The Geographer: Soils (Summer 2015)

The

Geographer SUMMER 2015

The newsletter of

the Royal Scottish Geographical Society

Under the Surface of Soils “We know more about the movement of celestial bodies than about the soil underfoot.”

• International Year of Soils

Leonardo da Vinci

• Perfect Storm in Schools Geography • Food, Fertility, Forensics • The Price, Principles and Politics of Dirt • Soil in Iceland, Earthquakes in Nepal • Kerala Photo Tour • Reader Offer: Isabella Bird: A Photographic Journal of Travels Through China 1894-1896

plus news, books, and more…

Soils of Scotland. © The James Hutton Institute

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ave you ever thought what life would be like without soil? An odd question maybe, but posing it makes us think about the vital importance of the soil to life on Earth, both natural and human. And yet, the soil has been all too often regarded as a commodity which we do not need to bother about because it is always there and will always be productive.

Global statistics tell a quite different story. For example, soil erosion and land degradation globally continue. Soil loss remains greater than the replenishment rate by 10% in the USA, and between 30% and 40% in India and China.

Overall, soil degradation has been estimated to directly affect 1.5 billion people (around 20% of the world’s population), with damage costing approximately £260bn per annum.

The resulting loss of productive capacity can be reversed, in part, with the application of artificial fertilizers, and pests on crops can be controlled through chemical treatments. But these applications and treatments often have negative side effects, such as affecting the genetic integrity of wild plants.

As a result of soil loss and the use of pesticides and artificial fertilizers, there are significant downstream effects on the functioning of ecosystems and the quality of water, along with increases in flooding.

I recall a view expressed only 20 years ago by a so-called soil expert in Scotland that there was no soil erosion in Scotland, despite all of the evidence to the contrary which even nonexperts could see. Fortunately, thanks to the research and policy work of geographers in universities and agencies around Scotland, we have a very good knowledge of the state of health of our soil, we have policies to protect soil, and within the EU there is a draft Directive on the protection of soil.

In this edition of The Geographer, compiled with the help of Dr Blair McKenzie, experts from around the world highlight some of the key issues that affect us all, and hopefully improve readers’ understanding of how we are to maintain this natural capital and ensure that it is cared for, as well as used productively.

Professor Roger Crofts, Chairman RSGS, Lord John Murray House, 15-19 North Port, Perth, PH1 5LU tel: 01738 455050 email: enquiries@rsgs.org www.rsgs.org Charity registered in Scotland no SC015599 The views expressed in this newsletter are not necessarily those of the RSGS. Cover image: Soils of Scotland. © Crown copyright and database right (2015).

All rights reserved. The James Hutton Institute.

Masthead image: © Mike Robinson

RSGS: a better way to see the world

Dick Balharry - Geddes Environment The 2015 Geddes Environment Medal was awarded to the highly respected conservationist Dick Balharry, at a special event in Glenfeshie on 18 April 2015. A popular awardee, and friend to both our Chairman and our Chief Executive, Dick has influenced, inspired, advised and encouraged so many institutions in Scotland, and helped establish the country’s first nature reserves, at Beinn Eighe and Creag Meagaidh.

Surrounded by family, friends and colleagues, Dick, who was

RSGS on the airwaves RSGS recently featured twice on BBC Radio Scotland. Mike Robinson appeared on the afternoon show Out for the Weekend; he was interviewed in the Explorers’ Room by Helen Needham, who finished the piece by enthusing about RSGS and encouraging people to drop in to our visitor centre. And Rachel Hay was interviewed on Kaye Adams’ phone-in show, to follow up on The Herald’s education piece which cited an RSGS/SAGT survey about Geography’s place in the curriculum (see page 20). Rachel was able to extol the virtues of studying Geography and the subject’s importance to the curriculum. Thank you to those RSGS members who sent their support of Geography into the show.

Soils of Scotland

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SUMMER 2015

AGM results Our AGM in March was well attended, and resulted in the unanimous approval of our new Articles of Association, and the election of a new Board member in Vanessa Collingridge. We are delighted to welcome Vanessa to the Board, and again take the opportunity to thank Bruce Gittings for his help and support after his two terms as RSGS Vice-Chair.

Membership boost We are very grateful to have such a loyal cohort of members, many of whom have been supporting us for many years, and even decades! And we are delighted that we continue to recruit new members. Overall, we are pleased to say that RSGS membership is rising steadily, if slowly.

recruit a friend

Medallist terminally ill, asked to share the award with his wife Adeline, and used the event to present a paper on his hopes for the future of environmental land management in Scotland.

Dick sadly died four days after the medal event. As he had worked at the forefront of Scottish land management for the past 50 years, we thought more people should have the chance to hear his final thoughts, so we have reprinted his paper in full on our website (rsgs.org/dickbalharrysvisionforlanduseinscotland).

Primary resources

As well as running c100 public talks a year all over Scotland, organising activities for schools and other groups and individuals, maintaining an important geographical heritage collection, and producing this acclaimed quarterly magazine, we are doing more and more to represent and promote geography across public and political arenas in Scotland.

We have a fantastic team of staff and volunteers, and a wealth of good ideas. We could achieve much more, but we need your help. Our experience has been that when people find out what we do, they really like it. But not enough people are finding out about us. So, please tell your friends about the RSGS, invite them along to a talk, show them the magazine, send them to our visitor centre. And please encourage them to join us. Or give them a gift membership! If every member could recruit just one more member, we could take a big step forward.

The P5 class at Deanburn Primary School in Falkirk have used the RSGS’s fun, interactive Climate Change Story Mat to create a world map on the floor, then to follow Tåle the Arctic Tern’s migration around the world, where she meets people and wildlife and finds out how they are being affected by climate change. The class spent some time working with the resource, before sharing it with a P2 class, then created their own map which was presented to other pupils and parents. “This was an excellent starting point for a topic on climate change,” said P5 teacher Dasha Murray. “It engaged the children’s interest right from the start and offered various avenues they could explore further, including wildlife, food chains, habitats and lifestyles.”

The pack comes in a large suitcase, and can be borrowed from the RSGS headquarters in Perth by primary school teachers free of charge. Prebooking is advisable and full teaching notes are provided.

borrow the pack

Professor Iain Stewart invited young academics to the RSGS’s headquarters in June for a workshop about communicating geoscience to the public. The fascinating discussion considered the role of scientists in public engagement and media work, then went on to outline the benefits and concerns for academics in communicating their research findings. Iain advised participants to ‘tell stories’, ‘fire the imagination’ and ‘capture the wonder’, in order to effectively engage and inform the general public about their work. The ten undergraduate and postgraduate participants left with valuable insights and inspiration. We would like to thank Iain for taking the time to run the session during his short visit to Perth.

University News

Earth Stories

2 SUMMER 2015

In May, Margot Watt, a retired Geography/Geology teacher from Perth High School and now an RSGS volunteer, kindly agreed to help two Higher Geology pupils with revision and map work practice for their exam. The pupils completed their course work through a distance learning arrangement with Pete Harrison in Ullapool High School. Both have applied to study Geology at university from September and we wish them well.

The last ever Higher Geology exam in Scotland took place on Wednesday 27 May. We are currently working with the SQA to develop the business case for introducing a new Scottish Credit and Qualifications Framework (SCQF) Level 5 or 6 exam in Earth Sciences. We very much hope that they will accept our proposal, which will allow pupils to find out more about the planet and how it works.

Map collectors visit

RSGS was particularly pleased to welcome 26 members of the International Map Collectors’ Society (IMCoS), from all over Europe, to Perth in April. We hosted a talk and introduction to RSGS, an insight into the RSGS collections drawing on many of our guests’ specialist areas of interest, and an evening reception.

The day was brilliantly hosted by RSGS Board member Margaret Wilkes and members of the collections team, and was very well received by IMCoS members. Hans Kok, IMCoS Chairman, was very complimentary in his letter of thanks: “We were quite impressed how a small organisation like RSGS, with little funding and few staff, can achieve so much by using volunteers and applying the good ideas that often are generated regardless of money… many thanks again for an outstanding experience.”

Geography Day Success

Visitors seemed to really enjoy the day: “…it was special to visit…

The four talks were really good and varied… and I enjoyed them all! I hope there might be another soon.”

Unusually, RSGS sits between sectors, with a large public audience, good links with schools and educational bodies, strong connections in the third sector, regular high-profile contacts in governmental and political circles and in business, and an extensive group of geographical sister societies throughout the world. This gives us a unique role in communicating across the whole of society, and in helping to facilitate and drive a huge network of people and organisations interested in geographical issues.

By better developing and connecting this network of contacts, we have the potential to bring distinctive and practical contributions on current and future Scottish priorities. These include issues such as making communities sustainable and resilient in the face of environmental change, developing viable energy futures, defining and managing our cultural and natural heritage, integrating competing land uses, and developing smart urban infrastructures, amongst a range of other prospects.

We have recently spoken face-to-face with around 25 academics from the universities of Aberdeen, Dundee, Edinburgh, Glasgow, St Andrews, Stirling, and Strathclyde, along with representatives of research programmes such as SAGES and CECHR. We are developing plans for a network or ‘academy’ of geography for Scotland, and are continuing to establish RSGS’s role in communicating research and getting ‘geography’ engaged more actively in informing live issues, policy and debates.

join our network

Bitesize Ahead of December’s climate change negotiations in Paris, RSGS is working with Scotland’s 2020 Climate Group on a project called Bitesize, to identify and bring forward priority actions to address climate change, focused on those actions in which Scotland has a major stake or can provide leading international expertise or example.

For Peat’s Sake The Scottish Wildlife Trust (SWT) is urging MSPs to end the damaging practice of horticultural peat extraction.

SWT failed to successfully oppose two commercial peat extraction applications for Springfield Moss in Midlothian and Mossmorran in Fife. Their approval will allow a further 25 years of peat extraction for horticulture, removing up to 3.5 metres of peat – which is likely to have begun forming during the Bronze Age, 3,500 years ago.

Peat-free composts are commercially available and numerous high-profile gardeners have moved to completely peat-free methods of gardening, showing that peat usage is not essential for successful horticulture.

Dr Maggie Keegan, SWT Head of Policy, said “The Scottish Wildlife Trust would like to see commercial peat extraction end. Peatlands are some of Scotland’s most valuable natural capital assets and digging them up is creating a debt that could take thousands of years to pay back.”

soils

We held our first Geography Day in June, welcoming over 100 people to RSGS HQ. The day included chances to chat with RSGS President Iain Stewart about the human factors in earthquakes; to meet young explorer Benno Rawlinson fresh from an adventure on Baffin Island; to inspect the rare collections in the company of our expert volunteers (Margaret, Kenny and Bruce); and to hear from writer Jo Woolf and our CEO, Mike, about a few of the many inspiring stories of people who have been associated with the Society over the years.

RSGS: creating a dynamic network

University News

Higher Geology no more…

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Exciting Learning

The Polar Academy returns

In May, RSGS Education Officer Rachel Hay and Angus Miller FRSGS (Geowalks, and Chair of the Scottish Geodiversity Forum) delivered a session on Scotland’s geology to a group of enthusiastic geographers and geologists in P4-6 at the Royal School of Dunkeld. With their teachers, the pupils had studied the structure of the Earth, and Scottish landscapes, and the eye-catching wall displays were full of geography.

Craig Mathieson, RSGS Explorer-in-Residence I am extremely pleased and proud to tell you that the first Polar Academy expedition was a resounding success. All the training which I put them through for the last 12 months kicked in, resulting in a very professional team of young explorers hauling their sledges over the ice in East Greenland.

The geology session saw the pupils creating field sketches of the landscape around the school, before handling rock samples and placing them in the correct locations on a map of Scotland using a fantastic rock box from the Earth Science Education Unit at Keele University. “I learned that rocks can tell you amazing stories and there are a lot more different ones than you think.” said a P6 pupil.

Schools explore Perth In March, we hosted a visit from 60 S2 pupils from the Community School of Auchterarder. Small groups of pupils toured the RSGS visitor centre, then explored the streets of Perth to investigate how the city has grown and changed over time. Many thanks to our energetic volunteers (John, Anne, Freda, Derry, Kate and Rob) who gave their time to make this session possible.

Ben Seymour, a Geography teacher at St Leonards school in St Andrews, arranged for his class to visit the RSGS, before heading out into the rain to collect data in the city centre. Land use, sphere of influence and tourism, and pollution were popular choices for the pupils’ investigations.

New playground maps

get a map

Cat Mackay, our Playground Maps project coordinator, has been busy painting world maps on the playgrounds at Auchtermuchty Primary School, Lawhead Primary School (St Andrews) and Beaconhurst School (Bridge of Allan). We are currently looking into developing a template for a playground map of Scotland.

If you are a teacher and would like a world map or map of Scotland for your playground (for use both during lessons and at break time!) please visit the Exciting Learning section of our website for more information, or contact the office.

Help us tell our story RSGS is a repository of some of the best stories from the last 130 years, through our connections with some of the most famous names in geography and exploration, and our involvement in a variety of contemporary geographical issues. We are keen to share more of our stories, and more about what we do for geography and education in modern-day Scotland. Therefore, our next fundraising appeal will be asking you please to help us create materials that we can use to highlight our work and encourage more people to get involved. Please watch out for the appeal envelope dropping through your door and please do consider donating to help us develop as a successful charity.

