A CASE STUDY ON MANAGEMENT OF DRINKTNG WATER DELIVERY SYSTEM FOR URBAN POOR COMMUNITIES IN
KATHMANDUVALLEY A Thesis
Submitted for the award of Ph.D Degree
of
MOHANLAL SUKADIA UNIVERSITY IN THE
FACULTY OF MANAGEMENT STUDIES
By
MURALI GOPAL RANJITKAR
Under the Supervision of
I)r. P. K. JAIN Professor
FACULTY OF MANAGEMENT STUDIES MOHANLAL SUKADIA UNIVERSITY UDAIPUR
2010
FACULTY OF MANAGEMENT STUDIES MOHANLAL SUKHADIA UNIYERSITY UDAIPUR, 313001 (India)
GERTIFICITE - ieel pleasure in certifuing that the thesis entitled "A Case Study on Management of Drinking Water Def ivery System for Urban Poor Communities in Kathmandu Valley" embodies a record of the results of irn;estigations carried zuidance.
out by Mr. Murali Gonal Raniitknr under my
I am satisfied with the analysis of data, interpretation
of results
.,::l conclusions drqwn. He has completed the residential requirement ) "-'' t'ulâ‚Źs.
I recommend
as
the submission of thesis.
n
V tl0^tl-a.J
1st November 2010 3ii5a:ir;1,',
;,riurr,l.r= . iil lri';{.Df'
P' K JAI N}
Usaip"i
ProfesSof, Supervisor Faculty of Management Studies MLS Universi$, Udaipur, Rajasthan
t$,r. Sq,lil:*ti,t ij*ivr:r;;riy,
'ffi Dr.
DEPARTMENT OF ENYIRONMENTAL SCIENCES MOHANLAL SUKHADIA UNIVERSITY UPAIPUR, 313001 {India}
\idhi Rai
Tel. No. 029424i3955 .(M)919928?68985
-...sociate Professor
GERTIFIGATE
i
teel pleasure
Management
in certifying that the thesis entitled "A Case Study on
of
Drinking Water Delivery System
for Urban Poor
Communities in Kathmandu Valley" embodies a record of the results ;n,-estigations carried 'zuidance.
of
out by Mr. Mursli Gopal Ranjitkar under nty
I am satisfied with the analysis of data, interpretation
of results
-,tcl conclusions drawn. He has completed the residential requirement as '-_-' t'utes7
. ,'â‚Źcotnmend the submission of thesis.
eclE
1st November 2010
N'-#
(Dr. Nidhi Rai) Associate Professor,
*:?s::,9,"u.FHffirsu* cnwfonrnenLaJ
::.f :, "., JUkhadla Unrversrtv TJDAIPUR
Sc;ener
DECLARATION
-- hereby
declare that the work incorporated in the present thesis entitled, "A
Case Study on Management
of Drinking Water Delivery System for
Urban Poor Communities in Kathmandu Valley" :riginal. This work (in part or
in
it my own work and is
full) ltas not been submitted to any UniversiQ
"or the award of a Degree or a Diploma.
(MudiG o{et Ranjitkar)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
It is my
great opportunity
thanks to both
to express my sincere gratitude and heartfelt
of my supervisor and co-supervisors, Dr, p. K. Jain,
Professor, Faculty of Management Studies and Dr. Nidhi Rai, Associate Professor and Head of Department of Environmental Sciences, Mohanlal
Sukhadia University for their guidance, valuable advice and continuous
untiring effort during this study.
I would like to acknowledge with my deep gratitude to Dean Prof. Dr. I.v. Trivedi, Dean of Post-graduate studies and Prof. Karunesh Saxsenao Director, Faculty
of
Management Studies, Mohan lal Sukhadia
University.
I am thankful to Dr. Baburam Bamniya, Associate Prof., Department of Environmental Sciences, Mohanlal Sukhadia University for his valuable comments and suggestion during the report preparation.
\fr sincere thanks go to Mr. Devendra Singh Rathore, and Mr. Bishnu Rupakheti for their cooperation and help throughout the research work.
\f1' heartful thanks go to Mr. Phurba sange Moktan, Mrs. Biju Dongol, Mr. Rajesh Kumar Das, Ms. Puja Jaiswal and Mr. Sujin Bajracharya for their cooperation in data collection and compilation $
| \-il A.,
I express my sincere thanks to my wife Shakilau & Sagun for their cooperation and help during my
Last but not the least, and two son Samun research activities.
I can not forget my doughter, Merina and Mr. Ram Maharjan for their encouragement and help
till the final stage of the research work.
Finally, I would like to dedicate this research to my beloved late Mother
Krishna Kumari.
