behind every great planner, is a great education: an invisible pedagogy
Acknowledging the contribution and influence of Jaqueline Tyrwhitt to the development and education of town planning and urban design throughout the 20th century.
Sally Anne Lofthouse 19010953 | 10611256 Supervisor : Victoria Jolley Manchester School of Architecture Year 1 Masters of Architecture Manchester Metropolitan University and the University of Manchester
Contents Abstract ii Acknowledgement ii List of Acronyms
iii
List of Figures
iv
Introduction 1 Initial Research Introduction to the topic
1 1
Methodology 4
Research Aim 4 Literature Review 4 Methodology 4
Percy Johnson-Marshall
Introduction to Percy Johnson-Marshall Percy’s work
7
7 8
Jaqueline Tyrwhitt
13
The Founding Mother
23
The Impact
45
Early life and Education The SPRND and APRR Jacky’s School of Planning Developing a Network CIAM 6 Sigfried Giedion The Festival of Britain & CIAM 8 Crossing the Atlantic & Influence in India Harvard Graduate School of Design, Indonesia & Urban Design Ekistics, Delos and Sparoza The Founding Mother Central Lancashire New Town The Design Pedagogy
13 15 16
23 25 28 29 32 35 36 40 45 46
Conclusion 55 The Connection The Significance What have I learnt
55 55 56
Bibliography 59
Abstract This study investigates the international work of Jaqueline Tyrwhitt, understanding her influences and theories and how she disseminated them when helping establish planning schools around the world. It will look at how her town-planning pedagogy was formed and created, fundamentally based on principles from Patrick Geddes. It will investigate the influence Jaqueline had on events such as: the CIAM conferences, the MARS Group and the publications co-authored with Sigfried Giedion and C.A. Doxiadis, as well many other well-known and influential international town planners from the time. Her teaching will be traced through a case study and linked to of one of her students, and notable architect, Percy Johnson-Marshall to understand and locate how she affected planning history, not only in Britain, but worldwide. Key words: Urban design, town planning, pedagogy, Geddesian theories, CIAM, MARS, modern movement, Ekistics, humanist.
Acknowledgement First I would like to thank my supervisor Victoria Jolley for her guidance through the project and for introducing me to the work of Jaqueline Tyrwhitt. Secondly, thank you to all my peers and friends, your valued thoughts, comments and video calls have helped deepen my research, personal growth and whom without architecture school would surely not be worth it.
List of Acronyms AA APRR ACE CIAM CLNT GSD GSE LCC MARS PEP RIBA RMJM SPRND SPRRD TCPA TPI UN
Architectural Association Association for Planning and Regional Reconstruction Athens Center of Ekistics Congres Internationaux d’Architecture Moderne Central Lancashire New Town Graduate School of Design (Harvard) Graduate School of Ekistics London County Council Modern Architectural Research Group Political and Economic Planning Royal Institute of British Architects Robert Matthews, Johnson-Marshall & Partners School of Planning and Research for National Development School of Planning and Research for Regional Development Town and Country Planning Association Town Planning Institute United Nations
List of Figures Fig. 1 : Murphy, E. F. (1985) ‘The skillful editor.’ Ekistics, 52(314/315) pp. 455–457. [Online] [Accessed 10th February 2020] http://www.jstor.org/stable/4362385
Fig. 15 : A Decade of New Architecture Book - Authors own photograph (2020) of Giedion, Sigfried. and CIAM (1951) A Decade of new architecture. Zurich: Editions Girsberger.
Fig. 2 : Huws, U. (2016) Jacky Tyrwhitt in 1938 ‘Being got. Or not.’ Ursula Huws’s Blog. 29th October. [Online] [Accessed on 22nd March 2020] https://ursulahuws.wordpress.com/tag/jaquelinetyrwhitt/.
Fig. 16 : Anon. (n.d.) CIAM 6. Cities Re-imagined. CIAM 6. [Online] [Accessed on 11th January 2020] http://www.ciam6. co.uk/.
Fig. 3 : modernmoocher (2016) ‘County Archives – Preston.’ Modern Mooch. 19th March. [Online] [Accessed on 29th April 2020] https://modernmooch.com/2016/03/19/county-archives-preston/. Fig. 4 : Anon. (2016) Dictionary of Scottish Architects. Dictionary of Scottish Architects. [Online] [Accessed on 30th April 2020] http://www.scottisharchitects.org.uk/architect_full. php?id=401401. Fig. 5 & 6 : Johnson-Marshall, P. (1966) Rebuilding Cities. Edinburgh: Edinburgh U.P, p. Fig. 7 : Authors own photograph of Johnson-Marshall, P. (1966) Rebuilding Cities. Edinburgh: Edinburgh U.P, p. Fig. 8 : Image assembled by author from Jaqueline Tyrwhitt | The Toronto School Initiative (n.d.). [Online] [Accessed on 1st March 2020] http://thetorontoschool.ca/jaqueline-tyrwhitt/. and RIBA (1961) Conference in Athens. RIBApix. [Online] [Accessed on 30th April 2020] shorturl.at/aADR3
Fig. 17 : Tyrwitt, J. (1985) ‘CIAM 8: The core of the city Conversation at Hoddesdon.’ Ekistics, 52(314/315) pp. 472–474. [Online] [Accessed on 10th February 2020] http://www.jstor. org/stable/43623866 Fig. 18 : Example of the grid devised to display work, CIAM 8, The Heart of The City, 1952. - Authors own photograph (2020) of Tyrwhitt, J., Sert, J. L. and Rogers, E. n. (1952) The Heart of the City: towards the humanisation of urban life. London: Lung Humphries (8). Fig. 19 & 20 : Images from CIAM 8, The Heart of The City, 1952. - Authors own photograph (2020) of Tyrwhitt, J., Sert, J. L. and Rogers, E. n. (1952) The Heart of the City: towards the humanisation of urban life. London: Lung Humphries (8). Fig. 21 : Authors own photograph of : Shoshkes, E. (2013) Jaqueline Tyrwhitt: a transnational life in urban planning and design. Fig. 22 & 23 : Authors own photograph of : Shoshkes, E. (2013) Jaqueline Tyrwhitt: a transnational life in urban planning and design.
Fig. 9 : Photograph by Author of : Shoshkes, E. (2013) Jaqueline Tyrwhitt: a transnational life in urban planning and design. Farnham: Ashgate (Design and the built environment series).
Fig. 24 : Maki, F., Haar, C. M., Lim, W., Nagashima, K., Doebele, W., Jenkins, T. H. and Herdeg, K. (1985) ‘The Harvard years, 19551969.’ Ekistics, 52(314/315) pp. 436–441. [Online] [Accessed 10th February 2020] http://www.jstor.org/stable/43623849
Fig. 10 & 11 : Tyrwhitt, J. (1985) ‘A correspondence course in Town Planning, 1945.’ Ekistics, 52(314/315) pp. 424–428. [Online] [Accessed on 10th February 2020]
Fig. 25 : ACE (1959) ‘Front Matter.’ Ekistics. Athens Center of Ekistics, 7(41). [Online] [Accessed 10th February 2020] www.jstor. org/stable/43613303
Fig. 12 : Papaioannou, J. G. (1985) ‘Memories of Jacky.’ Ekistics, 52(314/315) pp. 413–413. [Online] [Accessed 10th February 2020] http://www.jstor.org/stable/43623839
Fig. 26 : Authors own photograph of : Shoshkes, E. (2013) Jaqueline Tyrwhitt: a transnational life in urban planning and design.
Fig. 13 : ACE (1985) ‘Front Matter.’ Ekistics, 52(314/315). [Online] [Accessed on 10th February 2020] http://www.jstor.org/ stable/43623828 Fig. 14 : Authors own (2020)
Fig. 27 & 28 : Maki, F., Haar, C. M., Lim, W., Nagashima, K., Doebele, W., Jenkins, T. H. and Herdeg, K. (1985) ‘The Harvard years, 1955-1969.’ Ekistics, 52(314/315) pp. 436–441. [Online] [Accessed 10th February 2020] http://www.jstor.org/ stable/43623849
Fig. 29 : RIBA (1961) Conference in Athens related to the City of the Future research project with Jaqueline Tyrwhitt addressing the participants. RIBApix. [Online] [Accessed on 30th April 2020] shorturl.at/aADR3 Fig. 30, 31, 32 & 33 : Mediterranean Garden Society (n.d.) The house at Sparoza. [Online] [Accessed on 1st May 2020] http:// www.mediterraneangardensociety.org/building.html. Fig. 34 : Authors own diagram (2020) [Based on RMJM (1967) Study for a City: consultants’ proposals for designation.] Fig. 35 : Photograph of Robert Matthew, Johnson-Marshall and Partners (1967) Study for a City: consultants’ proposals for designation. London: H.M.S.O. page. 86. Fig. 36 : Authors own diagram (2020) [Based on RMJM (1967) Study for a City: consultants’ proposals for designation. Page 55] Fig. 37.a-b : Authors own diagram (2020) [Based on RMJM (1967) Study for a City: consultants’ proposals for designation. page 57] Fig. 38 : Authors own diagram (2020) [Based on RMJM (1967) Study for a City: consultants’ proposals for designation. Page 69] Fig. 39 : Authors own diagram (2020) [Based on RMJM (1967) Study for a City: consultants’ proposals for designation. Page 85] Fig. 40 & 41 : BDP (n.d.) Preston Bus Station. [Online] [Accessed on 29th April 2020] http://www.bdp.com/en/projects/p-z/ Preston-Bus-Station/. Fig. 42, 43 & 44 : modernmoocher (2018) ‘Preston Indoor Market - Epilogue.’ Modern Mooch. 27th March. [Online] [Accessed on 29th April 2020] https://modernmooch.com/2018/03/27/indoormarket-preston-epilogue/. Fig. 45 : Central Lancashire Development Corporation. (1974) Reprinted article on CLNT from the Financial Times (NTC/12/3/31). [Reprint of Newspaper Article] Central Lancashire Development Corporation records. Lancashire Archives, Preston. Fig. 46 : Central Lancashire Development Corporation. (1978) Brochures advertising the living and social environment of New Town villages, with colour illustrations and plans 1978, Moss Side (NTC/12/3/20/1). [Printed Booklet] Central Lancashire
Development Corporation records. Lancashire Archives, Preston. Fig. 47 : Central Lancashire Development Corporation. (1982) Guide to Development in Progress - No. 14 (NTC/12/3/6 (14)). [Printed Booklet] Central Lancashire Development Corporation records. Lancashire Archives, Preston. Fig. 48 : ACE (1985) ‘Illustration - Society At Work.’ Ekistics, 52(314/315) pp. 415–415. [Online] [Accessed 10th February 2020] http://www.jstor.org/stable/4362384 Fig. 49 : RIBA (1961) Conference in Athens related to the City of the Future research project with Jaqueline Tyrwhitt. RIBApix. [Online] [Accessed on 30th April 2020] shorturl.at/aADR3 Fig. 50 : Mediterranean Garden Society (n.d.) The house at Sparoza. [Online] [Accessed on 1st May 2020] http://www. mediterraneangardensociety.org/building.html. Fig. 51 & 52 : Hartocollis, Pitsa, Hartocollis, Peter, Tonuma, K., Stefanovic, I. L., Brammah, M., Demos, J. and Goulandris, N. (1985) ‘Friendships at Sparoza.’ Ekistics, 52(314/315) pp. 515– 519. [Online] [Accessed 10th February 2020] http://www.jstor. org/stable/43623889 Fig. 53, Back Matter : Authors own (2020)
Fig. 01: Jacky taking notes, as usual, at the Delos Symposion with Percy and Buckminster Fuller
“
Planners and architects, as the chief designers of our physical environment, should never forget that the most important thing about a city or town is the people. Percy Johnson-Marshall
(Johnson-Marshall, 1966:349)
�
Introduction Initial Research
town planning after the Second World War, that woman is
My notional topics for dissertation study were inspired
Jaqueline Tyrwhitt (1905-1983).
