and it is not it is not a new problem that costs prohibit the publication of all but a few photographs. Photographic archives for early excavations ¡sometimes survive in remarkably good condition and in greater numbers than has been supposed. F. G. Simpson's photographic records of his excavations at Scarborough on the Roman signal station are as detailed as any modern excavation, and the quality of the best early photographs is well illustrated by those taken by H. St George Gray, of his investigations into the barrow at Wick, Somerset.

An increasing problem for the Archaeology Section is the large number of colour slides now offered for copying as part of a larger group of excavation records. The copying poses no difficulty but limited staff time is available to label and catalogue the slides. The N.M.R. does hold colour slides take taken during excavations at Maiden Castle and Little Woodbury between the wars, but these number only a few dozen compared to the hundreds that comprise modern records. Some experiments have taken place with coloured microfiche, which can hold thirty slides with descriptive text on a single fiche and so avoid the need for annotation by hand. However, although the colour reproduction is excellent the reduction of the 35mm frame to 16mm size means some loss of definition, and the higher cost of colour fiche seems likely to limit the application of this technique.

If microfiche does not prove the answer, then the N .M.R. will have to continue to use present methods, and limit the acceptance of slides to sites or e~cavations selected as samples of current recording methods.

The same selectivity has to be applied already to the halftone photographs of recent excavations when the rest of the record is copied. The limitation of staff time applies in this medium to both the Archaeology Section and the Photographic Department of the N'.M.R., which would be

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Excavation of Castle Hill, Scarborough, 1926. Site and observation platform. Photograph F. G. Simpson, National Monuments Record .

.,

Excavation o( Castle Hill, Scarborough, 1926. View from observation pratform across church, with Roman foundations visible and parts of circuit of wall of signal station in background. Photograph F.G .Sirnpson, National Monuments Record.

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required to print hundreds of negatives for some excavations .

One is bound in such instances to question how far it is appropriate for the N.M.R. to hold large quantities of photographs, and how far othe r methods might meet the archive demand. Microfiche have therefore been made for some excavation photographi c records, such as those of the Oxford Archaeological Unit. Microfilm has severe limitations in its ability t o reproduce the definition obtainable on half-tone prints, but if it is part of a record which consists mainly of written material and drawings , it is acceptable within this conte xt. The negatives and prints are safely deposited elsewhere , and the microfiche at the N.M.R. is a record easily accessible , from which the researcher can decide which of the originals he wishes to check further .

Such principles are already accepted in other disciplines, and some institutions have put into microfiche their entire photographic collections which are available for purchase as catalogues. A set of microfiche, each fiche containing 90 frames, could offer an alternative catalogue to a computer list for the N.M.R. photographic c0llections, and being easily available could be consulted in any reference library in Britain or further afield . Prints would still have to be ordered fron the Archaeology Section in London, and a personal visit might be necessary to narrow the choice, but the pos~ibility of direct access might outweigh the advantages of revised, annual lists and _their varied forms of retrieval .

When sketching the conten ts and form of the photographic collections of the Archaeology Section, space has limited discussion of the problems confronting the N.M.R. in respect of other archaeological records. If the N.M.R. has a duty to

The

Durness

hold and safeguard records in this subject, the possibilities are limitless unless some priorities are adopted. Original manuscripts and drawings are accepted only if they seem appropriate to the national record, or when no other repository seems available. Records deemed at risk or u~published are given priority for copying, whether in pnvate or public care, in order to improve accessibility, and the Measured Survey Scheme has been introduced by which payment may be made for copies of surveys deposited at the N.M.R . To decide what excavati on records require copying an excavation catalogue has been started, which will index all sites excavated in England with details of suryiving manuscripts and their location. Photographs are an unportant part of both the topog raphic and excavation archive, and the library of the Archaeology Section is open for inspection by any researcher. Slides or photographs cont inue to be added to the collection at the rate of approximately 4,000 per annum, and offers of negatives or prints for copying that might be deemed within the scope of the collection are always appreciated, while staff are also available to advise on the care and cataloguing of material in other repositories.

