RUM Online Issue 2

RUM

RICHMOND UNIVERSITY MAGAZINE

EDITION 2 22.04.2014 £5.00

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TABLE OF CONTENTS: F E ATU R E D STO R I E S 12 The Visuality of Everyday Life 52 From Valid to Invalid Written by Amity Higgins

15 Who Rules Makes the Rules Written by Charlie Ebert

Written by Andrea Prudencia Cariaga

54 Feature: Faculty

Written by Philip Tacason & Rachel Kersey

Globalization Mean the Scotland Skye High Tour 24 Does 66 Decline of the Nation State or are Nation States able to Respond to Process of Global Change Written by Johannes Bjorklund

26

The Personalities and Mental State Decision

35

Poetry

42

How did the Newsmedia Report it?

Written and Photographed by Christopher Iafelice

76 Identifying the Body

Photographed by Christopher Iafelice

80 New Shops Old Clothes Written and Photographed by Moira Walen

86

Written by Nia Danner

London Life Designed by a Fashion Student Written and Photographed

by Florian Schwaiger

47 Paintings

92 Alumni

50

98

Written by Channah Haddad

The Nature of Happiness Written by Anastasia Smirnova

For the cover of this editon of RUM, Haley Stevens captured her travels the joy of school children during her travels in India.

Written by Jacob Pritchard, Ronda Embick and Gabrielle Emerzian, Mirian Dyberg, and Mariah Timms

Written by Andrea Prudencia Cariaga

the Indian to Save 44 Kill the Man

Written and Photographed by Haley Stevens

Dissertation 72 Undergraduate Abstracts

Written by Ryan Baldry

Written by V.M.S and Aknoushka Wilson

STORY: 101 COVER Portraits of India

Interviewed by Karen Lippoldt

Peter Fischli and David Weiss Written by Anastasia Fjodrova

MA GenEd

HST

THR

IR

JRN

ADM

COM

TRAVEL

PSYCH

ALUMNI

RUM CONTRIBUTORS

Matthew Butterfield, 34 Banstead, Surrey Faculty: Editor-in-Chief

Hana Noguchi, 20 Daegu, South Korea BA (Hons): Communications

Rebecca Atkinson, 21 Pennsylvania, USA BA (Hons): Communications

Mariah Timms, 21 Illinois, USA BA (Hons): Journalism

Christopher Iafelice, 22 New Jersey, USA BA (Hons): Art Design Media

Karan Sujanani, 21 Manila, Philippines BA (Hons): Journalism

Anastasia Fjodorova, 24 Tallin, Estonia BA (Hons): Art Design Media

Dana Lynn Craft, 22 Maryland, USA BA (Hons): Communications

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A Letter from the Editor...

Dear Readers (returning and new), This is either a welcome back or a warm first welcome to the Richmond University Magazine, fondly known as RUM, but either way we are very glad to have you with us.

In the Spring Semester of 2013, RUM was born — a baby of the (then) new Publication Layout course I was asked to write and teach (JRN6200). RUM forms the third and final piece of coursework for this Journalism class, but it is, of course, much more than just an ordinary assignment...

Developed and designed to showcase a wide variety of student work, RUM offers a platform for students to publish top quality essays, news features, poetry and short stories, photography, graphic art, fine art, design, graphic art, travel writing as well as fashion, arts and entertainment reviews. Equally inspiring are the alumni profiles – some very successful – of former student members of the Richmond family. Above all, we hope this issue gives you an insight into our academic community.

But students do much more than just contribute with content to the magazine. Indeed, the design and layout of the magazine is the result of a phenomenal creative and cooperative work developed (with sweat and tears) by the seven students enrolled in the course this semester. Each of them deserves recognition for the immensely taxing task that it was to create RUM in only four short weeks, while juggling other coursework, jobs, internships and, of course, the trials and tribulations of everyday life. It was a particularly difficult semester for some members of the class, so, if you like what you have read, check our contributors page... and if you see these folks around, let them know you appreciated their work and effort.

Returning readers may have noticed that the format of RUM has changed slightly. The success of the first issue, published last Spring, has meant that we have been able to increase the physical size of the magazine AND also to greatly expand the number of pages to a total of 116 – from 72 last year. This year, we have been able to print 1000 copies of RUM thanks to the generous support of Richmond’s President, Professor John Annette. Next year, our aim is to double this print run! In order to cover the production costs, we are selling hard-copies for only £5.00 (drop by my office to get your copy and support your creative Richmond friends). The previous issue of the magazine can be read online at www.issuu.com/rum_online.

If you would like to contribute to the next issue – due in Spring 2015 – we would love to hear your ideas for stories, reviews, photos, or any content you would like to see published in RUM. Anyone interested can email rum@richmond.ac.uk for either more information, or to submit work for consideration. Please feel free to also make suggestions about content you would like to read about in RUM. On behalf of my students who are part of the Richmond University Magazine, I wish all our readers a happy reading and a productive and enjoyable summer. See you all in Fall.

Matthew Butterfield, Adjunct Lecturer/Faculty Editor/Centre for New Media Manager matthew.butterfield@richmond.ac.uk

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CAMBRIDGE & NORWICH ADM STUDY TRIP Written by Chanah Haddad Photography by Anastasia Fjodorova & Hayley Stevens

The Sainsbury Centre Collection, Norwich

T

he Art Exhibition Society hosted an overnight trip last weekend to visit three world-renowned museums in Norwich and Cambridge. Students were accompanied by ADM Associate Professor Dennis de Caires.

T

he group first stopped in Norwich to visit the Sainsbury Centre for Visual Arts, which, alongside the institution’s eclectic permanent collection, displayed a small temporary Art Nouveau exhibition entitled Sense and Sensuality. The Sainsbury Centre is a result of Sir Robert and Lady Sainsbury donating their private collection to the University of East Anglia in 1973. The museum features work spanning 5,000 years of creative history and illustrates the diverse interests of the two extremely influential arts patrons. The collection includes objects from Ancient Egypt, Francis Bacon, Pre-Columbian South America, Alberto Giacometti, Frank Auerbach, and the Japanese Neolithic period with a focus on ceramic works.

W

hen the Centre opened in 1978, the Sainsbury’s’ decision to juxtapose ancient world art next to contemporary works was seen as a revolution in museum display strategies. The Centre provided AES students with a private tour of the museum’s permanent collection. The guide told various anecdotes recounting the personal relationships the Sainsbury’s had with the contemporary artists from whom they acquired works. Attendees then had time to explore the green landscape surrounding the university museum and view several of Henry Moore sculptures installed en plein air.

S

tudents then traveled to the coastal town of Cromer to watch the sunset on the pier and enjoy the town’s signature fish and chips dinner. The group stayed the night in Thetford then continued on to Cambridge the following 4 RICHMOND UNIVERSITY MAGAZINE | APRIL 2014

morning. Upon arrival, students were able to wander around the university grounds and enjoy the scenery around Trinity College. Attendees then visited the Fitzwilliam Museum, which was established around Richard VII Viscount Fitzwilliam of Merrion donating his personal collection of art and library to the University of Cambridge in 1816. The Gothic Revival building designed by George Basevi opened to the public in 1848 and continues to house a growing collection of works. Students currently taking Professor de Caires’ Book Art course were encouraged to see the museum’s fine edition books exhibition entitled The Rampant Lions Press: A Letterpress Odyssey. The museum’s permanent collection includes pieces from ancient Sudan, Greece, Rome and Cyprus. Students were also able to see the Fitzwilliam’s extensive collection of Medieval and Renaissance illuminated manuscripts and European and American paintings and drawings from the 13th century to present day.

T

he trip ended with the students visiting Kettle’s Yard Gallery and Historic House. The gallery’s current exhibition illustrates the collaborative painting practices between artists Ben Nicholson, Winifred Nicholson, Christopher Wood, Alfred Wallis, and William Staite Murray. The house, which previously belonged to contemporary art collector Jim Ede, displays works in a comfortable living environment. Ede’s decision to display his personal collection without labels was meant to encourage the viewers’ honest visual examination of the works as opposed to the connotations associated with a specific artist or movement.

Interior of Kett le’s Yard, Cambridge

Above Left: Lillian Young at Sainsbury Centre, Norwich.

Bottom Left: Interior of Kettle’s Yard, Cambridge.

Bottom Right: Anastasia Fjodorova, Chanah Haddad, and Rebecca Hall on the pier at Cromer.

5

TO R R E Y SEABOLT MY MOROCCO

TRAVEL DIARY Written and photographed by Torrey Seabolt From the Medina in old Marrakech to the sand dunes of the Merzouga desert, Torrey Seabolt shares her wondrous experiences of her road trip in Morocco with Jeremy Nsouli. Her vivid and vibrant photographs will astonish all in this photo documentary.

6 RICHMOND UNIVERSITY MAGAZINE | APRIL 2014

Left: We had stopped on the side of the road to enjoy a view of the sun setting over a valley. I noticed that everyone was facing the same direction, so I decided turn the other way around.

Sometimes a memory and place can be captured in ways you’d least expect.

Left: Throughout most of the camel ride, the shadows we cast from one person to the next often varied in size and shape.

Towards the end of the ride, the shadows were suddenly aligned perfectly, though it only lasted within a seven-second time frame.

Left: Enjoying the bright orange hues that the setting sun casts over the desert landscape, just after getting off the camels.

Left: Taking a break to watch the sun setting behind the Merzouga sand dunes before continuing the climb up.

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I can’t say that I have ever truly experienced culture shock, but the closest I’ve come to doing so was in Morocco. Before arriving, I had some idea of what Marrakech would be like, at least as much as photos could convey. You know what I mean; the endless maze of colorful and alluring goods found in the souks, and the terrace restaurants overlooking the popular square, Jemaa el-Fnaa. As soon as our taxi pulled into the Medina (old Marrakech), where we would be staying, I knew my experience here would be a whirlwind.

The narrow streets were barely wide enough to accommodate the car, and the people who walked alongside it were close enough to touch it if they decided to simply raise a finger. I was unsure if we were even on a road meant for vehicles. My question was answered when we exited the cab, because after one too many startled and fearful leaps towards the sides of streets, I soon learned that nearly every surface in Marrakech is free game for vehicles.

The shops that lined these side streets were infinite. I found myself among scarves in every color and pattern, jewelry jam-packed into small cases, leather purses adorned in tassels, 10 RICHMOND UNIVERSITY MAGAZINE | APRIL 2014

and every little trinket imaginable. This was before we had even reached the famed souks.

It was not long until we did reach them. “Hellooo, what are you looking for? English? Spanish? Tu parles français? Where are you from? Japan?

Come, look! Shoes! What language do you speak? Espagnol? Come in! Let me show you what we have!” This was a typical monologue that I encountered at nearly every stall that I showed the slightest interest in. By “slightest interest”, I mean making eye contact with their products from anywhere between one to two seconds.

Occasionally, a shopkeeper would resort to physical contact in the form of friendly shoulder grabbing to prevent us from continuing to the next stall. While intimidated at first by the overwhelming aggression, I soon came to terms with it. Isn’t it a fair compromise for getting to haggle their prices down to just a fraction of the original cost? It all comes down to just embracing your surroundings.

“road trip” to “tour”, mostly because the driver spoke little to no English; therefore I had no idea where I was the majority of the trip. This was much to my enjoyment, because I have always loved watching the passing scenery from cars, and in the case of tours, without constant explanations over the speakers. I think the longest stretch of driving totaled to 12 hours, which was a refreshing alternative to the hectic Marrakech streets.

Among the many picturesque places we visited along the way, one of the most memorable, though tourist-filled, was UNESCO World Heritage site, Ait Bennhadou, a fortified city used in many feature films. I should also mention that an early contender for my favorite location in Morocco was the Atlas Mountains.

Unfortunately, my experience there was tainted by hours of carsickness, which became too overwhelming to even lift my head. It does say something about the majesty of those mountains that I would still ride through that unforgiving road all over again.

My perspective of Marrakech is limited as I spent only two afternoons in the city, before Without a doubt, my favorite place in Morocco and after a three-day tour heading east to was the Merzouga sand dunes. I am still the sand dunes of Merzouga. I prefer the term convinced that no photo will ever do this

magnificent place the justice it deserves. We made our way into the desert upon the backs of camels (as advertised, though they were dromedaries to be exact). Word of advice to anyone who has never ridden a camel: do not freak out when you feel as though they are throwing you from their back when they stand up. You may not be warned of this, very possibly to the humor of the tour workers.

The sun was beginning to set behind us, giving the dunes exaggerated hues of oranges, yellows, and reds set upon bright blue skies.

Shadows enhanced every detail within the sand whether they were footprints, plants, or even patterns made by the wind. It was by far the most dramatic landscape I had ever seen, and I was mesmerized. I had never found myself so literally in awe of my surroundings.

Many of the dunes looked untouched, with their sand so smooth and pristine. As interesting and exciting as Marrakech was, Merzouga was simply breathtaking.

After spending a night complete with a great meal, stargazing, and a bonfire, we slept under the thickest and heaviest wool blankets I have ever seen. These blankets were pleasingly thick

enough to, when pulled over my head, drown out the snores of the young lone traveller sharing our tent. We rode out of the desert with blue and purple hues above, and the sun rising to our backs. I could not have imagined a better conclusion to the trip.

Even though I am in London, and it has been three months since I visited Morocco, I still find little reminders of this amazing place. Just today I pulled off my boots to find my socks full of the sand from the desert. I have a feeling that I will never completely be able to empty them of it, and I’ve realized that I don’t want to. I like the idea of walking around with a little memory of the wonderful country that is Morocco.

Above left: A family and a group of young friends gather around one of the many food stalls that line Marrakech’s popular, central square in the Medina, Jemaa el-Fnaa.

Above right: An elderly man dressed in more traditional Berber attire, greets a more modern-dressed man and young boy as they pass. The evolution of their customary clothing is very apparent in the younger generations.

Previous page: Two young travellers atop what seemed to be the largest sand dune in Merzouga, where we camped for a night.

11

The Visuality of Everyday Life:

Understanding and Applying Visual Culture Studies Through Sherlock Written by Amity Higgins

Trying to understand Visual Culture Studies as a discipline feels, at times, like falling down a rabbit hole of subjects and methodologies. It is a complex endeavor, with highly interdisciplinary origins. Pieces have been taken from the periphery of many other disciplines within the humanities, and, disorienting as it may be, this amalgamated calico nature of Visual Culture Studies is what makes it unique and important as a field of study. This essay will explore the emergence of Visual Culture Studies, and apply the method to a case study of the BBC television drama Sherlock.

Visual Culture Studies is classified as a sub-field of Cultural Studies, and has its roots in Art History. Margaret Dikovitskaya, an Art History and Visual Cultures professor and scholar, explains how a Social Art History emerged in the 1970s to situate art works within their political and cultural contexts, providing a fuller understanding of the production and reception of such objects.1 Rather than simply studying the formal aspects of art pieces, they were treated as windows into society, a way to gauge how events outside the studio affected the great works of the time. With Cultural Studies,2 the desire to know more about these outside events intensified, and this discipline began to concern itself with “exploring how people are constructed and manipulated by cultural forms in everyday life.”3 Yet “cultural forms” is a very broad field, necessitating the development of various sub-branches, of which Visual Culture Studies is one.

As the title suggests, Visual Culture is any aspect of culture that is consumed visually, although other sensory experiences obviously come into play as well. As such, Visual Culture Studies necessarily concerns itself with the emergence and societal appropriation of new technologies and media. Though this considerably narrows the field from Cultural Studies, it remains a vast enterprise in our increasingly image-dominated world, and one that attempts to understand what role viewers and consumers play in it. As will be demonstrated later, these roles are often more active than passive.

One thing that sets Visual Culture apart from Art History is its indifference to the distinction of high and low art. Dikovitskaya states that one of Visual Culture’s main tasks is to examine and critique the way the line between art and non-art has been drawn and moved over time.4 While I agree that it is important to acknowledge that Visual Culture has no need for such distinctions, I believe that the particulars of how these distinctions have been made is a more appropriate discussion for Art History circles. To discuss such distinctions is to acknowledge their existence, and for Visual Culture to succeed, all visual forms much be placed on equal footing. As W.J.T. Mitchell observed, “While the problem of pictorial representation has always been with us, it presses inescapably now, and with unprecedented force, on every level of culture, from the most refined philosophical speculations to the most vulgar productions of the mass media.”5 “High art” may play an important role in where Visual Culture Studies came from, but, as systems of visuality expand, it represents only a small slice of where it is going.

Mitchell succinctly states that Visual Culture is “the study of the social construction of the visual experience.”6 He situates Visual Culture as a discipline around a “pictorial turn.” This moves out of the “linguistic turn” that, according to contemporary philosopher Richard Rorty, has defined the twentieth century.

During this time, words were the main cultural currency, but words are steadily losing ground to images in the twenty-first century, because they are merely an intermediary force.7 John Berger articulated that “it is seeing which establishes our place in the surrounding world; we explain that world with words, but words can never undo the fact that we are surrounded by it.”8 It is, therefore, the role of Visual Culture Studies to identify and make sense of the complex forms of “seeing” in our society, from watching films, to CCTV, to omnipresent branding techniques. Moreover, this must be done with some urgency, as Mitchell points out that we already find ourselves in the midst of the Empire of the Image: a formidable powerhouse of visual suggestion.9 The study of a rapidly changing society demands a ready and adaptable methodology if we are to keep up.

However, while the Empire of Images may be a daunting prospect, it is also an exciting one. The BBC drama Sherlock (2010-present), created by Steven Moffat and Mark Gatiss, presents an updated look at the “Sherlock Holmes” stories by Arthur Conan Doyle. The show is set in modern-day London and is a visual feast, using new filming technologies to create an exciting viewer experience10. It also capitalizes on its ability to use new-media platforms as key plot elements. For example, as Dr. Watson is the narrator in Doyle’s original stories, in Sherlock, John Watson has a blog where he records his and Sherlock’s crime-solving adventures. (Image 1). Mobile and smart phones also 12 RICHMOND UNIVERSITY MAGAZINE | APRIL 2013

play an important role in the storyline, from the first episode where Sherlock sends mass texts to reporters at a press conference (Image 2), to the second series episode “A Scandal in Belgravia” which centers around the theft of a phone which contains important data and photographs. In the same episode, Sherlock sends John to a crime scene with a laptop, enabling him to examine the details of the case via webcam. In other words, the world in which these stories take place is the same world in which viewers of the show find themselves.

These are the technologies that audience members use everyday, making their inclusion in the storytelling completely natural.

From the very beginning, Sherlock was unexpectedly met with monumental success. However, the show follows a slightly unusual format of three ninetyminute long episodes per series, meaning there have only been nine episodes released to date. Moffat has discussed how he thinks this is significant, and where he sees the future of television going. “I think the whole notion of things like episode length might change radically in the time to come. We’ve been used to the idea that television episodes are fifty minutes, or forty-five minutes, or an hour. Well, we’re about to head into a time where scheduling doesn’t exist.

You’re downloading your television shows, why does every episode have to be the same length? What if you had a six-minute episode? Or a two-hour episode?

Why not? The rules that are formed are about to disappear.“11 Breaking the set rules of episode length has proved successful for Sherlock.

Despite the small number of episodes, and the long breaks between series (there was a two year gap between series two and series three), the show has in fact garnered increased viewership since it first aired in October of 2010.

“Series don’t do this,” explains Moffat. “It’s a common myth that series grow they don’t. Hit shows start high and then slowly drift down, so it’s extraordinary for Sherlock to be drifting up.”12 During the expansive amount of time during which Sherlock is not being aired, many fans take to the Internet to engage with the show on another level.13 While there are plenty of posts around lamenting the length of the hiatus (Image 3), this interim period affords viewers a period of reflection, in which they can respond to the show however they see fit. Episodes are analyzed down to the smallest detail,14 user-generated artwork is created and shared, (Image 4) and GIFsets poignantly juxtapose moments and draw connections across episodes.15 Social media sites like Tumblr and Pinterest make the Internet a fan’s playground, providing an outlet for video mash-ups, fanfiction, and headcanon discussions.16 I believe there is a strong link between Sherlock’s massive Internet presence and its slowly growing viewership. While more traditional factors, such as press reviews and word of mouth recommendations no doubt play their part, Internet publicity is a powerful thing. The sense of community surrounding the show’s Internet presence has the power to draw in new audience members, and turns casual viewers into die-hard fans. It is a club into which members can be inducted simply by tuning in.

Moffat has responded to the lengths fans go to engage creatively with the show by saying “there is no greater flattery than people not simply consuming it, but making more of their own... So in a genuine, proper, heartfelt way, I’m saying that a fandom is the cradle of the next generation of creative people. That’s fantastic, that’s amazing. There is no bigger compliment.”17 He goes on to mention, however, that as Sherlock’s co-creator, he is not in a position to respond to fanmade material, as that would imply that he has power to approve or deny these works, thus limiting the creative power of fans.18 In fact, at its heart, Sherlock is a kind of glorified fan-fiction. Moffat and Gatiss have taken the original Conan Doyle writings, of which both are professed fanatics, and have reworked them with their own individual creative spin. “This has become such an enormous international hit, it’s preposterous. It’s our vanity project, it’s our hobby. And everybody has joined in.”19 The pair essentially brought the process of creatively engaging with someone else’s work full circle, and are now able to offer the same opportunity to the next generation of viewers, while also demonstrating the shift from the linguistic turn to the pictorial turn. The popularity of Doyle’s original stories is comparable to the popularity of Sherlock now. While, over the years, the stories have remained favorite classics and there have been plenty of film and television adaptations20, none have come close to the success of Sherlock. It took that extra step of utilizing society’s current relationship with visual media to recapture mass interest and reassert the popularity of the original stories.

Because we do not know how our image-laden society will change even on a day-to-day basis, it is impossible to say how Visual Culture Studies will affect the future. Like Cultural Studies, Visual Culture is concerned with human interactions, which are at the heart of any society. As newer and more innovative methods of communication are developed and adopted (often with a visual component, such as Skype, blogging, picture messaging, etc.) the role of visual technologies in terms of culture production will evolve, and the line between producer and consumer will be increasingly difficult to locate. It is important, however, to remember that these can be seen simply as new filters applied to the age-old act of conversation.

Endnotes: 1. Dikovitskaya, Margaret. “Between art history and cultural studies: methodology of visual studies” in Visual Culture: the Study of the Visual after the Cultural Turn. Massachusetts: MIT Press, 2005. 66-67 2. The field of Cultural Studies as an academic discipline emerged from the formation of the Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies at the University of Birmingham in 1964.

It was created by Richard Hoggart, who was joined by cultural theorist Stuart Hall in the 1970s. For more information see Walker, John and Chaplin, Sarah. Visual Culture: an introduction. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1997, 46-48 3. Dikovitskaya, 67 4. Dikovitskaya, 70 5. Mitchell, W. J. T. “The Pictorial Turn.” In Picture theory: essays on verbal and visual representation. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994. 16 6. Mitchell, W.J.T. 1995. “Interdisciplinarity and visual culture.” Art Bulletin 77, no. 4: 540. Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost (accessed February 7, 2014).

7. Mitchell, “The Pictorial Turn.” 11 8. Berger, John. Ways of Seeing. London: Penguin, 1972. 7 9. For more information, see Bordo, Susan. “In the Empire of Images: Preface to the Tenth Anniversary Edition.” In Unbearable weight: feminism, western culture, and the Body.

Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 2003. xiii-xxxvi.

10.

“Sherlock Behind the Scenes Part 2,” YouTube video, 10:06, posted by “BenedictCFans” Aug. 30, 2013.

11. BBC Writersroom. “Writersroom Interviews Steven Moffat.” Digital video, 2013.

12. Apple Inc. “Sherlock: Meet the Filmmaker.” Sherlock: Meet the Filmmaker. Feb. 5, 2014. iTunes.

13. For more information on how the Internet helps turn consumption into production, see Manovich, Lev. “The Practice Of Everyday (Media) Life: From Mass Consumption To Mass Cultural Production?.” Critical Inquiry 35, no. 2 (2009): 319-331.

14. For example, some Tumblr users have become obsessed with a plant moving when it shouldn’t be in one scene of episode 3.3 (“His Last Vow”) and I have also seen a study of magpies within the storyline. It should be mentioned that magpies do not feature in any way, and the study consisted of minute details scattered across four episodes and two separate series.

15. GIF stands for Graphics Interchange Format. These are essentially moving photographs.

They render as short pieces of film, but because they are made of still images they can be posted and loaded more easily and ubiquitously than video files.

16. “Headcanon” are speculated facts about the background of the show. They range from banal minutae to wildly dramatic background plots, and are highly individual to each fan, as many contradict each other. For someone to put forth their “headcanon” is simply another way for them to state what they believe about the untold details of the story.

17. Apple Inc., 2014 18.

There is, however, some speculation that Moffat and Gatiss took notice of fan discussions and worked them subtly into the show. In episode 2.2 (The Hounds of Baskerville) there was a reference to the way Sherlock flips up his coat collar when he wants to look mysterious, which was an action often discussed within the “fandom.”

Moreover, in episode 3.1 (“The Empty Hearse”) there is a Sherlock Holmes fanclub that discusses and acknowledges (within the confines of the fictional episode) many theories that fans had about unknown plot details, thus bridging the gap between real life and fiction.

19. “Sherlock Unlocked: Part 1,” YouTube video, 9:42, posted by “Angoro4ka1” Jan. 22, 2012.

20. To name but a few examples: Basil Rathbone and Nigel Bruce starred as the crimesolving duo in over ten films from 1939-1946. Meanwhile Peter Cushing starred in a BBC series titled “Sherlock Holmes,” airing in 1964. Jeremy Brett made multiple on-screen appearances as Holmes throughout the 1980s, and more recently Robert Downey Jr. and Jude Law have taken on the roles of Holmes and Watson respectively in “Sherlock Holmes”(2009) and “Sherlock Holmes: A Game of Shadows.” (2011).

Image 1: Sherlock (Benedict Cumberbatch) looks on as John (Martin Freeman) blogs about one of the crimes they solved together. (From episode 2.1, “A Scandal in Belgravia”)

Image 2: Reporters at a police press conference receive simultaneous mass texts informing them that what they have just been told by the police is incorrect. (From episode 1.1, “A Study in Pink.”)

Image 3: A fan-generated modification of the Star Trek: Into Darkness (2013) poster makes light of the fact that Sherlock has entered another hiatus between series 3 and 4.

Image 4: A selection of fan-generated art based on Sherlock. Clockwise from top right, they are: T-shirt design by Tom Trager, artwork by Tumblr user ‘bagendhobbit’, artwork by Tumblr user ‘wohnjatsons’, and artwork by Tumblr user ‘raichha’.

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Messenger Bag in CREAM

£20.00

Hooded Sweatshirt in GREY/NAVY

£25.00

Who Rules Makes the Rules

The G20 and the Nature of Hegemony in the Contemporary Global Economy Written By Charlie Ebert In 1999 a key new institutional grouping was born.

The “Group of 20,” which joined a sampling of emerging economies to the traditionally dominant G7, would fundamentally alter the world of global governance. (Beeson & Bell 2009, pp. 67) Or would it? Exactly what impact the dawn of the G20 and its subsequent surge in prominence has had is a matter of great debate. Within this essay I will seek to argue that, far from radically shifting the global paradigm as some go so far as to suggest, the G20 has reinforced the dominant contemporary neo-liberal hegemony. In order to do this I will first explore the concept of hegemony itself, acknowledging the traditional state-centric definitions before arguing their inaccuracy and instead putting forward the alternative neo-Gramscian notion as vastly more analytically valuable. I will then briefly address the broader neo-liberal regime of today before placing the G20 within this context while again acknowledging and addressing mainstream critiques.

At its most basic, “hegemony must be seen as a system in which power is distributed unequally among a system’s units.” (Yordan 2006, pp. 129) Within a world of traditionally state-centric models of social analysis, particularly within the study of International Relations, it should come as little surprise that this broad definition of hegemony was quickly and near-universally applied to states. (Sklair 2001, pp. 2) (Layne 2012) (Beeson & Bell 2009) As such, in the contemporary world discussion on hegemony quickly turn to the United States.

(Chomsky 2003) (Layne 2012) (Beeson & Bell 2009) (Valladao 2006) International organizations, national manoeuvres, and diplomatic discourse are thus all analyzed through a prism of US dominance.

However within mainstream thought this ultrastate-centric, realist model is juxtaposed with a more liberal understanding. Here it is argued that the complexity and global nature of present-day dilemmas necessitates a multi-lateral approach to governance. (Hampson & Heinbacker 2011) Ultimately, though, any discussion of hegemony inevitably returns to state power and, particularly, the United States.

This interpretation of hegemony bears with it deep and intrinsic flaws. It makes an assumption that nations have “interests” which can be abstracted from the people who make up these nations. Rather, the argument has been made that “any discussion of world affairs that treats nations as actors is at best misleading, at worst pure mystification.” (Chomsky 1994, pp. 5) This fact is further fortified by the empirical evidence of what “US hegemony” has meant for the American people in the neo-liberal era. Since the 1970’s, economic growth has slowed, inequality and poverty, particularly deep poverty, have grown, and wages for the median worker have largely stagnated. This all while income and, to an even greater degree, cumulative wealth have grown exponentially for those at the top of the social ladder.

(Stone and Trisi et al., 2013) (Greenhouse 2013, pp.

SR5) Logic would dictate therefore that, rather than an American hegemony, perhaps what we have is a hegemony of the American bourgeoisie. When this is placed next to similar trends in Britain, Canada, Germany, and throughout the developed world, we begin to form a clearer picture of worldwide, capitalist gain at the expense of just about everyone else. (Stewart 2013) (Brennan & Stanford 2013) (Schmid & Stein 2013) (Rucki 2011, pp. 343)

Clearly an alternative interpretation of hegemony is needed, one with the explanatory powers to deal with the contemporary world. Let us then turn to the neo-Gramscian definition, “the articulation and justification of what are particular and class-ridden economic interests as general and universal interests.” (Yordan 2006, pp. 125) The idea was originally applied in a domestic context and sought to explain why workers throughout the most developed capitalist countries at the time had failed to rebel, as Marxists like Gramsci would have expected. (van der Pijl 2009, pp. 223) Essentially, it broke from the purely mechanical, positivist assumptions of classical Marxism, which saw consciousness as mere reflection of material circumstance and the state as a fundamentally coercive antagonist, nothing but a “committee for managing the collective affairs of the bourgeoisie.

(Gill 1993, pp. 93) (Femia 1981, pp. 2) (Marx & Engels 2002, pp. 212) Rather Gramsci argues that all states and their related economic structures survive through a combination of coercion and consent. (Gramsci 1971, pp. 182) (Femia 1981, pp. 24) Hegemony thus refers to the consent half of this dichotomy, though, as Bob Cox points out, coercion always exists just below the surface to enforce control in deviant cases. (Cox and Sinclair 1996, pp. 126) It is important to now briefly dig deeper into this conception of hegemony in order to understand its application to the world today, particularly on an international level. From where does this consent arise? After all, a traditional materialist world understanding would struggle to accommodate the actions of the western working classes. (van der Pijl 2009, pp. 223) The answer veers strongly away from Marxism’s materialist roots. Far from being a mere manifestation of the economic base, the structure and the super-structure must be understood as mutually constitutive. (How 2003, pp.

3) Individuals act within the confines of their sociohistorical context, a context ideologically defined by neo-liberalism and, on a broader level, by the overwhelming “culture-ideology” of consumerism.

(Corradetti 2011, pp. 4) (Sklair 2001, pp. 4) (Cox and Sinclair 1996, pp. 133)This ideological power generates a “reification” of social relations and, as a result, discourages popular discourse challenging these relations. (Soederberg 2010, pp. 524) This is not to say it is for purely fanciful reasons that the working classes by and large acquiesce to capitalist rule. By and large, the masses are better off today than they were before capitalism. Thus, it is not merely through ideological might, but also through material concession that the bourgeoisie retains control, a process exemplified by the postwar social democratic compromise. (Gill 1993, pp.

97) (Beeson & Bell 2009, pp. 72) (Cox and Sinclair 1996, pp. 126) Using these twin tools of influence, the bourgeois incorporates a number of allied classes into its ruling historical bloc, strengthening its position immeasurably in the process. (van der Pijl 2009, pp. 239) However, while this account of the formation of a pro-capitalist historical bloc may explain in full the American and British experience, where upheaval and mass participation facilitated the capitalist transition, this was not replicated throughout the world. Using Italy as an example, Gramsci described the concept of passive revolution, “a process of modernization presided over by the established elites who used the revolutionary changes to

maintain their supremacy and consolidate the extant order.” (Femia 1981, pp. 48) It is this form of societal evolution which is of particular importance to us in our application of Gramscian principles to the modern global system as the majority of the capitalist world, particularly in the global south has been dominated by such passive revolutions absent even the lightest shade of popular participation. (Cox and Sinclair 1996, pp. 129-131) This leads to a form of minimal hegemony which relies upon techniques of tranformismo, or the incorporation of the leaders of “potentially hostile groups” into an “ever broader ruling class” in order to maintain authority. (Femia 1981, pp. 47) (van der Pijl 2009, pp. 241) In summation, we can see here a much deeper conception of hegemony, one based on social and economic structure in which the ruling classes maintain control through ideological and cultural clout, material concessions, and processes of tranformismo. Now, we must seek to apply what up to now has been a fundamentally domestic understanding of hegemony to an international context.

The justification for this extrapolation is by no means a stretch. Gramsci himself, in his Prison Notebooks from which is drawn his original postulation of hegemonic rule, pondered whether “international relations precede or follow (logically) fundamental social relations.” His answer was simple and direct.

“There can be no doubt that they follow.” (Gramsci 1971, pp. 176) This is not to say, however, that this analysis is purely inter-national in character.

Rather its strength derives from its understanding of states as one part of a “global system.” (Sklair 2001, pp. 3) Thus, hegemony becomes “not merely an order among states [but] an order within a world economy.” (Cox and Sinclair 1996, pp. 137) Our unit of analysis is much more all-encompassing including international and transnational social structure, class relations, and ideological power alongside traditional study focuses of military and state influence. (Cox and Sinclair 1996) (Saull 2006, pp. 328) Now that we have an abstract, theoretical understanding and justification for our interpretation of hegemony, we can move on to its application in a concrete sense. However, before moving on to the G20 we must first contextualize that experience with a broader understanding of our present day neo-liberal hegemony.

Neo-liberalism is fundamentally “a system of production and accumulation based on capitalist markets and wage labour reinforced by a cultural, ideological, and institutional edifice that naturalizes these relationships.” (Rucki 2011, pp. 336) Historically it emerged out the economic crises of the 1970’s that precipitated the collapse of the Bretton Woods system and a great deal of the social democratic compromise that had, up to that point, characterized the post war era. (Rucki 2011, pp. 335) Its emergence was typified by a relative withdrawal of the state from direct economic planning and management, a ‘reigning in’ of the welfare state, falling income taxes, a decline in trade union power, a rapid growth in trade, ‘free markets,’ and the systematic financialization of the economy.

(Saull 2012, pp. 331) (Ikenberry 2011, pp. 1) (Tax Foundation 2013) (Howe 1979) (Lawson 1988) (White 2013) What this has meant in practical terms is the earlier mentioned slowing of economic growth, heightening of inequality and poverty, stagnation of 15

median wages, and exponential accumulation of wealth for the wealthy within these countries. (Stone and Trisi et al., 2013) (Greenhouse 2013, pp. SR5) On an international scale, while neo-liberalism has not seen a growth in relative poverty or inequality, is has also failed also to see the situation grow better despite starting from very low benchmarks.

(Hickel 2013) (World Bank, 2013) For our use, above all else neo-liberalism must be understood as a specific form of capitalism characterized by high levels of trade which is particularly beneficial to an increasingly footloose, “transnational” capitalist class at the expense of a proletariat which has itself globalized, but whose institutions of protection and representation have not. (Valladao 2006, pp. 248) (Rucki 2011, pp. 339) (Sklair 2001) We have spent the first half of this essay sketching out exactly what is meant by hegemony and describing its contemporary manifestation in the broadest sense. Now we have the tools to confidently address and assess the role of the “Group of 20” within this context. As in the case of defining hegemony, I will first put forward the mainstream views on the implications of this “minilateral” institution before deconstructing them and offering a neo-Gramscian alternative which will argue that the G20, regardless of popular intention, has served as merely one more means of legitimizing and reinforcing the modern neo-liberal hegemony.

As stated at the onset of this essay, the G20 was created in 1999, largely supplanting the traditionally dominant economy based G7 with an organization incorporating a collection of so-called “emerging” economies. (Beeson & Bell 2009, pp. 67) Since then, this “minilateral” institution has born out of it a substantial number of agreements and resolutions, most prominently the Basel Accords which in turn spawned the Financial Stability Forum (FSF) and later the Financial Stability Board (FSB), the largest international financial regulatory institution in the world tasked with promoting economic stability and transparency. (Soederberg 2010, pp. 529-531) (Bank of International Settlements 2004) For liberals, this willing accommodation of portions of the Global South combined with an active role in the regulation of finance is indicative of a “new multilateralism of the 21st century.” (Hampson and Heinbecker 2011) The world today, the argument goes, increasingly faces globalized concerns which no single nation can handle on its own.

(Beeson & Bell 2009, pp. 72-74) Given the deep systemic issues and indecision of the broad, global multilateral institutions, mini-lateral alternatives become “invariably” necessary to tackle these new, worldwide issues. (Hampson and Heinbecker 2011, pp. 301) Some go even further than this, arguing that the G20 represents a fundamental shift towards global equality and democracy, empowering the Global South, as represented by the newly emerging economies, to chart the future path of world economic policy or at least participate in this charting. (Hampson & Heinbecker 2011, pp. 301) (Cammack 2012) (Wilkinson & Hughes 2002, pp. 21) For the most optimistic among them, the G20 is part of an emerging post-Westphalian, post-hegemonic, and non-western world order.

(Hampson and Heinbecker 2011, pp. 300) It is with these last points particularly and the others generally that realists differ, arguing instead that, like most contemporary international organizations (henceforward “IO’s), the G20 is characterized by 16 RICHMOND UNIVERSITY MAGAZINE | APRIL 2014

the primacy of US hegemonic interests (in the state centric sense of the word) within the grouping and that any cooperation is purely the result of perceived mutual benefit, not the so-called enlightened reason of liberalism. (Beeson & Bell 2009, pp. 72-74) (Yordan 2006, pp. 136) (Layne 2012, pp. 203) Even outside the realm of realist thought, viewing the G20 as an entity independent of American influence or at the very least absent US domination is seen at best as fanciful. (Chomsky 2003, pp. 28-36) (Beeson & Bell 2009, pp. 70) (Wilkinson & Hughes 2012, pp.

26-27) Thus, the G20, rather than being an actor in its own right, is only a tool to be acted upon.

Here the neo-Gramscians, whose position I will broadly adopt, would agree. The G20 is by no means an independent entity working towards broad and positive goals in the best interests of the world. On the contrary, it is a tool of hegemonic authority furthering a neo-liberal world order which we have already proven to be beneficial primarily (if not only) to the capitalist classes, national and transnational. (Cammack 2012, pp. 2) (Chomsky 1994, pp. 178-179) Here the G20 is no different than any other IO. As Bob Cox explains in his 1983 essay Gramsci, Hegemony, and International Relations, “IO’s function as the process through which hegemony and ideology are developed.”

(Cox and Sinclair 1996, pp. 137) To support this assertion, Cox provides us with 5 supporting points: “1) the institutions embody the rules which facilitate the expansion of the hegemonic world order; 2) they are themselves the product of the hegemonic world order; 3) they ideologically legitimate the norms of the world order; 4) they co-opt the elites from peripheral countries; and 5) they absorb counterhegemonic ideas.” (Cox and Sinclair 1996, pp. 138) I would like now to evaluate the G20 based upon these five points with the aim of confirming their applicability in this circumstance and establishing the G20 as a fundamentally hegemonic organization.

First off is that the G20 “embodies the rules which facilitate the expansion of the hegemonic world order.” (Cox and Sinclair 1996, pp. 138) It is clear and widely acknowledged that, broadly speaking, the G20 embraces the values of liberal internationalism and these values, in turn, are reflected in the important agreements of the group. (Cammack 2012, pp. 2) (Soederberg 2010) (Ikenberry 2011, 1) Specifically speaking, this can be empirically confirmed through even the most superficial analysis of the Basel Accords.

Throughout, albeit to a lesser extent in Basel III, an emphasis is placed upon ‘openness,’ information symmetry, self-regulation, credit rating, and, above all else, fair and even competition as the sure-fire way to promote financial stability and prevent crisis. (Bank of International Settlements 2004) (Bank of International Settlements 2011) (Larson 2011, pp. 18, 21) (Dale & Thomas 2000) Moreover, these rules are not in the least meant to supplant or even limit the operation of neo-liberal capitalism, but rather a tacit recognition that a regulatory framework is necessary for the market to function.

Finally, not only does the G20 “embody the rules which facilitate [neo-liberal] expansion,” it has taken “herculean” steps to reassert neo-liberalism after the global financial crisis by re-legitimizing it, narrowing the scope of ‘reasonable’ responses, and facilitating its coordinated rescue package. (Cox and Sinclair 1996, pp. 138) (Soederberg 2010, pp. 524) The second point offered by Cox to explain the

hegemonic role of IO’s is that “they are themselves the product of the hegemonic world order.” (Cox and Sinclair 1996, pp. 138) This takes much less time to analyze then the first point. Every member exercises some form of market economy and every member is necessary for the smooth operation of globalized capitalism.

The importance of ideological legitimacy in a Gramscian understanding of hegemony cannot be understated and this is recognized in Cox’s third point; “[IO’s] ideologically legitimate the norms of the world order.” (Cox and Sinclair 1996, pp.

138) As we’ve already shown, there can be no doubt that the G20 internalizes the values of global neo-liberalism. However, it in turn reaffirms these values and adds another layer of ideological legitimacy. Of particular interest here are the aforementioned “herculean” efforts to relegitimize neo-liberalism, particularly in the aftermath of the 2008 global financial crisis. (Soederberg 2010, pp.