by research on post-War British New Towns. Having gained knowledge about the New Towns program and their several
Initial research into Jaqueline’s life and work originated
phases across the country following the Second World War,
with a number of papers by Ellen Shoshkes, who is the main
it was surprising to learn that the city I call my home was
researcher, of only a handful, who have investigated Jacky’s
part of these forward-thinking ideas. This city is Preston,
life and career. This led me to Ellen’s 2013 book Jaqueline
which was to become the centre of what was designated as
Tyrwhitt: A Transnational Life in Urban Planning and
Central Lancashire New Town (hereafter CLNT) in 1970
Design (Shoshkes, 2013). Here I immediately found her
(tcpa, 2014).
remark that Jaqueline’s “life story is truly a gap in the urban and design literature” (Shoshkes, 2013).
A theme within my studio atelier PraXXis, which I
Jaqueline played a supporting role throughout her life
surmise has been derived from Gender, Space, Architecture
to many notable male architects, planners and educators,
(Rendell et al., 2000), is: ‘Always Personal, Always Political’.
rather than being recognised for her own substantial
It therefore seemed reasonable to apply this meaningful
and important work. But she played this role with such
mantra to my dissertation work. In studio I am exploring
enthusiasm, intelligence and passion, that had it not been
feminist theories in architecture, looking at women’s
for her, these men may have not been as significant as they
space, how we exist in a world where each thing has been
still are today.
specifically designed for human habitation, yet that design process often discounts women’s data and needs. Women
Introduction to the topic
are invisible, forgotten and unaccounted for, but finding a
‘Behind every great man is a great woman.’
link between invisible women and any New Town appeared
This proverb or saying is believed to have originated
unsubstantiated.
from feminist movements during the first half of the
However, my supervisor Victoria Jolley brought to my
19th century in an attempt to recognise the work done by
attention an ‘invisible woman’, one who taught the original
women who were married to, or supported, successful men
planner of CLNT and who had a great influence over
(CommsMEA, 2019). If coined by feminists, the saying
may have not intended to cause offence but rather highlight
connected within the post-Second World War Modern
inequality. Today, however, this adage may well be seen
Movement. Situated at the heart of the action, she played
as disrespectful, redundant in conversational language
a hugely influential, although not well documented, role
and evidence of the remarkable disparity in recognition
in the development and birth of urban design and town
and representation of women and their achievements
planning. This work is evident in the practice, education
throughout history. The saying conjures the image or idea
and recognition of town planning as profession, which we
of a woman, not only figuratively, but physically standing
still acknowledge today.
behind a man fulfilling a minor role or being the secondary While her sex was indeed female, Jacky confiding to
sex. It is important to consider that this disparity between
her diary in 1924 aged 19, “Oh I wish, I wish I was a man!”
the sexes is not based on sex but on gender. Crucial to this
(Shoshkes, 2013:9), she longed “to travel widely” (Shoshkes,
is understanding the difference in definition between sex
2013:9) and pursue a career but at the same time felt trapped
and gender. The difference is that: Sex is male or female
and unable to, because she was a woman. She must have
- the explicit biological difference between bodies, but
felt pressure to follow what was the ‘right path’ at the time
gender is usually defined as masculine or feminine (man
for a woman of her stature, thinking that her “true desire
or woman) (Rendell et al., 2000). Gender is therefore a
and vocation is not to follow any profession (tho’ I do love
construct, what ‘society’ constitutes to the acts of being a
that which I have chosen) but to marry and beget children.”
man or a woman, it is culturally and historically produced,
(Shoshkes, 2013:9), but in the same breath documenting
meaning the definition of man or woman changes based on
how she felt an “ever growing horror of marriage restrictions
geographical location, race and over time.
& household duties.” (Shoshkes, 2013:9) as her life so far had been free of such responsibilities.
Jaqueline, who preferred to be known as Jacky
Jacky was never shy, as her former student Wolfgang
(hereafter Jacky), is a British town planner, educator, writer
Frankl remembers her saying “I ought to have been a man”
and editor who worked ferociously and relentlessly starting
(Fry et al., 1985:421), colleague and friend Gwen Bell
in London in the 1920s, across the Atlantic and back until
recalled that although “She always wanted a career… in
her death in Greece in 1983. She was extraordinarily well
that class at that time women did not pursue [one]” (Maki
et al., 1985:436). This did not deter strong-willed Jacky.
an invisible woman. A female powerhouse behind the
She never married or had children, but instead managed
formality of urban design who has been forgotten about in
to travel tremendously throughout her life as her career
the pages of history, pages that have instead been dedicated
took her to every corner of the globe. Nevertheless, she still
to ‘great men’. It is the intention for this paper to shed some
conformed to gender-norms of the time.
light on her ideas and how she influenced urban design,
I believe it is because of typical 20th century ‘gender roles’ and Jacky’s hidden role that she has not been acknowledged for her work and has thus become
Fig. 02: Image of Jacky aged 23
town planning and the education of these disciplines on a transnational scale.
Methodology Research Aim
I have reviewed literature written by Jacky over her life
I am investigating the lack of appreciation for Jacky
to understand how her ideas may have been formed, tracing
and her work, through critical analysis of literature she
them over publications she was linked to and movements
produced and that written about her. Through this review
she was affiliated with. I will see how the educational
I will gain an understanding of Jacky’s sphere of influence
programs she created as well as her teaching and leadership
over town planning education from the 1930s up to the late
style affected the presentation of ideas and I will look at how
1970s and the influence this had on her students.
she organised, exhibited and taught concepts differently to
Through a case study I will then identify her influence
her predecessors.
on Percy, a student of hers and notable 20th century architect
By tracing her work and publications I can see how
and planner, to see how her teachings are translated into
she may have influenced and affected the work and outputs
designs.
of main male figures in her life, such as Patrick Geddes, Sigfried Giedion and C.A. Doxiadis.
For example, by
Literature Review
republishing Geddes’ book, her influence on Giedion
There is very limited literature that has been written
and subsequent organisation and input into the Congres
which explores Jacky’s work, as expected due to her
Internationaux d’Architecture Moderne (hereafter CIAM),
supporting, unacknowledged role. But Jacky maintained
and the coordination of Doxiadis’s Delos Symposia and
an almost daily diary for her entire adult life and excerpts
Ekistics journal.
from this first hand source have helped form an idea of
Methodology
Jacky’s personality and understand her opinions. Ellen Shoshkes has contributed the main bulk of
I have used primary sources but, as these may be
writing and research on Jacky; her book and papers
taken out of context due to the time they were written, I
document a detailed chronology of Jacky’s life.
Even
have supported them with contemporary literature as it
still, there is little to no evidence of Jacky’s connection to
is essential to have a critical view of what was happening
Percy Johnson-Marshall (hereafter Percy). Therefore, this
during the period at a more holistic level.
dissertation will review literature throughout to record the connection between Jacky and Percy.
I will use primary sources such as journal articles, her diary entries, survey maps, books, bulletins and broadsheets
published by Jacky and frame the ideas by referencing
Additionally, restrictions and closures of the university
secondary sources to contextualise.
and its facilities means that the inter-library loans service
This has included archival work and visits to the Lancashire Archives which contain all of the documents
has been suspended and I can no longer obtain requested books.
from the CLNT Development Corporation. However, this
Consequently, the writing up of this dissertation has
aspect of the research has unfortunately been interrupted
been adjusted accordingly and focuses on the influences
by the restrictions implemented due to the COVID-19
Jacky experienced throughout her life, the lack of
pandemic. My intention was to return to the archives to
recognition for her work during her lifetime and up to the
seek out more specific data and documentation relating
present day, finally framing her ideas through a case study
to CLNT. I also intended to visit the Royal Institute of
of Percy from data available from a limited selection of
British Architects Archives in London to further research
books and online resources due to the unfortunate lack of
into Jacky’s life and thoughts. Again, the restrictions put in
access to archival sources
place by the government to protect us has interrupted this.
Fig. 03: Lancashire Archives building, Preston.