The effort and resilience shown by every individual was fantastic to see: even after hauling sledges for eight hours each day, they would still have a smile on their face, still not quite believing where they were and what they were achieving.

The Greenlandic weather was kind to us, with many days of high pressure, so warm days and comfortably cold nights; however, it was the Northern Lights each night which made it a magical The Polar Academy Medallists with Craig. expedition for everyone.

When we returned to Glasgow in mid-April, we handed back ten very proud kids to their parents.

Gone is the self-doubt and lack of confidence, as they have now become truly inspirational role models for their peers.

For me personally, this is true exploration, the self-discovery of one’s own abilities in one of the Sledge hauling in Greenland. most remote and beautiful places on the planet. However, this is just the beginning for the ‘10’.

They now have the job of speaking to 24-30,000 school pupils, inspiring them all with the story of their incredible journey.

The last surprise I had for everyone, which Mike Robinson and I had to keep silent for over a year, was to present each member of the expedition and leadership teams with a new medal, The Polar Academy Medal. This was one of the proudest moments in my exploration career, watching each parent presenting their child with the medal, a fitting conclusion to the first expedition. And in May, I went back to Glenmore Lodge to begin taking the new group of kids and their parents through the selection process. I truly have the most privileged job on the planet.

Finally, I would like to say a huge thanks to everyone who made this expedition a reality, either through financial donations or just sending me your best wishes… it worked.

Craig

PS See thepolaracademy. org or www. facebook.com/ thepolaracademy for details of the expedition.

A Greenlandic night with Northern Lights.

4 SUMMER 2015

We have been working hard to put together another fantastic Inspiring People programme for 2015-16, and we’re delighted to announce that we will be welcoming some familiar faces. John Pilkington is bringing his Balkan Adventure to a number of our local groups, and Jasper Winn will be sharing stories from his Wintery Walk: 500 miles from Munich to Paris. We will also be welcoming new faces, including international awardwinning adventure cameraman Keith Partridge, David Baxendale who provided us with stunning images of Kerala for this magazine (see pages 14-15), and polar explorer Felicity Aston. And RSGS President Iain Stewart will be speaking in November/December and February, so those of you who missed out last season will have lots of opportunities to hear him speak in 2015-16.

volunteer with us

University News

Our hard-working local group committees are always looking for enthusiastic volunteers to help with the organisation of talks. If you like the idea of hosting speakers, or meeting and greeting people as they arrive at talks, please contact enquiries@rsgs.org or 01738 455050 to hear about these opportunities and other ways you can help to support our local groups.

Professor Ballantyne honoured

Professor Mike Walker, Professor Julian Murton, Professor James Scourse, Professor Doug Benn, Dr Derek Fabel, Professor John Lowe, Professor Danny McCarroll, and Professor David J A Evans helped Professor Colin Ballantyne (centre) to celebrate.

Professor Colin Ballantyne (University of St Andrews) received our highest research accolade in May, at an event in St Andrews that marked his 40-year research career. He has produced over 150 published papers and 50 chapters in books and field guides, covering an array of subjects from orientation statistics, clast shape analysis and climatic gradients, to experiments on patterned ground generation, to recent reassessments of the dimensions and deglacial chronology of the last British-Irish Ice Sheet.

Professor Ballantyne has been an active supporter of the RSGS, with regular contributions to the Scottish Geographical Journal on the geomorphology of Scotland (more than any other physical geographer) including several papers in the Scottish landforms examples series, and has been one of the key architects of the University School’s remarkable climb in the excellence rankings of the UK RAE and REF Geography league tables. The quality and originality of his research work has been recognized in several awards and prizes, culminating in the 2014 RSGS Coppock Research Medal.

Citizen Science and Soils Matt Keyse, OPAL Community Scientist “What is ‘citizen science’?” is a question I am asked quite often. Simply put, citizen science is public participation in scientific data collection. Citizen science projects usually involve a scientific partner such as a university, government body or environmental charity, and aim to answer a question that requires large and widespread datasets.

The Open Air Laboratories (OPAL) have developed seven National Surveys to answer a variety of questions, such as mapping the distribution of invasive species, assessing biodiversity and checking for ecosystem health.

The OPAL Soil and Earthworm Survey aims to unearth information about a world we know very little about.

There are 27 known species of earthworm in the British Isles, each species occupying a distinct niche and preferred set of soil characteristics.

A rich variety of earthworm species can indicate good soil health. The survey is also a chance to look for and learn about invasive species, such as the New Zealand flatworm which has huge potential impacts on native earthworm populations and therefore soil Contributing to a national database of earthworm distribution. health.

As an OPAL Community Scientist, I have introduced many students to soils and earthworms, dispelling lots of commonly held myths such as “It’s just dirt”, and opening eyes to a vital and perfectly adapted creature.

Many lessons can come from this simple creature and the medium within which it lives; carbon cycles, taxonomy, biodiversity, food chains, indicator species, agriculture and sustainable resource management, to name but a few. What’s more, it’s a great opportunity to get students outside, away from screens and textbooks, and experiencing an ecosystem that is on everybody’s doorstep, even in the most Taking the laboratory outside with urban setting.

OPAL.

Citizen science can be as much about the citizen as it is about the science. It can be an effective teaching tool, and a chance to be involved in real scientific research and to gain more information about local areas. Go on… get your hands dirty! See www. opalexplorenature.org/soilsurvey for details.

Chinese Academy Visitor Dr Bojie Fu is Vice-President of the Chinese Society of Geography and a professor of physical geography and landscape ecology at the Chinese Academy of Sciences. He is one of the chief scientists in China working on land use change and its effects on landscape pattern, ecological processes and ecosystem services. Much of Dr Fu’s research has been concerned with the Loess Plateau region in China, which has one of the greatest soil erosion rates in the world. In May, our Chief Executive met up with him at a lecture and dinner hosted by the University of Glasgow and presented him with Professor Pacione’s book of the history of the Scottish Geographical Journal – an appropriate gift, as Professor Fu’s first paper in English, The evaluation of land resources in China, was published in the SGJ in 1988.

soils

Inspiring People 2015-16

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Summer Exhibitions at the RSGS The Scottish Landscape Photographer of the Year exhibition (at the Fair Maid’s House until 11 July 2015) showcases a collection of stunning images from the inaugural 2014 photography competition. The brainchild of Fifebased landscape photographer Stuart Low, the competition was set up to raise the profiles of the many talented photographers who live in, and come to, Scotland to capture the myriad of breathtaking views, and to encourage people to explore and enjoy the many wonderful places that Scotland has to offer. The competition received entries from across the globe, and this exhibition includes images from the winning portfolios, category winners, and commended photographers.

Glasgow visits Edinburgh Alan Colvill, RSGS Glasgow Group Chair In March, RSGS Glasgow Group ventured eastwards, on a most interesting excursion. We visited the National Library of Scotland, home to one of the largest map collections in the world, and enjoyed a presentation by Craig Statham, and the opportunity to study a variety of maps of different dates and types, as well as atlases and other books and reference volumes of a cartographic nature. We then visited the Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland, where Philip Graham introduced us to the collections, which include the National Collection of Aerial Photography, a vast collection of photographs relating to the built environment, and prints and drawings dating from the 17th century to the present day.

Euan Turner We were sorry to hear of the untimely death of Euan Turner on 11 June. His Scottish landscape photographs recently formed a very popular exhibition here at the RSGS. It was a real pleasure to work Euan Turner at the launch of his ‘All roads lead to here…’ exhibition on 21 March with Euan and his friends and family to set up the exhibition, 2015. © Jenni Browne Photography and his warmth, sense of humour and adventurous spirit will be greatly missed.

see the exhibitions We are planning three further photographic exhibitions this year: • 18 July - 29 August: Stand International’s work in Romania • 1 September - 26 September: Tuareg Nomads • 1 October - 24 October: Mountains

Lord Smith and the People of Glasgow In May, at a special event kindly hosted by Glasgow City Council, we presented the 2014 Shackleton Medal jointly to Lord Smith of Kelvin and to the People of Glasgow for the evident success and legacy of the Glasgow 2014 Commonwealth Games.

Two Shackleton Medals (awarded for leadership and citizenship) were minted, and were presented Provost Sadie Docherty and Lord Smith received their Medals from Alexandra Shackleton (centre).

by Alexandra Shackleton, Sir Ernest Shackleton’s granddaughter. Lord Smith was recognised for his role as Chair of the Organising Committee, and Glasgow Provost Sadie Docherty received a Medal on behalf of the people of Glasgow who played such a crucial and positive role in the Games’ success. Members of the RSGS Glasgow Group were also present to help mark the occasion of the group’s 130th anniversary.

Planet Oil Success In April, following his three-part BBC series, Professor Iain Stewart gave two excellent RSGS talks on Planet Oil. The Perth talk was well attended and the Aberdeen talk was a sell-out. A big ‘thank you’ to those volunteers who helped support these events.

6 SUMMER 2015

A grounding in soil Dr Blair M McKenzie, Environmental and Biochemical Sciences, The James Hutton Institute

One of the defining images of my childhood was the July 1969 photo of Neil Armstrong standing on the ‘lunar soil’.

While that may define my age, it also planted a seed for what was to become my career as a soil scientist. It did so because it raised the question, “what is soil?”.

When I attended university and studied soil science, my enlightened lecturers spoke of soil minerals being more than simply ground rock fragments. They were assemblages formed from weathering that included interaction with water and gases (notably oxygen) from the atmosphere. Given that my undergraduate days were so long ago, I was even more fortunate to be taught, in part, by soil biologists.

They held a view that soil without life was simply not soil at all, because it was unable to fulfil many of the important functions that we expect our soils to deliver – © Open Air Laboratories such as supporting food and fibre production; storing, filtering and buffering water and gases; cycling of nutrients; and providing a gene pool and habitat. Even on the most extreme soils on Earth, the ultra-dry soils of the Antarctic valleys, life has been found in the form of viruses. So the question remains, what is soil? If it must have life and have minerals influenced by water, can the lunar surface with neither water nor life be considered soil? To continue the theme, can the Martian surface, which on current understanding has evolved with water and an atmosphere but without life, be considered soil? What of all the planets, the well-known and the newly-discovered; is there soil on their surfaces? As a soil scientist I am loath to confine my interests to one small planet.

It is interesting that the UN declared 2015 to be International Year of Soils – plural. Unlike botany or zoology, where individuals are discrete and can be neatly separated to genus and species, soil is a continuum. If a landscape is inundated, for example by sea-level rise, does the soil cease to be soil simply because it is underwater?

There are some boundaries; few would argue the soils of Britain are continuous with those of mainland Europe. However, within for example mainland Britain at whatever scale, any soil has continuity with adjacent soil. To map and classify soil, fuzzy boundaries are needed.

The line of thinking above sets out the basis for the question on soil science final examinations: Soil Science or soil sciences – discuss. A common separation is that soil is the mineral fraction less than 2mm. Anything larger is gravel and falls into the domain of geologists. Many of the Compaction damage, near Dundee.

typical analyses of soil used by farmers and gardeners, such as pH and nutrient concentration, are done in laboratories that accept the 2mm demarcation. However, looking at soil profiles in the field, particles (mineral or organic) do not neatly separate on the basis of size. The function delivered by these soils, such as drainage and the through flow of water, are strongly influenced by the particles greater than 2mm.

As with many disciplines dealing with the natural world – geology, ecology, geography, etc – are we simply using more fundamental understanding and applying that to a particular range of case studies (here, the understanding of soil) or does soil science have something more to offer? Is the end point greater than the sum of the parts? In his masterpiece Growth of the Soil, Nobel Prize-winning author Knut Hamsun explores the interaction between the book’s main character and nature through the connection with soil, fertility and food production. Hence words such as ‘cultivate’ have meaning not only in terms of preparing soil for agriculture but also more generally as ‘improve’ or ‘develop’. Many indigenous communities have a particular affinity or connection with the land. In this case, ‘land’ is more than soil type, vegetation, geomorphology or climate. It is greater than the sum of the parts. There is an element of spirituality involved. A modern and more commercial example is in the French concept of terroir, or sense of place, when a particular set of characters (soil, climate, geography, aspect, etc) interact with plant genetics and crop management to deliver a product of special quality. The products from these can be protected by legislation as “protected designation of origin”, and others are prevented from using particular names.

So while rigorous definition may restrict ‘soil’ to a thin mantle, with defined particle size, produced by a limited set of weathering processes, those who frequently use, study, play or in other ways deal with soil know that to truly understand and appreciate it requires more than reductionist science, and that if treated with respect its nature is to deliver lasting functions on which humanity depends.

“…its nature is to deliver lasting functions on which humanity depends.”

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International Year of Soils Professor Dr Rainer Horn, Institute for Plant Nutrition and Soil Sciences, Christian-Albrechts-University of Kiel, Germany; Professor Rattan Lal, Distinguished University Professor of Soil Science, The Ohio State University; Professor Jae E Yang, Professor of Soil Environmental Chemistry, Kangwon National University, Korea

In December 2013 the UN declared the year 2015 as the International Year of Soils (IYS 2015). This very positive and long-awaited decision started with the initiative of the International Union of Soil Sciences (IUSS) in 2002, supported and finally brought forward in April 2012 by His Majesty King Bhumibol of Thailand in Bangkok. His government submitted an official proposal for an International Day of the Soil to the Food and Agriculture Organization council for support at the UN General Assembly in New York.

