Twenty-Six Design Concepts, Illustrated by Ryan Stoddard

twenty-six design concepts, illustrated Ryan Stoddard

preface

As the title suggests, this book will serve as an introduction to and general overview of twenty-six design concepts. I have organized these concepts as they pertain to the design process, gradually progressing from the most initial, abstract starting points and progressing through gradually more advanced and detailed principles. Thus, the book is divided into three sections, each categorizing a stage in the design process. Foundational Parts addresses the first elements needed to form any basic architectural idea, Building Blocks deals with turning these tools into actual design content, and finally design development discusses going from these rudimentary designs towards a tangible piece of architecture.

To illustrate these concepts, I will be using my coursework produced over the semester in ARCH 1060. Any and all other references will be supplemented by my own hand-drawn sketches; I decided to use the book not only as a means of summarizing what I have learned about design, but applying it to the real world and visually illustrating my findings. All work I have included is my own. I have included project names for any precedents I have sketched, as well as narrative captions to provide context for my in-class work. - Ryan

contents

i. foundational parts

concept ��8 lines �� 10 datum �� 12

grid ��14 planes ��16 geometry ��18 rhythm ��20 symmetry ��22

ii. building blocks

massing �� 26 articulation ��30 diagramming �� 32 abstraction ��34 solid + void ��36 density ��38

light + shadow ��40 space ��44 movement ��46 transformation ��48

iii. design development

context ��54

dialogue ��56 irony ��58 metonymy ��60 circulation �� 62 fabrication ��64 decomposition ��66 significance ��68

foundational parts

concept Often, an architect's idea for a design will stem from a key guiding concept. Represented in a multitude of different ways - from sketches, to models, to even writing - a concept seeks to distill a "big idea" that informs the general principle or inspiration driving the decisions present in the work. The process of deriving a concept often begins with a hypothesis; the architect may think of a guiding concept and see if they could expand it into an entire design system, or alternatively work from a broad system and figure out how it would inform individual elements. The concept may not even explicty relate to architcture and, in fact, many compelling examples do not. Steven Holl, for example, began with the concept of a sponge in exploring the perforations in MIT's Simmons Hall. What is true, however, is that strong design comes from a strong, well-executed concept.

lines The line is often thought of as the most basic tool of architectural representation. In essence, every drawing starts with a single line. Every building can be described by a series of lines. Lines can be scribbled out in a diagram, carefully calculated to provide the illusion of perspective, or subtly added to mark a feature or revision. But the line's value comes from the fact that it provides an innate structure to any context in which it is used. If nothing else, a series of lines is but a synthesis of these structures, and architectural design is all about harnessing this concept to supplement the built environment.

An exercise in utilizing two-dimensional lines in three-dimensional space; a cube created from thin wooden dowels based on an abstracted grid.

datum A datum is most typically thought of as a point of reference, a key, defining figure that pulls together design elements into a unified whole. Although it can be composed of multiple elements, the datum acts as a singular, easily recognizable feature. Importantly, the term datum itself can refer to a variety of things that fit this description; it could be a plane or surface, a specific mass or space, an organizational grid, or even something like the horizon line. This can have a multitude of interesting applications for a wide variety of projects. Wilkinson Eyre's Gasholder Apartments, for example, provides an interesting application for a datum in terms of reuse, centering a modern apartment development around the central cylindrical forms of abandoned industrial structures.

grid At every scale of architectural design, the grid's importance cannot be overstated. Often described as the 'central phenomenon' of architecture, laying out a grid provides order to the unstructured, and thus an accessible field of operations for the design. Much of the grid's functionality comes from its adaptability; every grid is, in theory, infinitely expansive, and thus can provide a sense of organizational uniformity at any scale. Because of this adaptability, grids can be seen in almost any aspect of art or architecture. Entire city plans can follow a grid, as with New York's streets or Savannah's green squares, but so can individual house plans, column arrangements, or window arrangements.

planes Planes are a versitile means of redefining, or even entirely shaping, a space. They can be flat or curved, continuous or separate, intersecting or enclosing a volume. Thus, planes are especially useful to architects when working in the abstract to gain an understanding of how to balance a system of enclosure within a space. For example, more planes would be used in conceptualizing a highly private space than, say, a large auditorium. Furthermore, a continuous plane provides a telling means of shaping a space through a consistent progression; thus, it carries with it a sense of motion and is especially valuable for enclosing curved spaces (as can be observed in Georgia Tech's "Jetson" sculpture). In providing a broad potential for enclosure, division, and restraint, planes are a critical initial design component.