Footnote:1. Principles of Publication in Rescue Archaeology : report by a working party of the Ancient Monuments Board for England Committee for Rescue Archaeology (popularly known as the Frere Report). Department of the Environment, October 1975. Copies on request from Ancient Monuments Secretarii,it, Room 315 , Fortress House, 23 Savile Row, London WIX 2HE.

Wheelhouse T. E. Gray

The Durn~ss Wheelhouse. Photograph T.E. Gray. Mamiyaflex, 80mm , TnX 126 developed Microdol X.

One of the . many attractions of the study of archaeological sites for me is the way it combines well with our other pursuit~ of geology, natural history, and hill walking. I like a ~alk with a purpose and an objective, and archaeological sites on the l" map make admirable objectives. Sometimes when the objective is reached it proves relatively uninteresting, or indeed almost untraceable, but on the way the flora_and geology can be re~arding, and almost invariably the si~e can be ?f s?me scenic beauty - hill forts expecially can give splendid views over the surrounding countryside.

So often the site itself becomes the memorable part of the walk .

One such pl~ce, an Iron Age wheelhouse, is marked on the map four miles or so south of Dumess in Sutherland (0 S sheet 9, 405611 ) . Even a look at the map seems to s~gg;st¡ that it is a uniquely lonely and remo t e dwelling in bare fea~ureless terrain, and it acted like a magnet on me whilst I was on holiday in the area in May 1977. My wife and I decided to walk up t o it from the Earth-house (sheet 9, 427613) by the road side on the west shore of Loch Eriboll, itself worth looking at provided you have a good torch!

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When we set off the day was very still, calm, and overcast. A number of fishing vessels were coming in to the loch and anchoring, a circumstance which caused us to wonder a little, but its full significance only came to us much later.

We followed the right bank of the Allt-an-Largain, and whilst it is only a little over two miles to the wheelhouse, the going is extremely rough and climbing steadily over slabby Durness Limestone. There is a profusion of minute flora, the quantity due to the limestone, and the smallness to the sub Artie climate in which it has to survive.

In due course and with a little difficulty, we found the wheelhouse, lying beneath a westward facing bluff of no great height. We were delighted to find it surprisingly complete, walls still approximately five feet high, lintel still in place over the doorway, and the "spokes" of the wheel within, for supporting some kind of turf roof, in good order . We got the food out of the rucksack and picnicked inside, beside some fire reddened stones which may have been part of the hearth of this dwelling, perhaps 3rd-4th century A.D., and the atmosphere of that ancient place made a very deep impression on us.

By now the wind had started to rise, and literally within minutes had become a howling gale. Only then did we appreciate the reason for the arrival of the fishing boats in Loch Eriboll, presumably they'd done what we'd neglected to do, listen to the weather forecast! And when I climbed to the bluff in that gale to take my photo, looking down on the wheelhouse, I appreciat ed even more why the flora is so minute and ground hugging here; and the. discovery of a dead red deer beneath th e bluff, which may well have been blown off in just such a gale, perhaps to break a leg and die, made me get back down again fairly quickly!

The walk back into the teeth of the wind and driving hail made the trifling two miles seem rather long, but we both agreed that it had been one of our nota ble short walks, this time primarily for the atmosphere and loneliness of that fine wheelhouse, whose occupants must have been extremely hardy and self reliant, and who built, in unmortared stone, to last almost two thousand years.

The TounaiFonts BY The Toumai Fonts are a group of fonts belonging to the latter half of the twelfth century and unique in England. Of blue-black marble from quarries on the banks of the river Scheidt near Tournai in Belgium, they were probably carved by local masons and imported into Britain by certain Norman bishops with a liking and a purse for artistic acquisitions.

At one time they were thought to be of an earlier date but Dean Kitchen in his paper to the British Archaeological Assn in 1893 established the twelfth centur y date on account of a mitre with a point over the nose shewn on the Winchester font. Moreover, the legend of St Nicholas also represented at Winchester , began to spread in Europe from about 1087 onwards.

J MB

- Winchester, East Meon, St Mary Bourne and Southampton: one each in Lincoln, Ipswich and Thornton Curtis. Neas Ipswich however was found the fragments of an eighth black font.