524) Crediting itself with “strengthening the role of emerging economies, such as BRICS, reforming international financial institutions, improving discipline and tightening oversight over national financial institutions and regulators, improving the quality of financial regulations in economies whose regulatory problems led to the crisis, and creating financial and organizational safety nets to prevent severe economic slumps in the future,” the G20 has been one of the most important global engines of ideological affirmation, painting a picture of a reformed and “safe” capitalism. (G20 2013) (Soederberg 2010) Fourth and fifth and perhaps most importantly in the context of the G20 is the “co-opt[ing of] the elites from peripheral countries,” largely analogous to the process of tranformismo, and the related “absorb[tion of] counterhegemonic ideas.” (Cox and Sinclair 1996, pp. 138) The G7 was a traditional hegemonic organization, a manifestation of the interests the world’s strongest capitalist classes.

The G20 however allows the “G7 [to] dominate a wider order and legitimize a G7 world view.” (Beeson & Bell 2009, pp. 71) It, along with a number of supplementary IO’s, helps to effectively incorporate China, India, Brazil, and the rest of the ‘emerging’ world into the neo-liberal order. (Ikenberry 2011, pp. 2) (Beeson & Bell 2009, pp. 68) (Saull 2012, pp. 332) With China set to soon surpass the US as the world’s largest economy, such a move is pivotal to the survival of the neo-liberal historical bloc on an international scale and the continued influence of the transnational capitalist class. (Rucki 2011) (Layne 2012) (The Economist 2013) It’s not hard to realize the G20 has failed to change the world to nearly the extent that the optimistliberals would suggest. However, what I have proven within this essay is a much more important point: that far from changing the world, the G20 has served primarily as a hegemonic tool, doing little more than securing and reinforcing a liberal, capitalist-ordered globe. What does the increasing prominence of the G20 tell us about the nature of hegemony in the contemporary global economy?

Absolutely nothing and, simultaneously, absolutely everything. The neo-liberal order remains, in fact it grows in strength. The only thing changing is the justification and the ever-larger number of countries falling in its grasp.

References Beeson, M. and Bell, S. 2009. The G-20 and international economic governance: hegemony, collectivism, or both?. Global Governance: A Review of Multilateralism and International Organizations, 15 (1), pp. 67--86.

Bank of International Settlements. 2004. Basel II: International Convergence of Capital Measurement and Capital Standards: a Revised Framework. [online] Available at: http://www.bis.org/publ/bcbs107.htm [Accessed: 23 Nov 2013].

Bank of International Settlements. 2013. Basel Committee on Banking Supervision reforms - Basel III overview table. [online] Available at: http://www.bis.org/bcbs/basel3/b3summarytable.pdf [Accessed: 23 Nov 2013].

Brennan, J. and Stanford, J. 2013. Growth of inequality in Canada cannot be denied. [online] Available at: http://www.thestar.com/opinion/commentary/2013/09/26/growth_of_inequality_in_canada_cannot_be_ denied.html [Accessed: 24 Nov 2013].

Cammack, P. 2012. The G20, the Crisis, and the Rise of Global Developmental Liberalism. Third World Quarterly, 33 (1), pp. 1-16.

Chomsky, N. 2003. Hegemony or survival. New York: Metropolitan Books.

Chomsky, N. 1994. World orders, old and new. New York: Columbia University Press.

Corradetti, C. 2011. The Frankfurt School and Critical Theory. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

Cox, R. and Sinclair, T. 1996. Approaches to world order. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Dale, R. and Thomas, S. 2000. The Role of Credit Ratings in the Basel Capital Adequacy Proposals. [report] Southampton: University of Southampton Department of Management.

Femia, J. 1981. Gramsci’s political thought. Oxford [Oxfordshire]: Clarendon Press.

G20. 2013. The G20: its role and legacy. [online] Available at: http://www.g20.org/docs/about/part_G20.html [Accessed: 25 Nov 2013].Gill, S. 1993. Gramsci, historical materialism and international relations. Cambridge [England]: Cambridge University Press.

Gramsci, A., Hoare, Q. and Nowell-Smith, G. 1971. Selections from the prison notebooks of Antonio Gramsci.

New York: International Publishers.

Greenhouse, S. 2013. Our Economic Pickle. New York Times, 13 January, p. SR5.

Hampson, F. and Heinbecker, P. 2011. The “new” multilateralism of the twenty-first century. Global Governance, 17 (3), pp. 299--310.

Hickel, J. 2013. The truth about extreme global inequality. [online] Available at: http://www.aljazeera.com/ indepth/opinion/2013/04/201349124135226392.html [Accessed: 24 Nov 2013].

How, A. 2003. Critical theory. Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave MacMillan.

Howe, G. 1979. Economy: 1979 Budget. [online] Available at: http://www.margaretthatcher.org/archive/ displaydocument.asp?docid=109497 [Accessed: 24 Nov 2013].

Ikenberry, G. 2011. Future of the liberal world order: Internationalism after America. Foreign Aff., 90 p. 56.

Larson, J. 2011. The Basel Capital Accords. [online] Available at: http://ebook.law.uiowa.edu/ebook/sites/ default/files/Basel%20Accords%20FAQ.pdf [Accessed: 25 Nov 2013].

Lawson, N. 1988. Economy: 1988 Budget. [online] Available at: http://www.margaretthatcher.org/archive/ displaydocument.asp?docid=111449 [Accessed: 24 Nov 2013].

Layne, C. 2012. This Time It’s Real: The End of Unipolarity and the Pax Americana. International Studies Quarterly, 56 (1), pp. 203--213.

Marx, K. and Engels, F. 2002. The Communist Manifesto. London: Penguin Classics.

Rucki, S. 2011. Global Economic Crisis and China’s Challenge to Global Hegemony: A Neo-Gramscian Approach.

New Political Science, 33 (3), pp. 335--355.

Saull, R. 2012. Rethinking Hegemony: Uneven Development, Historical Blocs, and the World Economic Crisis.

International Studies Quarterly, 56 pp. 323-338.

Schmid, K. and Stein, U. 2013. Explaining Rising Income Inequality in Germany. [report] Düsseldorf,: Macroeconomic Policy Institute.

Sklair, L. 2001. The transnational capitalist class. Oxford, UK: Blackwell.

Soederberg, S. 2010. The Politics of Representation and Financial Fetishism: the case of the G20 summits.Third World Quarterly, 31 (4), pp. 523--540.

Stewart, H. 2013. Shocking figures reveal the growth in UK’s wealth gap. [online] Available at: http://www. theguardian.com/society/2013/feb/10/uk-super-rich-richer-as-majority-squeezed [Accessed: 24 Nov 2013].

Stone, C., Trisi, D., Sherman, A. and Chen, W. 2013. A Guide to Statistics on Historical Trends in Income Inequality. [online] Available at: http://www.cbpp.org/cms/?fa=view&id=3629 [Accessed: 24 Nov 2013].

Tax Foundation. 2013. U.S. Federal Individual Income Tax Rates History, 1862-2013. [online] Available at: http://taxfoundation.org/article/us-federal-individual-income-tax-rates-history-1913-2013-nominal-andinflation-adjusted-brackets [Accessed: 24 Nov 2013].

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Valladao, A. 2006. Democratic Hegemony and American Hegemony. Cambridge Review of International Affairs, 19 (2), pp. 243--260.

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Yordan, C. 2006. America’s Quest for Global Hegemony: Offensive Realism, the Bush Doctrine, and the 2003 Iraq War. Theoria: A Journal of Social and Political Theory, 53 (2), pp. 125--157.

17

Polgar Sandor

Interviewed by Sally Bestor

To any onlooker, my Grandfather looks around the age of 70. We Skype on his Birthday and we speak in Hungarian. It surprises me as well, that he is not 70, but 86. He sits in front of the computer with a straight back, low shoulders, and has his head close to the monitor, yet he asks me to repeat myself as he can’t hear me.

For 32 years, he was the principal of a prestigious high school in Debrecen; the students must have kept him young.

On the adjacent wall, I can see a painting hanging, depicting him, younger, but with just as much wisdom in his eyes. To many of his former students, Polgar is just as lively as he is at 86, as he was at 40.

“Being 86 is a special feeling, a weird feeling” says Polgar “It’s interesting because I outlived the average Hungarian life expectancy.”

“Happy Birthday, Grandpa! I wish you health and happiness” I say to him. “I’m in relatively good health. I go for examinations every six months” says Polgar of his fortunate health.

It feels like yesterday “I didn’t expect life to go this fast. Young people always say, “I’ll do it tomorrow.

They think they have so much time. Life goes by too fast, so if you don’t make use of it, it’ll be gone.”

Polgar, oldest of five children, was born in a town roughly 54 miles from Budapest, Kecskemet. He moved to Budapest as a young college student, before eventually settling in neighboring city, Debrecen in 1955, before the revolution of 1956.

Me: What was the 1956 Hungarian Revolution like?

Polgar: If I hadn’t left Budapest for love, I’d be dead. I left Budapest to follow my love, and I owe my life to her. I should have told her that before she died.”

Polgar met his first wife, Katalin Balogh, geography and history teacher, and instantly knew he wanted to marry her. My grandmother would tell me how they met while she was wearing her red, polka dot dress. Even though he doesn’t know it, I know their story as if I’d been there myself. >

18 RICHMOND UNIVERSITY MAGAZINE | APRIL 2014

In 1955, their first and only child, Katalin Polgar was born. During the same time, he became the principal of the then all-boys school. In the 1960’s, it became coed, and a decade later, Dr. Katalin Polgar attended the same school.

Debrecen Legacy “Your Grandfather is an amazing man”, I’ve been told countless times by people who stop us on the street, as we walk side by side.

In 1991, Polgar stepped down as Toth Arpad Principal, but continued to work.

He did administrative duties at the Debrecen City Hall before completely retiring.

In his 32 years of being principal, 150 graduating classes had the pleasure of having Polgar as a principal.

Recently, Polgar was given a special grave site at the Debrecen Cemetery, which is specifically reserved for people of high prestige or authority. “It’s an honor” says Polgar “and it was all worth it. I loved my job.”

When asked the most important life lesson he has learned, Polgar says “I’ve learned in life that it’s incredibly important to plan. Stick by that plan your whole life, and you will have a route set up for you.”

Before the honor Polgar was born in March of 1928, a decade before the Second World War took full effect. Hungary had been completely occupied. Oldest of five children, Polgar found himself the leader of the household while his father and his mother developed a fever that at that time was not easily curable.

“What memory sticks out most from your life?” I ask him.

After a few minutes pause, he starts, “The war...” My grandfather lets out a sigh, and I see his shoulders droop slightly.

“It was difficult because I had to take care of my family at such a young age.

There was hardly any food, and what we did have, we’d salvage for weeks. That truly shaped the 86 year old man I am today” says Polgar.

Today Polgar resides on Furedi Utca in Debrecen, with his second wife of 20 years.

Every Monday, he plays poker.

Tony Easton

Interviewed by Heidi Maunder Walking through West London, Anthony Easton stops suddenly, shouting excitedly, ‘There it is! Number Six, Alperton Street!’ His 6ft frame means that it‘s only a few strides until he reaches the front gate of the terraced house in which he lived as a child. Immediately he starts telling me stories about life during the Blitz.

‘These iron railings weren’t there’ he gestures, ‘They would’ve been used for tanks.’ He points to the pebbled garden behind them, ‘We used to break milk bottles and put the glass here to catch the rats.’

The evening before, Tony Easton, 79, had been sitting opposite me after a long train journey from Devon to London. Rubbing his eyes under his large framed glasses and holding a glass of wine, he began to tell me about life as an evacuee.

‘In 1940, we’d celebrated Christmas at home, but by Boxing Day we were on a train.’ The train took four-year-old Tony, his 10-year-old sister Vivienne and two-year-old sister Evelyn, to Devon. They were just three children of almost four million to be evacuated during World War Two. When they arrived, they were left in a waiting room with a crowd of children, ‘People were coming in picking one, picking two, we were three, nobody wanted threes, we were the last to leave.’

They were taken, begrudgingly, by Mr and Mrs Horn. Tony plainly states, ‘So our horrible life began. Wartime affected you physically, emotionally and mentally. It’s difficult to describe sometimes.’

Vivienne wrote home pleading for help, ‘Mother had been sending money to Mrs Horn for clothes and upkeep, you didn’t have to pay, the government paid. But we were in rags, so mother took us home.’

Home was Number Six, Alperton Street, but they only stayed for three months.

‘Mother was working as a telephonist and father was fighting fires in the Blitz, it wasn’t practical to stay.’

They returned to Devon to live with a Mrs Harris. Tony won a prize at the school, a six-penny savings stamp, but she stole it from him, ‘That sort of thing formed my attitude to people, trust was a very limited thing.’

The children were split up and Tony was sent to Sidmouth. The retired business owner now lives there with his second wife, Stef, and near to his only child from an earlier marriage, Jennie, and his two grandchildren. Even though some of Tony’s most difficult times were in Devon, so were some of his best.

‘I was in a gang of boys and we had some really great adventures, that’s one of my happier times.’ Tony was eight but remembers his stay in Sidmouth vividly.

‘That’s when I started smoking.’ American troops were stationed nearby so Tony and his friends would go to the railway tracks to wave as they passed, ‘They would throw sweets out of the train… and cigarettes.’

On a Wednesday afternoon, Tony and his friends snuck into Woolworths. The alarm bell sounded and Tony was caught. He was sent, with siblings in tow, to the Cotswolds, to stay with an uncle. His eyes glaze over with fond memories, ‘I really loved that. The sun always seemed to shine there.’

He describes his most memorable wartime moment, ‘I was sitting by a wire fence, and this aeroplane took off… it had no propellers. A roar… a noise like I’d never heard before! I told uncle John, he wouldn’t believe me. I got a good hiding.

It was the first jet plane being developed secretly!’

Tony was then sent to Cheltenham where he caught double pneumonia, he states grimly, ‘I was on the last.’ They gave the 9-year-old antibiotics, ‘I was told I was lucky, they were the same antibiotics the Deputy Prime Minister had.’

In 1944, the Easton’s returned home to London. Being an evacuee undoubtedly affected Tony. Trust remained limited and his education had been so disrupted he lacked confidence in learning, which has affected him throughout his life.

However, none of this could be seen in the spritely man before me, taking a break from the interview to tap out a text to his wife, letting her know that he had arrived in London safely.

They lived with two other evacuees, who had fleas. ‘Children at the school would say ‘evacuees got fleas.’ It was violent, we didn’t stay there long.’

19

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Erin Sinnott’s internship at

TEACH in Tanzania 21

TIME

TO

EMPOWER

Erinn Sinnott, a current Richmond student studying International Relations, has spent her Summer interning at TEACH: Time to Empower Africa’s Children in Tanzania, after responding to an email sent out by the Internship office in Spring mentioning new internship opportunities available through this NGO. During her internship Erinn has had the opportunity to design and execute her own project linked to her personal interest in women’s issues in development. Erinn’s project has been focused on a social enterprise that allows local women to run their own business producing and selling sanitary towels, something which helps women cope with menstruation in rural areas – a luxury that is often taken for granted in developed countries.

Erinn’s work with TEACH has allowed her to put her knowledge from her IR degree into practice and to gain valuable on the ground experience.

If you would like to know more about internship

22 RICHMOND UNIVERSITY MAGAZINE | APRIL 2014

AFRICA’

opportunities and current projects at TEACH, you can visit their website or contact Debbie Bird in the Internship Office for more information.

How did you find your internship and where did you intern?

I found out about TEACH: Time to Empower Africa’s Children through an e-mail from the Internship Office. We’re based in Moshi, Tanzania and work with youth in the Kilimanjaro region.

What were your responsibilities and duties during your internship?

As an ACT (Action in Communities in Tanzania) intern, I had the unique opportunity to design and implement my own project. I started KiliPads, which is a social enterprise comprised of ten women who produce and sell reusable menstrual pads. Many women cannot adequately handle menstruation in rural areas, so they skip school or work for up to a week per month or turn to unhygienic materials like old cloths or plants to control it. I helped design prototypes, tested materials, selected the women,

S

CHILDREN

IN

wrote the syllabi for the business, production, and health training, etc. I also designed training on spreading awareness on women’s health, as it remains a taboo topic in rural areas. Alongside this, I helped out on the Kauli Project, which is another TEACH social enterprise that produces handbags from local leathers and fabrics.

What did you enjoy the most about your internship?

I really enjoyed working directly with the women!

They were so eager and motivated to start the project even though they all have children and had to travel a bit to where our meetings were held. They were really attentive to the training because they did not receive formal schooling and saw this project as a way to geet better opportunities for themselves and their families. They also really liked the idea of spreading awareness on health and the fact that the product itself would allow women to work and go to school more efficiently. This made the internship all the more meaningful because I know my project is having an impact to some degree.

TANZANIA

How has your internship been relevant to your future career plans?

I would ideally like to work on women’s issues in development, so this project was a great introduction to what working in the field would entail. I also learned a lot on how to interact with rural communities and the general way of life in Tanzania, which is valuable if I am to return.

What did you find were the biggest cultural differences in and out of the workplace?

The largest cultural difference I experienced was the language barrier. You learn quite a bit of Swahili during your stay, but the training all had to be done by a Tanzanian member of staff since I couldn’t communicate well enough. The people here are very welcoming and kind as well and will generally help you out if you need it, but some vendors or taxi drivers will overcharge you if you are a Westerner or do not speak Swahili fluently which can be frustrating. *Minimum grade criteria of 3.0 GPA for World Internships apply

23

Does Globalization Mean the Decline of the Nation State or are Nation States able to Respond to Processes of Global Change?

Written by Johannes Bjorklund The effects of an increasingly global world are ever more inescapable. Spatial and temporal distances have been elided as a result of technological advancements. Global brands and instantaneous movement of capital frequently transcends borders. This has stimulated increasing literature on whether globalization has rendered physical borders relics of a bygone era, and, even more significantly, if globalization will be the nemesis of national governments. ‘Hyperglobalists’, influenced mostly by the liberal paradigm of international relations, argue that globalization has weakened the sovereignty of the nation state and shifted power into regional and global ‘layers’ (Held and McGrew 2007 21). Conversely, sceptics, advocating a realist viewpoint, posit that the decline of the nation-state is not only a gross hyperbole, but also ahistorical as globalization, to them, is nothing new (Held and McGrew 2008 p16). This then begs the question; has the omnipotence of markets rendered nation states and national governments impotent?

This essay will set the argument that the rise of globalization is neither the demise nor the continuity of the state-centric world order. On the contrary, while the context in which nation states operate has changed as a result of globalization, states still possess the ability to orchestrate the forces of an increasingly interconnected world, yet they do so in a more competitive environment. Beginning with analyzing the increase of supraterritoriality and the diminishing of nation-state sovereignty, the essay continues to scrutinize the extent to which states control the influence of globalization. The essay will then conclude by distilling the arguments put forth.

Until the advances of communication technologies in the past three or four decades, money had operated nearly exclusively inside the domestic economy of its producer (Scholte, 1997, p.439).

However, global processes have removed the action of money from its territorial bounds. As a result, this territorial disconnection of capital has prised from the state the sovereignty it once claimed. The importance of money and capital is entrenched by the contemporary organization of production and distribution around capitalism.

The globalization of capital has two distinct effects on the nation state. First, the supraterritoriality of capital has created an environment where many contemporary states are disincentivized from the provision of welfare programs for their citizens (Scholte, 1997, pp.448-449). The ability of capital to flow out of a state if the policies are not commiserate with TNCs (Transnational Corporations) and wealthy individuals’ interests means that states must be highly attuned to those interests (Scholte, 1997, p.446). No longer able to act with unlimited sovereignty, states must consider the implications of their policies to an extent hitherto unseen. Beyond the impacts that the freedom of capital have had on states’ incentives to provide welfare and social services for their citizens, states have lost the ability to fashion macroeconomic policy (Scholte, 2005, p.443). Instead, economic policy is typically crafted to increase the attractiveness of the domestic environment to lure large corporations.

Conversely, this molding of state polices to attract business has witnessed a decline since the global 24 RICHMOND UNIVERSITY MAGAZINE | APRIL 2014

financial crisis of 2008. This will be discussed in more detail below.

Second, the ability of people to instantly withdraw money from the economy creates a dangerous environment for states of unsustainable economic booms. The introduction of the euro facilitated an unprecedented flow of foreign capital into periphery economies, such as Spain and Ireland. Private lending increased rapidly and a housing boom emerged in these two economies (Shambaugh 2012 p14). When the crisis in Europe erupted, capital movement dried up and private debt became public debt, thus severely hampering the sovereign state. In addition, the boom cycle caused an untenable increase in wages relative to productivity, which undermined the competitiveness of the country (Shambaugh 2012 p17).

Moreover, globalization has seen many governance issues rise from the realm of national policy to international bodies that consult national governments but make the decisions at the supranational level (Axtmann, 2004, p.269). The growth of the IMF, World Bank and World Trade Organization (WTO) has displaced the democratic function of states and usurped sovereignty for many nations on crucial economic policies. This highlights the paradox that the consequence of globalization varies on different states. Stable, developed western economies and strong state capitalist countries are less affected by the process of globalization, than a weak developing nation (Wolf, 2001) While the former are able to control the effects of global forces, the latter is subjected to them, thus infringing on their sovereignty.

Consequently, concomitant with the decline of the role of the state is the decline of political regulation and democratic decision making. As Axtmann articulates, the “structures and mechanisms of international regulatory policy-making are, in turn, more advanced than the institutions for their democratic control” (2004, p.270). This development is troubling for those who believe that the democratic control of policy making is vital to the equitable treatment of citizens and to preclude particular interests from taking control and exploiting those powers for their own gain.

Perhaps one of the most elemental reasons for the declining position of the nation state and the rise of global actors that transcend territorial authorities is that the speed at which TNCs, NGOs and individuals are able to make decisions far outpaces the democratically and bureaucratically limited national governments. While the latter have become increasingly bureaucratic, TNCs are organized on an authoritarian basis. In other words, stockholders have little recourse to exert control. While this disconnection of owners from operators may cause some individual incentives to be changed (Berle and Means, 1932), the formation of the modern corporation allows for decision making to be consolidated, effectively to the one person sitting atop the bureaucracy. This removes from the TNC’s the temporal constraints that consensus building places on the territorial democratic government. Similarly, NGOs, due to their typically small size and nondemocratic form, can also make decisions much quicker

than governments. Thus, in an increasingly fast paced world, the nondemocratic process of decision making that TNCs and NGOs use gives them a distinct advantage when in competition with states.

Furthermore, the disconnection from democratic control has been exacerbated by homogeneity of ideology of the above mentioned institutions.

The neoliberal agenda has been highly influential on the way that the global processes have come about, particularly in the economic realms (Clarke, 2003, p. 204). That a singular ideology dominated the upper echelons of such consequential institutions indicates that democracy was not a high priority. As such, these institutions lack democratic control and the temporal constraints that the democratic process places on decision making. Without the restraining influence of democracy, IGOs, TNCs, and NGOs are able to operate in the quickened world of globalization more effectively, thus advancing them faster than democratic states.

Consequently, the sovereignty of the nation state has been undermined by the supraterriotriality of capital and the increasing influence of global organs that are capable of transcending borders and acting without the constraint of a bureaucratic consensus building. However, there are other challengers to state supremacy and sovereignty. The liberalization of immigration, coupled with the transplanetary relations vast advances of technology have fostered, has remade many once homogenous western states into multicommunal states. Essentially, modern liberal states are now multicultural societies where many different, often radically different communities exist simultaneously. One of the outcomes of this new relationship between states and the communities that exist within the state is a decrease in respect for expert opinions and the ‘applicable to all’ decisions the liberal state makes (Axtmann, 2004, p.267).

There is no doubt that globalization has altered the context in which states operate. Technological advancements, free movement of capital and people, and the exponential increase of NGOs, overtaking work that once was squarely in the hands of the nation states, has created an environment of more competition for the nation state. Yet, it is important to remember that the global order was once defined by a balance of powers based on crude militarism. It was, after the Second World War maintained through institutional arrangements and a stalemate between two superpowers, during this era nation state sovereignty was palpably omnipresent in the prospect of a nuclear annihilation. With the fall of the Soviet Union in the early 1990s a period of increased globalization followed. This was facilitated by the hyperpower of the United States and the dominance of neoliberalism. In many ways, this was the pinnacle of globalization and most of the processes mentioned above thrived under this environment.

This era of unfettered globalization aided a shift in power from national to global organs to a certain degree. However, this does not necessarily equate to the inevitable demise of the nationstate. Indeed, the global financial crisis emerging in 2008 underpinned the ability of states to adapt

and control these forces. Since 2008, there has been an increase in state intervention in the flow of money and goods, further regionalization between like-minded nation-states, and more friction as national self-interest has toppled international co-operation. As a result, unfettered globalization has been replaced by a new form of ‘gated globalization’.

The emergence of a more restrained globalization is closely tied to state capitalism. In the aftermath of the financial crisis it became apparent that the emerging economies of China, Russia and India had not been as afflicted by the crisis as most western nations (Economist, 2013). This is important because it has facilitated a shift, albeit under the radar, of neoliberal economies toward more state intervention in the markets.

This shift is threefold. First, instead of a free world market, regional trade entities are emerging more frequently. The latest is the attempt by the United States and a number of other countries to create the Trans-Pacific Partnership (Economist, 2013).

Fred Hochberg, head of America’s government backed Export-Import Bank explains this; It is time to drop the fantasy that a purely free market exists in the world of global trade. ...In the real world our private enterprises are pitted against an array of competitors that are often governmentowned,government-protected,governmentsponsored or all of the above

In other words, instead of a global market, western countries are opting to create elite clubs of economies as they are seen as more prosperous.

Second, cross-border bank movement has declined by two thirds since 2007. This is a result of national governments placing increased regulations on banks to prevent another crisis of a similar magnitude. The Economist eloquently termed it ‘The ring fencing of the banking sector’ (Economist 2013).

Third, capital controls, long seen as the third rail of neoliberalism, has emerged in some economies to restrict the amounts of foreign currency moving in and out of the economy. Furthermore, over 400 new protectionist methods have emerged, often in the form of either industry polices or export subsides. Brazil, looking for a way to reduce car imports, introduced a new programme last year to encourage innovation. Essentially, this new policy initiative required car manufacturers to invest in local innovation and engineering. Failure to adhere to the course of action would entail higher excise taxes and import tariffs on domestic sales (Economist, 2013). Consequently, since the financial crisis, nation states have been more wary of free trade and unfettered globalization. Instead a form of managed globalization and increased regionalization has emerged.

For nearly four centuries the paramount institution that affected humans has been based upon geographic location and territory. The state was able to effectively consolidate its legitimacy through the democratic process and its influence from other social institutions such as the church and family to achieve its height of power in the early 20th Century. However, the forces of globalization and its processes have unleashed competitors to state domination of society and challenge it on nearly every front. The decisions that states once conceived as wholly theirs are now modified based upon the concerns of TNCs and some decisions have been removed from states’ hands all together. Nonetheless, the recent global recession has once again proven the ability of the nation state to adapt to new environments.

While the dominance it enjoyed in the early 20th century is a distant memory, the increase of state intervention and regionalization suggests the nation state is adapting to the contemporary global order where it operates in a new context with increasing competition. Accordingly, globalization has replaced the state-centric world order with a more competitive multilateral environment. However, far from being irrelevant, the state has adapted to these forces and remains vital to the global order.

References Agnew, J (2005) Sovereignty regimes: territoriality and state authority in contemporary world politics. Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 95 (2), pp.437-461.

Axtmann, R (2004) ‘The state of the state: the model of the modern state and its contemporary transformation’ International Political Science Review, 25 (3), pp.259-279.

Berle, A. and Means, G. (1932) The Modern Corporation and Private Property. New Brunswick: Harcourt, Brace & World Inc. Clarke, J. (2003) ‘Turning inside out? Globalization, neo-liberalism and welfare states.’

Anthropologica, 45 (2), pp.201-214.

The Economist (2013) ‘Special Report: The Gated Globe’ . Available at: http://www.economist.com/news/special-report/21587384-forward-march-globalisation-has-paused-financial-crisis-giving-way Petras, J. and Polychroniou, C. (1997) ‘Critical reflections on globalization’. Economic and Political Weekly, 32 (36), pp.2249-2252.

Reis, E. P. (2004) ‘The lasting marriage between nation and state despite globalization’ International Political Science Review, 25 (3), pp.251-257.

Scholte, J. A. (1997) ‘Global capitalism and the state’ International Affairs, 73 (3), pp.427-452.

Scholte, Jan Aart (2005) ‘Globalization: a critical introduction’ 2nd Edition. Palgrave Macmillan, Shambaugh, Jay C (2012). The Euro’s Three Crisis. Brookings Papers on Economic Activity Spring 2012. Available at: http://www.brookings. edu/~/media/Files/Programs/ES/BPEA/2012_spring_bpea_papers/2012_spring_BPEA_shambaugh.pdf Ward, I., 2003. The end of sovereignty and the new humanism. Stanford Law Review, 55 (5), pp.2091-2112.

Wolf, Martin (2001) “Will the Nation-State Survive Globalization?” Foreign Affairs. 1 Jan. 2001 Available at: . <http://www.foreignaffairs.com/ articles/56665/martin-wolf/will-the-nation-state-survive-globalization>.

25

The Personalities and Mental State Decision Makers Impose Themselves on Foreign Policy Written by Ryan Baldry The aim of this essay is to analyse three individuals who have all shaped foreign policy in their own, very distinct ways; Tony Blair, Margaret Thatcher and Henry Kissinger. Firstly, this paper will discuss the state of mind of Tony Blair throughout his premiership and just before he won leadership of the Labour Party. As well as this, the concept of Blair’s ‘Messianic’ complex will also be analysed to discover the degree to which that affected any, if not all, of his foreign policy decisions. Secondly, this paper will discuss the way in which Margaret Thatcher’s unique position affected her decisions with specific focus on the Falklands invasion and her motives for not allowing the island to fall. Thirdly, this paper will discuss the ways in which Henry Kissinger carried out his role as NSA advisor, and later Secretary of State, under the Nixon administration.

There will be a specific analysis of Kissinger’s thought process and they ways in which this would have had an impact on the way in which he worked.

The question of whether Kissinger was carrying out US foreign policy or a version of his own will also be discussed. Finally, this essay will conclude with an analysis of how there are a number of different factors which can all have a substantial impact upon an individual, regardless of how insignificant they may at first appear.

To properly be able to understand the topic of foreign policy decision making, it is crucial that we are first able to understand the individual at the centre of that process. It has been suggested by some theorists that the state is the base level of study in foreign policy1 . However, we know this to not be the case. The key question that we must ask within Foreign Policy Analysis is who, what, when and why? Different individuals will all make different decisions from one another due to a number of different factors. These can vary from their upbringing, past careers and experiences, their advisors and even the layout of the room that the decision is being made in2 . For an example, it is important to look at the time in which the event occurs, who is making the decision and why that particular decision had to be made. By answering each of these questions, it will be possible to gain a greater understanding of how foreign policy decisions are made. This essay will also utilise methods of psychological analysis to discuss the state of mind of decision makers in order to find if there foreign policy decisions were, if at all, affected by their state of mind. However, the main task of this essay is to analyse the state of mind of key figures within foreign policy such as Prime Ministers of the United Kingdom.

As previously mentioned, the first individual whom this paper will be discussing is Tony Blair, British Prime Minister from 1997 until his resignation in 20073 . Blair proves to be an interesting case study for a number of reasons. Firstly, Blair’s chance at the leadership position within Her Majesty’s Opposition came about suddenly with the unexpected death of the former party leader, John Smith4 . However, despite the sudden change in leadership, Tony Blair was able to lead the party to win Labour a landslide victory in 1997. It is possible to conclude that from the speed at which Blair claimed the Party Leadership, that he would be a very spontaneous and reactionary leader with regards to his foreign policy decision-making. One such example of this could be seen to be Blair’s decision to invade Iraq.

One trait that has been identified in Blair, found

by Dyson, is that of a ‘[n]eed for power’5 . Dyson 26 RICHMOND UNIVERSITY MAGAZINE | APRIL 2014

arrives at this conclusion by finding that there is a high percentage of verbs used by Blair in public speeches that ‘reflect actions of attack, advise [and] influence the behaviour of others’6 . This point is reflected by Christopher Hill who notes that Tony Blair confronted the government on foreign policy decisions whilst still in opposition, an area that had been untouched by Labour in their entire time as opposing party7 . It could then be argued that it was these personality traits that lead Tony Blair to the decision to assist the Americans in the campaign against Saddam Hussein in Iraq; mainly, due to Blair having a tendency to want to influence the decisions of others; there was a key focus on the formation of a coalition around the invasion, and secondly due to his sense of superiority over others.

These personality traits prove to be crucial for a number of reasons. Firstly, it is only with this key trait that Blair would have made the decisions to enter Iraq in the way he did. Due to his need for power over others and his sense of superiority, he was able to convince parliament that a war in Iraq was essential and that by stating the crisis situation was ‘worse than [being] told to do something by the Americans. I believe in it’ 8. This suggests that Blair believed himself to be right above all those in Europe who were sceptical of the evidence supporting intervention by an allied force. In this way, much like he did when attempting to gain the leadership of the party, Blair leapt into a decision, and as we now know, did not have all of the facts and evidence available to him at the time. The Bounded Rationality Model also demonstrates support for this particular case study. For example, the theory suggests that ‘decision-making depends upon emotional assessment’9 . Hudson also continues to state that ‘emotion is one of the most effective ways by which humans can change goal emphasis’.

This relates directly back to Tony Blair because he used emotion as reason for intervention when he stated that Saddam Hussein must be removed from power because he is ‘very close to some appalling weapons of mass destruction’10 .

It is through this analysis that it becomes clear that if there had been another leader of the government in place at the time, instead of Tony Blair, that there will have been a very different outcome to the Iraq conflict in terms of British Interests. This is because it is very unlikely that there would have been another individual with the same drive and desire for power that Blair possessed. This demonstrates that the individual is a key actor within the study of foreign policy and cannot be overlooked or disregarded as unimportant to the field of IR. To continue this analysis of the extent to which the individual is important in FPA, this paper will discuss the state of mind of another British Prime Minister, Margaret Thatcher, and the ways in which she imposed herself upon British Foreign Policy.

As the first female PM11 , there were a number of factors that would have affected Thatcher that wouldn’t have affected the state of mind of previous male Prime Ministers. For example, one such issue would have been the pressure from the traditional ‘men in grey suits12’ in Whitehall who believed that a woman was incapable of being the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom and that politics was a male’s career. This would have had the effect of focusing Margaret Thatcher on the task of proving politicians wrong by being as successful as possible in the time which she resided in Downing Street.

One of the most famous examples of Thatcher’s determination to achieve this task was during the Falklands invasion of 1982. This was an interesting event at the time for a number of reasons. Firstly, it was nearing the next general election and Margaret Thatcher was very unpopular in a number of polls that had been taken at the time, scoring only 28% in 1981 but reaching her peak after the Falklands war in 1983, scoring 62%13. However, the integrity of her state of mind was also tested beforehand with he decision to cut the number of Royal Navy sailors by 8,000 to 10,00014 before the invasion of the Falklands by the Argentinians had occurred. This meant that even against the opposition of members of her cabinet and defence officials, Thatcher had to remain determined in terms of the scale of the plan she intended to implement in response to the invasion. In a memo from the Foreign and Commonwealth Office at the time to the Ministry of Defence, it was stated that: ‘…any reduction would be interpreted by both the islanders and the Argentines as a reduction in our commitment to the Islanders and in our willingness to defend them, and would attract strong criticism from supporters of the islanders in the United Kingdom’15 .

This was important because it demonstrates the opposition that Margaret Thatcher was up against in terms of domestic issues that would in turn have a great impact upon her foreign policy. Hudson confirms this by suggesting that ‘the nature of the regime itself…must be made a central part of any analysis of the domestic roots of foreign policy’16 . By proving to the key individuals within the government, such as the First Seal Lord of the Royal Navy, that a defensive operation could take place despite the cuts that she had initiated. This is an interesting case of cognitive dissonance that is demonstrated by Margaret Thatcher throughout the crisis. Through her perseverance that a military campaign was still feasible, despite the cuts she was implementing to the armed forces, is evidence of the ways in which Thatcher was capable of not allowing the criticisms from close colleagues and the public, to affect her decisions and state of mind. Overall, with the combination of the personality traits discussed previously, it is apparent how Margaret Thatcher’s personality and state of mind were influential to a very high extent because of the ways in which her thinking and physical determination had an impact upon her foreign policy decisions.

Finally, another key another key actor within the field of Foreign Policy Analysis whom this paper will discuss is Henry Kissinger. As David Rothkopf notes, ‘[he] may have actually left the greatest legacy in the degree to which he influences the attitudes…of those around him’17 . It is for this reason that Kissinger proves to be of great interest in the study of foreign policy analysis. His state of mind and personal experiences can be seen to of had a substantial influence over the ways in which Kissinger carried out the foreign policy of the United States, or even questionably, his own idea of foreign policy. In Foreign Policy Analysis, the structure in which an individual makes the decision is also crucial18, as Kissinger himself noted before being appointed to the position of National Security Advisor. This is ironic because once in this role, ‘[Kissinger] and Nixon would repeatedly make decisions based on their intuition, outside

the formal structure of decision making’19 . This is one important insight into the state of mind which Kissinger possessed throughout his time as Nixon’s National Security Advisor and then also in his role as Secretary of State. In order to assess this mind set in more detail and the ways in which Kissinger imposed this upon his foreign policy decisions, this paper will be analysing one specific case study. In this case, the event of the SALT treaties and Détente will be focused upon. One key factor that must be taken into account is that the personal relationship between Nixon and Kissinger and their professional relationship were very different. Despite Nixon’s feelings towards Kissinger and his background, after working together for almost two years, Kissinger was essentially free to carry out policy as he pleased and only rarely had to run an idea past the Oval Office for approval20 .

With this point in mind, it could be concluded that with the power that he had been given by Nixon, in his role as National Security Advisor, that Kissinger could have contributed to the mind-set that he was in the position to carry out foreign policy as he saw necessary. Kissinger made little effort to conceal the belief that he considered himself to be a statesman, despite only reaching the height of Secretary of State21. One interesting theory that was developed

by Starr was the concept of an ‘operational code22’.

For example, ‘courage and decisiveness came first’ for Kissinger, an idea that was evident in his foreign policy. This would then lead to the belief that the way in which Kissinger carried out the foreign policy of the Nixon administration would be different than had another individual carried it out because Kissinger was driven by these particular ideals. His mind-set would have had a major influence on his foreign policy choice, as was evident in the SALT talks where Kissinger urged Nixon to ‘stonewall the Soviets on Berlin if the impeded the SALT talks.23 ’ Additionally Nixon and Kissinger, due to their similar beliefs in foreign policy, were convinced that improvements in relations with the USSR would assist them in creating more fruitful relations with China; a state that both men acknowledged the importance of24 . It is evident from the research by this paper that Kissinger was a very unique figure within the field of foreign policy analysis. Due to his personality and relationship with Nixon, Kissinger’s foreign policy was very much a product of his state of mind, both in his position as secretary of state and also throughout his time as National Security Advisor.

To conclude, this paper has found that the individual has more influence over foreign policy decisions and outcomes than previously was taken into account in the analysis of foreign policy. Throughout the three

case-studies that this paper has analysed, in the case of Tony Blair, Margaret Thatcher and Henry Kissinger, the choices that the individual makes can have a great impact upon the way in which foreign policy is carried out by that state. The mental state of actors proved to be an area of specific interest because of the ways in which this can affect the decisions made by heads of state and governments.

Fore example, the way in which Margaret Thatcher made her decision would have differed if she hadn’t been under such intense pressure from other members of her cabinet. Kissinger proved to be unique in that he could be seen to have taken advantage of the relationship that he had with Kissinger in order to progress his own idea of foreign policy. The foreign policy of Tony Blair can be seen to have been a product of his the personality traits and the need to always be greater than others.

Hudson poses the question: ‘Do leaders matter?25’.

This paper has found that leaders do matter and more importantly, the ways by which they arrive at their decisions prove to be more fascinating. In order to answer the question that was posed at the beginning of this paper, it is evident that the degree to which decision makers impose themselves onto their foreign policy decisions is great and should no longer be overlooked in the field of foreign policy analysis.

Endnotes 1. Valerie M. Hudson, Foreign Policy Analysis: Classic and Contemporary Theory, Plymouth: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers Inc., 2007, 3 2. Hudson, Foreign Policy Analysis: Classic and Contemporary Theory, 5 3. Robert J. Parker, British Prime Ministers, Gloucester: Amberly, 2013, 119 4. Campbell. The Blair Years: Extracts from the Alastair Campbell Diaries, London: Arrow Books, 2008, xxi 5. Stephen Benedict Dyson, ‘Personality and Foreign Policy: Tony Blair’s Iraq Decisions’, Foreign Policy Analy sis, Vol. 2, 2006, 292 6. Dyson, ‘Personality and Foreign Policy: Tony Blair’s Iraq Decisions’, 292 7. Christopher Hill, ‘Foreign Policy’ in Anthony Seldon (ed.), The Blair Effect: The Blair Government 1997 – 2001, London: Little, Brown and Company, 2001, 332 8. Dyson, ‘Personality and Foreign Policy: Tony Blair’s Iraq Decisions’, 290 9. Hudson, Foreign Policy Analysis: Classic and Contemporary Theory, 45 10. Dyson, ‘Personality and Foreign Policy: Tony Blair’s Iraq Decisions’, 290 11. Robert J. Parker, British Prime Ministers, Gloucester: Amberly, 2013, 115 12. Alan Watkins, A Conservative Coup: The Fall of Margaret Thatcher, London: Gerald Duckworth & Co Ltd, 1992, p 6-7 13. Ipsos MORI, ‘Conservative Leader Image’, Ipsos MORI Trends, (11/9/2013), <http://www.ipsos-mori.com/researchpublications/researcharchive/poll. aspx?oItemID=58&view=wide> [Accessed: 1 November 2013] 14. House of Commons Hansard, 25 June 1981, columns 387-394 “Defence Programme” 15. The National Archives, Catalogue: prem/19/416, Foreign and Commonwealth Office, Defence Programme in The Defence Budget, 1983.