(Murali Gopal Ranjitkar)
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1
CHAPTER - ONE
INTRODUCTION
Nepal is land locked country bordered to the south, east and west by giant India and to the north by republic of China with an area of 147141 square kilometers. Country is commonly divided in to three physiographic areas that is mountain (Himal), hills (Pahad) and plains (Terai) regions. These ecological regions spread from east to west and are vertically intersected by major perennial rivers flowing from north to south. Nepal is a country of highly diverse and rich in nature, culture and tradition. The mountain region in the north part of the country contains eight of the world’s ten highest mountains including the Mount Everest, the highest peak of the world. Hill are the main settlement areas of the valley of culture and tradition, and Terai the fertile land of the country is the heavily urbanized area. Most of the major rivers are snow-fed and monsoon rain fall occurs in June to September. Natural environment and ecosystem of Nepal is diverse and vulnerable because it is located in a geologically- young and unstable rugged terrain of the Himalayas. These ecosystems are increasingly threatened by a rapid growing population that is putting great pressure on the country’s fragile natural resource base, which include land, water and forest resources. With resources dependent human settlement relying heavily on this ecosystem for their livelihood, the deterioration of the environmental and natural resource base has contributed to chronic rural poverty and the ultimate migration to the urban areas to feed the increasing numbers. Water and sanitation facilities are very important for the economic development of any nation. In the world scenario more than half of the populations are deprived of adequate safe drinking water. People in the
2 developing countries are suffering from lack of access to the safe and portable water and appropriate sanitation facilities. The scarcity of water resources started to forcedly accept as a commodity not as free service. Water supply and sanitation sector development has been considered as a priority sector since last few decades in Nepal and has targeted to provide safe drinking water to all within 2015. Even though large sector of population still lack access to safe drinking water, National Planning Commission (NPC) reported that population living below the poverty line to be about 23 percent in urban and 44 percent in rural areas and about 42 percent in aggregate. Majority of the people of Nepal are living in rural areas but during last few year country is experiencing internal conflict, rapid urbanization and unbalance development in rural and urban areas, so urban communities is growing rapidly in Nepal leading to overexploitation of natural resources of which water is a very important commodity. There is increasing pressure to the water supply of Kathmandu Valley due to many reasons. Most of the urban areas are covered with different urban facilities like houses, blacktopped roads, pavements etc that decrease the open surface area for ground water recharge. The diminishing ground water recharge followed by the over exploitation of groundwater to meet the demand is depleting the ground water year after year Thus, the urban poor are the most affected group that depends on the low level and low quality ground water. Many countries give priorities to economic development, food security, poverty alleviation, rural development and environmental protection. Unless water is abundantly available in both rural and urban areas above mention objectives are difficult or rather impossible to achieve, especially in developing countries. To achieve a harmony between the demand of water and availability of water has to be maintained. Which is the major objectives of development.
3 1.1
BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
Kathmandu Valley, the capital city of Nepal with an apron area of 58 square Kilometer, which consist one metropolitan city, one sub-metropolitan city, three municipalities and 98 designated fringe semi urban areas. Population in the valley is estimated 24.7 million in 2004 with annual growth rate of 2.3 percent of which 3.9 million people (16 percent) were believed to be living in urban areas. It has been estimated that by 2011 the country’s population will reach 34 million of which 27 percent will be in the urban sector. With this tremendous increasing population capital city is experiencing an acute water shortage. Government of Nepal has planned to rehabilitate the existing city water system and in the mean time exploring new water sources from snow fed Melamchi River. In this critical scenario management of water service delivery to urban poor communities becomes a challenging task for the nation. It is estimated that 84 million people in Asian cities do not have access to drinking water. Many do not have access to piped water and especially in the case of urban poor considerable time is spent to collect water and they are also paying much higher tariff than other urban communities. Lack of access to safe water is the main reason of water related diseases especially infectious diarrhea and cholera. More women and children die each year due to lack of safe drinking water and appropriate sanitation facilities. It also directly affects economic productivity of the nation. According to World Health Organization (WHO), it is estimated that six billion working days are lost globally due to unsafe water and sanitation qualities. In Asian cities the urban poor are the difficult challenge in water service delivery. This is basically due to weak institutional capacity, governance system and financial arrangements, most of the urban poor communities are not having piped system connection. Most water service providers impose low tariffs that limit the ability to invest in new water system and service for urban poor communities. Actually urban poor are willing and are able to pay to least priority of the development activities in
4 the fast growing urban centers. Urban poor communities are always suffering from inadequate water service delivery. Globally, millions of people lack access to water and other basic services, two out of every 10 person in developing countries have no access to safe drinking water, five out of 10 have no adequate sanitation and nine out of 10 have no treatment for their waste water (ESCAP – 2006). In Asia, more than half that of 691 million people living, do nothave access to safe and sustainable water service and sanitation facilities. This situation brings hardship into the daily life of millions of people, constrains in their income – earning opportunities and retards the economic growths of the developing
world.
consequence
of
Environmental inadequate
degradation
waste
water
is
another
management
important and
its
consequences are surfaced disproportionately by the urban poor, who live in the worst affected areas. Within the poor, urban poor are the most vulnerable communities who bear most of the costs under provision, in terms of time queuing for water at public taps, loss of public space or, health hazards, while millions of people are underserved today, the demand for water and other public services across Asia and other developing worlds are expected to grow fast driven by population growth, urbanization , modernization and industrialization. Water and sanitation services are usually delivered through state around utilities, but most of them are inefficient underfunded and undermanaged to expand services especially for urban poor. Water service and demand management is intervention in order to reduce the consumption of water. Demand management is applied in order to meet a water shortages or, a shortage of money for infrastructure development, or, to improve the water efficiency.
5 1.2
STATEMENT OF THE STUDY
Kathmandu Valley consists five of municipalities namely Kathmandu, Lalitpur, Bhaktapur, Thimi and Kirtipur. These cities of Kathmandu Valley are surrounded by ninety eight designated fringes, semi urban and rural areas. Present population of Kathmandu Valley is 4 millions in which around 0.5 million are floating population. Annual population growth rate in the valley is about 4.7 percent. Kathmandu Valley is facing acute water shortage due to tremendous increasing population and haphazard urban development. . Kathmandu Upatyaka Khanepani Limited (KUKL), a public company, is the main body responsible for water supply and sanitation inside Kathmandu Valley whereas, the responsibility for other parts of the country is still under Nepal Water Supply Corporation (NWSC).
Several other government
organizations like Department of Water Supply and Sewerage (DWSS) and Local bodies such as District Development Committee (DDC), Village Development Committee (VDC) are also responsible to manage water service delivery in their communities. In addition, Non Governmental Organizations are also working in the water sector. The consumers’ survey conducted by KUKL in Kathmandu Valley revealed that 29 % of total households are not connected to the prevailing piped water supply network. Furthermore, it is estimated that 60 % of the unconnected households are within urban poor community. Urban poor communities mainly depend on traditional water stone-spouts, public stand post, shallow wells or, informal connections. The existing practices can never meet the basic requirement of the urban people. As well as these existing systems have poor water quality. Other sources like bottle waters, private water supplies are unaffordable for the urban poor communities.
