THE ENGAGEMENT BETWEEN ARCHITECTURE AND DANCE
A DISSERTATION REPORT Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of
BACHELOR OF ARCHITECTURE BATCH 2016-2021
NITTE INSTITUTE OF ARCHITECTURE, DERALAKATTE, MANGALORE, KARNATAKA, INDIA 575018
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that this Dissertation report titled “The engagement between architecture and dance” is the bonafide work carried out by Saideepa NU16UAR029 who carried out the work at Nitte Institute of Architecture under the guidance of Amrit Narkar, during the period January 2020 – April 2020 in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the degree of Bachelor of Architecture of Nitte (Deemed to be University).
29/07/20
Amrit Narkar Dissertation Advisor
Kanchana Ganesan
Prof. Vinod Aranha
Sreesha Bhat
Director
Dissertation Coordinators
Nitte Institute of Architecture
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DECLARATION
The dissertation report entitled “The engagement between architecture and dance” submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the degree of BACHELOR OF ARCHITECTURE of NITTE (Deemed to be University) is done by me and is not submitted to any other university. Wherever contributions of others are involved, every effort is made to indicate this clearly, with due reference to the literature, and acknowledgement of collaborative research and discussions. The work was done under the guidance of Amrit Narkar, at the Nitte Institute of Architecture.
29/07/2020
Saideepa NU16UAR029 Nitte Institute of Architecture, Deralakatte, Mangalore, Karnataka, India 575018
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ABSTRACT
The two physical paradigms, considered in this research are architecture and dance. These two co-exists as an interlinked system of Hindu philosophy. This dissertation research attempts to illustrate the connection between the south Indian temple architecture and south Indian classical dance so that we can perceive the mutual dependence in aesthetic expression among the two art forms. Based on the south Indian aesthetics, the discussion begins with the Hindu ideology of the cosmic man and its association concerning religious aspects with southern India’s Dravidian architecture. Dance is the most creative means of an art form for understanding the engagement between the performer's body and its interaction with the space around them. The temple is constructed based on the concept of a mandala and as a setup for the performance of dance, it shares a quality of engaging its performer into a multi-sensory spatial experience.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The Dhyana shloka is a traditional prayer to start a dance practice. It reads as,
Angikam Bhuvanam Yasya Vachikam Sarva Vangmayam Aaharyam Chandra Taradi Tam Vande Saattvikam Shivam
Gurur-Brahma Gurur-Vishnu Gurur-Devo Maheshwaraha Guru-sākshat Para-Brahma tasmai Shri Gurave Namaha
Whose bodily movement is the entire Universe Whose speech is the language (of the Universe) Whose ornaments are the moon and the stars Him, we version the pure (serene) Lord Shiva!
O Master; you are the creator, the sustainer, the divine and destroyer. You are the omnipresent and the glorious transcendental divinity, I salute You.
Figure 1 Lord Natarāja, in praise of whom this prayer is dedicated to, to start a dance practice.
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CONTENTS CHAPTER 1. THE PRELIMINARY………………………………. Page 06 Introduction 1.1
Aim
1.2
Scope
1.3
Limitations
1.4
Research methodology
CHAPTER 2. THE PAST……………………………………………. Page 09 2.1 History of dance 2.2 The foundation of Hindu Temple architecture and Indian classical dance 2.2.1 The cosmic man 2.2.2 The Natya shastra CHAPTER 3. THE PROCESS………………………………………. Page 37 3.1 Exploring of Space 3.2 Creation of Narrative 3.2.1 Spatial Narrative 3.2.2 Narrative in Natyam
CHAPTER 4. THE CONNECTION………………………………… Page 50 4.1 Case Study
CHAPTER 5. INFERENCE……………………………………........ Page 64 6. Bibliography………………………………………………….......... Page 65
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INTRODUCTION Ancient Hindu philosophy perceived the art of dance and the dancer functions as a vehicle for divine invocation mirrored in architectural surroundings. Kapila Vatsyayan, in her book, “Indian Classical Dance” explains dance as the highest order of spiritual discipline and the enactment of which is symbolic of a ritual sacrifice of one's being to a transcendental order. The Natyashastra, a treatise on drama and dance, reveals the status of the performing arts as equal to prayer and sacrificial rites in the pursuit of moksha, the release form cycles of rebirth. Dravidians of the Indian sub-continent, regarded architecture and dance as two physical models, co-existing in a closely connected system that is rich with music, literature and sculpture. The religious relationship between the Hindu philosophy of the cosmic man and the Dravidian temple architecture is the point to initiate the discussion with south Indian aesthetics. The identity of a dancer is inherent in the specific character of their respective architectural settings. In this paper, considering the Bharatanatyam dancers as temple dancers, it is vitally important to understand the mythical origins of temple architecture and dance, to investigate the connection between architecture and dance. The association of architecture and dance culture were unambiguous up to the 18th century, it is less captivating in the context of modern south Indian architecture. During the 20th century, due to the increasingly unstable political landscape led the architectural growth in south India to be very stagnant in this period. And hence, this created a disintegration in the continuity and comparative of the evolution of dance and architecture that led to the fragmentation and abstraction of dance in its modern form. Between tradition and modernity, there is an important link even though since south Indian dance has transformed into an important cultural symbol and various embodiment of the dancers have become so isolated. Hence, there is a constant need to reinstate the importance of architecture as a cultural connection to restring the fragmented dance, community and cultural identity.
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1.1
AIM: To attain a parallel between architecture and dance by exploring its connection through their narratives.
1.2
SCOPE: An address to analyse and sense the understanding of space and spatial organisation from two art forms namely, architecture and dance through drawing a parallel between the two. This dissertation is associated with the design and performing arts, and only the practices of south Indian temple architecture and south Indian classical dance has been considered. In the context of spatial organisation, there may be many common aspects between Indian temple architecture and Indian classical architecture i.e., the artistic, technical and spiritual intricacy. The procedure that would draw the parallel between the two shall be through the analysis of, 1) the experience of spaces and 2) the creation of narrative.
1.3
LIMITATIONS: This dissertation underlies the reviewing of works of literature and the narrative methodology of various concepts associated with this subject. It comprises of acknowledging and reviewing various approaches of perception of art historians, authors and philosophers, as well as addresses various common fields of research within the practices of architecture and dance, but limits this study to only the ones that are been mentioned. Since the topic is more subjective, the whole interpretation of the essentials required for the research would be preferably in an individual’s opinion about this concept which is a part of the whole. Present-day, dance resides in numerous forms and is performed by various people in different styles. Dance can be classified and set out based on its choreography, compilation of movements, or by its place of origin or historic period. Varying from regional to worldwide and traditional to modern, dance has a diverse character in nature concerning it to performance routine. Thus, limiting the extents of this research to Indian classical dance- Bharatanatyam and the Hindu temple architecture.
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The development of the research structure is limited to the analysis based on the literature reviews and case study i.e., secondary data for to attain a parallel between architecture and dance by exploring its connection through their narratives since research site survey cannot be conducted due to unforeseen circumstances. The research concludes by intending towards an enhanced view and dialogue and hence does not propose any solution.
1.4
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY: •
Utilization of resources from the literature reviews for the preliminary study of the Indian classical dance forms and its evolution.
•
Analysing the underlying principles and the inter-related concepts of south Indian dance and temple architecture.
•
Understanding the progressive development of the two art forms through their “narratives” for the research to interpret the diverse theories and critiques on the aspects of the proposed research.
•
Exploring the elements which contribute to its mutual dependence by analysing the case study with secondary data, since research site survey could not be conducted due to unforeseen pandemic circumstances.
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CHAPTER 2. THE PAST 2.1 HISTORY OF DANCE Kapila Vatsyayan, in her book, “Indian Classical Dance” states that “The history of Indian classical dance is no longer a matter of conjecture; it is a fact and reality which pervades all parts of India and extends from the earliest levels of civilization to the present day. This mass and volume of material are so extensive that it has been impossible for scholars to bring it together in one single totality. Besides, the art has permeated all others ranging from poetry and literature to architecture, sculpture and painting and naturally music and theatre. The antiquity, vastness and the multiple facts of the art make it impossible to make a total conclusive statement. Nevertheless, through the single distinctive traditions in different parts of India, we can have a glimpse of the rich, strong and vibrant traditions of the art from the earliest times.” Since dance is very extensive and shows a lot of varieties in its area of study, it is necessary to first understand its history and background. This will guide us in understanding dance as being involved in many layers and the established art form which will help us to understand the focus on the study better.
