The Geographer: Maptastic (Winter 2021)

The

Geographer Winter 2021

The newsletter of

the Royal Scottish Geographical Society

Maptastic

The Beauty, Value, Variety and Future of Maps • What to Make of COP26 • The Future of Maps and Mapping • Maps as Art and Artefacts • Schools, Satellites and Geospatial Data • The Travels of Emily Kemp and Fitzroy Maclean • Tom Heap and Tim Marshall • Polar Academy 2021 • Reader Offer: The Peatlands of Britain and Ireland

“The map is the basis of geography.

Geography is the basis of civilization.”

John George Bartholomew, co-founder of the Scottish Geographical Society

plus news, books and more...

The

Geographer

mapping

RSGS is fortunate to have a really wonderful and diverse collection of fascinating maps, particularly maps of historical interest dating back as far as the 16th century. We also have an expert and enthusiastic team of map volunteers, who have been working hard for many years to help make our map collection increasingly accessible to researchers and members of the public.

But our interest extends to contemporary maps, not least the iconic Ordnance Survey maps on which so many of us were brought up. And it is fascinating to see the range of work that is now being undertaken by so many to bring maps and mapping into the 21st century: digitising old maps so that people can more easily explore and enjoy their artistry and accuracy; developing innovative mapping techniques which produce rapid and reliable results; imagining creative new ways of presenting geographical data that enable us to see the world differently.

Of course, neither climate change nor Covid have gone away, and much of our work is still focused on the former and hampered by the latter.

With COP26 now behind us, we are looking forward to strengthened targets and increased efforts from all sectors of society to help keep global temperature rise below 1.5°C. Our work on promoting a positive response to climate change through our Climate Solutions training programme is more important and urgent than ever, as it is vital that all those who are in a position to make a meaningful contribution are equipped with the knowledge of how to do so effectively and quickly.

Thank you to all of our members and supporters throughout 2021 for your encouragement and loyalty. We are grateful to everyone who has joined or stayed with us as a member, or who has sent a note of appreciation for our efforts, or who has made a donation or other financial contribution, or who has worked with us to deliver one of our activities or projects, or who has helped us in any other way. We owe our success to you all.

Finally, we wish you a very enjoyable Christmas and a good New Year.

Inspiring People talks 26 Inspiring Speakers • 54 Fascinating Talks • 14 Locations

2021-2022

Inspiring People

Illustrated Public Talks

Colin Prior Dance of Black Hats with Drums,Trashigang Tshechu, Bhutan

A

fter a year of intense activity that has been dominated by climate change and Covid, we are taking the opportunity in this edition of The Geographer to celebrate a fundamental and joyous aspect of geographical learning and experience: maps and mapping.

Motivational stories of adventure Expertise on vital current issues Inspirational insights into people, places and planet "The best national talks programme in Scotland"

We are disappointed to have to announce that, due to ongoing Covid restrictions, many of our venues are unable to commit to any in-person events at present, and don’t expect to be in a position to review this until we are into next year. As a result, we have had to cancel face-to-face talks planned for early next year, and to revert instead to our regular weekly Wednesday night talks which will continue to be held online.

We remain confident that we can get back to normal for our 2022-23 talks season, which normally begins in September/October, and we will make every effort to ensure we can keep you informed and entertained in the meantime. Thank you for your patience – this has been a hugely challenging time for all small charities, and we hope you will be able to continue to support us.

Chalk Talks

We are pleased to say that, with the addition of two new National 5 Chalk Talks (Land Use and Conflicts, and Urban), we have now completed our collection of free video lessons for school students studying Geography. All these lessons, 12 for Higher and 14 for National 5, are available to watch at www.rsgs.org/chalk-talks. Our thanks to Boroughmuir High School, Dollar Academy, Kilgraston, Morrison’s Academy and Speyside High School for their great work in creating these lessons, and to all who donated to our Helping Hand for Schools appeal for making the project possible.

Susan Watt, Development Manager, RSGS

Climate Change in the UK

RSGS, Lord John Murray House, 15-19 North Port, Perth, PH1 5LU tel: 01738 455050 email: enquiries@rsgs.org www.rsgs.org

Esri UK and the Met Office have together developed a set of climate change resources for teachers, freely available from teach-with-gis-uk-esriukeducation.hub. arcgis.com/pages/climate. The resources are focused on making climate change relevant to pupils, helping them to explore the current climate of the UK, how it could change over the course of the 21st century, and the impact it will have on our lives in the UK.

Follow us on social media

Charity registered in Scotland no SC015599 The views expressed in this newsletter are not necessarily those of the RSGS. Cover image: These maps of rivers around the world were created by Esri UK, a mapping and spatial analytics company, from detailed elevation data collected using remote sensing techniques. The information was taken from Esri’s Living Atlas, one of the world’s largest collections of geographic information. Source: Airbus, USGS, NGA, NASA, CGIAR, NLS, OS, NMA, Geodatastyrelsen, GSA, GSI and the GIS User Community Masthead image: Panoramic view of Kharanaq, surrounded by mountains and desert. The abandoned 4,500-year-old ancient town, whose name means ‘Land of Sun’, was made of mud bricks with a labyrinth of streets, tunnels and passageways. © Nicolas Economou

RSGS: a better way to see the world

Congratulations!

Miss Eva Bhowmick was the happy recipient of the 2021 RSGS University Medal awarded by HeriotWatt University. These Medals are awarded to the outstanding graduating honours geography student in each of the Scottish universities as recommended by heads of department.

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Filming at RSGS During COP26, we were visited at our headquarters in Perth by Professor Iain Stewart and Professor Tim Flannery.

Professor Roger Crofts, Scottish Geographical Medallist At a special event in September, we were delighted to present our Scottish Geographical Medal to Professor Roger Crofts, in recognition of his lifelong outstanding contributions toward national and international natural heritage.

RSGS President Iain recorded a reading of our new children’s book, James Croll and his Adventures in Climate and Time, in our Explorers’ Room (pictured); the video will be available as a free resource for schools.

RSGS Geddes Environment Medallist Tim interviewed Mike Robinson and Iain Stewart for his new documentary about COP26 for Australian television, and filmed in the Fair Maid’s House and other locations around Perth.

Emma Revie FRSGS We are delighted to welcome Emma Revie as an RSGS Honorary Fellow.

Emma is Chief Executive of the Trussell Trust, a charity that supports a network of over 1,200 food bank centres to provide emergency food to people in crisis, offer additional support and campaign for change.

Since joining in February 2018, she has been instrumental in the Trust’s work to commission the largest ever piece of research into hunger in the UK, while also creating a five-year strategy to end the need for food banks entirely.

Roger has worked tirelessly on promoting the importance of land use and conservation of the environment through research, policies, public speaking and publications, leading and working with a broad range of environmental organisations worldwide.

Through his role as RSGS Chair from 2014 to 2020, and now as an RSGS Vice-President, he has brought his expertise and connections to enhance the work of our Society.

Roger is an enthusiastic champion for geography: “I believe that geography provides the doorway to understanding the world. It gives us insights into the causes of this new triple crisis – a global pandemic, threats to biodiversity, and climate change. At schools and universities, geography suffers because you can’t put it in a box. But that’s the beauty of geography!”

Ten Big Climate Solutions Our Climate Emergency Summits bring together motivated people from across sectors in a safe and open workshop environment to offer solutions to the climate emergency. They are designed to use the collective expertise of participants to highlight purposeful actions and good practice examples, and to influence policy making. The Ten Big Climate Solutions report (available at rsgs.org/climate-emergency-summits) is the outcome of 12 Summits in which 800 people from 400 organisations generated 1,600 practical solutions; it highlights ten solutions with the scale, pace and impact to drive the change we need.

read the report

RSGS Medals 2022 The RSGS’s prestigious Medals and Awards allow us to recognise outstanding contributions to geographical exploration and learning.

Tivy Education Medal, for exemplary, outstanding and inspirational teaching, educational policy or work in formal and informal educational arenas.

Scottish Geographical Medal, the highest accolade, for conspicuous merit and a performance of world-wide repute.

Bartholomew Globe, for excellence in the assembly, delivery or application of geographical information through cartography, GIS and related techniques.

Coppock Research Medal, the highest research-specific award, for an outstanding contribution to geographical knowledge through research and publication.

President’s Medal, to recognise achievement and celebrate the impact of geographers’ work on wider society.

Livingstone Medal, for outstanding service of a humanitarian nature with a clear geographical dimension.

Newbigin Prize, for an outstanding contribution to the Society’s Journal or other publication.

Mungo Park Medal, for an outstanding contribution to geographical knowledge through exploration or adventure in potentially hazardous physical or social environments.

We are inviting nominations for the RSGS Medals 2022. Visit www.rsgs.org/Pages/Category/medallists for more information and to access the nomination form. The deadline for nominations is 31st December 2021.

Shackleton Medal, for leadership and citizenship in a geographical field.

Geddes Environment Medal, for an outstanding contribution to conservation of the built or natural environment and the development of sustainability.

nominate someone inspiring

2 Winter 2021

news Geovation Accelerator Programme Geovation, an Ordnance Survey initiative in association with HM Land Registry, has revealed the next cohort of GeoTech and PropTech entrepreneurs joining their Accelerator Programme, which provides specialist support to help start-ups grow their businesses, while developing innovative and sustainable solutions that deliver significant impact and boost the economy.

The crew of the expedition beside the Scotia on the ice. © RSGS Collections

On 28th October, RSGS joined with friends at the UK Antarctic Heritage Trust (UKAHT) to commemorate 100 years since the death of a great polar scientist ahead of his time: William Speirs Bruce (1867–1921).

As leader of the Scottish National Antarctic Expedition (1902–04), Bruce laid the foundations for over a century of oceanographic, meteorological, and zoological research in Antarctica, the legacy of which continues to inform our understanding of the Earth’s climate and biodiversity to this day. A short film celebrating Bruce’s legacy is now available to watch on the UKAHT YouTube channel.

Sara Thiam FRSGS

mapping

In September, we were pleased to add Sara Thiam, Chief Executive of the Scottish Council for Development and Industry (SCDI), to our list of illustrious RSGS Honorary Fellows. Sara has been a central figure in her role with SCDI, through which she oversees the Clean Growth Leadership Group, established the Green Growth Forum, and has been a leading voice of industry in the climate and Covid recovery arenas. She has helped industry become more ambitious in the journey towards the goal of net zero, and has engaged businesses in the climate conversation.

Underwater cities An online interactive map (coastal.climatecentral.org) shows areas of the world that could end up being underwater due to rising sea levels, based on data from the 2021 IPCC report. The map shows yearly data between 2030 and 2150, highlighting in red the regions projected to be below the tideline if pollution continues on its current trajectory without any mitigating action. Nine major cities are projected to be underwater by 2030: Amsterdam (the Netherlands), Barsa (Iraq), New Orleans (USA), Venice (Italy), Ho Chi Minh City (Vietnam), Kolkata (India), Bangkok (Thailand), Georgetown (Guyana), and Savannah (USA).

The new GeoTech businesses (using geospatial data to contribute to the UK digital economy and inform digital transformation) are: • Paua: making public electric vehicle charging simple for businesses, with a mobile app that enables drivers to find, charge and pay for charging.

• SDXSpace: empowering sustainable financing and sustainable development with satellite imagery analytics.

• Advanced Infrastructure: linking energy and geospatial data to create powerful tools for low carbon infrastructure developers.

The new PropTech businesses (revolutionising the property industry using data and technology) are: • Homefinder: an online marketplace which makes it easy to find new homes and developments for sale in London.

•U rban R + D: enabling unfinanced landowners with no industry experience to develop small urban sites into quality sustainable family homes.

•P ropalt: centralising property data in one place to help movers, renters and owners understand the market and what’s involved in the moving and managing process.

Carly Morris, Head of Geovation, said, “Our mission is to bring innovations and disruptors together and create a driving force that leads the charge in geospatial innovation.”

Geovation Scotland was launched in Autumn 2019, with Registers of Scotland and OS partnering to bring the Geovation Accelerator Programme to Edinburgh.

Visit geovation.uk/accelerator for more information.

Neil Kermode FRSGS In November, RSGS Vice-Chair Alister Hendrie (left) presented RSGS Honorary Fellowship to Neil Kermode, who since 2005 has been Managing Director of the European Marine Energy Centre (EMEC) in Orkney. Under his direction, EMEC has developed a pioneering profile in marine-derived clean energy through the implementation of wave and tidal energy conversion systems. Neil has driven the technological development of tidal and marine systems of energy capture, and overseen the development of infrastructural systems needed to distribute clean energy in cost-efficient ways, providing marine energy technology for marine renewables industries, and for the commercial resilience of marginal and island communities.

mapping

WS Bruce centenary

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Dr Tom Dargie FRSGS

Blog highlights

In October, we were pleased to present RSGS Honorary Fellowship to Dr Tom Dargie, who has had a long and successful career as a geobotanist, contributing invaluable research into coastal habitat change, windfarm impacts on peat habitats, and National Vegetation Classification improvements.

Tom was notably responsible for the Sand Dune Vegetation Survey of Scotland, a major piece of research that has expanded our knowledge of Scotland’s coastal ecology. He also led the Not Coul campaign, to protect the sand dune system against the proposed golf course development at Coul Links near Embo in Sutherland.

We continue to make weekly additions to our blog (available at www.rsgs.org/blog), covering a range of interesting topics and news about our awards, projects and releases. Recent posts include:

Scotland: Our Climate Journey organise a film show

The film’s producers, Ted Simpson and Finbar O’Sullivan, at the premiere.

B RO U G H T TO YO U B Y R S G S F O L L O W O U R P R O G R E S S AT W W W. R S G S . O R G / S C O T L A N D - O U R - C L I M A T E - J O U R N E Y Film funded by

mapping

Many thanks to those who came to the premiere; we were delighted to see so much support and such a positive response. Please contact enquiries@rsgs.org or finbarproduction@gmail.com if you would be interested in organising a screening for your school, business or community. Sign up to the mailing list on www.scotlandsclimatejourney.co.uk or see www.rsgs.org/ scotland-our-climate-journey for more information.

New cycle map Spokes, the Lothian Cycle Campaign (www.spokes.org.uk), has published a fully revised and redesigned map of Edinburgh, also covering South Queensferry, Kirkliston, Newbridge and Ratho. Designed for cyclists and suitable for walkers, the map shows off-road paths, cycle lanes (including the new Spaces for People lanes), footpaths, National Cycle Network routes, and Edinburgh’s signposted network of Quiet Routes.

Charles Darwin and the ‘Horrid Shelves’ of Glen Roy: Writer-inResidence Jo Woolf investigates the Parallel Roads of Glen Roy, which Charles Darwin believed to be a formation from coastal erosion, when they were in fact evidence of ancient glaciers.

24 Degrees North: mountain climber, polar explorer and Mungo Park Medallist Myrtle Simpson visits a remote part of West Greenland on a three-week canoeing and camping trip with her grandchildren, her idea of the perfect family adventure.

The Fair Maid of Perth: A Tale of Honour and Bloodshed, with a Dash of Geography: Writer-in-Residence Jo Woolf celebrates the birthday of Sir Walter Scott by investigating his ties to the RSGS through his novel The Fair Maid of Perth.

Laser mapping for tree planting Aerial laser mapping of the Wallington Estate in Northumberland is helping the National Trust to plant trees where ancient woodland once stood. The project uses LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging), a form of remote sensing technology, to produce information about the land as part of the charity’s efforts to plant 75,000 trees. The data reveals ancient features such as ridge-andfurrow farming systems, Roman sites and a 17th-century recreational landscape with a large water feature, allowing the Trust to safely plant trees without damaging any archaeological remains.

mapping

In November, we hosted the premiere for our insightful, fascinating and encouraging new film, at Dundee Contemporary Arts. The feature-length documentary, presented by RSGS in collaboration with Balfour Beatty, tells of Scotland’s climate journey through the past, present and future, mapping how far the country has come as one of the leading nations in climate change policy, and how far it still has to go. The film is narrated by individuals from across the country, offering different perspectives, and all contributing in the battle against climate change.

Lest We Forget: Chief Executive Mike Robinson reflects on Remembrance Day, the sacrifices of the past and consequent benefits to the future, and asks what sacrifices we are making today for future generations, and how we wish to be remembered.

COP expectations Ahead of COP26, BBC News Rural Affairs Correspondent and Countryfile presenter Tom Heap recorded a short video for RSGS, detailing the development of climate change conferences and considering what could be expected from COP26. What to Expect from COP26 is available on RSGS’s YouTube channel. See page 37 for an introduction to Tom’s new book, 39 Ways to Save the Planet.

MOOC for India The Climate Solutions qualifications continue to prove popular; the Student MOOC, led by Edinburgh Climate Change Institute (ECCI), is now being adapted for other countries. Over 1,000 students have already completed the course, and a new version for India is going live in December, hosted through FutureLearn. Congratulations to Dave Reay, Galina Toteva and Erika Thompson of ECCI for making this happen, and we hope it will continue to go from strength to strength.