The UN not only installed a World Soil Day but went one step further by declaring a Year of Soils. This declaration has helped to promote the very sensitive topic of “soils, their very specific properties and also their irreversible vulnerability due to mismanagement” into the public consciousness worldwide.

A consequence of this priority and attention will be to help improve our handling of soils in the future. This is even more necessary with the predicted worldwide population in 2050 of nine billion people, who will need to be fed and nourished, putting huge pressure on land and soil for productive agriculture. But adding to that pressure is the fact that, at the same time, the accessible soil surface is diminishing worldwide by approximately 300km² per day.

Soils are three-dimensional bodies at the land surface with liquid, gaseous and solid components containing inorganic and organic materials, including living organisms in a great number and variety. They must be used carefully and according to their resilience and elasticity for the long-term maintenance of key properties and processes, thus meeting the demands of a growing world population.

Soils are the most complex biomaterials on the planet. They act as a self-regulating biological factory. Thus, it is absolutely essential that soil degradation, as the most insidious and underestimated challenge of the 21st century, must be overcome. Hopefully this will be a more likely outcome as a consequence of this UN decision to inject publicity into the issue.

At present, the vulnerability of soils because of global change and anthropogenic impacts is unprecedented. Severe degradation, including widespread contamination, accelerated erosion, severe depletion of carbon and nutrients, rapid urbanization, and frequent hazards, is threatening sustainable food production, adequate water supply, global ecosystem services, and the quality of human life. Soil carbon sequestration, soil restoration, the conservation of biodiversity, and other important soil functions are all critically important for sustainable land and soil use. Through land misuse and soil mismanagement, soils have been increasingly degraded and some are irreversibly lost. Therefore, we have to make clear, not only during the IYS 2015 but permanently, that public concern alone is not sufficient to protect soils and to use them sustainably. All nations worldwide need to take action!

IUSS and many national, international, political or scientific

organizations worldwide have already held innumerable meetings, given countless presentations, and provided a large amount of public information. The strategy and challenge for those of us working in soil then, in order to meet the needs of this future world population, is to reach sustainable intensification in order to achieve food security, to provide sufficient drinking water supply, and to help in the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions through sequestration of carbon in soils and away from the atmosphere.

“Soil degradation [is] the most insidious and underestimated challenge of the 21st century.”

This requires the mitigation of global change processes in order to maintain healthy soils. This idea is not new. More than 500 years ago the famous artist and scientist Leonardo da Vinci pointed out that “we know more about the movement of celestial bodies than about the soil underfoot”. Therefore it is critical that, after so long, soils should and must begin to be given the importance which they rightfully deserve. They should be placed at the forefront of the scientific agenda, on the roster of policy makers, and in the awareness of the general public. Only then can we have confidence in the future of our soils.

Loch Caluim Flows. © Mike Robinson

Professor Horn is President, Professor Lal is PresidentElect, and Professor Yang is Past-President of the International Union of Soil Sciences.

8 SUMMER 2015

Soil: the forgotten frontier Professor David R Montgomery, Professor of Geomorphology, University of Washington

It’s hard to change how you think about something you have long taken for granted. And yet that is what we must do for the soil – humanity’s critical, overlooked resource. For while healthy, fertile soil is the living foundation of agricultural civilizations, societies across history failed to safeguard this essential root of their prosperity against longterm degradation and soil erosion. At the heart of the problem lies the conundrum that, while many cultures professed great reverence for the mystery behind fertile land, we have long treated soil like dirt.

“It is time for a new view of the soil that translates into new agricultural practices.”

At the heart of this vexing issue is that changes to the soil often occur too slowly relative to our lifetimes for most to notice, let alone care about. Even very rapid soil erosion only approaches a millimetre per year. Soil loss never quite becomes the crisis de jour – until a dramatic disaster like the Dust Bowl happens and our attention is focused for a few decades. Yet the effects add up over time.

A common element in the story of many civilizations is how farming practices left the ground bare and vulnerable to wind or rain for a portion of the year (something inevitable under plough-based agriculture) allowing soil erosion to outpace the rate at which nature built new soil. It takes nature centuries to build an inch of soil; it takes only decades to erode it. Time and again, soil erosion slowly stripped Earth’s fragile skin from the land, and along with it the foundation for peace and prosperity.

The United Nations declared 2015 International Year of Soils to highlight the contemporary relevance of this slow-burning, under-appreciated global crisis. Reports over the past several decades estimated that agricultural practices resulted in the loss of around a third of the topsoil from world cropland over the past century. The global effect may be even greater as such estimates don’t account for soil loss that reduced the resilience of ancient civilizations, limiting their longevity and impoverishing subsequent generations. Today, the importance of soil security to ensure food security is becoming increasingly apparent as our global population keeps rising, more farmland is paved over each year (decreasing the area of available cropland), and farming practices continue to degrade cropland.

only on fields with degraded native soil fertility. Not only do they not yield much added benefit on already fertile soils, they change relationships between plant root exudates and microbial life essential for plant health. Renewed scrutiny of biocide-centric approaches to soil management reflects recent discoveries about both the role of microbial life in catalysing biotic soil fertility, and the significant differences in microbial populations in the plant root zone under conventional, no-till, and organic fields. It is becoming clear that the way we farm affects the soil in ways that will affect how long we’ll be able to keep doing so.

It is time for a new view of the soil that translates into new agricultural practices. And it is not enough to simply go organic, for soil erosion occurred under organic agriculture in classical Greece and ancient Rome. We need a new way of thinking that integrates the insights of soil ecology with agricultural technology to feed the world based on ecological processes and nutrient cycling.

Conservation agriculture offers a promising approach based on three key principles that individually go against the grain of conventional industrial farming: (1) minimal or no disturbance of the soil with direct planting of seeds through methods such as no-till; (2) maintenance of permanent ground cover through retention of crop residues and including cover crops in rotations; and (3) use of diverse crop rotations to maintain soil fertility and break up pathogen carryover. Effective practices based on these principles will vary in regions with different climate, soils, crops, and technological capacity, but experience around the world shows that practices based on them offer effective ways to control erosion, sustain fertility, and promote crop health.

While global peace and stability may well depend on how we address the issue of global food security on an increasingly overcrowded planet, Leonardo da Vinci’s words ring as true today as they did five centuries ago. For we need a global programme to rebuild fertile soils, and to do this we need a crash research programme to figure out the best crop rotations and methods for rebuilding soil organic carbon levels in different soils in different parts of the world with different climates and crops. No other issue as important to the future of humanity receives so little attention from society at large.

For millennia, the plough was instrumental in helping farmers do things that are essential for intensive agriculture, like efficiently prepare a seed bed and suppress weeds. But we now have other methods – chemical (herbicides), mechanical (seed drills), and agronomic (crop rotations) – to do these things. It’s time to retire the plough. In some areas farmers have converted to no-till methods that greatly reduce soil erosion. For example, a few weeks ago I only saw a couple of ploughed fields on a several hundred mile drive through part of South Dakota, famous just a few decades ago for blowing clouds of dust that routinely closed major roads during ploughing season.

In addition, recent discoveries about the role of soil life in plant nutrition and health emphasize the importance of questioning our primary reliance on fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides to bolster crop yields and manage pests and pathogens. Fertilizers are essential for maintaining high yields

David R Montgomery is the author of Dirt: The Erosion of Civilizations (see back page for details) and The Hidden Half of Nature: The Microbial Roots of Life and Health.

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Soils and spirituality Dr Bruce C Ball, Scotland’s Rural College (SRUC)

In this International Year of Soils 2015, the UN indicated that, owing to soil degradation, we may only have between 60 and 100 harvests left with which to feed ourselves. Our soil is ebbing away unnoticed from under our feet.

The situation is less serious in Scotland than in other parts of the world because soil degradation by erosion, compaction, reduced organic matter, and sealing by buildings and roads is less obvious than elsewhere – but it is there and it needs to be identified and remedied. Increasing our awareness of the soil can allow us to learn how to care for it better and can even provide clues on improving care for ourselves.

The soil is a good example of a well-organised network of great scale and complexity that functions well as a widespread whole. Diverse microbial communities work together within the soil porosity to power soil life. These co-operate with a variety of other organisms that feed on each other to create the soil food web. This is a diverse and wondrous system for recycling plant and animal residues and for storing and regulating the release of carbon, water and nutrients from the land. The system works well when the soil is well cared for – usually achieved by maintaining organic matter levels, suitable pH and nutrient levels, and ensuring good soil structure.

All of this is a good metaphor for our own well-being, particularly our spiritual well-being which is increasingly being ignored in a society based on busyness and the acquisition of things – a focus on doing rather than on being. Spiritual terms include aliveness, awareness, integration, connection, networking, intuition, sacredness and holism. We are in danger of losing track of these, and fostering their recovery can increase our well-being and, indeed, the sustainability of the environment and of the food system.

My interpretation of spirituality is of improving awareness of self and of nature, including soil. This is usually developed through meditation where we attempt to find understanding and peace through positive thinking. Spirituality also includes a sense of interconnection and unity with the environment, and an awareness of purpose and meaning in life. Within science, the ideas of ‘soul’ or ‘spirit’ also imply human capacities that transcend mere logic, commonly referred to as the metaphysical. The concept of systems networking together so that the overall effect differs from the sum of the parts has been demonstrated using theories of complexity and selforganisation.

Satish Kumar, founder of the Schumacher College, considers that “soil relates and interconnects us all, loves us all unconditionally and feeds us all indiscriminately”. Sir Albert Howard, organic farming pioneer, was one of the first to realise that good interconnection between soil, plant, animal and human being was the key to health: if one part is unhealthy then it influences the rest. The link between soil and food is fairly obvious, but for many it is progressively more difficult to make, due to increasing urbanisation and processing of foods. Contemplation of soil activity also helps to develop creativity within science. Thus the use of networks of stakeholders, the public, advisors, and scientists from diverse disciplines, can lead to better focused research and development in agriculture.

“This is a good metaphor for our own well-being.”

Soil care requires that we dig into the soil to discover if anything is amiss, that we return the nutrients that we have removed, that we protect it with the roots and leaves of vegetation, and that we do not overuse it. If we substitute ‘being mindful’ for the digging, ‘good diet and exercise’ for the nutrients, and ‘loving relationships’ for the vegetation, then we can care for ourselves.

My vision of a soil-based world is one where we live simply with inward richness, like soils dark with organic matter. We develop intentional communities, like soils aligned and interconnected through pores. We promote ‘us’ rather than ‘me’, like soils deepening together. We grow love and respect from within, like fungi around roots helping increase the release of nutrients in lowfertility soil. We ease conflicts by developing humility, like soil humus. We improve life quality, like soil quality. We are aware that every action, no matter how small, affects the integrity of our environment and of our communities. Look for beauty in the soil and within yourself: from there springs sustainability and peace.

Bruce C Ball is the author of The Landscape Below: Soil, soul and agriculture.

10 SUMMER 2015

The value of soils Professor Iain Fraser, School of Economics, University of Kent; Dr David Robinson, Centre for Ecology & Hydrology, Bangor

Most people would assume that we know the value of soil.

But do we? Valuing soil is generally understood to be a function of use; the crops grown, the activities pursued.

But this is far too simplistic and is often why we manage soil resources incorrectly. All too often the management of soil is undertaken to maximise use value, which means that all we consider is the opportunity cost of management and the associated benefits. But, if the benefits are not realised in a market, so that the value associated with these uses is not taken into consideration, then it is highly unlikely that management will take all benefits into account, even when so many of them provide value in many different ways to society.

Why does this happen? Soils are an economic resource and commodity in their own right; in this context the value of soil resources is helpful if understood and captured to assist with resource management. Soil has direct value, for example as topsoil, peat, and other soil products sold in markets; it also has value as the ‘engine’ that powers food, feed and fibre production. In addition, it has considerable indirect value that benefits society, often not captured in markets. Though they cover but a thin veneer of the Earth’s surface, soils are at the heart of Earth system life support, through climate and water regulation, waste recycling, and offering a diverse gene pool from which we can extract biomedical resources such as antibiotics.

Economic Accounting, rendering soil resources and use more visible for decision making. This allows differentiation between the value of soil and the value of land, important because the value of soil is subsumed and lost through the location value of land.

Second, whilst the soil is simply viewed as the medium for growth, there needs to be a realisation that the ecosystem function value of soil, often more than production, declines with use and exhaustion, even though production may continue with depleted soils. But if we are to value the ecosystem function of soil, we need evidence of ‘soil change’ as well as greater scientific evidence of the impact of management interventions. Fundamentally, the objective of policy instruments such as Payments for Ecosystem Services (PES) is to attempt to restore the balance in what we want and value from our soils, offering monetary value to other soil services besides production.

“Soils are at the heart of Earth system life support.”

A simple example can be illuminating. Soil is the largest terrestrial store of carbon, with an estimated ten billion tonnes of carbon in UK soils, more than all the trees in the forests of Europe (excluding Russia), and greater than 50 times the UK’s current annual greenhouse gas emissions.

Keeping this carbon in the ground is a priority: potentially, well-managed healthy soils can sequester more carbon, helping with adaptation to climate change, and acting as a shock absorber against weather extremes.