6 Mostly urban poor are spending their valuable time in queuing at water sources and carrying water to home. Women and children are mainly involved in this activity. It is estimated there are 1500 public tap stand around Kathmandu Valley. These public tap stands are the main source for the urban poor communities. Among them more than 50 percent are misused and some are underused. This research work is mainly focused on different management system of water service delivery for urban poor within Kathmandu Valley. Therefore, it is highly essential to identify the location and different types of urban poor communities. Generally urban poor are the group of countries that suffer most from the deficiencies in source, facilities and service. Urban poor basically exist in two distinct forms that are squatter and slum. But in the case of Kathmandu Valley, nature of urban poor is slightly different then other countries and urban areas within Nepal. In the valley four distinct forms of urban poor are found totaling to 174 communities. They are squatter, slum, poor households in core areas (renters) and household located in fringe areas. All these above four communities are facing water scarcity most of the time. It is highly essential to manage basic level of water service delivery for urban poor communities in Kathmandu Valley. The settlements of urban poor communities in Kathmandu Valley are located at all five municipalities and hundred and sixteen VDCs. . Among four groups, the increasing squatter settlement is one of the serious issues in Kathmandu Valley. By 2005, the squatter settlement increased to 40 from that of 17 in1985. Besides squatters, other urban poor communities have least been studied. 1.3
PROBLEMS AND ISSUES RELATED TO THE STUDY
Management of water service delivery for urban poor communities is becoming a serious problem for government agencies throughout the world. The tremendous increase in urban population and expansion of urban poor community becomes another big issue especially in developing countries. The continuous expansion of the numbers of people in mega cities who
7 need water and sanitation service and who can not readily get this services by self promising, form a continuing pressure to either invest in additional production capacity or to stretch the available supplies to serve more people. At the same time, industrial activities also demand the expansion of urban water supply service. The water resources are threatened not only by this rapidly increasing demand but also through diminishing quality caused by pollution and silence intrusion as well as reducing quality caused by overexploitation and denuding of water catchment areas. The predominant approach toward meeting these increasing water demands has created some implementation of schemes towards supply augmentation but the cost of developed new sources or, expanding existing sources is getting higher and higher as the most accessible water resources have already been exhausted. The real cost of water per cubic meter in second and third generation projects in some cities have doubled between a first and second project and then doubled again between the second and third. At the same time government is becoming reluctant to pay the rising investment cost as long as utilities are unable to meet this cost from user charges. The main objective of water demand management is to contribute to more efficient and equitable provision of water and sanitation services. Kathmandu Valley is an ancient the city, presently city is facing rapid population growth the major portion of the growing population is urban poor. The average population growth is 4.7 percent which is similar to other emerging cities in the world. In another word Kathmandu Valley becomes the suitable city for growing slums and squatters settlements. It is estimated that 40234 people live in 5669 houses in 137 slums and 37 squatter settlements identified within Kathmandu Valley. Other 98 designated fringe areas around the Kathmandu Valley are also dominated by the poor families. Due to location and unavailability of water resources all the urban poor communities are facing acute water shortage. Public stand post, stone water spots and sallow ground water bodies are the main source of water in urban poor communities. All these sources are reducing day by day due to
8 high population growth, rapid urban development, high rate of ground water extraction and climate change in this region. In Kathmandu Valley different types of urban poor settlement exist among them squatters and slums are the main settlement in the Valley. Squatter and slum communities are identified and their location and population can be estimated but it is difficult to identify the real data of the renters who often living in cramped single room in city (core area). These are another group of low income consumers who lack basic water services. Most families living in water scarce areas do not receive enough water from the piped water connection in the house. While most of the low income consumers lack financial resources to pay the new water connection charge, other who can afford cannot do so because of technical and legal constrains. Urban poor such as squatter communities often reside in marginal public land such as river banks which are far from the city water distribution network; piped connections to such locations are technically not feasible without expansion of existing system and lack of land tenure certification which is needed to apply for a connection. In addition, a single connection rule per house irrespective of the number of families residing in it discriminate poor tenants from equitable access to piped water supply.. Water supply is a major problem in Kathmandu Valley. Water supply in the main city areas is managed by Kathmandu Upatyaka Khanepani Limited (KUKL) and in other remaining fringes and semi urban accured by local and rural authorities like District Development Committee (DDC) and Village Development Committee (VDC). Furthermore, some communities are facilitated by NGOs and CBOs working in those areas. According to KUKL, 65 percent of the core urban population is served by KUKL. It is estimated that total water demand in Kathmandu Valley is 280 million liter per day with average domestic demand consumption figure of about 92 liter per capita per day in 2009 (KUKL, 2010). However, the actual demand is difficult to determine due to uncontrolled urban development and high rate of population growth rate. According to KUKL data in city core 1.118 million
9 people in 240000 households in Kathmandu Valley but household tap connections are is only about 167500 (KUKL 2010). At Present, only fifty percent of the valley population is served by existing pipe system. Rest of the population is depended on other means of water sources. In this situation water service delivery for urban poor belongs the challenging task for the concern authorities. Prevailing problems and issues in Kathmandu Valley
Existing water system is very old (100 years) which is unable to serve Valley people with their basic nee of water.
Existing source of water around Kathmandu Valley is available but all these sources are not enough to meet the water demand in the Valley.
Government of Nepal is planning to make another mega water supply project, which is known as Melamchi Water Supply Project. Due to prevailing countries situation it becomes very difficult to implement this ambitious project in stipulated time.
Presently people in the capital city of Kathmandu are in acute shortage of water less than fifty percent people are served by existing water supply system.
Existing water system is unreliable, inequitable and intermittent. Many areas of the city receive only about one to two hours supply in every alternative day.
