e Chemistry of Smartphones

Phones have become an essential part of our lives. It is hard to believe that 20 years ago, hardly anyone owned a mobile phone, but now we cannot seem to take our eyes o them. Every time our phone goes o , we rush to pick it up whether to check a message, watch a new video or play a game. It is truly amazing that we can now surf the internet, chat with friends and listen to music with something that ts in the palm of our hands. But all this would not be possible without chemistry. Metals are what make our smartphones. ere are up to 63 di erent metals that may be found in an average cell phone. Of these 63 metals, one obscure group of metals, called the rare-earth metals, plays a signi cant role. is group of rare metals consists of Scandium and Yttrium, as well as the lanthanide metals (not including Promethium as it is radioactive), which is usually seen as the rst of the two free- oating rows at the bottom of the periodic table. ese rare-earth metals are what allow us to see the bright reds, greens and blues on our screens, and they are also responsible for our phone vibrations, which would not be possible without Neodymium and Dysprosium.

ere are reasons that smartphones do not crack easily every time we drop them. Smartphone screens are designed to be very tough. e tough structure of our screens today was formed by accident. In 1952, Corning, a chemist, was to

heat a sample of glass to 600°C in a furnace, but a defective thermostat caused it to heat to 900°C. To Corning’s surprise, the glass had not melted and damaged the furnace, so he used his tongs to take it out and dropped it on the

oor, which was another accident. Again, to his surprise, rather than shattering, it bounced. At that moment, the rst synthetic glass-ceramic in the world was born. e material shares many properties of glass and ceramic, their combination making the material tougher and stronger than each of the materials by themselves. Due to this huge success, Corning tried to invent a

The Chemistry Smartphones

Chemistry of Smartphones

transparent material with the strength of glassceramic. By 1962, this chemist developed a very strong glass, which goes by the name of Gorilla Glass, also called aluminosilicate glass, which is composed of an oxide of silicon and aluminium. It had never been thought of or seen before, and it eventually climbed its way onto nearly every smartphone screen.

Of course, the screens of our smartphones are not just a piece of tough glass; it is a screen that responds to our touch, giving us personal connections to our phones. ere are two types of touch screens:

e rst category is the resistive touch screen. is is where anything can be used to touch the screen — a pencil would work the same way a nger would. It is composed of two thin layers of conductive material under the surface and when something is pressed, it physically indents the screen, causing the two layers to touch, sending signals to carry out the action to correspond with the touch. ese types of screens are generally found on ATMs.

Smartphones use something called a capacitive touchscreen. Because glass is an insulator, it does not conduct electricity — the screen is coated with a layer of conductive substances such as a thin transparent layer of tin oxide. It then acts as a capacitor, storing electrical charges, so that when you touch the screen, a small amount of these electrical charges enters your nger, because our skin is an electrical conductor. When the charge leaves the screen to enter your nger, the system detects a voltage drop which then causes the responding action.

Twenty years ago, no one could have imagined that there would be more mobile phones in the world than humans. No one could have imagined that our phones would be used to take more pictures than our stand-alone cameras. No one knows what is going to happen next, but with the use of chemistry, the possibilities are endless.

What do you need

Medicine:

Extra-curricular looks good on applications and interviews – especially sportsasit shows teamwork and determination. Volunteeringisessential for around six months or longer. is is so that you have the skills you have learnt from this experience such as communicationand empathy with patients.Universities want you to have done some form of work experience which could be shadowing a doctororworking at a hospital for between one to two weeks. Engineering:

Maths and normally physics is compulsory, further maths can helpas there is lots of maths involved in engineering (other sciences may be useful as well depending on what you want to specialise in). ere are not any extra-curriculars you need to do speci callybut read and watch shows on anything to do with engineering to show you are interestedand passionate aboutthe subjector engage in incentivessuch as head startcourses that some universities o erwhich you can write about on your UCAS statement. Biochemistry:

Any type of extracurricular is good as long as you show dedication and can talk about any so skills that you may have learnt that you can transfer into your university life. Make sure you research what careers you can go into if you are interested in doing a biochemistry degree as there is such a broad range of jobs to go into.

to be doing now?