Valuing soil comprehensively presents challenges. First, we need to bring the direct value of soil out in accounting frameworks, such as the UN System of Environmental-

Policy makers are trying to grapple with this complex trade-off of wants. At the farm level the importance of soil is recognised in CAP policy implementation (eg, the Soil Protection Review). At the macro level we have moves afoot to better manage ecosystems, as well as the recent establishment of the Natural Capital Committee advising government. Many would hail this growing recognition of Natural Capital, and soil as one facet of natural capital, as a new paradigm. But the value of soil as a component of natural capital has long been recognised.

Delving back into Parliamentary records, in a letter to the Canadian Legislative Council, William Badgley Esq of Montreal (27 January 1836) refers to “the climate, the soil, the natural advantages, or if I may be allowed the expression, the Natural Capital or wealth of the country”.

Clearly there are trade-offs in what we can use soil for and what it provides, but whilst our valuation of soil remains incomplete then what we realise from the soil will also be incomplete. This is unlikely to remain sustainable in the medium term, let alone the long run!

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Soil for politicians Willie Towers, Environmental and Biochemical Sciences, The James Hutton Institute; Dr Katrin Prager, Social, Economic and Geographical Sciences, The James Hutton Institute Unlike water and air, there are few policies that seek to protect or indeed recognise soils. However, many policies indirectly influence soil management, reflecting the crosscutting nature of soils across different policy areas, and their multifunctional nature. Soils are relevant to the agriculture and forestry industries, and to the planning, conservation, waste management, water quality, climate change and heritage sectors, to name but a few. Difficulties in formulating soil-specific policies were exemplified by the shelving of the European Soil Framework Directive after a number of member states could not agree to it.

In Scotland, the cross-cutting nature of soils was recognised in the compilation of the Scottish Soil Framework (SSF) in 2009.

A key objective was to enable more dialogue between different sectors, and ultimately a better cross-sectoral approach to soil policy, regulation and management. A key step preceding its publication was to review the state of Scotland’s soils and any evidence that its functionality was being adversely affected by a number of threats including climate change, erosion, sealing and mineral extraction, compaction, contamination, loss of organic matter and of biodiversity. This review provided the platform for two of the main planks of the SSF: a set of desired soil Outcomes, and a number of agreed Actions required to achieve them, both within an enabling rather than a restrictive ethos. The SSF helped raise awareness of soil in other policy areas of government, notably the role of peatlands as part of Scotland’s climate change mitigation strategy. Interestingly, the current policy interest in our peatlands is one of safeguarding the resource as part of our response to climate change; it is only a few decades ago that the policy was to exploit it as a fuel or for woodland expansion. Irrespective of policy priorities at any specific time, the data (and associated research) can be interpreted and utilised for a number of different objectives.

To enhance use of soil data and information as a basis for policy making, it is important that all actors involved are aware of and can make use of this data. Making soil data available to all interested parties was a key component of the SSF, and this has been done over the internet and through the development of apps on mobile devices. Increasingly, these data are hosted on a central, publicly-accessible internet platform (www. soils-scotland.gov.uk) in addition to data and digital maps being available free of charge to public bodies such as local authorities. Communication about available soil information needs to be ongoing, both in terms of what is required by users (eg, planning departments, contaminated land departments, farmers) as well as what is available and how to access it.

Much of Scotland (85%) is designated as Less Favoured Area (LFA), due to adverse climatic, soil and topographic conditions, and included socio-economic criteria such as depopulation, inadequate infrastructure, or the need for support for rural tourism, crafts and other supplementary activities. However, after concern from the European Court of Auditors in 2005 about the designation in some member states, the Commission has moved progressively towards a method of delineation of land with natural disadvantage using biophysical criteria only. The Scottish Government has been very proactive with the research community in this process.

“Soils are moving up the policy agenda.”

A microscopic view of soil.

Initially, we examined the relationship between the current LFA boundary and the James Hutton Institute’s Land Capability for Agriculture (LCA) classification. A good relationship was found, not unexpectedly as LCA “ranks land on the basis… to which its physical characteristics (soil, climate and relief) impose restrictions on its agricultural use”.

Despite LCA providing an option for refining the LFA boundary, the European Commission did not want country-specific solutions, and through the Joint Research Centre (JRC) in Ispra identified eight biophysical criteria to be applied objectively across the member states. The approach and criteria have similarities to the LCA method although some are not relevant to Scotland. The 1:250,000 national soil dataset proved invaluable in the extensive testing period of these criteria, allowing stony, sandy, wet and shallow soils to be identified, based on the thresholds developed at the JRC. Scotland’s soil data proved fit for purpose in this process; ironically, it was the temperature component of the criteria that proved troublesome due to the selection of inappropriate thresholds. Discussions are ongoing to address this and to delineate a realistic Area of Natural Constraint for Scotland.

Soils are moving up the policy agenda globally and the establishment of the Global Soil Partnership (www.fao.org/ globalsoilpartnership) is a key component of this. Scottish soil scientists are heavily involved in this initiative, notably in the Intergovernmental Technical Panel on Soils and in developing the European Soil Partnership objectives.

12 SUMMER 2015

Magical, mysterious, essential - and being destroyed Helen Browning OBE, Chief Executive, Soil Association

Soils are magical and mysterious, essential to all life on Earth, and yet we are damaging them at an alarming rate.

We know enough about soils to fill us with wonder, but also so little that they remain places of great mystery.

Soils are home to over a quarter of all known living species, and a teaspoon of soil can contain as many micro-organisms as there are people on the planet. Almost all our food comes from soil, and the world’s soil contains more carbon than all of the forests and other vegetation, and the atmosphere, combined.

According to a UK government report, our soils have been ‘degraded’ because of ‘intensive agricultural production’, and we are losing 2.2 million tonnes of topsoil each year, costing the economy £45 million annually – nearly £10 million of which is lost food production.

The United Nations says that around 40% of all agricultural soils in the world are seriously degraded, meaning droughts and floods have greater impact, and food production is at considerable risk. This destruction is all the more incomprehensible, given that we know that it takes more than one hundred years for one centimetre of topsoil to form.

A key element of a healthy soil is the amount of organic matter it contains. Soil organic matter sustains the incredible variety and quantity of living organisms in soils. Organic matter in healthy soils is what allows them to hold water like a sponge, releasing it slowly and helping to prevent or minimise flooding. The Helen Browning was same ability of organic matter in soils to a castaway on Desert hold water helps those soils withstand Island Discs in May droughts.

2015; her interview and Even more crucial to the survival of life her choices are available on Earth, organic matter in soils consists on the BBC website. largely of carbon. Soils are the greatest source of carbon on our planet. Soils can either release that carbon and accelerate catastrophic climate change, or take carbon from the air and store it safely in the ground. At the moment, soils are driving climate change as they lose organic matter, but that destructive process can and must be put into reverse quickly.

For years, scientists have known that there are simple steps farmers can take to increase soil organic matter, such as: introducing crop rotations that include temporary grassland; using crops like red clover, peas and beans to increase soil fertility naturally; growing green winter cover crops to protect

soil from erosion and to add to the plant material returned to the soil; and returning animal ‘waste’ to the soil as manure or compost. All of these practices are encouraged or required by organic farming standards and methods, and research has shown that as well as storing up to 450kg more carbon from the air per hectare than non-organic farms, organic farming systems have more soil organic matter.

In recognition of the severity of the crisis facing soils, the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations (FAO) declared 2015 the International Year of Soils, a year-long campaign on the importance of ‘healthy soils for a healthy life’. In support of this, the Soil Association, a UK-based membership charity that promotes sustainable organic farming methods, has launched a campaign (www. soilassociation.org/soils/oursoilscampaign) to increase soil organic matter levels by an average of 20% over the next 20 years. This will require policy makers to incentivise and promote better farming practice, and to prevent the worst too… such as the wide-scale move towards growing maize for large-scale anaerobic digesters, which can lead to considerable soil damage and loss.

Our soils are too precious to be ignored and, along with improving farm practice now, we need more research funding to be channelled into this neglected area. We need to take action now to manage our soils more respectfully and reverse their decline, and start the process of rebuilding that thin layer of living soil on our planet that all of us depend on ultimately for our survival.

Healthy soil, planted out. © Riverford Organic Farms Ltd

The state of soil after harvesting maize grown for large-scale anaerobic digesters. © Natural England / Jane Uglow

“There are simple steps farmers can take to increase soil organic matter.”

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How soils keep us healthy Dr Rupert Hough, Information and Computational Sciences, The James Hutton Institute

If you believe the old adage “you are what you eat”, then some part of every person is surely made from soil. This is because soil is a key ingredient in the human food chain: we grow our fruits, vegetables and cereals in the soil; we grow pasture and herbage in the soil and subsequently feed this to animals that supply us with meat and dairy products.

Substances in the soil are taken up by food and fodder crops, animals ingest soil as part of the grazing process, and these substances are passed up the food chain and incorporated into the human diet. Thus everything we eat links us directly or indirectly to the soil.

The soil contains many essential trace elements such as zinc (required for the body’s immune system, cell division, wound healing, etc), iron (amongst others required for the production of red blood cells and hence transportation of oxygen around the body), selenium (a constituent of various proteins, ‘selenoproteins’, that play critical roles in reproduction, thyroid hormone metabolism, DNA synthesis, and protection from oxidative damage and infection), and copper (essential for the normal function of the brain and nervous system, and vital for growth and cell repair). All these elements are essential for correct functioning of the human body, and where food is sourced from soils that effectively supply these trace elements to the food chain, human dietary intake of these elements is sufficient so that supplementation is not required.

This all sounds elegantly simple, but sadly in reality the story is much more complex. Some soils are naturally deficient in these essential trace elements.

For example, zinc-deficient soils are widespread in West Africa, the Middle East, India, south and east China, and parts of Australia and the Americas. In parts of the world where soils are deficient in these nutrients, soils may be fortified to encourage higher concentrations of trace elements in crops. Even where soils have relatively high concentrations of essential trace elements, they may not be chemically available for uptake by crop plants. Soil physical and chemical characteristics such as pH and organic matter content and composition, or whether the soil is waterlogged or not (or flooded in the case of rice production), have significant influence on uptake rates of these elements. Conditions that may promote uptake of zinc and copper may restrict uptake of iron. Different cultivars of the same crop type can have vastly different abilities to take up certain trace elements; for example, cabbage butterhead varieties of lettuce take up almost six times as much zinc from the same soil compared to summer cos varieties.

Finally, the use of the harvested material can have a significant impact on final intakes of trace elements.

Rice, for example, is a very poor source of iron and zinc. There is poor translocation of these elements from the soil to the rice grain, and what does reach the grain tends to be stored in the brown bran layer.

There is then a tendency to polish this outer coating off, reducing levels of zinc and iron dramatically.

Thus use and consumption of brown rice is far better nutritionally compared to the more popular white rice.

In western countries with low intakes of fruits and vegetables and high intakes of ‘junk food’, research has

been conducted into the potential to increase trace element concentrations of potatoes in order to improve the nutritional quality of chips.

Nutrition is only half of the story. Substances harmful to health, if present in the soil, will also enter the food chain.

Contamination of soil with potentially toxic substances such as hydrocarbons and heavy metals, as well as pathogens that cause disease, is a worldwide issue. These undesirable substances and organisms have potential to enter the food chain in a similar way to the essential nutrients, with similar processes governing rates of uptake and eventual levels of dietary exposure. Diets low in essential nutrients can leave people more vulnerable to toxic elements. For example, diets low in iron and zinc (such as those dominated by rice or by ‘junk food’) have been shown to cause increased absorption of cadmium across the gut wall.

Where possible, agricultural soils should be managed to minimise contamination by potentially toxic substances and maximise essential trace elements. Crops and cultivars should be selected to suit soil conditions so that essential nutrients are efficiently taken up by crops or undesirable substances remain in the soil. Keeping soils healthy keeps people healthy; what ends up in the soil may also end up on your plate!

“Everything we eat links us directly or indirectly to the soil.”

14 SUMMER 2015

Kerala, Southern India David Baxendale

The Indian state of Kerala on the south-west Malabar coast of India is referred to as “God’s Own Country” by the local people, and it’s easy to see why. Its humid, equatorial tropical climate means that it is an area rich in wildlife and plants, and inland waterways that provide a stunningly beautiful feature along the coast.

The Backwaters of Kerala are an interconnected network of brackish canals, lakes and estuaries that are quite breathtaking, and have been named by National Geographic as one of the 25 most beautiful places on Earth. You can sail through them on old rice boats that have been converted into houseboats, and it’s an unforgettable experience in the area close to Alappuzha.

The ancient Chinese fishing nets of Fort Kochi are said to be 700 years old. Measuring some 20m across, they are the only ones outside China. They are used daily to catch fish, and it’s an incredible experience to stroll behind them in the evening and watch the local fishermen sell their catch from tables erected behind each net.

All images © David Baxendale, www.davidbaxendale.com

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“…one of the 25 most beautiful places on Earth.”

An evening stroll through the back streets and markets of Fort Kochi is an amazing experience, with the noise, smells and sounds of so many people cooking food, going to temples and selling produce. You may even see an elephant such as this one, walking through the streets before returning to its home behind someone’s house to be fed, watered and cared for. Like cows, elephants are sacred to Hindus and form part of the worship to Lord Ganesha, the Elephant God.