16. Hudson, Foreign Policy Analysis: Classic and Contemporary Theory, 126 17. David Rothkopf, Running the World, New York: PublicAffairs, 2006, 19 18. Hudson, Foreign Policy Analysis: Classic and Contemporary Theory, 13 19. Asaf Siniver, Nixon, Kissinger and U.S. Foreign Policy Making: The Machinery of Crisis, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011, 21 20. Harvey Starr, ‘The Kissinger Years: Studying Individuals and Foreign Policy’, International Studies Quarterly, Vol. 24, No. 4, 1980, 467 21. Starr, ‘The Kissinger Years, Studying Foreign Policy’, 479 22. Starr, ‘The Kissinger Years, Studying Foreign Policy’, 479 23. Robert Dallek, Nixon and Kissinger: Partners in Power. London: Penguin, 2007, 287 24. Dallek, Nixon and Kissinger: Partners in Power, 288 25. Hudson, Foreign Policy Analysis: Classic and Contemporary Theory, 37

27

Book Review

Living Dolls: The Return of Sexism by Natasha Walters Written by Kieley S. Healey

In her first novel, prominent feminist and author Natasha Walter argued that feminism in the home had done its job. Feminists no longer needed to focus on the personal and sexual lives of women, but exclusively on the political and financial equalities women still lacked. The popular feminist mantra “personal as political” no longer was necessary in a world where real equality was on the horizon. Published in 1999, The New Feminism foretold a future of sexual liberation as well as open opportunities in government and male dominated sectors (The New Feminism). Unfortunately, Walter predicted a world that never came to be. Second chances, though, are easily given when an author admits in a published piece that she was “…entirely wrong…The rise of a hypersexual culture is not proof that we have reached full equality; rather, it has reflected and exaggerated the deeper imbalances of power in our society.” (Living Dolls 8) This hypersexual culture and its implications are what Walter attempts to review in her latest book, Living Dolls: The Return of Sexism, published in 2010. This hypersexualised culture, which she argues is all encompassing in contemporary UK culture, includes a ‘new’ sexism, one that evades the caging and restricting views of gender roles and female sexuality by placing a new, shiny and pink cage around women, keeping them in a very specifically sexual role. This new sexism also pushes for the pervasive acceptance of biological determinism, the indisputable differences in genders based on the study of hormones and neurology. Created by the expansion of pornographic ideals in mainstream life along with the marketing to our daily choices, this new doll world is painted in all shades of pink and has left women doe-eyed, tiny-waisted, big-breasted, and air-headed (Living Dolls 1-18).

While this new culture is criticised and her arguments against it are completely reasoned, Natasha Walter’s book is too broad to cover all sexism in contemporary UK society as she set out to do. This attempt leaves the reader with a wealth of new knowledge but many more questions. Her first mistake was her determination to observe and discuss both ‘new’ sexism in its relation to hypersexualisation and the sex industry, and the clinging attachment media has to biological determinism. Both issues are imperative to a full understanding of where society stands in relation to gender today, but trying to discuss both in a relatively short book does a disservice to each.

These issues are separated into two sections in the piece: ‘The New Sexism’ and ‘The New Determinism’. In each section, Walter attempts to objectively observe and question the current state of sexism and what is considered scientific fact, specifically in the UK, and analyse the implications of these assumptions on wider society. ‘The New Sexism’ details Walter’s questions of the liberal and sexually explicit freedom experienced by girls and women today while ‘The New Determinism’ set out to outline the many arguments, both scientific and otherwise, that support the idea of biological determinism, and dismantle each and every one. While Walter does reference ‘The New Sexism’ a couple of times in her determinism discussions, the sections seem relatively disconnected and unnecessary to one another. Ideally, each section should have survived in its own book in order to fully understand each argument and delve further into each issue.

For example, ‘The New Sexism’ section delves into the world of pornography, prostitution, and adolescent and teenaged girls. It is highly anecdotal and journalistic, finding most of her story by interviewing a variety of women across the UK, including university students, prostitutes, and glamour models. By doing so, Walter is able to paint a very broad picture of what women must accept and accomplish in order to be considered successful. That is, they must accept their position as sex object and doll (Living Dolls 19-125).

Being a ‘doll’ in Walter’s observation is the only way many of the women she interviewed personally aspired and reached towards success. Unlike previous generations, where women were encouraged by feminists and other women to push past boundaries and into male-occupied fields, these women view their sexual allure as their only power play in life (Living Dolls 14). Because of this view of the sexual as powerful, it can hardly be surprising that many women are finding fulfilment in the sex industry- whether as prostitutes or as directors of pornography like Anna Span (Living Dolls 102-103). The women that she interviewed cited time and again that it was their choice to participate in the sex industry. They were not forced by anyone and refused to be painted as the victim, they were free to decide (Living Dolls 28, 44, 60).

Except it isn’t really their freedom that these women are expressing by choosing their careers. It is most often women with few choices who turn to these 28 RICHMOND UNIVERSITY MAGAZINE | APRIL 2014

financial equalities women still lacked. The popular feminist mantra “personal as political” no longer was necessary in a world where real equality was on the horizon. Published in 1999, The New Feminism foretold a future of sexual liberation as well as open opportunities in government and male dominated sectors (The New Feminism). Unfortunately, Walter predicted a world that never came to be. Second chances, though, are easily given when an author admits in a published piece that she was “…entirely wrong…The rise of a hypersexual culture is not proof that we have reached full equality; rather, it has reflected and exaggerated the deeper imbalances of power in our society.” (Living Dolls 8) This hypersexual culture and its implications are what Walter attempts to review in her latest book, Living Dolls: The Return of Sexism, published in 2010. This hypersexualised culture, which she argues is all encompassing in contemporary UK culture, includes a ‘new’ sexism, one that evades the caging and restricting views of gender roles and female sexuality by placing a new, shiny and pink cage around women, keeping them in a very specifically sexual role. This new sexism also pushes for the pervasive acceptance of biological determinism, the indisputable differences in genders based on the study of hormones and neurology. Created by the expansion of pornographic ideals in mainstream life along with the marketing to our daily choices, this new doll world is painted in all shades of pink and has left women doe-eyed, tiny-waisted, big-breasted, and air-headed (Living Dolls 1-18).

While this new culture is criticised and her arguments against it are completely reasoned, Natasha Walter’s book is too broad to cover all sexism in contemporary UK society as she set out to do. This attempt leaves the reader with a wealth of new knowledge but many more questions. Her first mistake was her determination to observe and discuss both ‘new’ sexism in its relation to hypersexualisation and the sex industry, and the clinging attachment media has to biological determinism. Both issues are imperative to a full understanding of where society stands in relation to gender today, but trying to discuss both in a relatively short book does a disservice to each.

These issues are separated into two sections in the piece: ‘The New Sexism’ and ‘The New Determinism’. In each section, Walter attempts to objectively observe and question the current state of sexism and what is considered scientific fact, specifically in the UK, and analyse the implications of these assumptions on wider society. ‘The New Sexism’ details Walter’s questions of the liberal and sexually explicit freedom experienced by girls and women today while ‘The New Determinism’ set out to outline the many arguments, both scientific and otherwise, that support the idea of biological determinism, and dismantle each and every one. While Walter does reference ‘The New Sexism’ a couple of times in her determinism discussions, the sections seem relatively disconnected and unnecessary to one another. Ideally, each section should have survived in its own book in order to fully understand each argument and delve further into each issue.

For example, ‘The New Sexism’ section delves into the world of pornography, prostitution, and adolescent and teenaged girls. It is highly anecdotal and journalistic, finding most of her story by interviewing a variety of women across the UK, including university students, prostitutes, and glamour models. By doing so, Walter is able to paint a very broad picture of what women must accept and accomplish in order to be considered successful. That is, they must accept their position as sex object and doll (Living Dolls 19-125).

Being a ‘doll’ in Walter’s observation is the only way many of the women she interviewed personally aspired and reached towards success. Unlike previous generations, where women were encouraged by feminists and other women to push past boundaries and into male-occupied fields, these women view their sexual allure as their only power play in life (Living Dolls 14). Because of this view of the sexual as powerful, it can hardly be surprising that many women are finding fulfilment in the sex industry- whether as prostitutes or as directors of pornography like Anna Span (Living Dolls 102-103). The women that she interviewed cited time and again that it was their choice to participate in the sex industry. They were not forced by anyone and refused to be painted as the victim, they were free to decide (Living Dolls 28, 44, 60).

Except it isn’t really their freedom that these women are expressing by choosing their careers. It is most often women with few choices who turn to these professions. Walter mentions, if too briefly, social mobility is at an extreme low compared to recent years, and that has influenced many women to look for a new way to make it big when aspirations of parliament and politics are just

professions. Walter mentions, if too briefly, social mobility is at an extreme low compared to recent years, and that has influenced many women to look for a new way to make it big when aspirations of parliament and politics are just too far-fetched and unavailable (Living Dolls 19-38). An example of this is Cara Brett, a famous glamour model that Walter both observed during an infamous promotional stunt for lads’ mag Nuts, and later interviewed. Walter reasoned that Brett had turned to glamour modelling as a ticket out of her small town life as she wasn’t, by her own admission, necessarily suited for dancing, singing, or acting (Living Dolls 27). Yet Brett held firm to her belief that what she does was her choice and therefore unquestionably. Choice being the token work, the unabashedly stolen rhetoric of feminism applied to limiting and constraining ideals of our hypersexualised culture.

This focus on the co-opting of choice as a key word for openly sexual and sexist actions is completely reversed in ‘The New Determinism’ section, which poses a different sexism: the rebuilding of classic gender norms. This section fantastically discusses many arguments for biological determinism and how, for whatever reason, they are just not valid. Some have been contradicted by larger studies, while others were never produced with the academic merits that they have been acclaimed for. Her chapter, ‘Myth’, is exceptional at pointing to the methodological mistakes and extreme bias in many neurological and psychological studies. She does not shy away from pointing to the faults of theorists, like Simon Baron-Cohen in his book The Essential Difference- a book fraught with seemingly half researched arguments and poorly enacted studies (Living Dolls 152-198). Although this section is relatively short, compared the ‘The New Sexism’, Walters is able to say a great deal about her reasoned dislike for the new determinism.

Unfortunately, her reasoning and research is not enough to hide her complete disconnect between the two sections. Readers will be quick to notice a complete departure from the original tone of the piece once they begin the second section. Walter was almost ruthless in her critiques of the ‘evidence’ for biologically proven difference; she seemed to accept social construct arguments at face value. An example of this was her use of a hormone study done by two Princeton psychologists (Living Dolls 188), which was only performed once with a small test group, yet was not questioned harshly for its merits. This does make sense as she is very clearly against biological determinism, but it gives her book a very unsystematic bias that most of it lacked previously. Throughout her reviews of prostitution, glamour modelling, and the like, Walter seemed to stay as neutral and nonjudgmental as possible; making arguments and very straightforward statements then following them up with the equivalent of ‘Not that there is anything wrong with that.’ Obviously she was attempting to keep her personal judgements from colouring her story or our views of the women she was interviewing, but at times it felt almost passive aggressive, especially when reading her very aggressive arguments later in ‘The New Determinism’ section.

Aside from the disconnect issue, Living Dolls also ignores important pieces of the puzzle. This may be to keep it as succinct as possible, but it looks more like a cost of combining two such different issues. This piece was the unrealistic, and even dangerously prejudiced, ignorance of the existence of the LGBTQ community.

Not only does this community often face some of the worst fetishisation our hypersexual culture has to offer, but also most of the determinism arguments and discussions do not even acknowledge the existence of transgender and intersex people. It seems like an almost wasted point because Walter could have easily pointed to the trans* community for evidence of the ridiculousness of much of determinist arguments.

Even though it is clear these two sections are two separate theses’, it is understandable that they were put together. It is an odd and stark contrast that these sex-centric professions and interests are touted as choice, yet gender differences have been fatalistically designated by popular media outlets as biologically determined and unavoidable. This juxtaposition seems like the only redeeming factor for putting these two sections into one book. Each section is a fantastic read, yet each feel like they have much more unpacking and explaining to do, including the dangers of some of the acceptance of a all-encompassing sex industry. Titled after ‘dolls’, the book barely scratched the surface of the many facets of the sex industry or what this shift will mean in the long run.

Avoiding the implications of the ‘doll’ culture seems like wasted potential.

too far-fetched and unavailable (Living Dolls 19-38). An example of this is Cara Brett, a famous glamour model that Walter both observed during an infamous promotional stunt for lads’ mag Nuts, and later interviewed. Walter reasoned that Brett had turned to glamour modelling as a ticket out of her small town life as she wasn’t, by her own admission, necessarily suited for dancing, singing, or acting (Living Dolls 27). Yet Brett held firm to her belief that what she does was her choice and therefore unquestionably. Choice being the token work, the unabashedly stolen rhetoric of feminism applied to limiting and constraining ideals of our hypersexualised culture.

This focus on the co-opting of choice as a key word for openly sexual and sexist actions is completely reversed in ‘The New Determinism’ section, which poses a different sexism: the rebuilding of classic gender norms. This section fantastically discusses many arguments for biological determinism and how, for whatever reason, they are just not valid. Some have been contradicted by larger studies, while others were never produced with the academic merits that they have been acclaimed for. Her chapter, ‘Myth’, is exceptional at pointing to the methodological mistakes and extreme bias in many neurological and psychological studies. She does not shy away from pointing to the faults of theorists, like Simon Baron-Cohen in his book The Essential Difference- a book fraught with seemingly half researched arguments and poorly enacted studies (Living Dolls 152-198). Although this section is relatively short, compared the ‘The New Sexism’, Walters is able to say a great deal about her reasoned dislike for the new determinism.

Unfortunately, her reasoning and research is not enough to hide her complete disconnect between the two sections. Readers will be quick to notice a complete departure from the original tone of the piece once they begin the second section. Walter was almost ruthless in her critiques of the ‘evidence’ for biologically proven difference; she seemed to accept social construct arguments at face value. An example of this was her use of a hormone study done by two Princeton psychologists (Living Dolls 188), which was only performed once with a small test group, yet was not questioned harshly for its merits. This does make sense as she is very clearly against biological determinism, but it gives her book a very unsystematic bias that most of it lacked previously. Throughout her reviews of prostitution, glamour modelling, and the like, Walter seemed to stay as neutral and nonjudgmental as possible; making arguments and very straightforward statements then following them up with the equivalent of ‘Not that there is anything wrong with that.’ Obviously she was attempting to keep her personal judgements from colouring her story or our views of the women she was interviewing, but at times it felt almost passive aggressive, especially when reading her very aggressive arguments later in ‘The New Determinism’ section.

Aside from the disconnect issue, Living Dolls also ignores important pieces of the puzzle. This may be to keep it as succinct as possible, but it looks more like a cost of combining two such different issues. This piece was the unrealistic, and even dangerously prejudiced, ignorance of the existence of the LGBTQ community.

Not only does this community often face some of the worst fetishisation our hypersexual culture has to offer, but also most of the determinism arguments and discussions do not even acknowledge the existence of transgender and intersex people. It seems like an almost wasted point because Walter could have easily pointed to the trans* community for evidence of the ridiculousness of much of determinist arguments.

Even though it is clear these two sections are two separate theses’, it is understandable that they were put together. It is an odd and stark contrast that these sex-centric professions and interests are touted as choice, yet gender differences have been fatalistically designated by popular media outlets as biologically determined and unavoidable. This juxtaposition seems like the only redeeming factor for putting these two sections into one book. Each section is a fantastic read, yet each feel like they have much more unpacking and explaining to do, including the dangers of some of the acceptance of a all-encompassing sex industry. Titled after ‘dolls’, the book barely scratched the surface of the many facets of the sex industry or what this shift will mean in the long run.

Avoiding the implications of the ‘doll’ culture seems like wasted potential.

In her first novel, prominent feminist and author Natasha Walter argued that feminism in the home had done its job. Feminists no longer needed to focus on the personal and sexual lives of women, but exclusively on the political and 29

Pixel Playground - Spring 2014 Tutor: Karen Lacroix Assignment 1: Visual Narratives This assignment focused on the study of image sequence and the construction of meaning, having a publication as output. By applying the research undertaken during the workshops in class, students used both manual and digital (Adobe Photoshop) image-making techniques in order to visualise and illustrate a narrative.

Group 1: We chose to focus on the otherworldly creatures that inhabit the ocean and outer space. We created these creatures and their environment using photomontage,focusing on textures and colors to help convey our ideas.

Lauren L. Sandoval/ Art Design Media Margaret E. Travers/ Intl Relations

Group 2: For this assignment, we were given a list of words to form the base of our concept; I chose the idea of "consumption". I wanted to explore the concept on a more personal level, so I chose to create a narrative surrounding the engulfing/consuming quality of love (whether that be romantic/familial/ otherwise). I kept the narrative quite simple and fairly understated, as I wanted the viewer to have a chance to have a relationship with the publication. There are overreaching themes concerning the notion of the circle and the colour blue as they relate to the ocean. Another important aspect of the publication is the incorporation of multiple paper textures, as I wanted the visceral quality of the theme in general and many of the collages to be emphasised.

Kathryn S. Miranda / Art, Design Media

30 RICHMOND UNIVERSITY MAGAZINE | APRIL 2014

Group 3: Our piece attempts to depict the integration of the animal kingdom into the one of the humans’. With the help of photoshop and handmade collages, the group was able to make the visual very clear without the utilisation of words.

Walter E. Joos/ Bus Adm: Intl Bus Ross W. McRae/ Art Design Media Sari Z. Rasamny / Bus Adm: Marketing

Group 4: We chose among a group of news headlines, “How city living is reshaping the brains and behaviour of urban animals”. We decided to approach the assignment from a narrative-based mindset- exploring the ideas of how the natural and urbanised worlds interact. Drawing a narrative from our chosen sentence created a cautionary tale revolving around man’s utopian journey from the city back into nature. We utilised repetition of line, shape, and colours (in particular red/yellow) to cement the plotline and draw our unique styles of collage together into a unified whole. (See spread on next page)

Kathryn M. Smith/ Art Design Media Charlotte M. Rimmer/ Art Design Media Kathleen M. Olsen/ Study Abroad

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32 RICHMOND UNIVERSITY MAGAZINE | APRIL 2014

33

Poetry

2/4/12

2/06/12

3/3/12

When did it become hard for me to look into the mirror,

What do you want from me?

The tree says to the wind,

You may judge me ‘cause I speak about intelligence, And the relevance to our prevalent, Society, there is no denying me, I choose to speak of the hypocrisy, Dominating this social monopoly, Organized by the aristocracy, That runs our supposed “democracy” In reality it’s an autocracy,

Written by V.M.S.

Written by V.M.S. When did everything I love, turn into constant fears, When did embracing life turn into fear of death, When did constant coughing replace an easy breath, When did my love leave and turn to bitterness, When did my compassion turn to selfishness,

You take all of me every time you blow in, I try to stay strong, these roots are firm and deep, But when I feel your presence it makes me want to weep, You push me here and pull me there, taking pieces of me with you, I can not escape as you encompass me in your issues,

When did I lose faith in the world and myself, And was it before I lost faith in everybody else?

I am left shattered, all my leafs gone, you split up this wise tree with your sirens’ song,

Where did my hope and dreams go, And when was my soul consumed by my ego, When did the face I see turn into a reflection of someone else, I look into the mirror and I don’t see myself

But this tree is like no other, I have been here since the dawn of time, I have weathered storms that have destroyed others minds, So while you may weaken me with your constant force, This tree remains strong, sticking to it’s course

Cord

Written by Anoushka Wilson Once upon a time I was attached to you; physically at first, by a rope of winding code that ensured I got your eyes and your habit of writing poetry about the people you love the most.

Even when they cut us apart I never left your side.

Balanced on your hip, I clung on tight and people who came to visit wanted to hold me but I refused to be pried out of your arms.

I got older and could walk on my own two feetreluctantly; you clutched my chubby little fists tight in your manicured hands and never, ever let me fall even when your long nails pinched me, and I cried when you tugged too hard at my curls.

Eventually, testing the elasticity

Written by V.M.S.

of the cord became a habit.

I would storm upstairs, you would slam the door on me; perhaps hoping, in our anger, it would break; snap; explode into a thousand pieces DNA and memories smattered all over the floor as loathsome yet inconsequential as the droplets of a sneeze.

But it never did.

It just kept stretching and stretching, until now we are only attached by a power cord; translating the smallest of electrical impulses into words, touches, looks; I can say things to you without being there, and you still know what I really mean, even though you are a hundred miles away.

34 RICHMOND UNIVERSITY MAGAZINE | APRIL 2014

Systematically destroying humanity, Breeding from the top down, inhumanity Insanity, is what this system is, When guns are all around, but they can’t find food for kids, In designer clothes, staring into the abyss, Wondering how the world could come to this

Barriers

Written by Anoushka Wilson Skype makes it hard for me to see the way your face creases when you laugh, like tissue paper crinkled by a giant invisible hand.

The phone line between us is full of static and stops me from hearing the smile in your voice when you tell me about little things that brightened your day.

The keys beneath my fingers are cold and silky like your hands; but they are smooth, impersonal and lack the whorls of your skin that feel so comforting on mine.

My connection speed blurs the colours in your eyes making them a kaleidoscope of earth tones and preventing you from seeing the love in mine.

Blue A short story written by Sela Garza

James: I sighed as I turned the last page of my book. I wasn’t even sure if it could even be called a book anymore; it was a collection of torn, yellowed pages with dozens of folded corners and a half-there paperback cover. I had been reading this book for the past couple months. I wasn’t a fast reader by any means, but it was more due to the fact that I felt the need to overanalyze every sentence I read. I also mouthed the words as I read them – a debilitating habit that only slowed me further. Finishing this book meant I needed to make a trek down to the bookstore. A trek across the damp moor and freezing cold forest, down the massive hill, and finally up through town to the very last shop. I had been lucky with this book, as my mother had given it to me for my birthday, and I rarely ever enjoyed the books she picked out for me.

‘This one is a good one James, I promise you dear,’ she had said as I accepted it begrudgingly.

I had taken it unexcitedly, although I could hardly complain about a free book.

I pulled myself out of bed reluctantly, tugging on a raggedy pair of jeans and thick wool socks. I ran my hand across my cheek and noted that I was in need of a shave, but I disregarded it for later. A bird hit the window and I stood up with too much force.

Grabbing a light jumper I headed for the door.

The thistle tugged at my jeans as I traipsed through the first field, gray sky overhead. I began to wish I had thought to wear better shoes as the puddles of muddy water began to seep into my ancient hiking boots. My feet became so cold that the feeling in them was lost on me after a solid twenty minutes had passed. The moor seemed endless and empty, and it wasn’t until the rain began to let up that I finally reached the shelter of the forest. The only life I encountered was a chirping sparrow that gazed at me inquisitively as I passed. I supposed that there were plenty of people who would feel paranoid doing this walk alone. At this point I was so used to isolation that I rarely feared encountering someone or something dangerous.

I could see the break in the trees ahead as the forest became more lit, and I caught a second wind when the edge of town became visible. The slope began to descend and trees were growing sparse as I continued on the trail. This hill was fine on the way into town, but it was a killer on the way back home.

There weren’t a lot of people out on the streets, but I noticed most of the coffee shops were packed inside. You would think people in this region would be used to the rain, but it never failed to drive them inside. I was convinced that where I lived received the most rainfall in all of England. It seemed there was never a day that it didn’t rain.

I walked through town and sighed with relief when the bookshop came into view. The warm air made my face flush as I entered the shop, and I waved to Barney, the bookkeeper, as I made my way to the stairs. This bookshop was part of a chain, but I couldn’t help but think that there seemed to be something very independent and personal about it. Once upstairs, I went straight to the nonfiction section.

Hallie: Hallie felt stuffy in this bookstore. She had worn a coat much too heavy for this weather, although

she was grateful for the hood, as the rain was treacherous. These damn books were impossible to find. She had a list of five obscure titles. Hunting through each shelf her eyes were open for those titles alone. She tried searching by author, but the books were all so out of order that her search wielded very poor results. People were so careless – always putting books back exactly where they didn’t belong. No one cared enough to return the books to their rightful, alphabetical order. She had almost given up when she noticed a guy staring at her through the bookshelf. She looked away immediately as eye contact was ill advised. She had a strange feeling that she had seen him before or had some fleeting encounter, but she dismissed it but was nonetheless hyperaware of his gaze.

She pretended not to notice in order to avoid embarrassing him. Where were the employees at this shop? She really wanted to gather her books and leave-- she had far too much to do. She thought about asking the guy through the bookshelf, but couldn’t decide if that was acceptable or not.

‘Do you know how these ruddy books are organized?’ she had given in to asking him. He looked utterly shocked at her having spoken to him. ‘Sorry, I know you don’t work here. But I’m not entirely convinced these are ordered alphabetically,’ she tried to redeem herself.

‘It can be tricky rummaging through them. Barney really should hire some more help,’ his voice was kind, but he seemed a bit nervous. It didn’t take him any time to make his way around to her side of the bookshelf.

‘Here is my list, there are five titles. I suppose it’s not urgent that I find all of them, but at least three would be nice,’ she shoved the list in his direction and he took it graciously.

‘You like birds huh?’ he looked up at her with a smile that was almost a polite smirk. His gaze never left her face and she found it awkward. She was afraid to break eye contact.

‘A newfound interest of mine, something weird,’ she replied nervously.

‘I’ll see what I can do,’ he assured her, and within seconds he was already pulling the first title from the shelf. Then the second, and third. Her eyebrows arched as she watched with a creeping embarrassment at her failure to pull a single title.

Two minutes later there was a stack of five books on the floor, and he handed back her list. ‘That should be it.’

bookshelf and knelt down to inspect the books on the bottom shelf. I winced as something pierced my leg and I looked down to see a scraggly feather poking into my jeans at the knee. I discarded it in the corner and picked out a book about the Tudors.

I left the shop feeling like an idiot. Not simply because of my cringe worthy behavior with the girl, but also because I had stupidly forgotten to bring an umbrella when the forecast all week had called for heavy downpours. Ridiculous. I felt as if I always had an umbrella when it wasn’t raining, and whenever the rain actually poured I was without one, and usually without a hooded coat.

The rain left my cotton jumper polka-dotted with dark, pooling spots, and I began to remember why I hadn’t worn this jumper all winter. It was a useless garment, really. The rain always bled straight though. I began to feel the rain seeping through and the cold was unbearable. I dug my hands in my pockets and discovered I had about five quid in coins. This heavily influenced my decision to stop in the next cafe I passed on the way back out of town.

I felt like a hypocrite at having been driven inside by the weather. The second I walked inside I smelled tuna fish and the scent of weak, bitter coffee. I thought I detected a faint odor of mildew, and I began to remember why I usually avoided Pacino’s Cafe. I peeled my jumper off and set it down at a table as I went up to order a crappy cup of coffee and a packaged biscuit.

Out of the corner of my eye I noticed that there was a stack of five very familiar looking books at one of the booths, but the girl was nowhere in sight. I jumped as a sparrow began pecking at the bottom of the window storefront, hopping over towards the door in confusion. The server came to the register and distracted me from my thoughts. I gave him my order and waited patiently as he sluggishly poured my cup of black coffee. I didn’t stay long at the junky cafe, and ten minutes later I left, passing the sad little sparrow again as I walked along the storefront.

Upon passing it I noted to myself that sparrows were certainly not the most handsome birds, but this one had some of the most beautiful little beady eyes. A beautiful color blue.

‘I can’t thank you enough,’ she chirped. He may have stared a little too long, but he had done something in two minutes that she had failed to do in ten. She knelt down to collect the pile of books and stood up abruptly, meeting his gaze one last time to smile before she parted ways.

‘Enjoy your read. Thanks for trusting me with that list,’ he chuckled as if he had made some profound joke. As he smiled she noted that he was actually quite handsome, if a bit odd.

James: She left hurriedly and without saying goodbye.

Perhaps her fleeting smile was her way of saying goodbye. Her eyes had reminded me of the blue vase I kept eternally empty on the kitchen counter.

I went back around to the nonfiction side of the 35

â&#x20AC;&#x153;Pieces of Meâ&#x20AC;?

Book Art by Charlotte Rimmer

My work combines different materials and visuals of parts of my body to create an overall perception of myself. Since a young age I have had many disciplines, in arts, to upkeep, which caused a lot of strain on me and my body. I really wanted to communicate this in my work, showing the struggle and different ways in which I perceive things. I began photographing my profile showing different emotions and discovering facial features. I then moved forward with this and started to use material to hide behind showing a hidden side of me. I expanded this by using different types of materials that I use in everyday life. I combined my piano playing with my sewing skills communicating the control I needed mentally and the demand of keeping on top everything in my life. I used inspiration from Lotus Petes-Chen to sew into my photographs. I then moved forward and tried to grasp the concept of change within me. Therefore I photographed my body, as this is an important realization of growing and coming to terms with change.

37

E M I LY K O RTEWEG STUDENT FEATURE Interviewed and photographed by Hana Noguchi At twenty years old, Emily is a Finance major, artist, performer, entertainer, and more. She is also one of the most beautiful woman I have ever captured on camera. She knows what she wants and it was a pleasure to have the opportunity to photograph her free spirit. With graduation just around the corner, Emily shares her experiences at Richmond the American International University in this interview for this yearâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s RUM issue.

38 RICHMOND UNIVERSITY MAGAZINE | APRIL 2014

0

Briefly tell us about yourself.

Well hi, I am Emily, a Dutch 20-year old with nomadic tendencies; a desire for purpose; a love affair with music and film; a (or I hope so) creative business brain; a habit of leaning towards the road less traveled; a propensity to work hard and play hard(er); very little regard for narrow-mindedness and conforming; a strong appreciation for sincerity, diligence, gratitude and a good set of guts; and an insatiable hunger for life.

You are graduating very soon! What did you enjoy most about your experience at Richmond University?

First and foremost it is the city this university is based in: London. Whereas I have recently felt more of an itch to move on to the next spot, London is and will probably always be one of the best cities on the Globe. It has every single thing you can seek in a city, if you are willing to make an effort to find it.

What I most enjoyed about the university itself is the diversity of people. With this diversity I am referring to ethnicity, upbringing, wealth, style, interests and perspectives. I love walking through the hallways and being able to eavesdrop in on some French, desperately crave mozzarella when I hear Italian, be able to distinguish between South American and European Spanish but still not really have a clue about what is being said, chip in some of my own Dutch and German along the way, and finally leave the door and get greeted in Arab. Again, it doesn’t just pertain to the language. I have learned a lot about every single culture without probably initially noticing it because I was directly confronted by it.

This means that I have learned not just how they work and how I should adjust accordingly if I were to visit, but also how some cultures are just so

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different from my own and my own beliefs that I could never be surrounded by it for too long or, coversely, never long enough.

Where do you see yourself in 5 years?

Closer to realizing my dreams, but never entirely there (you must always keep something to aim for); at a point and in an environment where I am constantly inspired and hopefully inspiring; better at making jokes, but regardless of whether or not this happens still laughing as much as I do now; a little more patient; a little less insecure about things that do not matter; seizing and creating opportunities; happy and at the core still the same girl as described question 1.

If you could do anything in life without having to deal with the consequences, what would it be and why?

This is a dangerous question. There are multiple things that popped into my head immediately, but I better not share all of them. But here are some: One: Make my primary source of nutrition cakes and cookies.

Why? Come on…

Two: Jump of the Grand Canyon or the Empire State Building Why? To prove that people can fly and thus that nothing is impossible.

Three: Walk into a Mercedes Benz dealer, and drive off in a 300SL Gullwig (and drive off to anywhere).

Why? It’s a 300SL Gullwig…

Four: Tell certain people how I feel about them (positive and negative).

Why? They should know.

Whatever it is that some people would put in this question that refers to them being scared of rejection or failure, do exactly that thing that you would write down. In the end, it won’t kill you. Do it.

If you could give future Richmond students advice, what would you advise them on?

That it is very important to learn what is actually important and what is valuable to you. I think it is quite easy, especially in this city, to get seduced by beautiful things or people that in the end are fleeting or just add nothing of actual content. Cut out all the rubble; simplify and add lightness. So really learn about yourself and your flaws, needs and likings first before counting on anyone else and then dare to rely on those things. In the end, it is just you and you will encounter people that are attracted by it.

Also, live less out of habit and more out of intent; things that are worth it are usually not easy.

Also, make sure you always double check with your advisor to see when your classes are offered so that there is no confusion for graduation.

“I’d say every single day and the rest of one’s life is quite an interesting project coming up, wouldn’t you?”

41

How Did the Newsmedia Report It?

Evo Morales’ plane stopped on suspiscion fugitive Edward Snowden was on board Written by Andrea Prudencio Cariaga The first days of July 2013, were not a pleasant ride for Bolivian president Evo Morales. On Tuesday July 2nd, four European countries—France, Spain, Italy and Portugal – closed off their airspace to the Bolivian president’s plane. It was forced to land in Vienna for over 13 hours. Morales had been flying home from a summit in Russia, and was detained based on the suspicion that the National Security Agency (NSA) whistle-blower Edward Snowden was aboard his plane.

A few days before the plane was stopped, in a televised interview, Morales stated that he would be willing to consider offering asylum to Snowden. By then, Edward Snowden had been in Moscow’s airport transit area for weeks.

He was seeking asylum and awaiting a response from over 20 countries around the world.

Snowden was a wanted man in the United Sates. He faced prosecution charges after disclosing up to 200,000 classified documents to the press.

These documents were associated with US government espionage on private companies, members of the public and other countries. For example, some of these documents revealed that the National Security Agency (NSA) had accessed the telephone lines of international political figures, such as Germany’s Chancellor Angela Merkel.

This scandalous event of president’s Morales’ plane being stopped, unprecedented in the history of international relationships, received media attention worldwide. Interestingly, there are several versions of the event and various ways of presenting it across different types of media and diverse nations.

If we compare how the story was presented in Bolivian media and international news channels, several journalistic issues come to surface. Overall, this famous case presents a great opportunity to discover and analyze current journalistic issues present in media around the world.

Bolivian vs. International media The plane incident was the main headlined in Bolivian news channels throughout the first weeks of July. Interviews and statements of President Morales were constantly showcased. Maria Rene Duchen, a Bolivian news reporter who has worked over 20 years in national television, said that during the days after the incident “a tone of indignation and outrage predominated in the [national] media.

“It was the main story for several days”- said Mrs. Duchen. “Evo’s anger, I mean.”

Some examples of headlines in some of the most popular Bolivian newspapers on July 4 stated: ‘US’ Ambassador informed that Snowden was aboard Evo’s plane’; ‘Evo Morales: “We can’t fly over France and we are out of gasoline”’; and ‘United States threatens countries that offer asylum to Edward Snowden’.

These headlines clearly paint the Bolivian president as a victim and represent the European countries, and more often, the United States as the villains.

Juan Carlos Arana, renowned Bolivian TV news presenter and director of the popular political commentary show POSDATA, said that in Bolivian media “this incident served to portray Evo Morales as a martyr, victim of imperialistic attacks, and Edward Snowden as a hero that revealed to the public the wrongdoings of a country without scruples [the United States]”.

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Overall, Edward Snowden and the plane incident were portrayed in Bolivian media with dramatic intensity and a negative tone towards the United States.

Dcuhen says this is because of a “mix an anti-imperialist Bolivian sentiments and lack of information from international correspondents”. At present, no Bolivian news channel has an exclusive foreign correspondent. Duchen says that these two factors contributed to create a scenario where “Edward Snowden is a central figure, a hero, fighting against the same ‘enemy’, which is the U.S, and perspectives of other international parties involved were rarely taken into account”.

European and American media’s ambiguous statements dominated headlines For example, CBS News wrote: “Spain says it had been warned along with other European countries that Snowden was aboard the Bolivian presidential plane, an acknowledgement the manhunt for the fugitive leaker had something to do with the plane’s unexpected diversion to Austria. It is unclear whether Washington warned Madrid about the Bolivian president’s plane”. This article does not explicitly point the blame towards any party involved. It is also a lot more ambiguous since it does not specify who warned Spain and does not express the emotions of any party.

Video released by BBC on July 4 is a good example of the importance the event had around the world, but also shows a relatively biased news framework. First of all the headline is about France offering apologies, not about how offended the Bolivian president was, although the apology issued by France is only a small fraction of what they cover in the video. Although Bolivia and several Latin American countries are shown, viewers only officially hear from a French representative.

Ambiguous statements are given about what the actual situation was and it is even said that ‘Spain’s airspace was open’, which was not true since later on Spain ambassadors did apologize to the Bolivian president. Moreover, for Morales this was an attack by part of US imperialist forces, and these statements or opinions are not mentioned at all in the video. In fact, by only watching this video a viewer would not think the US was involved at all in the incident.

Bolivian national perspective and international perspectives don’t seem to match when it comes to this event. Journalist Arana agrees that the story received a very different treatment in international media than in Bolivian channels.

He states that, compared to Bolivian media, “international media gave a lot more coverage to the versions of each of the countries involved, not only the complaints of the president, and even said that Morales was stopped because he did not make the corresponding request for his travels on time”.

Later it was verified that Evo Morales had made the corresponding request to France days before, but such information was not spelled out clearly for the media. Duchen confessed that for her news channel “it was difficult to get the story straight because information came in little bits”. Bolivian press was first officially informed in a press conference called by General Chancellor David Choquewanca. Duchen recalls, “Choquewaca was obviously very upset and called this an attack of the imperialist regime”.

After the press conference, Bolivian journalists had to do some more hard research about the topic. Duchen says her channel was especially concerned with what the regular official procedures to solicit airspace were, and if in fact there had been a violation against the president or it was simply a lack of planning by the Bolivian government. “This process of verification by part of the news channel is always taken very seriously since we don’t just want to report what we are told in the press conference, we need to make sure it is true and get more details that otherwise wouldn’t be revealed”.

Duchen’s team voiced a prevalent concern in the media: to report the facts. But as Maria Duchen said, “it was very difficult to get this story straight, since there were so many pieces to put together and plenty of ambiguous statements that are not enough to say in national TV”. And sometimes, as seen in the headlines of worldwide papers that reported this event, in order to avoid ambiguities journalist might unwillingly risk standards of impartiality and objectivity.

In focus-Bolivian m edia: the gap between state-run and independent media Not only can we find a significant difference on how international and Bolivian media portrayed this story, but we can also spot a difference within Bolivian media. This gap within Bolivian news sources is found, according to both Arana and Duchen, between state-ran media and independent news channels, such as the ones they work for.

The majority of news channels in Bolivia are owned by the state, therefore, says Arana, “you get a lot of coverage of issues and events involving the president”.

He added, “Their discourse is also favourable towards the government”.

Duchen explains this phenomenon of biased national media, saying it is caused by a polarization of society, which is also reflected on the media. She says, “People are strongly divided by whether they support the current government or, on the contrary, fight against it… Therefore the demand of content towards the media has made it also very polarized: either pro or anti-government”.

Moreover, Arana agreed that independent news sources in Bolivia “aren’t really entitled to free speech either”. For example, 60% of the publicity in Bolivian news channels are for and funded by the government. “It is understood that if the channel has a critical perspective on the president, you won’t get the publicity money that is often essential for the survival of the channel” stated Maria Duchen.

A global media switch from ‘hard news’ to gossip?

Working conditions for journalists in Bolivia are tough, both Arana and Duchen expressed. In tough times many channels have adopted a survival strategy: which is to switch from politically relevant content to more trivial material, like entertainment, celebrity and gossip pieces. Even Snowden’s story, separate from the incident of Morales, was presented in a more trivial tone in Bolivian media. We can easily find plenty of programs that talked about how much money Snowden made and his girlfriend in Hawaii, instead of analyzing the significance of the documents he provided.

The greater prevalence of soft news and entertainment articles in the media seems to be a prevalent trend, not only in Bolivia, but worldwide. Most ‘serious’ news channels now also include a ‘life and entertainment’ section and articles about celebrities have inundated the web. Perhaps in the case of international media it is a demand from the public to see this type of content, combined with the desire to overcome a financial struggle that affects several news channels around the globe.

Even Edward Snowden would agree with that mainstream media is now very focused on the more trivial side of important stories. In a live interview with readers of the Guardian, Snowden stated that: “Unfortunately, the mainstream media now seems far more interested in what I said when I was 17 or what my girlfriend looks like rather than, say, the largest program of suspicionless surveillance in human history”.

From the incident: Lessons for the media Overall, by taking the case of Edward Snowden and Evo Morales and how it was displayed in Bolivian and international media, several journalistic issues come to the surface. Firstly, we are faced with the question of impartiality and objectivity.

It is shocking to admit that news channels that ought to be impartial have such obviously different stands on the same story.

Objectivity and truth is what journalists should aim for, but perhaps it is better to admit that regardless of how much we try we are unable of freeing ourselves from our point of view. It is the ground from which we have learned everything we know and everyone has a perspective. Moreover, no journalist is omnipresent and all-knowing. It is perhaps better to admit this, to situate our journalistic knowledge, instead of trying to pass it as ‘all-encompassing truth’.

Another lesson that can be gained by studying the case of Morales’ plane is that context is essential in order to evaluate how a particular story is framed by a journalistic source. It is important to keep in mind the standpoint of the media source, for example to analyze whether they adhere to a particular ideology or are affiliated to a political party or institution. As Bolivian journalists commented is the case of Bolivian state-ran media, these outlets have a particular take on certain stories since they are funded by the government. This might change the take they have on the news, although it shouldn’t.

Additionally, by analyzing how diverse news channels told this story, we see that several did not incorporate statements from all parties involved. Journalists must tell the truth, the whole truth, and to do so a story must involve all the participant agents. In the case of Morales’ plane it would have been commendable to incorporate statements from all governments involved, along with properly investigated factual information about the incident.

Stories like the one about the detained plane or Snowden’s case should be treated with seriousness and balance. Unavoidably, entertainment channels will go after ‘softer news’, such as gossip and trivial stories. However, news channels must consolidate an identity truly devoted to informing the public about relevant issues and their core meaning.