The history of Indian classical dance can be divided into four periods: The first period is pre-historic and proto-historic. Dance has been a mode of expression for man since historic times. A man used movements to express his emotions even before languages and scripts were developed. This period consists of the traces of evidence found in cave paintings and inscriptions. It comprises evidence of Mohenjo-Daro and the Harrapan civilization and the literary evidence which can be had from the Vedas, the Upanishads, the Brahmanas and the epics. In this period, early traces of dance can be seen as carvings of dancing bodies with musicians are depicted on the walls of the caves in the Jain temples of Udyogiri from first century B.C.
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Figure 2 Mural of Apsaras, 10th century Cholan dynasty. (Image source: https://www.ancient-origins.net/pallava-dynasty)
The second period is considered to be from the second century B.C. to ninth century B.C. and during this period, dance became a form of offering prayers then that just of a mode of expression. This period includes the monuments of the Buddhists stupas such as those of Bharhut, Sanchi, Bhaja, Amravati, Nagarjunakonda, and the caves of Ellora and the temples in different parts of India. A large number of dancers (devadasis1) who danced to pray were maintained by temples and the courts, evidence of which could be seen in the temples in different parts of India in the form of sculptural evidence. The devadasi's main function in the temple was to perform her dance. The deity was honoured and worshipped with dance which was listed as the fifteenth in the sixteen ritualistic acts of homage supposed to be paid to the deity. The State Inscriptions of Pudukkoltai (1929:20, no. 169) includes an inscription dating to the reign of Kulottunga
1
The term devadasi, literally "servant of god", generally designates a woman belonging to a certain community,
trained to perform rituals accompanied by dances and songs in Hindu temples. The Encyclopedia of Social Work in India, vol. 1 (Ministry of Welfare 1987: 177)
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III (1205-18) which refers to fixed structures of time during the day when the devadasis presented the dance in temples and which dancer could dance when. “When the Brahmin priest did the puja the dasis performed the same actions using hand gestures to show the bell, the light, the fly whisk, etc.”2
Figure 3 Temple dancer, known as Devadasis, who were dedicated to serve the Lord, performing the dance form in South Indian temples (A drawing by Christopher Green, c.1800). (Image source: https://sangeethas.wordpress.com/2012/12/11/old-vintage-photos/ )
From this, we realise that the dance must have been central to culture for the sculptor to have been inspired to portray it in stone repeatedly. It was during this period that there was the first articulation of self-conscious understanding of this art which helped the compilation of the ‘Natya Shastra’. The third period is considered to be from the tenth century B.C. to eighteenth-century A.D. and this includes early medieval and late medieval monuments. In this period, there was a marked development of regional architectural, sculptural, pictorial, music and dance styles along with the development of regional literature. Dance in this
2
Anne-Marie Gaston, Bharata Natyam: From Temple to Theatre, pg.34
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period had become an art form and a form of education than being a form of prayer. As dance has evolved over the years, so did spaces for dance. There came an increase in need of spaces to conduct this discipline parallelly with the increase in the mode of worship. Performing in the temple’s assembly hall, the dance went on to the development of an architectural space particularly allocated for it, for example, the Natya Mandapas i.e. the dance halls in Indian temples. Architecture and dance then became a fundamental unit of cultural and societal aspects.
Figure 4 Nautch girl in Durbar, in front of Royal and Aristocrat Men – c1880’s (Posted by old Indian photos in oldindianphotos.in) (Image source: https://sangeethas.wordpress.com/2012/12/11/old-vintage-photos/ )
The fourth period is considered to from the late eighteenth- century A.D. to contemporary India. Foreign invaders who alleged their colonies in India, regarded dance as a threat to reunite the Indians since it bought people together. The British system of education did not recognize the “arts” as a subject of the educational curriculum. The generation which went to schools and colleges, founded by the British in India in the nineteenth-century, was thus isolated from the artistic traditions of the country. The dance was then forbidden from being performed in public, but the devotees of the art continued to practise it privately in their homes and brothels.
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Figure 5 The Tanjore Nautch party to the late 19 th century. (Image source: https://sangeethas.wordpress.com/2012/12/11/old-vintage-photos/ )
The art had died by the twentieth- century and it was seen as diluted and of a degenerated form called “Nautch”. This period is examined to be a period of great political uncertainty, but after independence, these lost arts were breathed new life from fragments to make a new artistic whole. The classical Indian dance forms of contemporary India are mostly reconstructions of parts of ancient times. At present day, majority of classical dances are been taught, learnt and performed in dance schools where learners from different states in India and also from international countries come to acquire knowledge and skills concerned to classical dance forms. Many dancers and choreographers also try to collaborate these dance forms with international dance forms to increase the horizon of this art form even though this art is highly appreciated and celebrated in its authentic forms.
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Figure 6 Rukmini Devi, the woman who revived Bharatanatyam and made it renowned all around the world. (Photo source: Kalakshetra)
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2.2 THE FOUNDATION OF HINDU TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE AND BHARATANATYAM In ancient Indian architecture, the basic axiality is the model of cosmos – the mandala. Similarly, in the principles of Indian classical dance, the dancer’s body is considered to be enclosed by an imaginary circular mandala, where the body is divided into four by vertical-horizontal axes that are passing through the point of origin- the navel. In terms of both the forms of art, the concept of movement through basic axiality is originating at a single point. 2.2.1
THE COSMIC MAN
Investigating architecture concerning the model of cosmos- The Vaastu Purusha Mandala In ‘Vistāra - The Architecture of India’, Catalogue of the Exhibition, Edited by Carmen Kagal, The Festival of India, 1986., Charles Correa commenced the introduction by stating that “We live in a world of manifest phenomena. Yet, ever since the beginning of time, man has intuitively sensed the existence of another world: a nonmanifest world whose presence underlies – and makes endurable – the one we experience every day.” This existence of the manifest world and the non- manifest world has always raised a question regarding its involvement as an important role in our country India as well as the western countries. We tend to question whether the phenomenal world that we experience exists? Or whether there exists anything like Brahman or whether our life on earth is in existence in reality or it is merely a state of a dream? These questions have confused us but there were philosophers, psychics and seers who have attempted to examine them in the past. The primary mode using which we perceive and explore the concept of this nonmanifest world are religion, philosophy and art. Correa proclaims that architecture too is myth-based, expressing the presence of a reality more profound than the manifest world in which it exists. The change in myths as the centuries are advancing new ones come into being is absorbed, ingested, internalised and at the end transformed into a new architecture. Page | 15
Every time this transformation occurs it leads to a new era or a Vistāra that creates the quality of being able to perceive and respond to it. Considering it to be Indian classical musicians, singers and dancers; the sense of ‘Vistāra’ i.e., the expansion which is outward into space is also at the same time a journey inward into our selves. This experience of expansion enhances our knowledge. The history of Indian architecture has been an extraordinary progression of such Vistāras. Correa focuses on discussing the central to all the Vistāras and their exhibition i.e., the Purusha, a large-scale replica of an ancient Jain icon representing a man in his two principal aspects: human and cosmic. Since man is considered to be constant and not changing down the centuries, but the context in which he perceives himself to exist varies considerably; Correa demonstrates this with a diagram with the figure of Purusha which represents not only man human and cosmic, but the more generalised condition of man and his context.
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Claiming historically, Correa concerns to the Vedic times, when the circle was considered to be the cosmos itself and man’s central concern is to define himself and his actions in relation to it. Building constructed is defined to be the models of cosmos which is been generated by the magic diagrams called Vaastu Purusha mandalas. These represent energy-fields, the centre of which is simultaneously both shunya (nothing) and Bindu (the source of all energy) which Correa himself states that it is a truly mind-blowing concept and astonishingly similar to the black holes of contemporary physics. In the catalogue, there follows to be a fascinating exploration regarding the meaning and function of the ‘mandala’ that forms a deep structure that surfaces time and time again. As affirmed by Correa in the introduction years ago in the Vedic period to the philosophers, seers and the mystics, the manifest world was only a part of their existence; there was also the world of the non-manifest and in order to understand the nonmanifest layers that lie beneath, forms and events of this perceived world are considered to be substantial. Concluding this section of the catalogue by stating that the Magic diagrams i.e., the Yantras3 which explain the nature of the cosmos and of these, the Vaastu Purusha Mandala forms the basis of architecture. It has the potential for infinite applications and adaptations in the making of houses, palaces, temples and even cities.