Due to very old system without proper maintenance leaks are very high. It is estimated that 37 percent leakage in existing water system. These leaks are not only reducing the water quantity but also playing vital role in reducing the water quality.
Due to intermittent supply system water pressure is very low so every household in city need to pump water from distribution system. Since
10 this is the illegal practice but it becomes usual practice since water is a very essential commodity. 
Most of the Valley people are collecting water for drinking and cooking purpose only other demand meet from alternative sources of water.

In this all above situation urban poor community in the Kathmandu Valley are highly suffered due to lack of water for their basic need. So it is very essential to develop suitable water system for urban poor communities in their affordable standards.
1.4
OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
The objective of this study is to find out the effective management system of water service delivery to the urban poor communities for the improvement of environment in Kathmandu valley. The specific objectives are: 1.
Examine the existing water service delivery for urban poor communities.
2
Identify and recommend effective and sustainable management system of water service delivery to the urban poor communities for the improvement of environment in Kathmandu valley.
1.5.
SCOPE OF THE STUDY
The research has its scope and limitation. The study was carried out in four different urban poor communities of Kathmandu Valley. The selected communities were slums, squatters, poor mixed up with middle class communities and poor households located at fringe area in the Kathmandu Valley. Study is based on present situation and practice in service delivery and tariff structure in drinking water system. Necessary information was
11 collected through primary sources. Primary data were collected from both randomly selected urban poor communities and households. Literature review was done specially in area of urban poor studies in developing countries. Studies related to urban poor in Kathmandu Valley conducted by various development organizations were referred to support the study. Primary information was collected through personal interview with randomly selected community and households, key personnel such as KUKL manager, community leader, municipality representatives, officers from concerned line agencies and NGO working in urban poor community. The sample questionnaires used for data collection are attached in the appendices. The study is focused on analysis of socio- economic status of the urban poor community, existing water supply facilities, perception toward present service delivery and service preferred by the urban poor. Further analysis was made for different type of service that community people preferred and different tariff structure for modified or improved water system. The study recommends policies toward drinking water service delivery for urban poor in Kathmandu Valley. The outcome of the studies was utilized to finalize the different level of water service. 1.6.
METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY
The theoretical and analytical study has been carried out in urban poor community in Kathmandu Valley. The methodology followed in this study was primarily the extensive field visit in selected urban poor communities in five municipalities of Kathmandu Valley. The descriptive data were collected in the field through open ended questionnaires and field observations as well. A comprehensive review of study reports, literature and other relevant data collected from concern authorities and interview with the responsible
12 person were also conducted during the data collection stage. The detail methodology adopted in this study is discussed below I.
Study and Discussion
Study and discussion were carried out in following steps: Review of existing literature The relevant literature has been collected from the concerned organization and authorities. Available reports of the urban studies and research work in urban studies and urban poor were thoroughly reviewed. Review of the subject matter and approaches were carried out during the study period to find the appropriate ways and mean of acquiring necessary information for further study. Meeting and discussion Group discussion and meeting with the urban poor communities, concern authorities like NWSC, Melamchi Water Supply Project, local authorities, NGO's & INGOs were organized to identify the problem related to water service to the urban poor. During meetings, existing policy, rules, regulation practices and possible solution were discussed. Preparation of questionnaire Suitable questionnaire were developed to collect required data’s for the study.
Developed
questionnaire
were
tasted
in
few
urban
poor
communities. With the help of test research, final questionnaire were framed. II.
Investigation, Assessment & Analysis
Investigation, Assessment & Analysis were carried out in following steps.
13 Community selection Within the identified urban poor community certain selection criteria are considered to represent the all urban poor community within Kathmandu Valley. Altogether 174 urban poor settlements were identified. To meet the thirty percent sample requirement 52 communities were randomly selected. Out of 52 communities, further thirty percent household samples were randomly
selected
for
questionnaire
survey..
While
selecting
the
representation of all four forms of urban poor communities inside Kathmandu Valley were taken into consideration Field Investigation Field investigation were carried out to access the socio-economic condition, existing water supply facilities, bidding & tariff survey & customer response toward the existing water supply system, customer’s perception on willingness to pay for improved water service, and response toward the management system. Field investigation was carried out with pre-tested questionnaire. Data compilation, analysis and presentation The collected dates were checked individually before entering the data into computer analysis process. For the effective analysis SPSS and Microsoft excel program were used. Basic statistics technique was used for the analysis of data and the results were presented in table, graphs and descriptive form. 1.7.
RATIONAL OF THE STUDY
The piped water supply to the urban areas was formerly controlled by NWSC and other surrounding rural community of the valley was served by individual system built by (DWSS), local authorities & other organization through water user committee and local authorities. Water supply in the urban & rural community is not satisfactory. There are big challenges
14 behind the drinking water service delivery, Unreliable, inequitable intermittent, (alternative days supply) & unsafe water are the major issues though the water service delivery responsibility for Kathmandu Valley was handed over to KUKL in 2006. To get adequate safe drinking water in urban areas people are investing huge amount of money in restore, unauthorized pumping and treatment facilities. In this context urban poor are in critical situation to have the required quantity of safe drinking water majority of urban poor are dependent on traditional water spouts, shallow well & low level ground water (rowing pump). All these water resources are not safe for drinking. On the other hand urban poor seems ready to pay reasonable tariff for suitable drinking water supply in their community. So it is essential to identify the different level of service for the urban poor population. The government investment on infrastructure development for basic need services has not been equitably distributed. It is because the service level is very poor, to meet the basic level of water service in poor community. The volume of urban poor is ever increasing of very high rate and service provided is not sufficient to meet the demand of these people. The need to meet the ever-growing demand for basic service has led the utilities to realize the development of different service level in urban water system. There has been very little research carried out in drinking water management issue in urban poor areas in the context of Nepal. There is no management practice based on different development principle adopted in developing countries. Generally users are charged on flat rate for no meter connection and minimum consumption charge of exploring major share of subsidy provided by government. The main aim of this research is to analyze need of different service level for urban poor, which they can afford in long run. Still there is no any academic research has been considered on this subject in Nepal. Especially in Katmandu valley there are some study has done on water
15 service delivery for urban poor. But the most of the studies are focused on present situation of the urban poor in Katmandu Valley. So this study will be important to those individuals and organizations working in urban poor sector and will give better ideas to implement schemes on safe water supply to urban poor considering their present needs and demands . 1.8
SELECTION OF STUDY AREA
Kathmandu Valley was selected for the study;
mainly focusing five
municipalities in the valley. They are Katmandu the metropolitan city, Lalitpur sub metropolitan city, Bhaktapur municipality, Madhyapur Thimi municipality and Kirtipur municipality. Kathmandu Valley was selected for study because it has largest number of urban poor settlements and the largest population of urban poor. It consists of four different forms of urban poor settlements that are very important for the study. Study has focused on 174 communities including all forms of urban poor settlements. The methodologies applied for the fieldwork are:
30 % of the community households was considered during the data collection
Households were randomly selected
Meetings were organized at community level.