43

Kill the Indian to Save the Man

A Historiographical Look at the Aboriginal Residential/Boarding School System Written by Nia Danner The Aboriginal peoples of countries have a historical record of being manipulated and forced more often than not from off of their lands and away from their traditional cultures. From a Eurocentric or more Westernized viewpoint, most native cultures have been considered uncivilized. In the various attempts by settlers to squash the “savage” culture of Natives, compulsory education has been one of the more controversial. An educational scheme known as Boarding(U.S.A.) or Residential(Canada) Schools arose largely in the 19th Century as an attempt by religious groups and later their respective governments to force such natives to assimilate to the colonial power’s ways. In 1879, General Richard H. Pratt of the United States Army created the prototype Carlisle Indian Industrial School in Carlisle, Pennsylvania in an attempt to do just this. Pratt’s guiding ideology, “Kill the Indian to Save the Man,” which indicated that the Indian culture in a man was his guiding transgression, became a battle cry for future schools and a foundation of near-extinction for its students and their culture. Pratt’s school and the experiment’s subsequent ‘success’ led to the creation of more government mandated compulsory off-reservation boarding schools for Natives in both Canada and the United States.1 Dr. Duncan Campbell Scott related this to the Canadian viewpoint of the time when he served as Deputy Superintendent in the Canadian Department of Indian Affairs from 1931 to 1932. Scott’s objective was to “…continue until there is not a single Indian…that has not been absorbed into the body politic, and there is no Indian question and no Indian Department…”2 Both operations had a similar goal- to fully assimilate the Natives to the point of creating a homogenous culture by deleting the “Indian problem” of Native culture. As Roger Moody says in his book The Indigenous Voice, “…if you can’t catch the adults, at least you could capture the hearts and minds of the children.”3 Both governments utilized boarding or residential schools to begin this “problem” solving at a young age. As this essay will explain later, these schools have become infamous for many internal controversies within the education system, as well as religious and governmental leadership.

It is interesting to learn how the Natives who attended these schools and their respective tribes tried to maintain an alliance between their two worlds: the new world of the white man and the world founded on traditions of their ancestors.

In this essay, I will critically examine two approaches towards representing and reporting on these schools. My sources will focus on Canada and the United States of America and the overarching issues that I have discovered as commonplace not only in these countries but other countries where such schools were attempted including but not limited to Australia, Guatemala, Peru, Brazil, Russia, and Finland. More specifically, I will analyze my two main sources, Resistance and Renewal by Celia Haig-Brown and the film Older Than America

by Native director Georgina Lightning, on their effectiveness in portraying history through historiography and historiophoty as well as on the previously mentioned issues. These problems include the influence of religion, punishment and abuse, the psychological effects on the individual native, and present-day government reactions.

Since the focus sources of this essay are a book and a film, it is important to first understand the differences and similarities that exist between these two mediums, especially in their representation of this historical affair. To begin, both sources have a specific focus subject that reflects the broader issue of boarding schools. Resistance and Renewal by Haig-Brown is constructed of interviews the author conducted in the 1980s with students of the Kamloops Indian Residential School in British Columbia, Canada who attended during the 1950s and 1960s. Haig-Brown provides excerpts of these interviews and combines them with her own dialogue and evaluation in a basic before, during, and after structure in order to evaluate the residential school experience with “authentic dialogue.” 4 Because Older Than America by Lightning from 2008, is a motion picture and not a documentary, it uses techniques that appeal to a vast audience such as background music, color alteration, and has a linear plot instead of a being interview based.5 Before I discuss the film’s plot, I will mention that this film has had two names that it was marketed under. Originally, it was known as Older Than America but when Lightning wanted to spread the film’s message and boost sales internationally, the name was changed to a more Hollywood-esc title, American Evil. Under this title, its cover featured Bradley Cooper because of his worldwide cinematic recognition.6 Though this fact can be analyzed itself, for this essay’s purposes and because this title implies a more rooted foundation of the Native peoples in America, this essay will refer to the film by Older Than America.

Older similar to Resistance, has a specific focus; the plot is based on a Native Cree tribe’s boarding school experience in Fond du Lac, Wisconsin. Because the setting is modern-day and there are flashbacks that include those who are now senior adults as children, it can be assumed that the school experience also has a mid-twentieth century focus. In the ending credits, the film indicates that none of the characters or specific experiences are based on one specific story, but instead are representative of many stories.7 Another important similarity 44 RICHMOND UNIVERSITY MAGAZINE | APRIL 2014

is that both writers have a personal interest in their subjects and have been affected by the schools in some way. Haig-Brown taught in secondary schools in Kamloops, and has relation that has attended the Kamloops Residential School. The book was created from Haig-Brown’s interviews with thirteen previous students as part of her Master’s thesis and therefore the work itself is more descriptive and focuses more on the students’ accounts than her own views.8 Lightning’s father, who was Cree and attended boarding school for over twelve years, committed suicide when she was eighteen years old. Because Lightning strongly believes that her father’s mental instability was affected by the “institutionalization” at the boarding school, Lightning’s work has an explicit negative view on the system.9 There are numerous differences between these two sources that occur on many levels including aesthetics, content, purpose, and more; all are important in understanding them respectively but such analyzation would go well beyond the capacities of this work and its established purpose. One major point to keep in mind however is the medium’s differences in portraying history. Historiography which is based in literature, and historiophoty which is based in film, are two terms that literary theorist Hayden White brings to attention in his American Historical Review article. In this, White presents historiophoty critic Robert Rosenstone who considers film an inadequate source of history because it only presents a “singular linear history.”10 This interpretation will be approached with the ensuing analyses.

HaigBrown’s book presents Canadian Native residential school history as a problematic event on the Aboriginal’s The intentions of the boarding school system were path to resisting European not necessarily successful. The recognizable physical alterations that the schools enforced were an important imperialism. Her information is beginning to “killing the Indian.” Photograph from the based on first-hand experience Richard Henry Pratt Papers, Yale University. Circa 1882. and subsequent research.

Lightning’s film presents the boarding school clearly with a negative bias by incorporating horror-esque music as well as vivid black and white flashbacks of the school experience. The information in the film is based on information from her personal experience and knowledge as well as the production crew’s research into the subject. This essay will utilize these similarities as well as their differences to compare not only their approaches to the previously mentioned themes and how these approaches are impacted by their different mediums, but also as a source of comparison between the Canadian Indian Residential School System and the United States Boarding School System as a whole.

The first theme to examine is the sources’ portrayal on the influence of religion in the schools including the school systems’ structure, the respective religions’ influence, and on the happenings within the schools themselves. In her book, Haig-Brown explains how the Kamloops School was originally organized by the Canadian government in an effort to transform the Indian into a civilized Christian.

In 1893, Oblates from a local and previously founded Catholic missionary school for girls took over the school. 11 In Resistance, one can see how the influence of the Church became integrated within the education system for Natives in Canada.

This follows that the main point of these schools was to ‘Christianize’ and ‘civilize’ Indians through these schools.12 Haig-Brown more specifically establishes her thesis that the Catholic religion and its subsequent appeal as schools were more successful on Natives near Kamloops, especially the Secwepemc or Shuswap Indians, is because the Native culture has several parallels to Christianity. These include aspects such as the spirits similar to God the Father (the Old-One) and his son Jesus Christ (the Coyote) as well as bi-annual celebrations of Easter and Christmas (mid-summer and mid-winter) and patron saints (individual guardian spirits).13 Haig-Brown’s approach to the Church’s influence in the schools and the Natives who attended them is one of fact. Religion in the first-hand accounts of the students, such as that of Randy Fred whose account creates the book’s

foreword, is seen as part of the school’s system. In the book, though Catholicism itself if not sectioned off as a separate issue, because the Oblates were the ones running a compulsory school that punished any Native-related acts such as speaking their native tongue, the school is seen as a product of the Catholic Church and makes the Church something to be disliked as well. Haig-Brown’s book uses the personal accounts of previous students to describe and not attack the residential schools; she allows these accounts to quite literally speak for themselves, and only offers connective discussion and background knowledge in between. However, for religion it is the passing mention of nuns who censored letters, how the faculty ate better quality food other than the student-appointed mush, and how they were taught that non-Christians were pagans and evil, especially the students’ parents, that formulates a negative image of the Church.14 Though HaigBrown presents these points just for Kamloops, similar views of the school’s religious officials as well as Christian religion in general, was common for many Natives and in these schools.

This format focused on dialogue and emotion-based accounts is much different from Older Than America and Lightning’s cinematic techniques to portray religion in the boarding schools.

Lightning’s film presents religion’s involvement in the boarding school system more vividly than Haig-Brown. The film operates along two time periods- the past through the main character’s dreams and flashbacks, and the present where the film is based. In the flashbacks of an experience at the local boarding school, nuns are shown beating and whipping children, and significant hints are made to sexual assault by the head priest with a little boy.

Lightning also makes sure to highlight religion and the corruption she perceives in the Catholic Church by making one of the main antagonists a priest, Father Bertolli. Bertolli’s actions include electrical shock treatment on a mother and daughter while acting as a ‘protector’ of the Catholic Church by covering up any knowledge of immoral actions carried out in the school. Shock treatment was an unfortunately occurrence to children as a form of punishment.15 Lightning also has a past student of the boarding school, Aunty Apple, rip off her cross when she decides to no longer trust Father Bertolli and his treachery to the Fond du Lac people. Lightning has utilized the many available advantages of historiophoty in Older Than America besides the events in the story itself.

The film uses flashes and images of the Church in black and white, as well as symbolic actions such as Aunty Apple ripping off her cross, to caste the Church in a stronger negative light to the audience and for emotional appeal.16 For both Haig-Brown’s book and Lightning’s film, the facts are supported by other sources but it is the techniques used by the respective writers that determine how well they present this historical affair.

Off reservation schools were seen by both governments to be more effective in “killing the Indian” to make assimilation more successful, and in “Christianizing” and “civilizing” them. As mentioned previously briefly, Natives at these schools were not allowed to speak their native tongue, to wear their native clothing, to practices any native traditions, and to possess any items or symbols of their ancestry while at school. Students that violated these regulations were often physically punished. Punishments included beatings, whippings, being locked in an isolated room, no meals, and but not limited to, an increased chore load.

However, as both sources acknowledge, abuse was not just physical to the school children and was also at times unwarranted. Sexual, psychological, and verbal abuse occurred as well.17 Of the thirteen interviews in Resistance, HaigBrown draws on eight of them in a specific section titled “Discipline.” HaigBrown introduces this section by pointing out that not only was punishment at Kamloops “severe,” but that it was the most discussed topic by her informants.18 Haig-Brown presents more examples of social and physical abuse such as public mortification by shaving heads, pantless spankings in front of the rest of the

students, bread and water diets, and being forced to swallow castor oil. Though she does acknowledge in other sections that sexual abuse did occur to the students, there is no focus on this particular abuse as there is for physical and social discipline. The punishments that Haig-Brown mentions such as shaving and cutting the children’s hair as well as public humiliation were more effective because to cut one’s hair in the Native culture is to go into morning. Along with this, being humiliated in front of one’s peers disgraces a Native as a true Native in their culture. This could be because students provided more information for this particular section or possible other reasons that are not as obvious. It is interesting how the student’s reported experience differed from other schools.

In a report titled Hidden from History: The Canadian Holocaust, written by Rev. Kevin Annett who was a religious official for a Canadian Native residential school, Annett focuses on the overarching “hidden history” of abuse such as forced sterilization, pedophilia, x-ray radiation exposure, and many more gruesome crimes.19 It is possible that crimes such as these did not occur at Kamloops, or that they were hidden from other students’ knowledge or it is possible that these memories were too painful to discuss. Haig-Brown’s conclusion implicates however, that these instances could have been because not only were they effective in the school’s goal to “kill the Indian,” but also because there were more children than staff and were therefore convenient. This nearly neutral approach differentiates significantly from Lightning’s representation in her film.

Whereas Haig-Brown allows the reader to formulate their own views, Lightning cuts a clear path for what her audience should believe.

As mentioned, most of Lightning’s focus on the boarding school is presented in black and white flashbacks, and that it is mainly Church affiliates who perform any wrongdoings in them. More specifically, these flashbacks includes beatings, potential sexual abuse, being forced to eat soap, and in one seen, the indirect but conscious killing of several children. This last example is from a scene where a nun forces children to stay in an already-weak basement during an earthquake. The children are found dead and are buried in an unmarked grave in the woods, away from the school. Another example of abuse and punishment is when the main character Rain is given shock treatment like her mother before her for having visions- a “native” and hereditary characteristic in their family.

Lightning possibly creates this connection between the past and present as a way to represent the extent of abuse in the boarding schools to the Native children. She makes it clear throughout the film that the forced loss of the Cree peoples heritage and Native ways is a form of punishment and abuse itself.

Discussion of the people’s ancestors’ ways is met with remorse and confusion.

For Lightning, the linear nature of films is advantageous in that if allows her to clearly portray her intended view to the audience and not acknowledge other possible paths. As representations of history, both Resistance and Older Than America stay accurate and insightful. The sources respective approaches differ, but this is based more on the advantages and limitations of their mediums than actual facts.

Subsequent to the abuses portrayed in both sources, many Natives were inflicted with damaging psychological impacts that began in the school and lasted throughout their lives. One resulting effect of these traumatic experiences has been suicide.20 Similar to her portrayal of religion in the schools, Haig-Brown’s approach to the psychological implications of the school on the individual Native and suicide is integrated within the book, not sectioned off as the section on discipline is. Randy Fred, who has been mentioned before, summarizes the psychological implications from another residential school in Port Alberni, British Columbia, Canada in the foreword. Fred mentions the low self-esteem of most Natives that resulted from the above-mentioned punishments as well as name calling by non-Natives at other secondary schools. Fred attributes such deep psychological damage as a cause for the major issue of alcoholism amongst Natives and also mentions that he himself tried to commit suicide three times since he began at the school.21 Haig-Brown points out from her conducted interviews that many of the parents of the children who attended the Kamloops school turned to alcohol as a comfort as many parents felt guilty for allowing their children to go to the school, and that they also no longer felt needed since most students attended school for up to eleven months of the year. For suicide, Haig-Brown mentions that none of the interviewees mentioned victims of suicide but did briefly mention attempts.22 However, many sources including museum pamphlets from the Premier American Indian Museum in Michigan and the Suicide -Prevention Resource Center support the belief that the schools and their attempts to take away the Native’s culture were a major contribution to the high suicide rate among Native youths.23 Haig-Brown’s coverage of this topic therefore is limited on a macro level as she does not compare the interviewees experience to national and international statistics.

Lightning’s treatment on psychological and suicidal issues in Native culture does not correlate with her treatment of the previous mentioned issues. Instead, as mentioned, it is the forced loss of the people’s Native identity that hurts them psychologically. Low self-esteem is represented as is a deep need to forget and 45

and avoid even the mention of the boarding school. Lightning makes it clear that the fear of mentioning let alone discussing experiences is a reason that the Natives people still suffer and cannot heal and progress beyond the past.

Many of the younger generation Native characters do not even know about the controversies of the boarding school until the main character Rain brings it to the public’s attention. Lightning approaches suicide in a more discreet way.

The deaths of the children who were killed in the earthquake at the school are passed off as suicide to inquiring locals and families but Lightning clearly displays the school officials as murders. Another death that occurs in the town is also passed off as suicide to public inquiries. Lightning’s infers that this is a misuse of a condition that results from deep psychological suffering and that those whose cover up the deaths with suicide do so because it’s easier to pass off; suicide does not warrant investigation as much as murder does. One fact that the audience should keep in mind is that the Catholic Church considers suicide a sin that violates the “Thou shalt not kill” commandment.24 Because the Natives that “committed” suicide were attending or had attended a Catholic boarding school, there was an implied lack of salvation for the individuals and Native peoples in general. Lightning’s ending credits that refer to the Amnesty International’s statistic that the death rate of Native peoples is currently six times greater than other minority groups implies that she views the boarding school experience as a reason for this high level including suicide. Both writers’ approaches to the psychological impacts and resulting suicide attempts by Native children’s boarding school experience are based in fact but do not incorporate the actual statistics of suicide and levels of mental instability into their works. For HaigBrown’s book that is based on personal experiences, this can be overlooked, and for Lighting’s motion picture film, it may have been obstructive to incorporate such information into scenes.

The differences between these two sources are further highlighted when looking at the representation of modern government and Native reactions to the boarding school experience. Haig-Brown’s book coverage is obvious, beginning with the fact that the title of her work is Resistance and Renewal. The book presents the previously covered issues as well as other factors and arrives at the conclusion that the resistance movements against the Kamloops school and other residential schools in Canada is the reason that many Natives have begun their renewal process. Haig-Brown mentions in her epilogue that political movements by Natives in Canada has resulted in changes to the Indian Act of 1951 that required Natives to attend residential schools, government funding for Native-based activities and groups, and the formation of a new type of school called “band schools” where the tribal band runs the local school on their reservation.25 It is important to mention that recently in 2008, the Canadian Government released an official apology for Residential Schools, though apologies by governmental officials had already began before 1991.26 The United States however did not offer any apologies until 2010 when President Obama signed the Department of Defense Appropriations Act that included one “hidden” section titled “Resolution of Apology to Native Peoples of the United States.” However, there is no mention of boarding schools, only regret for “former wrongs.”27 Lightning’s therefore does not include any mention of government remorse unlike Haig-Brown, because as of 2008, none had officially occurred. Rather, Lightning focuses on the Native people’s renewal.

Similar to Haig-Brown’s book, Lighting’s focus can be understood in the film’s title, Older Than America. The title implies roots and an ingrained strength that goes beyond the settlement and founding of the current United States and its European people. Rain begins to accept her heritage after she experiences her visions. A traditional healing ceremony is held that changes the dynamic of the film; previously, most of the younger generation where in denial but after the ceremony, Rain feels more confident in her heritage and many begin to listen to her. Lightning incorporates such scenes of Native healing ceremonies and celebrations to highlight the contrast between the forced white man’s ways and the forgotten but not lost Native traditions. Both Haig-Brown’s and Lightning’s representation of their respective governments are indicative of these state’s internal recognition and progress with these schools. Because Canada began to recognize this long-standing problem earlier, Haig-Brown is able to discuss legislation that had been passed by the time of the book’s publication in 1988.

Lightning on the other hand, relied on non-governmental groups’ information such as Amnesty International, and did not mention the United States’ federal stand because as of 2008, little had been done.

Overall, both writers represented the Native experiences in residential and boarding schools appropriately for their chosen mediums. Haig-Brown’s work was based on first-hand accounts through interviews. There is no mention of whether the interviewees were prompted to answer specific questions or if they were just expected to discuss what they deemed significant. Because of this, we cannot deduce whether or not Haig-Brown effectively covered her specific school; the book is not guided by her but by her subjects. This analyzation is possible however for Lightning since she was the writer, director, producer, and focus actor in the film. Lightning used techniques to produces an engaging work of historiophoty. Instead of needing to describe landscapes, emotions, and events with text, a scene provided all of this and more in a much shorter time. Because of this, the film was able to incorporate a huge level of symbolism, foreshadowing, and representations all related to the boarding school experience. Haig-Brown’s position is more neutral than Lightning’s.

The former aims to unbiasedly present the dialogue from her interviews, but does still maintain a more negative than positive view of the schools. This is perhaps because of the nature of the schools themselves, Haig-Brown’s 46 RICHMOND UNIVERSITY MAGAZINE | APRIL 2014

personal views, and/or the interviewed students’ views. Lightning’s approach is linear and obviously negative; the use of horror music for scenes involving the boarding school itself, flashbacks of it, and other aforementioned examples are clear indicators of her stance on the boarding school system and its effects.

Personally, based on the many immoral activities and results connected with these schools, I do support Lightning’s stance. However, these occurrences were not necessarily prevalent in all schools and this must be taken into account when examining them. Though the majority of students was abused rather than supported, all schools and all affiliated members of the Church and school system cannot be despised. These sources are effective representations of their respective subjects and despite evidence of the writers’ predispositions which is unavoidable in any historical reference and medium, they provide an insightful look into the life and consequences of the Native school systems in Canada and the United States in the early to mid- twentieth century.

Endnotes 1. Richard H. Pratt & Ed. Robert M. Utley, Battlefield & Classroom: Four Decades with the American Indian, 1967-1904, University of Oklahoma Press, 2003.

2. Neil Funk-Unrau & Anna Snyder, ‘Indian Residential School Survivors and State-Designed ADR: A Strategy for Co-Optation?,’ Conflict Resolution Quarterly, vol. 24, no. 3 (Spring 2007), 285.

3. Roger Moody, The Indigenous Voice: Visions and Realities, International Books, 1993, 269.

4. Celia Haig-Brown, Resistance and Renewal: Surviving The Indian Residential Schools, Vancouver, Tillacum Library, 1988, 22.

5. Georgina Lightning, Older Than America, 2008.

6. Gabrielle Malcolm, ‘Older Than America Renamed American Evil,’ Newspaper Rock, (14 March 2012).

7. Georgina Lightning, Older Than America, 2008, 1:35:37 minutes.

8. Y ork University, ‘Resistance and Renewal Revisited,’ (2012).

9. Kathy Wise, ‘Georgina Lightning: The First Native Female Director of a Feature-Length Film,’ Cowboys & Indians (October 2009).

10. Hayden White, ‘Historiography and Historiophoty,’American Historical Review, vol. 93, no. 5 (1988); Robert A. Rosenstone, ‘History in Images/History in Words: Reflections in the Possibility of Really Putting History onto Film’, American Historical Review, vol.

93, no 5 (1988), 1174.

11. Haig-Brown, Resistance and Renewal, Tillacum Library, 1988, 31-2.

12. David Wallace Adams, Education for Extinction: American Indians and the Boarding School Experience 1875-1928, Lawrence, Kansas , University Press of Kansas, 1995.

13. H aig-Brown, Resistance and Renewal, Tillacum Library, 1988, 24.

14. H aig-Brown, Resistance and Renewal, Tillacum Library, 1988, 56, 58, 79.

15. Roland Chrisjohn, et. al., The Circle Game: Shadows and Substance in the Indian Residential School Experience in Canada, Penticton, BC, Theytus Books Ltd, 1997, 31.

16. Georgina Lightning, Older Than America, 2008.

17. Clifford E Trafzer, et. al., Boarding School Blues: Revisiting American Indian Educational Experiences, London, University of Nebraska Press, 2006.

18. H aig-Brown, Resistance and Renewal, Tillacum Library, 1988, 76.

19. Kevin Daniel Annett, Hidden From History: The Canadian Holocaust: The Untold Story, Canada, The Truth Commission into Genocide in Canada, 2001, 69.

20. Ziibiwing Center of Anishinabe Culture & Lifeways, ‘American Indian Boarding Schools: An Exploration of Global Ethnic & Cultural Cleansing,’ Premier American Indian Museum (2011).

21. H aig-Brown, Resistance and Renewal, Tillacum Library, 1988, 11, 17 20.

22. Haig-Brown, Resistance and Renewal, Tillacum Library, 1988, 112-3.

23.

Ziibiwing Center, ‘American Indian Boarding Schools:,’ Premier American Indian Museum (2011), 19; Suicide Prevention Resource Center (SPRC) ‘Suicide Among American Indians/Alaska Natives,’ SPAN USA. 24.

Catechism of the Catholic Church,’ Vatican City State, <http://www.vatican.va/ archive/ccc_css/archive/catechism/p3s2c2a5.htm> [16 November 2013] 25. H aig-Brown, Resistance and Renewal, Tillacum Library, 1988, 119, 122.

26. Matthew Dorrell & McMaster University, ‘From Reconciliation to Reconciling: Reading What “We Now Recognize” in the Government of Canada’s 2008 Residential Schools Apology,’ English Studies in Canada, vol. 35, no. 1 (March 2009) 27. The Library of Congress: Congressional Record References, Bill Text 111th Congress (2009-2010), H.R. 3326- Department of Defense Appropriations Act, 2010 ENR, [13 November 2013].

Paintings

Written by Chanah Haddad My practice is heavily driven by the exploration of the subjectivity in color and the way it can be employed to document the equally individualistic elements of movement and time. I make paintings with acrylic, oil and spray paint and water based drawing ink. I also make woodcut and linocut mono prints with oil based ink.

My colors are sourced from external media such as American situation comedy shows, big-budget entertainment films, tabloid fashion and art critique magazines, and popular music culture. I paint to reclaim these artificially generated atmospheres for the individual through the physicality and intrinsic character of the painting process. The simulation of various high-key moods that mass media platforms churn out daily are meant to exist as addictive substances; the banal plotlines and jokes merely serve as undertones to the actual sugarbased product which is the set design, costume coordination and prerecorded sounds. The stories and characters are near irrelevant. It is the perceptually stimulating visual and auditory elements that keep viewers interested.

Unlike film and sound, paintings exist outside of the constraints of time in that they continue to exist even if there is no one around to push play. However, as always, the medium maintains its own personality and therefore changes over time. I draw attention to this subtle element of temporal progression by allowing the paint and the surface to continue to interact with each other long after my own involvement has ended. I enjoy working with thin low quality unprimed paper (inkjet printer stock, newsprint, etc.) and oil paint because their interdependent partnership is inherently not made to last: the two destroy each other over time.

The paper wants to drink the oils from the paint and the paint succumbs to its leech-like peer, but retaliates by saturating and staining the greedy paper. As the painting continues to exist, the pigment progressively become cracked and dulled only to eventually stand bereft of all itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s original vibrant shiny glory and the once crisp pristine paper is left yellowed and leathery. The growing echoes of oil around the pigment act as the rings in a tree trunk do in that they represent the growing history of the object without requiring any external documentarian to keep checking in and taking note of its natural sequencing. The independence of the painting is maintained and confirmed.

Sweat, Tequila, and Lesbians

47

Yesterday’s Cigarette

Waltz in C#m Op64

Annie’s Painting

48 RICHMOND UNIVERSITY MAGAZINE | APRIL 2014

Ice Caps After Banana Boating

Salade de Fruits

49

The Nature of Happiness

Aristotle to Schopenhauer to Smirnova Written by Anastasia Smirnova

A good life has one universal characteristic: happiness.1 Happiness can be defined as pleasure, joy, contentment and satisfaction.2 Understandings of how to be happy have changed throughout history. Aristotle, who lived in 4th century BC Athens, and Arthur Schopenhauer, a 19th century philosopher from Germany, have contrasting understanding of happiness. In this essay I will argue that both Aristotle and Schopenhauer provide accounts of happiness that are useful to contemporary society because happiness is universal and people’s ways to achieve it did not change tremendously over times.

Aristotle’s word “eudaimonia” can be translated into English as ‘happiness,’ but the notion of “Eudaimonia” belongs to the broader theory of virtue.

Understanding this theory will lead to a better grasp of what he meant when he used the word “eudaimonia”. Aristotle, in his “Nicomachean Ethics,” believed that happiness is not a goal, but goes with certain activities.3 He uses the example of eating: when a person eats too little, the person is not satisfied; when a person eats too much, he or she cannot enjoy the taste of the food, and can only feel the need for sleep and the need for idleness. When the person eats just enough, that is the virtuous action.

A better example might be that of attitude. The person who is virtuous is neither a coward nor rash, but is courageous. He believes that if people choose this way of living, it will lead them to happiness. Also, Aristotle took into account the realities of life, and believed that there is no such thing as one correct way of living. He thought that the correct way is personal, and suggested that experimenting and making mistakes would help to find a virtuous activity. So “eudaimononia” has a more complex meaning of “flourishing, living well, living successfully”.4 So happiness was considered by Aristotle to be “an activity of the soul in accord with perfect virtue” .5 But Aristotle also defined two types of virtues: intellectual and ethical. Aristotle is not a dualist; he believes that body and mind are connected, so it makes perfect sense that intellectual virtues affect the emotional state of a person. Aristotle also believed that making other people happy leads to the happiness of the agent of the action.6 He builds this opinion on the unity of cities and thus personal harmony spreading among groups. Most virtues are directed outwards – to others. This Golden Rule is mentioned in many philosophies worldwide. If you treat people well, you will be treated well yourself.

Obviously, happiness is each person’s feeling. From another point of view some people feel anything only when they push themselves to extremes. However, in Buddhism Aristotle’s ideas are supported and expanded. Buddhists believe in the notion of the Middle Way that leads them to Nirvana, the endless bliss. I can see the difference between instantaneous positive emotion as a reaction to events and continuous feelings of happiness as a state of being. I believe that Aristotle talks about the idea of continuous feeling. It is difficult to think about happiness as something other than a goal, an end point. Many people would answer the question about the meaning of life by saying that they want to achieve happiness, as if it were a single action. The desire for happiness is in human nature.7 On the other hand Arthur Schopenhauer, in his major work ‘The World as Will and Representation’ (1818), believes that happiness is an illusion and humanity lives in the worst possible world.8 For him happiness is purely the satisfaction of desires. He acknowledges that this satisfaction is often impossible and that there is much human suffering. Schopenhauer argues that a complete satisfaction of desires is impossible because at the moment a person achieves each desirable, the soul is again bored and desiring.9 For Schopenhauer this is the nature of will.

Fulfilled wishes do not bring satisfaction, but boredom. People have only the choice of pain or boredom, because happiness is not available.

Nevertheless Schopenhauer created guidelines to bearable life.10 He believed that if a person’s expectations were set very high this person would keep on feeling pain, because life is not good enough. However if a person lowers expectations, the world becomes somewhat pleasing place to be. But in real life expectations can excite appetite. The waiting bit also brings happiness. It can be the reversal of this situation. A person can be surprised by ordinary event, which if he or she expected would not be pleasing at all. So Schopenhauer’s guidelines are not universally true.

Schopenhauer also uses a special world “eudemonology,” which is supposed to lead a person to a happy existence.11 Since he believes that will or wanting causes all the pain in life, his goal is to achieve freedom of will. Nonetheless he understood happiness to be very hedonistic. He divides human life into three phases. Only early childhood is associated with happiness because children do not yet know the world. Youth and adolescence is perceived as the most 50 RICHMOND UNIVERSITY MAGAZINE | APRIL 2014

unhappy time because in these stages people seek happiness that is beyond their reach. In old age, a person is free from libido and can be more reasonable, although happiness is still not achievable.

Drawing upon the aforementioned, I want to say that happiness is a state of soul. In contemporary society there are new technological advances and raised fanaticism about money tied to the emergence of consumer culture. However, this does not fundamentally change the way people feel and perceive things.

From my perspective, happiness is a feeling that each person experiences the same way. For me, happiness is a feeling that I feel when I am perfectly comfortable with all the circumstances here and now. I believe that seizing the moment is essential for feeling happy. There is no “but” and no more wishes.

I am in this particular moment when I enjoy what I have without wishing for anything else. When I say “I am happy,” a person from another country and culture understands what I mean. I often do not even need to say it because body language conveys the message.

Nevertheless, each person comes to this feeling via different ways. It depends on how the person is raised, their cultural and social background. Though wealth is a tool for achieving desires, it is not a condition for achieving happiness. Initially, people who are poor have lower expectations than rich people, who have more opportunities. This does not mean that their happiness is initially on different levels; conversely it means that people can feel the same happy state even though they achieve it in different ways. It is also important to take into account personal priorities. Depending on the priority, material goods can make a person feel happy or miserable. The emotions are very powerful.

One thing which brings happiness to people’s lives is good relationships, whether those be with family, friends or other loved ones. This is true for every human being. Of course, every relationship depends on life circumstances and there always will be exceptions, but nevertheless, for the majority of Earth’s population, it is true. People who care about you can make you feel comfortable and provide a sense of safety¬. Knowledge that there is always ‘somebody there for me’ and the closeness with people who I love and who love me brings me happiness.

Both living far in time from Aristotle, Schopenhauer and I, too, live in completely different times. Ideas of happiness and how to achieve it are similar, but not identical. Aristotle’s work supports my idea that happiness is the state that every person can and wants to achieve. He believes that a person has to enjoy what he posses. I also think that I do not need to set unachievable goals to feel happiness. Aristotle understands that living fully is happiness, and I believe that I can feel happiness in any situation that I come across. The reasonable actions in Aristotle’s theory lead to happiness if you live according to your virtues and, in my opinion, these actions lead to a life in harmony with yourself.

Even though Schopenhauer is a pessimist, his guidelines to a bearable life with pleasures are also consistent with my ideas. He also believes that a person has to value all the good events that happen during their lifetime. His theory helps for accepting life as it is. I believe that only if I accept my condition and feel comfortable I can feel happy. Schopenhauer’s idea of lowering expectations leads to the possibility of paying more attention to positive events. I think that it is essential to focus on positive sides of life!

Endnotes: 1. Richard H. Popkin and Avrum Stroll, Philosophy, 3rd ed. Oxford: Made Simple, 1993.

2. M atthew Cashen, “Happiness, Eudaimonia, and The Principle of Descriptive Adequacy,” Metaphilosophy 43, no. 5 (October 2012): 619-635, Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost (accessed November 17, 2013).

3. David E. Cooper, World philosophies: an historical introduction, Oxford, UK: Blackwell, 1996.

4. Christopher John Shields, Aristotle, London: Routledge, 2007.

5. Cooper, World philosophies.

6. Terence Irwin, Aristotle’s first principles, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1988.

7. Shields, Aristotle.

8.

Schalkx, Rozemarijn, and Ad Bergsma, “Arthur’s advice: comparing Arthur Schopenhauer’s advice on happiness with contemporary research,” Journal Of Happiness Studies 9, no. 3 (September 2008): 379-395, Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost (accessed November 26, 2013).

9. Schalkx, Rozemarijn, and Ad Bergsma, “Arthur’s advice.”

10. Ibid.

11. Ibid.

Oh Congress, Will You Ever Learn?

Written by Bahja Norwood

The November US government shutdown created a minor panic in the global economy. As the United States is a major cornerstone in the world economy, the idea of the US defaulting in the middle of a global financial crisis could worsen the recession.

“They’ve lost their minds…They keep trying to do the same thing over and over again,” said Reid to the New York Times in reference to the repeat attempts to end Obamacare. In fact, the program has been in effect for three years already, and has given free healthcare services to American citizens while officials, including the President and Congressmen, were required to buy their own.

However, the stakes were even greater than that. This latest shutdown has not only cost the US economy USD24bn, but also shaken the trust of the Given the severity of the situation, which included a potential default and the international community towards the United States. Many countries were upset re-emergence of a global financial crisis, one would believe that the government about the recent shutdown alongside the Americans. Over 700,000 federal would not, according to Obama, be held for ransom by a party in order to employees were forced on leave without guarantee of pay, and national parks achieve a particular goal. But this is not the case and it has happened before and 19 Smithsonian museums were closed for the duration. by the president instead of the party. Late US president The idea alone of a US default could have worsened “It would be safe to say that Ronald Reagan was known for bringing the government to the recession, which loomed in the background of this a standstill in order to get what he wanted from Congress. this is a trend of American 16-day shutdown. politics that has been A US government shutdown can be socially accepted or a amplified by the fact that The shutdown not only cost people work hours, peace of political disaster. But unlike a Congressional standoff, which mind and entrance into museums and national parks, but requires far more resolve to amend, a president can be [Congress] now receives it also raised the question of whether or not Congress has overridden by Congress, which was seen during the Clinton international attention.” learned a lesson during this shutdown. era. The parties also play their part in a shutdown. This time the majority in Congress consisted of Democrats in This isn’t the first time the US government has shutdown. There have been 17 the House with a Republican minority confined to the Senate. In the past there previous shutdowns, but the stakes were never as high as during this one. The was either a strong majority of Democrats or a mixed Congress. During the world did not have a heavy dependency on the US and the economies of the Clinton era there was a Republican majority with a Democratic president, and world were more stable. Even during the Clinton era, global economics was not it spelled disaster. as big an issue as it is today.

Has Congress learned its lesson? Probably not. There may be another shutdown Until recently, prior to the 2013 government shutdown, the ‘crisis’ of each situation in February, which is when the funding for the country is going to go under was more national and did not have the possibility for affecting the international review once more. The world may again watch with concern. community; the issues surrounding the shutdowns were unimportant on an This trend of repeated shutdowns is a pattern within US politics. This recent international level, however important they were to Americans. The three shutdown may follow a pattern similar to the government shutdown in 1977. consecutive 1977 shutdowns under former US president Jimmy Carter centred Temporary resolutions will be signed in order to prolong the “war on the on abortion for victims of rape, and for Medicaid to pay abortion fees for life- healthcare law” declared by Republicans. “We think that we’ll be back here in threatening issues. The 1977 shutdown sparked protests in both Congress and January debating the same issues,” said Managing Director of Standard and among the public, although two out of three of the shutdowns were due to being Poor’s rating service, John Chambers to CNN. “This is, I fear, a permanent unable to come to an agreement before the deadline, rather than . feature of out budgetary process.”

The 2013 shutdown has sparked much outrage from the American people. For 16 days Congress could not agree on how to fund the government for the next fiscal year. Finger-pointing is generally frowned upon in a typical society but it was accepted in the media when Democratic Senate Majority leader Harry Reid pointed his finger of blame at the Republicans. Their goal was to cut US funding for one of the most debated programs in America, Obamacare.

It would be safe to say that this is a trend of American politics that has been amplified by the fact that it now receives international attention. To say that American politics will shake the habit of “governing without crisis” would take away the “allure” of the adrenaline rush that is American politics.

51

From Valid to Invalid

The media argues against the public

by Andrea Prudencio Cariaga Bias has been confirmed in the news media coverage of the Edward Snowden National Security Agency (NSA) leaks, according to a study by the Columbia Journalism Review (CJR). It revealed that the top four US newspapers showed a political slant in favour of NSA surveillance.

Edward Snowden released surveillance information from the NSA and GCHQ. It was found that the surveillance has occurred on a global scale where the UK and US kept surveillance on both country allies and foes. There is a debate surrounding his actions, questioning if his actions were just.

USA Today, the LA Times, The Washington Post and the New York Times used key terms such as ‘security’ and ‘terrorism’ to justify surveillance performed by the NSA. This media slant was oppositional to public interests and feelings towards the NSA and Edward Snowden, according to Rianovosti News.

There has not been a study regarding the slanting of the story in the UK’s newspapers around the recent Snowden and Government Communication Headquarters (GCHQ) leaks. However, similar instances are noted in the UK where right-wing newspapers such as the Daily Mail and the Telegraph criticised the Guardian for releasing the information while supporting the GCHQ.

The US and UK right-wing newspapers interviewed politicians who would have a security-related perspective towards Edward Snowden. The newspapers would then criticise those who released information about the NSA and GCHQ’s activities such as the Guardian. Left-wing newspapers, including the Guardian, spoke to interviewees who were against the prosecution of Snowden and the NSA/GCHQ surveillance.

The media appears to be trying to scare viewers into believing the actions of Snowden were dangerous. By using previous terrorist attacks as the basis of the NSA/GCHQ surveillance the media is hoping to convince viewers that the surveillance was necessary for their own safety.

American media used the 9/11 attack as an example of what would happen if the government does not have information gathered by surveillance. The UK media also focused on the 9/11 attack stating that the lack of communication surveillance of Osama bin Laden allowed such a tragedy to occur.

Again, and understandably, a newspaper in favour of the government will side with the actions of the government. This is due to the political standing of newspaper editors and the target audience the newspaper is trying to reach.

The Guardian has also shown bias in its publications on the situation from its point of view, where it defended its actions for reporting the information on the basis of democracy. It also reported support for their article from multiple human rights organization.

However, the information is accurate and it is the framing of the information that provides different perspectives in the media. Fox News, the Daily Mail and USA Today are examples of right-wing newspapers that provide a different framing than other news sources such as the Guardian or CNN.

This media bias is common in newspapers due to the framing of issues set by the editors in charge. This occurs in every media outlet in which the agenda of the information presented is set in accordance to what the editors believe will make a good story. Media owners also have an influence on their newspapers and for some, like Rupert Murdoch, it is a more obvious influence.

Richmond, the American International University in London communications professor Dr Susan Pell ‘wondered if it’s about maintaining relationships with the government. The main source of news is the government. They don’t want to be critical of the government.’ She also noted that papers associated with corporate ownership tend to be more interested in security.

The framing of the Snowden coverage is heavily slanted according to the political stance of each paper in question. Newspapers in favour of the government tend to support the actions of the government. However this time the coverage was not as subtle.

Bethany Warner, 25, was in America when the initial reports about the SnowdenNSA situation were released and she found that the papers were calling him a traitor in US media. In the UK media, however, she found that they were more lenient towards Snowden’s cause and were not as aggressive as US media.

In an article by the Daily Mail the headline read that the Guardian’s report ‘let terrorists escape’ and the article explains how security threats being monitored by the government were compromised. The article used terms such as ‘threat’, ‘adversary’ and ‘national security’.

The media coverage of Snowden would obviously place Snowden in a negative light because the government needs the support of the public and the media needs information from the government. But the use of media framing became obvious bias in the NSA/GCHQ Snowden coverage, which could lead to a dangerous trend in media if left unchecked.

The CJR noted that USA Today used terms of bias 34% of the time. The New York Times showed a lesser use of bias terms but they used more covert bias than the other three newspapers. The CJR stated that covert bias was more effective because it would be perceived as neutral text to readers.

Although the framing is biased, the information itself was not tampered with.

The newspapers reported the facts accurately and honestly but the agendas of each newspaper varied.

52 RICHMOND UNIVERSITY MAGAZINE | APRIL 2014

Outwardly supporting the NSA and GCHQ, and using scare tactics to win the support of readers may become invalid. It would challenge the premises of democracy in the UK and USA. Eventually, it would damage the trust in the media. If news framing is going to be against a public opinion then newspapers should follow the New York Times’ example and have ‘covert bias’ instead of blatant bias.

A Journey Through Clink Prison Museum

by Zainab Albalooshi

You can only see the top of the stairs. It gets darker as you descend. You feel claustrophobic as the dingy, cold stone walls close in on you. You hear pained wails and chains clinking. The eyes of wax statues are bloodshot and devoid of life. You find yourself wondering how London’s Clink Prison kept its prisoners broken but still strong enough to feel pain, for what is now a harmless museum was once a place of atrocities committed in the name of justice.