Bottom Left: modification of lines model with dividing interior planes Bottom Right: model made from a continuous plane

geometry Regardless of how complex a design may seem, it can almost certainly be broken down in accordance to a basic geomety. One such way to study a structure's geometry is by looking at it in terms of geometric primitives, or the basic shapes we recognize. For instance, we can see that Alberti's facade on Santa Maria Novella can be inscribed within a square, and further described by repeating and overlapping series of squares, circles, and triangles. Similarly, Noguchi's swing set in his Piedmont Park Playscape is composed primarily of a hierarchy of triangles; two main

triangles can be inscribed within a larger, imaginary triangle, while the horizontal supports for the swings form a total of five smaller triangles within them. Geometry can also be understood in terms of symmetry, ratios and proportions. Analyzing a work's geometry allows us to better understand both the architect's intent and the technical rationale for its visual appeal; furthermore, we can employ geometric principles to better ground and rationalize new designs.

Formal Analysis of the facade of Santa Maria Novella

rhythm In music, rhythm serves a guiding foundation for the entire piece. It provides a cohesive sense of character, with the rhythmic pattern informing the stylistic color and mood of the melodic parts. Similarly, architectural rhythm establishes a recognizable aesthetic pattern that can greatly affect a building's character. Defined as repetitive, patterned usage of a visual element or group of elements, rhythm in an architectural design can be composed through a fairly complex, patterned facade, or more simple means. Perhaps the most common example of rhythm in architecture is windows; spanning typologies from homes to high rises, window patterns can serve as a strong guiding rhythm. In the exterior staircase for Atlanta's AmericasMart, John Portman ties together parallel geometry into a strong rhythm that defines one of the city's most satisfying architetcural features.

symmetry The human eye is fundamentally calibrated to notice and appreciate symmetry. Symmetry is when a pattern is the same on both sides of a partition, referred to as the axis of symmetry. Studies have shown that symmetry is one of the primary things that we consider beautiful in faces, and architects can use it to create beautiful buildings. From classicism to the International style, balancing visual elements produces a uniquely satisfying effect and can be a good way to introduce balance into a design. With that being said, symmety can also be directly subverted to create a jarring or quirky feel; understanding all sides of this key visual element is a valuable design tool.

building blocks

massing Designing a building often begins with an additive process of massing, whereby individual volumes are added to define the form as a whole. In experimenting with massing, a designer can flesh work to convey certain emotions or concepts - such as 'expand' or 'interlock' - which in turn influences their capacity to represent said concept via their built form. Massing exercises can also be valuable in deciphering an existing structure, or even a colection of structures such as a city block.Understanding the central massing ideology behind a work deepens our understanding of its basic forms and their visual weight, which in turn enlightens us as to how the designer uses them to develop a sense of balance or scale.

Massing exercise with a series of objects based on a guiding action verb. (from the left) first column: initial arrangement , second column: 'expand', third column: 'interlock'

(from the left) first column: initial arrangement , second column: 'overlap', third column: 'lift'

articulation Articulation refers to the character of joints in an architectural form. Specifically, this means the ways that a particular design goes about differentiating between planes, lines, and points in shaping its distinct sections; as such, articulation is highly related to an organizational system. While especially true for buildings in which the articulation informs the programatic function, articulation can also serve a primarily aesthetic purpose. A building with very little articulation, such as the Centennial Tower, typically maintains a more minimal, rectilinear structure, presenting as almost monolithic. Alternatively, a highly articulated building, like Mercedes-Benz stadium, is composed of many more planes with a more angular character. With triangular shapes and sharp points, this characterizes the building as sharper and more dynamic.

diagramming The point of diagramming is to convey information about a project in a way that is easy to understand. The point of a diagram is not to literally capture every accurate detail or nuance of a design or conept; rather, it focuses on one element, incorporating analytical information to describe it as clearly as possible. Because of the effectiveness and wide application of this process, diagramming is one of the most crucial parts of the design process. A diagram may reveal or describe an entire organizational system, or be a valuable means of working out alternative solutions to a problem. Regardless, it is a simple but powerful tool, and sits at the very foundation of developing an architectural idea.

Diagrams exploring the geometry in Paul Williams' LAX Theme Building. top: diagram of concentric circles, bottom: geometric analysis

abstraction Abstraction refers to the process by which a designer distills or strips a concept down to a key idea or set of guiding principles. The process of abstraction is an invaluable tool in communicating ideas to a client or audience, as it can serve as an effective window into the nuances of the design process. In removing lower-importance details - such as intricate ornament - and working to showcase a distinct layout of fundamental concepts, the abstraction exists as a very clear perspective view into one or several elements that guide the design ideology. For instance, distilling a

rather complex pattern into geometric primitives can help others view its organizational pattern, while using simple parti diagrams to chop up a space into several percieved masses can provide a great level of understanding as to how one is to experience the space. Although abstracted diagrams can be very simple, it is in this simplicity that their value lies; they can communicate quickly and efficiently, working to bridge the gaps of design-awareness and the process of translation inherent to the design process in order to paint a clearer picture of intention.