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Outcomes of COP26 Sophie Walker, Projects & Events Officer, RSGS The key outcome of COP26 is the Glasgow Climate Pact: a wide-ranging political agreement between all countries urging greater ambition on climate targets, offering clarification of articles of the Paris Agreement on carbon markets and transparency, and highlighting key areas for action in the coming months and years.

These include the phase-down of coal power, planning for adaptation, compensating countries already affected for loss and damage, and mobilising climate finance to meet a critical earlier minimum goal of $100bn per year from developed countries for ‘meaningful mitigation’ by 2023.

However, there have also been many other agreements and coalitions announced during COP26.

•1 09 countries have committed to 30% cuts in methane emissions by 2030, the combined effect of which could limit global warming by 0.2°C. •O ver 130 countries have promised to end and reverse deforestation by 2030, with the help of almost $14bn of public and private funding, including support for Indigenous peoples.

•O ver 40 countries, including the United States, India and China, have signed up to the UK’s ‘Glasgow breakthroughs agenda’, a plan to accelerate the transition to clean technologies in five high-carbon sectors through policies to encourage uptake and investment.

•O ver 30 countries and financial institutions have committed to end financing for overseas fossil fuel developments and divert spending to green energy, including the UK, Canada, United States, Germany, Spain and the Netherlands.

•T he Glasgow Financial Alliance for Net Zero, representing 450 global financial services firms, has committed to align $130 trillion with Paris Agreement goals, including 1.5°C. •A broad coalition of countries, cities, car manufacturers and other stakeholders have said they will work to ensure that all new cars and vans will be zero emission globally by 2040.

•C OP26 has also witnessed a slew of new net zero pledges and Nationally Determined Contributions – some underwhelming, some genuinely inspiring, but all indicative of progress in the right direction.

•T he Scottish Government has made a number of new promises throughout the COP, including doubling climate justice funding to £6m per year, establishing a £2m fund for loss and damage, and setting a net zero target for six Scottish islands by 2040.

RSGS, climate change and COP26 Autumn has been a very busy period for RSGS on the climate change policy front, with lots going on before, during and since COP26.

Before COP26 started, Chief Executive Mike Robinson was asked to speak at TEDx Glasgow in early October. And later in October, he spoke at a panel discussion on the theme of ‘is the North to blame for climate change?’, as part of the Scottish Parliament’s annual Festival of Politics in which RSGS was, as in 2020, a partner.

Over the two weeks of COP26, RSGS representatives attended many of the formal events in Glasgow, and chaired, spoke at or convened a wide range of discussions, from the Blue Zone to fringe events to online meetings. Mike Robinson chaired a panel discussion in the Blue Zone on ‘islands as hubs of innovation’, spoke at an Ecocide International event on ‘empowering everybody for the future we want’, and spoke at a Farming for 1.5°C event on ‘science of food, farming, and climate change’.

Professor Iain Stewart, RSGS President, chaired a session in the Blue Zone on ‘adaptation, loss and damage’, and was involved in a wide range of other events. RSGS co-hosted events with Stop Ecocide International (‘financing the future’ and ‘uniting behind a law to protect people and planet’) and the Inuit Circumpolar Council, part-funding their attendance at COP. The RSGS media profile has been high, with media interviews in print, TV and radio, including The Herald, BBC News and Radio Clyde. The COP26 special edition of The Geographer was really well received; copies were handed out at the Scottish Government’s main COP26 venue (at the Lighthouse in Glasgow), at the Scottish Parliament, at the Edinburgh Climate Change Institute, and by teams from Jacobs and Stop Ecocide International.

And we were delighted to see so many RSGS Honorary Fellows attending COP26, including: Sir David Attenborough, British broadcaster and environmentalist; Christiana Figueres, Costa Rican diplomat, former UNFCCC Executive Secretary, and key architect of the Paris Agreement; Laurent Fabius, former Prime Minister of France, Chair of COP21, and key architect of the Paris Agreement; Manuel Pulgar-Vidal, Peruvian lawyer, former environment minister, and interim UNFCCC President during COP21 in Paris; Mary Robinson, first woman President of Ireland, former UN High Commissioner on Human Rights, and Chair of the Elders; Lewis Gordon Pugh, British-South African endurance swimmer and UN Patron of the Oceans; Tim Flannery, Australian explorer, public scientist, and climate activist; Annie Lennox, Scottish singer-songwriter, philanthropist, and political activist; Mark Carney, Canadian UN Special Envoy on Climate Change and Finance, and leader of the Glasgow Financial Alliance; Bertrand Piccard, Swiss explorer, environmentalist, and founder of Solar Impulse; Yann Arthus-Bertrand, French environmental activist, journalist, filmmaker, and photographer; Professor Ed Hawkins, British climatologist, lead author of the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report, and designer of the ‘warming stripes’ graphics; Greta Thunberg, Swedish climate activist and founder of the Fridays for Future movement; the people of Glasgow, generous hosts of COP26 and supporters of the Global Day of Action march.

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Snapshots of the COP26 fortnight

B RO U G H T TO YO U B Y R S G S F O L L O W O U R P R O G R E S S AT W W W. R S G S . O R G / S C O T L A N D - O U R - C L I M A T E - J O U R N E Y Film funded by

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Exploring the origins of European map-making Chris Fleet FRSGS, Map Curator, National Library of Scotland

This edition of The Geographer invites an exploration into the origins of map-making, which in Europe have been traditionally associated with the work of the Classical Egyptian-Greek geographer, Ptolemy (Klaúdios Ptolemaîos, circa AD 90–168). Ptolemy was in fact a polymath who wrote treatises on astronomy, mathematics, physics, optics and chronology, but in his later life he published an eight-volume work, Geographia.

The main bulk of the Geographia is a listing of the coordinates of about 8,000 places and natural features in the inhabitable known world or oikoumene, along with a guide to map-making, and systems for projecting the Earth onto a flat surface using mathematical principles. The ‘rediscovery’ of Ptolemy’s work in early 15thcentury Europe, followed by its translation and dissemination, had a catalytic impact on European map-making.

But there are many different takes on this story and on Ptolemy’s mapping. Many have rightly pointed out that Ptolemy was building on and synthesizing the work of others, not least his predecessor Marinus of Tyre, and other earlier Greek geographers such as Eratosthenes of Cyrene. As far as we know, Ptolemy never produced a map, and it was left to others to construct these, quite often with significant variations. This particular Ptolemy map was drawn

by Gerhard Mercator in the late 16th century, and incorporated many new geographic discoveries of the previous centuries.

More seriously, in recent years others have questioned the values inherent in Ptolemy’s mapping, which can easily lead to a focus on scientific and mathematical accuracy in maps, to the exclusion of other characteristics, and so come to regard map-making as a simple story of progress. Meanwhile, once we step outside of European cartography to look at map-making in other cultures, the significance of Ptolemy can seem more distant still. Amongst other things, these debates show how malleable and contested the history of mapping can be, and how there can never be a final word on the map as a cultural artefact.

“The ‘rediscovery’ of Ptolemy’s work in early 15th century Europe had a catalytic impact on European map-making.”

Ptolemy, UNIVERSALIS TABULA IUXTA PTOLEMAEUM from Geographiae libri octo recogniti iam et diligenter emendati; Cum tabulis geographicis ad mentem auctoris restitutis ac emendatis. Cologne, 1584. Image courtesy of the National Library of Scotland. View online at maps.nls.uk/ view/120445466

“The ‘rediscovery’ of Ptolemy’s work in early 15th century Europe had a catalytic impact on European map-making.”

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© Desmond Dugan

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What will maps of the future look like?

Robert Bull, Content Writer, Ordnance Survey

With technology evolving and consumers more connected than ever before, it can be interesting to consider what future versions of everyday concepts will look like. Today, anyone who possesses a smart device holds detailed information on the entire planet in their pocket. They use geospatial information to track packages, check on takeaway orders, find the nearest petrol station – even use augmented reality to hunt for Pokémon. While paper maps remain readily available, they have been digitised into online applications.

Ordnance Survey’s OS Maps app now has over four million routes saved in it to follow at the touch of a button.

These changes have come since the start of the 21st century.

If that can happen in 20 years, what will happen in 20 years’ time? What will the maps of the future look like?

The evolution of collecting data What is now recognised as Ordnance Survey began as far back as the 18th century. Data was collected as a way of measuring distances between countries and producing wartime intelligence. Britain’s land was surveyed so maps could be produced.

In 1784, one of the dates you could define as the origins of Ordnance Survey, a Great Theodolite was used to measure the distances between the Royal Observatories of Greenwich and Paris. The Great Theodolite took three years to make and needed four people to carry it around. That was the most sophisticated technology at the time; even so, it took decades to map Great Britain. By which time, the country had changed significantly.

To stay relevant through the ages, OS had to keep up with technological advancements. It needed to obtain lots more detail, faster, and to a greater level of precision. By necessity, OS followed the evolution of accurate data gathering, from hands-on fieldwork and on-the-ground surveyors, through to using planes, satellites and, more recently, drones for aerial imagery.

Collecting this depth of geospatial information means that today OS can help organisations in both the public and private sectors, across a range of industries, from developing start-ups to longstanding businesses. Organisations have benefitted from a wide variety of insight, such as discovering local points of interest, or developing 3D copies (‘digital twins’) of urban landscapes to simplify town planning.

The challenge of cartography Cartography continues to evolve in the digital age, yet cartographers still face challenges that confronted them 200 years ago. One is that of space on the map itself. The Ordnance Survey core database contains close to half a billion map features. A rough calculation of dividing that down puts approximately 2,500 features in a 2cm by 2cm square, on a 1:50,000 map. How can cartographers condense that amount of raw data, and turn it into something that is understandable and easy to read (without having to use a magnifying glass)?

“Will there be any need to flatten a 3D world into two dimensions for a map in future?”

The advancement of geospatial technology has introduced new conventions to represent the real world. For example, 3D rendering can create incredibly accurate representations of an urban or rural landscape, from hills and valleys to the heights of skyscrapers, accordingly.

With that in mind, to what extent do cartographers need contour lines? The familiar orange/brown numbered lines have famously denoted land heights since as early as 1774.

While there remains value in using contours to represent 3D shapes on a 2D paper map, will there be any need to flatten a 3D world into two dimensions for a map in future?

As the world continues to change, maps need to be updated quickly and accurately to reflect these alterations. This has become more of a pressing matter with the introduction of GPS, and especially driverless cars. Maps need to keep up with constantly changing locations, anything relevant to route planning, and road safety. It is expected that driverless cars will frequently scan locations and record any new developments, to then upload into a central hub so all other cars are aware. This isn’t just about making driving simpler and more enjoyable; the geospatial technology must exist for driverless cars to work.

New hardware Maps of the future will see significant changes, starting purely with the platform: phone, smart watches, smart glasses. New hardware that has yet to be designed may lead to new map designs.

Even so, there’s always going to be space for a paper map.

Phones and watches are useful, unquestionably, but there remains enjoyment from using a paper map. Plus, it never hurts to have a backup should a phone run out of battery.

New information It is already true that maps of the future will contain information that was never even dreamed of when the first maps were made, such as mobile phone signal coverage, and carbon emission hotspots.

Requirements change with the passage of time and events. As an example, OS is famous for being a provider of rural maps. Yet, given the events of 2020-21, with lockdowns and families limited to exercising in their local neighbourhoods, demand for OS map data in an urban setting significantly increased. Data showed a huge increase

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in usage of the greenspace layer of the app, which includes parks and the urban cycle networks. People have been keen to discover their local areas; during the first UK lockdown there was a surge in OS Maps subscribers, with an 80% growth.

OS Maps is a platform which other data can be plugged into and built upon. By working alongside partners outside the organisation, OS can source the innovation of other, thirdparty providers’ data. A recent partnership between walking and cycling charity Sustrans and OS helped develop the concept of user-specific map layers. Their combined efforts produced detailed, user-friendly and accurate information on the National Cycle Network’s 16,575 miles of traffic-free and quiet on-road cycling and walking routes, spanning Great Britain. The information is available as a free layer within OS Maps, helping more people to discover routes in their local area. Views of the National Cycle Network layer increased since February 2020 by 98%.

New users

‘Smart maps’ In future it seems likely that no-one will use the exact same map, but rather one(s) tailored to their individual needs.

What if the latest technology, the same concept of collecting real-time location data that makes driverless cars possible, were applied to a walker’s map?

Imagine a map with crowd-sourced, real-time data. Clearlymarked popular areas with current foot traffic, wildlife, terrain, accessibility, dangerous or hazardous conditions, recent tree falls or landslides that may hinder a chosen route. There are endless possibilities. Perhaps even a map that recognises an individual’s walking speed; a useful asset for planning a journey and allocating time.

“Imagine a map with crowd-sourced, real-time data.”

Leisure maps have evolved to suit different needs since their inception. In 1919, mapping, survey and geospatial information previously used as wartime intel was released in new sets of one-inch maps, aimed specifically at holidaymakers.

The maps were given magnificent new covers designed by Ellis Martin and became pleasing objects to own. Over time, new types have been created for different uses. In 2015, OS digitised them by releasing the OS Maps app. Routes can be plotted out and viewed on a map, or as 3D flythroughs, or even as points of interest in real-life Augmented Reality. All of this helps users visualise routes, and makes the outdoors safer and more accessible for everyone.

Further steps have been made in map customisation. OS has seen an increase in sales for custom-made maps over the past year, fortifying the idea that users continue to seek bespoke services that are relevant to them. The same can be achieved with the OS Maps app: filters and layers can be chosen and added by the user. They can choose a route based on how long they want to walk for, or how difficult they want it to be.

By design, a smart map would fit a user’s needs. Which means that there might never exist one singular, definitive ‘map of the future’ because maps of the future will be made by design, to fit individual personal preferences. One user who’s a fan of walking and reading, for example, might want to create routes that involve areas of natural beauty, plus libraries and bookshops. Whereas a map belonging to someone who likes bike rides through cities on routes with access to coffee shops would look entirely different.

Trying to predict the ‘map of the future’ is like trying to predict what fashions will exist in the future. It comes down to purely a matter of choice.

10 Winter 2021

Mapping the future Tom Armitage and Bruce Gittings FRSGS, University of Edinburgh

Maps are at the core of what fascinates us as geographers; they are the record of our endeavour, a scientific tool to measure and explain the world around us, and a work of art to be appreciated and enjoyed.

Today, the use of GIS and related digital technologies continues to push the boundaries of what is possible with spatial data. The latest systems are designed to handle vast quantities of data, such as the global volunteer-contributed Open Street Map dataset, with RSGS has a remarkable map collection, over seven billion data points and ranging from 16th-century maps of over four million changes being Scotland through 19th-century maps made every day. They can process of India to present-day city plans. We detailed three-dimensional (3D) greatly value this collection, accessible models of glaciers or buildings. and enjoyed by RSGS members, They can handle complex real-time academic researchers and data needed to guide driverless a broader public. RSGS cars, and ensure that commonplace holds one of only two activities such as planning, refuse major publicly-accessible collection, mobile phone network map collections in provision and river monitoring Scotland that are of are carried out as efficiently as international scope, possible. New cartographic and data actively valued and A GIS ‘heat map’ visualisation showing the density of visualisation techniques have been growing, the other being Edinburgh’s listed buildings. © Tom Armitage, 2021 adopted to take advantage of this within the National Library of Scotland. Once, influx of information, highlighting the quantity of data as every university and many local libraries had can be seen in the map of listed buildings in Edinburgh, or vibrant map collections, curated by specialists and used by allowing interactivity such as animated changes over time or many. Now these are rare. We have metamorphosed into a to explore, rotate and zoom a 3D model such as the flooding digital world. model of Inch Park in Edinburgh (www.geos.ed.ac.uk/~bmg/ In 1971, the Ordnance Survey began to use computers to InchPark) which we developed for our students. simplify its large-scale mapping. By 1995 it had replaced its While technology races on apace, Ordnance Survey still triangulation network with Global Positioning Systems (GPS) does produce paper maps. Importantly, several historic map and digitised all of its mapping products, making Britain the collections are being digitised, with the National Library of first country in the world to have a complete programme of Scotland being an international leader in this regard. While electronic mapping. While some of the traditional craft of viewing a wonderful map online may not give quite the same putting a cartographer’s pen to paper was lost, it did mean experience as seeing it in person, the digital version is more that data surveyed in the field could be available as maps accessible and will have been examined by many more people to the customer within 24 hours. A decade later, Google than could ever hope to see the original paper copy. Also, Maps arrived – the most significant advance in mapping for once these paper maps become ‘data’ we can much more centuries. Suddenly, maps existed for the entire globe and easily assess differences and changes, overlay additional were freely available to everyone at the click of a mouse information and compare and contrast them to the present button. It became easy to integrate these maps, and the day. The online Gazetteer for Scotland (www.scottish-places. associated aerial photography and satellite images, with your info) shows how the National Library’s historical maps can be own website, adding your own data and tools. integrated and compared using simple but effective tools.

“The University of Edinburgh was in the vanguard of GIS teaching and research.”

This period of change was driven by the rise of Geographical Information Systems (GIS), the digital infrastructure used to capture, create, store, analyse and visualise spatial data.