Fig. 04 : Percy Johnson-Marshall at work
Percy Johnson-Marshall I will use a case study to align Jacky’s teachings through worked practice in the decades following her establishing
by Sir Charles Reilly until 1933, followed by Lionel Baily Budden until 1952 (Thistlewood, 1995).
and teaching at her first planning school in London. This
The school, and students, experienced a transition
will be via notable architect and planner Percy who, as
during the period the brothers attended. The change was
aforementioned, developed the plan for CLNT.
from a classical style of teaching to modernist methods and was supported by both heads of the school (Derbyshire,
Introduction to Percy Johnson-Marshall
2004). While Reilly fostered the Beaux Arts Atelier, he
Percy (1915-1993) was the younger of the two Johnson-
simultaneously invited visiting lecturers such as Modern
Marshall brothers. Born in January 1915 he was three years
Movement pioneer Walter Gropius1 (Johnson-Marshall,
younger than elder Stirrat Johnson-Marshall (1912-1981)
1990a). When Budden was appointed Head of School he
(hereafter Stirrat). Both experienced a colonial upbringing,
introduced a cohort of new teaching staff who had ties with
living across India and Iraq before returning ‘home’ to
the Modern Movement and groups such as CIAM2 and the
England. Both then attended the School of Architecture
English branch, the Modern Architectural Research Group3
at the University of Liverpool, Percy started in 1931,
(hereafter MARS).
the year after Stirrat (Johnson-Marshall, 1990a). Percy
A lecturer who remained constant for both brothers
graduated with an Architecture Diploma in 1936, a year
was Patrick Abercrombie (1879-1957), an architect and
after Stirrat. Percy then began working whilst undertaking
town planner who taught and researched at the School
a postgraduate certificate in Civic Design, similarly at the
of Architecture as well as the Civic Design department
University of Liverpool but from the Department of Civic
(Holford, 1957). Abercrombie was an avid Geddes follower
Design (University of Edinburgh, n.d.).
and in a 1991 interview, Percy recognises himself as “a disciple to both those great men” (Johnson-Marshall,
Liverpool School of Architecture was headed by the Roscoe Professor of architecture, this position was held
1990a:15:25). Percy continued to seek guidance under those who
1. Walter Gropius: architect, and founder and teacher at the Bauhaus in Dessau, Germany, from its conception in 1919 to 1928 (Whitecross, 2020). Gropius helped formulate a radical and different new style of teaching. Including a year where all students conducted the same work, so embraced today, almost every art school or foundation course is based on these principles. 2. CIAM: an international organisation that held conferences to disseminate Modern Movement theories related to all aspects of architecture and planning from the 1920s to 1950s. 3. MARS Group: the British branch of CIAM, a collection of experts that were brought together to discuss the Modern Movement in Britain from the 1930s to when conflicting progressive ideas forced them to disband in the late 1950s.
followed Geddes. His affiliation with planning education
the newly formed Ministry of Town & Country planning.
during and after the War, plus attendance at the post-War
Percy explained that “[Rowse] set up his own school, school
school of planning in London, were saturated with Geddes
of planning and research…He set up quite independent,
followers and theories.
with his famous disciple, Jaqueline Tyrwhitt. Who was a
real dynamo!” (Johnson-Marshall, 1990a:48:35).
Percy
It is unsurprising that Percy not only intellectually,
accordingly attended the School of Planning and Research
but quite physically, followed Geddes his entire career.
for Regional Development (hereafter SPRRD), to gain a
After working notably in Coventry and London, Percy
Diploma in Town Planning.
ended up in Geddes’ hometown of Edinburgh. Becoming
Percy and Jacky had met briefly before the War (Fry
a lecturer, then professor at the University of Edinburgh,
et al., 1985). Following Percy’s completion of the SPRRD
he established a research unit and his own department of
course they worked together as she “persuaded me [Percy]
‘Urban Design and Regional Planning’. After retirement
to convene a committee” (Fry et al., 1985:417). Percy and the
Percy served as the Director of the Patrick Geddes Centre
committee launched the ‘School of Planning Club’, which
for Planning Studies until 1987 (University of Edinburgh,
arranged lectures and discussions that were supported,
n.d.).
organised and attended by former students and others. In 1949, Percy also became a part-time member of staff
Percy’s work
at the school, while working in the Architect’s Department
When working for Coventry Council, Percy was
at London County Council (hereafter LCC) (University of
called for military service, and served with the Royal
Edinburgh, n.d.). He worked for LCC, becoming planning
Engineers in India and Burma. Whilst on duty he played a
officer, until 1959 when he moved to the University of
key role in the Service’s Architect’s Technical Organisation
Edinburgh (University of Edinburgh, n.d.). He founded
(SATO), teaching and lecturing on planning. He knew of
the planning consultancy, Percy Johnson-Marshall &
EAA Rowse (1896-1982) who also served with the Royal
Associates in 1960, known today as jmarchitects, with
Engineers in India and taught and lectured for the group
offices across the UK (jmarchitects, 2020).
too (Johnson-Marshall, 1990b:3). After the War, Percy settled in London, working for
Percy worked on and off through his life with his brother and their long-term friend and colleague, Sir Robert
“
Jaqueline Tyrwhitt... a real dynamo!
Percy Johnson-Marshall
”
Fig. 05 : Percy Johnson-Marshall & Associates’ 1962 working model of University of Edinburgh master plan
Fig. 06 : Percy Johnson-Marshall & Associates’ 1962 working model of University of Edinburgh master plan
Matthew (1906–1975) (hereafter Robert) (Glendinning,
numerous attempts from Stirrat to coax him in, “Percy’s
2008). At the time Percy joined, Robert was reorganising
communist principles forbade any such entanglement with
the LCC Architect’s Department and transformed it to
private practice.” (Glendinning, 2008:205).
a renowned department of planning with over 250 staff (Glendinning, 2008). Robert also worked at the University
A specific relevant riff is documented in the book
of Edinburgh from 1952, becoming Head of School in
where Percy feared “Stirrat was encouraging confusion
1953 (Watters, 2010), and later inviting Percy to join the
over the Johnson-Marshall name in order to siphon off his
institution (Johnson-Marshall, 1966).
clients… Percy wrote… a lengthy and impassioned memo,
Like Percy, Robert was keenly and centrally involved in the Modern Movement, being a member of MARS, affiliated with CIAM and attending Delos symposiums (Glendinning, 2008).
emphasising the lasting bitterness caused by the Central Lancashire debacle.” (Glendinning, 2008:444). This ‘debacle’ was the result of Percy working on
Both were also distinguished
the CLNT concept before he established his own practice
planners alongside being architects. Conversely, Stirrat
to complete it under. Not only was Percy disheartened
only practiced as an architect, saying “the average planner
when his rival won the job and used his design, but RMJM
was a mediocre bureaucrat, not a designer” (Glendinning,
poached Percy’s colleague and employee, planner and
2008:131).
architect George Duncan, who then oversaw the CLNT project for RMJM (Gazzard, 1997).
Certainly, Percy was more akin to Robert, however, Stirrat and Robert entered private practice together, founding Robert Matthew Johnson-Marshall & Partners (hereafter RMJM) in 1956 (RMJM, 2020). Within the huge volume of Modern Architect (2008), the tension that arose between the three men is chronologically laid out. A particular point of contention was Percy’s dedication to upkeep his values; he undertook specific work and refused to enter private practice with his brother. Despite
“
It is ever a group-emotion, a group-enthusiasm, which makes and re-makes the cities… Patrick Geddes (Geddes, 1968:338)
Fig. 07 : Percy’s 1966 publication Rebuilding Cities
”
“
Jaqueline Tyrwhitt: perhaps one of the most important people you never heard of. Ursula Huws, Jacky’s niece (Huws:2016)
Fig. 08 : Jacky taking notes
”
Jaqueline Tyrwhitt Early life and Education
Aged 14, Jacky gained a scholarship to attend
Mary Jaqueline Tyrwhitt was born 24th May 1905 in
the esteemed St Paul’s Girls School in Hammersmith
Pretoria, South Africa to Thomas and Dorothy Tyrwhitt
(Nagashima, 1985). During her years here she began to
(Nagashima, 1985). Thomas was an architect who trained
appreciate gardening and was inspired by the school’s
at the Architects Association (hereafter AA), and his work
garden mistress, Chrystobel Procter, and continued
with the reconstruction effort took them to South Africa
studying under her in preparation for examinations for the
following the South African War (Shoshkes, 2013). Upon
Royal Horticultural Society. In March 1924 Jacky passed
completion of a two-year contract they returned to England,
the exams but failed to attend horticultural college due to
settling in Hampstead4, North London where Jacky became
family finances.
the eldest of five children.
Jacky’s educational direction altered and her father
Her father also contributed to post-War reconstruction
organised for her to attend a term at the AA. Here she was
efforts at home following service with the Royal Navy
exposed to a wide variety of people and a range of new
Voluntary Reserves during the First World War. He worked
ideas. After her short time at the AA, Jacky went to garden
for the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries overseeing the
at Warley Place, Essex, but returned to London in 1926 and
design of cottages with the goal “to establish an entirely new
lived with her grandmother.
standard for working-class housing” (Shoshkes, 2013:6) to
Soon after her 21st birthday Jacky drifted away from
meet public demand for better living conditions after the
gardening. She enrolled on a night course at the London
War.
School of Economics, the beginning of her scholarly path Jacky would have been 15 years old during this time
(Shoshkes, 2013). Alongside studying in London, Jacky
and although it is unclear how much she knew of her father’s
spent several years working in industry, initially for a small
work or the influence, it is unusual how both followed
firm of garden architects then for Political and Economic
similar humanistic paths through their professional lives
Planning (hereafter PEP), where over a 50-year period she
within the architectural sector.
was just one of five female members. Here she developed new connections which helped her move into economical and
4. Living in Hampstead is notable as it was a garden city, the movement that pre-dates ¬post-War new towns. Hampstead began housing people in 1907, when the Tyrwhitt’s returned to London. Hampstead was commissioned by Henrietta Barnett, who wanted to provide adequate housing for the working class (Davidson, 2015). She appointed planner and Geddes follower Raymond Unwin to undertake a holistic plan as she felt “that the estate be planned not piecemeal, but as a whole” (HGS trust, n.d.).
non-political work particularly at the League of Industry. At
the Elmhirst family, who owned the estate. The year was
the League she worked on economic studies, employment
influential, perhaps what set her on the trajectory to become
planning, gained valuable leadership experience and began
a planner. She learnt about industry and agriculture and
an awareness of social and humanitarian spirit.
fused this with her established understanding of landscape
Jacky took advantage of paid leave at the league to
and architecture. It could have been in Elmhirst’s library,
begin travelling. She took the Trans-Siberian Railroad in
or through their friendship with the author, that Jacky
1934 to visit her brother Cuthbert, an army officer posted
discovered the book that would impact her life tremendously
in Shanghai. Even when travelling, Jacky kept a diary;
from then on.
she kept detailed recordings of the sites she saw, cultures experienced and things learnt, including the emergent regime in Germany upon returning from Shanghai. Jacky then spent a year working at Dartington Hall for
Fig. 09 : Jacky’s diary entry from a visit to Egypt.
