e Trouble with Designer Snakes

the with snakes trouble designer

when understanding snake genetics, it is important to understand the basics of homozygous, heterozygous, dominant, recessive and co-dominant genes. Every trait that is inherited by an animal is determined by a set of alleles. If one or both parts of an allele are mutated, this can cause dramatic variation within o spring. Some of these mutations are recessive, both alleles from each parent have to be mutated in the same way in order for the o spring to be di erent. If half of the genetic information inherited by the snake has this mutation, it is heterozygous for that particular trait. If one mutation is needed for there to be a di erence, this is a dominant trait. Dominant alleles will determine the animal’s appearance regardless of whether the other allele is generic. If both alleles are the same, then this means the trait in that animal is homozygous. If the snake has one recessive and one mutated gene then it will appear to have a normal morph, and will carry the potential for this variation in colour. is means that if it reproduces with a snake homozygous for that trait then there is a 50% chance that the o spring will be homozygous for the recessive gene and display that particular morph. Co-dominant genes are a little harder to grasp. ese traits are sometimes referred to within the reptile community with the word ‘super’ in front of the morph. For example, the ‘super conda’ morph, which is displayed beautifully in western hognose snakes and gives a very reduced pattern, or in other snakes such as the ‘super pastel boa constrictors’.

All snakes are generally described by their morph and their species, for example ‘het ghost boa constrictor’.As snakes produce multiple o spring at once due to low survival rates, it is fairly simple for breeders to predict the morphs. is means that in recent years the phenomenon of designer snakes has been fairly popular within the herpetology community. is can lead to the creation of beautiful morphs and patterns on reptiles, with rather intriguing names, for example, the snake that intrigued me rst regarding individual morphs was a ‘ re cinnamon’ ball python, which admittedly took me a long while to get my head around the mathematics of the breed. ese morphs have led to a signi cant divide between cost. Morphs within the same species, such as some ball pythons, may cost upward of a thousand pounds, whereas others cost as little as 40 pounds.

e designer morph trend has downfalls other than price. Some morphs can have a catastrophic e ect on the snake. Super cinnamon ball pythons have a high chance of being born with kinks in their spine, meaning they cannot move e ectively or digest food properly. One of the most controversial morphs however is that of the spider ball python. ese snakes have a beautiful pattern, however are very likely to be born with a neurological defect called a ‘head wobble’. is means that the snake does not have an internal compass of sorts as the snake lacks co-ordination. is can be seen in constant tilting and tremors of the head, corkscrewing (where the head and neck of the snake twist in circles) and very poor re exes. is means that spider ball pythons o en fall o things, head-butt into walls and have a very poor time eating and striking at food. is can severely harm the snake and give it a very poor quality of life. Some breeders argue that spider ball pythons should be bred as some head wobbles are not as severe as others. is is countered by others who say that as a breeder you should never run the risk of harm to the snake. Some consumers think the morph should be bred as it is ‘cute’ and reduces the threatening connotations around the snake as, due to their poor aim, are less likely to bite. is is to most breeders preposterous as the entire snake/ human relationship is one of gradual trust- it is immoral to breed animals to be more docile purely for those who are incapable of raising a snake properly, especially if this will decrease the life quality of the animal. For this reason, spider ball pythons have been banned in some areas of America and in the UK.

While most breeders and consumers do ensure the wellbeing of their snake it is also important to recognise the dangers and ethical issues of owning certain morphs before the snake has been born. As a community, we should make raising and breeding animals an exercise of caregiving instead of greed and pro t.

Isabel Leyland

To vax or not to vax

that is the question

What is a Vaccine? Are they safe to use? Are they e ective?

e debate around vaccinations has been ongoing since rst being invented in 1796. Rumours and fake news have led to many misconceptions surrounding vaccines and their true e ectiveness and side e ects. To accurately pick a side in the debate, you must rst understand what a vaccine is and how it works.