Meetings were organized with NGOs, INGOs working with urban poor communities.
Field investigation to overview water service delivery in urban poor communities.
Meeting with relevant water authorities in Katmandu Valley.
16 The urban poor communities were identified with the help of the previous studies and consultation meeting with the NGO working for urban poor communities. 1.9
ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDY
This study has been structured in six chapters. Chapter one Introduction, consist of background of the study, statement of the study, objective of the study .Scope of the study, Methodology of the study, rational of the study, selection of the study area and organization of the study. Chapter second Literature review, consist of present management practice of water service delivery system in major urban cities in the world, management practices of water service delivery system in Asian countries, present management practice of water service delivery system for present status of urban poor in Kathmandu valley, sectoral policy and programs for urban poor communities. Chapter third consists of the research methods of the research including research design, rationale for selecting the sites, nature and sources of data, universal sampling, data collection tools and techniques, reliability, data analysis and limitations. Chapter fourth Presentation and analysis of data consist of different types of management practice of water service delivery in Asian countries and its impact, management practice of water service delivery in urban poor community and its impact in Kathmandu Valley, different models for the management of water service delivery in urban poor community in Kathmandu Valley. Chapter fifth results and discussions consist of water service delivery for urban poor, tariff structure for urban poor of Kathmandu Valley and management system of water service delivery for urban poor community.
17 Chapter sixth is consisting of Conclusion and recommendations and suggestion to facilitate safe water supply to the urban poor of Nepal or to another such developing nation.
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18
CHAPTER - TWO
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
2.1
WATER SERVICE DELIVERY SYSTEM AND MANAGEMENT PRACTICE IN URBAN CITIES OF THE WORLD
2.1.1 Water management system in major urban centers of the world From the dawn of human history, water has been an essential requirement for the survival of humans and ecosystems. Water has played a critical role in human development. For much of history, droughts and floods have periodically inflicted serious damage to society. As the urban centers started to develop in a very serious manner, especially after the Industrial Revolution in the developed world, the provision of clean water and disposal of wastewater and storm water became increasingly important issues. However, by the early part of the second half of the 20th century, these problems for much of the western world had been solved. In addition, the western economies had become stronger and more resilient than ever before, and thus, floods and droughts had progressively less and less impact on such societies. When they occurred, they could either be controlled, or their adverse impacts could be reduced by the construction of the appropriate infrastructure and increasingly more efficient management practices. However, the problems have mostly worsened for developing countries during the second half of the 20th century. Increasing population growth, rapid urbanization, inadequate levels of economic development and the absence of appropriate management and technical capacities meant that an increasing number of the urban population did not have access to basic services such as water, sanitation and storm water management. At the
19 global level, this issue received attention in 1976, during the United Nations Conference on Human Settlement, held in Vancouver, Canada. Water Conference, held in Mar del Plata, in 1977 recommended that the period 1981–90 be declared as the International Water Supply and Sanitation Decade. The objective of the Decade was to provide clean water and sanitation to every person in the world by 1990. A retrospective analysis indicates that the Decade had a major impact by putting water supply and sanitation higher up the international political agenda, in both developed and developing countries, than otherwise might have been the case. It also contributed to accelerated progress in terms of provision of clean water and sanitation to a large number of people, both in actual and percentage terms. However, in spite of this noteworthy progress, the goals for the Decade proved to be too ambitious to reach. In the end, the world fell far short of achieving its objectives. The challenge was subsequently partially picked up by the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), one of which explicitly stipulated that, by 2015, the objective will be to “reduce by half the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe drinking water�. This MDG differs in three important aspects with reference to the Decade objectives. First, its objective is more modest: reducing by half the proportion of people who do not have access to a water supply compared to the universal coverage championed by the Decade. Second, the MDG, unlike the Decade goals, did not specifically refer to sanitation. This, of course, is somewhat surprising, since any water supply project introduces new water in the urban areas, nearly all of which subsequently becomes wastewater, which must be collected, treated and disposed of in an environmentally-sound manner. Provision of urban water supply, even if it becomes universal by 2015, will not be sustainable by itself, unless adequate arrangements can be made for wastewater collection, treatment and disposal. Third, the MDG has 50% more time to achieve its objective compared to the Decade: 15 years against a decade. However, current analyses indicate that even though one-third of the time
20 period to achieve this MDG goal is over, pro rata progress has been much slower than necessary to achieve the final objective. The sanitation issue was later considered and agreed to at the Johannesburg Summit in 2002. Accordingly, if the MDG goal for water supply and the Johannesburg recommendation on sanitation are to be achieved by 2015, accelerated progress has to be made during the next 10 years. Such an accelerated progress will require that the best practices in providing access to water supply and sanitation from different parts of the world be carefully analyzed and assessed. These best cases could then be modified appropriately for possible application in other developing countries, in line with their social, economic, political, legal and institutional requirements. Regrettably, some 25 years after the Decade started, serious, comprehensive and objective evaluations of the best examples from different parts of the world are mostly still missing at present. 2.1.2 Urbanization and Water Management Historically, human societies had a predominantly rural lifestyle. For example, in 1800, only about 3% of the global population lived in urban areas. This increased to 14%by 1900, when 12 cities had more than 1 million people. The urbanization process advanced dramatically during the next 50 years. Thus, by 1950, the world had become almost 30% urbanized, and the number of cities with more than 1 million inhabitants had increased to 83. During the period 1950–2000, the growth rates of the urban population in almost all countries were higher than the rural population. However, the world is heterogeneous, and there were significant differences in growth rates in different urban centers. If the growth rates of the 524 urban centers that had more than 750 000 population in 2000 are considered, 41 of them had growth rates of less than 1% and six had negative growth rates during the period 1950–75. This trend of low levels of growth rates continued during 1975–2000, when 122 cities had growth rates of less than 1% per year, and 21 of them had witnessed negative growth rates. Most of these