Most Hindus respect the cow for her gentle nature; the animal is sacred in their faith and a gift of a cow is applauded as the highest form. Walking the back streets of Mattancherry in Kerala, you can see cows and calves walking freely through the streets as they please, like this one introducing herself to a tuk-tuk driver.

16 SUMMER 2015

Digital monitoring and mapping Dr Matt Aitkenhead, Information and Computational Sciences, The James Hutton Institute

Why do we need to monitor soils? For people whose livelihoods depend on the soil, knowing its character in one place or another will make a huge difference in how the soil is treated, or what can be expected of it. And in many parts of the world, we had very little idea until recently about what the soils were like. Did they contain a lot of carbon? What use were they for growing local crop types? Were they likely to suffer from erosion? We just didn’t know, and so soil surveyors had to go and find out.

Historically, direct observation with the senses was the only way to get information on soil. It might sound surprising – and a little disgusting – but professional soil surveyors will often use all five senses to describe soil ‘in the field’. Sight is obvious, but what about touch, or hearing? And how do taste and smell come into it? Rather than give you the answers, we suggest that you do something even better – go outside, find some soil, and work it out for yourself!

Soil mapping has been closely linked to the technology that is available. Until about 20 years ago, this meant hand-drawn paper maps that were useful but bulky and fragile. Also, any new information meant that the map had to be re-drawn from scratch. Nowadays, soil mapping has been revolutionised by the use of GPS (for precise location of features) and GIS (for producing digital maps that can be altered more easily and transmitted electronically).

However, we still have to get the data before it can go into the map. One of the oldest approaches, and still in many ways the best, is laboratory-based ‘wet chemistry’ analysis.

Samples are brought back from field sites and their chemical composition is determined using a number of different approaches.

More recently, we have come to use spectroscopy.

This involves looking at the light reflected or absorbed by the sample at lots of different wavelengths, and using this information to determine sample characteristics. Many wavelength ranges can be used, from the ultraviolet through the visible and all the way into the infrared. The methods

involved vary, but one thing is always important: different soils interact differently with certain wavelengths of light, and once we know this information we can use it. This also allows us to look at stored samples obtained years ago and extract new information from them.

It is also possible to take photographs of the soil with a standard digital camera to work out some fairly basic information, such as how much organic matter it contains or whether it is coarse or fine-textured.

This has the potential to allow rapid assessment of soil condition in the field using nothing more sophisticated than a mobile phone.

“The future of soil monitoring and mapping is going to involve a lot of data.”

Another way of looking at the soil is from above, using remote sensing (satellites, planes and in recent years UAVs). While most remote sensing can only see the first topmost material (usually the vegetation), some sensors operate in wavelengths that allow them to detect moisture or carbon in the soil. Remote sensing can also be used to detect patterns in the landscape, which often relate to the distribution of soil characteristics.

As our understanding of how soils are formed and how their character is influenced by the environment increases, we become better at mapping the soil without even looking at it.

Using existing soil data from survey work and knowledge of how soils form, we have become able to produce high-resolution digital maps of soil character that can be useful for a wide range of topics, from agriculture to engineering.

An important part of modern soil monitoring and mapping is the integration of data from these multiple sources, none of which alone is a silver bullet. Only by bringing the results of each together do we build up a whole picture. The future of soil monitoring and mapping is going to involve a lot of data, and we need to find new ways to handle and use it.

However, while we can use existing data and stored soil samples in new and clever ways to monitor and maps soils, we will never remove the need to go out and have a look at the soil and bring back new samples.

Soils change and our theoretical knowledge is never perfect, so from time to time you will still see soil surveyors out in the field, happily digging away. Looking, touching and listening. And yes, smelling and tasting!

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Dirt, Death and DNA Professor Lorna Dawson, Head of Forensic Soil Science, The James Hutton Institute

In addition to being a key resource for food security and human sustainability, soils contain many physical, chemical and biological characteristics, along with tiny secrets, such as diatoms, pollen grains, trace plant debris, etc, all potentially of great use to the investigative process. Such information can help in the intelligence stage of an investigation, such as the search for a missing person, and also can provide trace evidence and ultimately be presented as evidence in court.

Soil is not just dirt.

The main types of questions I get asked are “where could that soil have come from?” or “can that soil be evidentially linked to that crime scene?”. No two cases are ever the same, with case context of vital importance, as is the interdisciplinary nature of the science.

Soil is a complex and heterogeneous material involving customary contact with persons, vehicles, tools and objects. That complexity can make it an important form of contact trace evidence in crime investigation. Field survey, geographic information systems, and an understanding of the landscape and the relationships between soil, hydrology, vegetation and geology, are central to developing search strategies in the field. We can subsequently adopt a wide range of analytical approaches to collected soils. Soil is unlikely to be the only form of evidence used in an investigation, but it can be very powerful when brought together with other pieces of information.

location and recovery of bodies.

No two forensic cases are ever the same. When I am contacted by the investigating authorities, I consider each individual case context and individual questions asked, and then decide upon the most appropriate approach to take.

Visiting the site can be very revealing, offering up potential solutions as to where to take the most appropriate control samples. The first laboratory stage in any case is to carefully examine the reference soil, and soil or traces of vegetation on any questioned items such as footwear, vehicles or objects associated with a potential crime scene. The microscope is one of the most important tools, often revealing secrets that can link that questioned item back to having been in contact with a specific locus.

In Roman times, soil on the hooves of enemy horses was examined to ascertain which area they had come from. Metal theft, murder, rape, burglary and assault are the main types of crime where soil is used as evidence in current times. Soil has been used as part of many recent high-profile court cases, such as in the double murder of Jessica Chapman and Holly Wells in Soham, the search and recovery of Pamela Jackson from Durham, and the double murder of Helen Scott and Christine Eadie from the World’s End, Edinburgh.

“‘Can that soil be evidentially linked to that crime scene?’”

Soil mineralogy, organic characterisation, botany, diatom, fungal and nematode identification, plant and seed DNA analysis, and bacterial DNA profile characterisation are some of the main characteristics that are used in case work. A wide range of state-of-the-art methods are at our fingertips: X-ray diffraction, infrared spectral analysis, gas chromatography, Scanning Electron Microscopy, and light and heavy isotope analysis, all of which have been used to great effect in many cases. Geographic information systems have been developed at the James Hutton Institute to allow the mapping of exclusion of areas in search, enabling police to fine-tune areas on the ground for missing persons or objects. Soil can provide information on markers of death.

In addition, physical features within a soil sample, such as hairs, fibres, flakes of paint, plastic shards and even flakes of skin have been characterised and have contributed to the determination of the evidential value of a soil sample. Vehicles, footwear, clothing, spades and tools, as well as trace amounts of material (eg, found under a fingernail) can be examined and analysed in the Institute laboratories, potentially turning round a sample analysis and interpretation in less than 24 hours.

Soil also contains a range of clues, such as volatile organic compounds, cholesterol and DNA that can help suggest the presence of human material, which assist police in the

This soil information can now be made available to the investigator relatively easily. The development and implementation of novel and evolving technologies, such as genetic information, through microbial DNA will enable the more routine use of soil in investigations, whether in a civil or criminal legal context, and thus bridge a security gap, benefiting civil UK, European and global security.

DNA from ‘dirt’, along with soil mineral and organic characteristics, can provide vital clues about how death might have occurred or crimes been committed, ultimately helping to complete the investigative jigsaw of crime investigation.

18 SUMMER 2015

Revegetation and Landcare in Iceland Dr Andrés Arnalds, Assistant Director, Soil Conservation Service of Iceland

A visitor to Iceland is met with unusual variability in landscapes and land condition. The visitor will soon discover that lack of trees and extensive barren areas are some of the most striking features. The nakedness of the land may seem a natural condition in a volcanic country with a chilling name. But the reality is different. Most of the deserts and areas with little soil were once covered with lush vegetation.

Since settlement of Iceland about 870AD, more than half of the original vegetation and soils, and c95% of the birch woodlands, may have been lost. Serious soil erosion characterizes 40% of Iceland today.

The degraded state of the ecosystems and continued destruction of soil and vegetation are the greatest environmental problems in Iceland.

consequence that the government is still paying at both ends: for food production and for repair of land damage. A revision of the support regime is essential.

Second, there is a need to foster community engagement in caring for the land, as restoration of degraded land and the quest for sustainability are unattainable without a commitment to good management by the agricultural community. Further steps need to be taken to involve communities and land users, with inspiration from globally evolving movements like Landcare and Land Stewardship. Both are important tools in improving the livelihood of rural communities, increasing land literacy, aiding in more holistic planning at landscape levels, and reaching goals of biodiversity conservation and restoration.

Third is the growing awareness of the impacts of tourism, which has become the most important industry in Iceland.

But the means for preventing damage to sensitive nature is lagging far behind, so that tourism is fast becoming one of the biggest environmental issues. The Gunnarsholt, south Iceland, 1944. stark beauty of Iceland is partly related to low-growing plant species and open landscapes. For tourism, this means that in addition to trampling damage and building infrastructure with insufficient regard for site sensitivity, new issues More recently, SCSI has increasingly are emerging such as protecting scenic provided guidance and leadership to all landscapes and preventing loss of who can improve the care of the land. view by non-native trees. Uncontrolled Over 30% of the sheep producers in development of vehicle tracks, outside Iceland, along with many other farmers the planning system, is also resulting and charitable organisations, are now in massive soil and landscape damage, actively participating in soil conservation Gunnarsholt, south Iceland, 2004. along with putting Iceland’s extensive work under the themes Farmers Heal the wilderness areas under threat.

Land and, for larger projects, the Land Improvement Fund.

The severity of land degradation prompted the establishment of one of the world’s oldest Soil Conservation Services (SCSI). There have been numerous success stories in more than 100 years of national effort on halting soil erosion and restoring land quality.

However, in retrospect, the early work was very top-down in approach, and various cultural barriers reduced local acceptance of the need to change land use practices and inhibited the rate of progress.

Grazing, mainly by sheep and horses, is the main determinant of land health in Iceland. In areas of sensitive soils and vegetation, overgrazing can have a dramatic effect, causing large-scale erosion and slowing down recovery of damaged areas. Strategies for more sustainable land use are being developed, following the path marked by other nations, based on an ethic of land stewardship.

Policies for conservation and restoration of the land resources of Iceland have been gradually evolving from single-issue localized conservation to more holistic approaches meeting a broader spectrum of environmental and societal needs.

Four new elements embrace the current approaches.

First is the linking between agricultural support and land stewardship. Icelandic agriculture is characterized by high levels of governmental support, direct and indirect import barriers, and a growing realization of the need to maintain prosperous agriculture for food security. However, debates over the role of governmental support in causing land degradation have had major impacts on public goodwill towards agriculture. But still, only a third of the support to sheep farmers is linked to goals of land stewardship, with the Gullfoss, Iceland. © Mike Robinson

And fourth is the vitally important role of land restoration in combating climate change. Soil conservation and restoration activities preserve and convert CO2 to organic matter, which in turn is the foundation of land fertility and food production.

As a result of the massive land degradation, vast amounts of carbon have been lost from Icelandic ecosystems, several hundred times more than current release of greenhouse gases to the atmosphere. The government, hopefully, will increasingly use the conversion of CO2 to organic matter as one of the tools in meeting national emissions targets, and therefore boost incentives to ecological restoration.

“Serious soil erosion characterizes 40% of Iceland today.”

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Developing a global legal regime Professor Ben Boer, Research Institute of Environmental Law, Wuhan University, China, and Emeritus Professor, University of Sydney, Australia; Professor Ian Hannam, Australian Centre for Agriculture and Law, University of New England, Australia To avoid the catastrophic effects of serious and widespread land degradation, international and national legal frameworks for the protection of land and soil must be prepared, based on a clear understanding of the technological, sociological, economic and ecological issues that affect soil. National and international environmental law regimes to promote the sustainable use of soils must be seen as an integral part of the overall framework of environmental law and policy. For a number of years now, the World Commission on Environmental Law (WCEL) of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has been exploring the elements that should form the basis of a global instrument for the sustainable use of soils.

ecosystem services. This would involve the negotiation and setting of achievable and verifiable targets for ZNLD, and the development of policies, measures, guidelines and mechanisms for the implementation of ZNLD at national and regional levels.

Since Rio+20, the legal aspects of these new approaches have been widely discussed, including in the Global Soil Week conferences (2014, 2015), the UNCCD Science Conference, and the UNCCD COP11 in Windhoek, Namibia in 2013.

In this International Year of Soils, discussion about the maintenance of soils as a sustainable natural and human resource for the future and the achievement of ZNLD has gained a higher profile. The revised World Soil Charter of 2014 now refers to soils in the context of food security, biodiversity conservation, and mitigation of and adaptation to climate change. There are many provisions in existing global and regional legal instruments that can be drawn on to frame a specialised instrument for soil. What is needed is the political will to draft an international Convention for soil that places it on the same level of significance for human welfare and environmental resilience as biodiversity and climate change. And, it will need to promote the preparation of law and policy at a national level to ensure that the sustainable use of soils and the achievement of zero net land degradation can be achieved across the globe.

“…the basis of a global instrument for the sustainable use of soils.”