Tracing its routes back to Computer-Aided Design (CAD) and Landscape Architecture software in the 1960s, GIS and the data it created and analysed became increasingly sophisticated through the 1980s and beyond. This caused a revolution in the way that location data was used by government and industry, and brought maps and sat-nav to your smartphone. The University of Edinburgh was in the vanguard of GIS teaching and research, developing the world’s first Master’s degree in GIS in 1985. To date, this programme has brought more than 1,000 skilled professionals to a burgeoning geospatial industry that is now worth in excess of £6 billion to the UK economy. This industry is represented by the Association for Geographic Information in Scotland (AGI-Scotland), which brings together geographers and computer scientists, environmental scientists and engineers, surveyors and lecturers, running events including an accessible seminar programme.

GIS has brought a further benefit. In the past, few were lucky enough to call themselves professional geographers. Today, this has changed – young people with interests in maps and computers have a clear career path into an industry which is growing and well paid. Mapping has a future, a strong and vital future, and never have maps been more exciting!

The Gazetteer for Scotland: visit www.scottish-places.info/towns/ townmap155.html and click on the big ‘+’ on the right-hand side.

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Mapping Scotland’s crops from space Richard Scales, GIS Analyst, Geographic Information Science & Analysis Team (GI-SAT), Scottish Government

Using radar satellite images and machine learning techniques, the Scottish Government has taken on the challenge of replacing its traditional surveys with mapping the main cereal harvest crops from space, to provide better estimates of production values and yields.

Many companies and organisations use visible and radar satellite data to map fields and crop growth for the agricultural industry. But the Scottish Crop Map 2019, published in May 2021 by Rural and Environmental Sciences and Analytical Services (RESAS) Division, was created using several months’ of radar satellite images alone. Alongside the application of machine learning techniques, we are attempting to classify fields where the common cereal crop types are grown and to identify areas of grassland.

The aim is to provide a robust method of collecting, verifying and producing crop production area estimates. However, as this is a first attempt and improvements can still be made, it has been released as ‘Experimental Statistics’. This designation allows an official statistics badging, but noting the methods and data are still under review. It doesn’t yet reduce the burden of paperwork on farmers but is available to view online.

The map was created by collating and analysing several existing datasets. The building blocks of the map use 400,000 digitised land parcels from Ordnance Survey data.

By taking away land for forestry or upland areas, it then focuses the dataset on likely agricultural land. A time series of satellite imagery from the Sentinel-1 radar satellite constellation was then extracted for each field.

This type of data has several advantages for mapping crops.

Namely, the entirety of Scotland is surveyed every six days, and radar satellites obtain a clearer image of the ground

below, over visible colour images which are easily blocked by clouds.

Beneficial for Scotland!

“Radar satellites obtain a clearer image of the ground below.”

The satellites measure the strength of the return radar signal they transmit, known as backscatter, which detects the ‘roughness’ of the ground surface. A rougher surface will reflect more radiation back in the direction of the sensor which also translates to growing vegetation. A bushier, larger crop returns a higher backscatter value than a small, young crop. This information can be used to determine growth stages. The pattern change over a crop year helps to determine the crop type, since each matures at a different rate and different time of the year.

The finalised cleaned data can be analysed by a machine learning algorithm known as a random forest model. When combined with a smaller subset of physically inspected fields, known as the ‘training set’, it teaches the model what the actual backscatter values look like for the main crop types. The algorithm then applies this knowledge to classify the remaining unknown fields from the radar images.

Collaboration has been vital to the project – in particular, the Simple ARD Service of analysis-ready satellite imagery, provided by the Joint Nature Conservation Committee and available at no cost under the terms of an Open Government licence. Additionally, EDINA, an organisation run by the University of Edinburgh, assisted with automating workflows and methodological development. Both organisations provided technical support and access to high-performance computing facilities to process the very large datasets involved.

The results of this work are promising, and show accuracies of above 85%, and over 90% for barley and wheat crops.

Further work is already underway using the results of this project, with a Scottish Environment, Food and Agriculture Research Institutes (SEFARI) Fellowship investigating modelling crop yields using soils data and Met Office weather data.

You can contact the team through the website and map, and feedback is welcomed as the product moves to ‘Official Statistics’ designation and replaces the current crop survey form. Access to the interactive mapping tool, along with breakdowns of total areas of each crop for different regions in Scotland, is available at www.gov.scot/publications/scottishcrop-map-2019. Here you will also find links to the code and methodology, and comparisons with the survey-estimated crop areas are also possible.

An extract of the Scottish Crop Map for Eastern Scotland. © Crown copyright and database rights (2021), Ordnance Survey

Cereal crop. Image by Catkin from Pixabay.

12 Winter 2021

Mapping for EV infrastructure improvements David Jones, Ordnance Survey (OS)

Experts and enthusiasts from across sectors joined a two-day OS Map & Hack event in October, working on ways to enhance electric vehicle (EV) infrastructure in Britain. Participants were tasked with overcoming problems such as where charge points should be developed, how to attract more non-EV owners, and how to level up EV infrastructure in remote communities. They were given premium OS data and APIs, other data sources including UK-wide datasets from EV route planning and charger app WattsUp, and full support and expertise from OS’s team of GIS specialists.

Four concepts were presented in front of a judging panel at the hackathon final.

Circuit Finder, from the Department for Transport, calculates how long a journey will take for EV owners with different needs. Users put in their start point and destination for journeys, and the app finds the best route for them according to their preferences, “‘We’ve been such as if they want to be in able to start a comfortable to bring this Image by andreas160578 from Pixabay. place while entire site they wait for their car to charge, or if they want identification to get charged and away as quickly as possible.

Circuit Finder gives a map of the journey with process into charge points, bespoke stats related to car charging a single capacity, and timings for how long it will take to application.’” charge it.

The winning idea was an EV Charging Site Planner app created by Arcadis. Designed with local authorities and private developers in mind, it assesses potential locations for installing EV charging points, then refines and characterises any search by pinpointing locations that are unsuitable (red), worth considering (amber) and best (green). It takes into account factors such as proximity to existing charge point infrastructure, driving times, land ownership, priority land without any charging points, grid supply from sub-stations, amenities (likely places where people would want to leave their vehicles) and greenspaces.

Leeds was the example tested during the hackathon, with the app revealing 144 of the best potential charge point sites to be found on city council land, and a further 650 possible sites elsewhere that could be considered. Another benefit is how the app helps users to review sites without wasting time on site visits at unsuitable locations. Information can also be shared in on-screen reports to interested stakeholders.

Arcadis Technical Director Simon Ross said, “Through the hackathon we’ve been able to start to bring this entire site identification process into a single application, incorporating not only site suitability and land characterisation, but also the capability for users to share preferences for new installation sites with other project stakeholders. This interactivity around the planning process will enable us to give a significantly enhanced experience to our customers and to the businesses and public that ultimately benefit from robust planning of an expanded EV charging network.”

EV Charging Site Planner app, by Arcadis.

Plonkers, designed by Ofgem, is aimed at levelling up rural communities to help them transition towards becoming EV-friendly. The prototype app focused on Thurso, and investigated where was best to plonk charge points.

Using mapping data to provide household addresses, tourist information, hotels and caravan parks, it investigated households who share the same charging points, and distances from the nearest charger.

Rate My Charger was created by RAC Agilysis to promote the best chargers in the country. The idea for the app was to look at what real EV journeys are like and understand what kind of qualities people expect to see from public charging points. The quality of EV charging points was scored based on availability of factors: how safe people felt using them, the quality of a mobile phone signal, whether there were any public conveniences nearby, how scenic the location was, and other amenities nearby.

OS’s Head of Geovation Carly Morris said, “It is great to see the combined efforts of start-ups, private enterprise and the public sector working together, and to see what great things have come out of that. Of course, it has only been two days but there is potential for even more impact to come from these ideas.” The Geospatial Commission’s Head of Policy Ruth Cookman said, “Innovative uses of location data will be vital in enabling the UK’s pathway to net zero and transition to electric vehicles. The OS Map & Hack event demonstrated the huge potential of location data and where this impact could be realised.” The Overseas Development Institute’s Head of Consultancy for Data Programmes Lisa Allen added, “Geospatial data is core data infrastructure and is a vital component of resilient modern societies. It is as essential as roads, railways and the electricity network.

Events like this help drive innovation, can be a catalyst for growth, and build economic and social prosperity.”

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Using geospatial data to respond to humanitarian disasters Dr Barbara Bond MBE PhD FRGS

“MapAction’s maps are in every UN, NGO and donor office. They have informed our decision making and proved essential to the planning of the humanitarian response.”

Daniel Baker, UN Humanitarian Coordinator for Myanmar MapAction is a leading humanitarian mapping charity that works through skilled GIS volunteers. Its purpose is to provide support to decision making and information management in humanitarian situations anywhere in the world, through the application of geospatially based methods, with the aim of preserving life and relieving poverty and suffering. Since it was established in 2002, it has responded to over 120 humanitarian emergencies which have impacted the lives of tens of millions of people.

MapAction is an essential part of a well-developed humanitarian programme responding to complex emergencies such as earthquakes, volcanoes, hurricanes, floods or tsunamis. Whilst originally most of its involvement was through the United Nations’ Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (UNOCHA) and because it is usually local communities and national governments who are the first responders, MapAction usually now operates at local level through regional partners and civil society organisations.

Whilst located in the UK, MapAction has a global reach.

It has worked closely with the World Food Programme in Asia Pacific and has a long-term agreement to provide GIS services globally to UNICEF. It recently signed an MoU with the Association of South East Asian Nations’ Humanitarian Assistance Centre, and works closely with NGOs such as Oxfam and Save the Children, the Start Network and others.

keeping the picture of vulnerability and unmet needs under review. The mapping essentially reflects emerging information and provides the glue which binds together the entire humanitarian response, ensuring the sound disposition and deployment of those other resources. GIS techniques come into their own in precisely these rapidly developing and changing situations.

Increasingly, however, the balance of the work is moving towards preparedness work, so that aid agencies and national organisations can be better prepared to respond in vulnerable areas.

“GIS techniques come into their own in precisely these rapidly developing and changing situations.”

MapAction deploys an initial two- or three-person team in less than 48 hours for up to a two-week period. Examples of volunteer deployments include both slow and sudden onset disasters, as well as complex conflict and population movements, including these examples: Ebola outbreak in West Africa; flooding disasters (eg, Surinam, Guyana); earthquakes (eg, Haiti, Nepal); volcanoes (eg, Indonesia); tsunamis (eg, Sri Lanka); conflict (eg, Syria); post-conflict (eg, Sri Lanka); Beirut port explosion; Covid (over 30 responses providing mapping and information products to governments, sector coordination bodies, UN agencies, NGOs, Red Cross and Red Crescent).

MapAction has an HQ staff of 22 (15 FTE) salaried individuals, complemented by 12 Trustees, several other non-technical members, and some 76 volunteers who are supported by their employers in the public and private sectors. All the volunteers are highly skilled GIS, software, data science or IT professionals in their day job; additional training in the nature of humanitarian relief work is provided.

The selection process is rigorous and, to date, the charity counts itself fortunate in having more applicants than it needs. Donors play a critical role each year in helping MapAction to raise approximately £1m in addition to the funding it receives from several governments, including the Netherlands’ Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the German Federal Foreign Office, and the US Agency for International Development, to ensure it can respond each and every time it is called on.

The original rationale for the creation of MapAction was the provision of early days’ information in order to answer a few critical questions posed by the responding aid agencies and inform their decision making. The ability to provide real-time mapping data has been more recently enhanced by the use of data science techniques to unlock resources ahead of time and forecast an upcoming emergency, as in Ethiopia where the work in partnership with the Centre for Humanitarian Data resulted in the early release of funds from the UN’s Central Emergency Response Fund, effectively leapfrogging the response forward. Ultimately the goal is always to enable aid resources to be used as effectively as possible, and maximise the benefit to affected communities so their Dr Bond is a former senior civilian recovery can begin as quickly as possible.

Director of the UK Hydrographic Office, a Past President of the When disaster strikes, people’s lives can be destroyed British Cartographic Society, within a matter of seconds. The challenge for the aid and a Trustee of the UK-based agencies is to know where to start. Within hours of an disaster relief charity MapAction alert, MapAction mobilises a team of GIS volunteers to (www.mapaction.org). She has given map the needs of those affected and help coordinate talks to RSGS audiences on WWII the response. It helps the aid agencies to get aid escape and evasion mapping. to the right places quickly, so that lives can be saved and suffering minimised. As the situation on the ground evolves, MapAction’s analysis helps responders understand the changing needs of survivors, who may have been displaced by the crisis. The mapping is used to coordinate relief work and target relief (food, water, medical supplies) as effectively as possible, enabling the delivery of assistance and After the Beirut port explosion. © MapAction

14 Winter 2021

COP26: thoughts and reflections on Glasgow Mike Robinson, Chief Executive, RSGS

With international commitments setting us on track for at least 2.4°C of warming, it’s difficult not to be disappointed with the outcome of the Glasgow COP26. But then, I have been disappointed by the outcome of every one of the previous 25 climate COPs too, so this may say more about expectations and the challenge of global diplomacy and negotiation than anything else. Glasgow was another step on the long journey towards net zero and beyond. It was an improvement on Paris, but, apart from some slightly rushed announcements about coal, methane and deforestation, it wasn’t the size of step we wanted and needed to see.

To be fair, there were so many different interest groups demanding so many different outcomes, it was never going to be able to appease all of them.

After 26 years though, I think it is safe to say that our leaders in most part understand the severity of this issue.

Government delegations have been told at least 26 times about the likely impacts. They know that climate change will increase forced migration and potentially destabilise large parts of the globe. And they know that their own countries might well struggle for fresh water, for food, for resources, or be ravaged by flooding, fires, rising sea levels or storm damage. They have met many of the people who are already experiencing some of these impacts. They have also been told that we should do everything in our power to limit the risk of further climate change by limiting warming to 1.5°C.

“The UN COP is ultimately a political negotiation.”

The UN COP is ultimately a political negotiation between the world’s nation states about what to do about climate change. Arguments abound. What needs to happen? When exactly do we need to stop using coal and oil? Who needs to do most? Why should poorer nations have to solve it when richer nations caused it? Should ‘fairness’ be based on historical emissions or current emissions? Who is going to pay for protecting those countries most threatened (funding a low-carbon transition and financing adaptation)? And should there be compensation to those states most affected by its impacts (so-called ‘loss and damage’)?

Whilst disappointment is understandable, it is also important to keep some perspective about what COP is even there to do. It is a global political negotiation, so with 200 nations having to agree, compromise was always guaranteed. Glasgow COP26 was never going to produce a single global commitment which we could all rely on to stop climate change. Assuming this were even possible, very few would have believed it and it would still have relied on the political will of nation states to actually deliver it, so it was never going to be completely definitive.

There was a lot of media about India particularly reneging on wording, which is disheartening, but the West has still not done what it promised – failing to produce the funding it promised at COP16 in Cancun back in 2010 of $100bn per year by 2020. It had reached around $79bn by the end of 2018, but the figure was always deemed a minimum, not a maximum, and there is still much to be found. As with all governments, there is a hope that this is partly funded by the private sector, and all the detailed proposals for transition rely on major leverage of private finance. This, and sponsoring the costs of the COP in the first place, is why the UN accepts so many corporates in attendance, but it immediately leads to concerns over undue influence. Many of the world’s richest companies, after all, tend to be those involved in fossil fuel extraction or use.

So, the critical questions are – why isn’t there more commitment, and what needs to happen for this to change?

Why isn’t there more commitment?

The UN COP can only set high-level intentions; it falls to each country to enact them, and the UN has no authority to enforce them, so the whole thing relies on voluntary agreement. The UN hopes that, by applying pressure from the international community generally, the more reluctant countries will begin to respond. Australia, for instance, one of the least willing nations over climate change, brought forward a last-minute net zero pledge without any real plan or will to deliver it, because it was worried about being left behind by the rest of the developed world and wanted to avert criticism from its allies. But this lack of real ‘teeth’ means that negotiations at the UN often proceed at the rate of the slowest member. The fact that it has taken this long to finally identify coal and fossil fuels as culprits is evidence of this. At least having now done so, I suspect the financial world will not take so long to respond.

There are other reasons too. Not all countries care, and not all leaders care. Some are more concerned with their own purposes, with war or disputes, with short-term economics and current jobs, with Covid, and, in the case of oil, gas and coal-rich countries, with economic survival or self-survival and fear of the threat of change. And, of course, with popular opinion.

Inconsistencies in leadership also leave too much room for compromise. The UK Government, as Chair, was distracted by Covid and Brexit, and did not work as hard as, for example, the French did to seek agreements ahead of Paris. And they sent some very contradictory signals to the global community in the run-up to Glasgow, cutting the Overseas Development Aid budget and removing tax on domestic aviation, making it less credible to stand up and ask other nations to do differently.

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What needs to happen for this to change?

There is understandable anger and disappointment around the outcome of COP26, by many who have followed its progress, as people are genuinely fearful.