21 cities were in developed countries and China. This trend is expected to accelerate during 2000–15. Table 1 shows some of these trends. General historical experience has been that as the population of a city increase, after a certain point its population growth rates start to decline. The United Nations defined a megacity as an urban area having more than 8 million people. As urban centers became bigger and bigger, a megacity was later redefined as having more than 10 million people. According to the analyses carried out by the United Nations Population Division (2001 Revision), the following trends can be discerned between 2000 and 2030 in terms of urbanization. The global urban population will increase from 2.9 billion in 2000 to 5.0 billion in 2030. Nearly all of this increase will take place in developing countries. The urban population is expected to grow at an annual average rate of 1.9%, compared to global population growth rate of 1%. The urban population of developed countries will increase marginally from 0.9 billion in 2000 to 1.0 billion in 2030.The rural population of developing countries is likely to increase by 0.2% annually during this period. The rural growth rate is expected to turn negative in 2025 for the first time in human history. Asia will continue to have the largest rural population in the world during 2000–30, with 2.297 billion in 2000 and declining to 2.271 billion by 2030. In contrast, Africa’s rural population will increase from 498 million in 2000 to 702 million in 2030. The rural population of Europe, Latin America and the Caribbean and North America will also decline during this period. Globally, urban cities with populations of between 5 to 10 million will expand the fastest during 2000–15, and cities with below 500 000 inhabitants will account for the highest percentage of such populations. The trends are likely to be similar for developing countries. While the megacities of the developing world have attracted the most attention from the various international organizations in recent years in terms of provision of adequate water supply and sanitation services, it should be noted that they account for a very small percentage of the global population, even though they consume a large share of there sources and interest in terms of the various necessary infrastructure development and
22 management. If megacities are defined as those having more than 10 million residents, only 3.7% of the global population lived in such large urban agglomerations in 2000. By 2015, this is likely to increase to 4.7%. The percentage of people living in cities of between 5 to 10 million are even less than in megacities: 2.8% in 2000, increasing to 3.7% in 2015. In other words, percentages of the global population living in cities of more than 5 million will increase from 6.5 in 2000 to 8.4 in 2015. While the megacities present tremendous management challenges at present, and will continue to do so in the foreseeable future, much of the recent urban growths are being witnessed in medium to small sized urban centers of developing countries. This trend is likely to continue in the coming decades, and may even accelerate. Thus, in 2000 cities with less than 500 000 inhabitants accounted for 24.8% of the global population (nearly seven times that of megacities) and this is expected to rise to 27% in 2015. It should be noted that urbanization and the formation of major urban metropolises are not new phenomena. For example, cities such as London or New York started to grow significantly in the 19th century. However, two major differences should be noted which have made the urbanization process and provision of water supply and sanitation services in the megacities of the developed world very different in comparison to their counterparts in developing countries, nearly one century later. First, is the rate of growth. The development of these earlier urban centers in the developed world was a gradual process. For example, most of the population growth in cities such as London and New York was spread over nearly a century. Gradual growth rates enabled these cities to progressively and effectively develop the necessary infrastructure and the capacities to manage their water supply and sewerage services. Since it was a gradual development, the increases in population were thus manageable. In contrast, most of the urbanization in the large cities of the developing world such as Dhaka, Mexico City, Sao Paulo or Jakarta occurred during the post-1950 period, and the really explosive growth generally took place after 1960. These major urban centers simply could not cope with the very high and
23 continually increasing urbanization. They were not only unprepared to manage such explosive growths, but also they did not have the financial and management capacities to manage this work. Thus, the overall quality of life declined rapidly during such periods of high urbanization. Currently, for the most part, less than 10% of collected sewage in major urban centers of Latin America are treated properly and then disposed of in an environmentally-safe way. Thus, in major Latin American cities, ranging from Bogota to Buenos Aires, and Mexico City to Santiago, millions of cubic meters of untreated, or partially treated, sewage is discharged daily into nearby water bodies. Many of the governments often claim that some 20 to 30% of their wastewaters are treated, but these are highly inflated figures that are not compatible with the real situations. Second, as the urban centers of the industrialized countries expanded, their economies were improving concomitantly as well. Accordingly, these centers were economically able to harness financial resources to provide its citizens with appropriate water supply and sewerage services. For a country like Japan, it could invest heavily in the construction of urban infrastructure, including water supply, sewerage and flood control services after the Second World War because its economy continued to expand very significantly during the post-1950 period. Such extensive infrastructure development and major improvements in management practices in Japan meant that water losses due to leakages from the urban water supply systems could be reduced drastically from an immediate post-war estimate of 90% to about 8%, which is one of the lowest losses encountered anywhere in the world at present. Lack of proper planning, poor management and practices and pervasive corruption have further aggravated the situation in many urban centers. While considerable progress has been made in recent years in providing drinking water in urban areas, commensurate advances in sanitation have been, for the most part, missing in much of the developing world. In the past, sanitation has proved to be a poor cousin to water supply. Thus, it is not surprising that the Millennium Development Goals considered water supply but not sanitation. Consequently, the major water problem that
24 developing countries are likely to face in the coming decades is not likely to be physical water scarcity, although it will not be an easy problem to solve, but continued deterioration of water quality. Water sources within and near major urban centers of the developing world, from Dhaka to Mexico City, are already heavily contaminated. In the absence of adequate water quality management practices and the absence of political will, the local situations are deteriorating steadily. Herein is likely to be the future water crisis of the developing world. While continuing urbanization poses a major challenge in terms of provision of water supply and sanitation services, the importance and the contributions of such urban centers towards the development of stronger