3
Yantras are geometric depictions of cosmic order. They are used as aids to meditation.
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Figure 7 The Sri Yantra, considered the greatest of all yantras, is formed by the interpenetration of nine triangles, four facing upward and five downward. Together they symbolise the union of Shiva and Shakti, representing the creative energy which caused the manifest world. In the centre is the Bindu, reservoir of the infinite. (Image Source: In Vistāra - The Architecture of India, Catalogue of the Exhibition)
“Man is the measure of all things, of being things that they exist, and of non-entities that they do not exist.” Protagoras (C.481-411 B.C.) In the catalogue under the section ‘Fundamental Principles Underlying Indian Architecture’ by Dr Kapila Vatsyayan has approached her work by comprehensive synthetic statements of textual traditions accompanied by a detailed explanation that deals with the basic historical and philosophical origins of Vaastu Purusha mandala as they can be drawn from more ancient traditions linked with the Vedic altars. Page | 18
This section reveals the characteristics of the Primordial Man (Purusha) that it stands always concerning earth and sky and could be demonstrated through innumerable references that could be cited from Indian texts ranging from the earliest Rig Veda (2500 B.C.) to the later Upanishads (5th century B.C.) to prove that ‘Man as Measure’ is a critical term of reference in Indian speculative thought. This section offers a running commentary on the characteristics of cosmic man and its metaphysical organisation.
Figure 8 (Right)Yagna held in Kerala testify to the continuity of tradition over hundreds of years. Note five layers of altar. (Left) A Vedic altar showing the five layers. (Image Source: In Vistāra - The Architecture of India, Catalogue of the Exhibition)
The focus of the discussion shifts back to altars and its different types that is been built on the ground of the sacrificial area (yajna Shala) and further examined the how each area of the earth is carefully demarcated and measured for specific purposes and also the laying of the bricks and their construction follows the basic measure of a square. Vatysayan has discussed in detail the conceptual understanding of the Hindu temple by emphasising on the deep connection between the structure and the symbolism of the temple and the Brahminic fire altar that preceded it.
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The Hindu temple architecture concerning as a model of cosmos In the early Chola period, the Hindu temples served as a place for learning that involved the recital and teaching of sacred texts to attain a higher state of spirituality as well as intellectual aspects. Music and dance also formed part of the daily rituals of the temple. The temples were a centre where all the intellectual, as well as the artistic activities of the Hindu community, were conducted. "From the Hindu point of view, the lives of human beings are merely stages in the progression towards ultimate moksha (liberation) from an illusory world".4 A temple is a place of transit where the man may progress from the world of Maya (illusion) to knowledge and truth. The purpose of the Hindu temple is to provide a link between God and man. In the book entitled ‘The Hindu Temple’ by Stella Kramrisch, the author here as delivered a most important single study of the sources, creation and the symbolic meaning of the Hindu temple, using the traditional texts. Her work is an amalgamation of two approaches. Firstly, it provides a complete blend of views in the traditional texts, which are paraphrased in detail. On the other hand, it also offers her perception of the material evidence found in the temples. Kramrisch initiates her explanation of the temple with the site and its significance, selection and preparation. Her work reveals the meaning of the temple as it is created by four stages i.e., from the selection of the site, through the development of the ground plan, the metaphysical explanation of its spatial organisation, the choice of material used in its construction, and the expression of its parts according to its prescribed proportional measurements to a discussion of the important figurative images in its architectural framework. According to Stella Kramrisch, a Hindu temple is one of the means to attain mokṣa. She explains, Indian temple architecture, in the fullness of its development, establishes in spatial terms an intellectual and actual approach to the Supreme Principle of which the deity is symbolic. The statue is the manifestation (arcā-avatāra) of the deity through a concrete work of art (mūrti), and the building is its body and house. Images are given shape by sculpture and painting, whose inter-relationship expresses in line, proportion
4
George Michell, “The Hindu Temple: An Introduction to Its Meaning and Forms 1st Edition”, p. 49.
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and colour the love (bhakti) to which gods and myths owe their existence as aspects of the Absolute5. The Hindu temple is a monument with elaborate sculptures and wide passages, with other deities placed around the chief deity. The images were originally chiselled out of stone. Later bronze, wood, mortar and other materials were used to make religious images. The images became sacred when rituals were performed and prayers offered in the temples. Most of the sculptures portray dancing postures which enhance not only the beauty of the images but also its philosophic impact.
Figure 9 The earliest sculpture of dancing Siva, in accordance with the Natya Sastra, is in the Badami cave, created during the Chalukyan period in the 6 century A.D. (Image
Source:
https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/history-and-culture/choodamani-
nandagopals-cultural-voyage/article8418039.ece )
5
Stella Kramrisch, The Art of India Through the Ages, 3 rd. ed. (London: Phaidon Press, 1965), (pg. 10)
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Idols of the Gods and the statuary adorning the walls of the temple followed strict numerological ratios to achieve proportionally perfect sculptures. Not merely decorative, the sculpture was seen exploration in space, a representation of order succeeding chaos. Idols of the Gods and the statuary adorning the walls of the temple followed strict numerological ratios to achieve proportionally perfect sculptures. Not merely decorative, the sculpture was seen exploration in space, a representation of order succeeding chaos.
Figure 10 Angular Grid Proposed by Alice Boner. This portrays the Limbs, Gestures, Postures of the carved temple sculptures aligned to the Angular Grid. (Image source: https://www.stijnvandenhoven.com/2018/10/22/11051/ )
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Her work explains in detail about the religious and spiritual importance of the temple utilizing profuse references to Sanskrit texts both sacred and scientific. It portrays the Hindu temple as not only a heap of brick, stone or wood but a visual symbolization of desires of devoutly religious men and women, the throbbing of their hearts in religious fervour and their endeavour for the attainment of salvation. The temple is where the deity makes themselves visible is carried out by the terms used to name the structural elements of the temple i.e., the Vimana6 or the Prasada7 is the seat of god, Devagriham or Devalaya is the residence of god. The Prasada is a square structured form and is the shell of the sanctuary- the garbhagriha. The garbhagriha characterizes to be a small dark chamber i.e., square or circular in plan. The superstructure of the temple is approached through a pillared hall or series of halls- the mandapas8, where devotees assemble for worship. The mandapas are linked with the garbhagriha through a small transitional space called the antarala9 which enacts as a vestibule. The first four parts of the first volume of the book are allocated to based on the underlying historical and the philosophical origins of the temple and trace them to the ancient traditions i.e., the association of the “fire altar” of pre-Hindu Brahmanism. She focuses on determining further in detail of the conceptual and traditional similarities among the Brahmic altar and the Hindu temple’s basic axiality. The approach that is taken to demonstrate this similarity was very historically oriented and speculative, proving that the “fire altar” is said to be as the most essential material forerunner and metaphysically equal to the Hindu temple. She highlights the significance of “Plan”, which is based on a sacred diagram and the square i.e., the Vaastu Purusha mandala. The origin of the word ‘Vaas’ in Vaastu means to reside, dwell and live. The following four are considered as residences by the ancients who were architectural expertise: Bhumi, the earth i.e., ground; Prasada, the temple or palace; Yana, the conveyance, and Sayana, the couch. Bhumi, the earth is 6
Vimana: The superstructure with the dome.
7
Stella Kramrisch, Prasada: "The word denotes a settling down and a seat made of that which has settled down
and acquired concrete form, the form of a dwelling, a residence, the seat of God"., (p. 136) 8
Mandapas: Halls.
9
Antarala, word obtained from antar (inner) and ala (chamber).