Computer Science:

Computer science courses are a mix of both practical and theory so you should focus on developing your practical skills and not just theory. Good extracurriculars could be building a programme, attending lectures, reading books on di erent areas within computer science but also anything athletic, artistic, etc that you can do regularly for a period of time to show your commitment. psychology:

To get apsychology degree thatisBPS or BACaccredited, you can nd on the UCAS website orthe university psychology page.For most universities you do not need a psychology Alevel,but it is very helpful as well asEnglish, maths and biology.You can use anything for extra-curricularto make it work to your advantageso you can talk about yourself and any transferrable skills you have learnt. Dentistry:

Any extra-curricular looks good if you can show that you are good at working with people like volunteering at a charity shop, care homes or even a schools. As a dentist you need to be able to work with people from all age ranges. A year's worth of volunteering is best, but six months is also good depending on what type of job you are doing.

When the pilot wishes to land, take o or enter the hover, behind the cockpit canopy two doors open revealing a Pratt and Whitney turbofan rotational engine. At the ick of a switch the two counter Aerial combat has been always been a by-product of the invention of the aeroplane. Over the last century aircra have gone from looking like wooden sheds with wings to today’s multi-role highly computerised F-35. The lightning of the sky aircra . is evolution of the combat aircra leads rotating fans blow around 90,000 newtons of onto the 5th generation ghter jet. e F-35B unheated air downwards. is pure amount Lightning II is the current pinnacle of the breed. of downward thrust is able to hold the aircra in the pure hover mode. Additionally, the rear e Aircra combines advanced sensors and engine can be swivelled downwards and to the mission systems with low observable technology or sides to control the hover and again add even better “stealth” which enables the jet to operate undetected manoeuvrability to the aircra while in the forward in hostile airspace without being detected. It has ight mode. e use of this ability to hover and take integrated sensors and data linking, that provides o and land vertically means the aircra can operate the pilot with unprecedented situational awareness. with ease from small airstrips and naval aircra e pilot is then able to send information via a carriers making the aircra extremely versatile. secure data link to other data platforms and take appropriate action or use appropriate weapons As the aircra is speci cally designed and to be depending on the situation. operated by countries air forces, the F-35 can be equipped with many di erent types of weapons One key feature of the aircra that makes it a from AAMs (Air to Air missiles) to having two formidable piece of machinery is the set up within bombs being carried and an optional 25mm cannon the cockpit. Although most of the so ware within pod. It can also be equipped for speci c missions for the cockpit has remained classi ed, what has been example stealth Missions it will carry smaller loads revealed is the helmet for the pilot. Costing a he y so fewer warheads and sidewinder missiles and £300,000 the helmet is the key attribute of the two bombs and can also be equipped for o ensive aircra . e helmet provides the pilot with a head missions so it will carry more weapons. In total it up display of all his ight instruments and data but can carry 22,00lbs of ordnance with a maximum moreover it allows the pilot to have a greater view operational range of 490 nautical miles (830 of visibility. With a series of sensors and cameras kilometres) with a maximum operational altitude located around the aircra . Live imagery is relayed of 50,000 and able to achieve a maximum speed to the pilot allowing the pilot to see all around of Mach 1.6. the aircra and the surrounding area. is huge bene t in visibility gives the F35 and the pilot a huge Overall, this new breed of 5th generation multi role advantage in combat and surveillance roles. combat aircra will be a formidable asset to many countries and with the advancements in technology Another key Feature of the F35B lightning is the and cyber warfare the F35 will easily keep up with aircra s ability to take o , land and hover like a the new types of warfare while still being able to helicopter. is ability to vertically manoeuvre is dominate the skies. e F35B unquestionably is the achieved due to the aircra having a second engine. lighting of the skies.