Jacky recalls: “It was Patrick Geddes’s Cities in Evolution that first got me started on an interest in town planning” (Shoshkes, 2013:26).
Geddes’s Cities in Evolution (1915) contained his experience whilst on a town planning tour of Germany
the AA and SPRND, subsequently the SPRND closed down (Welter, 2001).
and lessons he thought valuable. Geddes endorsed town planning tours as “a vivifying wealth of new impressions”
With the onset of the War Jacky enlisted for the
(Geddes, 1968:177), so impressed with German planning he
Women’s Land Army and started a timber measuring
concluded: “we town planners have to come to Germany”
course in 1940 at the Forest of Dean. During this time,
(Geddes, 1968:184).
she and Rowse were in constant correspondence regarding
Thus, it is not presumptuous to suppose the discovery
planning work, developing a new school and he encouraged
of Geddes’s book compelled Jacky to then depart for Berlin
her to return to London to assist him. But Jacky was
in 1937, where she spent nine months studying town
reprimanded to stay working for the Forestry Commission
planning and land settlement at Technische Hochschule in
as a matter of ‘national interest’ (Shoshkes, 2013:42). Rowse
Berlin (Shoshkes, 2013).
then established a commercial planning consultancy called the Association for Planning and Regional Reconstruction
The SPRND and APRR
(hereafter APRR), which he ran until being enlisted to the
Upon returning to London, Jacky enrolled at the
Royal Engineer’s in 1941. Rowse managed to get Jacky
School of Planning and Research for National Development
back to London by her taking over his role as Director at
(hereafter SPRND) (Shoshkes, 2013), the planning division
the APRR.
of the AA set up in 1933. Rowse, an advocate of Geddes, was
Rowse shared with Jacky his ideas of curriculum (it
Principal of both schools and sought to deliver a broader
is likely these ideas had forced him out of the AA) with
curriculum to a wider range of graduates (Shoshkes, 2013).
an important emphasis on creating a ‘composite mind’
Although Jacky described the school as “a maelstrom
which fundamentally meant interdisciplinary team-work.
of seemingly haphazard lectures from all sorts of people”
This idea can be traced back to Geddes, who frequently
(Shoshkes, 2013:33) it seems she graduated feeling fulfilled:
expressed the underlying need that “City Design… [must
“By the time I had finished the course I felt I really had
be] a veritable orchestration of all the arts, and … all the
been made to grasp how to go about a job” (Shoshkes,
social sciences.“ (Geddes, 1968:205).
2013:34). Internal politics forced Rowse’s resignation from
Although Rowse coined the term ‘composite mind’, it
was Jacky who carried it forward, starting to implement it
indeed her entire life. She had provided herself with a truly
into her practice at the APRR. Jacky ran the APRR based
well -ounded and comprehensive foundation upon which
on what she had learnt in industry, particularly from the
to approach and further the discipline and education of
management style at PEP (Shoshkes, 2015). Jacky steered
surveying, town planning and interdisciplinary working.
the broad research agenda and used Geddesian theories to develop interdisciplinary and innovative mapping and
Jacky’s School of Planning
survey procedures. Specifically, Jacky conceived research
In fulfilling the role of Director at the APRR, Jacky was
and maps defined by cultural relationships rather than
then asked by the board to revive and continue the work
purely historic geographic boundaries, for example
of the SPRND. She redesigned the school, this time as a
investigating cake-baking preferences across the country
branch of the APRR, rather than the AA, under the subtly
(Shoshkes, 2013).
different name of the School of Planning and Research for
The APRR’s output was in the form of Broadsheets;
Regional Development (SPRRD).
The curriculum was
by implementing formatting methods, along with ideas
delivered as a part correspondence course during the War,
of standardisation, Jacky was able to convey research and
followed by a studio-based survey course after the War,
encourage exchange between the specialised disciplines that
because as Jacky remarked “One can’t teach survey work by
town planning encompassed. These strategies unlocked
post” (Shoshkes, 2013:71).
the work to a broader audience, which was one of her main
Jacky devised not only the curriculum but almost all
goals, and something that was also expressed by Geddes,
the material that constituted it, allowing her to synthesise
who, talking of town planning work, said that it should be
techniques she had devised for analysing and presenting
“visited and studied by every… citizen” (Geddes, 1968:253).
data into an “integrated planning theory… [and] pedagogy for practice” (Shoshkes, 2013:77), which allowed her to
Noticeably, while Geddes and Rowse discussed the
disseminate Geddesian theory completely throughout.
worth of interdisciplinary work, it was Jacky who forged a
Lectures varied; they included understandable areas such as
new and proactive method of executing this. Jacky herself
architecture and geography, but also covered subjects Jacky
had independently attended a variety of schools, studying
knew were important to gain a holistic appreciation of town
a range of disciplines over her most formative years, and
planning like sociology and rural studies.
Fig. 10 : Documentation relating to Jacky’s Correspondence Course - Introduction and Lesson Descriptions
Fig. 11 : Documentation relating to Jacky’s Correspondence Course - Lesson Descriptions
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The course’s objective was to train people in relevant
Jacky feeling it was her most meaningful role, many others
professions or with a planning interest, in anticipation for
too have remarked on the significance that Jacky “trained
the reconstruction effort once the War was over. Jacky built
a small, but influential cohort who made significant
upon Rowse’s efforts at the SPRND to allow a wider range of
contributions to post-War reconstruction worldwide as
students to access the course. Unfortunately, following the
they assumed positions throughout the Commonwealth, in
initial post-War years, the Town Planning Institute (TPI)
developing nations, and as advisors to the UN and other
began institutionalising planning education, restricting
international development agencies, just when they were
courses to university-based programs, something that later
needed most.” (Frank and Silver, 2017:69). Percy also
contributed to the closure of SPRND.
recognised that: “Jaqueline… achieved fulfilment through
Jacky’s unique correspondence course was a resounding
the education of an astonishingly able group of students,
success, and had over 1,600 people enrolled (Shoshkes,
who… have made a significant contribution to planning
2013). Later, 172 individuals completed the residential part
during the last 30 years.” (Fry et al., 1985:417).
of the school in London, obtaining membership to the TPI (Welter, 2001). That included just two women, who without
When Rowse returned from duty in 1946, an APRR
the course and the breadth of students able to attend, may
bulletin announced he would return to ‘his position’ at the
not have had the opportunity.
SPRRD. This statement is unjust, as after all it had been
Most significantly, one student who attended upon returning from War duty, was Percy. In his own words he confirms, “I wasted no time in joining it… I was deeply impressed with her achievement.” (Fry et al., 1985:417).
Jacky who constructed the role, the new school and new town planning pedagogy. Alas, it became apparent that Jacky would have to move on as those returning from War returned to their positions, closing spaces for women in the workplace
This first planning school Jacky created may well have
(Frank and Silver, 2017). She continued at the helm of the
been the most important. Diana Farr Louis, Jacky’s assistant
SPRRD and APRR, knowing Rowse would discharge her
production editor at Ekistics Journal, remembers it was “the
from the role. This happened in early 1948 when the last of
job she was most proud of - developing correspondence
those on her completion course graduated.
courses for servicemen” (Farr Louis, 2020). Along with
It is from around this period that, despite Jacky’s
Since Rowse’s return, Jacky found herself in an
devotion and tireless work, she does not gain recognition.
uncertain, but also free space. Continuing to work for the
For years she single-handedly ran, managed and furthered
APRR, she was open to explore new routes of inspiration.
research at the APRR whilst simultaneously establishing
Throughout the 1940s Jacky became more involved
and directing the SPRRD. Yet this work is not attributed
in lecturing overseas and with the MARS group, and
to her, instead many books reference Rowse as creating the
subsequently CIAM. As a result, she established a lifelong
SPRRD. Some contemporary papers collected in Man Made
friendship with Jane Drew5 (1911-1996), a fellow MARS
Future (Whyte, 2006) now, acknowledge the importance
member and editor of The Architect’s Yearbook. Jacky
of Jacky’s role in “cultivating the image of Geddes as the
wrote articles for her publication, including one titled
father of a research-based urbanism.” (Whyte, 2006:40).
‘Town Planning’ in the inaugural 1945 release.
However, within the same book, a paper by Iain Boyd
Because of such friendships and the connections Jacky
Whyte states the APRR was “directed after 1938 by Eric
nurtured throughout her professional career, she was able
Anthony Ambrose Rowse.” (Whyte, 2006:31), even giving
to launch herself into new and exciting opportunities that
“Thanks to Rowse” (Whyte, 2006:31) for the publication of
presented themselves to her during the second half of the
the illustrative Broadsheets, specifically referencing those
1940s, both close to home and around the globe.
from the mid 1940s after Jacky had taken hold of the reigns at the association.
Jacky realised that forming these associations was required for her to progress her career as a woman. Undoubtedly forward-thinking, Jacky had new ideas and
After withdrawing as Director, Jacky continued
pure passion for what she did, as well as to be independent.
to work in a much smaller capacity at the APRR. Her last
But through unpacking her life it is a shame to see that she
work was the production of an educational publication, the
had to fit into the ‘secondary’ or ‘supporting’ role in order
Town and Country Planning Textbook, which attempted
to achieve the vocation she desired.
to guide professionals, students and universities on the fundamentals of town planning. It was published in 1950, just before Jacky left and prior to the closure of the APRR.
5. Jane Drew was one of a handful of well-known female architects from the 20th century, married to notable architect and Jacky’s good friend, Maxwell Fry. Jane and Maxwell were established members of CIAM and MARS, and spent a number of years in India working on the first new town, Chandigarh, alongside Le Corbusier (Jackson and Holland, 2014). Jacky’s first article for the Yearbook contains a drawing which bears close resemblance to the later plan for Chandigarh.