All the fonts have perfect bowls, large enough to immerse a child as was often the case in the Middle Ages, and on the whole are in an excellent state of preservation. The carving which is still sharp and deep embodies either legendary or Biblical themes; but quite apart from their historical significance the fonts have a strong aesthetic appeal.

Illustrated is the East Meon font which portrays the story of Adam and Eve. The principal dimensions are: total height 3' 3"; external depth of bowl l' 6½"; inside dia. 2' 4".

There are seven complete Tournai fonts in Britain which are similar to others in Belgium and ¡how they came to be scattered about our country is uncertain. Four in Hampshire

Tournai font, East Meon. Photograph J .M.B.Clarke. 5" x 4" MPP, FP4, one 500w flood and one 100w fill-in.

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CLARKE LRPS

The Industrial Archreology of the Peak

W.J.Houlder •

The Peak District is an ideal area for the study and photography of industrial remains. Most are only accessible on foot by sometimes overgrown paths, so map and compass are essential. Due to our climate and the exposed nature of the hilltops, good warm clothing niust be carried at all times. In short a!}yone contemplating a visit to sites in these hills must take great care in preparing for the worst that the weather and the terrain can produce. Starting from the feet, a good pair of strong, waterproof boots with gripping soles, one or two pairs (a matter of individual preference) of socks, stockings if breeches are worn, woollen trousers or breeches, a comfortable shirt and sweater and waterproof cagoule and over-trousers. In the summer shorts and a shirt can be worn in hot weather but trousers and the sweater must be carried in case of need. In a rucsac carry extra food, a survival polybag, spare clothing, waterproofs etc. Your camera(s) can be carried in the rucsac, but it is inconvenient to remove it (them) for every picture so I carry mine around my neck. Likewise accessories can be carried in a rucsac, though I use a ski pouch for items like Cokin filters (the Karrimor pouch comes complete with two handy size sub-pockets), clamp, cable release, lenses, spare films etc. I would -not recommend a shoulder bag for photo gear as it may swing at an inconvenient moment, causing you to lose balance with possible fatal consequences. The last item you should always carry in the hills is a whistle, its sound will carry farther than your own voice and requires far less effort; the international distress signal is, incidentally, 6 short blasts repeat~d at one minute intervals.

Mines are likewise especially dangerous to the unwary, never enter a mine alone or without experienced companions. The best equipment for mine exploration is good strong boots with gripping soles, wool socks, woollen clothing covered by a boilersuit or a wetsuit in a wet mine, a proper helmet with a bracket for a lamp which should be either a carbide lamp or an Oldham miners type electric lamp with the accumulator hung on a waistbelt. To protect your photographic equipment Army Surplus ammunition boxes lined with foam are required; although heavy these boxes are waterproof and although they can make one hell of a racket when banging against rocks, walls etc they do an excellent job in keeping your valuable equipment safe. Again I must state that in mines experience is more valuable than enthusiasm. Except for Pre-Industrial Revolution remains, of which I am at present largely ignorant, -I have selected one example of each type to illustrate the richness of the area.

Prior to the Industrial Revolution the area now called the Peak District National Park (hereafter abbreviated to 'the Peak') was known as a source of millstones and lead 1• The millstones were normally "ut in one piece from quarries along the gritstone edges, one of these edges is in fact called Millstone Edge (Peak Tourist Map SK 248,800/8) though whether stones were quarried here I cannot state.

The edges for the most part overlook the East side of the

River Derwent, aligned approximately North to South.

Lead has been mined in this area since Roman times as occasional finds of Roman 'Pigs' or ingots testify. The older mines, unfortunately, are impossible to date since, until the advent of gunpowder in the late 17th Century, all levels were hand cut. Many of these levels were of the "Coffin" level type, approximately five feet high with a section resembling a coffin stood on end. The drainage level or "Sough" was driven, sometimes over many years and at enormous expense , from a convenient valley to meet a waterlogged mine at or below the water table . Other remnants of the Pre-Industrial period are the extensive bell pit type workings along the rakes (Rake: A fissure up to 20 feet wide, up to a mile or more long, and mined down to SOOfeet when steam pumps became available). If you do go into mines to take photographs, remember the safety rules given above and note that a coffin level is confined and the humidity can rise rapidly as your perspiration and exhaled breath build up.