The Clink Prison was built in 1144, located in Southwark next to Winchester Castle. It controlled the Southbank of London known as “Liberty of the Clink”, and it was maintained and owned by the Bishop of Winchester, Henry of Blois.

The Clink is one of the oldest prisons in England, detaining the sinister and the unfortunate from the 12th century up until the late 1700s, divided to hold both men and women separately.

What remains of the Clink prison today is a patch of stonework of Winchester Palace, and “the passage ‘Clink Street’ which has been preserved within The Clink Prison Museum, including an original wall”.

The prison’s name was derived from the many sounds it made, such as that of cell doors slamming shut, iron being hammered around the wrists and ankles of prisoners, and of chains clinking as prisoners extended their hands past the bars of their windows to beg for scraps.

The Clink was notorious for using the most gruesome methods to induce confessions out of prisoners, who were already living in poor conditions. If money did not buy them their freedom, it bought the prisoners food, clothes, bed, and a cleaner cell. The poor that were not funded by their relatives were left to rot in the ‘pit’, which was a hole on the ground that filled with water from the Thames during high tides.

The Clink Prison Museum attempts to rebuilds the dark atmosphere as it originally was centuries ago. Upon entering visitors feel melancholy and despair, amplified by sound effects transmitting spine-chilling cries. Wax statues provide the visual effects, whose faces are twisted in pain and silent screams as their bodies are positioned, bent and twisted in disturbing angles throughout the museum.

Regardless of money, prisoners of all statures weren’t spared from torture. Their moans, pitiful cries, and screams were heard from a distance, and it bore witness to the way in which those prisoners were inhumanely treated. Torture devices varied from everyday abuse by wardens to public humiliation, sleep deprivation, starvation, water torture, and mutilation. Their limbs were often stretched beyond their limits, and their bones were crushed under heavy weights.

What remains of torture equipment today are mostly replicas the museum made to carefully resemble the original tools. Visitors are allowed to touch, lift, and even wear the chains when possible to be able to relate to the prisoners and to learn of their suffering on a deeper level.

The prisoners of the Clink consisted of mostly thieves, outlaws, and the occasional drunkards. However, historically significant people were also detained, such as “Thomas Wyatt the Younger who rebelled against Queen Mary I”, John Rogers during the same era for translating the Bible from Latin to English, and many “Royalist supporters during the English Civil War”.

The museum attempts to commemorate those men in a dark, twisted way by hosting paranormal events. Tourists would carry Vigils and Séances, play with Ouija boards, and explore grounds haunted by the anguished souls of historical figures tortured and executed in the Clink.

Attempts to destroy the prison were made during the “Peasant’s Revolt in 1381 and during Jack Clade’s rebellion of 1450”, however those attempts resulted in the prison being rebuilt and expanded to include an additional two-story prison for men, which is today where the museum stands. In 1870, Lord George Gordon along with the Protestant Association broke into the Clink, freed the prisoners, and burned it to the ground to spite Catholic leaders. The Clink was never rebuilt again.

The museum offers educational tours as well, which aim to help students understand the Clink’s cultural, religious, historical, political impact in English society.

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New Associate Professor of International Relations Written by Philip Tacason

Dr. Chris Wylde may be an expert on the Latin American debt crisis, but his passion for knowledge shows no signs of recession. Richmond’s newest International Relations professor brings with him an extesive amount of experience ranging from every corner of the world.

on teaching than there has been at previous institutions.” He says that he par-ticularly enjoys this about Richmond, because contact hours and student interaction is properly encouraged. “One of the main reasons I do this job is because I really enjoy teacing.”

Professor Wylde currently teaches four classes at Richmond – two sessions of Intro to International Relations, one session of Global Governance, and one Senior Seminar course. Next semester, he will also be teaching a postgraduate module in Global Political Economy, and looking ahead, he will be involved in the development of the new American Studies degree at Richmond. One new course that he will be teaching is called Power in the Americas, which is a Level 5 course on the power-relationship between Latin American and the United States

Professor Wylde says his research interests include the political economy of develoment, with an area-specality of Latin American nations south of the Tropic of Capricorn namely, Paraguay, Uruguay, Brazil, Chile, and Argentina.

“I’m a development studies guy, although it’s quite difficult to say where I fit in,” Wylde says. “I’m one of those cross- and transdisciplinary guys, who situations himself in several different areas of the academic discipline.”

Professor Wylde says he has “one foot in Politics, the other foot in History,” having studied both as a part of a double BA honours at the University of Warwick. Afterward, he did a Masters of Science in International Relations theory at the Univer¬sity of Bristol, which he followed up by being awarded an ESRC 1+3 scholarship, a research council that funds a doctorate and a Masters degree. He then did a second masters at the University of Leeds in Development Studies and Research Methodology, and a doctorate programme at Leeds and at the University of Buenos Aires in Argentina. His PhD, which was on PostCrissis Political Economy in Ar¬gentina, was awarded in April 2010 after he successfully defended his thesis.

When asked about his hobbies, Dr. Wylde says that he dabbles in cricket and rugby. He also reads...a lot! “When I’m not reading political economy, I really enjoy sci-fi and fantasy novels, which leads to some very interesting conversations with Mike Keating at lunchtime!”

His teaching career began shortly thereafter, when he took a position as senior lecturer in International Politics at UUM in Malaysia. He spent three semesters teaching there, during which he published his first book, Latin America After Neo Liberalism. He then took a teaching fellowship at the University of York for two years, before coming to Richmond this past August.

“Richmond is very different from York and Leeds,” Professor Wylde. “There’s much more interaction with students, especially as there’s a lot more emphasis 54 RICHMOND UNIVERSITY MAGAZINE | APRIL 2014

His favourite hobby, however, is watching opera. “My fiancee is an opera singer, so I go to see a lot of her operas,” he says. “Whenever we go on holiday over seas, we always try to make sure we take in some opera.” Professor Wylde and his fiancee have been to the Royal Opera House in Budapest, as well as an opera house in New Orleans, one that was built after the original venue there was destroyed by Hurricane Katrina.

Professor Wylde says he absolutely loves living in central London, and the opportunities that are here, both professionally and personally. “There are wonderful things here – you get to meet great people, and you get to push forward an impact in a way that you wouldn’t be able to if you weren’t in the centre of the universe.”

Professor’s Acclaimed Book to Reach New Audience Written by Rachel Kersey

It’s been about 18 years in the making,” said author Jon Mackley concerning the writing of his book, The Gawain Legacy, which will be republished on April 25th.

is more than one group looking for the end of the trail. But it would be wrong of me to tell you who the villain is.”

The adventure novel is based on the 14th century poem Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, which is about Sir Gawain, King Arthur’s nephew, accepting a challenge and learning a humbling lesson.

Mackley, an assistant adjunct professor who teaches British Fantasy Writing at Richmond, credits a “really, really good tutor” who made Sir Gawain and the Green Knight “come to life.” Mackley wanted to learn all about the poem, and while writing The Gawain Legacy, he included what he believes about both the writing of Sir Gawain and the Green Knight and the poem’s anonymous author.

Initially self-published, this edition will be put out by Cosmic Egg, an imprint of John Hunt Publishing. It was because of the original version that Cosmic Egg, which specializes in the fantastic, first discovered the book.

“For me, the idea of writing is not about making money. It’s about getting ideas out there,” said Mackley explaining why he had initially decided to self-publish.

His literary ideas certainly got out there, and they garnered praise. Suzanne Ruthven, one of the readers for Cosmic Egg books, and an author herself, called it, “a thumping good read.” The book chronicles the story of modern characters Lara and Will, who follow the clues in a stolen manuscript of Gawain and the Green Knight to find treasure at the end of the trail.

“They travel to Chester, which is where the Gawain poet originally wrote, and they start deciphering the clues, but Will’s enemies then start making things very difficult for them,” said Mackley. “The clues take them to continental Europe and then the mystery really starts!”While researching for the book, Mackley visited Chester and a healing well in North Wales, as well as southern France to enrich this multi-genre story.

“It’s a romance. It’s an adventure story. It’s got elements of history in it. And in fact, I think the publishers sell it as an historical thriller,” he said.

“People who already know the background story of Sir Gawain and the Green Knight will be intrigued by The Gawain Legacy because he uses his extensive historical knowledge to put a new spin on an ancient legend,” said Austen Houts, one of Mackley’s students.

Mackley’s publisher only just sent him the first proof draft, but he isn’t new to the publishing process. In the 18 years it took to write The Gawain Legacy, he published four other books. His passion for writing was sparked in adolescence.

After reading a few fantasy novels, he found the market was nearly empty, so he started writing what he wanted to read.

The Gawain Legacy is for “Anyone who fancies a really good romping yarn,” said Mackley. “I would say the audience is over 16 but otherwise, it’s just forsomeone who wants to hear a really good fast-paced story about people.”

There will be a book signing on April 26, the day after it’s released, and he’s adding a personal touch doing it in his hometown of Northampton at the WH Smith in the Grosvenor Centre.

This second time around, Mackley remains positive and hopes for increased success.

If anyone’s curious about the villain, Mackley’s not telling! “There is a villain,” he said. “In fact there are two villains, or maybe even three villains because there 55

Velkommen til Norge!

Written by Aysel Mammadova

Oslo, Norway - the words commonly associated with this city and the country itself are ‘cold, snow, -15 C°’, something many of us, who enjoy sun, beach and the sea, might not be in favor of! Indeed, these conditions are exactly what we were expecting to face, while getting prepared for the Richmond MA International Relations field trip to the city in March 2014.

Fortunately, this year we were lucky, and Oslo welcomed us with all its warmth, from warm weather and sun to the hospitality of the Norwegians. Indeed, it really was the warmest of atmospheres everywhere we went: pubs, cafes, restaurants, academic lectures, museums, and parks.

This field trip to Oslo will have a lasting impression on many of us. Despite our short stay we managed to do a lot of sightseeing, therefore I would definitely suggest future Richmonders to join this field trip in upcoming years. You can take a lovely walk in the Bjorvika neighborhood at the head of the Oslofjord with a panoramic view of Operahuset, the Oslo Opera House; visit Holmenkollen ski jump - one of the most famous sporting arenas with the best perspectives to photograph the city from the top and witness the astonishing Oslo sunset; visit the Nobel Peace Center and join the amazing guide who gives valuable information about Alfred Nobel and his life, as well as the prize laureates, where you will also see high-tech displays and screens which tell you the history and background of the previous winners.

The second day of our arrival started with lectures at Bjorknes University. They covered some important topics for IR students and had interesting discussions about Geopolitics of the Arctic Ice Crisis, US foreign policy and the use of ‘drone warfare’ during the Obama administration, and the ongoing conflict in the Central African Republic. The lecture day ended with a delightful dinner with Richmond and Norwegian professors and fellows at a cozy restaurant with a

magnificent view to the river Akerselva, which runs through the center of Oslo to the Oslo Fjord.

Not only was the company and ambience at the restaurant fascinating, but the food was also so delicious, that some of us had to go back there the next day!

Strolling the several minutes to and from the restaurant along the river bank, we explored the charming nature of Oslo, witnessed incredible panoramas, and listened to the acoustics of the river’s flow, which left a manifold and lasting impression on us.

The visit to Det Norske Nobelinstitutt, located at Henrik Ibsens gate with a bust of Alfred Nobel in front of it, was the highlight of my Oslo trip. This is the very place where the decision and the announcement of each year’s Peace Prize winner are made. Having a very informative talk with Bjorn Helge Vanger, the head librarian of the Nobel Institute, we learned firsthand information about the Prize and its founder Alfred Nobel, his invention of dynamite as well as his deep connection with Baku, the capital of my home country, Azerbaijan, during its first oil boom. In 1879 three Nobel Brothers, Alfred, Ludwig and Robert, established a shareholding oil company in Azerbaijan and became the main owners of it.

They established their residence ‘Villa Petrolia’, which was located in the Black City district of Baku. Being Azerbaijan’s representative at Richmond University, I was very much excited to learn a lot more about Alfred Nobel, Nobel Peace Prize, its laureates, and spend some time at the institute’s library.

All of this and even more was opened up to us during our short stay in Oslo, the number one ranked city in terms of life quality among large cities in Europe. I would suggest to everyone to seize the opportunity to listen to the river’s flow in the center of Oslo, take a cruise to the Fjords, and enjoy your stay in Norway!

Operahuset, the Oslo Opera House

Sunset in Oslo

Walk along the River Akerselva

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Oslo City

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Sweet Collaborations Written and photographed by Matthew Butterfield

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ttending university is more than simply about going to class and doing coursework.

Undeniably, a large part of what makes the university experience so valuable and rewarding is related to the connections people make, both personally and professionally. As an alumnus of Richmond University for both my Bachelors and Masters degrees, and now as a full-time member of staff and an adjunct lecturer here, I have had the pleasure of being a part of the Richmond community for going on 13 years. In that time I consider myself hugely fortunate to have met hundreds of talented and engaging people, students and colleagues alike.

In addition to working with these people on a daily basis on campus, I sometimes have the opportunity to work on exciting projects outside the university sphere as well. It is through the connections I made as a student, and continue to make as a

teacher, that these collaborations come about.

Initially it may be hard for students to envisage the significance of this, but the validity of creating such a wide professional network can be perfectly demonstrated through my most recent project: a photoshoot for a London-based artisan macaron boutique called Ganache Macaron.

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eyond the â&#x20AC;&#x153;day jobâ&#x20AC;? of my full-time career at Richmond, I am also a highly active freelance photographer, graphic and web designer. Recently I was approached by Monica Hartnell, a former Richmond University Journalism major whose skills and hard work during an internship At Ganache Macaron led to a full-time position with the company.

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anache Macaron provides quality, delicious and outstandingly creative French macarons for

a wide variety of clients including Maison Blanc, Clarins UK and The Southbank Centre, to name a few. The owners, Audrey and Paul were originally drawn to macarons for their delicate beauty and distinct texture, and they aim to push this exquisite treat even further by creating unique flavours alongside their classic range. Their existing range of flavours included Salted Butter Caramel, Pistachio, Peanut Butter & Jam, Lemon, Caramel Popcorn, Earl Grey, Raspberry Daiquiri, and many more. The Spring launch of a new Easter range of flavours however, required fresh advertising, marketing, blogging and promotion.

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ollowing Monicaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s success at Ganache Macaron, and recognising the talent pool at Richmond, Audrey and Paul asked Monica to reach out to the university community to find a photographer to 57

The Easter range of mini-macarons: Blackberry, Lime, Banana and Vanilla

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Orange, Vanilla, Lemon and Chocolate Cream Macarons

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Diffusing the daylight and setting up the macarons & their ingredients in my studio. work with them for styling and shooting a series of images of the new flavours. Looking to expand my food photography portfolio, and always happy to support the Richmond alumni, I vounteered for the position and immediately started to plan the shoot.

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ommercial photography projects such as this do not organise themselves and it took about a month for me to brainstorm, conduct visual research, make, paint and stain the wooden backdrops, source the props and plan the shoot. My own network of colleagues, also proved invaluable in this planning as I reached out for ideas, inspiration and was very kindly donated many props to use for the shoot. Richmond Professor Mary Robert and Dr. John Dickerson, for example, have the

The resulting shot on an exposure of 1/80th at f2.8 and an ISO of 640. most stunning array of vintage crockery and some beautiful fabrics which perfectly suited the brief of “vintage-chique” and beatifully complemented the macarons and the floral selection I made.

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ver an extremely long and tiring, but thoroughly enjoyable weekend I shot almost a thousand photographs and was able to provide the client with just over three hundred image proofs from which to choose for their up-coming campaigns. So pleased was the company with the results, they kindly wrote a fantastic post about the shoot on their blog which has not only increased traffic on my website, but is now leading to further jobs. In addition Ganache Macaron has since been in touch to re-shoot their entire range of macaron flavours.

I graduated Richmond in December 2012, with a BA in International Journalism and Media and a minor in Marketing (1st class honours, cum laude). After having a bit of a break and getting married in June 2013, I began my job search in July 2013, and as part of this I frequently checked my RAIUL email for internship opportunities. I came across the internship with Ganache Macaron through an email sent out by the RAUIL internship department. The role (Ganache Macaron Marketing Intern) was not part of the formal RAUIL internship programme, which worked perfectly for me because I was already a graduate at the time, and was looking to get my foot in the door with a marketing or journalism role.

Monica Hartnell Richmond Alumnus

Digital Marketing & Administration Executive at Ganache Macaron

After interviewing with Audrey and Paul and sending them some examples of my writing, I was offered the six month internship and began in September 2013. In March 2014, I was offered (and accepted) a full-time role at Ganache Macaron as Digital Marketing and Administration Executive.

I’ve really enjoyed working for a small business where my ideas make a big impact on our products, brand identity and, of course, our marketing content. Before I was even offered my internship at Ganache Macaron, I knew that it would be a really exciting role that would allow me to use my creativity on a daily basis.

My varied role includes writing and managing content for social media, the Ganache Macaron

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his is just one example of the many amazing experiences attending a dynamic and exciting university such as Richmond can provide. More than the education students receive while on campus, it highlights both the value of networking and demonstrates the value of internships and maintaining contact with your fellow alumni around the world.

For information about Matthew Butterfield or Ganache Macaron, please visit these websites: www.matthewbutterfield.com www.ganache-macaron.co.uk

website, the Ganache Macaron blog and promotional material. It also includes SEO and editing the Ganache Macaron website. The role has also allowed me to gain more experience in customer service and sales. I have also gained experience networking, as well as identifying and liaising with relevant media contacts.

Audrey is originally from Paris, France and Paul is British. The bakery we work in is a very international environment, similar to Richmond.

In this little bakery, I have worked with people from Brazil, Portugal, aSpain, New Zealand, France, UK and the US. It just goes to show how diverse London is.

In my role at Ganache Macaron, I am constantly thinking back to my studies at Richmond in International Journalism and Media, and Marketing. I have always loved writing, but my journalism courses at Richmond really helped me gain confidence in sharing my writing. I am very grateful to my journalism professors, Dr. Eunice Goes and Louise Byrne, who really pushed me to break through my shyness to do phone interviews and face to face interviews.

Confidence on the phone has been an invaluable tool for me in this role where I am constantly speaking to customers, suppliers, and media contacts.

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Congratulations to Richmond Faculty member Murray Woodfield on winning the Crystal Bear for Best Short Film at the Berlin Film Festival 2014. This is the first British Film ever to win in this category.

Murray Woodfield is Executive Producer and co-creator of the film “Mike” which is being shown in festivals all over the world and has just secured a distribution deal after winning Best Short Film at the Berlinale Generation 14+ .

“Mike”, a co-production by Irresistible and the UK Film Festival is a thought provoking and moving examination of loss and responsibility.

What did winning this award actually mean to you?

It meant a lot… I mean the Berlin Film Festival awards are the “Oscars” of Europe. But awards are strange… when you aren’t winning any they are no big deal but when you find yourself on a stage in front of a thousand people and who knows how many beyond the television cameras - it is quite a momentary boost. I’ve been making films on and off for years – this is my first big award.

Where can we see it?

It is going to be in film festivals all over the world for the rest of the year and then will be freed up for TV and online broadcast as well as being the short before the feature in cinemas all over Europe. That’s the deal with the distribution company anyway…

How do you mean?

Well, you walk the red carpet blah blah blah… you get the champagne, you do the radio interviews and TV news… but it’s only one night. Then you sweep out of Berlin in black limos and head for the airport… then you get crammed on Easy Jet and back to the reality of work the next day.

You mentioned work...Why do you work at Richmond? t’s a great place to work. I love it. It is a very special place with fantastically interesting and inspiring students. They say if you can… you do – if you can’t… you teach. I have never found that to be true. We have wonderful faculty at Richmond. Teaching is supposed to be the illumination of others while extinguishing yourself.

What was your job on the film?

Good question. As Executive Producer I chose the script, the director and the Production Company. As script editor I honed the script with the director Petros Silvestros to bring out its full potential. I put everyone together…

Do you enjoy doing that?

Yes. I am the cupid of the film world.

Why did you decide to choose this director?

I needed someone whom I knew would go the extra ten miles for this project.

I knew Petros from London Film School. He is no stranger to winning awards.

I love working with him.

Why this production Company?

Irresistible are a great bunch of guys. They felt the same way about the script as we did. They are mainly used to making Film and TV commercials. So they understand micro shorts knowing how to make every second count in a film.

In commercials you may have only 30 seconds to put over the idea. Here we had seven minutes.

What advice would you give to students wanting to work in film?

Eat, sleep and drink film. Study at a great institution. Be tenacious. Make films and experiment to find out what works. Network as much as possible.

Once you are in, let the industry eat you alive and spit you out. Then go back for more. It’s the most demanding monster in the world. It is not for the faint hearted.

What’s next?

We are very excited about our new short film “The Confessional” that is in pre-production and after that we will be doing a feature film in 2015… but first I need to get some sleep…

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As well as teaching at Richmond, Murray Woodfield is Director of the UK Film Festival, which is now in its 4th year. The Festival is been held every November and has been at the Empire Leicester Square and the Aubin Cinema in Shoreditch.

The mission of the festival is to celebrate filmmaking from around the world and offers awards for Best International Short, Best British Short, Best Feature, Best Documentary, Best Animation, Best Music Video and Best Student film, as well as various Special Awards.

In 2013 the festival selected 55 films to be screened from 900 submissions from 39 countries. The UK Film Festival is also championing the futures of many of the films they screen at the festival and have so far helped 3 films on their way to Oscar nominations. These are The Broken Circle Breakdown (Begium) and The Selfish Giant (UK) and Bazkashi Boys. They also have a relationship with Channel 4 by which they pass on shorts to them to be screened on the Shooting Gallery.

So far they have placed 2013’s Best British Short winner – Kickoff and our 2012’s winning documentary – Why Don’t We Do It In the Road?

In 2012 they were chosen by the European Parliament to be the festival that screens the Lux prize finalists. (The Lux is a prize is funded and run by the EU Parliament for the best European feature films of the year as judged by a panel of well-known European film critics) In most cases these screenings were the British Premieres. In 2012 the Lux feature films were Io Sono Li (Shun Li and the Poet) (Italy, France); Csak a szel (Just the Wind) (Hungary, Germany, France) and Tabu (Portrugal, Germany, France, Brazil) In 2013 the Lux films were Miele (France/Italy); The Broken Circle Breakdown (Begium) and The Selfish Giant (UK).

Preparations are already in place for the next UK Film Festival which will be in London in November 2014. See you there.

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gen •der The categories of gender and sex are merely performances which gain their authority through reiterative practice.

The Masquerade Written by Christopher Iafelice Nia Kiara Cole is a junior (third year) Study-Abroad student currently pursuing Film Studies at Howard University. This semester, at Richmond University, she enrolled in Richard Bevan’s Video Production course. Bevan, who himself is an artist, introduced her to the realm of video art, intriguing her with his own work along with that of Guy Sherwin, Nam June Paik, Benedict Drew, and more recently Andrea Fraser’s work, currently on display at the Tate Modern here in London. She became highly interested in pursuing this alternative style of video making and art form.

Earlier in the semester while working on creating a trailer for Bevan’s course, she began exploring a piece entitled ‘The Masquerade’ demonstrating the relationship and conflict between biological sex and “gender” identity/expression; for which she produced an “alternative” trailer consisting of various combinations of male and female body parts displayed in a performance.

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The final video will showcase the inner conflict of a young woman who is transgender, between her sex and her gender presentation. The piece will follow the young woman waking up as a female and the intricate details of her daily process of getting dressed to express herself as a female, contrasted with the image of a biological male going through his daily routine of expressing himself as a man in today’s society. The overarching theme of the piece is based on Judith Butler’s idea of gender as a performance. The piece will consist of a minimal bedroom and bathroom set (similar to that of and based off “Dogville”) which will stand as the basis of the installation. Then projected onto screens on opposite ends of the room will be the images of the young woman on one side and the young man on the other as the dress themselves and transform or rather “perform” their gender. The installation is meant to serve as a physical manifestation of the idea of performance but to also to totally immerse the audience into the entire conflict and contrast between the two mirrored images.

Reporting From the Sky, Coming Soon?

Written by Mariah Timms The recent supertyphoon in the Philippines was an international news event that eclipsed similarly distressing humanitarian disasters by the unique and unprecedented coverage captured by CNN reporters using revolutionary new drone technology.

This technology is still being developed, but it was used extremely effectively in the recent disaster coverage by photojournalist Lewis Whyld.

Drone journalism is essentially the use of small flying devices to which cameras and other data recording devices have been attached. They work like a helicopter would for gathering news information, flying above and around a subject to photograph it. Because of their size, however, they have the potential to be used at very close range, granting them access to previously inaccessible shots.

Whyld flew a drone over a news reporter to capture the full picture of the damage around him and also used a relatively long-range drone to report on areas not accessible from the ground.

These drones have numerous other applications for journalists, aid agencies, search and rescue teams, NGO’s and many other organisations.

In a ground-breaking, but less dramatic, use of the technology, BBC transport correspondent Richard Westcott gave his report via the Hexacopter on 29 October, 2013. This was a standard reporter-in-thefield TV spot, but he and his team pioneered the use of a drone for a mainstream UK media outlet.

Professor Matt Waite, Pulitzer Prize winning journalist and founder of the Drone Journalism Lab at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln explained the technical limitations of the technology. Waite explained that the range of these devices is not far from the reporter. A multi-rotor drone, which is more stable and therefore better for video gathering, will only go about half a mile, while a fixed-wing drone will fly further, but is less stable and therefore better for different uses.

Usually, these devices are flown using lowresolution cameras that stream live video to allow the operator to direct their flight. This is because a better quality of image requires more bandwidth, and the transmitters must be small to use in the field. Drones will then also have a better-quality camera attached. This camera records to its own storage device for use after the craft lands.

The drone motors make a lot of noise, so the technology is not currently practical for uses which require recording sound, such as interviews.

Devices like this range from $30USD, not including a camera, to those costing over $6500USD. One used commonly in the practice would cost about $300USD retail, although Whyld and others prefer to personally build theirs to their own specifications.

The use of these devices is currently controlled under pre-existing aircraft regulations but both the US Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) and the UK Civil Aviation Authority (CAA) are developing specific codes related to unmanned craft. The footage taken in Tacloban, Philippines, would have been illegal in either country.

Waite noted, ‘The likelihood of a midair collision with piloted aircraft is so cosmically improbable as to be laughable.’ The FAA requires certain licensing for pilots before they use this technology in the field, as they are not covered under hobbyist regulations. The BBC followed the rules of the CAA, which sate that these crafts cannot be flown within 50m of a road or building, over crowds or 500m horizontally or 120m vertically from the pilot.

A flight plan must also be logged before take-off, which is a difficult rule to follow if this technology were to be used to cover breaking news.

To mitigate the danger of the craft dropping over a crowd, a legitimate fear, the BBC Hexacopter has a GPS-based system that, in the case of a problem, flies the device back to its launch point and lands it automatically.

There are concerns about the ethical application of this technology, which fall mostly into the line of traditional questions about journalism practice. > There have been incidents of paparazzi attempting to use drones, but these are largely irrelevant to the discussion. Waite explains that the privacy question is more about incidental footage gathered when covering a story. He asked, ‘What happens when my camera happens to pick up a house fire in a residential area where a neighbor sees smoke and runs out into their own yard naked?’

Also questioned is the safety of these devices. They are still being innovated, and the BBC has strict flying rules for their use. Waite is very cautious in his lab about the safety of his students. ‘Keep in mind we are playing with flying lawn mowers here!’

Reporters may dream of applying this technology to combat zones, where they could keep a reporter out of the crossfire but still gather information. Oliver Poole, award-winning war correspondent at the Evening Standard, expressed the hope they would someday be used for this. ‘[Photojournalists] have to get right up to the front line to get the footage, and I know people who have died doing that, and others who I can’t believe haven’t died doing that.

Any technology that can help stop people getting injured in the pursuit of a story is a good thing.’

remote, you could be risking drawing attention or hostile fire back to the operator.’

Also, with their short range, ‘You would still have to get uncomfortably close to combat to cover it,’ Waite explained.

Waite foresees different uses for this technology in the near future. ‘We can look at humanitarian crises like refugee camps, as opposed to full-on war zones.’ However, this idea is cause for another ethical concern. Covering people forcibly displaced from their homes by using ‘a flying robot over their head that they might, not unreasonably, conflate with the government or other forces,’ could be needlessly terrorizing.

Whyld wants to expand the remit of these drones.

Now mainly used for typical video and still photography, Whyld pioneered the use of 360° photography while in the Philippines.These pictures create an aerial map or snapshot of an entire area. They can help develop a full assessment of the damage and in locating those still in need of assistance. This data can also be used later by scientists to analyze the storm and develop better technologies to help people survive them.

Photojournalism has sometimes been condemned for being too sentimental or contrarily responsible for compassion fatigue, but this application is a solid hard-news angle using visual data. There is no framing here; the photo is a snapshot of the whole area.

As mentioned, there are multiple alternatives to using ‘drone’ just a craft that can fly without a pilot on board. They are called UAVs or UASs (systems) and sometimes RPAS or remotely piloted aircraft systems. Some have even used ‘pilotless aircraft,’ which Waite, who flies across the states multiple times a year, calls a ‘nightmare word.’ He said, ‘We the media have tortured the word drone to the point of meaninglessness. Will we choose an acronym or nightmare name over one simple word? No.’ It looks like this technology is stuck with the name drone, for good or bad. Waite argued also that Amazon’s recent publicity stunt, in which it hinted that this sort of craft would deliver packages, was a possible boon to the word drone. ‘Maybe people will see this as ‘Thing that’s going to bring me my Amazon purchases’ or ‘really cool camera tool’ and not ‘flying killing machine.’

Waite explains that sadly this technology is far from being used for that application. In fact, he said, ‘This technology could be exceedingly dangerous in combat zone particularly because militaries have had for some time the ability to track a signal back to its source. If you’re operating this with a handheld 65

SCOTLAND SKYE HIGH TOUR Written and Photographed by Christopher Iafelice

Every semester, Richmond plans exciting and riveting trips that the students get to attend. The most famous trip that they run is the Scotland Sky High Adventure. I cant express the beauty that Scotland holds. The trip starts off by taking a train to Edinburgh, where you get to explore the beautiful and gothic looking architecture. There is so much to see and do in thae old city, from going to a pub to get a juicy Scottish burger or going to having a relaxing night at a whiskey tasting.

On the second day, we left Scotland’s capitol by crossing the iconic Fourth Road Bridge, which until 1917 was the longest single cantilever bridge in the world, and still has the world’s second largest single span. We then start to make our way through Macbeth country to the mighty Cathedral in Dunkeld. After sampling the ‘Water of Life’, we made our way to the Highland whiskey distillery to indulge in Scotland’s most iconic tipple and how it’s made. We then started to journey through the Highland’s capitol, Inverness, where we started to follow the entire length of Loch Ness, trying to discover the mythical creatures and the legendary beast that is beneath the water.

On the third day war start to explore the ‘winged isle’ or ‘Isle of Mist’ where you will find the legendary scenery and home to the MacDonald and MacLeod Clans. A day filled with Celtic 66 RICHMOND UNIVERSITY MAGAZINE | APRIL 2014

myths and Viking legends takes us to explore the windswept landscape and the brooding Red and Black Cuillin Mountain ranges. We then park the bus to enjoy a couple of hours in a hike through the stunning wilderness, where J.M. Barrie wrote Peter Pan. And yes, we were walking through the legendary, Enchanted Forest. After a long day filled with magical adventure, we start heading back to the hostel, but with one more stop at the beautiful Filean Donan Castle, which is mostly know for Judi Denchâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s secret office in the James Bond film series.

On the last day, we start to leave the Great Glen, passing under the shadow of Ben Nevis. Our route then takes a southern turn, taking us through the stunning Glencoe area, which was used as a backdrop in Skyfall and the Harry Potter movies. We head past Stirling, scenic area of many of Scotlandâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s most famous and bloody battles in the Wars of Independence. After hearing about the heart wrenching stories of the War of Independence and William Wallace, we make our way to the memorial built for William Wallace, which is one of the biggest monuments ever built in commemoration for one person. After a long weekend, we start making our way back to Edinburgh to catch our train back to London.

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Road to Solitude

Sky Fall 68 RICHMOND UNIVERSITY MAGAZINE | APRIL 2014

Pride Rock

Stormy Road 69

A Cultural Exchange As Richmond broadens its horrizons in the world of General Eduacation, we have introduced two brand new language programmes, Mandarin and Arabic. Two studens discuss the Mandarin class, while we get a first hand account story from a foreign exchange student from China.

0 RICHMOND UNIVERSITY MAGAZINE

Unity and Harmony Written by Kegui Luo 41 days! When writing this paper, I only have 41 days left at Richmond the American International University in London.

However, to be honest, I wish to leave here as soon as possible, for the longer I live here, the more I love London, and the more pain I will suffer when the departure time befalls on me.

I will lose myself and cry because I can’t imagine when I wake up in the morning, only to find that there is no yummy fried eggs cooked by our beloved Debra, no tasty croissants, and no sweet smile and greeting given by my dear friends.

I can’t imagine whether I can continue running when I am back in China, where there is no Kensington Gardens, where I can just stare at the blue sky, breathe the fresh air and become lost in thought, slow down to say a friendly “hello” to the lovely squirrels, feed the sacred swans, or just smell the flowers. I can’t imagine whether I can still study hard in my home university where there is no frequent interaction between students and professors in terms of academic problems, no advanced teaching facilities, and no friendly classmates coming from all over the world.

“Bliss was it in that dawn to be alive, but to be young was very heaven!” To be young is very heaven, especially when you are at the best age in your life, you are in London and in Richmond the American International University. Living in London, we can have a taste of its profound history and resplendent culture. Big Ben, House of Parliament, London Tower Bridge and British Museum are all splendid historic buildings that intoxicate me with their majesty and glory. In Kensington, we can have an understanding of what the upper life is in London. Well-designed houses with a long history, numerous luxury roadsters, quiet and safe environment, and polite people, are all highlighted symbols of Kensington area. But in Richmond University, we can touch the very core of London, namely, its diversity and the spirit of inclusiveness. Americans, Europeans, Asians, and Africans, are converged in Richmond. Although we are from different countries and speak different languages, we are, however, getting on well with each other because we have a same language, and that is love, smile, care, and friendliness. In Richmond, everybody is a foreigner, but at the same time, everybody is not a foreigner. We are a unity in diversity. Unity and harmony are our names.

“It was the best of times, and it was the worst of times.” For me, it is the best of times living in London and studying in Richmond University; it is the worst of times leaving London and saying goodbye to my beloved friends here in Richmond University. There is an old saying in Chinese—a bosom friend afar brings a distant land near. I am fortunate enough to study at Richmond, experience London, and acquaintance with you at the best age in my life. Time flies, but good memory never fades.

Learning Chinese Written by Sabrina Krichevsky The opportunity to learn a language is a great way to open ones’ mind to new ways of thinking and expressing ideas.

At Richmond the American International University in London, I was given the opportunity to take a fundamental Chinese Language and Culture course. I was a bit nervous going in at first, although I have learned other languages in the past.

The Chinese language is completely different from any other language I know - from the characters used, to the way the sentences are structured. This course has completely changed the way I look at the Chinese language - from being completely afraid of it, to now feeling confident. Which is done just simply by introducing myself in this language.

This course gives students the fundamentals of understanding common phrases and frequently used words. It teaches the student how to introduce oneself and to provide facts about themselves and their family in a meeting with a Chinese company. It also gives one the confidence of putting together a food order at a Chinese restaurant.

It still shocks me now to say that I speak and comprehend basic Chinese! This course breaks down this seemingly complex language into the simplest steps imaginable. This course moves as quickly as any other university course, but the professor combines his skills and resources in a method that teaches students like myself new words and phrases so that it feels comfortable and natural. This course is definitely an opportunity not to be missed, not simply because it is an experience of learning a new language, but also it is an opportunity to gain the confidence in experiencing China using its native language.

I would recommend this course to any student, even if they are not planning on working or studying abroad in China, but solely because of the cultural knowledge the student will gain and even the feeling of accomplishment they will receive knowing that this was a great scholastic decision that will last a lifetime.

Written by Maxwell Davis Learning Chinese Mandarin at Richmond University has been an incredible experience.

Prof. George Zhang creates a dynamic, interconnected, atmosphere where we have the distinct opportunity to leave this class proficient and functional. It has become quite clear that language skills and cultural understanding compliments each other. Chinese Mandarin at Richmond utilizes a balanced approach; it underscores activities simulating daily life situations, as well as introducing Chinese ethos. This Mandarin course enables communication across all linguistic boarders. Although many students come into this class on various levels, the bar is set and the pace is consistent for everyone. Interpretive, presentational, and interpersonal communications is effectively done through small groups and exercises.

I have found this approach to be enjoyable and relaxed. While the majority of the class is predicated on listening and speaking, Prof. Zhang has also introduced pinyin and characters. Pinyin is a transcription system for Chinese pronunciation.

For example, xuesheng is pinyin for the word student, but it would be written as a pair of intricate characters. This comprehensive training is introduced at a basic level; however, upon completion of this class, you can look forward toward communicating with confidence. I really enjoy it.

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UNDERGRADUATE DISSERTATION ABSTRACTS Development

Psychology

Biofuels and Low Carbon Development: The Case of Indonesia

The Effect of Negative-Emotional Content on Eyewitness Events

Jacob Pritchard

Ronda Embick and Gabrielle Emerzian

This dissertation analyses the environmental, economic, and social impacts of biofuel production on developing countries, using Indonesian palm oil plantations as a case study. It argues that the pre-existing problems of environmental degradation, economic inequality, and social exclusion in Indonesia have been exacerbated from the introduction of large-scale palm oil plantations.

It uses ecological modernisation’s three factors of sustainability (innovation, competition, and regulation) to argue that although biofuel production may be innovative, it can lead to unregulated and uncompetitive policies in practice.

This can be seen in Indonesia, where palm oil plantations have caused massive environmental problems, limited economic growth, and aggravated social relations between small shareholders and actors that have stronger economic and political power. This dissertation uses Indonesia as a strong case study to illustrate how biofuel production as a sustainable development strategy can actually be detrimental in environmental, economic, and social terms.

The aim of the current study was to test the effect of negative emotional vs. neutral content on the accuracy of memory recognition for an eyewitness event immediately after viewing a video of a staged theft. It was hypothesized that participants who viewed negative emotional content would have an increase in accuracy of memory for central details (i.e., descripton of the perpatrator and victim) but an impaired memory for peripheral details (i.e., action and background details). Partcipants were asked to view one of two short films which represented either negative-emotional content or neutral content and were then tested on their recognition of the event. The interaction effect of type of detail and group was significant. Results indicated an increase in accuracy for central details vs. peripheral details. Higher false alarm rates for peripheral details were found. Results are discussed within the attentional narrowing hypothesis.

Submitted to: Dr. Michael Keating, SP 2014

Presented in Birmingham at the Annual 2014 BPS Conference Submitted to: Dr. Ira Konstantinou, SP 2014

Psychology

International Journalism & Media

The Effect of Language Familiarity on Witness Accuracy and Confidence Ratings for Auditory and Visual Details

Gendered by Gender? A Content Analysis of the Political Newsmedia Coverage of Female Politicians During Campaigns

Miriam Dyberg

Mariah Timms

Past research has positively correlated language familiarity with accuracy in earwitness testimony regarding voice recognition; however, no prior studies have been published regarding the effectiveness of foreign ear witnesses on non-content based auditory memory (Thompson, 1987; Goggin, Thompson, Strube & Simental, 1991). This study utilizes two experiments to examine the effect of language familiarity on a witness’s ability to accurately recognize the details of an event and their confidence levels. In Experiment I, it was predicted that if participants viewed an event in a foreign language (Swedish) that they would be equally able to accurately recognize visual stimuli as participants viewing the same event in a language they are familiar in. However, participants in the foreign condition would show reduced recognition accuracy for auditory aspects of the events compared to participants in the fluent condition. The results, however, suggested that language familiarity does not have a significant effect on visual or non-content based auditory memory, which has significant implications for the use of foreign witnesses in court. Evidence is discussed as a result of an integration process and implications for ear and eyewitness testimony are presented. Experiement II predicted that despite similar performances with regards to accuracy, groups with different levels of language familiarity would have differing levels of confidence, with lower language familiarity being tied to lower confidence. It was also predicted that briefing could help alleviate these differences. Language familiarity and briefing were not found to reliably affect confidence levels. Reasons for these findings and future research that may clarify the results are suggested.

Previous literature has analyzed the news media coverage of female politicians for gendered themes in other elections, but lacked a content-based study of the news media’s use of gendered frames on the most recent election involving a viable female candidate for executive office. This study begins to fill that gap by analyzing a portion of the coverage for gender of the author and the presence of gendered frames, the criteria for which were expanded from those in previous research (Kahn and Goldberg, 1991). This paper analyzes the news media coverage of Hillary Rodham Clinton for gendered themes as relevant to a prominent female politician running for office during the early days of her campaign for the Democratic Party’s nomination to the US presidential election in 2008. It uses a content analysis of the news coverage from the month following Clinton’s announcement of her campaign in three strategic sources.

These sources were the news media in the states of Iowa and New Hampshire, and also The New York Times. This study concludes that the coverage of Hillary Rodham Clinton during this time period was overall not gendered along terms of usual female frames. It also reports that there is a significant gender gap in the reporters covering politics in these areas and that gendered articles are more likely to have been written by female reporters. This study recommends a continued assessment of the frames placed by the news media on female politicians and on the hiring and section assignment practices of that same news media.

Presented in Birmingham at the Annual 2014 BPS Conference Submitted to: Dr. Ira Konstantinou, FA 2013.