A vaccine is a substance that contains a small quantity of a dead or weakened microbe, that helps your immune system remember and recognise the microbe during future infection. ere are two main types of vaccine: live or inactivated. Live vaccines are made up of the weakened microbe whereas inactive vaccines contain dead or destroyed microbes. Each has bene ts and drawbacks, such as live vaccines can provide longterm protection, but cannot be given to people who have weak immune systems.

Each virus or bacteria contains speci c antigens on the outside of the cells. Our bodies can assemble complementary antibodies that attack these antigens. Many of these antibodies can form memory cells that can remember the same virus or bacteria, meaning they can produce the corresponding antibodies faster. This is the main function of vaccines. By introducing a less harmful form of the pathogen, it encourages memory cells to be formed so it encourages memory cells to be formed so antibody production is quicker in future cases.

So, if they help to fight infection and the possibility of death, why are so many people against vaccination? People have listed many reasons for being against vaccines, some of the most common being religion,efficacy, side- effects or testing of vaccines. Beliefs and religion can be difficult to go against because that is a person’s choice at the end of the day. However, the other two points are common misconceptions.

Whilst there have been a few cases of deaths a er being vaccinated such as the ‘Cutter Incident of 1955’, scienti c research states there has been

no direct link between having a vaccine and then dying as a result. Nearly all the side e ects of vaccines are minor: maybe a high temperature developing for one to two days. Although the probability is close to none, some patients may experience allergic reactions within minutes a er the injection. e sta that administered the vaccine will also be trained to treat allergic reactions straightaway, meaning that if a rare reaction was to occur, it would be quickly and safely handled, leading to a good recovery. All vaccines go through several long and extensive stages of testing, to make sure they are as safe and e ective as can be. Nevertheless, people still believe that the process has been rushed and therefore do not trust the vaccine. ese views have been seen in the news recently with articles surrounding the Coronavirus vaccine in America, claiming that Trump’s ‘record time’ is a result of shortcuts taken. It is well known that no vaccine is 100% e ective as of yet, though the bene ts vaccines have had on society has been momentous.

e World Health Organisation claims that ‘vaccinations prevent between two-three million deaths every year.’ Vaccinations are extremely important as a variation in 5% of vaccinated children is the di erence between increasing the rate of spread of measles and nearly eradicating the disease. Overall, vaccines are the leading lifesaving medical intervention compared to any other medical intervention. ey help to protect people from illnesses that can have serious long-term e ects.

Polio is a viral disease that caused muscle weakness and paralysis. During its peak in the 1940s and 1950s, it would kill over half a million people in the world yearly. anks to vaccinations, polio cases have decreased by more than 99% since 1988. Not only do vaccinations help protect the person who received the injection but a concept called ‘Herd Immunity’ can take place when a threshold is reached. In my opinion, the bene ts of vaccines outweigh the drawbacks.

If research continues to develop, I can see vaccines playing a vital role in the evolution of the world in the years to come, which is why I am PRO VAX.

Pet obesity

is your pet obese?

Obesity in pets is a rising problem in the world at the moment, it is an epidemic in dire need to be resolved. Prevent pet obesity, feed pets healthily.

Your pet’s wellbeing is important. e e ects of the pandemic have taken a massive toll, with one in ve owners reporting that their dog had started showing new behaviours during lockdown. Five percent saying that their dog had showed signs of distress when le . Cats have also been impacted. Nearly a quarter of owners noticed new behaviours, such as spending more time outdoors.

Pet obesity is an ongoing problem. e UK has seen a massive increase recently, 14% of rabbit owners confessing to feeding them more treats in lockdown than before. Rising rates of pet obesity is becoming more concerning for the veterinary profession. Obesity leads to further problems: respiratory disease, diabetes, reproductive and anaesthetic issues.

Obesity is the excessive dietary intake or inadequate energy utilisation that can lead to a state of negative energy balance; factors may be involved like genetics, physical activity or calorific content of diet.

Itis estimated thathalfof UKpetsare overweight orobese.’

Obesity can lead to arthritis as the extra weight can add extra stress on the joints, which can lead to joint degeneration (a disease where cartilage that serves as a cushion breaks down), causing in ammation which causes pain, redness and swelling. It can also include the disk of the vertebrae, which may lead to having to spend a lot of money for treatments to ensure your pet gets better, or a really expensive surgery, or possible even euthanasia.