But I sense the wider public grow weary of ever more dystopian forecasts, and unless emitting greenhouse gases begins to cost money and alter allegiances, or reduces trade and opportunity, it is too easy for others to ignore this critical global issue and focus instead on short-term or selfish ends.

Any frustration should be directed at the countries that are dragging their heels. But there is also an opportunity to

“Negotiations at the UN often proceed at the rate of the slowest member.”

build new alliances with those countries that are at the forefront of this transformation. This requires us to focus on solutions and find ways to accelerate decision making.

COP26 recognised this by asking countries to bring better commitments forward in one year, and not, as planned, wait another five years to do so.

We need to get agreement on some of the easier solutions, like cement, outwith the COP process, to leave more time to focus on key issues. We also need to look to leaders in every sphere of society, not just in politics, to show the necessary leadership. But to do this we need to stop blaming each other and start collaborating more than ever, because most of all we need to bring people together around this issue, to win the majority over to the changes we all need, and to demand those changes, so our politicians have the political space (or are driven) to act. Only when the majority demand change will a COP be able to secure the commitments we all want and need.

16 Winter 2021

notes from the classroom

Geography: where are we going in Scotland?

Iain Aitken, President, Scottish Association of Geography Teachers (SAGT), and Principal Teacher of Geography

Some 30,000 delegates descending on Glasgow for the COP26 conference. Renewables and the green economy.

Brexit and the impact on trade. Floods in northern Europe, wildfires in California, Greece and Australia, and the worst pandemic to infect the planet for a century.

Evidently there has never been a better opportunity to study Geography.

opportunity to reset the senior phase. But several changes need to happen for Geography to prosper.

Geography is a subject which lends itself to the key principles of the Curriculum for Excellence. It promotes literacy, numeracy, digital literacy (through GIS), outdoor learning, and learning through sustainability, and is well placed to form interdisciplinary links with the sciences and the other social subjects. This should be a time for Geography as a subject to prosper.

Firstly, the focus of reform must be on promoting teaching and learning, with assessment a supporting but not dominant process. Most secondary practitioners are currently smothered by the relentless data treadmill of senior target setting, tracking and assessing. Removing the two-term dash in S4 and returning to a two-year Standard Grade type framework would enhance breadth and depth; and using continuous assessment could reduce the exam burden.

Reducing class contact would apportion time to enrich the curriculum in areas such as fieldwork and GIS. This needs to be supported by investing in the professional development and training opportunities available to classroom teachers. If you want a system of excellence, you need to invest in those delivering it.

However, the opposite is happening within our secondary schools. Between 2011 and 2019, numbers studying Geography courses below Scottish Credit and Qualifications Framework (SCQF) Level 6 have fallen by 36%. Uptake at Higher (SCQF Level 6) is down by 12%. This contrasts markedly with the rest of the UK, where over the same period GCSE entries are up by 47% and A-Level presentations are up by 12%. Whilst these statistics are fairly crude, all recent data illustrates that Geography as a subject is in serious decline in Scotland.

Secondly, reform of the national examining body is urgently required, to create a transparent body which supports both pupils and the teaching profession, instead of running them ragged with unrealistic demands and endless bureaucracy.

The attainment gap between subjects also needs to be addressed to create parity. End-of-course exams will still have a role to play, but the current variants have too much weighting, are far too long, and have repetitive question stems. In addition, the hideous rote learning pieces known as course assignments should be removed permanently.

In a response to these issues, SAGT surveyed its members pre-pandemic. This revealed 60% of S1 pupils and 25% of S2 pupils are taught Geography by a non-subject specialist.

In the senior phase, 60% of Higher classes have other levels in the same class, principally National 5 (Nat5). And 10% of senior Geography classes have four different levels in the same room. Raising attainment is nigh on impossible when teachers are asked to deliver different courses to different stages. In just under 10% of state schools, Geography is not offered at all in the senior phase.

Thirdly, support needs to be given to individual subjects, which is where most of the expertise and excellent practice in the secondary curriculum exists. The 2001 McCrone Agreement effectively signalled the end of the Subject Principal Teacher in all but four of our local authorities.

Within faculty structures, classroom teachers are expected to assume subject leadership roles without the proper remuneration and support. Schools need a focal point to manage change, and dispensing with short-term Pupil Equity Funding posts and instead reintroducing Principal Teachers would help subjects feel valued, raise standards and improve career pathways.

“The concept of sustainability needs to be at the heart of our curriculum.”

One of the main reasons for the decline is that half of state secondaries restrict pupils to studying only six subjects in S4 (essentially this is four after English and Maths). The SAGT survey reveals that state schools present pupils for an average of 6.2 subjects in S4, whilst in the independent sector it is 7.9 subjects per pupil.

But it is not simply down to option choices. Geography has gained a reputation as being a difficult subject. The Scottish Qualifications Authority’s (SQA) own statistics reinforce this; after the unnecessary lengthening of Nat5 exams in 2018, almost 30% of pupils do not achieve a C pass.

Only Mathematics has lower pass rates.

At Higher, one in four pupils who sit the final exam do not attain a C pass. Pupils studying Geography also have a statistically lower opportunity to achieve an A grade than most of the other top 15 studied subjects. Data-savvy school leaders funnel pupils into other subjects where students have only a 5% chance of failing, to ensure their attainment statistics are robust.

The proposed reform of the SQA and Education Scotland offers a window of

“All recent data illustrates that Geography as a subject is in serious decline in Scotland.”

Finally, the senior Geography curriculum needs to be modernised, especially at Nat5 level. Despite climate change being the biggest single threat to our planet, it is, bizarrely, not a mandatory component of either the Nat5 or Higher course. Furthermore, the concept of sustainability needs to be at the heart of our curriculum, allowing more relevant concepts such as sustainable food production, rewilding, fast fashion, waste management and the impact of plastics to be studied in senior phase.

Image by Wokandapix from Pixabay.

The significant problems humanity faces will require future decision makers to have a real grasp of the interactions between people and their environment.

Studying Geography has essential benefits for society.

notes from the classroom

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Mapping in the Geography curriculum Alastair McConnell, RSGS Education Committee Chair, and Head of Geography, Dollar Academy

Geography lessons have a reputation of being ‘just colouring in’. Although this is far from the truth, the importance of developing good cartographic skills cannot be underestimated, and map interpretation does play a central part at all levels of the curriculum.

At the very earliest level in the Broad General Education (BGE), geographers are encouraged to “explore and discover interesting features of their local environment, developing awareness of the world around them” (SOC 0-07a). By incorporating simple maps into lessons at the earliest opportunity, teachers develop a spatial awareness in their classes. As children progress through the BGE, the complexity of maps increases. Eventually by level 4 they should be able to “use specialised maps and geographical information systems to identify patterns of human activity and physical processes” (SOC 4-414a).

data sources. These skills are expanded further at Advanced Higher level, with half of the exam dedicated to map interpretation, again involving a large OS map and the chance also to incorporate atlas data.

A specific understanding of Geographical Information Systems (GIS) is part of the geography curriculum south of the border, and it seems inevitable that this will also come into any new courses developed in Scotland. Most Geography teachers already use GIS resources in their teaching, and the skills needed for this kind of data analysis have become a distinct selling point of our subject.

Moving into the senior phase, there is a prescribed list of map skills that pupils studying Geography may be assessed on. At National 5 level there is a requirement to be able to interpret Ordnance Survey (OS) maps, using grid references, scale, relief and contour patterns, as well as linked resources like photographs, field sketches and crosssections. Extracting and interpreting data from world maps is also a common exam question across a range of topics such as population or climate change.

The Higher Geography exam contains a specific ‘application of geographical skills’ question, always including an OS map. It is usually scenario-based and involves map interpretation along with other graphical and diagrammatic

Diagram for SQA exam question.

“The importance of developing good cartographic skills cannot be underestimated.”

Image by sandid from Pixabay.

18 Winter 2021

notes from the classroom

Digimap for schools Emma Diffley, EDINA Geoservices (digimapforschools.edina.ac.uk)

Since 2011 Digimap for Schools, operated by EDINA, University of Edinburgh, has become a well-established part of teaching in both primary and secondary schools.

Designed for use by pupils from early years upwards, Digimap provides a variety of global, historical, thematic and aerial maps, supported by a wide range of learning materials, all included in a standard yearly school-wide subscription.

Across the country pupils are measuring their journeys to school, how close their friends live, adding annotations, labels and photographs of landmarks along their route, covering classic map skills around scale and symbology. Tracking holiday travel helps extend this to an understanding of wider global issues.

Everything happens somewhere; aspects of place and space touch almost every part of our lives in some way. While the use of maps is associated with the teaching of ‘geography’, teachers and pupils using Digimap for Schools have proved that they are useful in many more areas of the curriculum: maths, biology, ecology, social studies, business, economics, history… and that the questions they prompt go a long way to instilling a curiosity about the world that is at the heart of a lifelong journey of learning.

“Digimap provides a variety of global, historical, thematic and aerial maps.”

Digimap’s acquisition of thematic overlays showing global population density, temperatures and precipitation, world biomes and other physical features, is prompting topical discussions around climate change and how widespread the impacts are on human habitation. A picture speaks a thousand words, yes? Late primary pupils have been mapping food miles and learning why exotic fruits travel so far.

Younger children are learning to explore the world, starting with familiar territories. Older pupils are identifying glacial landforms from contour maps of Scotland. The historical maps encourage discussion of land use, both now and in the past: what was on this site before our school; what changed when the motorway was built? The questions are endless.

My walk to school.

GIS for schools David Morgan, GIS Education Consultant (Schools), Esri UK

GIS is the toolkit of the modern professional geographer.

GIS allows us to analyse data in space and time, revealing patterns that would otherwise have been invisible. GIS was used extensively to understand the spread of Covid, and you may have seen the excellent Johns Hopkins dashboard (coronavirus.jhu.edu/map.html) which really did show the global scale of the pandemic.

create interactive learning resources or revision aids. To see examples of this, see the article Edtech is a new frontier: but we now have a map in the Times Educational Supplement (www. tes.com/magazine/107897/3d-issue) or follow @MissBlackGeo of Bertha Park High School, Perth on Twitter.

To find out more, and learn how you can use GIS in the classroom, visit teach-with-gis-uk-esriukeducation.hub.arcgis.com.

GIS is used in almost all industries, but its use is often hidden. Nobody gets to see the engine of a cruise liner, and GIS is usually working away in the background helping organisations make better decisions. This could be where to open a new shop, to monitor pollution in rivers and identify the source, or even how to deliver aid to those that need it most in a disaster.

“GIS tools are available in your classroom.”

The same GIS tools are available in your classroom through the free GIS service offered by Esri. This allows teachers to use GIS to bring lessons to life, perhaps through interactive dashboards showing how climate change will affect the UK (teach-with-gis-ukesriukeducation.hub.arcgis.com/pages/climate).

Digital maps can easily be embedded into sways to

Scenarios for railway adverse weather days.

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The Polar Academy: a new challenge Craig Mathieson, RSGS Explorer-in-Residence

The Polar Academy is now internationally recognised as an organisation which delivers true life-changing opportunities to the children and families who need it the most. Working with the ‘invisible’ children – the victims of bullying or abuse, or children crushed by a lack of self-esteem and confidence – the Polar Academy helps build them into leaders and role models, to inspire thousands of other young people so that they too can reach their full potential.

Our training is unapologetically demanding, with the set goals often being beyond what most can dream of. Our children are always guided to succeed. In a normal year, participants are put through a rigorous ten-month training programme before being immersed in the wilds of East Greenland, navigating and hauling their sledges through some of the world’s remotest terrain for ten days.

Due to Covid and international travel restrictions, the 2019 recruits from Bell Baxter High School in Fife had to deal with the disappointment that their expedition was cancelled ten days before they were due to fly out to Greenland in March 2020, but still they kept training. As 2021 came around, they realised that a winter expedition to Greenland would again not be possible, but still they kept training. This young team deserved to have a uniquely challenging conclusion to their Polar Academy Programme, allowing them to prove to themselves just how far they had come, both emotionally and physically, over the last two years. Everyone at the Polar Academy agreed to pull out all the stops for these young people, to give them an inspiring and worthwhile expedition in Scotland.

The expedition was divided into three stages.

Stage One involved them rowing and camping for five days through the Great Glen on a traditionally built Scottish longboat named the Orcuan. The Scottish birlinn longboat was outlawed over 400 years ago, so technically they were outlaws during the Great Glen leg! The 60 miles of the Great Glen is made up of the picturesque Loch Lochy, Loch Oich and Loch Ness. The team quickly became experts at navigating the numerous lock gates and swing bridges on the Caledonian Canal, and gave both the local residents and the international tourists some interesting live theatre – seeing the Orcuan majestically skimming over Loch Ness was a sight to behold. The strength and stamina required to row the three-tonne wooden vessel should not be underestimated, and the fact that the young team managed to set the record for the furthest she had ever travelled in one day was impressive.

Once the 60-mile row was completed, the team switched out rowing gloves for hiking boots to travel the 40 miles along the Dava Way and Speyside Way over three days for Stage Two. The Dava Way is recognised as one of Scotland’s Great Trails, situated in north-east Scotland, following the abandoned part of the Highland Railway Line between Forres and Grantownon-Spey. It is a walking, mountain biking and horse-riding route connecting the Moray Coast with the Speyside Way in the Cairngorms National Park.

The team passed through a mix of farmland, woodland and moorland as they walked from the Moray Firth to cross Dava Moor, before following the River Spey, with the final destination being Glenmore Lodge, Scotland’s national outdoor training centre in Aviemore. Glenmore Lodge was a fitting end to the walking challenge, as this was where their Polar Academy journey began back in 2019 during a rigorous selection process, and also where they spent a week undertaking expedition and survival training in the Cairngorms mountain range. The team tolerated some of the hottest weather of the year during their hike and quietly endured a multitude of blisters to finish the walk.

Stage Three gave everyone time to recuperate after all their hard work, as the weary team were flown home to Fife in luxury by helicopter, supplied by one of our incredible Patrons. This was a fitting end for such a demanding expedition. They had the opportunity to view the Cairngorms mountain range from above and marvel at the spectacular scenery while also trying to locate the routes and sites they had previously walked and camped out on during their training.

The young group of 14–17-year-olds faced this expedition head-on and with strength, determination and confidence gained through their time training with the Polar Academy.

They supported each other and succeeded as a fully bonded team who will never forget the adventure they shared crossing 100 miles of Scotland in the summer of 2021.

Through hard work and dedication, the Polar Academy is going from strength to strength. Look out for further news regarding our new Greenlandic pupil exchange programme and Polar Academy Juniors. You also haven’t heard the last of the Bell Baxter team… plans are afoot.

“Our training is unapologetically demanding. Our children are always guided to succeed.”

The Orcuan. © The Polar Academy

20 Winter 2021

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Inspiring images of Iran 1. A young shop owner selling colourful textile products, headscarves and hijabs in the Vakil Bazaar, Shiraz. | 2. Inside the lower part of the arches of Khaju Bridge, one of the historical bridges on the Zayanderud river in Isfahan, built in 1650, where people hang out during the day and night. | 3. Detail of the Shah Mosque in Isfahan, built in 1629, registered as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, and depicted on the reverse of the 20,000 rials banknote. | 4. A little shop with colourful locally-made products in the Grand Bazaar of Isfahan, known as the Qeysarriyeh Bazaar. | 5. Rooftop view of mosques and traditional buildings made of clay, along with windcatcher towers, an ancient cooling system, in Yazd. | 6. Ceiling of the Music Hall of Ali Qapu Palace in Isfahan. | 7. Handicraft depicting antiquities from the Persian era, in a little shop in Shiraz. | 8. A young boy on a motorcycle oversees a herd of camels in Bafq Desert in central Iran. | 9. A welcoming shop owner selling handmade local products plays music with his traditional drum. | 10. Inside a little workshop selling traditional handmade crafts and carpets in the Grand Bazaar of Isfahan.

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All images © Nicolas Economou

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22 Winter 2021

Fitzroy Maclean: taking a Soviet sleeper train to Samarkand Jo Woolf FRSGS, RSGS Writer-in-Residence

Posted to the British Embassy in Moscow, a daring young diplomat bought himself a ticket to places where he wasn’t supposed to go.

1937 was not the safest year to be a resident of Moscow.

Twenty years after the Bolshevik Revolution had brutally erased the Romanov dynasty, Stalin’s regime ensured that the twin spectres of fear and suspicion still stalked the streets. In the corridors of power, former revolutionaries were denounced as criminals and summarily executed.

Russian citizens who stepped out of line would mysteriously disappear, and everyone lived in dread of a knock on the door at 3am.

Although foreign embassy officials were tolerated for political reasons, those who were brave enough to live in Moscow were followed by Soviet police at all hours of the day and night. It was a daunting prospect for a new addition to the British diplomatic staff. But Fitzroy Maclean had requested the posting, and he had ambitions that would take him where none of his colleagues dared to go. After cheerfully settling himself into his office, he started to plan a sightseeing tour of Central Asia.