At an international level, land and soil have been the poor cousins in the context of the development of international environmental law, particularly compared with the attention that has been given to the conservation of biological diversity through the Convention on Biological Diversity, the effects of climate change through the Framework Convention on Climate Change, as well as trans-boundary air pollution and marine pollution. One indication of this inferior status in the international arena is the fact that in the preambles to the two key Conventions, climate change and biodiversity are regarded as matters of “common concern of humankind”, whereas in the 1994 Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), no such concept is included in relation to soil and land degradation.

The role and functions of soil at international and national levels need to be understood from many perspectives: human rights, poverty, health, globalisation, conflict and governance.

Many of these matters have become part of the debate in the formulation of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) which, as a result of the Rio+20 Conference in 2012, are set to replace the Millennium Development Goals. The resulting Rio Outcome Document expressed a commitment to strive towards a ‘land-degradation neutral world’, meaning that land would be managed more sustainably and so reduce the rate of degradation, and that the rate of restoration would be increased, so that the two trends would reach this neutral outcome. Some current proposals for the SDGs specifically mention the need to combat desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation. For environmental lawyers, the challenge is to ensure that these proposed SDGs acquire legal teeth.

In order to promote the concept of Land Degradation Neutrality, the UNCCD Secretariat had proposed that a “protocol on Zero Net Land Degradation” (ZNLD) be added to the Desertification Convention. This could act as a practical way of implementing the SDGs for a land-degradation neutral world, and encourage countries to promote this goal through national legislation to facilitate payments for

© Mike Robinson

Professor Boer is Deputy Chair of the IUCN World Commission on Environmental Law (WCEL); Professor Hannam is Chair of the WCEL Sustainable Soils and Desertification Specialist Group.

20 SUMMER 2015

A ‘perfect storm’ in Scottish education Mike Robinson, RSGS Chief Executive

We have been working closely with the Scottish Association of Geography Teachers (SAGT) and others over recent months after fielding more and more concerns about the status of Geography in schools and the reduction of subject choices for secondary pupils. As a result, SAGT and RSGS carried out a survey of secondary school teachers over April and May, to get a fuller sense of the picture across Scotland. We received 314 responses, covering 31 of the 32 local authority areas. With only 376 secondary schools in Scotland, this represents a significant sample size. Having analysed the findings and distilled the various comments, we now feel we have a thorough sense of how teachers are feeling. The findings are not reassuring.

“Geography is a great way for pupils to keep their options open.”

The most striking finding is that the narrowness of subject choices in Scottish schools is threatening not just Geography but, we believe, the Scottish principle of broad education as a whole. As a consequence of restricted subject choice, children are now effectively being asked to pick their Higher subjects midway through S3 (aged 14-15). With Higher subjects shaping university and career choices, this is a young age to be constraining academic focus. RSGS is calling on parents to recognise these concerns and demand more subject choices from their schools.

In total, 58% of respondents to our survey said that their pupils are only studying five or six subjects at National 4/5.

In most cases, two of those subjects (Maths and English) are compulsory, so the majority of pupils are left with only three or four other subjects to choose from. Geography, itself a broad subject, was the seventh most popular subject at the now defunct Standard grade, and is suffering as a result of this greatly narrowed choice for pupils.

As a result of these findings, we are deeply concerned for the future of Geography in Scottish schools and are sure other subjects must share a similar concern.

As such a broad subject, Geography is a great way for pupils to keep their options open because it spans science and social studies whilst also addressing literacy and numeracy. Yet Geography, one of the most relevant subjects for modern societies, appears to be being throttled by an education system which is narrowing focus and restricting choice.

Geography teachers reported major reductions in class sizes, with 87% reporting a large drop in takeup of the subject. These declines mostly varied from 25% to 75%; however, in several cases, teachers reported 100% fall-off, so that Geography has ceased being taught above S3 altogether.

The cause of this drop in subject choices seems to be a reaction to undue pressure being placed on teachers by simultaneous shake-ups to the system and budget cuts. One teacher told us “the pressure pupils and staff are under for many months of the year is basically making people unwell!”.

Regarding the significant drop in subject choice, everyone accepts that a new curriculum will inevitably bring extra work and uncertainty, but it has not been well resourced. In the first year of Curriculum for Excellence, many schools still offered eight or nine subjects, but this has been scaled down dramatically. This extra workload and disruption was exacerbated by a lack of support, but now there is an added pressure of budget and staff reductions. Change has to be invested in, but many schools are currently facing 10% year-on-year cuts. As one teacher put it, “it is disgraceful that choice is limited to save money”.

Furthermore, budget cuts have led to specialist subjects, such as Geography, being taught by non-specialists who cannot deliver the same standard of teaching or the same passion for the subject. RSGS believes that this is a second-rate way to teach any subject, not just Geography, and that it is cheating pupils out of a fulfilling learning experience.

As an academic and learned society, we have a responsibility to stand up for education in Scotland, and consequently our children’s futures. I would encourage parents to demand that their children be allowed to study at least eight subjects at National 4/5. The current system is in danger of both letting young people down and undermining some of our most vital subjects. The system will also allow for less and less choice as specialist teachers are no longer affordable.

Choice and personalisation for pupils have been reduced, whilst stress and workload for teachers have been increased, and funding for schools has been cut dramatically at a time when there needs to be investment. All of this has created a ‘perfect storm’ in Scottish education and a crisis for Scottish Geography.

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Soil science education in the UK tertiary sector Professor David W Hopkins, Royal Agricultural University

Currently there are no undergraduate degree programmes in the UK called simply ‘Soil Science’ and only one (at Aberdeen) with the word ‘soil’ in the title. There are those in the higher education and research communities who bemoan the apparent passing of soil science as a mainstream discipline; but, has soil science really passed away? Arguably, it is in a stronger real position than the degree title listings would indicate, with pull and push factors changing the way it is represented.

First, soil science has been pulled into a wider range of degree programmes, as the requirement for and value of soil science has become appreciated across a range of subjects. Over the past two or three decades, soil science has evolved from being a subject just within agriculture to being a theme also within the Earth and environmental sciences, civil engineering, and ecology. This change has been accompanied by a strong and welcome trend, from soil science being delivered via conventional topics such as pedology, soil chemistry, and soil physics, to soil science as part of wider global environmental systems in which knowledge of soil is essential for understanding ecology and environmental change, management of water resources, major biogeochemical processes, and of course for addressing the challenges of sustainable agriculture.

Experience shows that using issues and applications, such as climate change and food security, is the only way to cover the science so that the underlying rigour is not compromised.

Second, discrete degree titles can be pushed out of UK universities because of the apparent lack of demand, where demand is largely the degree selections of university applicants. At a time when an increasing number of students, or their supporters, are incurring significant debt in order to pay university fees, there is an understandable tendency to apply for programmes from which good perceived career prospects will follow. This leads to expansion of vocational degree programmes and a tendency away from programmes considered to be rather specialised. Alongside this, there is a not unreasonable view that, if some employers want employees with a good degree and the subject is not too important, why not select a degree subject with a better chance of getting a decent grade? This often leads to selection of subjects that applicants have studied at school, or ones perceived as attractive or easy. Fortunately, the importance of soil science is recognised in many universities, which have encouraged it to find a home within a broader discipline which is a better ‘recruiting’ area. Soil science combines scientific rigour, analytical and interpretative skills, laboratory and field work, and application to real world problems. When combined with transferable and work-related skills, it offers an important set of skills and competencies that employers are seeking.

At postgraduate level, taught programmes in most universities are diverse, usually multidisciplinary, and increasingly weak recruiters from within the UK – almost certainly linked to the withdrawal or limiting of many

advanced course bursaries. UK universities have traditionally recruited international students in large numbers to taught postgraduate programmes, particularly where there are obvious applied and vocational dimensions. This usually means that soil science plays a key role in broader postgraduate programmes, such as sustainable agriculture.

This is a good position for soil science because it means, as with undergraduate programmes, that soil science articulates with other disciplines and is operating in a multidisciplinary environment. The biggest challenge for masters programmes in the UK is the current government policy over student visas and post-study visas. The UK is not regarded as a welcoming place for many international students, despite education being a significant export and international students contributing to the economy locally and nationally.

“The importance of soil science is recognised in many universities.”

One can easily argue that soil science now finds its way into a far wider range of scientific debates, such as climate change, food security, human health, land reclamation, conservation and ecology, than it did when it existed as an apparently discrete subject usually allied to agriculture and therefore related only to food security (although we did not call it food security in those days). Soil science has proved and is increasingly proving itself an essential and flexible discipline. It has gone from being most closely linked (almost to the exclusion of all else) to agriculture, to being a more gregarious subject with allegiances in many sectors. In the first half of the 20th century, agriculturalist Sir George Stapledon wrote “The soil must be man’s [woman’s] most treasured possession; so he [or she] who tends the soil wisely and with care is assuredly the foremost among men [or women]”. This is as true now in 2015, the UN International Year of Soils, as it was when it was written, but we now recognize the value of soils in many other dimensions than only agriculture.

22 SUMMER 2015

Plant roots for engineering soil properties Dr A G Bengough, Ecological Sciences, The James Hutton Institute, and Division of Civil Engineering, University of Dundee

Landslides are a very widespread natural hazard, ranging from small shallow-seated slides of relatively small volumes of soil to the dramatic collapse of whole hill or mountainsides. They result from the natural attrition of gravity winning the battle with the frictional and cohesive bonds between soil particles perched on slopes. Intense prolonged rainfall events frequently trigger failures by lubricating the interface between soil particles, decreasing the suction (effective) stresses that help to hold a slope together. In many natural systems, vegetation plays a key role in two particular respects. Firstly in binding the soil together mechanically with its roots, with the tensile strength of the root system mechanically strengthening the soil. Secondly in changing the water regime in the soil, with evapotranspiration and canopy interception increasing the suction in the soil, and hence effective stresses, friction, and cohesion between soil particles.

“The outlook for landslide frequency is uncertain.”

Landslides can be particularly dangerous and damaging if they occur adjacent to transport corridors or human habitation. The UK railway system experienced 271 shallow slope failures on Network Rail’s 9,300km of embankments and cuttings in the period 2012-14. In June 2012, heavy rain resulted in landslides that caused the simultaneous closure of both the East and West Coast Mainline routes, cutting rail links between England and Scotland. On the roads network there have been repeated localised problems, most notably on the A83 ‘Rest and Be Thankful’ route in Argyll.

This short stretch of road was closed for the fourth time in six months in March 2014, with a total of 11 road closures during the period 2011-14. Although this trunk route has a much smaller traffic volume than many others, its closure had major implications for local communities because it necessitated a diversion of up to 50 miles.

The outlook for landslide frequency is uncertain, with increasing probability of intense rainfall events in Europe being predicted in the IPCC 2013 report. More prolonged intense rainfall events are likely to result in more slope movements and greater disruption to transport infrastructure, as noted by the Department of Transport and the UK Rail Safety and Standards Board. There are many ways of mitigating against landslide risk, with widely varying

cost implications and likelihood of being effective. No single solution is suited to all situations. Conventional hard-engineering solutions such as soil nailing offer guaranteed stability at considerable expense per metre of slope stabilised, whereas improvements to drainage and appropriate selection and management of vegetation offer a cheaper but less certain alternative to stabilising slopes in less critical locations.

The use of soft or ecological engineering approaches is becoming of increasing importance in relation to many challenges facing society in relation to flood prevention, coastal erosion, and slope stabilisation. Appropriate use of vegetation to manipulate the soil is key to many aspects of the systems studied, and fundamental to this is the role of plant roots systems and their physical interactions with the soil around them. The use of plants to engineer the soil environment may be more cost-effective than conventional engineering alternatives, more aesthetically appealing, and provide a much better and more diverse habitat for humans and wildlife alike. At present there is still much uncertainty as to the best species to employ in particular situations, and our ability to make quantitative predictions of plant performance for a range of applications is still in its infancy as compared with our ability to predict the behaviour of concrete and steel.

The challenge of appropriate vegetation management alongside our railway corridors has been particularly newsworthy with respect to the issue of leaves on the line, where this sometimes results in speed restrictions and delays to commuter trains. Choice of appropriate species management here is again crucial, as large trees overhanging railway lines may obscure visibility, shed many leaves in autumn, and add to the total loading of a slope. The relative importance of mechanical and soil-drying reinforcement of slopes by roots differs between species, and we must improve our ability to predict the multiple effects of vegetation on both soil mechanical and hydrological behaviour, so that engineering contractors can be confident in the effects of vegetation on the factor of safety of a slope. Given the enormous potential cost, ecological, aesthetic and carbonsaving benefits of ecological engineering approaches, this is a key area for future research.

Roots bind soil together as a natural biological slope reinforcement. © A G Bengough

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Biofortification: soils, fertilisers and nutritious food Professor Philip J White, Ecological Sciences, The James Hutton Institute

When a person thinks about hunger, they often think only about starvation. They think about a lack of calories. But, humans require more than calories. They also require a number of essential nutrients, which their bodies cannot make in quantities sufficient for their physiological wellbeing. These essential nutrients include two polyunsaturated fatty acids, nine amino acids, 13 vitamins and 22 mineral elements. Insufficient intakes of any of these can lead to a ‘hidden hunger’, which has no immediate visible symptoms yet can result in abnormal development, mental impairment, poor health, and even death. This hidden hunger affects billions of people, of all ages, in both the developing and the developed world.

of the plant and the nutritional quality of edible produce. For example, the availability of zinc and iron to plants becomes vanishingly small in alkaline soils, which afflict over a quarter of the world’s agricultural land. This limits the uptake of zinc and iron by plants and their concentrations in plant tissues. It is not surprising, therefore, that mineral malnutrition in the human diet is often associated with crop production on soils with low availability of essential mineral elements. Since these are also essential for plants, it also restricts plant growth, impairs development and limits crop yields.