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considered to be the main Vaastu from which thereafter the Prasada i.e., the temple or palace and the other works of architecture originates. The Geometry The Vaastu Purusha mandala need not be necessarily an actual man enclosed in numerous cells or squares. Kramrisch explains it as a diagram that is represented through symbols, as the field of co-ordinates, inter-sections, currents, the flow of energies in the “subtle body” of a human being. The form of the Hindu temple stands upon the diagram of the Vaastu- Purusha. The Vaastu-Purusha-mandala takes up the shape of the land that it is been set-up on so it can correctly fit in wherever it is situated. The mandala denotes any closed polygon; therefore, its formation into a triangle, hexagon, octagon, and circle is acceptable, if the area is consistent and it maintains its symbolism. Even though the most essential form is a square shape, its approval of transformation in different shapes depicts the inherent flexibility quality of the Vaastu-Purusha-mandala. Gopuram Vimana
Maha mandapa
Dwajastamba
Figure 11 Hindu Temple and the Structure of Human Body Comparison
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Concerning this, she traces the origins for ritual practices in the remnants of explanation preserved in practical manuals from the 6th to 15th centuries and from more ancient literature. She follows this discussion of “Plan” with the section on “Plan and Supernal Man” raising the question of religious importance from the plan into her exposition of the temple’s elevation. In examining the superstructure of the temple, Kramrisch discusses the surviving temples using a vocabulary to classify the various elements of the structure. Kramrisch’s writing aims to provide a sensitive combination and translation of the Hindu tradition that helps in understanding the mythical origins of Hindu temple architecture. The starting point of the discussion of a south Indian aesthetic is the Hindu philosophy of the cosmic man and its religious association with the Dravidian architecture. The Hindu temple is built on the principle of the Vaastu Purusha Mandala. The mandala is a metaphysical plan which determines the physical form of the temple. The form of the Vaastu Purusha Mandala is a square. The Vaastu Purusha Mandala consists of three parts, Vaastu, Purusha and Mandala, which are as follows: "Vaastu is the extent of Existence in its ordered state and is beheld in the likeness of the Purusha". Purusha is the primordial man, the seed image of Brahma, the supreme creator himself, and is analogous to the cosmic man. The plan of the building is in the likeness of the Purusha, or the totality of manifestation. This primordial man of the Vedas is the creator of the world: "From his speech were born the divinities- earth and fire; from his breath- space and air; and from his eyes- heaven and the sun; from his ears- the quarters and the moon; from his mind- the waters". The word mandala denotes any closed polygon. A mandala can be converted into a triangle, hexagon, octagon, and circle of equal area. In ancient India, the mandala was used as the generating order for both sacred and secular buildings. Each mandala is a perfect square, subdivided into identical squares. This subdivision creates a series of squares having side lengths as 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 up to 3210 units. The series of mandalas (squares) corresponds to the geometrical method of gnomonic expansion, a method 10
Each of the 32 types of mandala has its own significance. The complete series is not acknowledged everywhere.
The 32 mandalas correspond to the 32 asanas (positions) of Yoga practice. The Hindu Temple by Stella Kramrisch, 1962 (pg. 58-59).
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known to the Greeks. "A gnomon is any figure which, when added to an original figure, leaves the resultant figure similar to the original". In temple architecture, the most commonly used mandalas are those of 64 and 81 squares, with the various deities allocated places in accordance with their importance and with the qualities inherent to the diagram. The most sacred mandala is the plan of 64 squares11 and is used for the construction of shrines. The order of the celestial world as established on earth is illustrated by the yantra of 64 squares. "The mandala of 8x8 squares forms the basis on which rests the temple in which the universe has its image, and man his place of transformation".
Figure 12 64 squares mandala (left) and 84 squares mandala (right). (image source: https://architexturez.net/file/vistara-book-page-038-b-png )
From this, we can comprehend that the Vaastu-Purusha mandala is a philosophical diagram that provides a basis for Hindu aesthetics, that links physical distance, religious position and universal scale in both time and space. It is used as an architectural diagram that becomes a medium between the human body and the cosmos.
11
The Hindu Temple by Stella Kramrisch, 1962 (pg. 46)
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2.2.2
THE NATYA SHASTRA
A pilgrim’s visit to the temple also includes a period of rest within the temple grounds, with participation in community entertainment which was typically a public performance of sacred songs, dance or the recital of ancient texts. The foremost important shrine surrounding the sanctum was the mandapa, a free-standing pavilion erected solely for the community’s engagement with art. Indian classical dance is an art form that characterises the spiritual through the physical and as a part of worship it has always been considered as of great importance. The Natya Shastra is a treatise on drama and dance. It talks about stagecraft and covers virtually every other aspect of stagecraft such as stage design, music, dance, and makeup12. The Natya Shastra is the foundation of the fine arts in India. Sage Bharata is said to have written this great work Natyashastra. It has 37 chapters and it is about 2000 years old. It reveals the status of the performing arts as equivalent to any other devotional path, as it is capable of raising the consciousness of participants to a higher plane. The first half of Natyashastra deals with Rasa and the second with prose. The last chapter discusses architecture, the most ambiguous of all the chapters. Further, the document reads as instructions for construction as opposed to an overall description of the buildings themselves, illustrated by the title Mandaparidhanam, i.e., ‘Making of play-houses13’. In his book “The Theatric Universe”, Pramod Kale attributes this to the limitations of an oral tradition. It is also interesting to note that the description of the theatre and its architecture are from the point of view of the performer and not the spectator, insinuating instruction to a specific group of individuals and not the general public. This emphasizes the status of theatre as much higher than public entertainment and is
12
Kale, Pramod. 1974. The Theatric Universe: A study of the Natyashastra. Popular Prakashan Pvt Limited,
Bombay, (pg. 04) 13
Playhouses in temples (Natya mandapa) are performance stages.
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consistent with similar oral traditions employed by teachers of architecture, dance, music and other artistic faculties14. Performances in these playhouses supported religious texts were revered as texts themselves; important in an exceeding culture where religion provided much of the underlying context for dramatic performances. Thus, the theatre was another microcosm of ultimate reality, as plays and dance initiated and sustained multiple realities more experientially than its written counterparts. The dancers portray themselves as a physical representation of a religious frame of reference and embodied the potential of movement and spiritual growth at the same time. Through the movements and gestures of the dancers, the experience of the space i.e., pillared halls transformed into sacred spaces, by demonstrating an infinite number of characters from the religious context. From this dance narration, viewers are carried away to a world of divine imagination. There are 3 main types of buildings described in the Nātya- Shāstra. These are multiplied by 3 sizes, for a total of 9 types of theatres.15
Tryasra
Caturasra
Vikrsta
(64 hastas)
(32 hastas)
(64 x 32 hastas)
Three sizes of theatres outlined in Nātya-Shāstra Note: The hasta is a traditional Indian unit of length, measured from the elbow to the tip of the middle finger. It equals 24 angulas orﾠ about 18 inches, about 45 centimetres.
14
Kale, Pramod. 1974. The Theatric Universe: A study of the Natyashastra. Popular Prakashan Pvt Limited,
Bombay, (pg. 36) 15
Edström, Per. 1990. Why not theaters made for people? Arena Theatre Institute, Varmland, Sweden, (pg. 50)
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Three types of temple architecture - Layana, Guhādhāra, and Guhārāja - are also derived from the descriptions outlined in the Nātya-Shāstra, referencing the rock-cut temples of Ellora and Ajanta among others.16 The body as a model of cosmos In the western traditions proportion in architecture was discussed by Vitruvius, Leon Battista Alberti, Andrea Palladio, and Le Corbusier among others. “The Vitruvian Man” developed by Leonardo da Vinci based on the description of Vitruvius' ideal ratio of
Figure 13 The Modular (1948) by Le Corbusier.
16
Kale, Pramod. 1974. The Theatric Universe: A study of the
Natyashastra. Popular Prakashan Pvt Limited,
Bombay, (pg. 16)
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the human body and the “Le Modulor (1948)” in which Le Corbusier presented a system of proportions which took the golden ratio and a man with a raised arm as the scalable modules of proportion. Le Corbusier developed his proportioning system, the Modular, to order “the dimensions of that which contains and that which is contained.” His measuring tool, the Modular, was based on both mathematics (the aesthetic dimensions of the Golden Section and the Fibonacci Series), and the proportions of the human body (functional dimensions). Similar to western traditions, an architectural measurement was based on the human form. This system invoked Purusha bound in the Vaastu Purusha mandala and the TālaMāna system.
1 Danda
Figure 14 Vitruvian Man, with theatre measurement as described in Nātya-Shāstra overlaid (left) and Tala-Māna, sculptural measurement system, as described in Mānasāra (right).
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In multiples of 8, indivisible particles - paramanu, measure angulas17. One angula measures a fingerbreadth, a basis of architecture and sculptural proportion and measurement.
Figure 15 Length of a face and corresponding length of face and palm
Note: 04 angulas = tala 84 angulas = purusha (height of a man) 10 angulas = Saya-tala 24 angulas = hasta 106 angulas = Danda (measured from one hand’s tip of the middle finger to the other hand’s tip of the middle finger.)