Obesity is known to increase the risk of HL, which is a lethal feline liver disease and a multifactorial syndrome. is disease occurs when an overweight cat stops eating due to the loss of appetite or psychological stress and so body fat is mobilised to provide calories, however the cat’s body is not designed to process a large amount of body fat, this where the liver will become in ltrated with fat and then fails.

In terms of diet, owners can consider measuring food with a gram scale (this makes it more accurate) and using a feeding schedule, but if your pet is still struggling to lose weight, you could either reduce the amount that you give or use the same portion but one that is high in bre. e problem is that each pet is an individual and just as one person may way 150 lbsand can be obese another of the same weight could be skinny and this is the same with pets. Many pet owners also underestimate the power of treats, they are very high in calories and four or ve can convert to an extra meal’s worth of added fat: they should only be up to 10% of your pet’s daily caloric diet. However, it can be understandable why pet owners love to shower their pets with treats as it shows their a ection to their animal and is a major contribution towards their special bond.

It is estimated that half of UK pets

are overweight or obese. is may be because pet owners underrate their pet’s body condition, because overweight animals are becoming more common so it has become normal, but it is vital that we try and turn things around so that the nation’s pets can live a longer happier life. We can do this by walking our dogs more o en or encouraging them to increase their activity.

art enthusiasts

Do you love looking at art and buildings? Discover the psychology of why.

For the last century, psychologists have studied and theorised how art in uences a person’s mood, sparking a range of theories and movements in the art world. Art and sculpture have been recognised to have an impact on the psyche more than architecture, as this has been studied in therapeutic circles due to the interest shown by the public. Buildings can be taken for granted because they have a function and not necessarily for the bene t of the psyche of human beings. Architecture, landscaping, and other design aspects, however, have increasingly subtle and natural e ects to those who experience them. Residential builds especially and the grounds that surround them have been observed to have the most lasting and in uential e ect of mental health and the psyche, being the home of most of your “downtime” and personal re ection. Simply a ording the luxury of a quiet and calming space to be truly yourself will increase happiness immeasurably.

In the 20th century, methods such as therapeutic drugs, despite reducing the number of long-term hospitalisations, was frowned upon as it ‘sti ed creative desperateness’ of mental patients. Art therapy could be progressive if it allowed patients to show their artistic and untamed expression, believing that the most authentic art is linked pain. Early 20th century psychiatrists didn’t try to cure their patients as they believed that certain disorders weren’t to be xed. It was usually prescribed that doctors just let them express themselves and accept creativity through su ering. However, in the present, the method of curing using drugs was said to hinder natural artist ability, as they have no muse.

We then look at the architecture of the Chelsea and Westminster building, following the wide use of concrete shell structures, in 1950s-60s. is exterior was not welcoming and clean as wished, as the post-war brutalist movement was slowly becoming hated by the public, as harsh and lifeless. e interior work, however, was where the hospital began to turn over a new leaf. Chelsea and Westminster Hospital was the rst UK hospital to lay an Art-and-Design manifesto initially into its foundations. Artists donated pieces of their own and designed white, open curved facades to make endless waiting rooms feel more inviting. Colourful statement walls and abstract sculptures also lined the interiors, brightening patients’ faces as they came to receive uncertain news. From 1995 into the new millennium, the CW foundation spent over one million pounds on art in order to improve the overall psyche of their patients. e director of CW stated that: "We know that prolonged hospital stays can o en result in stress, boredom and loneliness for patients of all ages. ... [We implemented a] programme to provide meaningful cultural opportunities, which o er distraction, entertainment and social interaction to improve patient experience at our hospitals.”

For the most part, the design industry has had a really positive response over the years at how it deals with the psychological e ects of their projects. Light, colour, and ambience of the builds have become a key part of all design process, especially considering how to help humans to feel more relaxed and engaged. As a community and as a profession, research has seen design spaces go from cold, emotionless buildings that are purely practical in all sense, to those that have found a compromise between a healthy atmosphere and their functionality and role in its surroundings.