and
more
stable
national
economies
should
not
be
underestimated. It has been estimated that the urban areas of the developing world, which contained about 47.2% of the total population in 2000, contribute nearly two-thirds of their total Gross National Products, and also play an equally important prominent role in terms of social development and cultural enhancement. Accordingly, the urbanization process presents both challenges as well as opportunities. The main issue is how to manage the urbanization process properly for all its inhabitants. A main problem for the major urban centers thus stems from the fact that the rates of urbanization have generally far exceeded the capacities of the national and the local governments to soundly plan and manage the demographic transition processes efficiently, equitably and sustainably. Provision and maintenance of the needed infrastructural development, services and employment are critical. The accelerating urban growth rates have generally overwhelmed the limited management capacities and resources of the governments at all levels. Unquestionably, unplanned and poorly managed urbanization processes have been an important source of social and environmental stress in all developing countries. The impacts of this poorly managed process have manifested in extensive air, water, land and noise pollution, which have, and will continue to have, major impacts on human health and welfare of the urban dwellers of the developing world for many years to come. The problem has been further compounded by
25 increasingly skewed income distribution which is continuing to worsen with time, high rates of unemployment and under-employment, corruption at all levels, and high crime rates. The two major problems faced by the major urban centers have further intensified an already difficult and complex situation. First is the sudden fast rate of vertical growth, often after decades, or even centuries, of primarily horizontal expansion, especially in the central business areas. This contributed to a sudden surge in population densities of these areas, with concomitant high water requirements and generation high waste loads per unit area. The existing water supply and sanitation services and the poor planning and management capabilities of the concerned authorities have mostly been unable to cope successfully with such almost instantaneous growths in higher demands in water and sanitation services in such areas. Second, the overall water-related problem of the large urban centre is further compounded by the presence of informal and squatter settlements. The limited water supply and sanitation services that may be available become progressively less and less adequate for serving an ever-increasing population. This contributes to progressive reduction of services available that were inadequate to start with, and this deterioration, in turn, further increases the environmental and health conditions of the people living in such areas. There are some signs that these situations have started to change. The work of activist NGOs are bringing the plights of the poor people in the squatter settlements to the attention of national and international organizations and the media. This has increased the awareness of the problem, and has started to improve the overall water and sanitation conditions in informal settlements in many developing countries. In addition, private sector concessions in several urban centers now specifically stipulate performance indicators, which they must meet in terms of access to water supply and sanitation in such areas, as well as storm water disposal. All these new developments have started to improve the existing situations, but much remains to be done. Constraints to Urban Water Availability The provision of clean drinking water to the rapidly growing urban centers of the developing world and safe
26 disposal of wastewater faces numerous constraints, which are complex and interrelated. Only a very few resolutions or declarations of various international forum (the United Nations General Assembly resolution on the International Water Supply and Sanitation Decade is an exception), have had any visible and perceptible impacts. Water Scarcity : It presents both a challenge and an opportunity in terms of urban water supply and sanitation. It is a challenge because new sources of water which could be developed cost-effectively for major urban areas of the developing world are mostly not available. From Istanbul to Johannesburg, and Jakarta to Mexico City, there are simply no new sources of water that could be harnessed economically and in a socially and environmentally-acceptable manner which can quench the continually increasing urban industrial thirst. Since the existing sources of water that could be developed cost-effectively have already been developed, or are in the process of development, and water that has been harnessed has already been fully allocated (in fact, in many cases over-allocated), an additional supply of drinking water can only be obtained by transferring water which is currently being used by other sectors, especially agriculture. Urban centers may be important users of water, but such use takes place within a limited geographical area. Since domestic use does not contribute to actual consumption of water, all the water that is being supplied to the households can be recaptured as wastewater through sewage networks. If this wastewater can then be properly treated, it could then serve as a ‘new’ source of water, as is currently the case for Singapore. While treated wastewater may be restricted to specific types of water uses due to quality considerations and cultural reasons, it can be used for agricultural, industrial and commercial purposes, thereby releasing higher quality water for those uses that warrant it. Furthermore, the marginal cost of providing additional good quality water of the same volume as the treated wastewater would generally be much higher, and the time required to obtain a similar
27 quantity of additional good quality water from a new source would be much longer. Wastewater is produced in urban areas, irrespective of whether it is used or not. Equally, it is essential that wastewater be treated adequately in order to reduce environmental and health hazards for the people living in and around the urban areas. At present existing unsatisfactory wastewater disposal practices can be observed in the urban areas of most developing countries. Thus, increasing water scarcity could at least in one sense be considered to be an opportunity that could encourage urban areas to collect and treat wastewater properly so that it could be subsequently used as a ‘new’ source to alleviate water scarcity. (a)