“
She was a magnificent editor who had as great a capacity for friendship as for good work Earl Murphy : President of World Society for Ekistics (Maki et al, 1985:436)
Fig. 12 : Jacky looking triumphant on a snorkelling trip
�
Fig. 13 : Jaqueline Tyrwhitt
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The Founding Mother Developing a Network
by artist and former Bauhaus tutor Lazlo Moholy-Nagy in
Jacky’s transnational career began forming when
Chicago, and celebrated her 40th birthday in New York.
she accepted an invitation from the British Ministry of
She also attended a party whilst in Manhattan and was
Information to conduct a lecture tour around Canada on
introduced to architectural and cultural historian, Giedion.
British post-War planning in 1945. The tour was extended
Giedion and Gropius were both significant delegates
to include America, consequently overlapping with a
of CIAM, being secretary general and a member of the
United Nations (hereafter UN) conference on International
council, respectively. They had mutual friends owing to
Organisation in San Francisco. The trip was a pivotal point
Jacky’s arising involvement with the MARS group and
in Jacky’s personal and professional life.
affiliation with CIAM. Jacky was welcomed across the
During her inaugural passage to North America,
Atlantic by many academics and professionals; from hereon
Jacky began what she nick-named the ‘Geddes job’. She
she began securing her place amongst them, working on
had been editing Geddes’ sporadic and jumbled notes
countless projects across various disciplines and continents.
from his time in India. With help from, and the blessing of, his son Arthur Geddes, Jacky published Geddes In
Jacky formed another noteworthy connection when
India in 1947, coinciding with India’s independence from
lecturing in America again in 1948. She spent an evening
the UK (Shoshkes, 2013). Two years later, she edited and
in discussion with renowned architect and inventor of the
re-published Geddes’ Cities in Evolution, adding a new
geodesic dome, Richard Buckminster Fuller (1895-1983)
introduction herself and deleting certain outdated chapters.
(Shoshkes, 2013). He introduced Jacky to the shapes and
A third edition published in 1968 had new images collected
forms he studied; the impact of their conversations6 can be
and curated by Jacky, and an updated introduction, this
seen in Jacky’s drawings which communicated her ideas on
time contributed by Percy.
a decentralised metropolis, fig. 14.
Jacky spent April and May of 1945 travelling around Canada and America for the first time. During the trip, she became acquainted with Gropius at Harvard, was hosted
6. Jacky was introduced to scientific images such as x-rays, molecular images and telescopic photos of the solar system and universe when she visited Hungarian artist György Kepes in Cambridge, US, in1950. This, fused with her conversations exploring shape, would have been a big influence in her forming these ideas.
level land : playing fields
hills : light industry
river : heavy industry
residential unit 3070,000 people industrial centre for 250,000 people commercial centre for 250,000 people agricultural & commercial centre metropolitan centre for 3,000,000 people industrial route: rail, road, water
good agricultural land: market gardens & orchards
hills : health & recreation
parkway residential road
good agricultural land: agriculture industries Fig. 14 : Jacky’s drawing of the ‘Urban Constellation’ concept
The analysis was her reaction to the Garden City,
for an American Institute of Architects convention. Jacky
which was being used as the model and standard for new
explored the theory when asked if the British new towns
towns being established in Britain following the New Towns
were ‘safe?’, she responded a categorical ‘no’. She explained
Act of 1947. Jacky appears to question if this model was
“There must be a vital city centre to which all parts of the
the correct one to implement, or could there be alternative
[urban] constellation have access” (Shoshkes, 2013:142),
solutions.
adding “The only defence against death is life” (Shoshkes,
Her idea expanded on Geddes’s concept of
2013:142). Jacky was critiquing the decentralisation policy
‘conurbation’. Jacky had coined her own term to describe
of the first wave of new towns by referring to how they were
the relationship between cities and surrounding towns
just satellite towns around London. But Jacky had grander
and villages: ‘the Urban Constellation’, an apt name when
visions, that of a constellation or metropolis, a collection
viewing her diagrammatic representation. Jacky’s crucial
of centres interspersed with industry and greenery, rather
point demonstrated that urban areas organically extend
than separate towns with belts of green suffocating them.
from a metropolitan centre, and always will.
Her idea focused on connecting and integrating existing
Jacky based several lectures on this, taking them across
urban areas, allowing them to be enriched then develop
the globe including a lecture titled “‘The next phase in city
and grow more organically. The established centres provide
growth - the urban constellation” (Shoshkes, 2009:281)
resilience, and by connecting them, together they reach
their full potential to sustain the ‘life’ of a town, city or
Due to the delay in production Jacky was able to include
region, together forming an ideal poly-centric city.
excerpts and reports from CIAM 7 and 8 meetings as well as characteristically injecting Geddesian and her own theories
CIAM 6
along the way. However once printed the book only bore
The sixth CIAM congress was held in Bridgewater,
one name; Giedion’s. Jacky’s significant contribution to
England, hosted by the English branch of the organisation,
the publication is obvious from a letter she received off
MARS. It is without a doubt that Jacky, with her exceptional
Giedion, where he explained: “I was only furious that they
organisational skills, would have helped orchestrate the
printed my name all over the place… It is not an SG book!“
conference with other MARS group members. The congress
(Shoshkes, 2013:137).
had a large attendance, with delegates coming from across
Despite the recurrent disregard for her involvement,
Europe, America and beyond. It accommodated people
working on such projects brought Jacky closer to those
such as Le Corbusier, Gropius, Arthur Ling, Jose Luis Sert, Wells Coates, Maxwell Fry, Jane Drew, as well as Jacky’s former student Percy. Surprisingly though, the conference was without a formal agenda. The objective was to regroup and discuss how to progress the seventh congress, following a decade-long hiatus due to the War. CIAM 6 resulted in the formation of seven commissions that would address CIAM 7. Jacky and Giedion both worked within the same commission. From here on, Jacky fully embedded herself within CIAM. She took over the completion of Giedion’s book,
Decade of New Architecture (1951), as he was unable, or unwilling, to finish it. The book summarised the work CIAM was doing after the decade-long interlude, their response, and opinions of post-War planning activity. Fig. 15 : A Decade of New Architecture Book
CIAM 6 | Cities Re-imagined
Percy Johnson-Marshall
Le Corbusier
Jose Luis Sert Sigfried G
Fig. 16 : CIAM 6 Delegates Attended but not in photograph: Bertram Carter UK • Denis Clark Hall UK • Hermann Field USA • Gabriel Guevrekian France • Mark Hartland Thomas UK • William Holford UK • Richard Llewelyn Davies UK • Leslie Martin UK • Peggy Richards UK • Eugene Rosenberg UK • Ralph Tubbs UK • David Seymour France, born Poland • Andre Sive France • Jaqueline Tyrwhitt UK, born South Africa • Christoper Tunnard USA • J.H. van den Broek Netherlands • Aldo (1896 van Eyck – Netherlands • P.Vassiliadis n.d.) – 2006) Bertram Carter 1986) UK • DenisUK Clark (Anon. Hall (1910
Attended but not in photograph:
UK
Hartland Thomas (1906 – 1973) UK • William Holford (1907 – 1975) U
Richards (1904 – 1993) UK • Eugene Rosenberg (1907 – 1990) UK • R
Sive (1899 – 1958) France • Jacqueline Tyrwhitt (1905 – 1983) UK, b
Maxwell Fry Giedion Jane Drew
Walter Gropius
K • Hermann Field (1910 – 1979) USA • Gabriel Guevrekian (1892 – 1970) France • Mark
UK • Richard Llewelyn Davies (1912 – 1981) UK • Leslie Martin (1908 – 2000) UK • Peggy
Ralph Tubbs (1912 – 1996) UK • David Seymour (1911 – 1956) France, born Poland • Andre
born South Africa • Christoper Tunnard (1910 – 1979) USA • J.H. van den Broek (1898 –
on the council, particularly Giedion, and members who
limited recognition as translator. Particularly since he was
predominately worked in America. Jacky’s input became
apparently ‘furious’ over the lack of recognition in Decade
extremely valued, she made herself indispensable through
of New Architecture (Giedion and CIAM, 1951).
her efficient and essential work. It could be postulated that
Despite her extensive work, Jacky is mentioned
had Jacky not been so integral and influential at CIAM, it
just once within the 215 pages of Sigfried Giedion: An
would have taken longer to advance to holistic urban design
Intellectual Biography (Georgiadis, 1993). She is described
solutions.
simply as: “Giedion’s long-time colleague” (Georgiadis, 1993:121), and is quoted as saying about his writing style:
Sigfried Giedion
“Giedion had an obsession that certain words he happened
Sequentially, Jacky became “intimately involved”
to like should – and finally would – mean what he wanted
Their “profound
them to mean” (Georgiadis, 1993:121). But it’s likely it was
friendship” (Shoshkes, 2013:105) developed over many
actually Jacky who was choosing those words, to translate
years following her initial trip to America and CIAM 6.
and explain her interpretation of Giedion’s work.
(Shoshkes, 2013:102) with Giedion.
After gifting Giedion a copy of her book Geddes in India in 1947, she was invited to read proofs of his latest book
In 1949, utilising her influence, Jacky boldly suggested
Mechanization Takes Command (Giedion, 1948). This
to Giedion that “CIAM must have an assistant secretary”
started many years of Jacky’s position as Giedion’s informal
(Shoshkes, 2013:117).
editor and translator. He described her role for him, and
position as secretary, organised with members of the CIAM
in general, as: “active, but not intimidating men’s logic &
‘inner circle’ the creation of a ‘Secretary to the Council’ role,
rationalistic behaviour. But being a friendly, smooth female,
which Jacky accordingly filled and maintained until the end
behind the man’s activity” (Shoshkes, 2013:112).
of CIAM (Nagashima, 1985).