Due to the nature of the terrain and geological structure canals were never practicable in the Peak.Quite apart from the steep multiple locks that would have been required, it was impossible to ensure an adequate water supply at the summit under average conditions. It is hardly surprising then that one of the earliest railways, the Cromford and High Peak Railway (hereafter called 'the C&HPR' for brevity) was constructed here. Built to connect the Peak Forest Canal at Whaley Bridge to the Cromford Canal at Cromford Wharf, the C&HPR obtained the requisite act of Parliament on May 2nd 1825. Josiah Jessop the engineer built the railway canal-fashion with level sections, connected by rope worked inclines. Middleton Top Engine House has been preserved (SK 275.552), the incline it worked being of 1 :8½. To the west at Minninglow (SK 196.583) and forming part of Gotham Curve there survives an imposing dry stone walled embankment. In use until the 1960's the trackbed is now a limited right of way maintained by the Peak Park Planning Board .

A As detailed previously, lead mining was difficult until the introduction of gunpowder; at approximately the same water for process work and power for the water wheels.

One of the best known mills in this area is Sir Richard Arkwright's mill at Cromford built in 1772, though substantially altered since; it is one of the earliest mills in the area, which has many more mills of varying ages.

As detailed previously, lead mining was difficlut until the introduction of gunpowder; at approximately the same time outside capital came into the area. This extra capital allowed deeper, more extensive mines with roomier levels allowing underground tramways to replace the sleds used previously . Subterranean transport problems were solved in other ways, some using canals. One Speedwell Mine, Castleton (Now Speedwell Cavern: Shoe Cave) made the best of bad luck, using the large volume of water inundating its

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workings to ease the transportation problems . At Stone Edge Smelt (SK 334670) there is a good surviving example of a lead smelting plant. These later mines with their larger passages are ideal places to practice photography; beware though since some are so extensive it is ¡easy to get lost. Take care, too, where you step - th ere are tnany unmarked shafts .down which it is all too easy to fall.

In Sheffield to the north-east outside the National Park is Abbeydale Industrial Hamlet. Founded in 1714 and in use until 1933, this scythe and agricultural implement works is a superb example of an early water powered industrial plant. Powered by high breast-shot wheels the main plant includes working tilt hammers, boring and grinding shops, a forge with blowing machine powered by a smaller overshot wheel. Completely self contained from its crucible furnace to the workman's and manager's house exhibits authentic in appearance down to the frres in the grates! ' When you go to Abbeydale take your time, the exhibits are opened or started at certain times as detailed on a notice at the entrance. There are plenty of subjects to choose from, eg. the Jessop tilt hammers to the right of the entrance or the coach house which also houses an ordinary (penny-

Nose Helve Hammer: detail from Jessop Tilt Hammer Abbeydale Industrial l-Iamlet. PhotographW.J.Hould;r. Petri 7 S 2 35mm Coupled Rangefinder, 45mm F 2.8 (fixed lens); 1/125 sec. at F8. llford FP4115 ASA. No filter.

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farthing) bicycle besides a coach. In some indoor areas available light photography is possible; in others flash is essential but when using flash look out for the effect of the whitewashed walls on automatic units.

Footnote:}. I wish to express my thanks to Mr M. C. Tordoff of Holywell Lane, Castleford, for information regarding the lead mining industry.

Further Reading:Lead Mines Ford, Trevor D., Cavesof Derbyshire(Guide) Cromford and High Peak Railway Nicholson, C. P. & Barnes, P., Railways in the Peak

District

Merrill, John N.,Derbyshire Trails All published by Dalesman Books, Claphsm, N. Yorkshire.

(For lead mining see also Ford, Trevor & Rieuwarts, J. H. ed. Lead Mining in the Peak District, Park Planning Board, Bakewell, 1968 °[Revised1970].

-Ed.)