17
Angula - A finger's breadth
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The dancer’s body as a model of cosmos Bharatanatyam originated in southern India in the state of Tamil Nadu. It started as a temple dance tradition called Dasiyattam (the dance of the maid-servants) 2000 years ago and is perhaps the most advanced and evolved dance form of all the classical Indian dance forms. The name Bharatanatyam is a simple derivation from the four most important aspects of dance (in Sanskrit). These are Bha from Bhava meaning emotion, Ra from Raaga meaning music or melody, Ta from Taala meaning rhythm and Natyam meaning dance. Thus, Bharatanatyam is the dance that encompasses music, rhythm and expressional dance or Abhinaya and strictly adheres to the Natyashastra.
Figure 16 A painting highlighting the grace of a Bharatanatyam dancer, performing in New Delhi. ‘Expression’ is a piece of digital artwork by Shubnum Gill. (Image Source: https://fineartamerica.com/featured/expression-shubnum-gill.html )
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This dance form is defined by a linear form of the body without any pronounced movement of the upper body and linear spatial patterns, which makes the dance form extremely dynamic and robust. Lord Nataraja, (in Sanskrit: “Lord of the Dance”) the Hindu god Shiva in his form as the cosmic dancer, represented in metal or stone in many Shaivite temples, particularly in South India. The Nataraja iconography represents the proportion system in sacred geometry which exists in nature in the form of golden ratio.
Figure 17 Iconography of lord Nataraja inscribed in 84 squares mandala; his left leg is raised suggesting a movement from left to right. This describes the proportion system in dance as per the natya shastra
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Figure 18 Comparative measurement systems: Nataraja Shiva inscribed in Shatkona (left) and Vitruvian Man, with theatre measurement as described in Nātya-Shāstra (right) Note: Shatkona or Sri-Chakra are both combinations of upward triangle(s) and downward triangle(s).
The Natyashastra elaborated a technique to the structure of the human body; and outlined the relationship between the point of origin i.e. the navel, the verticals and horizontals. It then coordinated them, first with the positions and movements of the principal joints of neck, pelvis, knees and ankles; and, then with the emotive states, the expressions. Based on these principles, Natya-Shastra enumerated many standings and sitting positions. In Bharatanatyam, the word ‘Araimandi’ basically means half-sitting posture. Mandala in Bharatanatyam is a body posture which may involve a small movement. The height of a person decided the araimandi, the distance from the navel to the head should be equal to the distance from the navel to the ground.
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The Spiritual symbolism of araimandi is that it becomes a mandala where the body is divided into two equal triangles with their apex meeting at the navel inside a square. A mandala is symbolic of the cosmos, it is a sacred space and with a deep focus on the mandala, one aims to dissolve the microcosm into the macro.
Figure 19 Dancer’s body inscribed in a mandala
The dancers not only affect life but calls it into being through the exploration of spatial orientation and rhythm. They manifest the external order and structure of the universe as an animated three-dimensional representation of the Vāstu-Purusha mandala. Because of their dynamic nature and unlike static positioning in a Cartesian grid, a dancer can assign qualitative characteristics to numerous directions, charging them with her movements and gestures thereby establishing a hierarchy of space.
The body of the dancer not only acts as the mandala but also the axis Mundi i.e., earth axis connecting the heaven and the earth. This body of the dancer so imagined also resembles the damru held in lord Nataraja’s hand which produced the first sounds leading to creation. This symbolic model of cosmos is deeply rooted in the artistic culture, eventually disclosing the Bharatanatyam dancer as a physical demonstration of architectural and religious philosophy.
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The Bharatanatyam dancer’s body when traversed in space; it is in linear or in triangular formations, that creates a symmetrical pattern where one half of the body is usually in a stationary motion. Each step is grounded and reinforced in the sound of her anklets as their feet dance through various rhythmic repetitions only to return to the balanced samabhanga pose. A Bharatanatyam dancer does not make use of ‘gliding’ footwork and is rarely completely off the ground. However, the exact use of stage space and how much of it was traversed through footwork and gestural movement varies from each dancer.
Figure 20 Dancer’s Body formations during performance
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CHAPTER 3. THE PROCESS 3.1 EXPLORING SPACE
Initially, to understand the relationship between dance and architecture, we might first consider the space between the moving body and architecture. Space defines itself when in contact with the human body such that the existence of a human body becomes the core of all exploration. Space is fundamentally experienced by the body and the mind. The practices of architecture and dance, both deliver and share diverse attributes in their process of creation to explore the various experiences in space. In comparison with an average human being, a feature of a dancer’s body is much likely to have an ability to boost up the experience of the space, with the help of a set of enhanced movements able to move with an awareness of the whole physical self. Sensation pertains to the physical body, the senses; it is intrinsic, irrational and unstable, often mutating and moving. Perception, on the other hand, is on the mind it is rational, extrinsic, static and with clear distinctions between subject and the object of perception (Erwin Straus, The Primary World of the Senses). Through human senses the interaction between the body and space takes place. A body not only involves the surrounding spaces but also interacts with other bodies, which further conducts an engagement between these two bodies. Utilizing our sensory perceptions our body constantly communicates and responds to the world around us. In architect Juhani Pallasmaa’s book that has been accepted as a classic of architectural theory “The Eyes of The Skin”, highlights the significance of human sensory concerning architecture. In the second part of the book, Pallasmaa has surveyed the interactions of the senses. He proclaimed “a sensory architecture in opposition to the prevailing visual understanding of the art of building”. He sets out the relationship between body and space, and states that “our bodies and movements are in constant interaction with the environment; the world and the self-inform and redefine each other constantly”. While moving around, a whole set of sensory experience is achieved by our body, which initiates a world of interacting senses. When all our senses i.e. not only visual but also taste, smell, auditory, touch and our muscles are affected, causes the experiences to move us and gets engraved within us. One’s experience within the
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building or an open space could differ from one another. When we individually go out there and experience the space, we are creating our image and understanding about the world. The body should not be considered as an insignificant physical entity. It is been enhanced by experiences in the past and present, also enriched with memories and dreams that one goes through in life. Psychologist James J Gibson considers the senses as “aggressively seeking mechanisms rather than mere passive receivers “. This arises a question if the architects in the building that they design offer any opportunity for the sense to seek in aggressively? Do we experience every building that we walk through memorable? Pallasmaa claims “a walk through the forest is invigorating and healing due to constant interaction of all sense modalities”. From this literature, raises the question, do we at present-day experience such multisensory experiences in day to day architecture? As stated in the first part of the book by,” The dominance of vision over the other senses” which has now become underlying support to design a building the society. The user may be amazed by the aesthetically pleasing space or its proportions and scale. But if it does not produce a bodily experience then the user may sense a feeling of disconnection or isolated from the space occupied. In the case of dancers, as they move through space, they consistently feel the space, relate to it and unite with space. However, architects experience space conceptually. In the act of exploring space, the perceptions of dancers and architects differ because of their personal association with space. It is a constant process of understanding space through perception and experience and at times it also claims to be an unconscious process because sometimes one may be unaware of their perception. There is a deep relationship between body and space and it is necessary to be enhanced with the help of architecture. The user needs to be engaged with the spaces that have been designed. The existence of the body as a system is a combination with the environment. And this environment comprises of spaces surrounding us that is physical and also metaphysical. The perception and sensorial characteristics of spaces within the vicinity of the body and mind is defined by its qualitative character.
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3.2 CREATION OF NARRATIVE
While the major forms of literature books narrate its stories by texts and pictures. A movie is narrated by the moving pictures and sounds. The paintings and photographs deliver their story in the form of a great picture. ‘Architecture’ narrates stories by geometrical form, space and materials. This narration of the architectural form could be interpreted by its space, envelope materials, sense of direction, activities and also smell, sound and light effects.
3.2.1 SPATIAL NARRATION
Architecture is a journey of movement and an unfolding of a mystery which conditions your mind and calms your temper, through a sequential unfolding of spaces. It is an act of ‘storytelling’ (Pandya.Y – space making in architecture, 2004).
The concept of space is an essential unit in various field of studies and has various significances linked to it. The world around us and our relationship with the world is been perceived through the interface of body and space. To recognise the significance of the space and its effect on human behaviour, the spatial organisation is considered as a common ground.
Figure 21 Layering for the sequential unfolding of spaces., by Ar. Yatin Pandya
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The book entitled “Concepts of space in traditional Indian architecture” by Yatin Pandya accomplishes to discuss the spatial qualities and organisational principles of traditional Indian architecture. He defines space as a notional phenomenon, which shapes as well as exists by the context. Spaces created and organised by architecture are experienced by moving through them.