Nicholas Solly

A‘ maximum operational altitude of 50000FT and able to achieve a maximum speed of mach 1.6’

Yaning Lyu

IS fusion e United Kingdom uses nuclear ssion the matter that gets so hot that it rips electrons o to produce 20% of the atoms and forms an its electricity. Nuclear ssion is the most reliable energy source for now. future? ionised gas. an ionised gas. e atoms in the plazma fuse together due is does not mean it is the to the extreme temperature safest or most sustainable. and pressure within the Fission generates energy reactor which releases energy. when a neutron collides with a ere are minimal risks with fusion large and unstable Uranium-235 atom. is because if the process becomes unstable, causes the Uranium-235 atom to split into smaller the reactor will automatically cool to safety. It atoms releasing more neutrons causing a chain could be a sustainable energy source as we have reaction. Huge amounts of energy in the form plenty of the natural resources that enables of heat is released during this reaction. is heat fusion. Fusion requires the use of Deuterium and evaporates water, drives a turbine, which generate Tritium (isotopes of hydrogen), which can both be electricity. is process can go wrong and have extracted from the oceans. terrible consequences. Examples of Nuclear ssion e biggest barrier to fusion is the amount disasters are ree-mile lands 1979, Chernobyl of energy produced by fusion is less than the 1986 and Fukushima in 2011. amount of energy that is needed to cause the Fusion is safer than nuclear fission, fusion. ‘Q’ is the ratio of the energy causing fusion unlike fission it does not leave radioactive waste, compared to the energy produced. e highest so is less damaging environmentally. Fusion is the ratio so far is 0.67 set by the JET tokamak reactor opposite of ssion. Fusion occurs when two small in the UK. In 1980, the EU, USA and China in atoms fuse together to become a bigger atom collaboration with Russia built the ITER reactor and some of the mass is turned into energy. in France. is is expecting to reach a Q value Fusion occurs naturally in the universe, such of 10 which means that it is expected to produce as in stars. Fusion requires a huge amount of 10 times the amount of energy that would be energy to overcome the electrostatic forces of required. However there have been delays so will the two nuclei and make them fuse together. not start testing until 2025 and will hopefully Inside a nuclear fusion reactor, plasma reach the goal of “Q=10” by 2035. If this turns out is created by extreme temperatures and that to besuccessful more fusion reactors will be pressures creating plasma, super-heated built and used for future energy.

Riding on water

Dirt bikes are renowned as being loud and noisy pieces of machinery that spend their working lives hurling around swamp-like dirt tracks caked in mud. By applying a few physics principles and bolting on a few extra pieces, you can achieve what is deemed impossible and be able to ride a dirt bike across water.

e ability to ride a dirt bike across water is down to the principle of hydroplaning, sometimes referred to as aquaplaning and a combination of applying Newton’s third law. Hydroplaning is when a wheel is separated from the ground by a thin layer of water. Usually this causes a vehicle to lose traction and can cause a vehicle to skid. For the dirt bike to be able to use hydroplaning to ride across water, we need to factor in Newton’s third law which states that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. Putting this into the context of the dirt bike, if a dirt bike can generate enough velocity using the back powered wheel like a paddle the bike will put enough force into the water to ensure the equal and opposite force coming back will keep the front wheel and the bike out of the water. e optimum speed is critical for the bike to be able to skim across the water. Too slow and the downward force on the water will reduce and as a result, the upward force generated by the water will also reduce and thus the forces applied will not be su cient to keep the bike on the surface and the bike will sink. Too fast of a velocity and the rear wheel of the bike will not give enough time for the air gaps created in the bike’s tread to be lled with water. is is a process known as ventilation. As a result, forward propulsion would be lost and again being a bike, it would sink. It is worked out that the optimum velocity to ensure the right amount of thrust is produced around 45 miles

per hour which works out to 20.1 metres per second.