The Copenhagen Consensus is published every four years and seeks to establish the priorities for advancing global

Biofortification of edible crops is just one of a number of strategies that can be employed to increase the delivery of essential mineral elements to populations susceptible to mineral deficiencies. Traditional strategies include food fortification, supplementation and dietary diversification. The biofortification strategy seeks to increase the concentrations of essential mineral elements in edible crops using advanced agronomic techniques, such as the use of specialist fertilisers containing essential mineral elements, and cultivating crop varieties that are more able to acquire essential mineral elements from the soil and accumulate them in edible portions. This strategy often has the added benefit of increasing crop yields.

A rice paddy field near a highland village near Bario, Borneo. © Mike Robinson

welfare based on cost-benefit analyses. It is led by a panel of Nobel Laureate economists. The last two panels concluded that interventions increasing the intakes of essential nutrients, such as the fortification of food or the provision of supplements, were the most cost-effective investment that could be made to improve human welfare. They suggested that increasing dietary intakes of essential vitamins and minerals, such as vitamin A, zinc, iron and iodine, was the immediate target.

Mineral malnutrition is widespread. It is estimated that the diets of over two-thirds of all humans might lack at least one essential mineral element. Mineral elements commonly lacking in human diets include iron, zinc, calcium, magnesium, iodine and selenium. Inadequate intakes of essential minerals can lead to serious diseases, such as anaemia (iron deficiency), rickets (vitamin D or calcium deficiency) and goitre (iodine or selenium deficiency). The main dietary sources of essential mineral elements are edible crops.

Plants generally obtain mineral elements from the soil solution through the activity of their roots. The properties of the soil in which crops are grown affect the ability of roots to acquire mineral elements and, therefore, the mineral nutrition

“This hidden hunger affects billions of people.”

The first successes of mineral biofortification came through the development of specialist fertilisers.

The inclusion of selenium into mineral fertilisers improved the selenium status of the Finnish population, whose diets had previously been lacking in this element; the incorporation of zinc into mineral fertilisers used in cereal production improved crop yields and raised the zinc status of people living in Anatolia; and the iodinisation of irrigation water successfully increased the delivery of iodine to rural Chinese populations. These agronomic practices are now being combined with new crop varieties bred for greater potential for biofortification. In particular, the international HarvestPlus Programme has developed a number of varieties of crops, such as rice, wheat, maize, pearl millet and beans, that can accumulate greater concentrations of zinc and iron in their edible portions. It is hoped that, one day, such strategies will eliminate the hidden hunger of mineral malnutrition in humans.

24 SUMMER 2015

The Travels of Isabella Bird FRSGS Deborah Ireland

Isabella Bird is one of many inspiring people connected to the history of the Royal Scottish Geographical Society.

Awarded an Honorary Fellowship in 1891, Isabella wrote to her publisher, John Murray, regarding the rare distinction conferred on her by the RSGS: “The Council of the Society conferred on me the distinction of its honorary fellowship and the further honour of asking me to open the coming session… I feel somewhat bound to show my gratitude for the innovation they have made in recognizing a woman’s work.”

The Times, in its edition of 14 November 1891, records an account of the lecture she gave that evening on The Upper Karun region and Bakhtinri Lurs. The review describes how she illustrated her talk with a series of views shown by the limelight – lime was used, in pellet form, to illuminate the magic lantern, by burning it with oxygen and hydrogen.

As a speaker, she was an accomplished orator, was aware of the impact good illustrations could make on an audience, and was experienced at using lantern slides with her talks. The production of illustrative lantern slides may have been one of the reasons why in 1892, at the age of 61, she began to study photography. If she could master the art and science of photography, it would provide her with illustrative reference material for her future books and lectures.

The person who gave Isabella her first lessons in photography was the Scottish photographer, John Thomson. By 1892 Thomson had a photographic studio in London and was the Instructor of Photography at the Royal Geographical Society.

New developments enabled photography to be used in survey work; it also gave explorers and travellers a way of recording their route and registering their observations accurately.

What is very clear is that once Isabella started to learn, she loved everything about the process of photography. It became an “intense pleasure”, a “complete craze”. She loved the

“Over the next three years she came to make three very different journeys in China.”

science of the process, particularly darkroom work. So when she departed to the Far East in 1894, she went equipped with two cameras.

Her initial plan was to write a book on Korea, using Japan as a base. But over the next three years she came to make three very different journeys in China – arriving by accident in 1894, touring the treaty ports in 1895, and exploring the Yangtze and beyond in 1896.

When she returned in 1897 (with extensive photographic records of her travels) she was asked again to talk to the RSGS. She wrote an account of this to Sir John Scott Keltie, Secretary of the Royal Geographical Society: “I lately opened the session of the Royal Scottish Geographical Society with an audience of 2,000 friendly and cordial, and afterwards went on to Glasgow, Dundee and Aberdeen… I never addressed so sympathetic and enthusiastic an audience. It was altogether a very pleasant journey.” She did however add, “I think the RSGS ought not to expect me to re-deliver a lecture three times!”.

The lecture she gave would certainly have included images reproduced in our book, and we have included a small selection of slides which would have been used in the RSGS lectures.

Our book tells the story of just three years of this remarkable woman’s life. We have used her photographs and, where possible, her words to tell the story of her time in China as never previously told.

Deborah Ireland is the author of Isabella Bird: A Photographic Journal of Travels Through China 1894-1896 (see back page for details, and for our reader offer).

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A Life on the Ocean Wave Tracy Edwards MBE

When I started sailing I had great mentors – fantastic skippers who were passionate about what they did and were desperate to pass that on. I was just so lucky I never really experienced any male chauvinism, but when I came to do the Whitbread Round the World Race for the first time, I was told “girls don’t do the Whitbread”. However, I was told I could get a job as a cook which would let me race.

So I joined the crew of Atlantic Privateer as the only woman with 17 men, and became the first woman on an oceanracing maxi in the Whitbread and the first woman to cross the finishing line.

it now teaches boys that equality is important, so it benefits everybody.

Geography for me is freedom because it is a way of seeing the world. Geography became three-dimensional for me when I started sailing. I remember coming back from my first-ever trip at sea and standing on a beach in Wales. I looked out at the ocean as I had done thousands of times before. I had always thought that land was the end because my geography was land-based, but as I stood there I thought, it’s not the end it is the beginning. I am part of the ocean now and the ocean is the beginning of everything, and this piece of water here links me to every other piece of land that touches water, and then geography meant a whole different thing to me.

Geography has meant many things to me, but ultimately it means freedom.

“I am part of the ocean now.”

Once I finished that race I wondered why more women weren’t doing it. It is such great fun and the Southern Ocean is so amazing, it really was a voyage of discovery. After the Whitbread somebody said to me “Why don’t you put an all-female crew together”? That is how Maiden was born and became Tracy Edwards at the helm of a magnet for so many people who felt they wanted to do something they were told they couldn’t.

Maiden, 1989.

Finding sponsorship was a complete nightmare. We had a letter from one company saying “We aren’t going to sponsor you because if you die, it would be really bad publicity for us”. Then I met King Hussein of Jordan and he said Royal Jordanian Airlines would sponsor us; he said “the women in my country have the vote, they drive cars and they go to work wearing a suit, so I think this will be very nicely representative”.

We had no fear of failure, which is a great place to be. We were the underdogs, so when we crossed the start line everybody thought that was a victory already. On the first leg we came third. We repaired the boat in Uruguay and then set off on the longest leg of the Whitbread, 7,600 miles from Uruguay through the Southern Ocean to Freemantle in Australia, but it was the best leg of the Whitbread ever. It was a real bonding exercise, a real experiment of what we could put ourselves through and what we could survive. We came into Australia in first place; our nearest rival was 38 hours behind us. We did everything right. On the next short leg to New Zealand, we again finished first and an hour ahead of our nearest rival.

At that point we were maybe a bit over-confident, and Maiden being a big heavy boat needed a lot of wind and it just wasn’t there, so when we got to Cape Horn we were second from last. We could have caught up, but coming around to the Falklands we started to sink and had to tack our way up the coast. We lost first place and were 17 hours behind at that point. The next leg up to Fort Lauderdale wasn’t great either but we moved up to third place, and then on the final leg we moved up to second overall, which was the best result for a British boat since 1977 and I don’t think it has been beaten yet.

I know that 25 years ago we broke the mould, and I look at my daughter and think, I am so sorry we haven’t taken more strides forward. This is why we want to bring Maiden back to the UK later this year (www.maidenrescue.org). She will be an ambassador for girls’ rights and education, and this is what I find interesting about how Geography is taught in schools.

It used to be very one-dimensional and now it is cultures, diversity and everything wrapped into this subject. I think that

Tracy Edwards spoke to RSGS audiences as part of the Inspiring People talks series 2014-15. We interviewed Tracy in the Explorers’ Room at RSGS HQ and asked her about her experiences in the Whitbread Round the World Race.

This article is edited from the full interview which can be watched on our YouTube channel.

26 SUMMER 2015

The science behind the Nepal earthquakes Rachel Hay, RSGS Education Officer

As we continue to see images of devastation and hear heartbreaking stories from Nepal, the question ‘why?’ keeps coming to mind. But as geographers, we know that Nepal lies in one of the most seismically active regions of the world, and we understand the physical processes responsible for the magnitude 7.8 and 7.3 earthquakes on Saturday 25 April and Tuesday 12 May 2015.

The Indian sub-continent broke away from Gondwana around 100 million years ago, and moved north through what is now the Indian Ocean, crashing into the Eurasian Plate between 40 and 50 million years ago. This collision violently threw up the Himalayan mountain range. To this day, India continues its journey north at the rate of around 5cm per year. India is slowly sliding beneath the Eurasian plate, while Tibet and Nepal are being thrust up. The fault line underlies the length of Nepal. Geoscientists have noted that in Tibet to the north earthquakes occur deep in the ground, whereas in Nepal the fault line is very shallow and lies at a low angle. This means

“Energy released during earthquakes in Nepal is very quickly transmitted to the surface.”

that the energy released during earthquakes in Nepal is very quickly transmitted to the surface and, as a result, there is stronger shaking than would be experienced if the earthquake occurred at a deeper level.

Using radar images from the European Space Agency’s Sentinel satellite, scientists have discovered that the Kathmandu Valley actually increased in elevation by approximately 76cm during the April earthquake, while the Himalayas to the north subsided by between 50cm and 85cm. Whilst this is dramatic, the length and intensity of shaking is much more important than elevation change, because it is this that brings buildings down, injuring or killing people.

In many earthquakes, rocks slip and energy radiates out equally in all directions, so the strongest shaking on the surface is at the epicentre. However, many other earthquakes (including the M7.8 earthquake in April) have their epicentres at one end of a fault line and the energy rips along the fault, intensifying towards the far end. In this case, it seems to be Sindhupulchok, east of Kathmandu, which experienced the most violent shaking, for over 90 seconds. This partly explains why the death toll was significantly higher in Sindhupulchok district compared to that in Gorkha, which was closer to the actual epicentre, although differing population densities in the different regions must also be considered. The aftershocks were predominantly east of the original epicentre, further illustrating the transfer of energy eastwards.

Prior to the devastating earthquake in April, the last big earthquake in this region was a magnitude 8.1 in 1934, which killed over 10,000 people. Since the 1990s, geoscientists have been predicting that another major earthquake was due, because they can measure the amount of strain that is building up in the ground. The recent earthquakes were not a surprise for the scientific community, although questions remain about how scientific findings can be better communicated to local authorities in the region. Scientists now have to ascertain how much energy was released during the recent earthquakes, and how much remains trapped underground, then attempt to predict where and when the next significant earthquake might occur. Professor Iain Stewart argues that research data must be communicated sensitively, to avoid contributing towards the crippling fear and anxiety that currently exists in Nepal due to the numerous, and ongoing, aftershocks.

Over tens of millions of years, the Indian Plate moved north and crashed into the Eurasian Plate. © United States Geological Service

One thing is certain: Nepal will experience more earthquakes in future, and the scientific community has a great responsibility for ensuring that they now engage effectively with local authorities in vulnerable regions in order to build resilience in local communities and keep the population safe.

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One Hell of a Geogr aphy Lesson

Satellite data illustrates the changes in elevation and position due to the April earthquake.

The key indicates the change in the distance between ground and satellite. (Source: DLR)

The aftershocks were predominantly east of the original epicentre.

The 1833 and 1934 stars represent the most recent large historical earthquakes on this portion of the plate boundary. © United States Geological Service

RSGS President Professor Iain Stewart has helped to develop understanding of the recent earthquakes through his video blog (www.youtube.com/ watch?v=rfJ7WEmUX1s).

Rachel in Patan Durbar Square, Kathmandu, before the earthquake – this building survived.

This edited extract from RSGS Education Officer Rachel Hay’s first-hand account of the earthquake that hit Nepal in April really brought home the fear and the awful reality of the whole event. A full transcript is available on our website (rsgs.org, and search for “Nepal earthquake”).