72 RICHMOND UNIVERSITY MAGAZINE | APRIL 2014

Submitted to: Professor Louise Byrne, FA 2013

Reclaiming Visual and Visceral Pleasure:

Situating the Female Nude in Contemporary Women’s Photography Written by Anastasia Fjodorova As a female artist who engages primarily with making photographic representations of women, particularly of the nude, it is imperative that I take into account the responsibility with which I do so. The photographic medium is, in and of itself, a site of tension and for this reason images made of women can too easily become categorized under the “male gaze”. The core of this argument has been posited by John Berger and Laura Mulvey, and has been further supported by a number of feminist theorists in their critiques of patriarchal ideologies present in dominant representations of women. This paper, however, will argue that there are other considerations that need to be taken into account when constructing a “reading” of photographic images of women, particularly when produced by women. Issues of spectator participation, masquerade, and the nature of the photograph itself, will be discussed.

Berger’s argument can be simplified with the statement that “men act and women appear.” The determining factor in the relations between men and women and women and themselves is that men look at women, and women observe themselves being looked at.1 “The surveyor of woman in herself is male: the surveyed female. Thus she turns herself into an object—and most particularly an object of vision: a sight.”2 Mulvey takes this argument further by tying the image of woman to her place as “bearer of meaning, not maker of meaning.”3 Looking itself, according to Mulvey, is a source of pleasure, as is being looked at, however there is an imbalance inherent in this as pleasure in looking has been split between the active male and the passive female: “In their traditional exhibitionist role women are simultaneously looked at and displayed, with their appearance coded for strong visual and erotic impact so that they can be said to connote to-be-looked-at-ness.”4 Historically, as the oft-used example of Albrecht Dürer’s Draughtsman Drawing a Recumbent Woman (1525) (Fig. 1) shows, the role of “artist” has been attributed to the male, as one who is active, analytical, bearer of the gaze, and in Linda Nochlin’s phrase the “sexually dominant creator.”5 The artist’s model, in contrast, is presented as passive, object of the gaze, and the malleable and raw material for his creative intelligence.6 7 Rosemary Betterton suggests that women’s relationship to the nude visual image is ambiguous due to the frequency with which they are represented within images, yet their role as creators and viewers of such images is rarely acknowledged.8 Linda Tickner writes: “The female image in all its variations is the mythical consequences of women’s exclusion from the making of art.”9 She argues this artist/model dichotomy can be subverted when women use their own bodies as subject and/or medium, thereby conflating the roles of artist, model, and the work.10 Susan Bordo criticises such a simplistic rendering of the viewer/viewed experience by noting that “passive” does not describe what is going on when one is the object of the gaze. Her argument is that “inviting, receiving, and responding” are all active behaviours.11 The theory of the “male gaze” as argued

by Berger and Mulvey is reductive in that it overlooks and rejects the possibility of the very real pleasure that women can take in viewing representations of women. Their common stance, as adopted by Annette Kuhn, is that if women enjoy an erotic picture, it is only possible by adopting a masculine subject position, however, a spectator of either gender has the option of identifying with, rather than objectifying, the woman in the picture.12 Carol Ockman’s introduction to her book on the eroticized bodies present in the work of Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres, sets out an argument, among others, against the feminist criticism of his work that views his eroticizing of female bodies as a reduction of women to their bodies with the intended spectator and consumer being male.13 This analysis is done by discussing the variety of ways through which women were involved with the representation of eroticized bodies as patrons, collectors, and critics.14 In this way Ockman posits a critique of both Berger’s and Mulvey’s essential argument that women cannot look at representations of their gender without immediately adopting a “masculine” point of view, when in actuality the difficulty lies in women’s lack of language for theorizing the concept of “women’s pleasure in looking.”15 When discussing her own experience of pleasure while looking at the work of Ingres, Ockman writes, “ I was attempting to assert my pleasure as a woman viewing Ingres’s work, when there was virtually no language for doing so.”16 Mary Ellmann argues that it is precisely this lack of a women’ s language which forces them to “accommodate” only the roles and images sanctioned by a patriarchal ideology.17 “Those who have no country have no language,” and until women have an accepted imagery and language that is their own, they will be unable to express themselves.18 Constructing a new, feminist, visual language,

however, proves to be no simple task. Tickner argues that although political feminist art intends to re-appropriate the connotations attributed to female imagery, such new imagery risks not challenging, but rather indulging, clichés when using old visual references. 19 The danger with representations of women made through the medium of “pure” photography is that if art seeks to intervene and challenge ideologically sanctioned perceptions then the medium used to produce them should be “radical.” “Radical” art is non-unity, a many-faceted collage/montage and is open to the play of contradictions, and because of that should embrace new media encompassing performance, time-based, installation, video, and sound.20 As Bertolt Brecht contends, “Reality changes; in order to represent it, modes of representation must also change.”21 Martha Rosler uses this argument, of the need for art that seeks to subvert and challenge to embrace cutting-edge media, in her claim. In order for the personal to be political when applied to art it cannot “mean doing work that looks like art had always looked, challenging little, but about which one claims that it is political just because it was done by a woman.”22 Tickner argues that, as women have long been accused of narcissism, visual representation of the female body is problematic for the assertion of new female identities, and therefore, these identities cannot be achieved directly through appearance.23 Furthermore, as Hilary Robinson stated, mass media and pornography have very quickly appropriated and normalised images of female genitals, meaning that their strategic use by feminist artists had to be reconsidered.24 Susan Robin Suleiman compares the appropriation techniques used by modern patriarchy to those of modern capitalism, as both have “a way of assimilating any number of potentially subversive gestures into the ‘mainstream,’ where whatever subversive energy they may have possessed becomes neutralized.”25 This is the problem inherent to all ‘images’, whatever the intentions of the maker.

When they enter into the public domain they are read in relation to other images that form part of dominant discourses and ideologies, as Rozsika Parker and Griselda Pollock demonstrate.26 They argue, that “what may seem like a critique of pornographic images can in a public space simply be assimilated to those images it is apparently seeking to undermine.”27 In pornography female genitals stand for the whole female body, yet much of feminist art has mirrored this same focus on sexual body parts, and reduced women’s bodies, as Donna Haraway states, “to the area revealed by the tools of gynaecology.”28 Pollock and Parker argue specifically that women are profoundly shaped by such images, becoming unwittingly compliant even when the intellectual insult to women is recognized, as it is through them that women come to imagine what they are or might be.29 As Pollock points out, photography’s illusory power of making the truth “visible” in its all-knowing gaze, is yet another problematic that must be considered.30 As suggested by Foucault, photography, in all its capacity of appearing truthful, is not an objective medium or innocent tool, but rather is implicated in the various power relationships that structure society.31 Kuhn argues that, more so than other forms of visual representation, photography does not reproduce a preexisting world, but constitutes a highly coded discourse, which, among other things, constructs whatever is in the image as the object of consumption.32 Although art photography tries to be an exception, the everyday experience of photographs for most people still connotes truth and authenticity, with what is “seen” by the camera eye serving as an adequate stand-in for what’s seen by the human eye.33 She points out that, photographs appear to stand as evidence that whatever’s inside the frame “really” happened, was “really” there, and, more significantly, seem to say to the spectator: “This is actual, this is how it is, you need make no effort to understand this, you have only to recognise it—isn’t this just the way you see it out there in the world?”34 In photography, as Pollock states however, the subject staring back at the viewer defies the usual hierarchy of looking and being looked at.35 Tickner reminds us that the rejection of dominant ideologies in visual representations must not allow the “authentic joy in the very real pleasures of the body” to be lost for fear of re-appropriation, however, as that will only serve to further the self-loathing that women feel towards their bodies.36 In her work, Hannah Wilke attempted to counter the shame that women feel towards nudity, and its tendency to frighten the viewer when a woman shows her body and is proud of it; “for then a woman exists, intensely,” as Joanna Frueh affirms.37 Wilke’s work acted in 73

defiance of the notion that the use of a woman’s body in art is “problematic for feminism,” by serving to affirm the un-ignorable presence of her own body, as alive and female.38 Carolee Schneeman, in works such as Interior Scroll (1975) (Fig. 2) mingles personal, sexual, and artistic freedom in her “determination to incorporate the nude body in all” of her work.39 As Tickner further explains: “The depiction of women by women (sometimes themselves) in this quasi-sexist manner as a political statement grows potentially more powerful as it approaches actual exploitation but then, within an ace of it, collapses into ambiguity and confusion. The more attractive the women, the higher the risk, since the more closely they approach conventional stereotypes in the first place.”40 The work of artists such as Wilke, and Schneeman, and Helen Chadwick later on, provides a necessary challenge to the “anti-pleasure rhetoric” of feminist critics such as Pollock, Mulvey and Mary Kelly of female genital imagery. Such work, according to them, was not “sufficiently radical” to overthrow the Western patriarchal claim to women as bodies and objects. From their viewpoint, in the words of Catherine Harper, the “sexual objectification of women was considered irreclaimable from men and impossible to neutralise through feminist imagery of the female body.”41 As Kuhn points out, in reading photographs, the spectator’s act of looking is crucial, as this is the instance where meaning is finally produced: 42 “The spectator looks at the photograph, and the look of the camera is completed by the look of the spectator: the photograph says that these two looks are one and the same.”43 The importance of the spectator in the production of meaning for the artwork, as also argued by Brecht, disturbs the conventional artist/viewer power relationship. No longer is the spectator perceived as a passive receiver of a representation, but is to be included in the process of producing and participating in the work in order to complete it.44 Pollock argues that, as an active producer of meaning, the viewer draws on the social, economic, and ideological conditions of his or her life to construct a reading of the work that is meaningful.45 The spectator needs to ask oneself what knowledge one needs to bring to the artwork in order to share in its productivity.46 The focus is no longer strictly on the artwork as an object that creates and carries meaning in and of itself, but to the wider context and ‘framing’ of the consumption and production of the object.47 The spectator is then implicated in the categories and classifications he or she chooses to impose on the image, which although the spectator is free to re-assess or modify, as Mary Douglas notes, “the greatest comfort comes with those classifications that ‘make sense’ and do not challenge our worldview.”48 Viewers, as part of their interpretative strategy, use frames that “create” a dominant reading of the text, and certain texts are evaluated in certain ways because viewers have been taught to recognise their context, their “frame.”49 In the study conducted by Eck of the contextual “frames” used to interpret nude images, a significant number of her respondents noted “the importance of the photographic medium that leaves the image subject to less cultural work […] photography in the second case is a signifier of context.”50 As even Pollock argues, it is imperative for the audience to become critical participants in the production of new meanings, and not to remain conditioned to the “passive pleasures of aesthetic consumption.”51 Judith Williamson, in her analysis of Cindy Sherman’s “Film Stills” and “Untitled” series (Fig. 3 and Fig. 4), presents a clear example of the spectator’s role in constructing the meaning of a work. The tension and sharpness in Sherman’s work is created by her leading the viewer to construct an identity, within each image, rather than deconstructing an illusion.52 As Judith Williamson explains of Sherman’s series: “Because the viewer is forced into complicity with the way these ‘women’ are constructed: you recognise the styles, the ‘films’, the ‘stars’, and at that moment when you recognise the picture, your reading is the picture.

In a way, ‘it’ is innocent you are guilty, you supply the femininity simply through social and cultural knowledge.”53

John Pultz argues, a female artist can use “feminine” accoutrements to infinitely alter her appearance, thereby allowing her to hide behind a masquerade that deflects and inverts the power relationship of the “male gaze” by constructing, through these alterations, a simulacrum, an artificial other.56 Looking again at the work of Sherman, as interpreted by Williamson, presents another example of how performance of the masquerade in photography can allow the female artist to reclaim control of her representation. In her series of images of different ‘femininities’, each meant to be a different woman, Sherman actually shows that anyone can ‘be’ all of them, and none.57 “The fact that it is Sherman performing each time is precisely what undermines the idea that any one image is ‘her’.”58 The women in such representations are constructed; furthermore as Pultz points out, images that are staged are a reminder that “the sentiments they express are constructed and created, not natural or intrinsic.”59 Parker and Pollock argue that meanings are dependent on the relationships between single images and the context of the total cultural environment of images and social belief systems, “between what is included in one particular image and all that is omitted.”60 When constructing a reading of the photographic nude, Bernard Noël notes that it is “the image that makes the body.”61 He writes: “Images trick and reassure us by drawing on reality, and while they pretend to reproduce it, they conceal within it things that remain connected to language and not to reality.”62 As makers of visual imagery that use the nude female body, the danger of our intentions being misunderstood is ever present. Such images, particularly when they are photographs, are easily assimilated within the dominant culture of representations. What has to be taken into consideration, however, is that it is this very cultural and social context that is responsible for imposing certain “accepted” frames and readings onto visual imagery. Although the responsibility lies in part with female artists to construct images that challenge conventional interpretations, it is also the responsibility of the spectator to become contextually aware of historical, social, and cultural references in order for them to be active participants in producing new meanings and new contexts for works that represent female bodies. Without the audience, the dialogue that feminist art seeks to instigate is incomplete.

Figure 1.

Albrecht Dürer 1525 Draughtsman Drawing a Recumbent Woman.

Figure 2.

Carolee Schneeman 1975 Interior Scroll.

Figure 3.

Cindy Sherman 1979 “Untitled Film Still #27”.

Figure 5.

Katharina Sieverding 1988 “Die Sonne und mitternacht schauen (To look at the sun at midnight)”.

Figure 6.

Hannah Wilke 1974-1982 S.O.S. Stratification Object Series.

By having the audience supply the femininity ‘behind’ the photographs, through this process of recognition, Sherman clearly demonstrates how the power of an ideology works as Williamson describes; “the moment we recognise a ‘character’, it is as if she must already exist.”54 I will briefly discuss the “masquerade” of femininity here, specifically in its application to photography, as the topic itself warrants a deeper analysis than this paper can provide. Masquerade can effectively serve to parody the narcissism attributed to women and to subvert the “male gaze” by consciously using or over-using feminine props in staged photographs to undermine conventional representations of femininity. In her work “Die Sonne und mitternacht schauen (To look at the sun at midnight)” (1988) (Fig. 5), Katharina Sieverding photographed her own heavily made-up face and thereby exaggerated the artificial, mask-like effect that such a construction gives the face. In her S.O.S. Stratification Object Series (1974-1982) (Fig. 6), Wilke photographed the process of covering her body in chewing gum moulded into vagina-shapes in order to give a physical and visual form to the psychological fetishization of the female body and as a process of masquerade to escape male scrutiny.55 As 74 RICHMOND UNIVERSITY MAGAZINE | APRIL 2014

Figure 4.

Cindy Sherman 1975 “Untitled C”.

Endnotes: 1. John Berger, Ways of Seeing (London: Penguin Group, 1973), 47.

2. Ibid.

3. Laura Mulvey, “Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema,” In Film Theory and Criticism: Introductory Readings, eds. Leo Brady and Marshall Cohen (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 835 4. Mulvey, “Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema,” 837.

5. Linda Nochlin, “Eroticism and Female Imagery in Nineteenth-Century Art,” In Woman as Sex Object, Studies in Erotic Art 1730-1970, ed. Thomas B. Hess and Linda Nochlin (London: Allen Lane, 1973), 15.

6. Gill Saunders. The Nude: a new perspective (London: Herbert Press, 1989), 22.

7. Mulvey, “Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema,” 843.

8. Beth A. Eck, “Men Are Much Harder: Gendered Viewing of Nude Images,” Gender and Society17(5) (2003): 693, accessed January 6, 2013, http://www.jstor.org/ stable/3594705.

9. Lisa Tickner, “The Body Politic: Female Sexuality and Women Artists Since 1970,” Art History, 1(2) (1978): 247, accessed January 6, 2013, http://faculty.winthrop.edu/ stockk/Contemporary%20Art/tickner%20female%20sexuality.pdf.

10. Tickner, “The Body Politic,” 244.

11. Eck, “Men Are Much Harder,” 693.

12. Annette Kuhn, “Lawless Seeing,” In Power of the Image: Essays on Representation and Sexuality (London: Routledge, 1985), 31.

13. Carol Ockman, “Introduction,” In Ingres’s Eroticized Bodies: Retracing the Serpentine Line (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1995), 5.

14. Ockman, “Introduction,” 5.

15. Ibid.

16. Ibid.

17. Tickner, “The Body Politic,” 238.

18. Ibid.

19. Ibid., 242.

20. See Griselda Pollock, “Screening the seventies: sexuality and representation in feminist practice—a Brechtian perspective.” In Vision and Difference: femininity, feminism and the histories of art, (London: Routledge, 2003), 165.

21. Bertolt Brecht, “Popularity and Realism, “ In Modern Art and Modernism: A Critical Anthology, ed. Francis Frascina and Charles Harrison (New York: Westview Press, 1982), 229.

22. Martha Rosler, “Well ‘is’ the Personal Political,” In Feminism Art Theory: an anthology, 1968-2000, ed. Hilary Robinson (Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers, 2001), 96.

23. Tickner, “The Body Politic,” 245.

24. Hilary Robinson, “Reframing Women,” In Feminism Art Theory: an anthology, 19682000, ed. Hilary Robinson (Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers, 2001), 538.

25. Susan Robin Suleiman, “(Re)Writing the Body: The Politics and Poetics of Female Eroticism,” In The Female Body in Western Culture: contemporary perspectives, ed. Susan Robin Suleiman (London and Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1986), 11.

26. Rozsika Parker and Griselda Pollock, “Section I: Images and Signs, Introduction,” In Framing Feminism: Art and the Women’s Movement 1970-1985, ed. Rozsika Parker and Griselda Pollock (London: HarperCollins Publishers, 1987), 126.

27. Parker and Pollock, “Section I: Images and Signs, Introduction,” 126.

28.

Donna Haraway, “Contested Bodies,” Gender Expertise (1987): 72, quoted in Rosemary Betterton, “An Intimate Distance: Women, artists and the body,” In An Intimate Distance: Women, Artists and the Body, (London: Routledge, 1996), 10-11.

29. See Parker and Pollock, “Section I: Images and Signs, Introduction,” 125; Griselda Pollock, “Theory and pleasure,” In Framing Feminism: Art and the Women’s Movement 1970-1985, ed. Rozsika Parker and Griselda Pollock (London: HarperCollins Publishers, 1987), 245.

30. Pollock, “Screening the seventies,” 175.

31. See John Pultz, “Introduction: The Body in Photography,” In Photography and the Body (London: The Orion Publishing Group, 1995): 9-10.

32. Kuhn, “Lawless Seeing,” 19, 26.

33. Kuhn, “Lawless Seeing,” 27.

34. Ibid.

35. Pollock, “Screening the seventies,” 174.

36. Tickner, “The Body Politic,” 246.

37.

Joanna Frueh, “Feminism,” In Feminism Art Theory: an anthology, 1968-2000 (Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers, 2001), 579.

38. Ibid.

39. Carolee Schneeman quoted in: Tickner, “The Body Politic”, 246.

40. Tickner, “The Body Politic”, 246.

41. Catherine Harper, “Stewing in Her Own Juices: The Essential and Desirous Vagina (Judy Chicago and Helen Chadwick)” (master’s thesis, Goldsmiths College, University of London, 1999).

42. Kuhn, “Lawless Seeing,” 27.

43. Ibid.

44. See Stephen Heath, “Lessons from Brecht,” Screen 15, no.2 (1974): 111-112 45. Pollock, “Screening the seventies,” 182-3.

46. Ibid., 183.

47. Robinson, “Reframing Women,” 538.

48.

Mary Douglas quoted in: Beth A. Eck. “Nudity and Framing: Classifying Art, Pornography, Information, and Ambiguity,” Sociological Forum 16, no. 4 (December 2001): 606, Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost (accessed April 2, 2013).

49. Eck, “Nudity and Framing,” 609-610.

50. Ibid., 616.

51. Pollock, “Theory and pleasure,” 247.

52. Judith Williamson, “Images of ‘woman’—the photographs of Cindy Sherman,” Screen 24, no.6 (1983): 102.

53. Williamson, “Images of ‘woman’,” 103.

54. Ibid.

55. See John Pultz, “Feminist Politics of Performance and Body Art,” in Photography and the Body (London: The Orion Publishing Group, 1995), 129-133.

56.

John Pultz, “Masquerade,” in Photography and the Body (London: The Orion Publishing Group, 1995), 77-78.

57. Williamson, “Images of ‘woman’,” 105.

58. Ibid.

59. John Pultz, Photography and the Body (London: The Orion Publishing Group, 1995), 109.

60. Parker and Pollock, “Section I,” 125.

61. Bernard, Noël,”The Eye’s Touch,” in The Nude (London: Thames and Hudson, Ltd., 1990), 5.

62. Ibid.

List of Figures: 1. Albrecht Dürer 1525 Draughtsman Drawing a Recumbent Woman. 8 x 22 cm. Woodcut.

Graphische Sammlung Albertina, Vienna. http://www.wga.hu/frames-e.html?/html/d/ durer/2/12/9_1528/5draught.html 2. Carolee Schneeman 1975 Interior Scroll. http://classconnection. s3.amazonaws.com/368/flashcards/402368/jpg/schneeman_interior_scroll_ doc_19751317611105783.jpg 3. Cindy Sherman 1979, reprinted 1998 “Untitled Film Still #27”. 975 x 683 mm.

Photograph, gelatin silver print on paper. Tate, London. https://www.tate.org.uk/art/ artworks/sherman-untitled-film-still-27-p11517 4. Cindy Sherman 1975 “Untitled C”. 418 x 283 mm. Photograph, gelatin silver print on paper. Tate, London. https://www.tate.org.uk/art/artworks/sherman-untitled-c-p11439 5. Katharina Sieverding 1988 Die Sonne und mitternacht schauen (To look at the sun at midnight). 149 5/8 x 241 1/8 in. C-print, acrylic, steel. http://momaps1.org/ exhibitions/view/106 6. Hannah Wilke 1974-1982 S.O.S. Stratification Object Series. 10 Photographs, silver gelatin prints and 15 chewing gum sculptures mounted on board. Museum of Modern Art, New York. http://www.hannahwilke.com/id6.html

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Identifying the Body Photographed by Christopher Iafelice

â&#x20AC;&#x153;Identifying the Bodyâ&#x20AC;? is a group of photographs making up one set from a more expansive series of images that will showcase a diversity of human figures.

Exploring the body through light allows me to examine the various shapes and tones that are produced by it. The purpose behind the extended series of photographs will be to demonstrate the notion that the human body can function as a work of art, regardless of size or shape.

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New Shops, Old Clothes Written and photographed by Moira Whalen The once humble charity shop has become an economic force to be reckoned with. In the UK, there are more charity shops, making more money and employing more people, than ever before. The clientele, along with the merchandise, has expanded and diversified since the economic crisis: all signs point towards a renaissance of the charity shop.Moira Whalen investigates this “new charity shop” model.

UK stood empty, but charity shops continued opening at the same rate. For some property owners who fell victim to the global economic crisis of 2008 and its after-effects, charity shops were their ticket out of financial difficulties.

It was cheaper for property owners to rent to charity shops than to pay taxes on empty properties. The charity shops snapped up the deals, and a rvolution began. “I’m not sure if it was cool to shop at charity shops first, so the shops filled the demand, or if the shops were already there and we decided they were cool,” said Steph Hickling.

“I love it!” Several years on from its refurbishment, the bright colors and open spaces of the Kentish Town Road Age UK still make manager Jean Mendez break out in a broad smile. “It looks so nice, and it makes people come shop. Some of the old customers say it’s ‘too posh,’ and they want to know why we spent so much money on decorations, but you wouldn’t believe how many more people come in now.”

Ms. Hickling, an enthusiastic charity shopper, said that either way, she is glad of the shops. “I remember how charity shops used to be, and those were definitely not cool. I like the new look much more,” she said.

Mr. Mendez is just one of the thousands of managers who have seen profits soar after refurbishing their charity shops. For even as charity shops moved onto the high street, their reputation preceded them. It wasn’t cool or trendy to shop at an ‘actual’ charity shop, where the window displays were piled with junk and it was impossible to find anything to buy. When shops looked like that, they were still the sole territory of OAPs and students on a shoestring budget. But when faced with increasing competition from other charity shops on the high street, the race began to attract customers by giving charity shops a facelift.

Charity shops everywhere are changing. They’re trying to get out of that ‘charity shop’ feel,” said Tanisha Thomas. Laughing, she continued, “I know I wouldn’t want to come in here if it looked like a charity shop or smelled like one.”

Ms. Thomas, 26, is the manager of the World’s End Trinity Hospice. She has been working for the charity around London for the last two years, and has seen significant changes in both the clientele and the volunteers of charity shops. “The changes they’re making to attract younger customers, the same changes are attracting younger staff,” said Ms. Thomas. “You wouldn’t get them working there if it looked like a charity shop.”

The refurbishments worked, drawing in customers who wouldn’t have considered shopping there before.

“I wouldn’t ever have gone into a charity shop if it didn’t look like this,” said Marianna Contu, 27, as she lingered over the “designer rail” of the World’s End Trinity Hospice. “Now, I don’t think it’s a big deal to tell my friends that I bought something at a charity shop.

Charity shop employees and volunteers tend not to fit a specific demographic, but the refurbishments have attracted a surprising amount of young staffers. Victor Zighera, of the World’s End Oxfam, is just 19. He came to London to improve his English, and decided that a charity shop would be the most rewarding place to do so. “I like what the charity stands for, and I also like the day to day in the shop. There are lots of regular customers, lots of people who are really in need, and it’s interesting to see everyone mix,” he said.

It makes perfect economic sense to cater to Ms. Contu and new customers like her. They can afford to pay more for designer items, and they will. More money paid to the charity shop means more for the charity. But there is a clear loser in the move towards a wealthier charity shopper, and that is the shopper who can’t afford to be priced out.

Dr. Michelle Cohen is a longtime shopper at the Kentish Town Age UK. An avid buyer of secondhand books, she still remembers her annoyance when their price was raised from 87p to £1.49. “I bought far fewer books after they raised the prices. Charity shops are getting too political; they’re no longer supporting the locals.”

The Fulham Road Trinity Hospice, two views

Dr. Cohen visits Age UK every Saturday as part of her “local rounds.” She believes that charity shops perform an important service for the community, keeping the elderly involved and making the community feel connected. The refurbishments and ensuing rise in prices may have made the charity more money, but they’ve done so at the expense of the local community, she believes.

“Now, a sale in M&S is cheaper than something at Oxfam. They’re losing their community,” said Dr. Cohen.

It is a fairly quiet open secret that the UK government gives charity shops an 80% break on property rental rates. Charity shops are also exempt from corporation tax, and from imposing the VAT. These discounts are contingent on the shops selling secondhand items, and on their status as registered charities.

Every year, about £300 million is donated to charity by charity shops across the United Kingdom. This £300 million, coming from over 10,000 shops around the country, brings in nearly 20% of the UK’s total yearly charity income.

Around 1,400 charity shops opened between 2008 and 2011, during the depths of the recession. By 2011, one in every seven high street shops in the 80 RICHMOND UNIVERSITY MAGAZINE | APRIL 2014

Emma Vinton is the manager of another Trinity Hospice. Ms. Vinton, 25, came from a background in sales before she started at the Fulham Road Trinity Hospice two years ago. Ms. Vinton thinks charity shops are moving in a direction that is “more accessible to young people,” and cited a desire to be involved in a sector of retail that was still evolving as a factor in her move to the Trinity Hospice.

The same recession which mushroomed the number of charity shops in the UK has supplied it with a steady workforce. Though both are keen supporters of their charity’s goals and ethical tenets, neither Ms. Thomas nor Ms. Vinton chose their career at Trinity Hospice for purely charitable reasons.

Ms. Thomas worked for Debenhams before moving to Trinity Hospice. She left that company because she felt there weren’t enough opportunities for career advancement. “I was in my early twenties, and I already felt like I was coming up against a wall in my career. There were just too many people trying to move up the ladder, and I couldn’t bide my time as a shop girl for who knows how long,” she said. Ms. Thomas has been managing this branch of the Trinity Hospice for four months now, a position she achieved after two years with the company.

Jake Pritchard, 21, was a deputy manager at the Richmond Oxfam from 2011 to 2012. Mr. Pritchard had no experience in retail before he began working at the charity, and said that his top motivation for taking the job was his enthusiasm about the charity. “It’s an organization I’d always really wanted to work for, because I knew and admired their goals,” said Mr. Pritchard.

Anna Holiday, manager of the Fulham Road Fara, shows off the wares at the store

Mr. Pritchard reported that during his time at the charity, several teenagers were volunteering because they liked the charity, while others simply wanted retail experience. “Older people are able to commit more time, which I think is a big part of the reason why there are so many of them. But younger people do want to contribute,” Mr. Pritchard said, “And since they can’t always find paying jobs, Oxfam and other charity shops are great stepping stones to that end goal.”

The combination of convenience and charitable thought applies not just for volunteers, but for the customers as well. “I love shopping at charity shops,” said Ms. Hickling as she picked through the racks in the Chelsea Oxfam. “Not the nasty ones, where you can’t see the clothes,” she quickly added.

Ms. Hickling’s favorite charity shop is a Mind close to her home in West Brompton, “for three reasons. It has really nice clothes, it’s quite cheap, and I like the charity.

It’s a cause which is important to me, so I’m glad that’s what my money is going towards.” Ms. Hickling, 19, said that many of her friends are similarly inclined to consider where their money goes once it’s spent at the charity.

The Chelsea Oxfam Boutique lies just off the King’s Road, on a quiet side street leading to the Prince Albert Bridge and the Thames. From the outside, it looks nothing like a charity shop. Oxfam’s classic bright green and white lettering is forgone in favor of a muted black, while the shop moves away from its parent branch even further indoors.

“Nothing sells for less than £10,” said Maureen Corr, who has been volunteering at the Chelsea Oxfam Boutique since its opening in 1997. And the shop really does resemble a boutique more than anything else, with dim lighting, artistic displays, and gorgeous clothing. Still, there are like-new coats from Zara and Reiss for just £20, while tops which toe the line between trendy and posh sell for just £15. Boutique though it may be, this Oxfam remains firmly a charity shop.

The employees at the Chelsea Oxfam Boutique maintain that their shop competes against traditional high street shops rather than other charity shops.

“There’s so much competition on the high street, and we’ve got to keep up,” said Mrs. Corr, adding, “We’ve brought charity shopping into the 21st century by selling upmarket clothing.”

The Chelsea Oxfam Boutique was the first of its kind when it opened in 1997. Whether by design or coincidence, it appears Mrs. Corr and her fellow volunteers have indeed brought charity shops into the new millennium. Besides Oxfam’s boutiques, the charity has diversified into specialized stores like Oxfam Bookshops and Oxfam Furniture. Fara, too, has a book offshoot, as well as Fara Kids and Baby, and Fara Retromania.

“They want them all boutiquey,” said Ms. Venton of the developments in the charity shop sector. The specialization of charity shops has indeed made them more profitable. But as they fragment the market, they threaten to move towards an entirely new business model.

Save the Children may be on the path to “professionalizing” charity shops to a new level. Perhaps the most influential person in the rise of these new charity shops, at least in the eyes of the British media, is Mary Portas. Ms. Portas is a popular television personality with expertise in business, retail, and interior design. The self-styled “Queen of Shops,” used her experience in the industry to undertake a government-funded review of the British high street in 2011.

What she found was contrary to the moans of the public who complained that small businesses were being shut out by charity shops, leading to the death of the high street. In the face of these doom and gloom headlines, Ms. Portas heaped praise on charity shops, saying they had the ability to revitalize the high street.

There are just three Oxfam Boutiques in London, but they, along with the other “boutique” quality goods sold by Oxfam online, make more money for the charity than any of its shops on the high street. The move to boutiques is proof of the power of “cheapskating,” the term used when people who could easily afford to pay more for clothes prefer to shop down.

“If you create a charity shop that is a beautiful, respectful place, people will give you great stuff and actually respect it in a better way, which in turn makes more money for charity,” said Ms. Portas last year on the Radio 4 Today program. Ms. Portas added that charity shops were a benefit for other businesses, as they drew shoppers to the high street.

“We’ve got a group that likes the type of thing we sell,” said Mrs. Corr. In contrast to the regulars of classic Oxfams, who sometimes come in every day, the boutique’s regulars reappear as the seasons change: “seasons” in the A/W sense. “We do get the most money from selling the designer clothing,” said Mary Saul Glynn, the manager of the boutique.

As an example of how charity shops could be “lovely” and inviting, Ms. Portas held up her own shops. There are now 13 Mary’s Living and Giving for Save the Children spread across London. Ms. Portas reported that her shops were the highest-earning branches of Save the Children, and credited her shop’s environments for that distinction.

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The Fulham Road Mind shop window display, highlighting available spring fashions

Mary’s Living and Giving shops are indeed unlike any other charity shop. In their fashionable sparseness and creative interior design, they surpass even the Oxfam Boutiques in intimidating poshness.

“I went in and I had to look around and make sure I was still in a charity shop,” laughed Coco, a volunteer at the Youth Development Summer Camp Project Charity Shop. “I bought a kilt for something ridiculous, maybe £40, because it really struck my fancy. But even as I was buying it, I was wondering why on Earth I was spending so much money in a charity shop,” Coco continued.

Ms. Portas makes a point of saying that her charity shops aren’t more expensive than others, but the prices beg to differ. In the Parsons Green location, there were several articles of clothing selling for over £80, while none could be found for under £20. Enormous ornamental fans on display in the front window were selling for about £50 apiece.

To their credit, Mary’s Living and Giving shops rely heavily on donations of new clothes from designers, which understandably would retail for more than run of the mill donations. “When I was shopping, I was the only one in there,” said Coco.

“I supposed if you only get a few customers every day, but they buy expensive things then you would turn a good profit. But where’s the fun in that?”

In gloriously chaotic contrast to Mary’s Living and Giving is the Youth Development Summer Camp Project Charity Shop.

In this area of London, it is unusual for a charity shop not to be surrounded by others of its ilk. The turn of the King’s Road is chockablock with them, while on a stretch of the Fulham Road, the walk between four different charity shops takes less than a minute. But the YDSCP is the only charity shop on the entire Fulham Palace Road.

Between a family-run artisan beer shop and an independent dog-grooming business, the sidewalk overflows with carseats, racks of clothes, puzzles, raincoats, and river waders. It is a classic charity shop, a jumble sale that’s been moved indoors and left to sit indefinitely. Hundreds of articles of clothing hang piecemeal in the shop, shoe racks abound, quaint cabinets are shoved with tchotchkes.

Barely clinging onto a rack near the entrance is a plaid skirt with a lined piece of yellow paper pinned onto it. “Nicole Farhi £8,” the paper reads. Just about nothing else in the shop is priced. “How much is this, darling?” asks a customer, seated on a stool in the middle of the room. “Fiver,” shouts back manager Veronica Gibson. “I’ll give you two for it,” shoots back Tasha from her stool.

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10 years ago, Mrs. Gibson was retired. She and her friends, “weren’t doing much of anything,” when a close friend in their group went blind. “She didn’t have anywhere to go all day, and I thought we should do something about it.” With no retail experience, Mrs. Gibson struck out to begin a charity shop.

The money raised by the Youth Development Summer Camp Program Charity Shop pays for disadvantaged local children to go to summer camp in America.

When Mrs. Gibson decided to open her shop, it was the charity’s only continuous source of income. Since then, a sister branch of the charity shop has opened in Hampton Hill, but the charity remains very small.

“We still rely entirely on donations,” said Mrs. Gibson, adding that during the charity’s most profitable years, they were able to send nine children to summer camp. Now, they manage just four.

“I’d never worked in a shop before. I came in not knowing anything, thinking we’d figure it out as we went along,” Mrs. Gibson said. “I’ve always thought the charity was a brilliant cause, and I’d be gutted if one day we’re not able to raise the funds to send the kids. But I think what the shop does for the community is just as important.”

As Mrs. Gibson spoke, it was through a constant stream of interruptions. She had just returned to work that day from a hip replacement, and every customer who walked in and saw her screamed, immediately running to embrace her. “It’s like a social club,” said Mrs. Gibson with a broad smile, patting the back of the woman who was hugging her.

“I make them tea and that, and sandwiches,” Mrs. Gibson continued. “They’ll just pop in every day, get some tea, kill some time.” Tea was indeed coming out of the back room, and chairs were being pulled from the display in front of the shop to let the regulars sit. Everyone was chatting animatedly, and it appeared that no one bought a thing.

Mrs. Gibson was unfazed to report that the shop had brought in £10 so far that day, and pleased that the previous day had finished with £140. “We’re scraping by. When the kiddies come in, I just give away the toys. Might make £2 on them, or the kids could be happy for free.”

As Mrs. Gibson talked finances, the regulars began to pipe up. “This is the cheapest shop in London,” said Tasha, adding, “It’s how charity shops used to be.” A crowd of older men and women nodded their heads from their posts around the cramped shop, chiming in their agreement. “People on no wages can shop here. People who are on pensions, who have nowhere else to go and

no one else to talk to, they can come here,” Mrs. Gibson said, to a chorus of agreement from her regulars.

On their first day in business, the YDSCP made £2. “I didn’t know anything,” Mrs. Gibson laughs. Although her business acumen has improved, she’s hardly relaxing. “I hope the shop is here for a while, but nothing lasts,” she said with an air of sadness.

The community of the YDSCP is its greatest asset. “There’s one regular who’ll say to me, ‘How much do you need, Veronica?’ And when I say that the shop needs £100, he’ll give me £100,” said Mrs. Gibson.

are intimately familiar with the daily operations of their shops, able to recite the top-selling sector of the day to the percentage, (“20% of our daily turnover is books,” reported Mr. Zighera in the Chelsea Oxfam) the cheerful volunteering of information ends when the topic turns to money spent rather than earned.

“I mean, I could tell you, but I can’t, if you see what I mean,” said Anna Holliday, assistant manager of the Fulham Road Fara. “All of the relevant figures are online, or you can try ringing the head office.” Mrs. Holliday plucked half a dozen leaflets from the rack next to the till and spread them on the counter with a smile.

A longtime volunteer at the shop, who goes by Coco, agreed. “Working with the community, that’s how we’ve lasted so long. And that’s why everyone wants to be here, really,” said Coco, minutes after an employee from the Tesco a few doors down has popped out the door, paying up for the dress she had on credit.

As they have grown into a multimillion pound industry, charity shops have lost much of their neighborly familiarity. Figures abound on the internet of the salaries of corporate honchos in the head offices, with charities taken to task for every cent not spent on their mission. Age UK and the British Heart Foundation have recently received negative press about the amount of money spent on “charitable activities:” both are under 50% of their annual income.

The YDSCP has a much closer relationship with its neighbors than other charity shops seems to. “It’s every shop for itself,” said Tanisha Thomas of the World’s End Trinity Hospice when asked if her shop ever worked together with the three other charity shops on the block.

The head offices of Oxfam, Trinity Hospice, and Save the Children were routinely unreachable for comment, while volunteers at the Parsons Green Mary’s Living and Giving claimed they were unable to speak to the press. Advised to leave contact details, no calls were ever returned.

“It’s like our own little village here,” Coco said. “Everyone’s so lovely on this road.

I got my nickname from the girls next door at Bishop’s Bark a few years ago, and it’s just stuck.” She continued, “A place like this, you either love it or hate it. Some people walk in and turn right back around, but for the ones who love it . . .” She trailed off, a smile lighting her face as she gazed around the tiny, buzzing shop.

Across the UK, charity shops employ 17,000 people. 180,000 volunteer at charity shops, with the average shop taking in £400 to £600 every week in profits. The number of charity shops continue to rise every year, and these figures are only expected to increase.

Without an enormous multinational corporation to back it, the YDSCP is struggling to make ends meet. They have no advertising, no online presence, they are not media-savvy. But for the locals, this may not matter. “They give underprivileged children a chance they would not have had, and I think that’s really admirable,” said customer Ruth Henry, 19. “They’re not as big as the other charities, but there are kids in London who need help, too. And you never see this sort of community in the other charity shops,” Ms. Henry continued.

Emma Vinton, who has been managing the Fulham Road Trinity Hospice for two years, was unable to comment on the costs of rent and utilities for her shop. “I truly don’t have any idea. Our guy in head office deals with all of that,” said Ms. Vinton, 25, pulling a face as she tagged clothing in the back room of the shop.

The new “professionalization” and boutique style of charity shops is increasing donations, but it may not be long before charity shops run themselves out of business by fragmenting their customers. With thousands of shops to run across the country, the bigger charities may be spreading themselves too thin to keep up with the costs of operation. Meanwhile, the rush to keep up with this style of charity is costing the smaller shops dearly.

Though it is in every charity’s best interest to raise funds for their organization, they cannot forget that it is the people at home who keep them in business.

“Everyone knows everyone here,” said Veronica Gibson. “It’s simple.” Smiling as her regulars move around her in the Youth Development Summer Camp Project Charity Shop, it does seem that simple.

The staff at charity shops, from volunteers to paid managers, are surprisingly tight-lipped when discussing the particulars of running the stores. Though they

The Fulham Road Trinity Hospice, thinking pink (and blue, and white and green)

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STUDENT STYLE AT THE KENSINGTON CAMPUS Written by Dana Lynn Craft Photographed by Hana Noguchi

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s a University student it is so easy to simply roll out of bed, throw on a sweatshirt and leggings, put your hair up in a pony tail and roll up to class, and truth be told I am guilty of this on more than a few occasions. I will confess that after an all nighter of research and essays the last thing on my mind is trying to look presentable, but living in the centre of London, one of the fashion capitals of the world, making an effort matters.

At Richmond’s Kensington Campus, students pride themselves on keeping up to date with fashion. Stepping on to campus for the first time as a freshman I was mesmerized by the sense of style that can be seen on campus.

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Richmond students come from all corners the world, bringing a diverse mix of styles and inspiration to their unique wardrobes.

The term “dress to impress” doesn’t even begin to sum up student style on campus. Chic outfits can be found everywhere from the cafeteria to the library. A bit of everything can be found from the classic Burberry trench coat to urban vintage pieces, which makes for a unique scene.

As Kensington is in the heart of the city it makes for a better fashion environment, the campus is a part of the community. The university is only a hop away from High Street Kensington that is renowned as one of the most fashionable parts of London.

Strolling down the streets, you’ll run into people from all walks of life and this is reflected in their trendy outfits.