ENGLISH THEATRES

BY DEREK SHERBORN

The most surprising tlling about theatres in England is the almost total lack of study that they have had in the past. It is extraordinary that these semi-public buildings, visited by thousands and thousands over the years should remain unrecorded and undocumented and that notwithstanding the very large numbers of visits that must have been paid to them by photographers with cameras actually in their h:md:: so few photographs exist, or have ever been taken, of their auditoria. It was the production on the stage that was recorded; one scarcely ever stood on the stage and returned the photographic compliment. Widespread searches at the time of the restoration recently of the Theatre Royal in Nottingham failed to produce anything at all to show what the auditorium looked like in the last century. Not even in the record s of the licencing or planning authorities was anything to be found even in the way of drawings and designs, and even now it is a lucky auditorium indeed which has been photographed or recorded in any way.

Victorian and Edwardian theatre exteriors were very seldom of major architectural importance and all the care, money and glamour was saved for the insides, which changed considerable as the years wore on. Theatres, as we all know, were originally always wooden framed structures. The early ones like the Globe on Bankside in London have all gone without visible trace. They would have gone by now if Puritan influences had spared them - because of their wood and plaster construction, and nothing now remains anywhere earlier than Bristol's Theatre Royal of 1766. After this we have the charming and diminutive Theatre at Richmond in Yorkshire of 1788, and the remains of a contemporary one of exactly the same dimensions exist at Penzance in Cornwall. Maybe every small town in the late eighteenth century had one of approximately this size.

After Richmond probably the most interesting are Margate (of late eighteenth century and later date) and Bury St Edmunds of 1814 and the former Theatre at Barnwell near Cambridge fo 1816. Research has shown that theatre building ended in England completely in the eighteen tllirties (and was not revived again until the mid seventies) and that practically all existing theatres date from the years around the eighteen nineties. The reasons for this seem to be the rise of nonconformity, the temperance movement, and the general strengthening of the power of organised religion, coinciding with the passing of an "Act for Regulating Theatres" in 1843. The ostensible object of the Act was to end the monopoly of Drury Lane and Covent Garden and to set up freedom for theatres everywhere, but the Llcencer of Playhouses, or the Lord Chamberlain, did not make life easy for applicants and for twenty five years no new London

theatres appeared. The same was virtually true m the provinces, and large numbers also closed.

In London the pre-eminent auditorium is of course Covent Garden by E M Barry of 1858. The Theatre Royal Haymarket of 1820 by Nash, the Theatre Royal Drury Lane of 1812 by Benjamin Wyatt and the Lyceum of 1834 by Samuel Beazley have all lost their original auditoria.

In the very middle of the century there was a certain amount of activity in the construction of music halls patronised by the lower classes and a few of these survive, the finest of the them being the City Varieties Music Hall in Leeds of circa 1857. In London we have Wiltons Music Hall in Grace's Alley, Stephney of circa 1850, and the Hoxton Hall of circa 1864, but these are the only ones to remain. Later ones became more and more like conventional theatres on a lesser scale, or even simple rooms attached to pubs. Going back to theatres proper, practically nothing survives of the eighteen sixties because so little was built and the only virtually untouched auditorium of the decade is that in the Georgian Theatre Royal at Bath re~onstructed by Phipps in 1863 after a fire. By Phipps also, but somewhat altered by others later is the 1865 Theatre Royal, in Nottingham.

In the seventies we get renewed activity and of this time the Criterion Theatre in,London is a fine example. From the eighties until 1914 many, many, theatres were built, but the changes in life-style brought about by the introduction of television has meant that very few of the 400-500 public theatres in existence at the time of the Great War now survive. In 1960 there were still about 200 but in the last twenty years the numbers have dwindled to about a hundred of architectural value, of which half are in Greater London.

Theatres may survive of interest but unknown still as they are not generally buildings with exteriors of any architectural quality, and can be extremely difficult to gain access to.

The architect of the Victorian theatre like the railway engineer, the electrical engineer, and so many innovators of the period was a new man; a man brought out of obscurity, even non-existence, into a world of new techniques and new experiences.

The possibility of building theatres with iron girders spanning considerable spaces and carrying great weights was quite new.