Maclean knew very well that if he asked the Soviet government for permission to travel, it would be refused. His destinations lay within a forbidden zone, and fellow diplomats told him frankly that he was mad. But Maclean possessed an independence of mind well beyond his 25 years, and discouragement sharpened his curiosity. He longed to see the minarets of Samarkand and gaze on the snow-covered peaks of the Tien Shan. He wanted to speak freely to the people who lived there. He got out some maps to look for the best route into Turkestan.

“Discouragement sharpened his curiosity.”

Although Maclean’s first foray was not particularly successful, he learned some valuable

Fitzroy Maclean in 1950. © National Portrait Gallery, London

Moscow in 1935.

lessons. Near Lankaran, a fishing village on the Caspian Sea, he was spotted by a troop of Soviet police cavalry and arrested. His captors assured him that his execution was imminent; but, seeing that they were unable to read his papers, the cool-headed Maclean convinced them that he was a privileged visitor carrying a special warrant, and if they failed to release him immediately the consequences would be dire. Amid profuse apologies, he was allowed to return to Moscow, where he plotted his second expedition. This time, he chose the Trans-Siberian Express.

“I started from Moscow on September 21st with a first-class ticket, bought quite openly, a supply of roubles, some tins of foie gras, no more luggage than I could carry on my back, and no definite plans.”

Maclean slipped off the train at Novosibirsk and queued for ten hours to buy the last available ticket to Biysk, some 300 miles to the south. As he boarded the southbound train, two men dressed in dark suits followed him. One settled into the berth above him, and the other took the berth below. Maclean knew immediately that they were members of the NKVD, the Soviet police. He was philosophical. At least he hadn’t been arrested or turned around.

Comfort levels on Russian trains were minimal, to say the least. The berths consisted of bare wooden boards, scarcely long enough for someone stretched at full length. Into the carriage were squashed a multitude of people who were constantly eating, drinking, talking and singing by the light of a single tallow candle. Sleep was impossible. At one stage, Maclean noticed some cattle-trucks being hitched onto the train; these contained people who were being deported from their homes and sent to work on cotton plantations in Central Asia.

During the thousand-mile journey through steppe and desert, the train halted frequently and passengers disembarked to buy food from the occupants of traditional yurts; Maclean purchased melons and eggs, but declined the roast chicken, black with age, which an old woman offered from the folds of her dress. After several days, the desert gave way to fields of ripening corn and apple orchards, and with relief Maclean

“As he boarded the southbound train, two men dressed in dark suits followed him.”

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realised he was nearing Almaty in Kazakhstan. Hitching a ride on a passing lorry, he found a pleasant town of white-painted houses and avenues lined with poplar trees.

No accommodation was available. That was the absolute verdict of both the hotels in Almaty. And even if they had a room, it would not be available to him. Seeking support, Maclean tracked down the Diplomatic Agency, where a young Kazakh man confided that he was the first foreigner he had ever met, and his arrival therefore justified his existence. A hotel room was promptly found, and he urged Maclean to consult the unlikely-sounding Society of Proletarian Tourists, who would be pleased to help. With admirable optimism, Maclean requested a car be put at his disposal, and meanwhile he set off on foot into the hills around Talgar, some 40 miles away, with one of his dutiful followers still in tow.

The NKVD agent was getting fed up. Was Maclean, he asked, intending to walk all day without eating? Because he himself came from Talgar, and he knew they would be welcome to call at one of his friends’ cottages for food.

Soon they were being greeted by a farming family, who invited them to sit outside in the sun and play with the children while they prepared a meal. Maclean had ample opportunity to talk to his hosts about their way of life; they seemed happy enough, keeping hens and pigs and growing corn and fruit on their small patch of ground.

Samarkand. Image by LoggaWiggler from Pixabay.

Back in Almaty, the fledgling tourist organisation had, by some miracle, come up with a car and some petrol. Maclean motored off to explore the valleys of the Tien Shan; at night he slept in a hut by Lake Issyk-Kul and in the morning he bathed in its icy waters. When he returned to Almaty and boarded a train for Samarkand, he noted with satisfaction that his police escort was nowhere to be seen.

Sir Fitzroy Maclean went on to pursue a distinguished military and Parliamentary career. He was an early member of the SAS and in 1943 was parachuted into Yugoslavia as Churchill’s special envoy to President Tito. He was a friend of the writer Ian Fleming, who was inspired by Maclean, among others, to create the character of James Bond;

However, the carriages were so crowded that he had to sit outside, squatting perilously on a little iron platform between two coaches. All was forgotten when he caught sight of Samarkand’s crumbling treasures.

“I climbed by a narrow, twisting stairway to the top of the Shir Dar and from there looked down on the sun-baked Registan and beyond it on the fabled city of Samarkand, on the blue domes and the minarets, the flat-roofed mud houses, and the green treetops. It was a moment to which I had long looked forward.”

Maclean strolled through bustling bazaars, seeing ripe apricots, apples and grapes piled high on the stalls; he sipped green tea in a bustling tea house whose customers sat gossiping on wooden platforms strewn with fine carpets; he gazed in silence on the Gur-e-Amir, the grand tomb of Timur, a notorious 14th-century warrior. Through open gateways he glimpsed lovely gardens and courtyards with ponds and trees.

It was utterly enchanting. Amazingly, no one challenged him: proof, if needed, of his lifelong maxim that if you ignore the laws of probability, and look as if you belong in places where you shouldn’t be, you can get away with anything.

A day in paradise; then a train ride back to reality, with the first stop in Tashkent. This cotton-producing town had such a bad reputation that the ticket-collector, a woman with a strong maternal instinct, lectured Maclean sternly about its vices. He was so tired that he forgot her warning and laid down on a park bench, but was shaken violently awake by concerned passers-by, who told him that sleeping outdoors in Tashkent was asking for trouble. Bleary-eyed, Maclean sallied forth into the streets. The town was certainly unhappy, and poverty was widespread. He witnessed a fight outside a bread shop, and was asked repeatedly if he would sell the clothes he had on.

Maclean’s unorthodox sightseeing tour was coming to an end, but his adventures had only just begun. Queuing from dusk until dawn to buy a ticket back to Moscow, he had ample time to consider the places he still wanted to see. Bukhara, reputedly unchanged since the time of the last Emir, lay only 200 miles to the south; and on the other side of the mountains was Chinese Turkestan, “temptingly near and temptingly inaccessible.” As he toiled over despatches during the long, dark winter, he would start planning again.

however, Maclean always maintained that he was never a spy. In 1951 he was a guest of RSGS in Edinburgh, giving a talk entitled Escape to Adventure.

FURTHER READING

Eastern Approaches by Fitzroy Maclean (1949)

24 Winter 2021

Scottish Maps Forum

Thematic mapping

Chris Fleet FRSGS, Map Curator, National Library of Scotland

Addy Pope, Esri UK

Many members of RSGS will hopefully be familiar with the Scottish Maps Forum, having seen copies of its Cairt newsletter or attended its seminars, but this edition of The Geographer provides a nice opportunity to bring the Forum to wider attention. It was established by the National Library of Scotland in 2002, following on from the success and interest in early maps of Scotland generated by Project Pont. The Forum is led by an invited steering committee of researchers, map users and representatives of institutions with map collections, including RSGS, with four main aims: • to stimulate and encourage multi-disciplinary map use, study and research, particularly relating to Scottish maps and map-makers; • to disseminate information on Scottish maps and map collections; • to record information on maps and map-making, particularly in a Scottish context; • to liaise with other groups and individuals with map-related interests.

Every map is a product of its maker and its reader, and maps are rarely right or wrong but simply different versions of the truth. The meaning you see in a map can reinforce or challenge your understanding of the theme it represents, and you are much more likely to believe a map if it presents a version of the truth that you believe in already. But how do you decide what map you want to make? How do you understand the way in which different maps can be used in different ways to tell a story? How do you design a map to be read in a particular way? Dr Kenneth Field answers those questions and more in his latest book, Thematic Mapping.

The Forum’s Cairt newsletter (cairt is the Gaelic and 17th-century Scots word for a map) is issued twice a year on paper and as an online PDF, usually publicising details of recent maps research, new online resources and publications, events, exhibitions, news and related stories.

We are always grateful to receive content or news to include, and the newsletter provides a good way of putting fellow researchers in touch with one another. And we are always happy to include new names to our Cairt mailing list. There is no charge for Cairt, and past issues can all be consulted online at www.nls.uk/collections/maps/subject-info/cairt.

These four examples illustrate the diversity of mapping.

“We are always happy to include new names to our Cairt mailing list.”

The Forum has also been keen to arrange a series of day seminars, usually at different locations and venues around Scotland, bringing together a selection of academic, professional and private researchers to speak on related themes. Recent speakers, for example, have looked at the value of estate maps for researching historic rural land use and woodland, collaboration between Ordnance Survey and Hydrographic Office in Scotland, using maps to research river boundaries, the practicalities of surveying in the 18th century, the value of Post Office Directory maps for researching urban history, using maps to research the history of lime works, and using computer vision to identify buildings in historic maps. Several doctoral students researching maps have often given talks, as well as those who have studied a particular archive or collection in detail.

These events have always had a friendly and collaborative feel to them, with good opportunities too for discussion and questions, as well as for particular institutions to give ‘lightning’ updates on recent developments. Some details of previous seminars can be found at www.nls.uk/collections/ maps/subject-info/forum and forthcoming seminars are always advertised through Cairt.

For further information, or to be added to the Cairt mailing list, please contact Scottish Maps Forum, National Library of Scotland, 33 Salisbury Place, Edinburgh, EH9 1SL, or telephone 0131 623 4660, or e-mail maps@nls.uk.

Using 101 maps, graphs, charts and plots of the 2016 United States presidential election data, Field explores the rich diversity of thematic mapping and the visual representation of data. He details well-known techniques and shows how to design effective maps and graphics. He also shows innovative and fascinating alternative ways of making maps of empirical data which you can use in your own work. Each example illustrates a different approach to visualising the same data, and all lead to different maps and different ways of seeing different shades of truth.

The choropleth map uses a value-by-alpha technique to modify the more commonly seen shades of red and blue. In fact, a diverging colour scheme that moves from red to blue through a middle purple is used, and then modified so that areas with low population densities are muted. Counties with more people are brought into focus because they count more in terms of votes, and land area simply does not vote. This map has also had an artistic treatment applied, by treating the data as a statistical landscape and applying a number of hill-shades to accentuate counties with larger populations.

“Maps are rarely right or wrong but simply different versions of the truth.”

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The profile lines portray transects or slices through the data. Each slice becomes a cumulative line graph with red above the line and blue below, showing share of the vote for the winner across the line. A lot of data is missing because only data points that intersect the lines are used, but it creates an interesting aesthetic. The addition of cities, shown as stars in the colour of their predominant voting patterns, adds to the overall effect to create a map that mimics the US flag – the stars and stripes.

The Dorling cartogram of proportional, nongeographically located circles is a wholly graphical map that dispenses with the real-world geographical containers (states). It overcomes some of the drawbacks of using areas that vary substantially from one another, and which over-emphasise large, sparsely populated states compared to small, densely populated states (and all those in between). Each circle is filled with dots, one per voter, and coloured red or blue. This creates a mix of colours at state level that varies in a shade of purple and shows that voting is much closer than the winner-takes-all results map.

The dasymetric dot density map reverts to the real geography and positions one dot for each voter in a geographical position relative to populated space. In essence, the county data is reapportioned so unpopulated places are merely background, and this emphasises the true pattern of voting because people are distributed disproportionally, and heterogeneously across space. A subtle hill-shade is added which helps the reader appreciate how the population is distributed, particularly in the west of the country.

26 Winter 2021

Maps and the nation Mike Parker

In 1848, Peter Kozler published his Map of Slovene Lands, a vivid portrait of the north-eastern corner of the Adriatic Sea. For over a century, it was the only example of his country being mapped as a discrete entity, so becoming a totem of the nascent Slovenian nationalist movement. In 1991, Slovenia finally became an independent nation. One of the new state’s first acts was to commission a full National Atlas, which appeared in 1998.

If just one map can provide such a powerful political spark, then a nation like Scotland is positively spoiled for choice.

The country is one of the most comprehensively mapped on Earth, as far back as the 16th- and 17th-century national atlases by Timothy Pont and Dutch cartographer Joan Blaeu. Blaeu’s 154-page atlas, of maps, graphs, essays and annotations, was part of a series that placed Scotland firmly in an international context. This is evident when you consider that it first appeared in 1654 in Latin, and subsequently in French, Dutch, German and Spanish – but not in English until 2006!

“A map is so much more than a mere way of getting from A to B.”

Much of the geographical information in Blaeu’s atlas was taken from the earlier unfinished atlas of Fifer Timothy Pont, and it was other Scottish cartographers who produced some of the finest maps of their age. In 1832, John Thomson produced his Atlas of Scotland, and we are suddenly in the modern age.

Thomson’s cartography was crisp, clear and contemporary, mapping the towns, counties, roads and mountains in dazzling detail and very recognisable form.

Long gone were the days of ‘Here Dwell Wolves’ written on unrecognisably shapeless representations of the Highlands.

in Scotland, perhaps better than anywhere. A map is so much more than a mere way of getting from A to B. It is an extension of self, a touchstone of identity, a statement of ambition and belonging. No surprise that a Map of Innerleithen area, from John Thomson’s cartographic 1832 Atlas of Scotland. slight can ignite controversy quicker than you can say ‘retweet’. Remember the pre-social media meltdown when, in 2005, the BBC changed the angle of tilt on their weather map, relegating Scotland to a receding afterthought? The corporation was inundated with complaints, questions were asked in Holyrood and Westminster, and they could do nothing but back down within days to restore some cartographic pride. It has to be said, though, that it did nothing to improve the weather.

Maps are everywhere now. We consult them every day on our phones and laptops. They appear as logos, badges, posters, artwork, even tattoos. They frame who we are, and who we aspire to be. Just ask those Slovenians, gathered so hopefully in the darkest times around the guttering flame that was their one national map.

Thomson’s mapping was of a soft political bent. He wanted Scots to be amazed and proud of their land, its physical prowess and huge scope. It was a true labour of love to which he dedicated his life, so much so that it ended up bankrupting him. His legacy though is monumental, and a fine reminder too of the intellectual furnace that was early 19th-century Scotland. Out of the same Edinburgh enlightenment that spawned John Thomson came the Encyclopædia Britannica, The Scotsman, Blackwood’s Edinburgh Magazine and publishers Constable, Chambers and A & C Black. Out of it too came the greatest cartographers Scotland ever produced: Bartholomew’s.

Founded in Edinburgh in 1826, Bartholomew’s were arguably the finest map-makers who ever graced these shores.

Aesthetically, I’d say it was no contest: ever since falling in love with maps at a tender young age, I’ve always adored the exquisite attention to detail of Bart’s maps. It is no surprise that the company who pioneered the use of colour shading to denote differing land heights were the best ever to deploy the art. No-one else has ever come close. Neither is it a coincidence that the colour palette upon which they fixed, for their flagship half-inch to the mile series especially, looks at its absolute best for Scotland. Further south in Wales or England, mountains rarely reach sufficient height to warrant the purples and snowy whites of the multitudinous Bens of Scotland. Their maps of home turf are works of art, as worthy of being mounted on the wall as pored over on a howling hillside.

Such is the power of the map, a truth so graphically deployed

Map of the Slovene Land and Provinces, by Peter Kozler.

Mike Parker’s classic book, Map Addict, will be republished

by William Collins, with new material, in July 2022.

His latest book is On the Red Hill, which won the nonfiction Wales Book of the Year and was runner-up for the Wainwright Prize for UK nature writing. See www. mikeparker.org.uk for details, or follow Mike on Twitter @ mikeparkerwales.

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Walking without maps Richard Else

Alfred Wainwright – the single-minded guidebook writer who mapped almost every square yard of upland Lakeland – was absolutely clear when talking to me. As we pored over many Ordnance Survey sheets depicting his 40 years of exploration, he looked up and said, “maps are my favourite form of literature.”

settlements and tourist attractions worthy of inclusion. If, like me, you’re a keen walker, they are of little use. Initially I found this unnerving, because whatever I might refer to – printed map, smartphone or GPS – I’m used to knowing, with a greater or lesser degree of accuracy, where I am. To make this more confusing, walking in much of Cappadocia involves descending into valleys. Many of the entrances to these valleys are not obvious and often poorly signed. And, unlike climbing a mountain, there are no immediate points of reference.

“I have an involuntary need to locate myself on a map.”

I knew exactly what he meant, thinking back to an inspiring geography teacher who explained to a shy 13-year-old how OS maps (in premetric days, one inch to the mile) enabled you both to orientate yourself in a landscape and to navigate through it.

From that followed precise map references, an understanding of true, grid and magnetic north, triangulation, pacing and, eventually, Naismith’s rule.

These, of course, were pre-GPS and smartphone days, but the advice and help I received then has stayed with me down the years. Whether working with fair-trade rubber farmers in Sri Lanka or photographing the coffee harvest in the hills of Guatemala, I have an involuntary need to locate myself on a map. Perhaps it’s a desire for security – to know, in effect, my place in the wider world – or to understand my journey or discover what might lie beyond the next set of hills.