Figure 22 Choices of movement path for personal and intuitive experience., by Ar. Yatin Pandya
He says the temple represents the universe in its architecture, and as visitors proceed towards the main deity, they pass through different realms. In reference to the Kailash temple of Ellora, the configurational scheme of the temple complex can be experienced as a consecutive series of perceivably distinct realms both spatially and notionally. These realms are distinct but diffuse gradually into each other in a defined manner.
The procession from the gateway to the main cell of the temple is a transitional journey from the mundane to the sacred realm. Gopuram or the entrance gate is the primary transition from the outside to the inside, and the entrance foyer represents the movement from the human world to the sacred. The elements of a building i.e. its scale, size, volume, degree of enclosure, levels of illumination, the intensity of light, motifs and decoration play an important role in this transition.
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Figure 23 Disparate visual and physical axis., by Ar. Yatin Pandya
Concerning the Kailash temple of Ellora, he proclaims that the narratives and carvings inside the temple complex have stories and figures of secondary deities and mythological scenes.
Figure 24 Shiva tandav nritya at Ellora cave, known as Ramesvara. (Image source: https://classic.europeana.eu/)
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The non-linear organisation of spaces helps in the temple architecture making it more of interactive space for the user. In Kailash temple, the direction and intensity of light and shadow patterns are changing constantly. It redefines the built form and makes it different and alive. So, space and time both are interacting constantly to condition our mind and to create a familiarity with the built object.
Figure 25 The Ellora caves in Aurangabad, Maharashtra, India. (Image source: https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/243/)
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Figure 26 The Ramayana panel, Ellora. (Image source: https://www.ancient.eu/image/4566/roof-of-kailasa-temple-ellora/ )
Figure 27 Kinesthetics as organizational and proportioning tool., by Ar. Yatin Pandya
Architecture communicates with the perceiver through its spatial qualities. Concerning kinesthetics, the interaction is achieved by encoding the messages and narratives in the space organisation, which results in establishing a rapport between the perceiver and space. Each space is encoded with narratives and symbols, carvings and iconography.
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By decoding the visual narratives of the spaces, the user interacts with them, which helps them create an experiential journey.
Figure 28 Ajanta cave painting Maha-janaka Jataka, cave 1 Dancers with musicians. (Image source: knowindia.gov.in)
Communication in architecture happens at three levels i.e. sensorial, experiential and associational. The sensorial perception consists of physical comfort obtained from the physical resolution. The experiential characteristic deals with the mental and emotional status of the perceiver. Associational communication is a site-specific perception that requires preconditioning and familiarity with the context; it creates spiritual bonds and succeeds through an in-depth understanding of cultural connotations. Complete communication occurs through a balance of the three.
Through his perception, architecture is a journey of movement and unfolding of a mystery which conditions our mind and calms our temper, through a sequential unfolding of spaces. Hence, he interprets this as an act of “storytelling” and architecture as an “effective storyteller”.
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3.2.2 NARRATIVE IN NATYAM Cheryl Glenn, in her book “Making Sense”, proclaims that because human beings are natural storytellers, the narration is the most common method of communication. Throughout the history of mankind, we have examined different forms of narration. For instance, as above investigated on the spatial narratives, where the architecture communicates with the perceiver through its spatial qualities. “Dance is fundamentally about creating an embodied narrative in which the dynamics of the physical human form communicate meaning to an audience” (Chappell, Embodied Narratives, p. 160).
When stories are passed over many generations, they are said to become folklore and is this common among several cultures. In India, dance has always been a popular and common form of “storytelling”. There are different forms of dance styles varying and originating from different cultural and regional backgrounds. Among these, some of them have developed into welldefined fine art forms in places such as the palaces and courts of ancient Indian kings and also at places of worship. Bharatanatyam is one such dance form as discussed earlier in chapter 1.
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Figure 29 THE MOVEMENTS TELL THE STORY-The dancer conveyed her story in bold expressions of movement - photograph by Steve Taylor which was uploaded on May 21st, 2014. (Image source: https://fineartamerica.com/featured/the-movements-tell-the-story-steve-taylor.html)
Bharatanatyam is an image of the persistent cosmic dance and the desire of the human soul for union with the absolute. This sacred dance embodies the history, religion, and social mores of people while stimulating the image through codified, kinesthetics, colourful costumes, polyphonic melodies and dulcet tones.
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The levels of communication using these dance elements can be classified as Nritta, Nritya and Natya. Nritta consists set of steps, movements or gestures which could be defined but does not convey a message. It is similar to forming a word using letters. On the other hand, Nritya involves adding emotions and vivid descriptions to the basic movements and gestures, akin to writing a whole sentence which conveys an idea or explains something. Third, Natya is the acting out of a whole story. It is a narrative dance and the medium of expression is Abhinaya18. Abhinaya consists of representative body positions, of which the most characteristic are the hastas (hand gestures) used to narrate the verses of the song with symbolic hand movements. In Bharatanatyam, the public performance is a medium of expressing the spiritual and the divine, by utilizing systemic gesture, colour and music. Balasaraswati (1976,3) postulates that Bharatanatyam is an art which consecrates the body, the dancer, who dissolves her identity in rhythm and music. The cultural experience allows them to interpret both the story they witness and the antecedents to the story or kinestheticsmusical composition. Bharatanatyam dance portrays spiritual beliefs from Hindu epics and stories of the divine. Through the artistic amalgamation of kinesthetics and aesthetic elements (e.g., accoutrements, voice, instrumentation), along with its historicity and cultural aspects denotes that the Bharatanatyam dance is an example of deep and surface level of culture. The features of dance expression and performance are described through physical skill and dramatic explanation. The drama of dance is abhinaya, the dancer’s projection of this drama is bhava i.e., the emotion or mood conveyed by the dancer. This makes the audience experience various rasa as the resulting sentiment. Rasa is not personal
18
Abhinaya is the art of expression in Indian aesthetics. More accurately means” leading an audience towards”
the experience of a sentiment.
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sentiment, but individual facial expression may be employed as a vehicle of communication.19 The following 9 Rasa’s explored through dance:20
1. SRINGARA (LOVE)
2. HASYA (LAUGHTER)
3. KARUNA (COMPASSION)
4. ADBHUTA (WONDER)
5. BIBHASTA (DISGUST)
6. VEERA (BRAVERY)
7. RAUDRA (ANGER)
8. BHAYANK (FEAR)
9. SHANTA (PEACEFUL)
Figure 30 The Navarasas- the nine facial expressions of human expressed in dance. (Image source: https://bharathgyanblog.wordpress.com/author/bharathgyanblog/page/3/ )
19
Schwartz, Susan. 2004. Rasa: Performing the divine in India. Columbia University Press, New York, pg. 95
20
Ibid, pg. 15
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By this the dancer is able to portray the emotions expressed in the verses of the song and can, therefore can narrate the aesthetical moments of subtle quality by associating themselves in the content of the songs. The songs used in the dance, comprises of content that have their origins in the Hinduistic mythology, literature and religious philosophy. They represent the desire of the human soul for union with the absolute. Through this narration the viewers of this dance performance are intellectually carried away to a world of divine imagination. Bharatanatyam dance as a narrative is composed of the kinesthetics i.e., schematized movements, music, attire and storytelling are knit together in a mutually reinforced performance to deliver a single message.
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CHAPTER 4. THE CONNECTION- CASE STUDY The two physical paradigms, considered in this research are architecture and dance. These two co-exists as an interlinked system of Hindu philosophy. The architectural spaces have the potential of nourishing spiritually as well as emotionally. Traditional Indian Architecture is the story of movement and pauses where "kinesthetics" of space is fundamental to its experience and perception. A Hindu temple portrays as a best example to illustrate this phenomenon of spatial narration. The temple, as a setting for dance performances, shares this quality of immersing its performer into a multi-sensory spatial experience. This case study attempts to illustrate the connection between the south Indian temple architecture and south Indian classical dance so that we can perceive the mutual dependence in aesthetic expression among the two art forms. The site selected for the study is the Vijaya vitthala temple in Hampi, Karnataka.