A modi cation that is needed to ensure that riding on water is possible is a plaining ski that will act like a hull. At the correct velocity, the ski of the bike will generate enough li to ensure the bike remains clear of the water and ensures the bike plains smoothly. In terms of how much li is needed to ensure successful plaining, by taking the average weight of a dirt bike plus rider, comes to a total of 200 kilograms. Linking back to Newton’s third law, a total force of 1962 newtons is required to keep the bike skimming across the water smoothly.

e penultimate area to cover is the angle of entry. e angle of entry should be as shallow as possible so that as the bike hits the water, it hits the water with the optimum amount of force that will allow it simply skim over the water. If the approach angle is too steep, the bike will hit the water with so much force that it will nosedive and possibly cartwheel and throw the rider across the water uncontrollably. A gradual and shallow slope is optimal for the bike to hit the water with the correct force and skim controllably across the water.

e nal area to be covered is to nd a brave enough rider to pilot the bike across the water. With everything in check and with all the calculations completed you will be able to watch the incredible phenomenon of a regular dirt bike skim majestically over water.

Stellar Evolution

Sacha Jennings

‘high temperature and

pressure creates ideal circumstances for nuclear fusion to occur '

Stars are formed when a nebula - an interstellar cloud of dust, hydrogen, helium and other ionised gases comes together under its own gravity. As the volume of the nebula decreases, the pressure of the gas cloud increases. Because volume and pressure are inversely proportional to each other, an increase in pressure causes an increase in temperature so the particles have more energy. is combination of high temperature and pressure creates ideal circumstances for nuclear fusion to occur, where two atoms are fused together and where some of the mass is turned into vast amounts of energy which results in a force which counteracts the force of gravity preventing the star from collapsing and achieving a hydrostatic equilibrium. To start with, stars use hydrogen as their main source of fuel, where two hydrogen atoms fuse together to form helium, then helium fuses into lithium, this process continues until iron is formed. As the star runs out of hydrogen and helium the star expands into a red giant. Once there is not enough fusion the force of gravity becomes greater than the force from fusion. If the star is of the same mass as the sun, the star will collapse under its own gravity to form a hot white dwarf and will eventually cool to become a black dwarf. If it is a supermassive star, then the star will collapse and explode in a supernova and either a neutron star or a black hole will remain.

For both a neutron star and a black hole, there is an imbalance between the forces of fusion and gravity where gravity is higher. As a result, the star implodes, and all the

matter is squeezed together. At this moment all elements are created, and the star explodes in a supernova.

For a neutron star this happens when the balance between the force of gravity and the force of fusion created is unbalanced for a short period of time and gravity is stronger, which compresses the core of the star which causes heavier and heavier elements to be fused together, from carbon to iron. Iron is essentially nuclear ash because no more fusion can take place. As soon as this happens the core is crushed under the weight of the collapsing star. e volume of the star decreases from roughly the size of the 265 solar masses to a ball twenty- ve kilometres in diameter. is causes the pressure to rise so much that electrons and protons fuse into neutrons, these neutrons are packed together as densely as an atomic nucleus. A neutron star is so dense that if it was any more so, it would be a black hole. Due to there being free owing electrons and the neutron spinning extremely quickly when it is formed, a very strong magnetic eld is formed. e most common neutron star is a radio pulsar.

If the star is large enough the whole core of the star will form a black hole, the densest thing in the universe of in nite density at the singularity which takes up no area and no space. Black holes emit radiation, which means black holes lose energy and mass. is will eventually cause the black hole to evaporate into nothing. is is known as Hawking radiation and takes black holes around 10100 years to do so.

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What can YOU do?

Help with the magazine is open to everyone in all years. We want your content (science related) to be fused into our magazine, website, podcasts, videos and more. You can choose to do as much or as little as you like.

Some suggestions for what we would like you to do (but not limited to):

1. Write an article (between 200 and 700 words) or a short paragraph on anything you nd interesting that is science related.

2. Write a review on a science book, lm or documentary that you have seen.

3. Take photographs of anything science related and write a short caption to go with the photograph.

4. Create a piece of science themed artwork to be incorporated into the magazine.

5. Produce some engaging activities such as word searches, crosswords, mazes, etc.

All submissions and any help would be greatly appreciated and participating in the magazine will help you work on life skills as well as look great on your CV and personal statement.