Giedion agreed, and from his
Jacky undertook a vast amount of work for Giedion
This ingenious side of Jacky’s personality has become
on much of his work over the following two decades, so
apparent through the research. She cleverly controlled
considering this, it’s difficult to understand why it was only
situations, swaying the outcome to her advantage, capable of
on the final edition of Giedion’s renowned book Space,
extracting the result she desired. This calculated attribute is
Time, Architecture (Giedion, 1967) that Jacky was given
echoed by her niece Ursula Huws who affectionately recalls
a life-lesson her Aunt instilled: “It is really useful to learn to touch-type. But when you apply for a job don’t on any account let them know that you can do it. If you do you will always be treated as a secretary.“ (Huws, 2016)
She once divulged to Giedion: “If one is to work in a profession that is mainly men, one has to be better at some parts of it at least - and the men don’t resent superiority in routine efficiency. They do resent any show of superiority in mental capacity.” (Shoshkes, 2009:283)
The Festival of Britain & CIAM 8 The Festival of Britain and CIAM 8 both occurred in 1951, each event provided Jacky with the opportunity to showcase her ideas and work. Jacky chose to demonstrate that understanding explicit human needs was fundamental to planning
Fig. 17 : Jacky and H. T. Cadbury-Brown at Harlow New Town as part of the CIAM 8 conference in 1951
and could “contribute to a better life for more people” (Shoshkes, 2013:132). The festival was a fantastic platform to increase public awareness of and interest in planning. She therefore ensured the exhibition was not too technical,
“
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If one is to work in a profession that is mainly men, one has to be better at some parts of it at least - and the men don’t resent superiority in routine efficiency. They do resent any show of superiority in mental capacity. Jaqueline Tyrwhitt
”
Fig. 18 : Example of the grid devised to display work, CIAM 8, The Heart of The City, 1952.
it invited everyone to visit and facilitated understanding
Geddes’ ideas on conurbation and her own of the ‘urban
by only including schemes that were built and could be
constellation’. Jacky had been instrumental in the MARS
visited (Shoshkes, 2013). It was also extremely relatable, it
definition of the ‘core’ as “the element which makes a
portrayed a town and how the lives of eight conventional
community a community, and not merely an aggregate of
people weaved through it, they were; “…a baby, a
individuals” (Shoshkes, 2013:143). CIAM 8 was to be an
schoolchild, an industrial trainee, a young married woman,
extension of this research to define the ‘core’, the Heart of
a factory worker, an office worker, and an elderly couple.”
a City.
(Shoshkes, 2013:133). This work undertaken and curated by Jacky is a clear
Her major role in the conference is known due to
demonstration of her belief in a holistic and humanistic
Heart of the City (Tyrwhitt et al., 1952), the companion
approach, rooted in the desire to provide socially responsible
book distilling the conference proceedings and her work on
planned urban spaces based on the end users. Notably,
the Core through analysis of several modern and historic
Percy attended the Festival and certainly saw Jacky’s work,
cores at varied scales, from several countries.
as his work for LCC was also commissioned for exhibition there (Johnson-Marshall, 1966).
The case studies are formatted in a strict way that facilities easy comparison at different scales. Jacky devised this grid, based on the previous CIAM grid, to help facilitate
CIAM 8, held in Hoddesdon, England, had been
understanding of how the urban designs function at each
coordinated by, and the proceedings devised by, Jacky,
level, like at the heart as well a whole. Jacky had used it
overseen by Sert from within their ‘inner circle’. The theme
in her work before, for example at the Festival of Britain.
was one Jacky had been interested in for years, based on
It also meant viewers could easily cross reference projects
from different architects and geographic locations. In the book’s conclusion, Jacky summaries CIAM’s work over the previous 20 years, clarifying “the need to replace man himself in the centre, face to face with his fellows.” (Tyrwhitt et al., 1952:168). She explains that the role of designers and architects should also be to find “a means to transform the passive individual in society into an active participant of social life.” (Tyrwhitt et al., 1952:168), in other words, humanistic architecture that enhances an area and generates life and urban space for it’s inhabitants.
Fig. 19 & 20 : All images from CIAM 8, The Heart of The City, 1952.
Crossing the Atlantic & Influence in India
institution, expressing to the chairman “if the appointment
Like many modernists after the War, Jacky left England
of a woman is a stumbling block, here is a good opportunity
and headed west, following the waves she embarked on new
for us to part amicably.” (Shoshkes, 2013:153). This may
endeavours in North America. Jacky left London for New
have been Jacky’s attempt at a way out, as her sights were set
York in 1950 (and never returned save a few brief visits,
on Harvard where her peers, such as Spanish architect José
such as CIAM 8) with little money and no plan (Shoshkes,
Luis Sert and Groupis, taught. Albeit the friction, Jacky
2013).
remained at Toronto, conducting new work funded by the
After suffering a hospitalising asthma attack,
architect and UN housing officer, Ernest Weissmann (1903-
Ford Foundation7, while staying in touch with the UN.
1985) commissioned Jacky to write for the UN’s Housing and Town Planning Bulletin, which began her involvement
Jacky was then informed by Weissmann of a technical assistant position in India. Jacky professed: “I don’t think
with the UN. Feeling that British planning was no longer enough for
the UN will want a woman.” (Shoshkes, 2013:154), but her
her (Shoshkes, 2013), Jacky’s bold transatlantic move clearly
doubts were unfounded, she was accepted for the job, plus as
demonstrates her independence and faith.
With such
a Project Director to advise on low cost housing and arrange
determination to revolutionise town planning education,
the first UN seminar on housing in Asia (Shoshkes, 2013).
it is a shame to see that she had to quash her ambition to
She was the first woman to lead a UN technical assistant
fuel others. This is commented on by Wolfgang Frankl, a
mission, and regardless of her misgivings she achieved this
former student, who said she “subordinated her own great
in another traditionally male-dominated setting.
energies to the service of others” (Maki et al., 1985).
The 10 months she spent in India were very significant. Jacky was able to explore much of Asia during the trip, like
Jacky spent a brief time lecturing at Yale before
Bangkok and Singapore, as well as other towns and cities
moving to Canada where she was a visiting professor at the
in India including Le Corbusier’s Chandigarh. Jacky was
University of Toronto from 1951 until 1955 (Nagashima,
responsible for planning a whole village, where her design
1985). She established the City and Regional Planning
touched on the human scale by detailing aspects such as
course, but experienced tension in the male-dominated
window heights and stove designs.
7. A private American philanthropic foundation established in 1936 by owner of Ford Motor Company. It supports and funds “scientific, educational and charitable purposes, all for the public welfare,” (Ford Foundation, 2020).
Fig. 21 : Jacky visiting the Village Centre with Mr Jawaharlal Nehru, Prime Minister of India
Jacky truly understood and implemented into her practice the importance of being immersed into a setting and culture. She appropriately applied Geddes’s mantra “diagnosis before treatment.” (Geddes, 1968:295), something she made a focus of throughout her teaching career. Thus, she was able to respond sensitively, resolving specific problems by drawing on local knowledge for inspiration and solutions.
The most notable event was organising the conference
Fig. 22 : The village centre and low-cost model homes were designed by Jacky and the UN’s contribution to the Low-Cost housing exhibition. The houses were all designed to cost less than 5,000 rupees, which was equivalent to $1,000 US.
on Low Cost Housing. It built on work she had been doing to help bring western education to the east, but simultaneously integrate and learn from eastern tradition. She invited all the ‘big names’ in architecture and planning at the time.
It was an obvious success and she also
unknowingly coordinated her introduction to Doxiadis, who would become a highly important figure in her life. Over her life Jacky quite literally followed in Geddes’s footsteps. She not only edited and publicised Geddes in India (1947) to a wide audience, but also gained a deeper understanding of his work through her own first-hand experience. She explored and learnt across cultures, not just in India, like Geddes, but continually as she expanded her network across the world. Her nomadic, transnational lifestyle was the perfect vessel to facilitate cross-fertilisation of east and west education, just as she aspired.
Fig. 23 : Jacky’s design of the community centre as part of the UN Low Cost Housing Conference Jacky arranged.
Harvard Graduate School of Design, Indonesia & Urban Design
Not only did Jacky lead the organisational side but she was additionally assigned as rapporteur, a common ‘behind-the-
Jacky was finally offered a job at Harvard Graduate
scenes’ role. As the conferences continued Jacky narrowed
School of Design (hereafter GSD) by Sert in 1955. She was
the field of discussion to “the design section of the planning
assigned Assistant Professor of City Planning, and later
process” (Shoshkes, 2013:185), this new emerging field was
Associate Professor of Urban Design, something she never
adopted as Urban Design. This advancement resulted in a
thought could happen.
new course launching at GSD in 1959, the Urban Design
Upon her appointment, and knowing both Jacky and
Program (Maki et al., 1985). Jacky was essential to this
her situation ‘intimately’, Giedion recommended: “The
advancement and in developing the curriculum for the
main thing for you will be: to be as female and silent as
program.
possible, and as little as possible a school master” (Shoshkes, 2013:173). Although this sounds sexist, it was probably
Another significant role Jacky had at GSD was forming
well intentioned, due to the chauvinistic environment Jacky
a link to the UN. After the UN conference she organised
occupied.
in India in 1954, there had been discussion of founding
As Head of School, Sert was restructuring the GSD. He
planning schools in Asia. This ultimately came to fruition
hired Jacky strategically, for her international connections,
in Indonesia as a joint venture of the UN, Harvard and the
interdisciplinary approach and as his friend and ally. She
Government of Indonesia. Her unique position within
would help him achieve his goal. Jacky was asked to co-
Harvard academia and established connections at the UN
teach the fundamental year-long course that every student
meant Jacky was undoubtedly best placed to visit Indonesia
had to undertake – Environmental Design Studio. For
and help establish the new School of Regional and City
Jacky, this was thrilling, it was a major and influential
Planning, part of the Bandung Institute of Technology.
role and worked within every department.
She could
The goal was to help establish the school, train the
confidently infuse Geddesian theory and interdisciplinary,
faculty in America and get the school self-sufficient in five
collaborative thinking into receptive students.
to seven years (Shoshkes, 2013). William Doebele, another
One of Jacky’s first achievements at GSD was in
professor at Harvard, was also involved. He and his wife
coordinating a new major conference on Urban Design.
spent the first year, 1959, in Indonesia setting up the school
“
as this incipient union of science and art becomes realised, our discouragement and our cynicism abate... a new age, a new enthusiasm, a new enlightenment are already dawning Patrick Geddes
and teaching, then Jacky spent the first six months of 1960
every corner of the globe.