VIJAYA VITTHALA TEMPLE, HAMPI KARNATAKA The austere grandeur site of Hampi consists the remains of the capital city of the Vijayanagara empire (14th-16th Cent CE) which were the last Hindu kingdom of Vijayanagara. The splendid setting of the city is dominated by the river Tungabhadra, open plains and rugged hilly ranges along with a wide extent of physical remnants. Most of the sacred buildings of the city are located either beside the river on a confined area of flat land, or at summits of various rocky outcrops that overlook the river. The association of temple architecture with mountains, rocks, caves and rivers, is to be sought in the ancient mythological references to the site, such as those in the Ramayana, as well as a more general identification of sacred architecture with nature. Simple shrines are intimately blended into the landscape i.e., formed out of caverns, fissures and overhanging rocks, or perched precariously, even dramatically, on curved boulders. Some temples even enclose rocks or grottoes within their finely constructed exteriors. Thus, architecture emerges out of the landscape as though to dissolve the distinction between natural and man-made form.
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The style of architecture pursued is the Vijayanagara style that resides a distinct place in the history of south Indian temple architecture. It was quite coterminous with the history of the dynasty. The plan of the typical Vijayanagara temple exhibits most of the characteristic features from temples of Tamil nadu. The city of Hampi is categorized into two zones per the rituals and functioning of the spaces i.e., The Royal Enclosure and The Sacred Centre. The royal enclosure consists of the palaces, administrative offices, houses for the nobles along the royal bazaar streets. The sacred centre is incorporated with temple complexes with bazaar streets.
The four prominent temple complexes that are adjoined to the bazaar streets are as follows: I.
Virupaksha temple complex
II.
Vitthala temple complex
III.
Krishna temple complex
IV.
Achyuta Raya temple complex
Focusing our discussion on the Vitthala temple complex which is located in the sacred centre of the Vijayanagara Empire and as considering it as the case study for this dissertation.
THE CONTEXT The Vijaya Vitthala temple complex at Hampi bears living testimony to the architectural genius of the bygone millennia and the grandeur of the last empire of India. This temple is dedicated to Lord Vitthala, who is the embodiment of Lord Vishnu. The Vitthala Temple is one of the finest examples of ornate architecture with gopurams, halls, sanctum sanctorum and Sabha mandapas. It portrays a high standard of perfection of the Vijayanagara style of architecture. Regarding the establishment of this temple complex, there are different opinions. Sastri and Venkataramanayya in their book entitled “Further Sources of Vijayanagara History” refer to the work of Narasimha Puranam by Haribhatta, where he states that
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the existence of this temple could be traced to the time of Devaraya II i.e., during 142246 CE. It is believed that the temple was neither finished nor sanctified. It occupies a large rectangular enclosure measuring 164 m × 94.5 m.21 The temple complex is zoned such that the processional path is in the east, the bank of the river Tungabhadra in the north and west and huge boulder hillocks in the south. It is strategically located on the right bank of the river Tungabhadra facing Anegundi town on another side of the river. An ancient bridge connected these two parts, of which current day has only the pillars remaining out of the ruins. The orientation of the temple proper is facing towards the east with the bazaar streets towards the east and north.
Figure 31 Ariel view of the Vijaya vitthala temple complex. (Image source: http://www.voyage361.com/2015/09/vitthala-temple.html)
21
Michell, George. “Splendours of The Vijayanagara Empire”. Marg publications 1981
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THE CONSTRUCT AND REALMS The Vijaya Vitthala temple complex is incorporated with a huge enclosure consisting three high rising voluminous gopuras (gateways/ towers). The main gopura is facing the east that is the principle entrance and the smaller gopuras on to the north and south. This forms the first part of the spatial sequence. The east gopura shares the longer axis with the rest of the complex, whereas the north-south gopuras share the shorter axis.
LEGEND Pavilion
NOT TO SCALE
Maha mandapa
Shrine Hundred pillared hall
Saba mandapa
Utsava Mantapa
Garbhagriha Stone chariot
Kalyan Mantapa Adhinarayana shrine
Figure 32 Plan of the Vijaya vitthala temple
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Figure 33 The main-entrance gopura to the east of the complex, made of clay bricks. (Image source: http://www.voyage361.com/2015/09/vitthala-temple.html)
The doorways are flanked by open verandas with columns raised on platforms and an eave overhangs the entrance but the brick superstructure has now disappeared. The lower portion is a granite rectangular structure through the middle of which is the entrance flanked on either side by columned guard room and stores. Above rises a hollow brick superstructure; the uppermost roof is also rectangular but vaulted with horseshoe-shaped arches at its end. The rectangular walls surrounding the temple complex is unadorned i.e., two facings of stone are capped by a horizontal stone course, the interior being rubble and some places bricks. The outer walls of the gopuras have horizontal base and eave mouldings; the walls are divided by pilasters into projections and recesses as well as into niches by secondary pilasters. These elements are repeated again and again at a diminishing scale as the gopura ascends. Stucco sculptures of divinities, perhaps also of courtly figures are found on the upper levels of many tiers of the gopura.
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Figure 34 Sculptures on the Main Gopura. (Image source: http://www.voyage361.com/2015/09/vitthala-temple.html)
Each sculpture showcases the different aspects of human life. These dance poses on the walls of this temple were brought to life by Devadasis or the Servants of God as mentioned earlier. The enclosed courtyard comprises of the god’s sanctum (the main temple unit) in the centre that’s attached with its axial mandapas and the Kalyani mandapa, Utsava mandapa, the Amman sanctum, which is a 100 pillared mandapa and a stone chariot. The stone chariot is situated right in front of the main temple, which is entitled as the most prominent representation of Hampi. It is a Garuda shrine that is built in the figure of a temple, with a ruined gopura. The Kalyana Mantapa that is the Marriage Hall, is set to the south-east part of the complex. This functioned as to perform marriage ceremonies during the Vijayanagara period. It is an open pavilion with its interiors surrounded by grand and enormous columns and a circular raised platform in the centre for the ritual performances. The sculptured pillars of the Mantapa are demonstrated with soldiers riding Valis. Pillars also carry the roof beams and large sculptured brackets. The temple complex comprises of two more open pavilion mantapas one at
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the south-west and another to the north-east, with respect to design they both resemble the main Mantapa.
Figure 35 The Hampi stone chariot had a brick and cement tower/gopura which was demolished during British era. This can be seen in the above photograph taken by British officer, Alexander John Green in 1856. (Image source: https://itihasaacademy.wordpress.com/2015/02/05/stone-chariots-at-hampi-andtadapatri/ )
The Main Temple was devoted to Lord Vishnu, hence the name Vitthala. The main temple structure facing the east direction, where the sanctum of the god along with its axial mandapas forms a long and low structural group that measures about 7.6 metres in height and 70 metres in length. The temple unit comprises the open Maha-mandapa (columned halls), a closed Ardha-mandapa with side-porches and a covered pradakshina-prakara enclosing the antarala and garbhagriha (sanctum).
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Figure 36 The magnitude of the Maha-Mantapa with the temple superstructure can be seen here. (Image source: http://www.voyage361.com/2015/09/vitthala-temple.html)
The Maha-mandapa that is the columned halls, has symmetrically hollowed sides. This was a large pillared hall with an open central space for public performances of music and dance. It is measured as 30.5 metres in length and breadth. The mandapa is set on a highly-ornate adhishthana which is 1.5 metres high and is sculptured with friezes of horses and warriors and hansas. At intervals along the base, there are ornate miniature vimana-projections with figures of the Dasavataras inside. The mandapa comprises of 56 pillars that is each measured as 3-6 metres in height, 40 of them which are regularly disposed to form an aisle all-round the three sides, while the remaining sixteen forms a rectangular court in the centre.
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THE KINESTHETICS- NARRATIVE The vitthala temple complex is organised with a centre and sub-centres. This concept is physically translated by the circulation path around the units where each of the sub centre become a pause point and also guide or orient oneself in the journey inside the temple complex. There is smooth transition in the set visual frames as one circulates around the complex observing very detail or special elements at the sub centres. The transition from one point to another with the importance of each being expressed by the intensity of the points, results in the perception of an episodic narrative experience. The Vijaya vitthala temple at hampi, thus, exhibits the overlaying of spatial narratives that become a medium of communication by the experience of the space, where the components of the structures themselves provide visual clues to the individual moving around the complex and guiding them through the discovery of the parts which compose the whole.
Temple superstructure
Figure 37 This plan demonstrates how the destination, through aligned axially from entry, only remains a visual reference on that axis while the physical movement path is shifted from the axis. Note: physical movement path visual path NOT TO SCALE
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Temple superstructure
NOT TO SCALE
Figure 38 Physical barriers deviate the visual axis through the movement path though the visual continuity is maintained.