Rebecca clery

How Can we use solar energy? How we reproduce covid 19

Residential housing accounts for 30-40% of electricity use in the UK. e average UK home uses around 3700 kWh/year. If buildings were to invest in photovoltaic cells within their windows, they could save electricity. Photovoltaic cells are electrical devices embedded in thick glass windows, that convert light energy into electricity by a chemical and physical phenomenon called the photovoltaic e ect. A typical residential solar panel with 60 photovoltaic cells combined might produce anywhere from 220 to over 400 watts of power. is amount of saved electricity could power appliances, such as small televisions, blenders, laptops, cell phones, cameras, MP3 players, handheld video games, and lights.

However, the initial cost of installing these are high. Industry and councils need to have a more forwardthinking attitude. Despite the initial cost, the fuel and energy savings would compound over years. It is up to our generation to apply this forward way of thinking, to not only save our government’s and businesses’ money in the long term, but to also reduce their environmentally unfriendly usage of fuel.

Anna Clery Coronaviruses are a large family of viruses that can cause diseases in animals and humans. COVID-19 was the coronavirus that was responsible for the outbreak at the end of 2019.

ese viruses infect cells by fusing with the plasma membrane of host cells within a human or animal. ey contain an RNA genome, which means that they are able to appropriate a host cell’s translational hardware, used for replication, making host cells less able to produce proteins. is means that coronavirus RNA must mimic eukaryotic RNA to be able to use the same machinery for translation. When a coronavirus infects a host cell, it is most likely to enter the cytoplasm, as this is where translation occurs.

A er the coronavirus genome has been replicated, the viral proteins are packaged into a vesicle by the Golgi apparatus, to form new viral progeny (o spring). e release of new virus particles following viral replication could also cause cells to burst.

Coronaviruses need some virulence (the severity of an infection), in order to allow them to infect the host cell, however the host cell is needed to replicate the coronaviruses’ genome. is means that if coronavirus is too virulent, the host cell would die before the genome was replicated, making it more di cult for the virus to spread.

what is the Physics of flight why do fish never freeze?

It is incredible to think that a passenger airplane with a mass of 80,000 kilograms can take o and y e ortlessly through the sky. e physics behind this is straightforward and involves pressure in the form of Bernoulli’s principle of li .

Li is key for any aircra , be it a small propeller plane to a massive cargo plane. A plane uses its wings to generate the li it requires. Everyone knows the generic shape of a wing. e curved top and straight bottom gives us a standard aerofoil shape. As the wing cuts through the air at speed, air passes both over the top and underneath. Due to the curvature of the top surface, air travels faster over the top than the bottom of the wing. With a faster ow of air across the top of the wing, air pressure is decreased and with slower air ow comes an increase in air pressure. is series of lower pressure above the wing and higher pressure below the wing generates what we know as li and pushes the aircra upwards through the lower air pressure and allows the aircra to y.

is simple principle of a blend of low pressure and high pressure allows aircra of all shapes and sizes to y e ortlessly through the sky. One water molecule is made up of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom: hence giving the formula H2O. Oxygen and hydrogen form a special type of intermolecular force called a hydrogen bond which shares some characteristics with dipoledipole attractions (partially positive attracted to partially negative) and some with covalent bonds (sharing at least one pair of electrons). ere are certain conditions that must be true for this type of bonding to occur; a hydrogen atom that is bonded to a very electronegative atom (oxygen, uorine or nitrogen) produces a strong partial positive charge on the hydrogen atom. en a very electronegative atom with a lone pair of electrons, is attracted to the hydrogen to form a hydrogen bond.

Water in liquid state is free to move. e hydrogen bonds between the molecules break and reform easily to allow them to move. When water is in a solid state, the molecules are no longer free to move around, the hydrogen bonds stay in a xed position, holding the solid together to form a 3D structure.

For the molecules to t into the structure, they are less packed together and are less dense than water, allowing the ice to oat on top.

In summary, the forming of the ice on the top acts as an insulator for the water below and therefore sh don’t freeze in winter.

Nicholas Solly