WHO to contact?

To get involved please contact:

Sacha Jennings; 15jenningsa@royalrussell.co.uk

More information can be found at www.russellsteapot.org

Fun Facts About Python

The name of this programming language does not come from a snake as most people might think. Guido Van Rossum, the creator, took the name from the BBC comedy “Monty Python's Flying Circus” which came out in the 1970s, of which he was a big fan. Van Rossum wanted a short and mysterious name that would catch people’s attention, so he called the language “Python”.

Python, surprisingly, was a “hobby” programming project that was supposed to keep Guido Van Rossum occupied during the weeks around Christmas.

ere are many modules in Python but did you known there was a poem too? Tim Peters, a major contributor to the Python community, wrote a poem about the philosophies of Python called “ e Zen of Python”.

Another fun fact is that in 2015, unbelievably, Python overtook French in primary schools in the UK as the most popular language. According to the statistics, six out of ten parents preferred their children to learn Python and 75% of primary school children preferred to learn how to control a robot instead of learning French. Impressive, right?

Python has a sense of humour too. Python does not use braces and if you try to “from __future__ import braces”, it will give you “SyntaxError: not a chance”.

e debate of whether to use “!=” or “<>” has gone on forever. Barry Warsaw, “Uncle Barry”, was chosen to become the “Friendly Language Uncle For Life”, “FLUFL” in short. ere is an interesting library where “!=” is replaced by “<>”.

ere is “xkcd” webcomic on Python as well that can be accessed through importing “antigravity”. Have a look at the other comics as well a er reading this one!

ere are so many more easter eggs, I will stop here and let you explore them on your own.

Scientists are now looking at producing cultured meat as a way of addressing climate change, biodiversity, and animal welfare.'

Cultured meat originated as a way of supplying meat to humans colonising in space without the need to take animals from Earth. NASA was among the rst to produce cultured meat in the 2000s. Scientists are now looking at producing cultured meat as a way of addressing climate change, biodiversity, and animal welfare.

Cultured meat is produced by taking a biopsy (a tissue sample) from a living animal. Stem cells are then extracted from this sample and placed in a bioreactor (a manufactured device or system that supports a biologically active environment; the process can either be aerobic or anaerobic). ese cells are fed a solution of glucose, amino acids, vitamins, and minerals and require speci c conditions to develop into mature muscle cells, which then form the cultured meat.

Shojinmeat is a non-pro t collective, co-founded by Dr Yuki Hanyu. ey have been developing cheaper methods for extracting live cells and growing the meat in mediums such as egg yolk, vitamin tablets and bodybuilding powder. eir ndings are published online, in the style of ‘how-to’ guides and the youngest person who has cultured cells was only 10 years old. e meat produced so far has been no bigger than the size of a pea, taking 14 to 20 days to grow and containing around 100,000 cells. ey are now working on producing it on an industrial scale.

ere are many pros to lab-grown meats, for example, the labs thatgrow the meat might be able to use renewable energy resources . Cultured meat can grow quicker than usual livestock. Cultured cell populations double in size every few days and therefore it would take about three weeks to grow steak. Lab-grown meat could also be modi ed to bene t the health of humans, by controlling the protein and fat content, lab-grown meat could be produced to contain healthier omega-3 fatty acids which are less harmful than the saturated fats meat currently contains.

Livestock farming produces about 9% of total greenhouse gas emissions. People also question if labgrown meat is more, or less ethical than agricultural meat.

Lab-grown meat requires the extraction of blood from the heart of foetuses of slaughtered pregnant animals so scientists would need a constant supply of livestock. Until an alternative method is developed that does not require animal cells, lab-grown meat is not free of animal cruelty or exploitation. Labgrown meats could also be viewed as unhealthy because there are studies that suggest these meats link to various diseases and that they use unhealthy chemicals and antibiotics in production.

Cultured meat is still in the experimental stage and will not be ready to buy from supermarket shelves for at least another decade and therefore it will be up to the younger generation to decide whether we think that cultured meat should be available.