Later, as I travelled more, I learnt the limitations of maps and how they rely on accurate data. Shortly after the millennium I was in Greenland, and a group of us struggled to confirm our location until we realised how much the glaciers surrounding us had retreated and altered the landscape. And then there’s the curse of the otherwise excellent Norwegian 1:50,000 maps with their contour interval of 20 metres. At the end of a long day traversing the Hardangervidda, and with the DNT (Norwegian Trekking Association) hut still not in sight, what looks level on the maps is a continuous series of undulations that becomes a test of fitness and stamina.

Most disconcerting of all was my first visit to Cappadocia in central Turkey, and the rapid discovery that there are no detailed maps. The cartography that I rely on almost anywhere else is missing. There are maps of Cappadocia, but most are rudimentary with only the larger

But this isn’t all bad news. Travelling through the hidden valleys of Cappadocia means we are, in effect, stepping back in time, and gives walking in this region a feeling of genuine exploration. There’s another benefit too: once you leave a tourist hub like Göreme, you are soon on your own and away from the crowds, free to explore these surreal landforms in peace and quiet. It is a region far more varied than first impressions might suggest. Sometimes it is quite arid, at other times fertile and full of vegetation. Every day is a new experience, and not simply because this is a constantly changing landscape, but one steeped in history and with a rich culture.

The lack of detailed mapping also deters the casual tourist and, not knowing what is around the next corner, you literally bump into local people on the trail who are keen to share their traditional lifestyle with a visitor. And there are many surprises. Not least, churches and dwellings hollowed out of the rock face, where Christians once hid in these valleys against Arab raiders. It’s easy to walk past such features but there are around 400 churches in the vicinity of Göreme alone. This area was an important centre of Christianity between the sixth and ninth centuries, although it came to the area earlier than that.

The reassuring feeling that comes from having a map as a guide is absent in Cappadocia. But that’s no disadvantage.

Taking its place is a real sense of discovery, an opportunity to visit local communities that see few outside visitors and, along with it, the great privilege to explore this hinterland before it has any significant development. For some journeys at least, it is better not to have a map.

Richard Else is a filmmaker and academic who has travelled extensively in Europe, the Americas, Africa and Asia. For someone who has always relied on maps, he initially found Cappadocia in Turkey a disconcerting experience.

28 Winter 2021

Solo to the South Pole Luke Robertson, RSGS Explorer-in-Residence, and Mindset Coach

“That is the charm of the map. It represents the other side of the horizon where everything is possible.”

Rosita Forbes, travel writer, novelist and explorer Glancing down at my skis to try and regain balance, it felt like the whole world was spinning around me.

Heavy snow had fallen relentlessly since the start of this solo journey from the coast of Antarctica. In reality it had only been six days, I reminded myself. Still, nearly a week of persistent vertigo felt like forever, as each lumbering step forward through fresh, heavy snowfall brought a new adventure into disorientation.

I had begun to wonder whether I would ever see those dreamy Antarctic days of dead-flat horizons and gliding skis I had dreamt of when previously poring over maps of this frozen continent. Maps which had brought such excitement to the planning, promising the experience of another world. Albeit a world which, right now, seemed to stretch no further than ten feet in any direction, with seemingly nothing beyond.

I tried to force myself to call a halt to this particular day’s effort; to conserve energy, both physically and mentally, for the journey ahead. But I couldn’t bring myself to do it.

Each day I was falling further behind my target mileage, and I could only think of the unfathomable distance that remained: 700 miles. The equivalent distance from Edinburgh to London, and back again. As food and fuel calculations whirred through my mind, I knew at some point the daily distance I needed to ski to reach my goal would become unachievable. Since returning with regret was my biggest fear of all, I plodded on.

C’mon.

You can do it.

Why can’t you move more quickly?

You HAVE to move faster.

Were you even up to this in the first place...?

Ok, another 50-step countdown, then I’ll stop.

That’s 50 less steps to the South Pole.

After setting up camp, I slumped onto my sleeping bag, removed my boots and settled into the evening ritual. Lighting the stove, I fought off the urge to rest my head and sleep as the tent slowly warmed. I wondered if I had actually made any progress at all since the start. Each mile I pulled this enormous sledge felt like a marathon, yet it barely shifted the needle.

Rummaging in a bag for an appetiser of powdered soup, my fingers brushed past something that I couldn’t quite place. I pulled it out. Of course! The map. The entire continent of Antarctica resized and laminated in A4. Instinctively, I traced my finger to where I had started, at Hercules Inlet, then to where I now lay. A mere pinky-size distance to the untrained eye, but evidence for my own eyes that, unquestionably, I really had made progress. Until now, I had been so focused and concerned with how far remained to ski, I had been blind to what I had achieved and the distance already covered over this unforgiving terrain.

The map had brought a new perspective and the journey began to feel very different. From barely enjoying the whole experience, each day now became a thrilling challenge to grow the length of that line. Crossing off each degree mentally as I skied, knowing an even greater satisfaction awaited each evening. Then, camped up, I’d grab the map from the bag – the soup could now wait – to mark today’s efforts in glorious ink, before plotting tomorrow’s plan of action.

A month later, as I lay in my tent just one kilometre from the South Pole, I reflected on how this small map, which had once provided such inspiration to even attempt this expedition, had done so again. For a near straight-line journey, a map of any kind almost never made the kit list. What I had once considered to be the most expendable of items had become indispensable.

When we take time to reflect on how far we have come, we are often surprised. So often it’s easier to focus more on what we haven’t achieved, than on what we have. Taking stock of our successes and celebrating all signs of progress is a vote for creating the self-confidence, self-belief and sustained motivation to propel us onto even greater things. Choose to do this and you might not only enjoy your journey more, but you’ll likely go so much further than you ever imagined possible.

“The map had brought a new perspective and the journey began to feel very different.”

In 2016, Luke became the first Scot to ski solo and unsupported to the South Pole.

The

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An interview with Simon Parker Holly McNair, Communications Officer, RSGS

In late 2020 and early 2021, travel journalist Simon Parker cycled nearly 3,500 miles around Britain. We spoke to him about his remarkable journey of discovery and self-discovery.

What inspired you to cycle around Britain?

When the pandemic hit, it felt as though I’d lost my livelihood overnight. I’d gone from travelling around the world for The Telegraph and the BBC, to sitting in my flat feeling totally ripped off by life. I could feel myself falling into a depression. I grew stressed and anxious. I’d played the ‘brave adventurer’ role for over a decade, but now I felt frail and helpless. Hitting the road was as much about finding a cure for my stress and anxiety as it was about paying my mortgage. I had to come up with something, to feel as though I was living and not just surviving.

How important were maps for your journey?

If I’m honest, I don’t use paper maps anymore. I rely upon Google most of the time and my phone can calculate how long I have left to ride that day. That said, you shouldn’t really rely upon modern technology. I ended up following routes through muddy fields and on the sides of busy A-roads. My phone battery also died a lot of the time. In hindsight, however, these misadventures provide fun and unexpected interludes. I think the best maps are the imaginary ones in people’s heads.

Asking for directions opens up a can of worms and sometimes leads to a cup of tea or a place to camp.

“This journey gave me time to think.”

What was your favourite part of the journey?

I adored Scotland. I’m embarrassed to admit that I’d reported from over 100 countries but had barely seen this epic country. In particular I loved my time in Shetland. It’s an often bleak and wild place but the friendly souls I found there made up for it. I interviewed Britain’s northernmost fisherman and ate barbequed lobster in the warm autumn sunshine. I met hoteliers on the brink of financial ruin and wild swimmers who brave the elements 365 days a year. I’m hoping to make it back soon, when my book comes out, to speak at some book shops and theatres there.

What places would you most like to return to?

Wales, I think. When I passed through, the country was in a national lockdown and I had to bend the rules to cross the Severn Bridge into Bristol. It felt like such a shame to cut this magnificent country off my route and it has lingered with me ever since. I’d also like to return to Scilly. I was there for 48 hours before a huge storm rolled in from the Atlantic and I made a mad dash to reach the mainland. I met some fascinating people there, like smallholders and farmers. As a journalist, it was important that I reached the periphery of the country at such a unique time. I felt as though the reporting of the pandemic from the mainstream media had missed all the really intriguing stuff right at the edges.

Would you encourage others to go on a similar journey?

Absolutely. This journey gave me time to think and contemplate the position where I found myself at in life.

Without giving away too many spoilers, I came to terms with several big things in my life and I also made some big decisions about how my life would go on to play out in the future. My forthcoming book is as much a rallying call, as it is a memoir and travelogue. I want to show people that these big overland adventures are better for us than almost anything a doctor can prescribe you. I didn’t want to wallow around in self pity, I wanted to grab my bike and hit the road.

What were the biggest challenges?

The British weather can be extreme. I encountered severe rainfall in Cumbria and was soaked to the bone. I was nowhere near as prepared as I should have been and the hills were a massive challenge. Later on in the trip I faced a heatwave in the southeast of England – it was enough to make me feel awful and I was struggling to sleep properly. The biggest challenge, however, was my own anxiety. In the book, I speak a lot about how I suffer from breathlessness and insomnia: two things that will hinder a 3,427-mile bike ride.

Can you tell us more about your new book?

Riding Out is about toughing out bad times in life in order to reap the rewards on the other side. Rather than sitting at home feeling sorry for myself, I set off to find dozens of other Britons who had been through similar hardships. I met farmers, fishermen, artists and musicians, the length and breadth of the country. I cycled from the very northern point of Shetland, all the way to the southern tip of the Scillies, then all the way back up again, via the white cliffs of Dover.

This trip was about finding a way to heal, through travel.

Simon Parker’s new book, Riding Out, will be published

by Summersdale Publishers on 21st April 2022 and is available to pre-order now.

30 Winter 2021

Plotting routes to the world’s hidden treasures Stephen Lund (aka ‘Cycleangelo’)

With GPS tracking, city maps become treasure maps.

What do you see when you look at a city map? A sprawling array of neighbourhoods and green spaces, of homes and businesses and civic attractions? A complex web of roadways and pathways connecting east to west and north to south? A purely pragmatic tool for solving the challenge of getting from point A to point B? Look closer. Not just with your eyes – with your imagination too. There, within the intricate tapestry of roadways, alleyways and pedestrian pathways, you’ll almost certainly see familiar shapes and forms – hidden treasures that, with some creative wayfinding and simple GPS tracking, can be brought vividly and whimsically to life. All it takes is a shift in perspective.

When I moved to Victoria, Canada, a decade ago, my map of the city was an indispensable tool. A stranger in a strange land, I’d glance at it often to find my way when one of the kids had a swim meet or a dance recital or a playdate with a friend. I slowly got to know the lay of the land, but only in the disconnected fragments of this short trip or that one. I had never pored over the map and appreciated the entirety of the urban picture it painted. The distinctive anatomy of the city, and the secrets concealed within its streets, remained a mystery to me.

Until the last day of December 2014, that is, when my relationship with that map, and the city it depicted, profoundly changed.

It was New Year’s Eve. On a whim, I decided it might be fun to use my bicycle and my new Garmin – a GPS device I’d recently purchased to track my outdoor activities – to scrawl a New Year’s greeting on the streets of Victoria early the next morning. I unfolded my map onto the kitchen table and began to seek, within its colourful network of crisscrossing lines, a continuous route that spelled ‘Happy 2015’.

As my eyes followed the sweeping stretches and convoluted contours of the city’s thoroughfares, as they wandered through little pockets of symmetrical grid that unravelled around the edges into serpentine threads winding this way and

“GPS doodling turns exercise into bold creative adventures.”

that, I began to see familiar forms and curious outlines – like shapes in the clouds.

I saw the face of a witch and a sea serpent’s head, an elephant’s trunk and an anteater’s snout. I saw a digger, a sea lion, a cyclist. And more clearly than anything else, I saw a giraffe.

These were the seeds of an exhilarating pastime that I call GPS doodling. Using rough shapes and forms as a starting point, you simply need a detailed map and some focused wayfinding to plot a route that completes the picture and fleshes out the details. Once you’ve planned the route, you need nothing more than some form of locomotion and a GPS tracking tool – a free app on your smartphone will do the trick – to bring your inspiration to life on a grand scale!

Beyond transforming a city into an artist’s canvas, GPS doodling turns exercise into bold creative adventures. And exciting urban exploration.

Much of the thrill of GPS doodling is that it impels you to venture into the unknown: unfamiliar surroundings, roads you’ve never before travelled, parks and landmarks and vestiges of history you didn’t know existed. It’s a complete geographic immersion, an exciting and purposeful way to explore every nook and cranny and uncover countless hidden surprises in the city you call home or the destination you’re visiting.

At its essence, GPS doodling isn’t so much about ‘creating art’ as it is about uncovering pictographic treasures hidden within the intricacies of a city’s urban plan.

For aspiring explorers and enthusiastic treasure hunters who lament that there’s little left undiscovered in our world, you needn’t look any further than a city map to satisfy the longing for discovery that resides deep within the human spirit.

When people applaud my creativity, I’m quick to point out that I don’t create giraffes and raccoons, elephants and anteaters on the streets of Victoria. They’ve been there all along. The GPS doodler’s role is simply to discover their presence – and give them life.

The

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Three lessons I learned from vintage maps Simon Kuestenmacher

As a geographer and demographer, while researching my columns and presentations I often stumbled across interesting maps that weren’t relevant to the task at hand but were just too good to let go to waste. So I started sharing particularly artistic, informative, and funny maps on my Twitter and Facebook accounts. After doing this for five years, I gathered quite a following of map enthusiasts. While I am not a cartographer, I am certainly a fan and connoisseur of maps – particularly of vintage maps. Let me share three lessons that I learned from them.

AD 1498. The Discovery Of America. Edward Quin, 1830. © David Rumsey Historical Map Collection

Our first map was created almost 200 years ago, in 1830, but it looks back to 1498. Europeans had just stumbled across a whole new continent. This must have been a time in history when the limited knowledge Europeans had of the world must have been front of mind. This map does a wonderful job of displaying the unknown through the fog of war effect, clouding the unknown parts of the world. The map is part of a wonderful atlas that shows, from a European / Middle Eastern perspective, what was known of the world at different stages throughout history. This map uses a cool modern aesthetic and reminds us that, despite the wealth of knowledge that we possess, there are vast unknown territories out there that yearn to be explored. It’s also a (pretty literal) reminder that we mustn’t mistake the map for the territory. Reality is always more complex than our representation of it.

Panoramic plan of the principal rivers and lakes. John Emslie, 1850. © David Rumsey Historical Map Collection

The second map was created in 1851. It compares the lengths of 41 rivers and 36 lakes across

the world. Everyone observes the world through their own individual lens, has their own pockets of knowledge as well as ignorance. You might for example have a somewhat intuitive understanding of your local river, say the Tay, as playing an important role in your national history. You lack this intuitive understanding when it comes to other rivers though. Let’s say you read about Alexander von Humboldt exploring the Orinoco – how are you supposed to grasp how big the Orinoco is? A map like this allows you to eyeball the size of a river in reference to whichever river you understand. We need benchmarks when we consume data. You always want to provide national averages, international comparisons, the place in a particular ranking to your audience. These comparisons must be meaningful and easy to grasp of course – nothing silly like 317 Olympic swimming pools please.

“Everyone observes the world through their own individual lens, has their own pockets of knowledge as well as ignorance.”

Our third map is stretching the term ‘vintage’ a bit, but if Bon Jovi is playing on classic rock radio stations, it’s OK to classify a 1998 United States Geological Survey topographical map as ‘vintage’. Cartographer Sean Conway made a name for himself by adding modern-day elevation data to old maps. One of my personal favourites of his is this view of Mount Saint Helens. While even a two-dimensional view is impressive, this three-dimensional perspective is visually pleasing and makes us feel the destructive power of the 1980 eruption in a more direct way. When working with data, the real art is to combine several sets of data to create new perspectives.

Mount Saint Helens. © Sean Conway

If you enjoy maps, old and new, let me invite you to join me on my never-ending journey of the wonders of cartography.

There are many more lessons to be learned.

Simon Kuestenmacher was born in Germany and now works in Australia where he co-founded The Demographics Group and advises business on demographic matters. He shares his passion for maps on Twitter (@simongerman600) and Facebook (Simon shows you maps)

32 Winter 2021

RSGS on the map Margaret Wilkes FRSGS, RSGS Collections Team

With a history dating back to 1884, it is no surprise that RSGS now owns tens of thousands of historical and contemporary maps and atlases. Here is an introduction to just a few of them.

Beschrijuinge van een deel vann Schottlandt. Lucas Janszoon Waghenaer, Amsterdam, c1589.

At first sight this Dutch sea chart confuses the eye, for though it depicts the east coast of Scotland from the Moray Firth to Berwick-upon-Tweed, and thence along the English coast to Dunstanburgh (Dunstabourg), it looks at the coast from an unusual angle, as if head-on from the North Sea. It was engraved by Johannes van Doeticum, an important continental engraver, and is from a later edition (c1589) of the first printed sea atlas of Europe (1584), which contained charts to accompany a pilot book giving navigational directions. The brainchild of Lucas Janszoon Waghenaer (1533–1606), a sailor and pilot of considerable experience who hailed from the port of Enkhuizen in the Netherlands, it was a great commercial success, running into a number of editions and produced with texts in Latin, English, German and French, as well as the original Dutch.