The temple complex can be perceived as a multi- directionally composed units as a whole and a unified composed individual unit along a single axis. The arrival to the complex is along the axis of the main temple’s orientation, which provides the view from a distance of rear part of the chariot facing the main temple and along with the flat façade of the mandapa and the temple base which seems to be infused in one elevation itself. As one transits towards the main temple along the axis, the rear of the chariot begins to register in the visual frame. The chariot is oriented along the main temple’s long axis. On deviating from this axis point it leads to registering of the sub-centres of the complex in the visual frame and also creates an alternative route to enter the main temple-built form. The temple-built form comprises of perspectival arrangement of columns and sculptural elements that thereby increase the visual depth. The play of light by incorporating unbuilt space become mutually emphasized by contrast that help in defining spatial hierarchy in terms of the construct and realms.
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Figure 39 Front view of the temple superstructure as proceeding into the complex from the east entrance
Figure 40 Demonstrating the visual axis with movement path at the temple complex
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The series of gopuras, set of ascending steps and platforms, high voluminous shikara, the transition towards the unidirectional dark garbhagriha from the semi-open and multi-directional pavilions, these elements increase the sense of development from physical to spiritual aspects as one proceeds from the gopura to the sanctum that is enclosed by solid walls. Further, this sense of experience from terrestrial to celestial is enhanced by the horizontal planes of the platform and a vertical axis through the rising volume shikhara that represents as if it is pointing towards the heavens. By this the elements of the structure, its scale and proportion, volume, degrees of enclosure, quality of light and shade as well as motifs and decorative sculptures inculcate in the observer.
Figure 41 View of east entrance of Maha mandapa from the Kalyana mandapa. The shadow play and the effect of sunlight on the rugged floors enhances the true picture. Painting by Pravin Pasare. (Image source: https://www.paintedrhythm.com/artists/pravin-pasare.html)
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Throughout the complex’s spatial qualities, the architectural elements remain commutative and interactive. The kinetic aspects of moving through a space and experiencing it with sensorial perceptions as well as associating it is essential in a good architecture. The culmination of this physical and spiritual aesthetic is also embodied in the art of dance. A body entering into the main temple structure through the Maha mandapa is arrested by it from the panoramic view of the exterior sub centre units in the landscape. The Maha mandapa was used as a setting for ceremonies in which the deity is brought out of the sanctuary, and for performances of sacred dance, dramatic performances and music, these pillared halls are elaborately decorated with carved sculptures and motifs.
Figure 42 Carvings here depict the legendary dancers, musicians, and mythological figures. (Image source: http://www.voyage361.com/2015/09/vitthala-temple.html)
Attached to the main temple, in propitiation of the deities, may also be described as quasi-alfresco performances in as much as the spectators watched them from outside while the performers danced or acted in the mandapa, which, though provided with pillars and a roof and were open on three sides. The Maha mandapa, though indoors, is well lit due to it being open on the sides. The mandapa is perfectly symmetrical along the long axis and sits on the same plinth as the shrine. The route to the garbhagriha Page | 62
leads from the mandapa through the colonnaded hall and is connected by the antarala that acts as a vestibule between the two. The layering of spaces in the main temple i.e., the approach from the Maha mandapa towards the garbhagriha encourages an interactive process by creating the sense of curiosity and discovery.
DISCUSSION The space experienced and the stimulated senses are in a form of a rhythmic journey through the increased freedom from representation of architectural qualities such as the concept, mass, form, elements, texture, material and light and shade. These qualities become the means of communication and proves architecture as an effective storyteller. The kinetic aspects of moving through a space and experiencing it with sensorial perceptions as well as associating it is essential in a good architecture. The culmination of this physical and spiritual aesthetic is also embodied in the art of dance. Dance as a narrative is composed of the kinesthetics i.e., schematized movements, music, attire and storytelling are knit together in a mutually reinforced performance to deliver a single message. By this narration the viewers of this dance performance are intellectually carried away to a world of divine imagination.
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CHAPTER 5.
THE INFERENCE
From this study we have investigated that the dance of is not only a mythological description of development through spiritual enlightenment but reflects the elemental physics behind all the creations. The journey is not only through the spiritual constructs and the realms of a Hindu temple but also through the physical planes that is existing. A body involves in a basic sense of transcendence from the worldly, from terrestrial to celestial, when approached towards the garbhagriha. Dance is a medium through which a physical movement is experienced in the earthly plane. As the dancers move through space, they consistently feel the space, relate to it and unite with space. Dance in terms of ornamental sculptures and motifs on the structural elements creates a rhythmic journey through the space. There is multisensorial transformation experience attained by visualizing the carved sculptures showcases the different aspects of human life. The body traversing in a temple i.e., also a setting for dance performances; immerses the body to undergo a multi- sensory spatial experience. Dance performed delivers a narration of the verses in the song that intellectually carries away the viewer to a world of divine imagination. There is a deep relationship between body and space and it is necessary to be enhanced with the help of architecture. The user needs to be engaged with the spaces that have been designed. The existence of the body as a system is a combination with the environment. And this environment comprises of spaces surrounding us that is physical and also metaphysical. The perception and sensorial characteristics of spaces within the vicinity of the body and mind is defined by its qualitative character.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY BOOKS/ LITERATURE READINGS Vatsyayan, Kapila. “Indian Classical Dance.” New Delhi: Publications Division. 1974 Kramrisch, Stella. “The Hindu Temple.” Delhi: Motilal Banarsidas. 1976 Pandya, Yatin. “Concepts of space in traditional Indian architecture.” Ahmedabad, Gujarat: Mapin Publishing Pvt .2005 Pallasmaa, Juhani. “The eyes of the skin.” Great Britain: Wiley- academy. 2005 Correa, Charles. "Introduction." In Vistāra - The Architecture of India, Catalogue of the Exhibition, edited by Carmen Kagal, 6-13. The Festival of India, 1986 Vatsyayan,
Kapila.
Vistara:
"Fundamental
Principles
Underlying
Indian
Architecture.". The Architecture of India. Catalogue of the Exhibition, Edited by Carmen Kagal. The Festival of India, 1986 Michell, George. “Splendours of The Vijayanagara Empire”. Marg publications 1981
THESIS/ DISSERTATION Dhar, Vierken. “To explore the experience of space through design and performing arts.” B.Arch. 4th-year Dissertation., School of Planning and Architecture, New Delhi, 2012 Jain, Sukruthi. “dance and architecture- choreographing engagement between body and space.” B.Arch. 5th-year Dissertation., Academy of Architecture, Mumbai, 2016 Jayakrishnan, Kavitha. “Dancing Architecture.” M.Arch Thesis., University of Waterloo, Canada., 2011 Sudhir V. Patel. “Sacred Geometry in Chess and the Design of the Hindu Temple” M. Arch Thesis., B. Arch, L. S. Raheja School of Architecture Bombay, India, 1988 Iyengar, Kalpana, and Smith. “The sacred Bharatanatyam dance.” South Asian Review - Taylor & Francis, 2020.
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TALK/ VIDEO “Architecture evolution and thematic space by Ar Neelkanth Chhaya”, YouTube video, 1:34:27, “Fragments Of,” November 13, 2015, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5kHBpy2_f8c
WEBSITE/ JOURNAL ARTICLE Takako Inoue, “The reform of the devadasi tradition. Dance and music in Hindu temples”, Cahiers d'ethnomusicologie [Online], 18 | 2005, posted online on January 14, 2012, accessed May 21, 2020. URL: http://journals.openedition.org/ethnomusicologie/276 Alessandra Lopez Y Royo, 'Embodying a Site: Choreographing Parambanan', in Journal of Material Culture, Vol. 10(1): 31-48, 2005, pp. 31-48. https://www.cardiff.ac.uk/research/explore/find-a-project/view/classical-dance-andtemple-architecture K, Chithralekha. “Rhythmic journey through time and space”-a study of ancient south Indian dance and temple architecture.” the 4thInternational Conference on Arts and Humanities, Vol. 4, 2017, pp. 54-66., https://doi.org/10.17501/icoah.2017.4106 Ar. Meera Natampally. “Visual reconstruction of Hampi Temple - Construed Graphically, Pictorially and Digitally”. National Institute of Advanced Studies. India Chanchal Batham 1, Aatmika Rathore 2, Shivani Tandon 3. 1,3 Student, Department of Architecture, SDPS Women’s College, Indore, India 2 Assistant Professor, Department of Architecture, SDPS Women’s College, Indore, India “Construction Techniques of Indian Temples” International Journal of Research in Engineering, Science and Management Volume-1, Issue-10, October-2018 https://www.ijresm.com/
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