London allows for you to be bold and creative in what you wear.

A creative paradise, and Richmond’s campus is no exception.

Clothing choice allows for individuality and in some sense helps create a form of self-identity. Living in the city really does inspire you and change how you pick your clothing choices. Dressing up begins to become a common part of the daily routine; my sweatpants and leggings definitely don’t make the cut anymore.

An essential part of any London fashionista’s lifestyle is exploring the fashion world from the chic stroll down Old Bond Street to

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STYLE IS DEFINITELY AN IMPORTANT ASPECT OF ONE’S IDENTITY AT UNIVERSITY. I THINK IT IS IMPORTANT TO MAKE AN EFFORT & TO LOOK PRESENTABLE. 1. Marie Bitterlich 2. Nia Cole 3. Ruby Sinclair 4. Erin Annett 5. Kristijan Kristic & Ugo Satto 6. Luisa Fernanda 7. Felicia Weeren 8. Luigi Cartelo 9. Florian Schwaiger

4 perusing the funky charity shops of Shoreditch London truly has it all. Discovering your personal style in the city as a student shapes that you are and how you present yourself to the world. Kensingtonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s student style is a direct reflection of this personal creativity. I have definitely adapted to the city and my personal sense of style is constantly changing as a result of being around such a mixture of fashion.

All in all Richmond is melting pot of all imaginable clothing. It is a place to be inspired and pick up trends with a hint of urban edge. So get out there, be bold and take in the fashion extravaganza that the city of London has to offer.

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London Life Designed by a Fashion Student Photographed and Interviewed by Florian Schwaiger Tell me about yourself. What made you want to leave your home country of Austria and move to London?

After graduating from high school, I took a year off to clear my mind and travel a bit. One of those destinations was London, where my best friend was going to enroll in university. On one of our exploration trips through East London, we came across a crowd of extraordinarily weird looking young people, dressed up from head to toe. I was intrigued, so we went inside the building to find out what that freak show was about. It turned out to be Istituto Marangoni, an Italian fashion and design school. At that point in my life, all I knew was that I wanted to leave Austria, to start over. I tend to do so once every two or three years, partly out of curiosity and mostly because I have a deep and endless longing for challenges and adventures. When I applied to Istituto Marangoni, I had absolutely no idea which skills a design job requires. Therefore, I was rather shocked by the first sight of my timetable, which included subjects such as pattern cutting or fashion marketing. I expected to be drawing fashion illustrations for the following three years, and to be honest I was never particularly interested in fashion itself. It certainly was a battle and I’m proud to have nearly finished and won it.

You are wearing your own creations right now. Tell me about these pieces and their process of development Designing a whole collection is a long and nervewracking process. It starts with finding your socalled inspiration at the flick of a switch and goes on to researching and exploring your chosen “theme”. Next you develop your creative concept in your visual research book, in which you further develop colour pallets, key shapes, style, mood, prints, embroidery, fabric manipulations and other details that embody your collection. While finishing the book, you start designing your sketches and working your first toiles.

Making the garments usually requires a lot of time since you have to change the patterns a few times on the way and sew the garments over and over again until they fit perfectly. Once you’ve achieved that, you can send your patterns and fabrics to a seamstress, who will then sew the garments for you.

In my case, I had to do it all by myself, which took me ages. Not only did I have to sew everything by myself, I also made my own fabric manipulations, which had to be very precise.

Where do you get your inspiration?

For me, inspiration has many sources. Two of them are research and trend forecasts. I try and identify peoples’ needs in one or two years’ time by researching the current market and evaluating future changes in various sectors, such as environment and technology. I ask myself: “What will have happened in two years?” I then imagine 86 RICHMOND UNIVERSITY MAGAZINE | APRIL 2014

myself in that changed and advanced future environment and find myself longing for something; and that something is usually the starting basis of my inspiration. Something that moves me and something I’m passionate about.

Most of the research for the book is visual. I use websites like Pinterest, online art galleries, WGSN, and, of course, online magazines, as well as printed ones. A lot of inspiration also comes from conversations with people I consider my “muses”.

Every creative journey I start emerges from a big chaos. It’s almost as if a disaster has to happen that leads to emotional breakdowns in order to deliver great work in the end. All in all, I believe that my success comes from my past suffering.

I personally love exploring spiritual themes. It’s like exploring the unexplored and gives me enough creative freedom to express myself and deliver my own ideas and theories. This collection, entitled “Prophetic Constellations,” originates from a fascination for traditional witchcraft. I looked into tarot card reading, palmistry, astrology and astronomy and tried to translate it into fashion.

Do you prefer sketching designs or actually constructing them?

I’ve always enjoyed drawing since I was a child, and I just don’t have enough patience for sewing.

Pattern cutting I find very interesting, but the whole practice is too mathematical for me and not creative enough. I definitely prefer designing, specifically drawing fashion illustrations. This is something I have considered doing in the future.

Tell me about your favourite fashion item in your closet.

One of my favourite fashion items is my old, oversized, vintage, flannel shirt I got three years ago from Blitz. It’s brown, red and yellow with an Aztec print on it. It’s super cozy and keeps me warm in cold England.

How would you describe your personal style? You seem to like the colour black.

You can’t go wrong with black! It’s timeless and sexy, plus easy to combine. As a fashion designer you observe so many trends moving way too fast and eventually end up feeling sick of it. I like colors on others and I love designing prints for others, but I don’t feel like walking around wearing a print that’s three seasons old. As I value quality, not quantity, I wouldn’t throw away that garment, follow the trends and buy another set every season. I aim to own fewer garments, with better quality. Black suits that mentality, plus it underlines my mysterious and dark side.

I personally love a combination of rock chick and gypsy, whatever that is. I also have a thing for exotic

garments, like Kimonos, and I like to style them in unconventional ways.

What are your favourite fashion brands?

The last few seasons I’ve been a fan of Balenciaga, Kenzo and Alexander Wang. Due to my increased fashion awareness, I can now appreciate their innovative designs. I also admire designers like Hussein Chalayan and Issey Miyake. I look at their work as complex pieces of art rather than fashion.

I really like your apartment here in Notting Hill. Do you enjoy living in this part of London?

I moved here in August 2011 and the first year was a bit of a struggle. Rushing from A to B, not knowing the infrastructure well enough was pretty exhausting for me. I also felt uncomfortable in East London, where I lived at the time. People were rushing and pushing. I love things to be aesthetically right, so East London’s chaotic architecture really hurt my eyes. When I moved to Notting Hill in my second year, I started feeling a sense of home. It’s more intimate; less public. I also spend a lot of time in Gloucestershire, where my boyfriend has a lovely country house. We go there in order to escape the weekend madness and load up on fresh air. Plus, it’s a very inspiring place to work and be creative.

I think, living in London offers a lot of opportunities that I wouldn’t have anywhere else. Therefore, I’m hesitant to leave. I am probably going to stay here for a while but I’m longing to move near the sea someday soon.

You are going to graduate this summer.

Have you though of what you would like to do after?

One thing I love about my life is that it’s so unexpected. I don’t plan too much because I like keeping my eyes open for interesting sidetracks. I never thought I’d be where I am now; and I find it exciting not to know what’s next. I just let it happen and see where life takes me.

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89

The Study Abroad Experience Written and photographed by Mignon Hemsley Upon arriving to London I had my fair share of imagining what life would soon be for the next 5 months. Would I like it? Would it rain too much? What are Londoner’s like? Am I going to adapt a newfound love for tea? These were questions that developed in my head months, weeks, and days before I was set on my Eurotrip. Although I still haven’t quite found a love for tea, I did indeed develop a special place in my heart for the City of London, my new home.

I arrived in London in early January in the midst of a one of the mildest winters the city has seen.

Temperatures ranged from the 40s-50s and despite the 100 days of snow the city was expecting, it managed to stay snow free and a majority of the days were sunny and clear. I was admitted into Richmond International American University on the Kensington Campus, which is located in one of the wealthiest neighborhoods in London. Lets just say I was being spoiled. I am taking enjoyable classes taught by some of the best professors in subjects that have fully kept me interested and has allowed me to explore a more creative side of myself.

Arriving in a new city is always intimidating. Arriving in a new city as a broke college student is something even more intimidating. Arriving to the United Kingdom as a broke college student and exchanging your dollars into pounds is the most intimidating. My long hours at Nandos back home couldn’t merely support my bucket list of things I had to do and see while here. Though, to my surprise there were many alternatives to spending loads of money while still having a great time. London has tons of free things to do! Yes I said free things. The city has over a dozen open parks where you can run, walk, skate, bike, picnic and chill located all around the city and many free events being advertised on websites such as TimeOut. This website is the “guide to the city bible” providing information on places to see, things to do, and anything you need to know about the city you are visiting. They are constantly updating information on affordable events going on throughout London keeping everyone abreast on all of the local activities.

From this publication I’ve found some of my favorite restaurants, shops, and my absolute favorite area in London, Shoreditch.

Laced with a mixture of strange, interesting, and outwardly beautifulness, Shoreditch has won my 90 RICHMOND UNIVERSITY MAGAZINE | APRIL 2014

heart as one of my favorite areas in the city. The area is literally swarmed with eccentric beings once criticized for their platform sneakers, tight jeans, and hipster ideals. Here they are celebrated.

The aroma of spray paint fill the air and the walls from local graffiti artist, and as the foreverevolving Shoreditch continues to evolve the restaurants, bars, and shops continue to pull in those interested in this lifestyle. Shoreditch became my second home, outside of Kensington,

“Traveling is a brutality. It forces you to trust strangers and to lose sight of all that familiar comfort of home and friends. You are constantly off balance. Nothing is yours except the essential things air, sleep, dreams, the sea, the sky all things tending towards the eternal or what we imagine of it.” as I was there almost every weekend snapping pictures of the people, art, and visiting the Brick Lane Market on Sundays. Comparing this area to the surrounding boroughs only sparks a deeper devotion to the Shoreditch neighborhood that keeps me coming back day after day. Camden, another interesting area, offers a totally different aura with punk rockers bathed in piercings and people practically begging you to visit their tattoo parlor for a tattoo or piercing. While exploring about a mile off the Camden Lock Market area I found myself at the London Zoo, which has been one of my most memorable experiences.

As many of my explorations have been, I spent a Sunday morning alone, just myself and the animals of the London Zoo (plus couldn’t find anyone as crazy to pay £20 for entry). The zoo had a wide variety of animals ranging from giraffes, birds, apes, lions, Komodo dragons, and flamingos, and though I stay loyal to the Washington DC National Zoo, seeing the animals here was refreshing and pleasant. Like Shoreditch, I quickly fell in love with the Camden area and was impressed by the distinctive look of the area

and the oddity of the people that spent most of their time there. The Camden Locke market also became one of my favorites because of the wide variety of market vendors, food stands, and bars to visit right on the canal.

When living in London the markets throughout the city become apart of the London experience. An alluring range of jewelry, pictures, clothes food, and artwork flood the streets on each of these markets, each providing something first-hand and unique.

Conquering these local markets sets you closer to the lifestyle of an official Londoner.

But before becoming an official Londoner there were many tourist sites I couldn’t let up; for example the London Eye, Tower of London, Tate Modern, and many more. I spent my first few weeks seeing the main attractions before I went off to see the rest of London and Europe as well. Now, almost 4 months in I have visited Spain, Netherlands, Scotland, and France, and still have Wales, Italy, and Germany to conquer in the coming months. These are all places I have once dreamed of visiting and for many back home only figments of their imagination to ever see.

I am so thankful to embark on these adventures.

Having the opportunity to study, travel, experience, network, and explore the world around me all became possible as a result of my taking the opportunity to study abroad. I was placed in a place full of similar minded people that also allowed me to develop in different ways. With so many driven and ambitious people surrounding me it was bound to rub off on me too.

Through this experience my horizons have been broadened and I find that I am more confident in myself with the things I have endured while on this journey. Many people plan, dream, and aspire to see the world and experience what it has to offer, but it takes a strong person to do that. Things are not always going to go your way and at times you wont be able to grasp the language, customs, and culture you are being exposed to. You’ll be so uncomfortable sometimes, and what I’ve learned from my study abroad experience is to be comfortable with being uncomfortable.

PLACEHOLDER TEXT FOR NOW

91

Wall Street to Master Chef

Interview by Karen Lippoldt Bobby Chinn (BA Business Administration and Economics 1986) is a popular culinary figure throughout Asia, both for his two highly-regarded restaurants in Vietnam in Hanoi and Saigon, and for the award-winning TV series World Café. Half Egyptian, half Chinese, born in New Zealand, educated mostly in England and California, Bobby Chinn graduated from Richmond and started out working on the floor of the New York Stock Exchange. He quickly realized that his ambitions were to lead him elsewhere. He lives most of the year in Vietnam and travels throughout Asia, cooking food that has been described by the Asian Wall Street Journal as ‘The best Californian cuisine outside of California’. In autumn 2013, Bobby will launch a new restaurant, The House of Ho, in Soho, London, showcasing a Vietnamese menu.

Why did you choose Richmond?

“I did a lot of my secondary education in England as well as a couple of years in the United States and I preferred to live in England. I needed an institution that was ideally based in London that had a large international student body as well as an American curriculum so I wouldn’t have to repeat 1.5 years of college in the USA. Richmond seemed like the best option especially knowing that I had friends and relatives that were also attending this fine institution.”

What was your first week like?

“Like most schools it was organized chaos, I wasn’t sure what I should major in, which classes to take, which members of faculty I should study under. I wasn’t sure of my accommodation and how to create a schedule that satisfied my educational needs with my social life. You create balance by the first year!”

What was life as a student like for you – inside and outside the classroom?

“I always found the life of a student challenging intellectually and socially. It was both some of the happiest moments in my life as well the most taxing.

Intellectually I do not believe I applied myself to the best of my abilities so I had a pretty good time. I was able to prove to some members of faculty that I was somewhat gifted when I applied myself, but I wasn’t really motivated by grades as much as intellectual recognition by my peers. Socially I was a little awkward due to my ethnicity. Being half Egyptian, half Chinese with an American accent made it a little different as I didn’t exactly fit into the holes. In those days, many students grouped together by their nationality or ethnicity. This left me and some others in a group of misfits to break down barriers and find our common interests rather than hanging with a particular group or clan. I found it pointless to be in an international school hanging out with one nationality. Transcending these barriers made for some of the best days of my life.”

Were there any academics or other members of staff who had a particular impact on you?

“Yes, there was a member of staff by the name of Richard Harrison who motivated and challenged me to create some of my best work.”

What were your highlights of your time at Richmond?

“Learning to liberate myself of the confines we create for ourselves, dreaming of contributing towards a more peaceful world with a group of friends that actually believe we could make a difference.”

Were there any lowlights too?

“Not really, that’s what old age is for!”

What are the most important things you’ve taken with you from Richmond?

“The people that you meet and the friends that you keep. Growing with them and keeping in touch is a hell of a lot easier now with social media etc than when I was in college. Regardless, the friends you keep is a good measure of character.

You can’t choose your family but you can choose your friends and they will prove very helpful and supportive later on in life.”

If you could do it all over again, what, if anything, would you do differently?

“I probably would have taken a part-time job pursuing my interest and dreams to gain insight, experience and getting a better sense of the value of money and a better sense of the work environment.”

How has your time at Richmond influenced your life and career? “I think it helped me develop my communication skills. I am not intimidated by the colour of a person’s skin, religious background or the passport that they hold. Richmond enriched me with the gift of finding my commonality over my differences.”

Do you ever come back to Richmond or keep in touch with other Richmond alumni?

“I walk by Richmond Kensington campus quite frequently just for old times’ sake.

I keep in touch with many of my friends from those days. What is really great is they are scattered all over the world in many different professions and catching up with them makes that visit even more special.”

What’s your advice to the current generation of Richmond students?

“It’s only a degree and millions of people get one each year. People do not judge you by the degree, but the content in your head - but more importantly, your ability to communicate with passion and belief. Learning to know who you really are and what you really want to do is what college is all about or should at least prepare you for. This is your moment to be free, so apply yourself and don’t be afraid to fall, you learn a lot more by your failures then by your triumphs. Have fun and remember, you only live once, so do it well and have no regrets.”

Your Richmond experience in three words?

“Priceless & timeless.”

Richmond’s Global Alumni Network Graduation from Richmond does not mark the end of our students’ relationship with the University.

Being a Richmond graduate is something special that connects current and former students throughout their lives.

Richmond alumni are innovators, leaders, entrepreneurs and influencers. We are proud of our alumni, their achievements, and the difference they make to society around the world.

12,000-strong, Richmond’s alumni network spans the globe and is an invaluable resource of contacts, talent and expertise. Richmond graduates automatically join this powerful network of support and advocacy – a life-long resource that alumni can use to build their careers and social contacts.The term ‘alumni’ comes from the Latin word alere – meaning to nourish.

The link with Richmond, the friendships students forge here, and the faculty and staff they meet will remain a nourishing presence long after they leave campus. The University’s programme of alumni services helps former students maintain these relationships and make new contacts to benefit their careers and social lives.

My Richmond Experience

Interview by Karen Lippoldt J. Marina Muhlfriedel (née Joanne M. Russo) Study Abroad 1972 Senior Copywriter & Producer Los Angeles, USA

Why did you choose Richmond?

“My first foray into college was a brief stint in rural Northern California and coming from Los Angeles, it wasn’t enough for me. It was the 70’s and the pervasive hippie and farmer dynamic just wasn’t compelling. I was a city girl craving adventure, culture and academic challenge. One night a roommate and I shared our mutual frustration and mused about going abroad. This was pre-Internet though and such information wasn’t a simple Google search away. The very next day however, we rather serendipitously spotted a flyer from a company in Connecticut that liaised with international colleges. We both applied and were accepted to several, but Richmond’s proximity to London clinched the deal for me. I had, since I was a child, dreamed of going there.”

What was your first week like?

“I inadvertently arrived a few days early and Richmond wasn’t yet open to students.

So, at 19, with no Trip Advisor to refer to - and unaccustomed to the British accent - I found meager accommodations in Earl’s Court and began exploring. The first day, I went to Biba, a trendy boutique I had read about and then to The Speakeasy, a hip nightclub where I met a couple of guys from a popular band at the time, Jethro Tull. I knew it was no longer a dream; I truly was in England!

The day I moved into Richmond College, I fell in love with the place. It was precisely what and where I wanted to be -- in a small drafty room across from a shadowy choir loft. It was odd being all the way in Surrey and forging friendships with Americans (at the time, primarily Americans went to Richmond). In many ways though, kids from Texas and New England were from environments that were much different than the one I had grown up in. All the same, we quickly became adventure partners. As I also recall, being a vegetarian wasn’t popular at the time in the UK and negotiating my diet was a bit tough until I discovered Ski yogurt, vegetable samosas and toasted cheese and tomato sandwiches!”

What was life as a student like for you – inside and outside the classroom?

“For the most part the professors were more respectful of students’ ideas and more serious than the ones at my first college. There was a formality to the tutor-student relationship. I liked how they demanded accountability and encouraged thoughtful dialogue. A few of my professors were quite quirky, which I found captivating.

I had never lived in cold weather or needed to rely on public transportation but soon learned to bundle up and love the Tube. Not yet being of drinking age in the States, it was fun to be able to go to the pubs for a pint.

Overall, I felt I embraced the world beyond Richmond College more than some of my fellow students who clung to their American friends. A classmate and I immersed ourselves in the incredible music scene, had English boyfriends, saw lots of rock concerts, met lots of bands, and worked at the Rainbow Theater in Finsbury Park. I also got a job as a “tea girl” at Jaeger in Richmond, which helped me get to know a lot of locals. “ Were there any academics or other members of staff who had a particular impact on you?

“Yes. I was an aspiring writer and there was a teacher named Kathryn (whose surname I unfortunately don’t recall). I remember meeting with her and she encouraged me to take bolder chances with my work to leap blindly into my passion, she may have said or at least that’s what I took from it and it stuck. On the other hand, a modern art teacher, Mr. Daly, and I were absolutely at odds and our argument continued by letter after I returned to the States. He did expose me to some very edgy Cork Street artists though, for which I’m grateful.”

What were your highlights of your time at Richmond?

“Travel was a big one. Skipping over to the continent (especially Spain) for weekends and trips throughout Britain were mind and life-expanding. Being so close to Richmond Park was really wonderful. When the weather was good I loved to walk there. Oh, and the markets -- Petticoat Lane, Camden and the rest provided incredible opportunities to hobnob with locals and discover odd and irresistible treasures.”

Were there any lowlights too?

“Toward the end of my stay I became quite ill and was sent to a hospital that would have been considered a relic of the 40s or 50s in the US. I had to bring sheets and towels from Richmond and as there was a shortage of beds I was put in a ward of women who had orthopedic issues, car accidents and such.

They would moan constantly and callout in pain for help and, with an awful fever, but still two workable legs, I kept getting up to fetch the nurses for them.

Good story fodder though.”

What are the most important things you’ve taken with you from Richmond?

“Being at Richmond gave me lifelong English roots for which I am forever grateful. I gained such an appreciation for history and art and perhaps, even more so, the courage and confidence to travel alone, knowing I can find my way and establish common ground wherever I venture. It was quite a gift.”

If you could do it all over again, what, if anything, would you do differently?

“Not leave.”

How has your time at Richmond influenced your life and career?

“Dare I count the ways? Throughout the decades, I have continued to travel to England and still have friends there. My writing and experience in the English music scene directly influenced my years of playing in bands and interviewing and writing articles about musicians and film – which in turn, led to my being in the film/advertising world and my career as a writer. The dots all connect.”

Do you ever come back to Richmond or keep in touch with other Richmond alumni?

“A close friend used to have a home in Twickenham and we would walk up to Richmond for a visit now and then, but she’s currently living in California, so not lately. And yes, I’m so glad to still be in contact with six of my Richmond classmates. We each pursued different professions but that shared early trajectory into adulthood remains a bond between us.”

What’s your advice to the current generation of Richmond students?

“Branch out and find the pulse of normalcy that Brits live. It will help you find the soul of the English experience.”

Your Richmond experience in three words?

“Inspiring. Paradigm-shifting. Dimensional.”

93

Is Martin Creed a Conceptual Artist?

Well, Yes… and No.

Martin Creed: What is the Point of it? The Hayward Gallery, 29 Jan. - 27 Apr. 2014 Written by Emma Picking

Although being puerile and playful, the Martin Creed retrospective at the Hayward Gallery also demonstrates the artist’s ingenuity and diversity.

Like emerging from a funfair of post-1960s contemporary artistic practice, you leave with your head spinning, more than a little bemused and uneasy, but still wearing an irrepressible grin.

From the monumental fluorescent tube-lighting sign, spelling out “Mothers” (Work No 1092, 2011), that just misses decapitating visitors on entry, to the interactive, claustrophobia inducing room half -filled with 7000 white balloons (Figure 1), you can’t help but feel that the artist is right behind you. It is as if Creed is watching you duck and gasp for air, for your expressions of shock and bafflement, but perhaps that’s because he is. Omnipresent from the smiling photographic self-portrait (Smiling, No.299, 2003), the raspberry blowing (Work No.401, 2006), the thumb print on Blu-tac (Work No 79, Some BluTack on a Wall, 1993) and with his piped laughter, reminiscent of what you might hear on a ghost train before a fake severed hand falls onto your lap, he even follows you into the toilets.

So, what kind of artist is Martin Creed? Not particularly fond of being categorised as a conceptual artist, many of the exhibits however would appear, on first viewing, to be created following that ethos. The art critic Adrian Hamilton writes, “Not that Martin Creed has ever accepted the notion that he is a conceptual artist as such.

“Expressionist” is the description he uses and places great emphasis on art as a matter of feeling”1. Yet, a work such as No. 88., A sheet of paper crumpled into a ball, 1995 (Figure 2) seems to be in part a reference to conceptual practice that began in the 1960s, which rejected the emotional, expressive work of the Abstract Expressionists. This work was often colourful, full of movement, used traditional materials, and the execution was dependent upon the individual artist. What developed was a valuing of cognition over emotion, an attempt to engage the viewers mind rather than the eye and a style that was “free from the dependence on the skill of the artist as a craftsman”2. Traditional artists’ materials were often rejected in favour of readymade objects, or as close as possible to no object at all, where only language and “the concept” remained.

Creed’s work No. 88, shares some of its aesthetic qualities (or lack thereof) with work from this movement. Contained within a clear Perspex box a humble crumpled ball of white paper is set in the centre of a white plinth, as if elevated in status.

It is colourless, static and in terms of formalist analysis there is little else to say, except that it is not crumpled randomly in a fit of frustration over a mistake made, it is an almost perfectly shaped ball.

The work is numbered and depersonalised, as if part of an anonymous catalogued collection, with brief, literal description. The artist makes no attempt to infer any other meaning to the work. Creed presents it as an artwork but at the same time, the viewer is reminded that it is “A sheet of paper crumpled into a ball”, causing a conflict between the pretention

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of trying to make it mean anything else, and the certainty that it must because it is a conceptual piece and that can’t just be it, can it?

And yet, somewhat unexpectedly, there is another dimension here, an instinctive, non-intellectual response. There is something strangely emotional and evocative about this piece, as shaped by the artist’s hand (we assume, although we don’t know this for certain). Placed centrally under its clear polished box, there is a sense of order, obsession and even loneliness; especially when surrounded by the colour, noise, and general sensory assault of the wider exhibition. This would seem diametrically opposed to the idea of the “death of the author”, an important principle central to conceptual practice that the other aspects of the work appear to adhere to3 . Creed’s work throughout the exhibition questions whether there can ever be a total lack of subjectivity and evident authorship. His work thus illustrates, retrospectively, the often complex dialogue and blurred boundaries that existed between one contemporary artistic movement and another in this period.

A work that is perhaps closer to the purity of the first conceptual artists’ ideology is Creed’s monochromatic framed piece of white A4 paper (Work No.158 2004) on which the words: “Something on the left, just as you comes in, not too high or low.” are simply typed in black. It is similar to the radical at the time, antagonistic work by Robert Rauchenburg, A portrait of Iris Clert (1961), a typed telegram which read: “This is a portrait of Iris Clert if I say it is.” Creed uses only language in this piece, and it is by numbering it as a “work ” and signing it, that it becomes art. Again, challenging the notion of what we would consider to be art, both artists are perhaps further critiquing the Art World, the power of the artist, and conceptual practice itself, as they take the absence of any actual “artistry” to the extreme (see Figures 3 and 4). But, even here, these are humorous pieces and again we can’t quite escape the artist himself as he reveals something of his personality, despite the absence of any personal “touch” or craftsmanship. As the academic Charles Harrison describes, particularly in connection with the conceptual artists collective Art –Language, founded in the 1960s, this “absence” was a key aspect of the work4:

Figure 1: Martin Creed, Work No 200 (1998)

Figure 2: Martin Creed, work No. 88. A sheet of paper crumpled into a ball, 1995

Figure 3: Martin Creed, work No. 235, 2004, Another of Creed’s typed pieces on plain A4 displayed at the exhibition, which just reads “Fuck Off” and then gives the work number and artist’s signature. Is Creed here critiquing work such as Josef Kosuth’s Art as Idea as Idea, pictured in Figure 4?

“Many of the common features are kinds of negative. None employs colour and none exhibits any significant personal touch. None makes any obvious pretence to value in terms of quality of materials or skill or technical execution”5 This makes sense when we consider that Conceptual Art began as an investigative practice.

As Benjamin Buchloh states, conceptual art is a “rigorous investigation of the conventions of pictorial and sculptural representations and critique of the traditional paradigms of visuality.”6 It is clear from the exhibition that Creed has been pushing this investigation further and further during his twenty-

Figure 4: Joseph Kosuth, Art as Idea as Idea (Meaning), 1967. Photostat on paper mounted on wood. Kosuth was investigating the relationship between text as art/ text as language/language as meaning/meaning as art.

five year career. With Creed’s Blowing a Raspberry and piped laughter we are taken to another level: that of complete negation of visuality in favour of the audible.

Figure 5: Wall paintings by Sol LeWitt, The Whitney Museum, 2000

Figure 6: Wall painting designed by Martin Creed, Hayward Gallery, 2014

The artists’ collective Art-Language, of which Josef Kosuth was a part, pushed visuality further into the background and focused on the process and plans behind the execution, to the point where the plans and the documentation became the art. The idea was that the final work could be executed by anyone who followed the plan and this became another feature of conceptual practice, evident in such work as Sol LeWitt’s wall paintings (Figure 5), which were often carried out by his assistants following his direction. These are strikingly similar to the wall paintings at the Creed exhibition, which were also carried out by a third party (Figures 6 and 7).

The bold geometric patterns, bright colours and stripes are akin to children’s indoor play spaces and are a contrast to the preferred blank white walls of most contemporary art institutions. These works also challenge the traditional or Modernist idea that an individual artist, working with paint, is confined to the boundaries of a framed canvas.

Thus, the evidence of Creed’s familiarity with conceptual practice, and the influence of it, on his work is discernable throughout the exhibition, however, there is more here than just a conversation with conceptualism. The stacked iron girders (Work No. 1588, 2013), and the monumental solid brick wall on the sculpture terrace (Work No. 1812, 2014) (Figure 8), for example, are typically Minimalist pieces, reminiscent of work by Minimalist artists such as Richard Serra (b.1939) (Figure 9).

Figure 7: Wall painting designed by Martin Creed, Hayward Gallery, 2014

Figure 8: Martin Creed, Work No. 1812, 2014

Figure 9: Richard Serra, Fernando Pessoa, 2008

The artist Donald Judd pointed to the problems of trying to define a particular style that could be identified as Minimalist, or of “the new work” as he preferred to describe it7. Nonetheless, there are some reoccurring features, including: three dimensionality, the use of industrial and synthetic materials, the work’s physicality, its often imposing masculinity and precision, as well as its clean, sharp, and hard lines. Creed’s brick wall clearly displays these indicative features, but he presents the wall to the viewer playfully, through curtains that open and close automatically, diluting the harshness of the monolithic structure. Additionally, a more conceptual interpretation is possible if we think about the brick wall’s metaphoric signification. The phrase “I’ve hit a brick wall” is evoked by Creed’s sculpture and, with these words, it becomes not just a physical barrier to our view of the London skyline, but perhaps an intellectual barrier, a barrier to progress.

Creed’s first career survey is a fairground hall of distorting mirrors, where the artist changes shape at every turn. His works range from minimal and large-scale sculpture, performance and video work, whole room installations, sound art, photography, and abstract paintings on canvas. Partly because of the use of this array of different media, the

exhibition has a chaotic vibe. There is a deceptively disordered arrangement, an awkwardness that has been thought through (one strongly gets the sense by the artist himself). The placing of some work is designed to jar. There is no set path to follow, no chronology and only one brief piece of explanatory wall text, but there are common thematic and aesthetic strands, that bring some, albeit limited, cohesion. These include the way Creed often places objects in size or height order and the duplication of particular images, such as the two dogs in the video work Thinking/Not Thinking (Work No.1090, 2011) that reappear in a life-sized photographic print (Work No.1094, 2011).

So there is order in the disorder, and although in it we might briefly find solace, the message I happily left with was that any attempt take to control of a faintly ridiculous world is futile. I can understand Creed’s reluctance to accept the label of conceptual artist, and not simply in the way many other artists before him have resisted being “labelled.” Creed is not absent from his work, quite the opposite: this “author” is most definitely still alive.

Endnotes: 1. Adrian Hamilton, “Actually there is a point to Martin Creed” The Independent, Sunday, 2 February 2014.

Available at: http://www.independent.co.uk/artsentertainment/art/reviews/actually-there-is-a-pointto-martin-creed-9102241.html 2. Sol Lewitt, “Paragraphs on Conceptual Art”, Artforum, 5, No. 10, June, 1967, p.79 3.

Roland Barthes, “The death of the Author”, first published in English in the American journal Aspen, 1967, and was written in relation to literary texts, proposing that the author had no relationship to the text.

The idea that intention of the author and their biography was important to any interpretation was rejected. This was also adopted by some conceptual artists where the individual artist was deliberately, explicitly, removed as far as possible from the work itself proposing that it was only through the reader, or in this case the viewer, that meaning was made.

4. A rt-Language was conceptual artists collective established in 1967 in the United Kingdom and was named after the artists’ journal, which was a conversation about conceptual art. It included artists such as: Terry Atkinson, Michael Baldwin, Harold Hurrell and David Bainbridge.

5. Charles Harrison, “Conceptual Art, the aesthetic and the end(s) of art”, Themes in Contemporary Art, Ed by Gill Perry and Paul Wood, (London: Yale University Press, 2004) p. 54 6. Benjamin H.D. Buchloh, “Conceptual Art 1962-1969: From the Aesthetic of Administration to the Critique of Institutions” October, Vol 55. (Winter, 1990), p. 107 7. Donald Judd, “Specific Objects”, 1965, in Art in Theory, eds. Harrison and Wood, Oxford: Blackwell, 1992, pp.

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A Student of Self-Defence Interviewed by Karan Sujanani

Stefano Frontini, a student at Richmond University, is a Mixed Martial arts (MMA) enthusiast. A practitioner for the past ten years, Stefano is currently working towards mastering both Kickboxing and Gracie Jiu Jitsu.

What is the best Martial Art for self-defence?

There is not one best Martial Art, but two: kickboxing and Gracie Jiu Jitsu. Kickboxing will teach you to fight while standing up, while Gracie Jiu Jitsu will teach you to look after yourself if you end up on the ground.

Which martial art inspired you the most?

I have studied a variety of different Martial Artists: Jigoro Kano (founder of Judo), Miyamoto Musahi (renowned Japanese Samurai), and Bruce Lee. However, Helio Gracie (Founder of Gracie Jiu Jitsu) insipired me the most because that style has revolutionaized the fighting world.

Why should someone take Martial Arts?

At first, I started martial arts because I have always been the smallest student and I had to find a way of looking after myself. Now I am involved because I like the intensity, the discipline and I want to learn all the different philosophical aspects of fighting.

What do martial artists want to gain through training?

Students that have just started martial arts are looking to learn how to fight and some even enter because they like to fight. Others that are born into Martial Arts have faith that the art will guide them to a better life, which is what I am also experiencing.

Krav Maga is popularizing itself as the best self-defence system, why don’t you give it a shot?

Krav Maga is a self-defence system developed for the Isreali Special Forces to counter terrorists. Therefore, 96 RICHMOND UNIVERSITY MAGAZINE | APRIL 2014

it is a combative style designed for individuals that find themselves in conditions where fighting is your only option. Consequently, the individual will express extreme violence on its attacker, and I think it’s too violent for London. I don’t practice it, but I do recommend it for all women or any people who wish to enter the army.

What is the best way for someone to prepare themselves for confrontation?

The only way to prepare for real life confrontation is to practice Martial Arts with “regulations kept at a minimum.” Regulation is the primary weakness in Martial Arts becuase in a street fight there are no rules. Regulations give martial artists a false sense of security. I’d say it is the biggest problem of Martial Arts today. Regulations in Martial Arts become the martial artist’s code of conduct for life, but that doesn’t apply on the streets.

Can students really use what they learn in Mixed Martial Arts in a real street fight?

Yes. The goal of every technique taught in the MMA club is to prepare students for confrontation.

I never teach acrobatic kicks or supposedly deadly punches because it is way too complicated and to my experience they do not work.

What is a special feature of Richmond’s MMA Club?

The best feature of the MMA club is a self defence instincts test I came up with. It consists of the agressor wearing full padding, and a student mimicking a victim. The gear is essential because the victim will have to fight back, as if they were to be attacked on the street.

What is the best Martial Art for someone to use against a 220-pound aggressor?

I would say its Gracie Jiu Jitsu simply because the family who founded Jiu Jitsu set out to challenge the

fighting world, and to develop different martial arts styles to prove that Jiu Jitsu reigns overall. The Gracie Family is famous for being undefeated for over 80 years against other styles of Martial Arts.

What is the best Martial Art for someone to use against multiple attackers?

The truth is that there is no single Martial Art which can help you fend off an attack of multiple opponents.

If you find yourself against multiple attackers and if running is not an option, I would advise you to do the following: challenge the most aggressive fighter, and if they do not accept then you will have to try and align your opponents so they can only attack you one at a time.

Overall, what are the fundamental concepts that everyone needs to know before choosing any Martial Art/Self Defence System?

Based on my ten years of Martial Arts experience I would focus on two concepts. First: 95% of all street fights end up on the ground, which is why I wanted to learn Gracie Jiu Jitsu. The second: fights can happen at anytime, anywhere and when you least expect it, so be prepared!

Destination Urinetown Written by Laura Rutkowski

Out of all of the musicals I have seen, Urinetown may boast the most memorable title. This dissuading name should by no means put you off. By Jamie Lloyd, Urinetown is a fiercely original and relatively new addition to the St. James Theatre, running from 22 February until 3 May. But I’d watch for its West End move in no time, especially with a few Tony Awards already under its belt.

This is no ordinary show experience and it has even been termed the musical for people who don’t like musicals. Narrator Officer Lockstock (Jonathan Slinger) directly addresses the audience in the first scene, dissecting the nitty-gritty aspects of the performance. He mentions that this will not be a happy musical, but the crowd only believed this when the carnage begins. Even the title is mocked as the theatregoers are confronted with the question, “Why would anyone come to see a musical called Urinetown?” Guilty as charged.

The idea for Urinetown stemmed from a trip writer Greg Kotis took to Europe, where he discovered that most public toilets are pay-to-use which was a surprise coming from America. Urinetown is set in a drab and dismal future where the poor are preoccupied with scraping together the money to use public toilets. Rich businessmen need not be concerned with access to “public amenity number nine,” the most affordable public toilet in town. This bizarre turn of events and ban on private amenities has been precipitated by a lack of precipitation.

In other words, an ongoing drought. Patrons are constantly reminded of their fate if they happen to “relieve themselves” in public or not pay their way: a trip to Urinetown. Police are constantly trawling the streets to reinforce the law and put people in their place, no matter how sadistically.

The St. James Theatre is quaint, with not a bad seat in the house. Those sitting in the front row can

practically touch the actors on stage. The stage in question is two-tiered, providing action, antics, and dancing both upstairs and downstairs. With songs such as “It’s a Privilege to Pee,” this satire is laugh-out-loud funny and downright unexpectedly enjoyable to watch. My personal favorite was a tune belted out by business tycoon Caldwell B. Cladwell (Simon Paisley Day) called “Don’t Be The Bunny” where he compares the dregs of society to bunnies that need to be eradicated. All of this is enacted with a manipulated bunny puppet on his right hand.

Interspersed with a few amorous ballads, angstridden chants, and a gospel-heavy anthem, the music is cleverly thought-out and surprisingly fresh despite its nose-pinching content.

Richard Fleeshman shines as the star of the show, Bobby Strong. He leads the people to liberation by starting a revolution against Cladwell’s moneyhungry monopolizing corporation, Urine Good Company. His revolution hits a speed bump when Strong falls in love with Cladwell’s daughter, Hope (Rosanna Hyland). When he takes a trip to Urinetown, just as his father before him, the people are left to fend for themselves.

The cast in its entirety was chosen impeccably.

In addition to the aforementioned actors, Karis Jack, who plays Little Sally with her never-ending questions, and Jenna Russell as the smart-talking Penelope Pennywise, are also worthy of accolades.

That being said, the whole cast is standout and full of star-studded talent. From their smart-alecky attitudes to New York hybrid accents, here is a respectable cast who truly packs a punch with their individual personalities and charisma.

Urinetown provides lots of twists and turns.

Abandon all of your preconceived notions in relation to a musical, because this show is bound to squash them. The world is not always a happy

and fair place, like the bouncy, standard formula musicals we are used to seeing lead us to believe.

Urinetown latches on to this and might not be the most uplifting because of it, but sometimes we need a reality check, delivered under the guise of hilarity and singing.

Salient issues such as overpopulation, global climate change, and of course, power and control over the finite resource of water act as undercurrents to the story. It’s hard not to miss them, but they give a harrowing and all-important edge to Urinetown that makes it more than just another silly song-anddance number. If you don’t want to take my word for it, let the standing ovation at the show’s close speak for itself.

For an unforgettable trip, get your ticket to Urinetown at www.stjamestheatre.co.uk from now until May 3rd.

‘Abandon all of your preconceived notions... this show is bound to squash them.’

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Peter Fischli & David Weiss Rock on Top of Another Rock Written by Anastasia Fjodorova Fischli and Weiss’s Rock on Top of Another Rock, on display outside the Serpentine Gallery from 7 March 2013 until 6 March 2014, is so far the duo’s only public sculpture in the UK (Figure 1). When approaching the main entrance of the Serpentine one immediately encounters the five and a half metre tall sculpture, composed of two glacial igneous granite boulders, assembled on a concrete base on the grass expanse.1 2 In the public space of Hyde Park Rock… is always accessible and is visible from a number of viewpoints throughout the park.3 This current work fits in well with Peter Fischli and the late David Weiss’s motto, that is: “Am schönsten ist das Gleichgewicht, kurz bevor’s zusammenbricht (balance is most beautiful just at the point when it is about to collapse).”4 The precarious balance of these two enormous rocks, both sourced in Wales, was achieved with the aid of a crane, which this author was fortunate to witness back in early March of this year (see Figure 2).5 This attention to unstable, yet precisely balanced sculpture, poised on what at times appears to be the verge of collapse, makes up one of the core elements of Fishli and Weiss’s work.67 Their 1984 series of photographs, Equilibres/Quiet Afternoon, captures “precariously balanced sculptures moments before their collapse.”8 (Figure 3) There appears to be an allusion to Rock…, or perhaps an early maquette in one of Fischli and Weiss’s first large-scale collaborations, Suddenly This Overview (1981-2012), currently on display at the Biennale in Venice. Among the more than 200 small, unfired clay sculptures there exists one, titled The Tourist Attraction (Figure 4), that bears a striking resemblance to Rock…, and exemplifies the trademark wit and playfulness present in their work.9 According to Fischli, the rocks themselves are not of primary interest, rather it is the context of this fragile juxtaposition of two binary elements, such as: construction/deconstruction, stability/instability, stasis/motion, and order/chaos.10 Contextually, this work reiterates the earliest and most basic types of monuments found around the world, namely that of two immense, found rocks seemingly in a perilous balance, one on top of the other.11 Fischli and Weiss’s first version of Rock… in Norway four years ago was influenced specifically by “rocks found lying around,” which in the words of Fischli is “a minimum gesture that has a maximum effect—you just need the crane.”12 13 “Reminiscent of the many Neolithic monuments found throughout the British countryside, Fischli/Weiss’s rocks are imbued with their unmistakeable wit and a serious sense of the absurd.”14 Indeed, one of the immediate responses the viewer, or at least this author in particular, has to Rock… is this resemblance to Neolithic sites such as Stonehenge, with the added benefit of engagement being permitted. The audience is able to stand up close to the work, able to touch the stones, and all but climb on them. In this sense, Rock… can be compared to Jeremy Deller’s Sacrilege 2012 (Figure 5) in allowing a certain access, albeit by proxy, that English Heritage denies to Stonehenge for conservation purposes. Whether this was an intention of Fischli and Weiss is left to speculation, but it would not be a drastic departure from their oeuvre.