Waghenaer shows the soundings and safe anchorages along the coast and up the Firth of Forth, the latter somewhat modified from earlier versions, which did not include evidence of the Water of Leith entering the Forth and located the island of Inchkeith (Inskig) in the wrong place. Around the coast Waghenaer records castle settlements such as Bamburgh (Bambourg), Seton (Sethon), Dunbar, Tantallon (Tamtallon), but places Chirnside (Chyruside) erroneously on the Berwickshire coast where Eyemouth should be.

“Across the top of the chart are two coastal profiles intended to give seamen some idea of the look of the land from the sea.”

Across the top of the chart are two coastal profiles intended to give seamen some idea of the look of the land from the sea. The inland areas – not of importance to the navigator except as sighting points – are filled in either with fanciful topography or with the title in a heavily ornamented cartouche typical of the period.

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Exactissima Regni Scotiæ Tabula.

Nicolaes Visscher, [Amsterdam], c1689.

In 17th-century Europe, the Dutch achieved dominance in map, chart and atlas compilation and production during what is referred to as their Golden Age. Such activity was centred principally in Amsterdam with a number of rival map-making and engraving businesses located there, often comprising family dynasties through several generations and linked by intermarriage.

Of these, the Visscher family was composed principally of engravers, and Nicolaes Visscher II (1649–1702), rather than his father, was probably responsible for producing this highly decorative map of Scotland whose outline is based on earlier maps by both Dutch and French map-makers.

Map-makers in the Netherlands may never have visited Scotland and would be reliant on outlines and information culled from a variety of sources, including plagiarising the maps of others! This sometimes added to the errors, particularly in the transcription and engraving of place-names, and in the depiction of the coast and islands. Distinctive geographical errors shown on this map include the flat top to the Isle of Lewis, the distortion in the alignment of the Isle of Arran, and the wavy rather than straight line marking the Great Glen.

Significantly, the map attempts to show the old provinces of Scotland, differentiated by colour, and the end result is a highly attractive, if not quite accurate, map of Scotland by today’s standards.

Plan de la Ville et Port de Barcelone, and Plan de la Baye & Rades de Toulon. Henri Michelot and Laurent Brémond, 1727.

These plans appear in Recueil de Plusieurs Plans des Portes et Rades de la Mer Mediterranée [Marseille, 1730]. This volume of plans of the major Mediterranean ports and sea roads in part reflects the uncertain political situation in Europe leading up to the Peace of Utrecht in 1713–14, and the need for strong sea defences round major ports. The concentration of information is on the sea approaches, the depth of water in the immediate environs of the ports, the sites of the principal defence structures, military batteries and arsenals,

the presence of dunes, marsh, mud or sandbanks which might impede access, and the position of necessitous activities such as a boulangerie in Toulon.

Henri Michelot, a French sea pilot from St Malo, and ‘Hydrographe et Pilote Real des Galeres du Roy’ to use his own description on the title page of this volume of plans, was associated in its production with Laurent Brémond, described as ‘Hydrographe du Roy et de la Ville’. Michelet also worked in conjunction with such well-known French map and atlas producers as Nicolas de Fer and Guillaume Delisle, Premier Géographe du Roi from 1718.

34 Winter 2021

Emily Georgiana Kemp FRSGS: the Chinese connection Jane Griffiths, RSGS Collections Team

“My rooted conviction is that the future of the world depends largely on what happens in China during the next decade.”

Emily Georgiana Kemp (Chinese Mettle, 1921) So wrote Emily Georgiana Kemp FRSGS a century ago.

Her first visit to the country took place in 1893. This was followed by extensive travels in East Asia and beyond, spanning a period that saw the collapse of the Imperial dynasty, war with Japan, the infamous Boxer Rebellion, and the early years of the Warlord Era. Her journey in 1920 was prompted by a desire to show her niece “something of the country” before she began work as a doctor. At the age of 60 she travelled through 13 of China’s 18 provinces. Her encounters with ethnic groups in the remote south-west of the country were recognised the following year by the French Geographical Society, when she became its first female lecturer and recipient of the Grande Médaille de Vermeil. She had previously been decorated by the French for her work in setting up a temporary hospital in France during the First World War. A modest paragraph in the Dundee Herald described her as “a woman traveller of whom one hears little, though her achievements are as great as those of others much in the limelight,” whilst a review in the Scottish Geographical Magazine commended her resourcefulness, but also noted drily that the pace of change across China had become so rapid that information could be out of date almost before publication!

mountain pathways by sedan chair. Travelling in Chinese dress as a mark of respect, an early adventure with her companion May MacDougall saw the pair reach the border with Burma without having met another European for six months. Even the apparent comfort of heated beds at inns could become a dubious pleasure when the fire underneath became too hot “and then you woke to find yourself baked like a biscuit.”

Despite all its privations, she was able to describe her first trip as “one long series of pleasant surprises.” She praised

Watercolour, Emily Kemp Archive. © Ashmolean Museum, University of Oxford

Born into a wealthy and well-connected Baptist family (her acquaintance came to include Marcus Dods, Sir Francis Younghusband and Albert Schweitzer), Emily Kemp’s upbringing was privileged but imbued with a strong sense of duty; there were substantial family ties to China through missionary work. She was amongst the earliest cohort of female students to attend Oxford’s Somerville College, becoming a gifted linguist. Her talent as an artist enabled her to produce a considerable collection of watercolours, documenting her experiences as she travelled. This collection formed the illustrations for her books, and her hand-coloured slides were much admired at RSGS lectures.

“Her handcoloured slides were much admired at RSGS lectures.”

From the first, she clearly relished the extraordinary richness and diversity of the people, customs and landscapes she encountered, but her earlier accounts in The Face of China also record simmering tensions and antipathy surrounding foreigners as the Western powers vied to pressure China into accepting concessions. She makes it clear where her sympathies lie: “Foreign powers remind one of a pack of snarling hounds quarrelling over the booty.”

Highly critical of European attitudes toward the Chinese that she considered insulting, she could also be outspoken in her attacks on the “narrow sectarianism” she observed amongst some missionary communities, and was always at pains to emphasise the importance of European institutions providing education of “impeccable quality.”

For any traveller in China at this time, a robust approach was clearly called for: her initial arrival saw her steamer being borne into Hong Kong Bay in a typhoon, subsequent trips entailed crossing icy glacial torrents in the Karakoram mountains on foot, or being carried down precipitous

Emily Georgiana Kemp FRSGS, as a Chinese female travelling scholar.

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the hospitality and courtesy she had experienced from both the Chinese and the European missionaries, noting the extreme hardships that many of the latter were prepared to undergo for their faith. Whilst she never failed to document her concerns about the poverty and hardships in the lives of many ordinary Chinese, she was also deeply inspired by the numerous cultures and immense natural beauty she encountered, remarking that some of her landscape paintings were greeted with a degree of barely-disguised scepticism on her return.

“Despite all its privations, she was able to describe her first trip as ‘one long series of pleasant surprises.’”

By the time Chinese Mettle was published, Emily Kemp had become a veteran of travel across China’s vast distances, but her journeys had never been merely an end in themselves. Although the country had undergone profound changes since her last visit in 1910, this latest book continued to reflect her lifelong preoccupations: practical concerns for education and health, especially that of women, a keen interest in the shifting political structures, and a love of remote places. The “mettle” of the title relates to her optimism about the inherent resilience of the Chinese people themselves, especially the involvement of women in education and Western medicine: “They are taking a high place and winning respect… for their ability, singleness of purpose and undaunted determination.” Her detailed accounts of the rapidly growing number of schools and hospitals were primarily designed to promote Anglo-Chinese understanding, and she noted with pleasure that increasing numbers were beginning to operate independently under Chinese control. Innovative organisations such as the Chinese Commercial Press, providing maternity leave and pensions for its employees, drew her admiration.

Her visit in 1920 took place during the years of what came to be known as the Warlord Era. China had fragmented into a series of regions controlled by brutal “strongmen” drawing much of their wealth from punitive taxes, raiding and opium

licences. Their methods of retaining power varied from region to region, and she recounts her meetings with two of the military rulers she regarded at the time as somewhat more enlightened in their approach. These included the “Christian General” Feng Yuxian, who rejected many of the excesses of his contemporaries, living a simple life and banning alcohol amongst his troops.

A journey to the remote and mountainous south-west of the country took her to Kweichou (now Guizhou), home to a variety of ethnic groups including the Miao and the Nosu. Despised by the Chinese, many lived in great poverty and isolation. Particular groups such as the Great Flowery Miao were, however, also renowned for their vivid and intricate embroidered clothing. Her descriptions combined her own experiences with those from a variety of sources, documenting their language, beliefs and religious rituals. Her interpreter was described as “astonished to find how different they were from all that he had ever heard and that he must enlighten Peking… when he returned home!”

Emily Kemp maintained her “basilisk fascination” for China even in the face of the loss of several family members, including one of her sisters killed during the Boxer Rebellion in 1900, and others succumbing to illness. Fuelled by her experiences, her lifelong desire for a deeper respect for all faiths culminated in her decision to donate funds for the building of a chapel at Somerville College in the 1930s. The chapel was dedicated, rather than consecrated, as a “house of prayer for all peoples.” Although the process was certainly not without controversy, it remains in use today.

In the century since Chinese Mettle was published, China has clearly undergone repeated transformations, but Emily Kemp’s convictions about its global significance still sound uncannily contemporary. There is little doubt that she would still endorse those views wholeheartedly in the light of the coming decade.

A summer sedan chair, China, c1900-19. © Yale Divinity Library Special Collections

FURTHER READING

Chinese Mettle by Emily Georgiana Kemp (1921) Young Miao woman in Yangshuo, China, wearing national costume. © Thomas Schoch, www.retas.de

36 Winter 2021

Young goat herders, the Gobi and the climate crisis Ben Allward and Kieran Brand

Mongolia is a country many only know through its history, a once all-conquering empire led by ruler Genghis Khan.

Though those warriors have gone, the customs that were forged during that time are still alive with the nomadic communities that sprawl throughout the countryside.

In the south of Mongolia lives Gerelmaa, a 17-year-old who lives in the harsh Gobi Desert. The Gobi is the fastest growing desert in the world, turning 2,250 miles of grassy pasture into arid, barren sand dunes every year – and it’s only increasing.

However, a new chapter is being written in Mongolia’s story, and the region is facing a climate crisis that could alter the lives of many. Climate change is set to increase temperatures in the country by four degrees before the end of the century, according to research carried out by the World Bank Group.

For Gerelmaa, it’s a far cry from the life she remembered as a child.

“When I was young, there was a lot of snow and rain, less drought, and healthy livestock and plentiful dairy products. But now, due to climate change, the drought has increased and the sun feels like it has become hotter – sometimes even unbearably hot,” she says.

With over a third of the population consisting of agricultural workers, this rise will ruin livelihoods and endanger traditions that date back generations. Many people are already being forced to relocate from the countryside to overcrowded urban cities to escape the intense weather. Others are simply giving up farming altogether.

We spoke to two young Mongolians about how climate change is affecting their lives.

“The weather is getting harsher every year.”

Byambasuren Gonchigsum, known as Gonchig, visits his grandmother every summer to help her tend to her livestock. “I get up early in the morning, go fetch the horses, tie up the foal, pick up after the cows and feed their calves.

Lastly, I go herd the sheep and goats,” he says.

The 14-year-old schoolboy and his grandmother, Khandsuren, are some of the few remaining nomadic herders still living in rural Mongolia. Worsening weather and land degradation have forced many to leave the countryside in favour of major population hubs such as the capital city of Ulaanbaatar.

Speaking of how pasturelands have changed, Gonchig says, “In the time of my grandparents, plants and vegetation were of good quality and the weather was beautiful. Now the vegetation has stopped growing. There are a lot of stinky vegetables that animals don’t eat and the weather is getting harsher every year.”

The average temperature in Mongolia has risen by more than two degrees in the last 70 years, creating drier summers and colder winters that, when combined, devastate livestock.

Mongolians call this devastation a dzud. “Dzuds can be difficult for herders if they do not prepare their hay well in the fall. Livestock cannot graze and it is difficult for them to leave their barn,” Gonchig says. Over 9.7m of the country’s livestock perished in the winter of 2009 – the worst die-off on Mongolian record.

Gonchig and his grandmother believe that moving their herd to new pastures will limit the losses brought on by the harsher climate. This process, known as otor, allows the animals to fatten at different times of the year. “We have specific dates on which we will graze on the winter and spring pastures, and that is how we will protect our grass,” he adds.

Although still at school, Gonchig dreams of managing his own livestock just like his ancestors. However, with the temperature in Mongolia set to rise by four degrees by 2080, rural herding as he knows it will soon cease to be.

The rising number of droughts also mean that sandstorms are becoming more common. “Storms in the Gobi cause a lot of dust and increased dryness, especially in the spring when there are occasions where you can’t see anything outside. The sand causes burns to your skin, and I get coughing fits regularly.”

Despite the tough conditions, the people of Gerelmaa’s village haven’t given up on their land and are doing all they can to limit further desertification. “Everyone in our village plants at least three trees a year, and if you look at the fences in our village every household has them. We have two large green spaces, and we plant all kinds of trees, fruits and berries. My fellow residents, high school students and myself are involved in this activity,” she says.

This work, however, won’t be enough to prevent desertification on a large scale. For that, more needs to be done globally. A who’s who of names with the power to make change gathered at COP26 in Glasgow in November, and for them, Gerelmaa had a message.

“I don’t think the world is aware of the problem of desertification, reduced precipitation and increased aridity in Mongolia. Earth has seven billion people, and if one person plants one tree a day, we can plant a tree that can protect us from global climate change. That is why, world leaders, I urge you to protect the world and plant trees.”

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39 Ways to Save the Planet Tom Heap

Climate change is a real and present danger to human civilisation on this planet, yet this book could have been titled 39 Reasons to Be Cheerful because it reveals the women and men delivering solutions.

During 25 years of reporting on the environment, countryside and science, I have become unshakeably convinced of the severity of what we are facing, but I often feel the stories of those who are solving this most wicked of problems are being ignored. This struck me as odd, not simply because there are inspiring and novel things to discover out there, but because solely focusing on the gloom is disempowering. In a war – and some say we need a war footing to defeat climate change – public morale is maintained by headlining success and sidelining setbacks. In the fight against climate change, we appear to be doing the reverse, leaving many people feeling anxious and helpless. Now, I am not recommending ignoring the bad news, but let’s at least hear and cheer the many things that are going right: that way they grow.

I have never felt such a buzz surrounding the need to tackle climate change. This is obviously exciting but also surprising as the clamour for action has grown alongside the more immediate threat of the COVID-19 pandemic. Here is a trio of positive thoughts. We have learnt greater respect for science, and scientists want climate action. Governments have enacted sweeping policies to limit the impact of the coronavirus so they now feel emboldened to protect people long term through the rollout of tougher rules and targets to cut carbon.

Business seems to have reached a tipping point of realisation that there is now more money to be made in solving climate change than ignoring it.

“Cutting carbon emissions is such a massive challenge that we need every tool in the box to do it.”

our own lifestyles.

So, this is why they are included.

Fundamentally, cutting carbon emissions is such a massive challenge for a civilisation reared on ever greater fuel consumption that we need every tool in the box to do it.

Insisting on only engaging with technologies that come top of the environmental virtue scale or companies with no oily blemishes in their history risks striving for the perfect while blocking delivery of the good. We don’t have time for that.

And when it comes to expecting behavioural Gravitricity is developing a novel energy storage technology; this is the change to save the 250kW demonstrator project in Edinburgh. world… the track record is so dismal that I won’t carry on playing a tune that hardly anyone is dancing to. Most chapters contain or conclude with some estimate of the scale of an idea, for example how big a bite it could take out of the 50 billion tonnes of CO2e we emit each year. This is very far from an exact science as it’s so dependent on politics, investment and public engagement, which is why I’ve opted for the heading ‘Desirable destination’. It is a goal that is within the physical boundaries of possibility and is plausible given sufficient will.

There is no exact science in how the ideas and innovators were chosen for 39 Ways to Save the Planet but I guess there are a few themes. Firstly, I was determined not to ignore the big solutions that are already working, such as wind power, solar energy, electric cars and regenerative farming. The speedy growth of these will make some of the biggest dents in climate change and I believe ‘Will’ is the thing. Having met all these we have found people who are great people and seen what they are doing, pressing the accelerator. We feature I am completely convinced that we have the some ‘hero’ scientists dwelling BladeBUG is designed to work remotely, inspecting and repairing ways to bring carbon emissions down to anywhere from suburban garages offshore wind turbines. net zero but do we to experimental seaweed farms to have the will?