solid + void One of the most important and impactful decisions an architect must make is what registers a space as a solid, and what registers it as a void. Although seemingly straightforward, manipulating the balance of these two concepts in an architectural form can fundamentally redefine a person's perception of and experience in a space. While it is tempting to think of void as simply the absence of solid mass, redefining this understanding is critical to successful design. Alternatively, architects often treat the incorporation of void as a deliberate decision: just as the incorporation of solid. This is the guiding principle behind art such as Rachel Whiteread's; in Untitled (Domestic), she uses poured concrete to create a solid form occupying the void created by a staircase, prompting a reflective reinterpretation of the implicit weight carried by the apparent emptiness.

density In a continuation of solid and void, architects must consider the density of their buildings. A dense building, such as Marcel Breuer's central library, may be relatively monolithic and appear heavy and solid. Alternatively, a less dense building would feel lighter by incorporating elements such as perforation, minimalist support, and a more open plan. Material usage also plays a role in determining density. Concrete, for example, is a very dense material; this is why brutalist buildings are often descried to be dense. Using windows, however, introduces an element of transparency and reflection, thus contributing a lighter feel. Although it may seem arbitrary, density plays a large role in the way that people will percieve a building, so it must be considered. And if incorporated properly, it can powerfully underscore thematic intent.

light + shadow The effect of light and shadow on an architectural form cannot be understated. Although easy to overlook when initially conceptualizing a design, the lighting conditions at any given time can fundamentally change our perception of a space. A key distinction is between diffuse light, which produces softer shadows and les contrast, and direct light, which produces high-contrast views with sharp edges. Choosing to frame a model photo in a different one of these conditions can greatly alter the viewer's perception of the design. For instance, harsh shadows cast in an area can make it feel more closed off and private than if it were staged in direct light; archietcts can use this to their advantage by working with sunrise/sunset patterns to ensure that the lighting conditions at a given time enhance their vision for a space.

Top: experimentation with light and shadow on continuous plane model Bottom: experimentation with light and shadow on lines model

Charcoal study of planes model shadow

space Simply put, space is the inhabitable environment which is created by architecture. It is the emptiness between architectural elements, and what our eyes see through as we look across a room. However, space is not nothingness; it is only in space where human activity occurs, and thus architects must effectively create space that works for the human activity they intend to occur there. It is common to hear of other design elements "making space". This is important because it gets to the central goal of all architecture: the creation of an inhabitable and functional structure. Basically, a building must be designed and built in a way that it can physically meet and implicitly encourage its desired function.

movement Although inherently static, architecture certainly has potential to convey a sense of movement. Often associated with rhythm, playfulness, or transformation, movement can be represented architecturally in a variety of manners. However, this usually stems from an aesthetic element that draws the eye in a specific pattern of movement; the movement's effect on the viewer can be tailored depending on how the building directs the eye. For instance, a highly regulated pattern of movement can gesture towards seriousness, while various patterns could deliver an edgy or vibrant feel. In the case of Isamu Noguchi's design for a slide in his playscape in Atlanta's Piedmont Park, the rotational, soft movement of the slide around the cylindrical core provides a relaxing, approachable understanding of the minimalist structure that encourages play.

transformation Just as it can convey a sense of movement, static architcture can demonstrate a process of transformation. While some buildings are best thought of as a combination of multiple masses, others - such as the National Center for Human and Civil Rights - can be thought of as a singular mass that has been formed into its ultimate shape via transformations. Often driven by verbs such as 'pinch', 'stretch', or 'compress', generating an architectural form via transformation often creates a final design that is more fluid and organic than addition or subrtaction of mass. Architects can use this to their advantage, creating designs that are rule based and procedurally difinitive while maintaining a more robust sense of movement and intrigue.

Using modeling clay to demonstrate transformations based on a guiding verb. top row: initial arrangement, middle row: 'split', bottom row: 'pinch'.

top row: initial arrangement, middle row: 'stretch', bottom row: 'rotate'.

design development

context While endless consideration can be put into the form of an architectural project, that form does not exist in a vacuum; all built work interacts with a context. Be it natural landscape or an artificial urban fabric, buildings are positioned on sites that present unique character, each with their own respective rules, challenges, and opportunities that the designer must consider. Some opt to reshape this context in their own vision, as with residential builders clearing a perfectly flat yard for a house, while others may decide to engage with the site's context as an inherent design feature. The latter is clearly exemplified in Atlanta's Peachtree Center MARTA station. While many other subterranean stations opt to construct distintc, built walls that enclose the train platform, Peachtree Center's uniquely leaves the rocky undergroud exposed, adding to and enhancing it as the primary enclosure to the inhabitable space.