Gone were the days when theatres had to be built entirely of wooden weight-bearing members with all the hazards of fire and physical collapse. The chief theatres in England were mostly built by one of two firms, either that of Charles John Phipps 1835~1897 whose practice flourished from 1863 until

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nis <1eatnand mcJudeC1a tew non theatre buildings such as the now lost Carlton Hotel in the Haymarket, or that of Frank Matcham c 1855-1920 whose practice flourished from 1882 to about 1910. Phipps designed about 70 theatres and Matcham about 80. Aesthetically Phipps probably has the edge over Matcham and not very many unaltered Phipps auditoria survive, but Matcham produced several fine ones of his own and as these are generally rather later in date then the Phipps ones rather more remain.

Early theatres were all built with wooden galleries supported on closely spaced wooden columns which then themselves formed the outer walls of circles of boxes that ringed the auditorium. With the introduction of iron and steel these columns no longer became so essential and so, gradually, the spaces between the columns began to get wider and eventually it was possible to omit them altogether. With the elimination of the pillars, the boxes were eventually eliminated too, and it was no longer necessary for the gallery fronts to rise from each other vertically all round the auditorium. The last great example of the old horseshoe auditorium with boxes is Covent Garden and even here, as the box divisions were not structural, many of the boxes have now been replaced by open seats. The theatre at Bath still has a circle of boxes but the idea was now dead and not to be revived.

Theatre architecture of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries is not serious stuff. It is the architecture of entertainment where the stuccoist could indulge flights of fancy in the Italian, Classic, Rococo, Empire, Moorish, Chinese or other styles. Gothic being thought more suitable for religious buildings was seldom, if ever used, but it is undeniable that the fan vaulting of Corson's remarkable Grand Theatre in Leeds is Gothic inspired. If one accepts

The Theatre Royal, Portsmouth, largely 1900. Architect Frank Matcham decorated box and gallery fronts with nautical motifs. Has been closed for several years .

Photograph National Monuments Record.

the idea that the theatre auditorium is designed as a decorative setting for the superior offering on the stage itself, one begins to see, I think , that theatre architects were providing something different from other kinds of architecture. Frivolous, unscholarly and over exuberant as many of them are they do reflect the attitudes and pleasures of our forefathers in an interesting way. Certainly nothing like them, whatever their merits, will ever be built again.

As mentioned earlier, Phipps and Matcham were the most prolific theatre designers of Victorian and Edwardian times but others like Bertie Crewe and W G R Sprague have several to their credit. In the provinces one finds the occasional architect who appears to have ventured a little into this field and the Grand Theatre in Leeds, a masterpiece by the Yorkshire architect George Corson, is the prime example.

The Grand Theatre, Leeds - a magnificent structure designed by the Yorkshire architect George Corson in 1877.

Photograph Air Ministry.

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It is most desirable that all surviving theatres be photographed, whether they be still operating for their original purpose or now relegated to bingo, wrestling or public o?livion. Many fine Victorian and Edwardian buildings stand virt~ally unrecorded in_provincial towns all over the country, and 1t would fill a considerable gap in the records of the National Monuments Record, for instance, if the auditoria together with any other parts of architectural or historical interest were to be photographed. Payboxes, bars, foyers, staircases, dressing rooms and stage machinery are all likely to be of interest and might well repay attention. A new field of archaeological research awaits you.

NOTES

CORRESPONDENCE Dear Sir I felt I ought to express my disappointment inArchaeolog in more detail than your questionnaire allowed. I subscribed to it in the hope that it would be genuinely informative about the use of photography in all aspects of 1rchaeology, contain good quality_photographs which were of archaeological interest and well-reproduced, and that from it I might gain some insight into what other committed people who were professionally involved with photography in archaeology, were doing. I was also interested in the proposed register of photographers.

What I found was a too cheaply produced 'newsletter' which did not effectively cater for either professional photographers or archaeologists, which represented both disciplines at a sadly uninformed and hobby level and helped to perpetuate the sadly predominant attitudes that archaeological photography does not really require any specialised skill, knowledge or awareness, that hardly anyone works as a full-time photographer/archaeologist and that there is more to be gained by various forms of 'club by' socialising than by direct personal experience.