Will isn’t really abstract; it’s hi-tech clean rooms, but the emphasis is on the readiness proven by the laws and spending delivered of their solutions. Stunning scientific breakthroughs, like by governments, the choices of business functional nuclear fusion, would be great but there is no need and the behaviour of all of us. Just because or point in waiting for the invention of the magic bullet. Given this isn’t a book of low-carbon lifestyle tips the urgency of the climate problem, now is better than new. shouldn’t leave you feeling disempowered.

But this book is no mere tech fest. There are solutions to You can help reach that ‘desirable be found in the classroom, the courts and our kitchens. The destination’ through your vote, your work, natural world also has so much to offer. your spending and your inspiration. It’s Also included are solutions that some environmental voices within our grasp – let’s do it. reject, such as nuclear power, carbon capture, reduced impact logging or climate-friendly cows. Opposition stems This article has been extracted with from innate fear, suspicion that they are linked to existing permission from the introduction to Tom Heap’s ‘bad actors’ like the fossil fuel companies, belief they won’t new book, 39 Ways to Save the Planet. work or that they will excuse us from making tough choices in

38 Winter 2021

Stepping up our peatland efforts Clifton Bain, Director, International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) UK Peatland Programme

With the world’s attention focused on climate change during COP26 in Glasgow, one of the strong messages arising is that climate and our biodiversity are intimately connected and we cannot address one without the other. Nature-based solutions further demonstrate that looking after our natural environment can help in mitigating and adapting to climate change. Key goals of COP26 were to urgently scale up our efforts in habitat protection and restoration, and to secure sufficient public and private funding to achieve these goals and bring about a transition in sustainable land use.

The UK has made tremendous progress in its peatland work.

It has shown leadership in adopting a national peatland strategy with devolved-level country plans, as well as having public funding targeted at peatland restoration. Scotland has gone a step further, with peatland restoration targets set in law through its Climate Change Act and policy commitments to funding the work. Over 25,000 hectares of peatland have been restored under the NatureScot-administered Peatland Action scheme since 2012. In 2020, the Scottish Government announced £250 million over the next ten years to demonstrate its long-term commitment, enabling contractors and land managers to gear up for delivering this large-scale initiative. Similar funded programmes of peatland restoration now operate across the UK. Although impressive, the UK still has a long way to go. The UK Peatland Strategy sets a target for two million hectares in good condition or under restoration management by 2040. Estimates suggest we are around halfway towards that target. The UK Climate Change Committee (CCC), in its updated quantification of the impact of future land use scenarios to 2050, identified the need for 100% of upland peatland restoration and at least 50% of lowland peatland to meet our net zero targets. The significance of carbon emissions from damaged peatlands is startling when compared to the sequestration benefits of forestry. In 2018, the UK’s damaged peatlands were emitting 21 million tonnes CO2e per annum. The whole of the UK’s forest resource sequestered only 18 million tonnes CO2e per annum.

Even with the CCC’s most ambitious tree planting goals for 2050, over 96% of forest sequestration is negated by peatland losses, if we do nothing for our peatlands.

Meeting our peatland restoration goals requires a significant increase in public spending to meet the scale and urgency of the task, and there is pressure on the private sector to assist.

Businesses are increasingly aware that investing in tackling climate change and biodiversity is not just an environmental good, but is vital to a sustainable economy and securing their own financial bottom line. Mechanisms are being developed to enable such private investment in nature, including the Peatland Code, administered by the IUCN UK Peatland Programme. The Code provides a standard to ensure a transparent, robust and verifiable process for investing in the carbon benefits of peatland restoration.

Paying for peatland restoration is only part of the story.

Ensuring ongoing commitment to sustainable peatland management and the protection of peatland habitats requires continuous support for land managers, in recognition of the societal benefits these healthy and recovering peatlands provide. Future agriculture payments directed at ‘public payments for public benefits’ alongside private investment in peatlands are a vital part of the strategy to ensure land managers value their peatlands.

COP26 was a major milestone in the global peatland effort.

The UK rightly wanted to showcase its peatland activity. For the first time, a Peatland Pavilion was organised to house a series of events and presentations, with speakers drawn from the world’s 180 peatland nations, all exploring how to achieve the various international peatland resolutions from the United Nations, IUCN and Ramsar, and with a virtual version of the Pavilion available through the IUCN UK Peatland Programme website. It is fair to say that, at long last, peatlands are being recognised on the international stage alongside forestry; our two greatest natural terrestrial carbon stores, vital to climate change and biodiversity efforts. One of the outcomes from COP26 was a declaration on forests and land use, with commitments for strengthened protection and accelerated restoration of ecosystems, redesigned agriculture policy to benefit the environment, and public/private funding. Whilst the media focus was on the implications for forestry, these welcome commitments apply to all terrestrial ecosystems, including peatlands.

“At long last, peatlands are being recognised on the international stage alongside forestry.”

© Clifton Bain

© Clifton Bain

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One of the challenging dilemmas facing land use policy in the UK is the conflict between different strands of climate change action. With ambitious forest expansion targets and a push for more renewable energy, peatlands have come under pressure, largely as they are still regarded as low-value land, with a number of high-profile examples of damage to peatlands being justified on the grounds of greater climate change benefits from forestry and renewables. The result is compromised climate change gains and an unfortunate bad reputation for forestry and renewables.

The IUCN UK Peatland Programme Peatland and Trees Position Statement illustrates the carbon losses arising from planting trees on peat, and shows how, even if in some cases trees sequester more carbon than is lost from the damaged peatland, the resulting atmospheric carbon gains are reduced. To tackle climate change and meet net zero we need our peatlands protected and restored and our forests expanded, without compromising one for the other.

Similarly with windfarms, poor design and construction on a peatland can significantly reduce the carbon benefits of the windfarm. Compensatory peatland restoration by the developers may mitigate the windfarm footprint but denies that restoration from contributing to our national carbon reduction goals. As with forestry, we need better planning to avoid windfarms damaging peatlands and greater oversight to ensure any mitigation measures are verified.

It is clear we need all our climate tools working effectively, and in the case of peatlands and forestry there is an opportunity for delivering both in a coordinated way to mutual benefit. The peatland archive gives a wonderful catalogue stretching back thousands of years of vegetational composition in the peatland and its surrounding areas. Whilst woodlands have not occupied deep peat areas for much of the period since the end of the last ice age, there has been tree cover around the peatland margins, particularly on lowland raised bogs and in the vicinity of the upland blanket bogs, prior to deforestation by human activity. Recent work suggests that many hill summit blanket bogs are deteriorating due to the lack of natural woodland surrounding the upper

slopes. Geomorphological modelling by the University of East London, using blancmange, vividly demonstrates how a wooded slope helps prevent slumping and cracking of the summit peatland. Returning native woodland by natural regeneration in our hillsides, and restoring agricultural land around the margins of lowland raised bogs to fen carr woodland, can help meet forestry targets and benefit peatland ecosystems. One warning, however, is to get the timing right to avoid encouraging woodland in close proximity to a damaged bog that is too dry to resist incursion by trees.

Only once a peatland is in a stabilised, wet condition should trees be encouraged.

Stepping up our efforts on peatlands and investing more in their protection and recovery demands significant financial investment. We know that spending on peatland restoration is cost-effective and saves future generations from higher costs, but there is a challenge to ensure that the public appreciate and support such expenditure, especially during a time of considerable economic pressure.

A key part of the UK Peatland Strategy is to help make people aware of peatland benefits, and overcome some of the prejudice and indifference towards them that is prevalent in popular culture. One of the best ways of achieving this is to encourage people to visit some of the many accessible peatland nature reserves with great interpretation and education facilities. Attitude surveys have shown that people acquainted with peatlands enjoy the uninterrupted landscapes and the great variety of interesting and unusual wildlife.

The benefits of a visit to a peatland for our mental and physical well-being are as much a part of their value to society as their carbon, water and biodiversity assets.

Clifton Bain’s new book, The Peatlands of Britain and Ireland, is our Reader Offer. See back page for details.

“Spending on peatland restoration is cost-effective and saves future generations from higher costs.”

RSPB Forsinard Flows Nature Reserve. © RSPB (rspb-images.com)

RSPB Forsinard Flows Nature Reserve. © RSPB (rspb-images.com)

40 Winter 2021

The Power of Geography: Saudi Arabia Tim Marshall

borders. The Empty Quarter acts as a buffer protecting Saudi Arabia from landbased threats from the south, but also makes trading with its southern neighbours difficult. Crossing it was compared in difficulty with traversing the South Pole, and the first documented expedition came less than a century ago. In December 1931 the British explorer Bertram Thomas, accompanied by Bedouin tribesmen, set off from the coast of Oman and appeared 1,300 kilometres away in Qatar several weeks later. In 2018, a similar journey became somewhat easier when the first road across the desert was opened, connecting Oman to Riyadh, the Saudi capital. If you decide to But there’s a problem: the world is slowly drive it you may not need to be as intrepid as weaning itself off oil. What is the ruling family Thomas and his friends, but do bear in mind to do, in a desert land with only sand and oil, that there are no service stations along the a restive population, contested legitimacy and way. Climate and the ancient trade routes beset by enemies within and without? It must shaped by geography explain most of today’s modernize, and use technology to harness population centres. All of the high ground renewable energy to adapt to the twenty-first in Saudi is in the western half. The Red Sea century. It will not be an easy path, and its coastal plains are relatively narrow, and a success or failure will affect the wider Middle © The World Factbook (www.cia.gov/theseries of hills and mountains run inland world-factbook) East and beyond. parallel to the coast almost the entire length.

Saudi Arabia was created in the twentieth century using Jeddah is on flat land but Mecca, 60 kilometres inland, is 277 transport and communication technology, but the geography metres above sea level, and some of the hills behind it are as of the country meant the regions had distinct differences, high as 1,879 metres. There is a gap through the high ground many of which remain. Until recently, huge areas were leading to Medina and, with the ancient caravans unable uninhabitable. This is, after all, the world’s largest country to travel through the Empty Quarter, trade between Africa, without a river and the interior is dominated by two vast the Red Sea, Persia and India was funnelled deserts. In the north is the An Nafud, which is connected to towards the three cities. the Empty Quarter by a smaller, narrow corridor of sand. The To the south, some of the highest mountains Empty Quarter’s official name is the Rub’ al Khali, although in the country lie just inland from the sea to the few nomadic Bedouin who live there it is simply called near the Yemen border. The cooler climate Al Ramlah – ‘the Sand’. It is the largest continuous area of there has long attracted settlement. This is sand in the world, covering a region bigger than France, with why most Saudis live on the western side dunes as high as 250 metres, and stretches into the UAE, of the country, many in and around Mecca, Oman and Yemen. Summer temperatures in the deserts are Medina and Jeddah, but the mountainous frequently over 50°C in the shade, not that there’s much of border with Yemen is the most densely that. Conversely, if you’ve ever been in the desert at night populated part of the country. in the winter, you’ll have felt how bitterly cold it can be.

A century ago, the population of what is now a state with 34 million people was about two million, most of them nomads. Covering much of the Arabian Peninsula, the country is mostly desert. There is still not much there except oil and sand. It was fossil energy sources that catapulted Saudi Arabia into the twentieth century and made it a major player. Oil is also the basis of the country’s relationship with its major ally and protector: the USA. Oil has given it vast wealth, and that wealth, in an oil-thirsty world, has allowed it to survive even though elements within the power structure export a violent interpretation of its extreme brand of Islamic fundamentalism. The most famous Saudi of recent times is not a king or an oil multi-billionaire; he is a terrorist – Osama Bin Laden.

Even now few people venture into it, and much of it remains unexplored. It’s known that beneath the sands lie large quantities of oil and gas, but recent low oil prices mean it is too expensive to exploit them fully.

Saudi Arabia has land borders with eight countries. To the north are Jordan, Iraq and Kuwait. Saudi’s eastern coastline then runs south towards Bahrain, Qatar and the UAE, which also face the Gulf. To the south are Oman and Yemen; the latter is both the longest and most volatile of Saudi Arabia’s

Riyadh skyline. © B.alotaby, CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons

“This is the world’s largest country without a river.”

This article was extracted with permission from The Power of Geography: Ten Maps that Reveal the Future of Our World by Tim Marshall, out now in paperback (Elliott & Thompson, £9.99).

great geography gifts Horrible Geography of Stunning Scotland Anita Ganeri (author) and Mike Phillips (illustrator) (Scholastic, August 2021)

The

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Winter 2021

This fully-illustrated book for children joins the well-established and very popular series of Horrible Geography books, which are designed to make learning fun!

It is a new commission from the RSGS, and is available exclusively from us, with all profits supporting our charitable work. With Christmas approaching, stock up on stocking fillers!

Special Reader Offer

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including UK P&P

3 for the price of 2

James Croll and his Adventures in Climate and Time Jo Woolf (author) and Dylan Gibson (illustrator)

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online from rsgs.org/shop by post from RSGS HQ (cheque payable to ‘RSGS’) by phone on 01738 455050 For overseas orders, please contact us for postage rates.

For UK delivery by Christmas, please order by 15th December.

James Croll and his Adventures in Climate and Time is bursting with energy and colour.

Published for RSGS, the book is intended for young secondary school students, but we hope that it will be enjoyed by readers of all ages.

BOOK CLUB

42 Winter 2021

Atlas of the Invisible

Reader Offer

Maps & Graphics That Will Change How You See the World

Offer ends 31st March 2022

The Peatlands of Britain and Ireland

James Cheshire and Oliver Uberti (Particular Books, September 2021)

Clifton Bain (Sandstone Press, November 2021) The watery landscapes of Britain and Ireland’s upland and lowland peatlands are a dominant feature in our countryside, and among only our most important natural assets, but only .99 now are we beginning to appreciate their (RRP £24.99) true value and the vital role they have to play in tackling climate change. Clifton Bain unites his vast conservation experience with detailed accounts, maps, and strikingly beautiful imagery, including drawings by award-winning wildlife artist Darren Rees. With a selection of the most famous peatland sites ranging across the length and breadth of Britain and Ireland, this book is a celebration of conservation effort and a reliable guide to some of our most remote wilderness, as well as the surprisingly accessible peatlands on our doorsteps.

£19

Readers of The Geographer can buy The Peatlands of Britain and Ireland for only £19.99 (RRP £24.99). To order, please visit sandstonepress.square.site and quote code ‘PeatlandsRSGS5’ at the checkout.

The Book of Hope A Survival Guide for an Endangered Planet Jane Goodall and Douglas Abrams (Viking, October 2021) The world-renowned naturalist and conservationist Jane Goodall has spent more than a half-century warning of our impact on our planet. From her famous encounters with chimpanzees in the forests of Gombe as a young woman to her tireless campaigning for the environment in her late eighties, Jane has become the godmother to a new generation of climate activists. Here, she draws on the wisdom of a lifetime dedicated to nature to teach us how to find strength in the face of the climate crisis, and explains why she still has hope for the natural world and for humanity. In extraordinary conversations with her co-author Doug Abrams that weave together stories from her travels and activism, she offers readers a new understanding of the crisis we face and a compelling path forward for us all to create hope in our own lives and in the world.

RSGS: a better way to see the world Phone 01738 455050 or visit www.rsgs.org to join the RSGS. Lord John Murray House, 15-19 North Port, Perth, PH1 5LU Charity SC015599

Award-winning geographer-designer team James Cheshire and Oliver Uberti redefine what an atlas can be. Transforming enormous data sets into rich maps and cutting-edge visualisations, they uncover truths about our past, reflect who we are today, and highlight what we face in the years ahead. With their joyfully inquisitive approach, they explore happiness and anxiety levels around the globe, trace the undersea cables and cell towers that connect us, examine hidden scars of geopolitics, and illustrate how a warming planet affects everything from hurricanes to the hajj. Years in the making, this atlas invites readers to marvel at the promise and peril of data, and to revel in the secrets and contours of a newly visible world.

Fifty Words for Snow Nancy Campbell (Elliott & Thompson, November 2020) Snow. Every language has its own words for the feather-like flakes that come from the sky. In Japanese we find Yuki-onna, a ‘snow woman’ who drifts through the frosted land. In Icelandic falls Hundslappadrifa, ‘big as a dog’s paw’. And in Maori we meet Huka-rere, ‘one of the children of rain and wind’. From mountain tops and frozen seas to city parks and desert hills, award-winning writer and Arctic traveller Nancy Campbell digs deep into the meanings of 50 words for snow. In this lyrical, evocative book, each of these linguistic snow crystals offers a whole world of myth and story. Illustrated throughout with the first photographs taken of snowflakes, in deep blue and white.

Why North is Up Map Conventions and Where They Came From Mick Ashworth (The Bodleian Library, August 2019) What lies behind the process of mapmaking? How have cartographers through the centuries developed their craft and established a language of maps which helps them to better represent our world and users to understand it? This book tells the story of how widely-accepted mapping conventions originated and evolved; from map orientation, projections, typography and scale, to the use of colour, map symbols, ways of representing relief and the treatment of boundaries and place names. It charts the fascinating story of how conventions have changed in response to new technologies and ever-changing mapping requirements, how symbols can be a matter of life or death, why universal acceptance of conventions can be difficult to achieve, and how new mapping conventions are developing to meet the needs of modern cartography.

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