We were sitting in th e Black and White ca fé in Pokhara when there was the beep of a horn and a futile lo ok down the street for the truck that was causing the unexpect ed vibration. The flowe r pots next to us we re wobbling uncontrolla bly, signs on the st reet were shaking. We se arched for the answ er on each other’s face s, but we already kn ew… the tremors were int ensifying. We jumped to our feet and glanc ed around at the ot her people who, moment s before, had been ca lmly drinking tea and eatin g cinnamon rolls or ma sala omelettes. Pete voice d the reality: “It’s an earthquake. Run!” Th ere was the sudden sound of chairs scraping th e floor, and the cont inuing low rumble of the tremors. We grabbed our bags and ran out int o the street. It took over one minute for the shaking to subside.

I thought of Kathma ndu and our friends there, and of all the small villages and ramshac kle buildings that we ha d passed on our eight -hour bus journey to Pokh ara from Kathmandu the previous day. Had th e people we had seen and met along the way su rvived? When would we be able to let our frien ds and family know that we were safe, and stop them from worrying ?

It was difficult to ascertain when the tremors actually stopped, as our legs kept shaking for a while longer. Franzis ka was keen to colle ct some of her things from her hotel, in ca se of aftershocks. I fe lt scared as she and I climbed the stairs ne rvously to her room on the second floor, wh ile everyone else waite d outside. I was keen to spend as little tim e as possible. While Fran ziska quickly collect ed a few of her belonging s, I picked up the tw o large bottles of wate r that had fallen from the chest of drawers du ring the quake. At th at moment, everything be gan to shake intense ly again. The stairs seem ed to jerk and shift as I ran, and I felt sure that the ceiling woul d cave in on top of me…

Rachel

28 SUMMER 2015

Soil carbon and climate change Professor Pete Smith, Chair in Plant & Soil Science, University of Aberdeen

Soils contain vast reserves (1,500 thousand million tonnes) of carbon to a depth of one metre, which is about twice that found as carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Historically, soils in managed ecosystems have lost a portion of this carbon (40-90 thousand million tonnes) through land-use change, some of which has remained in the atmosphere.

In terms of climate change, most projections suggest that soil carbon changes driven by future climate change will range from small losses to moderate gains, but these global trends show considerable regional variation. The response of soil carbon in future will be determined by a delicate balance between the impacts of increased temperature and decreased soil moisture on decomposition rates, and the balance between changes in carbon losses from decomposition and carbon gains through increased productivity.

Soils have also been proposed as a way to tackle climate change, locking up carbon that would otherwise be in the atmosphere, in a process called carbon sequestration.

Globally, soil carbon sequestration has a large, costcompetitive mitigation potential; that is, the potential climate benefits are large and it is relatively cost-effective.

However, there are limitations associated with soil carbon sequestration that need to be considered.

2) Soil carbon stocks are not permanent. As well as declining over time, soil carbon sinks are also reversible.

A soil carbon stock that has been increased by improved soil management will rapidly be lost unless the improved management is maintained. The rate of carbon loss is more rapid than the rate of gain. Compared to reduced emissions of other greenhouse gases, where an emission reduction is permanent, carbon sequestered in the soil (and in vegetation) is non-permanent, presenting a risk of future release.

3) Displacement can occur. Increasing soil carbon stocks does not necessarily lead to a decrease in atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations. It is possible, for example, to enhance soil carbon stocks in one area by applying large inputs of organic matter. If, however, the organic matter applied to the area gaining in carbon would otherwise have been applied in another area, the other area would lose carbon (that is, the emissions are displaced). In this example, the impact across the two areas would be neutral, leading to no net atmospheric carbon removal, so an increase in soil carbon stocks in this case does not reduce atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations.

4) It is difficult to measure. Changes in soil carbon are small compared to the large stocks of carbon present in the soil, meaning that the change in carbon stock can be difficult to measure, presenting problems for monitoring, reporting and verification (MRV). If the value of the carbon removed from the atmosphere is less than the cost of measuring the change, MRV costs can make soil carbon less cost-competitive with greenhouse gas reduction measures.

Despite these limitations, soil carbon sequestration can be useful to meet short- to medium-term targets, and confers a number of co-benefits A new NASA global dataset forecasts how global temperature (shown here) and precipitation might change up to 2100 under on soils, making it a viable different greenhouse gas emissions scenarios. © NASA option for reducing the shortterm atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations. This could 1) Soil carbon sequestration is time-limited. The carbon buy time to develop longer-term emission reduction solutions sink can be defined as the annual removal of carbon from across all sectors of the economy. the atmosphere into the soil. When a carbon sequestration measure is implemented, the change in soil carbon is large Increased carbon stocks in the soil also increase soil fertility, to begin with, but slows over time as the soil approaches a workability and water holding capacity, reduce erosion risk, new equilibrium. Sink strength therefore decreases over time and can reduce the vulnerability of managed soils to future until the soil reaches a new equilibrium. This phenomenon is global warming, so there are many reasons for increasing soil termed sink saturation. Compared to reduced emissions of carbon, even if soil carbon sequestration has its drawbacks other greenhouse gases, which as a climate mitigation option. can continue indefinitely, carbon Increasing soil carbon stocks is, sequestration in soils (and therefore, a good thing, but we indeed in vegetation) is therefore cannot rely on it for combatting time-limited and finite. Improved climate change. Instead, we have to make deep and rapid management needs to be maintained indefinitely to maintain cuts in greenhouse gas emissions from all sectors. This is the the higher soil carbon stocks, but with no additional sink only way we can hope to limit climate change to levels that benefit. are not dangerous.

“The potential climate benefits are large and it is relatively cost-effective.”

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2015: A big year for the climate Mike Robinson, RSGS Chief Executive

while before temperature responds, so we are already due more warming based on current cumulative emissions alone.

The more we continue to add (and the more quickly we add it), the more likely we are to exceed 2°C. So the sooner we reduce emissions the better.

2015 is meant to be a big year for climate change. In December, the next round of UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) COP negotiations will take place, with international governments trying once again to reach agreement on reducing global greenhouse gas emissions. It will be the 21st such negotiation.

Because Kyoto achieved so little, the pressure is to get the Paris agreement to do even more. And because early reductions matter more, there is pressure to deliver meaningful reductions sooner rather than later. But despite knowing the dangers, is the world ready to cut back on or give up on fossil fuels?

The Kyoto Accord which fell out of the earlier process has now come to an end. It needs to be replaced. But it needs much more than that. It needs to be greatly improved. The targets it set fell well short of any meaningful reduction in terms of mitigating climate change. Most scientists think it

“It really rests on whether there is the political will.”

is essential that we keep any average temperature increase to below 2°C. 2°C isn’t ‘safe’, but it’s a hell of a lot safer than a 3°C average increase in global temperature. The higher the temperature, the more likely it is to trigger ‘feedbacks’, which are shifts in natural processes (such as loss of ice, or melting methane clathrates) which add to the cycle of warming. And while 2°C may not sound like much, if you liken it to body temperature, a 2°C rise above average would make you very ill. 4°C would be a disaster! The Kyoto agreement would be lucky to avoid a 4°C increase. And worse than that, many countries even then refused to ratify it, or dragged their heels in signing it. On the positive side, although the US Government didn’t ratify it, more than 100 US cities took the lead and independently signed up.

But this inadequate agreement is now defunct, and the world needs to agree a further accord to help address this issue. There is a great expectation that COP21 in Paris in December 2015 will achieve such a deal. I hope so. Although there was similar hype over the same conference (COP15) in Copenhagen in December 2009.

Greenhouse gases remain in the atmosphere for a long time (CO2 usually for more than 100 years), so every tonne of CO2 we add stays there for decades. Temperature rises are increasing all the time with emissions, but it takes a wee

What will be the sticking points in the lead up to Paris? Well of course the OECD nations have built their economies and wealth on fossil fuels. The US dollar is itself propped up by merit of being the only currency in which oil is traded. So who will force the pace when so much current money is in oil, gas and coal?

Then there is the issue of ‘fairness’. The non-OECD nations feel injustice, both in the fact that the west has become rich on fossil fuels and does not want them to follow the same path, and also because their citizens are more at threat from climate change consequences. Some areas of the globe, especially countries of high population and poor infrastructure, are generally more susceptible to its impacts.

The global south generally wants the north to shoulder the burden of blame for climate change, and wants the north to help fund the south to protect its populations from climate change dangers, and adapt its economies to be more sustainable.

And then there is the power-play between the big global players. The USA is the highest per capita emitter. China is the biggest overall. India and Brazil are the fastest growing.

So any success rests on their agreement. Only Europe seems remotely inclined towards magnanimity, but even that is dependent on the others agreeing, so it still displays only limited leadership.

So will the Paris COP be successful? Who will be prepared to agree reductions? How much will each agree? Will it be ‘fair’?

And who will pay for it all?

There is a lot to resolve. But the stakes are really high too.

Maybe a positive international deal can be reached. It really rests on whether there is the political will. If real progress can be made, then the Paris COP will be a huge achievement and will be the first to be memorable for all the right reasons.

Along with the Sustainable Development Goals negotiations in September, could 2015 be the year the world finally grows up?

BOOK CLUB

30 SUMMER 2015

David R Montgomery (University of California Press, April 2012) This engaging natural and cultural history of soil sweeps from ancient civilizations to modern times, exploring the compelling idea that we are (and have long been) using up Earth’s soil. Once bare of protective vegetation and exposed to wind and rain, cultivated soils erode bit by bit, slowly enough to be ignored in a single lifetime but fast enough over centuries to limit the lifespan of civilizations. In a rich mix of history, archaeology and geology, Montgomery traces the role of soil use and abuse in the history of Mesopotamia, Ancient Greece, the Roman Empire, China, European colonialism, Central America, and the American push westward. He explores how soil has shaped us and we have shaped soil, and sees in the recent rise of organic and no-till farming the hope for a new agricultural revolution that might help us avoid the fate of previous civilizations.

On the Trail of Genghis Khan An Epic Journey Through the Land of the Nomads Tim Cope (Bloomsbury Publishing, September 2013) Lone adventurer Tim Cope travelled the length of the Eurasian Steppe on horseback, from the ancient capital of Mongolia to the Danube River in Hungary, in a 6,000-mile journey (not completed successfully since the days of Genghis Khan) that took him three years. Trekking across plateaus, forests, glaciers, mountain passes, and sub-zero or scorching landscapes, Cope travelled deep into the heart of the nomadic way of life that has dominated the Eurasian Steppe for thousands of years. He encountered incredible hospitality, a tradition that is the lynchpin of human survival on the Steppe. This is a tale of survival, adventure and discovery set in a fascinating and politically volatile region.

It is an elegy for the nomadic way of life and proof that the great age of exploration is not yet over.

Will China Dominate the 21st Century?

Jonathan Fenby (Polity Press, March 2014) China’s spectacular growth has led to visions of the 21st century being dominated by the last major state on Earth ruled by a communist party, its forward march seemingly unstoppable when contrasted with the West and Japan. Jonathan Fenby, a leading expert on the People’s Republic, makes plain that China, too, faces major challenges which stand in the way of global domination. It has to deal with political, economic, social and international tests, each of which involves structural difficulties that will put the system under strain. The picture of China invoked by admirers to argue that it will rule the world does not accord with reality. This punchy analysis offers a pragmatic view of where China is heading at a time when its future is too important an issue for wishful theorizing.

In the Footsteps of Isabella Bird Adventures in Twin Time Travel Professor Kiyonori Kanasaka (HEI Bonsha, September 2014) review by Roger Watts FRSGS This is a beautifully printed and illustrated book in Japanese and English, recording Professor Kanasaka’s worldwide travels in search of routes taken and places visited by Isabella Bird, the renowned Victorian lady traveller (1831-1904). The maps recording Isabella’s journeys are especially clear and impressive. The author’s photographs are vivid and wherever possible are produced alongside Isabella’s own sketches or photos. The English text gives a clear account of this lady’s remarkable life and adventures. Isabella was a founder member of RSGS, and was the first woman to be awarded the Society’s Fellowship.

It was a fitting tribute to his research for Professor Kanasaka to receive a similar award in 2006. A must-have for Bird enthusiasts!

Reader Offer - 20% discount

Offer ends 5 October 2015

Isabella Bird A Photographic Journal of Travels Through China 1894-1896 Deborah Ireland (Ammonite Press, November 2015) Unique photographs transport readers to the China of the late 19th century in this lavish pictorial record of Isabella Bird’s travels. Isabella was one of the 19th century’s most remarkable women explorers. Her global travels and subsequent books made her famous, and led to her becoming one of the first female members of the Royal Geographical Society in 1891. This book celebrates her achievements with a beautiful pictorial record of her last great journey through China in the closing years of the 19th century, with supporting text by travel photography expert Debbie Ireland. The highlight of her visit was journeying by boat and sedan chair to make a major tour of the valley of the Yangtze River and much beyond, right up to the border with Tibet.

Readers of The Geographer can purchase Isabella Bird for only £20 (RRP £25) with FREE p&p. To order, please phone 01273 488005 and quote code ‘R4875’.

RSGS: a better way to see the world Phone 01738 455050 or visit www.rsgs.org to join the RSGS. Lord John Murray House, 15-19 North Port, Perth, PH1 5LU Charity SC015599

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