I am a freelance photographer/archaeologist with 11 years training in various sorts of photography and 4 years in practical archaeology. I love working on excavations (at all times of the year) and I try to bring a high degree of quality and visual awareness to all the aspects of arch photography I am involved in from basic record shots, through lecture slides, finds photography, exhibitions, book illustrations to my own particular interest of making archaeologically meaningful photographs of Neolithic and Bronze Age monuments in Britain and France that are also aesthetically pleasing and convey some of the visual power and sense of presence or atmosphere that many of these monuments have for me and many others. It is something that I work at or pursue in my own time on my own or with chosen friends. I am not impressed by mass photographic pilgrimages, chummy evenings or pictures of other people taking photographs or standing around looking bored, cold or ridiculous at the latest field trip/lecture.

'hobby' of archaeology, obviously my comments are out of order and I am wasting my time. If the editorial team have higher hopes for it I hope my comments will be useful.

1. Commission¡articles from established photographers and archaeologists. What are their attitudes to both disciplines? What are they doing? Many sites do not get published for ages due to lack of journal space - what about interim reports with photos?

2. Improve quality of reproduction (yes, increase price) so photographers who care about print quality .an~ take 'person 'personal' pictures of monuments can show therr work.

3. Havedetailed articles on specialist techinques eg. Infra Red. (I found previous articles too general and unhelpful.)

4. Try to improve people's knowledge of the significance of British prehistory/archaeology/monuments instead of relying on the superficial impact of exotica.

5. Have a letters/comments/complaints/tips/did you know/ by the way/sort of page to give the mag more scope.

6.

Publish less often with bigger possibly thematic issues.

7. Produce the right conditions to encourage reader participation.

8.

Sponsor exhibitions/competitions maybe.

9.

Have opinions.

10. ? Keep a sense of humour.

Mick Sharp Caernarvon.

Monday3rd March,LONDON

Sure I am not unique - where are all the other full-time professionals who care about improving the generally poor quality of archaeological photography? Could it be that Archaeolog does not provide a suitable format for such people. I certainly would not submit work to a magazine that was incapable of reproducing the subtleties of tone, detail and sharpness that concern me ( unless they were just the accompaniment to a well-written article and retained enough deta\l to be useful in that particular context). I would also find it hard to explain my work in or write an article for a publication where smugness, complacency, vagueness, and a sense of there is nothing reaUy to say, prevail.

Lecture, RPS House, 7 p.m. 'Military Aspects of Wroxeter'

by Dr Graham Webster. Admission by ticket only from Programme Secretary, Michael Gill, Flat 5, Morris Court, Longmead, Windsor, Berks.

I hope you will appreciate that these comments although subjective are not meant to be vindictive or personal and stem from a love and commitment to the use of photography. Rather than keep on rippingArchaeolog up and ignoring it I thought it better to try and tell you why it made me sad, and what I would like to see. I would hope that I am not alone in my views and that Archagolog could become an effective medium for the showing and furtherance of visually aware and technically excellent archaeological photographs. I think a magazine is a better and more effective means of communication and methoJ of informing and educating thafi any amount of lectures and seminars which will be out of many peoples reach, financially and distance-wise.

Closing day for submission of prints for 2nd International Exhibition of Archaeologi_cal Photography.

Wednesday19th March,LONDON Evening visit to Greek and Roman Galleries of British Museum, 5 .30 . 7 .30 p.m. Party of 12 with Brian Cooke, Keeper of the Greek and Roman Department. Admission by ticket only from Programme Secretary as above.

Thursday1st May, LONDON

May,TURKEY Proposed visit to Turkey. Further details from Group Chairman.

Monday9th June, LONDON Opening of 2nd International Exhibition of Archaeological Photography.

Friday26th to Sunday28th September,BATH

If Archaeolog is just about transferring the general philosophy of the RPS and photo clubs in general into the

Vith Annual Conference, Bath.

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Theatre Royal, Bury St Edmunds. A rare photograph of an auditorium with audience photographed in 1902 . The theatre , built to the designs of William Wilkins in I 8 I 4 was

used as a brewery barrel store for many years. Kecently handed over after restoration to National Trust and now once more in use. Photograph Jarman Collection.