”
at the institute. In all her experience Jacky said it was “the
Jacky deferred teaching at Harvard for a number
most efficient, and realistic and economic assistance that
of years and spent the summers in Greece (Shoshkes,
has yet been given in setting up a department” (Shoshkes,
2013). Pleased she had managed to obtain and maintain an
2013:199).
important role at Harvard, Jacky was able to focus the latter
By helping establish this school, Jacky facilitated the
part of her life on founding another planning discipline.
internationalisation of town planning and urban design discourse. Doebele recalls of Jacky, “her keen interest in each student as an individual… her concern to make education as relevant as possible to the needs of the students from developing countries… the need for sensitivity to cultural and social differences, and the dangers of Western planning methods and concepts being thoughtlessly or arrogantly imposed on others.” (Maki et al., 1985:440). Jacky’s distinctive approach and teaching style meant success for the projects she was involved in, across cultural divides and boundaries. Jacky’s ability to determine specific
Fig. 24 : Jacky teaching at Harvard Graduate School of Design
needs of a wide variety of students, and too of clients with
Ekistics, Delos and Sparoza
design responses, shows how her careful survey, of space
The final chapter of Jacky’s life was anchored from
or people, is invaluable. Jacky practiced what she preached
Sparoza, the hill top abode she built near Athens. Although
This content from 2.30.202.187 on 30 Apr 2020 13:32:23 UTC sheThu, officially retired from Harvard in 1969, she had been and it was the greatest evidence that downloaded her pedagogy was a All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
successful one.
making moves back to Europe since 1963, having purchased
Her position at Harvard amplified her influence
a plot of land outside Athens (Tyrwhitt, 1985b). She was
amongst the next generation of architects and planners even
based here due to her association with Doxiadis. Their
more. The leading and international cohort of students that
friendship and professional relationship grew following
benefited from her teachings went on to pursue careers in
their first meeting at the UN conference in India.
ekistics
Both were extremely interested in similar things, what Doxiadis termed ‘Ekistics’, the “name for a new science of human settlements” (Shoshkes and Adler, 2009:200). Their work over the next 20 plus years was to establish Ekistics as a subject that could be formally studied across the world. A truly international and interdisciplinary recognised field.
Jacky and Doxiadis had kept in touch since 1954 and because of Jacky’s nomadic lifestyle they were able to
noun, plural in form but singular in construction ekis·tics | \ i-’ki-stiks \
: a science dealing with human settlements and drawing on the research and experience of professionals in various fields
(such as architecture, engineering, city planning, and sociology)
(Merriam-Webster, n.d.)
arrange meetings as she was back and forth to Europe. In August 1955 Doxiadis asked if Jacky would like to take charge in preparing a publication for him. It would contain helpful international information that he could distribute to his staff at Doxiadis Associates, an engineering consultancy, as their work and staff began to venture east and across continents. Jacky accepted on the basis that it could also be distributed to UN experts and in developing countries (Shoshkes and Adler, 2009). In October of that year the first Tropical Housing & Planning Monthly Bulletin was released, which was a “cross-fertilisation of eastern and western social-aesthetic” (Shoshkes, 2013:179). Beginning as articles and book extracts, Jacky’s involvement meant it could include UN documents that would otherwise not have been accessible. She curated the bulletin, prioritising topics that had a social aspect of planning, housing or
This content downloaded from 2.30.202.187 on Thu, 30 Apr 2020 13:22:11 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
Fig. 25 : Early cover of the Ekistics journal, showing the Dymaxion world map.
“
Jacky had enormous energy... she unselfishly gave herself to develop the ideas of others. She did for Doxiadis what she did for Sert and Giedion. She made possible their literary output in a way that would have been inconceivable without her William Doebele (Maki et al., 1985:440)
Fig. 26 : Jacky and Giedion in India.
�
community. After two years of continual development it
14 countries, including Giedion and Robert (ACE, 1963b).
was reincarnated as the journal: EKISTICS Housing and
Jacky’s role is yet again was of a hidden nature. She is
Planning Extracts.
not counted as a Delian in EKISTICS (ACE, 1963a). But Doxiadis opening comments say: “There were no formal
Alongside Harvard, Jacky was also working with Doxiadis throughout the 1950s and 1960s.
minutes or records, no stenographers and no tapes. If
From her
anyone wished to make a statement… he could… give it
experience, Jacky understood the significance of a subject
to the Secretariat. Professor Tyrwhitt of Harvard acted as
being institutionalised to gain legitimacy. In 1958 they
the only secretary of the meeting and took notes in order
succeeded, Ekistics was taught at the Graduate School of
to record the spirit of the discussions” (Doxiadis, 1963:204)
Ekistics (hereafter GSE) part of the Athens Technological
Delos was the ultimate fulfilment of a ‘composite
Institute.
mind’. The meetings ran for ten successive years; Jacky,
In 1963 Doxiadis, with Jacky’s help, secured funding from the Ford Foundation.
It is likely Jacky’s past
Doxiadis, his wife and Buckminster Fuller were the only attendees present at every event.
involvement with the foundation and her connection to Harvard helped obtain the funding. The support helped
Jacky worked for Doxidis on EKISTICS, Delos and as
formalise the Athens Centre for Ekistics (hereafter ACE)
a tutor in Planning at the GSE for many years (Nagashima,
and aided the realisation of Doxiadis’s floating symposion8.
1985). Jacky was editor of Ekistics until 1972, when her
Having witnessed the CIAM Athens Charter as a
friend, former student and co-editor Gwen Bell took over,
student, Doxiadis wanted to recreate the same spirit of
but Gwen said “it was really Jacky’s publication until she
excitement for ekistics, on a boat tour they named Delos.
died” (Maki et al., 1985). Jacky continued to teach and
Jacky’s unparalleled involvement in CIAM meant she was
lecture around the world and worked on a book for herself
well placed to manage and oversee the event. Although
with roots to her first career path, gardening, called: Making
based on the study of human settlements, architects and
a Garden on a Greek Hillside (Tyrwhitt, 1998). She passed
planners were not the only people on the guestlist. Those
away at home on February 21st 1983, her diary entries
invited were called ‘Delians’ (ACE, 1963a). Delos One was
detail that she was still working on EKISTICS articles and
comprised of 34 world leaders, experts and scientist from
her book until the very end (Tyrwhitt, 1985a).
8. Doxiadis insisted on it being called a Symposion as opposed to symposium to retain its Grecian roots.
The Founding Mother There is far too much to say about Jacky than can be contained within 10,000 words. The expansive lists of publications, books and journals she contributed to in
EKISTICS (Nagashima and Ladas, 1985) begins to reveal her extreme work ethic. But probably the most enlightening words one can read about Jacky are those from friends, students and colleagues remembering her charm, caring nature and her friendship.
Fig. 27 : Jacky on the Acropolis
Geddes is frequently dubbed a ‘founding father’ or ‘father of planning’. But without Jacky’s unparalleled efforts to disseminate palatable Geddesian theory to a greater audience, it is arguable that they may not have been so widely embraced. So, is it not only reasonable that Jacky too deserves such recognition as a ‘founding mother’? The research presented in this study argues she does deserve such credit. It is clear that although there is a lot less written and recorded about Jacky, her substantial contribution to the widespread publicity and worldwide teaching of Geddesian theories means that without her, Geddes’s planning theology may not have been as influential, and town planning and urban design may look very different today. Jacky became, like Geddes, a highly-influential
Fig. 28 : In Gambia on an official visit as a UN Technical Consultant, 1963.
representative and scholar of transnational urban design.
Her international and far reaching life’s work reveal how
effectively disseminate knowledge was akin to her male
her experiences helped evolve her method of planning and
counterparts, if not more.
teaching. She trained swathes of significant future architects, planners and landscape architects on collaborative working;
Her social and caring nature helped make her an
within practice, with local communities and harmoniously
internationally known name within major architectural and
with nature.
planning movements of the 20th century. Her personal and energetic nature was brought into her teaching style, and
Despite her misgivings about her non-traditional
this may have been the key to producing such influence and
training and gender, she was an academic in her own
causing such an impact of the next generation of designers
right.
she helped shape.
The dedication and commitment Jacky gave to
understanding, formulating ideas and devising ways to
Fig. 29 : Jacky speaking at a conference in Athens, 1961
Fig. 30, 31 & 32 : Internal and external shots of Jacky’s home, Sparoza, near Athens airport in Greece.
Fig. 33 : View of Jacky’s home on a Grecian hillside. Designed by American/Polish architect Jerzy Soltan. The house was built in stone and a few other houses were built close by that formed a small community which enriched Jacky’s later life greatly.
Longridge Grimsargh
Preston
Walton
Cuerden
Leyland Chorley
Fig. 34 : Diagram of the ladder-like conceptual design for CLNT, utilising the existing urban fabric and linking the seven townships with fast transport systems around the motorways.
The Impact Having explored Jacky’s life and contribution to the
never fully realised; when funding halted, the Development
education of town planning and urban design, the following
Corporation was forced to close after just 15 years (tcpa,
chapter will look at CLNT and the how Jacky’s philosophy
2014).
was incorporated in the design. As
mentioned
previously,
Percy’s
working
Central Lancashire New Town
relationships with Stirrat and Robert were muddled and
The third wave of British New Towns emerged
fraught. He undertook the initial concept work on CLNT
following the 1965 New Town Act, passed under the re-
before splitting off to form his own practice, and RMJM
elected Labour government.
commenced delivering the proposal without him.
It was announced there
was the intention of a New Town development in central Lancashire.
Richard Crossman, the Minister of Housing and Local Government, then commissioned RMJM to conduct a report on the feasibility of a New Town in the Leyland/ Chorley area (RMJM, 1967).
Two years later RMJM
delivered Study for a City (1967). The document details the process to determine the scale and location of the development, along with initial proposals and the impact of such a development on the whole region. This led to the designation of CLNT on March 26th 1970. It was 14,267 hectares of land that concentrated on the existing town of Preston and neighbouring townships (tcpa, 2014:35). CLNT was the final and biggest British New Town, intended to grow from a population of 253,000 to 503,000 by 1991 (RMJM, 1967:3). However CLNT was
Fig. 35 : CLNT Designation Area, set out in Study for a City.
The Design Pedagogy
her teachings and it was successfully employed here.