dialogue As in writing, dialogue in architecture can be thought of as a conversation. This conversation can be between one style and another, the old and the new, this idea and that idea. An architect facilitates this dialogue by presenting the conversational elements in their design. James Stirling contributes a postmodern dialogue in incorporating elements from Egyptian and Roman designs, as well as submarines and even nearby buildings. Although earlier, Nicholas Hawksmoor similarly employs neoclassical forms in a subversive manner in many of his church designs. And Philip Trammel Schutze fuses both English and Italian elements with more modern forms and conveniences in Atlanta's 1924 Swan house, prompting a dialogue characteristic of the tastes of upper-class southerners in the early twentieth century.

irony Much like in literature or visual art, irony in architecture fundamentally addresses a subversion of expectations. While often thought of as playful, architetcural irony can also express a serious tone or message, calling upon and rejecting collective understanding in order to deepen a design's significance. As such, it is one of the most powerful tools in an architetc's arsenal for crafting an engaging diologue surrounding a building and its significance. Some of the most telling examples of this trope can be found in postmodern architeture, where architects frequently used irony to underscore their commentary on formal traditions and their historical significance. One such example is Atlanta's 191 Peachtree Tower, where architects John Burgee and Philip Johnson place neoclassical elements atop 55 stories of modern, repetitive skyscraper forms.

metonymy Metonymy is another literary term that can valuably be used in architectural deisgn. Defined literally, metonymy is the substitution of an attribute to refer to the whole. In terms of architcture, this describes a building in which an associated concept or thing replaces an original form associated with its typology. In other words, the buildings are meant to look like something. In Atlanta, the Georgia Aquarium and College Football Hall of Fame are two buildings designed to reflect what they showcase. The entrance to the College Football hall of fame, for instance, is a large, orange oblong reminiscent of a football. The Georgia Aquarium vaguely resembles a large boat, and currently exhibits a parallel example of metonymy; as part of a promotional campaign for a new shark exhibit, decals of gills and teeth on the facade give it the appearance of a shark.

circulation Circulation refers to how people move through a building. As all buildings are designed both for human beings and with a dedicated program and function in mind, it is the responsibility of an architect to design a space which encourages people to move through it in the desired manner. Thinking about circulation involves many questions; Should people stop here? Where will people navigate between different floors? Will this area get too crowded? Although the concept of circulation may seem simple, it is an important element that necessitates careful consideration.

fabrication While fabrication may seem like an afterthought, it is one of the most important things to consider in the design process. For one, an architectural proposal must be buildable; even if a structure is sound enough to construct, fabrication technology may not be capable of producing it at a feasable cost. Thinking about fabrication also includes material usage, which opens up fascinating new ways to inform design. In fact, fabrication can be used as a guiding concept to drive a design, often to interesting result. While the advent of indistrialization and massproduction may have made it easier to fabricate most buildings, taking a deep look at a more traditional, cutting-edge, or artisenal means of fabrication can lend a unique character to a building. This is certainly true o fthe Kantana Film and Animation Institute: a building made entirely of hand-shaped bricks.

decomposition When a piece of rotting fruit or a dead animal is said to decompose, it is broken down one element at a time until its original form no longer remains. Likewise, architectural decomposition applies a similar principle to a building; it is broken down into several categories of elements, and then deconstructed further until only individual, isolated components remain. The act of decomposition is important because it allows an architect to read a building more carefully, to find out why it presents itself in the way it does. Decomposition may reveal a guiding organizational system, allowing the architect to better understand how to conceptualize work. It can also reveal interetsing material usages or formal ideas; all of this can be recombined and synthesized in future designs, and learning from precedents via decomposition facilitates it all.

Study on decomposition; collages made from deconstructed elements of Lina Bo Bardi's SESC Popmeia.

significance What makes a great building? In a way, every architect has provided their own answer, shown through their interpretation of ideology into the built environment. A great building may use geometry in an effective way, or pioneer a new kind of fabrication or unique material. But even though these interpretations may seem wildly different, there is a consensus that all built work must obey: a great building serves its occupants. This may be in a pragmatic way - a hospital that is laid out to most effectively treat patients, a museum that directs circulation in a manner that complements the exhibit. It can also be aesthetic, as a skyscraper

or house that benefits the character of its neighborhood or skyline, or even emotional, as a place of worship. But all great design incorporates some or all of the principles discussed in this book towards the goal of pleasing and serving the people it is built for. And, oftentimes, great buildings have more to do with what they symbolize than their forms or programs alone. But if an architect can use these concepts for a purpose that means something to their audience, they can design a great building. As Johann Wolfgang von Goethe put it, "architecture is frozen music"; and a significant building is a song that resonates throughout time.

ryan stoddard rlstoddard30@gatech.edu

Twenty-Six Design Concepts, Illustrated

Articles inside

decomposition

metonymy

circulation

fabrication

irony

dialogue

space

movement

context

solid + void

diagramming

abstraction

density

articulation

rhythm

grid

lines

datum

geometry

massing

planes

concept