Further expanding on this concept, Fischli and Weiss were themselves also interested in how a work of such scale could become lost in the landscape so the viewer may be left to question “whether the authorship was natural or manmade.”15 This questioning of authorship brings forward the argument that Rock… is in fact a ready-made, sourced from nature and modified.

“In this case, the sculpture exists as an inflated caricature of raw, natural elements inside another other highly constructed image of nature—the urban park. Fischli/Weiss have continuously demonstrated that irony and sincerity cannot exist without each other.”16 If Hyde Park can itself be viewed as a simulated readymade of natural wilderness, it seems appropriate to include Rock… under the label of a reproduction, a copy, or a readymade of one of Nature’s products.17 Part of Duchamp’s discovery consisted of establishing that, in order to depict reality, it is no longer a necessity of art to resort to painting or sculpture. “[Rather] the context in which an object is presented suffices for us to perceive it as an artistic copy of itself. We can say that the ordinary object that escapes conscious notice, although we use it everyday, captures our attention in the context of the museum and acquires new meaning.”18 This exploration of ready-mades and simulated ready-mades is, of course, nothing new for Fischli and Weiss, as exemplified by their Carved polyurethane objects (Figure 6). This on-going project was begun in 1992, and can be 98 RICHMOND UNIVERSITY MAGAZINE | APRIL 2014

considered as following in the lineage of Jasper Johns’s ale cans, flashlights, light-bulbs, and other fake versions of mass-market products that he created.19 There is, however, a marked difference between Fischli and Weiss’s current work, Rock…, and their polyurethane copies of everyday objects, in that the latter are simulated ready-mades, rather than the objects themselves, and therefore undermine certain expectations of authenticity that the contemporary viewer holds as implicit when viewing a readymade in the context of a museum or gallery space.20 In the present work, which Fischli and Weiss themselves questioned whether it would become “lost in the landscape” of Hyde Park, escaping “conscious notice”, the stones acquire a new meaning beyond a mere reproduction of natural elements in an urban space. The placing of Rock…, so reminiscent of Neolithic monuments, themselves already laden with mythical and religious associations, within the contemporary ritualistic and symbolic realm of the gallery space, allows it to acquire an almost spiritual dimension. Their signature style of caricature and comedy aside, Rock…, on a deeper level, inspires a certain presence of balance in the public space of an urban park.

Endnotes: 1. Aesthetica Blog, ‘Fischli/Weiss: Rock on Top of Another Rock at Serpentine Gallery, London’, Available at http://www.aestheticamagazine.com/blog/fischliweiss-rock-ontop-of-another-rock-at-serpentine-gallery-london/ accessed 13 October 2013.

2. ‘Fischli & Weiss: Rocking the Serpentine’, Available at http://www.designcurial.com/ news/fischli-weiss-rocking-the-serpentine accessed 13 October 2013.

3. Aesthetica Blog, ‘Fischli/Weiss: Rock on Top of Another Rock at Serpentine Gallery, London’.

4. T. Elsaesser, ‘Constructive Instability, or: the Life of Things as the Cinema’s Afterlife?’, in Video Vortex Reader: Responses to Youtube, G. Lovink & S. Niederer (eds), Institute of Network Cultures, Amsterdam, 2008, p. 26.

5. Ibid.

6. ‘ Fischli & Weiss: Rocking the Serpentine’.

7. Aesthetica Blog, ‘Fischli/Weiss: Rock on Top of Another Rock at Serpentine Gallery, London’.

8. Aesthetica Blog, ‘Fischli/Weiss: Rock on Top of Another Rock at Serpentine Gallery, London’.

9. C. Wiley, ‘Peter Fischli and David Weiss’, in Il Palazzo Enciclopedico: The Encyclopedic Palace, Short Guide (Exhibition Catalogue for The 55th International Art Exhibition, Venice Beinnale 2013), M. Gioni & C. Wiley (eds), Marsilio Editori, Venice, 2013, p.80.

10. ‘Fischli & Weiss: Rocking the Serpentine’.

11. Ibid.

12. P. Koszerek, ‘Peter Fischli: “A minimum gesture that has a maximum effect”’, Available at http://new.a-n.co.uk/news/single/rock-on-top-of-another-rock accessed 13 October 2013.

13. ‘ Fischli & Weiss: Rocking the Serpentine’.

14. Aesthetica Blog, ‘Fischli/Weiss: Rock on Top of Another Rock at Serpentine Gallery, London’.

15. P. Koszerek, ‘Peter Fischli: “A minimum gesture that has a maximum effect”’, Available at http://new.a-n.co.uk/news/single/rock-on-top-of-another-rock accessed 13 October 2013.

16. ‘Fischli & Weiss: Rocking the Serpentine’.

17.

B. Groys, ‘Simulated Readymades’, in Fischli Weiss/Flowers & Questions: A Retrospective, B. Criger, P. Fischli, and D. Weiss (eds), Tate Publishing, London, 2006, p. 13.

18. B. Groys, ‘Simulated Readymades’, p. 15 19. J. McElheny, Readymade Resistance: Josiah McElheny on Art and the Forms of Industrial Production, Artforum International, 46(2): Oct. 2007: p. 329.

20. B. Groys, ‘Simulated Readymades’, p. 14.

List of Figures: 1. Peter Fischli & David Weiss: Rock on Top of Another Rock, London 2012. Photograph courtesy of: Morley von Sternberg 2013 & http://new.a-n.co.uk/news/single/rock-ontop-of-another-rock.

2. Peter Fischli & David Weiss: Rock on Top of Another Rock, London 2012. Photograph by author 2013.

3. Peter Fischli and David Weiss: from Equilibres – Quiet Afternoon, 1984-87. Photograph courtesy of Fondazione Nicola Trussardi 2008 & http://www.designboom.com/ contemporary/fischliandweiss3.html.

4. Peter Fischli and David Weiss: from Suddenly This Overview, 1981-2012. Photograph courtesy of Flickr http://www.flickr.com/photos/mhl20/9107273564/.

5. Jeremy Deller: Sacrilege, Glasgow 2012. Photograph courtesy of Murdo Macleod for the Guardian 2012 & http://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2012/apr/24/glasgowfestival-new-scottish-colourists.

6. Peter Fischli and David Weiss: Untitled (Tate), London 1992-2006. Photograph courtesy of e-s-l-m-s & http://www.a-n.co.uk/interface/reviews/single/3308363.

Figure 1.

Peter Fischli & David Weiss Rock on Top of Another Rock 2012.

Figure 4.

Peter Fischli and David Weiss: from Suddenly This Overview 1981-2012.

Figure 2.

Peter Fischli & David Weiss Rock on Top of Another Rock 2012.

Figure 5: eremy Deller: Sacrilege 2012.

Figure 3.

Peter Fischli and David Weiss from Equilibres â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Quiet Afternoon 1984-87.

Figure 6: Peter Fischli and David Weiss: Untitled (Tate) 99

â&#x20AC;&#x153;Women in Bundiâ&#x20AC;?, Bundi, Rajasthan

Portraits of India

Text and photographs by Haley Stevens

W

hat struck me most about Rajasthan were its people. Their captivating presence on the streets made it impossible for me to turn away as a photographer. Vibrant colours bounced off of each building and sprung from their clothing like wildfire. Each unique place seemed to be painted with an intense, electric sensation filled with energetic personality, and the people in these photos are merely snippets of the incredible life that belongs to India. The portraits of the elderly strangers express a glimpse of their integrity, their wisdom, and who they were as I saw them. This project began when I kept noticing people with beautiful, unusual or interesting looks, and the photographer in me told me to stop and take a picture of them. As a result, it was both a challenge and an experiment. The challenge came in approaching these strangers to ask their permission to take their picture. I’d get butterflies every time, but their gentle smiles and eagerness made it somewhat less stressful and more than anything, encouraging. I’d ask their permission, and without knowing it, they did the work for me. They exposed their identities by looking directly into my lens with such

strong emotion and passion in their eyes, that it gave me goose bumps every time. None of them spoke a word of English, so it took everything in me not to ask them about their past, knowing they must have stories to tell. Part of what intrigued me to begin this project in the first place was walking down streets everywhere I went, as hundreds of strangers passed by me, and I could never get to know their story. Who were they? Where did they come from? Who did they want to be? However colourful Rajasthan and Bangalore were, I chose to use black and white in my portraits in order to have a central focus point the honesty and personality of these people. I wanted to get to know India in a different light, not as the tourist with a camera, but rather as the traveler who blended in. From the crowded colourful markets, engulfed with a myriad of aromas and sounds, to the roadsides filled with hidden life, India’s culture took me to whole other world and changed the way I photograph people. I went to Bangalore as an intern to build my portfolio, unsure of what to expect, and I left Rajasthan with a certainty that I’d be going back.

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0 RICHMOND UNIVERSITY MAGAZINE

Top left: “Girl in the Flower Market”, Bangalore Bottom left: “Worker in the Old Market”, Bangalore Top right: “Children in Bangalore”, Bangalore Bottom right: “Man on Bike”, near Jodhpur PLACEHOLDER FOR NOW 103 0

“Homeless in Chandigarh”, Chandigarh

“Man in Deogarh”, Deogarh, Rajasthan

“Anonymous Man”, small town near Jodhpur

“Man on the Road”, somewheree near Jodhpur, Rajasthan

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“Wise Woman in Udaipur”, Udaipur, Rajasthan

Richmond Takes Over the Globe Theatre Written by Lucy Matthews Photographed by Miriam Dyberg Ever since my freshman English class was coaxed through Romeo and Juliet I have realised that Shakespeare is one of the things that makes me the most excited about life. Academics can wax lyrical about universal themes and shared human experiences but in my rather simplistic opinion Shakespeare does nothing more than capture the essence of theatre. His words go beyond entertainment or sentimentality and achieve inspiration, so much so that they can affect audiences long after the curtain lowers. Or perhaps that is just me being pretentious.

Nowhere is better for experiencing the true magic of the bard than Shakespeare’s Globe, located on London’s South Bank. Established by the tenacious actor and director, Sam Wannamker, and opened in 1992, the Globe presents the work of Shakespeare, his contemporaries, and new playwrights in a historically accurate replica of the original Elizabethan theatre. The epitome of democratised art, here audiences can pay as little as 5 pounds to stand and watch a full length Shakespearean production of the highest standard, an experience I have enjoyed many times. Not once did I ever imagine that I would be given the opportunity to stand on that stage, let alone act on it!

This opportunity was presented to me, and ten other RAIUL students, in the autumn of 2013 as part of a re-established course in classical acting, in partnership with the Globe’s Education centre. Being the over eager theatre nerd that I am, I jumped at the chance and registered immediately. Overseen by Dr Michael Barclay, the course had two main aspects: Every Tuesday and Thursday afternoon we attended class on Richmond’s Kensington campus with Dr Barclay, studying the theatrical classics from Sophocles to Moliere. Every Thursday evening we would make the trek to the South Bank for a two-hour master class with one of the Globe’s fantastic teachers in their newly renovated education and learning centre.

For the first half of the semester we were given a different taster session each week on one aspect of Shakespearean acting. These included lessons in text analysis, voice, movement, singing, and my personal favourite, historical dance.

Our main tutor was the inspiring, yet terrifying, Yolanda Vazquez. A Spanish actress with beautiful presence and a resonating voice, she spent the second half of the semester whipping us all into performance shape. I am sure I am not the only one who began to idolise and fear her in equal measure.

incoherent sounds. Yolanda’s concentration games were lots of fun but definitely brought out my competitive side and lots of giggles. The singing class for me was inconceivably frustrating and reminded me why I had never joined the choir in high school. But every night I went home elated, exhausted, and feeling like I was learning, and maybe even gradually improving.

From November we began rehearsing for our final performance in earnest. The thought that we were going to be performing on the Globe stage had been hanging over our heads for months and I was certainly excited to get started. We were each allowed to choose one monologue and then were assigned a scene to work on with a fellow student. I chose Helena’s monologue from Act I of A Midsummer Night’s Dream and was given the seminal “get thee to a nunnery scene” from Hamlet to work on. They were both very different but lots of fun!

The first time we were able to rehearse on the stage itself I think we were all in awe, not quite able to believe that this was actually going to happen. Of course, our first reaction was to pull out our phones and take selfies! After the shock wore off the real difficulties begin to set in. If you are used to performing in a secluded studio, the Globe stage is a whole different beast. The open-air was freezing in November and the cold just took your breath away. Projecting your voice up into the balconies without shouting and using the full expanse of the stage without ending up behind a pillar was difficult with so much nervous energy. We got a good telling off that night from Yolanda for not knowing our lines properly. From that point on I think we all stepped up to the plate.

By the time the final performance arrived I was feeling more confident in my acting ability than I ever had before. That being sad, I was utterly petrified. The feeling of camaraderie backstage right before the audience went silent that night was amazing. We were certainly a motley crew of individuals but this wacky and wonderful experience was something that I think had a powerful affect on us all.

My time on stage was one of the best of my life. I am not sure that it is something I really can put into words. The adrenaline after we finished was like nothing else; it took me hours to come down from what had been the most spectacular high.

And to be honest, I think I am still floating on that cloud, dreaming that one day I might be able to do it all again.

For most of us, this course was the most intensive acting program we had ever undergone. For me personally, it was the first time I had spoken on a stage larger than our tiny theatre here on Richmond Hill. The first few weeks were a learning curve in allowing myself to look silly. The vocal exercises were eye opening but made the studio look a bit like an insane asylum with all of us sitting there making

The cast takes the stage at their first rehearsal

Miriam Dyberg relaxes backstage during rehearsal

106 RICHMOND UNIVERSITY MAGAZINE | APRIL 2014

The audience was full of the Richmond community there to support the cast

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Analysing Ursula Franklin

Has the Internet furthered the culture of compliance?

Written by Rebecca Atkinson Ursula Franklin hypothesized that the type of technology we use controls our society (11). Franklin believes that we favor prescriptive technologies and that has led to a culture of compliance (23). In prescriptive technologies the individual’s choices of how to use the technology in question are limited.

Each product has a specific correct way to use it, which limits not only consumer options but also the possible outcomes of the use. By telling the consumer how to use the technology and limiting their choices the producer takes away some of the consumer’s choices. Yet these technologies are more common than holistic technologies, which do not control the user’s process. It is ultimately because prescriptive technologies have been widely accepted and made mainstream that the culture of compliance formed (23).

This compliance is characterized by a general submission of the public wherein the society in general accepts the conventions of how to use the technology as laid out by the producer (23). For most forms of technology the standard purpose is usually accepted and fully taken on, thus the producer uses for and in the way that the one specific main purpose as identified the technology. The Internet however is a form of technology that has been able to take on multiple uses and avoid the strict nature of prescriptive technology. Though there is certainly a specific use and method for the Internet it can be defied. When first produced the Internet was a revolutionary invention that changed the way we approached knowledge, communication, and saw the world. This one creation allowed the world to become smaller, initiating communication across the globe and creating a new concept of public knowledge in a world where most people are able to access anything.

While the Internet may have been created with a specific function in mind it has far eclipsed its original intention. It is not only used to facilitate global communication and make information more accessible, but in many cases the Internet has come to serve personal functions for some people. The technology designed for practical functions has led to the rise of things like personal blogs, creative websites, video blogs, etc. that are a means for expression.

These types of sites deviate from the original point of the technology, yet they are an outcome. People are not simply mindlessly conforming to what the

producer says the technologies purpose is. They are using the technology they are provided with to make their own meaning. And on these personal sites that meaning is speaking about life as you see it. This itself also opposes the idea that prescriptive technologies create compliance as many people use their sites to oppose commonly accepted conventions. By posting about how they feel or what they believe they are often going against what the general public considers correct. In this way they do not just comply with what they are told and accept it as truth. Rather this is an opportunity for them to show that they have questioned what they are told, considered it, and may not agree. They produce their own ideas and use the technology not as it was intended. In this case to merely be told by the authority what is conventionally accepted is correct, but as a platform to propose opposing ideas and actively rebel.

the music industry. When users go to iTunes they are inundated by recommendations for music they might like. When you download music suggestions for similar artists automatically come up. By doing this Apple, or the company that owns the site that is being used, ultimately increases profitability by very safely telling the consumer to buy more of what they are known to like rather than promoting new types of music and encouraging them to expand their taste. The consumer often is led to continuously buy the same thing or type of thing over and over again by this process. The company to mindlessly consume what they are recommended guides them rather than doing research and experimenting with other types of things in order to possibly experience something new. Rather than decide on their taste for themselves the consumer instead complies with what they are told to like.

Though it is true that in many ways the Internet has opened more possibilities for users to defy the producer’s intentions and use the product in unconventional ways, there are some elements of it that control the user’s process and encourage compliance. Sites like Google, Yahoo, iTunes, etc. now monitor the user’s searches and create a taste profile for each consumer. As Franklin brings up prescriptive technology is now used not only to create specific groups of who is inside and outside the circle of the mainstream by using the technology, but also to show where the specific user has been and how long they have been there (25). They then use this information to alter the results that come up when they search.

It also changes the advertisements that come up for the individual when they use their site. By highlighting things that are similar to the tastes on their profile the site is able to influence the individual’s taste and in some ways dictate it by promoting the same thing they already like rather than pushing them to try something new. This discourages the individual from actively searching for new things, which might expand their taste.

Big companies can use the Internet to create sites, applications, etc. that encourage the consumer to live in a culture of compliance. By making suggestions that limit their exposure to new and different things they encourage the user to like what they recommend and control what they have access to (25). They will make certain things more accessible and others more difficult to find thus encourage certain things to succeed and be mainstream. However, the Internet has also allowed for the creation of sites that challenge this control. The Internet has led to the creation of blogs, video blogs, forums, and entire websites that oppose the mainstream. These provide opportunities for the unknown to post their thoughts and work on their own without having to rely on a larger provider to broadcast their work. Now an individual can take to the Internet as a way of having their opinions heard, even if they are oppositional to what the mainstream would produce. While in the past newspapers, television companies, and record labels could entirely control the production of new media the Internet now allows for self-production. People no longer must accept what is given to them but rather can actively create counter products. This allows them to be exposed to a greater span of media and products and actively defy the culture of compliance by engaging with non-mainstream culture.

“When work is organized as a sequence of separately executable steps, the control over the work moves to the organizer, the boss or manager” thus in this way it is the head of the company’s interests that are being promoted. It is the top executives of the company who decide what will be promoted and actively work to make more money by doing so rather than helping their customers to grow (23). An example of this is

References: Franklin, Ursula., 1992. The Real World of Technology.

Toronto: House of Anansi Press.

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Ecoligism

An Ideology of Its Own Written by Charles Lavin In the present era of modern political ideology, it is becoming more apparent that the division between few schools of thought encompass nearly all ideologies. Between realism, liberalism and conservatism, few ideologies represent an alternative path away from these well-established discourses. Yet, at the turn of the twentieth century, the growing influence of “green” thought has led to a worldwide collection of ecologically-based politics, culture and industry. Therefore, “ecologism” and its wider message must be considered when discussing legitimate political ideology. With an expanded following, this essay argues that ecologism is in fact an ideology in its own right, as it constitutes an alternative to all traditional ideological discourse through its unique goals. First, in order to designate ecologism as an ideology in its own right, this essay will deconstruct ecologism in a discursive manner, proposing that it remains a “new” ideology composed of “old” elements. Second, the core “nodal points” of ecologism will highlight its distinctive nature versus other weaker environmental movements, dismissing these as “shallow” technocratic fixes versus discursive ideology. Thirdly, the manifestation of ecologism as “green ideology” within social, academic and political society will be discussed to validate the establishment of ecologism as its own legitimate ideology.

When one views the individual composition of an ideology, it is important to break down its discursive framework to interpret the central message or meaning subscribed to its followers. While the “holistic” roots of ecologism will be discussed later, the functioning composition of ecologism can be related to Lacanian theory brought forth by Slovenian philosopher Slavoj Zizek. According to Zizek, in order to view the entire objective position of an ideology, several discursive meanings can be broken down into smaller bits, termed here “nodal points” (Stavrakakis, 1997). These nodal points will carry along the definitive elements of a certain ideology, serving as “…a point of convergence that enables everything that happens in this discourse to be situated retroactively and retrospectively” (Stavrakakis, 1997). Furthermore, the “quilting” together of such nodal points creates a relationship between ideas that in turn reflect the central meaning of the given discourse. Zizek finds these nodal points as “floating signifiers, (or) proto-ideological elements” that string together a wider web, fixing their meanings in place.

Following this reasoning, the discursive structure of any ideology can give new meanings to previously established ideals within a new context.

Zizek provides the example of communism – where as certain “floating, proto-ideological” terms such as democracy and freedom (already well-established), take on new meanings under the communist ideological discourse. Therefore, democracy in a communist context does not represent the democratic systems of Western states today, yet it signifies a break away from bourgeoisies-imposed democracy – similarly freedom, would be seen as economic liberation versus our modern concepts of material security, etc. Therefore, if we were to complete the same construction of the same terms under ecologism, democracy would signify localised, directly democratic processes surrounding pollution controls, resource management, and so forth. Freedom would represent the liberation from traditional material obsessions, along with some

form of spiritual removal from the modern “growthled” paradigm of society. This framework gives reason to ecologism’s relatively new reputation as ideology made up of older elements. Henceforth, it is argued many aspects of ecologism’s approach draw ideals from Anarchism or Romanticism (Dobson, pg.

20, 2007).

Nonetheless, the implication of Zizek’s expansion on Lacanian theory would show ecological ideology as a complicated web of interconnecting ideas – or possibly as an overarching umbrella, encompassing the entire political spectrum from left to right under the banner of ecologism. Stavrakakis highlights the “meaningfulness” of nodal points to serve the aims of the overall ideological discourse, in that they institute the true identity of an unattainable outcome, or the main objective of the cause in general. While the nature of such nodal points may be paradoxical, in that they cannot serves as the “all-enshrining” image of discourse, they effectively collaborate in unison since any self-determined “belonging” to a certain ideology can come from a variety of distinct origins.

Therefore, since ecology, like any other ideology entails a myriad of different origins and agendas, it is crucial to identify the nodal points that serve to hold the entire discourse together. Through the work of Arne Naess in his 1973 publication of The Shallow and The Deep, Long-Range Ecology Movements, one is able to identify several core principles of ecologism which have subsequently been interpreted within the field of study, giving shape to a diverse ideological umbrella that is ecologism (Devall et. all, pg. 120, 1985).

Needless to say, by 1973 global “environmental” awareness was rising, which made Naess’ work all the more relevant at the time. The nature of his essay displays the overall philosophical or metaphysical characteristics that ecologism subscribes to. The essence of ecology, according to Naess, is to ask questions like “why” and “how” regarding humanity on Earth, when others do not (Devall et. all, pg. 120, 1985). In doing so, Naess identifies ecologism’s roots as “ecophilosophical” (Luke, pg. 489, 2009). As such, these “ecosophies,” or deep connection made with the natural, non-human world represent to Naess humanity’s most fundamental avenue for debate, where as traditional political philosophy falls under one of its subcategories (Naess, pg. 99, 1973). It is argued by the author that ecosophies, as opposed to general theory systems, are more like Aristotelian systems, revolving around ecological equilibrium. This would mean that, depending on the value priority of the individuals considered, ecology should lead to the creation of a political system comprised of scientists, students, politicians and policy-makers alike towards the promotion of the diverse ecology found on Earth.

The interconnectedness and interdependence of our Earth creates, for some, a strong sense of empathy for the natural world – it is from this vantage point that Naess wrote his manifesto The Shallow and the Deep (Humphrey, 2000).

For Naess, the emergence of ecological movements in the twentieth century came in two distinct forms: first, a “shallow,” more popularised movement versus one “powerful,” less influential one (Naess, pg. 95, 1973). According to the author, the shallow ecological movement (considered now “environmentalism”) focused solely on resource

110 RICHMOND UNIVERSITY MAGAZINE | APRIL 2014

conservation and pollution management in place to further serve the affluence and well being of populations living in developed countries (Naess, pg. 95, 1973). Conversely, the “deep” ecological movement rejected man as the dominant force within nature, and argued that true ecologism must strive to incorporate a universal, relational, “total-field image” of life on Earth. To elaborate, during a time of growing awareness surrounding humanity’s impact on nature, scientific progress further displayed the interconnectedness of environmental degradation.

For example, famous works including Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring drew the immediate connection between DDT and pesticide usage with the complete devastation of local ecology – such writings can be seen deeply embedded in the “total-field image” proposed by Naess (Devall et. all, pg. 120, 1985).

The intrinsic relationship ascribed to nature therefore must overlook the “man-in-environment” concept, disallowing humans to be placed higher than all other forms of life on Earth. In his own words, Naess regarded, “No single species of living being has more of this particular right to live and unfold than the other” (Frodeman, pg. 125, 1995).

Furthermore, the “total-field image” of ecologism can be broken down into distinctive subsections, which according to Naess, are in place to serve as a template for ecologism as a whole. In turn, Naess outlined the initial nodal points of ecology through six different central ideals.

First, the promotion of biospherical egalitarianism places all living creatures, including flora and fauna, both sentient and non-sentient (i.e. ecosystems, forests, etc.) on an equal plane of existence. This notion draws the line between those “shallow movements” such as environmentalism and those considered “deeper.” Anthropocentrism, the notion that humans remain the centre of importance on earth, implies the equal right to live is restricted solely to human beings – such “shallow” green principles are therefore rejected by ecologists, articulated by Naess as he states that biospherical egalitarianism is essential to the “human spirit” (Naess, pg. 96, 1973).

Environmentalism, therefore, merely represent a shallow, “technocratic” fix to our current crisis, which does not adhere to the intrinsic power ascribed to nature in ecologism. Recycling, for example, is often not trusted by ecologists, in that it represents “another industrial activity like all the others… an illusion to imagine that it provides any basic answers” (Dobson, pg. 13, 2007).

Second, instead of promoting the “survival of the fittest” attitudes towards the struggles of everyday life, mankind should adopt an attitude of coexistence and cooperation within the wider, complex structures of nature that extend beyond the scope of human comprehension. The promotion of biodiversity and symbiosis is essential in replacing the “either you or me” paradigm that leads to the destruction between forms of life, as well as communities within the same form. Naess goes on to state that ecologists are just as against the annihilation of seals and whales as they are the annihilation of human societies and cultures through economic, cultural and military expansion (Naess, pg. 97, 1973).

Thirdly, anti-class postures must be confronted, as biological egalitarianism does not take into account the relationships, stratifications and other social

phenomenon humans have created. The general approach of ecologism can confront this debate, ranging from a state-wide level, i.e. the role of developed states contra those developing, all the way down to the smallest forms of organisms in conflict.

Therefore, “plans” or “models” which can be made for future societies hold little or no value to ecologists, since ecologism simply advocates a society of widening “classless diversity” between all species of life (Naess, pg. 97, 1973).

Naess’ fourth point, the fight against pollution and resource depletion, is one often scrutinised under the shallow versus deep debate. While Naess recognised this particular debate has earned lots of support outside the ecologist community, the majority of this support has been to the detriment of the cause. In turn, the entire debate surrounding pollution and natural resources became focused on the aforementioned issues (such as continued exploitation), instead of the wider problem behind the issue.

Fifth, Naess argues for “complexity – not complication.” Too often, human problems or tasks may seem utterly complex, yet they are merely complicated. In reality, the interconnectedness of all organisms on earth display astoundingly high levels of complexity, to which humans remain ignorant.

There lies a greater, metaphysical aspect ascribed to nature that should always be respected as our society continues to envelope our finite natural world. It is this philosophical backdrop which led Dobson to claim an individual’s state of happiness lies completely separate from traditional economic advancement, for example as seen is the rise of a country’s Gross Domestic Product (Dobson, pg. 14, 2007). As such, traditional ideologies from left to right, while they may disagree on many levels, both advocate the advancement of economy and industry for whatever reason. Ecologism, on the other hand, does not priorities economic or industrial growth; in fact, it is completely indifferent to such notions, heading in an entirely separate direction. This is an important distinction in setting ecologism apart as its own ideology.

Last but not least, the concept of local autonomy and decentralization is key to ecologism as a whole. It is argued by Naess that in order to promote greater material and mental self-sufficiency, localization on a grand scale must give higher power to local governments and authorities on the municipal level. Problems such as pollution and resource consumption, to name a few, can be shrunken down to such levels which will increase the chances of these processes becoming streamline and nonharmful to the environment. The level of bureaucracy should be regulated from bottom-upwards in order to give local autonomies the freedoms needed to cater to their specific needs (Naess, pg. 98, 1973). This key point of ecologism has been further imbedded into the general ideological discourse through many different academics, including economist E.F. Schumacher, in his book Small is Beautiful.

Schumacher theorised how the advent of localised systems overseen by a central authority could strike a unique balance which would not impede the creativity and entrepreneurialism of mankind in their promotion of a central ecological blueprint (Schumacher, pg. 204, 1973).

Overall, it is important to note following the outline of Naess’ six nodal points that many continue to question the generality of ecologism as an ideology.

Murray Bookchin believes the lack of centrality within ecologism leaves behind the difficult task of categorising conflicting viewpoints falling under the same general “umbrella.” According to him, “there are barely disguised racists, survivalists, macho Daniel Boones, and outright social reactionaries who use the word ‘ecology’ to express their views, just as there are deeply concerned naturalists, communitarians, social radicals, and feminists who use the word ‘ecology’ to express their views” (Bookchin, pg. 127, 1985). While Naess himself admits to the general nature of ecologism, it is important to recognise once again that all ideologies, though they may approach the same problem from a different angle, do so in the absence of any over-arching “truths.” According to Cheney, it is clear that if “we were all similarly positioned, we would all arrive at the same views” (Frodeman, pg. 124, 1995). Moreover, it would be impossible to claim that all those subscribing to an ideology would have the same set of knowledge or beliefs, in that it would be merely tautological or useless to establish an elusive “truth.” Effectively, “truth” becomes individualized, whereas the ideology as a whole is used as a framework to coerce a wider agreement or mobilisation (Frodeman, pg.

125, 1995). This is precisely how the manifestation of ecologism emerged onto the political landscape, representing the final step in legitimising itself as an ideology.

Effectively, during the course of the twentieth and early twenty-first century, global ecological awareness has reached its highest levels. Arguably, this is due to our heightened environmental crisis (regarding pollution, irreversible climate change, etc.) as well as the increase of systematic analysis of such ecological threats from a social, political and economic basis (Dobson, pg. 24, 2007). The widespread awareness regarding the current state of our relationship with nature has reached popular cinema, media, industry, manufacturing, even food production to create a “green” consciousness – albeit deep ecologists such as Naess would shudder at the proclamations of Whole Foods shoppers finding their ecological consciousness by switching to organic. Nonetheless, one advancement in particular, the proliferation of the green politics, displays the effect ecologism has had on modern society. A prime example highlights the 1992 British Green Party’s manifesto, based off of Jonathon Porritt’s 1984 title Seeing Green (Stavrakakis, 1997). Like Naess, Porritt has outlined in fifteen clear steps the path green politicians wish to take - “..if you want one simple contrast between green and conventional politics, it is our belief that quantitative demand must be reduced, not expanded (Dobson, pg. 13, 2007).” This straightforward statement by Porritt sticks closely towards Naess and Schumacher’s promotion of “small is beautiful,” as well as the rejection of constant industrial growth as a measure of human advancement. The example provided here further validates the legitimacy of ecologism as an ideology in its own right, where by mainstream environmentalism falls short. In Porritt’s words; “It seems quite clear whereas a concern for the environment is an essential part of being green, it is… by no means the same thing as being green. The politics of radical ecology embraces every dimension of human experience and all life on earth – that is to say, it goes a great deal further in terms of political

comprehensiveness than any other political project or ideology has ever gone before” (Stavrakakis, 1997).

In conclusion, after deconstructing the discursive framework of ecological ideology, it has been determined that ecologism represents a “new” ideology composed of “old” elements. Furthermore, after reviewing the work of Arne Naess, the central nodal points of ecologism were identified, serving as the connecting points to a wide-stretching ideology in general. Finally, the expansion of ecologism into global social, economic and political awareness, culminating in green politics, set ecologism apart from all other ideologies. Indeed, while growing ecological awareness envelopes more and more aspects of our “modern” society, the true spiritual nature of ecology remains illusive, and has yet to be absorbed on an epistemological level, ultimately leaving the fate of our natural world as undetermined.

References Bookchin, M. (2002). Social Ecology Versus Deep Ecology.

In: Schmidtz, D Willott, E. Environmental Ethics: What Really Matters, What Really Works. New York: Oxford University Press. 126-136.

Devall, B Sessions, G. (2002). Deep Ecology. In: Schmidtz, D Willott, E. Environmental Ethics: What Really Matters, What Really Works. New York: Oxford University Press. 120-125.

Dobson, A. (2007). Thinking about Ecologism. In: Green Political Thought. 4th ed. New York: Routledge. 10-28.

Frodeman, R. (1995). Radical Environmentalism and the Political Roots of Postmodernism: Differences That Make A Difference. In: Oelschlaeger, M. Postmodern Environmental Ethics. Albany: State University of New York Press. 121-135.

Humphrey, M. (2000). ‘Nature’ in deep ecology and social ecology: Contesting the core. Journal of Political Ideologies.

5 (2).

Luke, T. (2009). An Apparatus of Answers? Ecologism as Ideology in the 21st Century. New Political Scientist. 31 (4), 487-498.

Naess, A. (1973). The Shallow and The Deep, Long-Range Ecology Movements. A Summary. Inquiry. 16 (1), 95-100.

Schumacher, E. F. (1973). Small is Beautiful: A Study of Economics as if People Mattered. London: Vintage.

Stavrakakis, Y. (1997). Green Ideology: A Discursive Reading.

Journal of Political Ideologies. 2 (3).

111

phenomenon humans have created. The general approach of ecologism can confront this debate, ranging from a state-wide level, i.e. the role of developed states contra those developing, all the way down to the smallest forms of organisms in conflict.

Therefore, “plans” or “models” which can be made for future societies hold little or no value to ecologists, since ecologism simply advocates a society of widening “classless diversity” between all species of life (Naess, pg. 97, 1973).

Naess’ fourth point, the fight against pollution and resource depletion, is one often scrutinised under the shallow versus deep debate. While Naess recognised this particular debate has earned lots of support outside the ecologist community, the majority of this support has been to the detriment of the cause. In turn, the entire debate surrounding pollution and natural resources became focused on the aforementioned issues (such as continued exploitation), instead of the wider problem behind the issue.

Fifth, Naess argues for “complexity – not complication.” Too often, human problems or tasks may seem utterly complex, yet they are merely complicated. In reality, the interconnectedness of all organisms on earth display astoundingly high levels of complexity, to which humans remain ignorant.

There lies a greater, metaphysical aspect ascribed to nature that should always be respected as our society continues to envelope our finite natural world. It is this philosophical backdrop which led Dobson to claim an individual’s state of happiness lies completely separate from traditional economic advancement, for example as seen is the rise of a country’s Gross Domestic Product (Dobson, pg. 14, 2007). As such, traditional ideologies from left to right, while they may disagree on many levels, both advocate the advancement of economy and industry for whatever reason. Ecologism, on the other hand, does not priorities economic or industrial growth; in fact, it is completely indifferent to such notions, heading in an entirely separate direction. This is an important distinction in setting ecologism apart as its own ideology.

Last but not least, the concept of local autonomy and decentralization is key to ecologism as a whole. It is argued by Naess that in order to promote greater material and mental self-sufficiency, localization on a grand scale must give higher power to local governments and authorities on the municipal level. Problems such as pollution and resource consumption, to name a few, can be shrunken down to such levels which will increase the chances of these processes becoming streamline and nonharmful to the environment. The level of bureaucracy should be regulated from bottom-upwards in order to give local autonomies the freedoms needed to cater to their specific needs (Naess, pg. 98, 1973). This key point of ecologism has been further imbedded into the general ideological discourse through many different academics, including economist E.F. Schumacher, in his book Small is Beautiful.

Schumacher theorised how the advent of localised systems overseen by a central authority could strike a unique balance which would not impede the creativity and entrepreneurialism of mankind in their promotion of a central ecological blueprint (Schumacher, pg. 204, 1973).

Overall, it is important to note following the outline of Naess’ six nodal points that many continue to question the generality of ecologism as an ideology.

Murray Bookchin believes the lack of centrality within ecologism leaves behind the difficult task of categorising conflicting viewpoints falling under the same general “umbrella.” According to him, “there are barely disguised racists, survivalists, macho Daniel Boones, and outright social reactionaries who use the word ‘ecology’ to express their views, just as there are deeply concerned naturalists, communitarians, social radicals, and feminists who use the word ‘ecology’ to express their views” (Bookchin, pg. 127, 1985). While Naess himself admits to the general nature of ecologism, it is important to recognise once again that all ideologies, though they may approach the same problem from a different angle, do so in the absence of any over-arching “truths.” According to Cheney, it is clear that if “we were all similarly positioned, we would all arrive at the same views” (Frodeman, pg. 124, 1995). Moreover, it would be impossible to claim that all those subscribing to an ideology would have the same set of knowledge or beliefs, in that it would be merely tautological or useless to establish an elusive “truth.” Effectively, “truth” becomes individualized, whereas the ideology as a whole is used as a framework to coerce a wider agreement or mobilisation (Frodeman, pg.

125, 1995). This is precisely how the manifestation of ecologism emerged onto the political landscape, representing the final step in legitimising itself as an ideology.

Effectively, during the course of the twentieth and early twenty-first century, global ecological awareness has reached its highest levels. Arguably, this is due to our heightened environmental crisis (regarding pollution, irreversible climate change, etc.) as well as the increase of systematic analysis of such ecological threats from a social, political and economic basis (Dobson, pg. 24, 2007). The widespread awareness regarding the current state of our relationship with nature has reached popular cinema, media, industry, manufacturing, even food production to create a “green” consciousness – albeit deep ecologists such as Naess would shudder at the proclamations of Whole Foods shoppers finding their ecological consciousness by switching to organic. Nonetheless, one advancement in particular, the proliferation of the green politics, displays the effect ecologism has had on modern society. A prime example highlights the 1992 British Green Party’s manifesto, based off of Jonathon Porritt’s 1984 title Seeing Green (Stavrakakis, 1997). Like Naess, Porritt has outlined in fifteen clear steps the path green politicians wish to take - “..if you want one simple contrast between green and conventional politics, it is our belief that quantitative demand must be reduced, not expanded (Dobson, pg. 13, 2007).” This straightforward statement by Porritt sticks closely towards Naess and Schumacher’s promotion of “small is beautiful,” as well as the rejection of constant industrial growth as a measure of human advancement. The example provided here further validates the legitimacy of ecologism as an ideology in its own right, where by mainstream environmentalism falls short. In Porritt’s words; “It seems quite clear whereas a concern for the environment is an essential part of being green, it is… by no means the same thing as being green. The politics of radical ecology embraces every dimension of human experience and all life on earth – that is to say, it goes a great deal further in terms of political

comprehensiveness than any other political project or ideology has ever gone before” (Stavrakakis, 1997).

In conclusion, after deconstructing the discursive framework of ecological ideology, it has been determined that ecologism represents a “new” ideology composed of “old” elements. Furthermore, after reviewing the work of Arne Naess, the central nodal points of ecologism were identified, serving as the connecting points to a wide-stretching ideology in general. Finally, the expansion of ecologism into global social, economic and political awareness, culminating in green politics, set ecologism apart from all other ideologies. Indeed, while growing ecological awareness envelopes more and more aspects of our “modern” society, the true spiritual nature of ecology remains illusive, and has yet to be absorbed on an epistemological level, ultimately leaving the fate of our natural world as undetermined.

References Bookchin, M. (2002). Social Ecology Versus Deep Ecology.

In: Schmidtz, D Willott, E. Environmental Ethics: What Really Matters, What Really Works. New York: Oxford University Press. 126-136.

Devall, B Sessions, G. (2002). Deep Ecology. In: Schmidtz, D Willott, E. Environmental Ethics: What Really Matters, What Really Works. New York: Oxford University Press. 120-125.

Dobson, A. (2007). Thinking about Ecologism. In: Green Political Thought. 4th ed. New York: Routledge. 10-28.

Frodeman, R. (1995). Radical Environmentalism and the Political Roots of Postmodernism: Differences That Make A Difference. In: Oelschlaeger, M. Postmodern Environmental Ethics. Albany: State University of New York Press. 121-135.

Humphrey, M. (2000). ‘Nature’ in deep ecology and social ecology: Contesting the core. Journal of Political Ideologies.

5 (2).

Luke, T. (2009). An Apparatus of Answers? Ecologism as Ideology in the 21st Century. New Political Scientist. 31 (4), 487-498.

Naess, A. (1973). The Shallow and The Deep, Long-Range Ecology Movements. A Summary. Inquiry. 16 (1), 95-100.

Schumacher, E. F. (1973). Small is Beautiful: A Study of Economics as if People Mattered. London: Vintage.

Stavrakakis, Y. (1997). Green Ideology: A Discursive Reading.

Journal of Political Ideologies. 2 (3).

111

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