Despite the design being largely theoretical, the plans
The simple diagrammatic style utilised throughout
for CLNT can still be examined and parallels drawn which
the document visually aids anyone reading it. This way of
unite them with Jacky’s teaching.
portraying information is notable, because it was a public
CLNT is significant as it was conceived at a sub-
government document, so those assessing it may not have
regional level, which was one of the first lessons in Jacky’s
any architectural training. Like Jacky’s focus at APRR,
SPRRD course: ‘Regional Integration’, see figure 10. Study
the data has been specifically displayed in a way that is
for a City (1967) explains the design process throughout.
transparent and explains the planning methods.
It examines, in detail and at various scales, the potential of each area, then suggests development options at a regional scale. This holistic approach is one that Jacky reinforced in
80,000
60,000
18,000 15,000 5,000
1
4,000
neighbourhood
2 district
3 township
Fig. 36 : Representation of the scale of the neighbourhood, district and townships. Seven townships, made of districts and neighbourhoods will form the city or region of 500,000 people, the population aim for CLNT by 1991.
Fig. 37.a : Concentration of city functions in one centre Movement pattern, radial plan with all converging together
Fig. 37.b : Strategic dispersal city functions - Movement pattern, distributor system is engaged over centralised, everyone can access the city centre and local districts as easily
The design methodology interrogated the area at four scales: city or region (300,000 – 500,000 people), Township (60,000 – 80,000), District (15,000 – 18,000)
home
daily needs local shops
and neighbourhood (4,000-5,000), see fig. 36 (RMJM, 1967). Interrogation at different scales was a basis of Jacky’s pedagogy, this can be seen through her use of grids to
home
arrange and display work at set scales, as well as her work
small range of goods district shops
on the urban constellation. CLNT’s striking curved ladder-like design is an arrangement of seven townships (fig. 34). The townships are connected by a fast three-strand transport infrastructure
home
wider range of goods town centre
and interspersed with green space and industry (fig. 38). The townships are expansions of existing urban centres, strategically chosen due to their established functions and potential for development.
home
specialist shops regional centre
Fig. 38 : Sequencing transport movements from the home to services, from neighbourhood to city scale. The distribution of functions removes congestion at the centre.
urban planning was subject to searching examination by Patrick Geddes, the great pioneer of contemporary planning ideas. He found, of course, that it was often a reflex of a complex social organization, and suggested that it might require a complicated form of conservation surgery rather than total demolition and redevelopment. Percy Johnson-Marshall (Johnson-Marshall, 1966:53)
Transport, population density, commerce and growth are all studied at every scale. To avoid radial transport
also explored in fig. 37, and relates to Jacky’s lessons on decentralisation noted in ‘Lesson VI’, fig. 10.
systems, as seen in early New Towns and garden cities, the roads are used as distributors, enabling easy access not just to the main centre, but also between townships (fig. 37).
Rather than introduce satellite towns, the measured development of every centre allows the original core to be retained, respected and enhanced.
The decision is
Study for a City is a comprehensive document
synonymous with Jacky’s thoughts: “main Cores have
which conforms greatly with the idea of “diagnosis before
always grown around the first centre of development. It
treatment.” (Geddes, 1968:295), another process that Jacky
seems very difficult to change this. The first core to grow
schooled her students on and something she practiced
seems to remain the real centre.” (Tyrwitt, 1985:473).
since working in industry at PEP and the APRR.
This approach does not remove facilities from the main centre, but allows every centre to grow independently
Rather than employing a decentralisation policy to alleviate overcrowding in the centres, the concept for CLNT was a strategic ‘Distribution of Functions’ between
with its specialist draw, encouraging a sustainable regional growth as the centres are not in direct competition. Preston remains the regional heart of administration,
the townships (RMJM, 1967:56). Each centre had a certain
retail and business.
Just south, Walton provides
focus of facilities based on existing conditions. This is
administration and education, whilst Cuerden is focused
Fig. 39 (right) : Development of concept design applied to typography of area. Industry, residential, urban and green space are all interspersed and accessed by the ring-like distributor roads.
M.6 Longridge Grimsargh
River Ribble
Preston Blackburn
Walton Leyland
Cuerden
River Yarrow
Chorley
existing urban areas general residential area industrial area town centre special ownership open space and landscape features land over 600 feet high speed road railway public transport route
M.6
M.61
Bolton
Fig. 40 : BDP’s Preston Bus Station, internal shot and promotional material.
Fig. 41 : External photographs of Preston Bus Station from shortly after it opened, circa 1969-1970. The brutalist architecture is now a iconic symbol of Preston’s skyline.
on recreation.
Further south, Leyland would still
accommodate industry and expand into education and retail, below that Chorley’s expansion emphasis is on becoming a cultural and entertainment hub (Jolley, 2017). To the west of Preston there would be the large development of the small residential areas of Grimsargh and Longridge, concentrating on recreation, welfare and entertainment (RMJM, 1967:73).
Fig. 42 : Preston’s indoor market, displaying the warren of stairs and access from the car park to the markets and out to street level
Percy’s scheme acknowledges Preston’s historic core, it is where the heart, or the life, of the region is, and will continue to be. Accordingly, Preston’s core had a focused design, elements of this were delivered before the New Town halted. This includes the bus station and indoor market, constructed in 1969 (BDP, n.d.) and 1973 (LEP, 2018) respectively. Both buildings were created at a city scale,
Fig. 43 : Preston’s indoor market, showing the pedestrian subways before demolition began in summer 2019.
ready for the expected regional population of 500,000 (RMJM, 1967). Their strategic location on the edge of the centre meant people could access by vehicles, then filter through the car parks or transport hubs, leaving the core vehicle-free. Although in Preston the designers were dealing with a more established urban fabric, the separation of pedestrians and vehicles was a common experiment in most New Towns, indeed all shopping districts or precincts.
Fig. 44 : Internal view of the indoor market stalls
The main themes of Jacky’s pedagogy can be traced through these elements of CLNT design. There is a focus on the cores, intermingling industry and green space with homes, and extensive research and investigation of the site and population. These are fundamentals that Geddes pioneered and Jacky managed to disseminate across the world by formulating a teaching style that could be easily replicated. Thanks to this work and Jacky’s involvement in movements like CIAM, Town Planning, Urban Design and Ekistics became recognised fields. With the need for Fig. 45 : CLNT Development Corporation promotional advertisements placed in local and national news papers.
an interdisciplinary and broader approach understood, the designers of third-wave New Towns had a vastly different education to those who planned the satellite first-wave and experimental second-wave. Third-wave towns, like CLNT, bare the influence of Jacky with a more humanistic, considered approach, which is respectful of existing conditions. They aim to provide a better quality of life for the new population they attract, as well as the existing.
Fig. 46 : Promotional and advertising information which shows a model of the proposals of a neighbourhood centre, highlighting what will be retained and how it will work
“
the Core is to serve as a place where adults can move about informally, and ... any provision for this kind of informal strolling within the city. Two important things seem to be that the Core should provide a sympathetic setting for varied moods ... There should be no distinct zones of separation ... The Core should be filled with a great diversity of people. Jaqueline Tyrwhitt (Tyrwitt, 1985:473)
Fig. 47 : Ariel photograph showing work undertaken at Walton, CLNT,, note housing, green space and industry within close proximity with easy and fast transport links
�
“
As such women, such constructive pacifists, enter and lead the incipient civic and town-planning movement, their heavy-armed and bucklered men-folk will at length learn to grasp the trowel also; and next begin to lay their panoply aside. Through Region and City, and in course of their revivance and development, lies the peaceful yet strenuous way of survival and evolution. Patrick Geddes (Geddes, 1968:83)
Fig. 48 : Jacky.
�
Conclusion The Connection
The Significance
This research reveals that the main traits of Jacky’s
The attitude towards women in architecture, and
planning theory can be traced through those she taught.
society in general, has changed dramatically over the 90 years
Percy is one of the more well-known architects of the
since Jacky first stepped foot in it. Whilst opportunities for
20th century, but his notoriety did not sway him from his
women in the workplace have unquestionably increased, it
training or routes. He refused to go into private practice,
is true that the gender gap in pay and representation across
favouring public architecture and planning (Glendinning,
the architectural profession still exists (Jessel, 2019).
2008).
It is a sure misfortune that it is only recently, 2013,
What Percy once said of Abercrombie is certainly
that Jacky’s story and influence has started to be told and
applicable to him too: he had a “deep social conscious”
acknowledged, chiefly through the work of Ellen Schockes.
(Johnson-Marshall, 1990a:16:00). This humanist quality is
But as the work of individuals, such as Jacky, rise
also true of Jacky’s character and what she taught. Jacky’s self-proclaimed greatest achievement of
to the surface and become known, it is great to see the gaps in history start to be filled, little by little, with once
training those who shaped post-War reconstruction in
invisible women.
Britain is a legacy to be proud of. Like Percy, they planned
acknowledgement she deserves comes a way in proving that
and conceived many iconic schemes we know today.
women definitely do not just stand behind men.
Their impression is seen through New Towns, humanistic theories and the education of the next generation. Percy is just one example of many students who were inspired and motivated by Jacky’s principles.
Offering Jacky the recognition and
What have I learnt This study has revealed that outdated gender stereotypes can mean women are overlooked and forgotten, causing them to become invisible. I hope this paper can contribute to shedding light on the magnificent work of Jacky, and explain why her influence is of such importance. Jacky’s humility and modesty for the great work she achieved is admirable. As is her enthusiasm for planning, architecture and life itself. She felt that “in work one is more satisfied to assist – to help forward – the work of someone else than to sit in the chief seat oneself ” (Shoshkes, 2013). Although I’m sure many would not enjoy as modest a role, Jacky’s dedication and devotion to the cross-fertilisation of planning theories and disseminating knowledge all over the world truly paid off, through the work achieved by those she tutored and trained. It has been stimulating tracing Jacky’s life and gaining an understanding of her. It’s a privilege to know her story and recognise the faint traces of her pedagogy on my, granted quite limited, knowledge of planning and architectural education. One thing I found most interesting has been the humanistic emphasis of her work, which happens to align with the pedagogy within the PraXXis atelier. It is something I feel is of great importance to ensure an informed and considered design.
Fig. 49 : Jacky at the heart of the group and meeting.
Fig. 50 : Jacky at home, reading on the terrace.
Fig. 51 : A drawing of Jacky house on a Grecian hillside.
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Fig. 52 : A drawing of Jacky and her ‘Family’.
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