High Economic Costs: Economic factors are becoming an increasingly important consideration for the provision of a water supply and sanitation to the urban areas of developing countries. For much of the developing world, for the most part, all the easily exploitable sources of water have already been developed, or are currently in the process of development. This means that the water sources that are yet to be developed are geographically, technologically and environmentally, more complex to handle. Accordingly, the costs of harnessing and bringing this new water to the urban areas are becoming very high in real terms, especially compared to the cost of the earlier, or even the present, generation of water projects. Most of the wastewaters produced in the urban areas of developing countries are either not treated at all, or receive inadequate treatment. Many governments, ranging form Egypt to Mexico, have often legislated high water quality standards because of internal and/or external political reasons, and faulty and incomplete appreciation of the problem. No consideration is generally given to the fact that the standards that are appropriate and can be implemented for cities such as London or New York may be irrelevant, impossible to implement and often may even be counterproductive for Lima or Yaounde. Equally, no serious analyses are generally carried out as to whether the standards adopted are
28 essential for health reasons, or whether the countries concerned have the necessary financial resources, management capabilities and legal enforcement capacities to implement the stipulated standards. Not surprisingly, promulgation of such inappropriate standards generally have not even helped in maintaining, let alone improving, the quality of effluent discharged to water bodies in and around urban centers. Proper water quality management will undoubtedly be one of the major water problems of the future. Financing and Management Constraints Availability of adequate funds and release of the funds in a timely manner to operate and maintain existing water and wastewater facilities in the urban centers of the developing world is a major constraint at present. Water utilities in developing countries are predominantly in the public sector, although private sector involvement is being considered in one form or another in some parts of the world. The operation and maintenance of existing water supply and wastewater treatment systems, as well as the construction of new systems, are often constrained by lack of funds. The economic situation is further compounded by inadequate pricing and inefficient billing and bill collection systems in most utilities of major urban centers. While this situation has improved very significantly in some countries like Sri Lanka (Biswas et al., 2005) and Morocco, the situation has remained very similar in many major cities of Asia, Africa and Latin America. A review of the Asian urban cities indicates the following (ADB, 2003 and personal observations) shortcomings. The utilities have different concepts of what constitutes operation and management expenses. Many normal operation and maintenance expenditures are often left for rectification by new investment projects. Such expenditures include replacement of pipes, valves, water meters, service vehicles and reduction of unaccounted waters. Thus, major investments are made in constructing new systems, which are subsequently not properly maintained. This steadily increases system inefficiencies
29 due to continuing deterioration. Accordingly, new investment projects have to be conceived to rehabilitate the badly managed systems. The process contributes not only to inefficient use of capital but also the system efficiencies start to decline steadily from the inception because of poor operation and maintenance practices. During the entire process, the customers of the water utilities receive a poor and unsatisfactory service, consistent with low water and sanitation charges. Utilities are often overstaffed, and for the most part the staff available is not properly trained and is inefficiently used. This generally contributes to inefficiency and low financial return. (b)
Management Constraints: One of the major reasons for the poor performance and/or efficiencies of water utilities are their poor management. The main reasons for the poor management stems from
two
interference
factors: in
unattractive
management
salaries
and
regular
political
practices
and
decision-making
processes of the water utilities. In many urban areas, the management remuneration rates are determined by the government salaries, since the utilities are in the public sector, and thus follow public service rules. Since private sector salaries are much higher than their public sector counterparts, bright and competent managers generally tend to gravitate towards private sector enterprises, where, in addition, there is also much less day-to-day interference from the politicians, and thus better job satisfaction rates. It must be appreciated by the politicians that multi-million dollar water and wastewater utilities cannot be managed efficiently by unqualified and inexperienced managers,
with continual political interference,
ranging from the recruitment of staff to how resources are allocated. Analyses of compensation packages of water managers in the Asian developing countries show very wide variances.. The more efficient utilities also give their managers more financial autonomy and authority to make prompt and efficient management decisions. For example, the Metropolitan Waterworks Authority of Bangkok has the
30 financial autonomy to raise investment funds in the local bond market. Its overall performance is good, and hence the general public subscribes to its bonds. Similarly, the Public Utilities Board of Singapore has considerable autonomy in staffing, finance and procurement of goods and services. It also has a clearly enunciated tariff policy, which although high, is acceptable to the people and politicians as a whole. Thus, its policies can be implemented efficiently, without any political interference. In contrast, the situation in Mexico is very different. The head of a water utility is a political patronage position. The head is appointed primarily because of his/her political connections to the party and the existing political structure, and not because of professional and management expertise (Rodriguez & O’Neal, 2006). The entire top management structure of the water utility changes with each new Mayor, thus preventing the formulation and implementation of any long-term coherent policy and plans. The water utilities that are better managed in Asia, such as those in Bangkok, Kuala Lumpur or Singapore, do not have public taps, because they already have 100% coverage. Public taps often indicate lower levels of service, as well as higher water wastages. In addition, utilities cannot recover revenue from such taps, and city authorities are reluctant to subsidize them directly from city taxes. 2.1.3 Consequences of the failure to meet basic needs for water Many international organizations work to meet the unmet water needs of human populations, including the United Nations, the Water Supply and Sanitation Collaborative Council, the World Bank, international aid organizations such as US AID, the Swedish Agency for Development Cooperation, the Canadian International Development Agency and nongovernmental organizations such as Water Aid and Water for People. These efforts have made significant progress in increasing access to basic water needs for hundreds of millions of people. Yet, despite these efforts,
31 many water-related problems have worsened. The populations in urban areas without access to clean water and sanitation actually increased between 1980 and 1990, despite great efforts to meet these needs (WHO, 1996). Even more distressing has been the apparent difficulty the world water community has had in setting new targets and goals for meeting basic needs. The world food community has set and continually revised action plans for reducing hunger. The World Food Council met in 1989 in Cairo to propose a specific Programme of Cooperative Action. In that same year, a meeting of food experts in Bellagio, Italy, set nutritional goals for the year 2000, which were reformed at the 1990 UN World Summit for Children. The 1992 UN International Conference on Nutrition laid out a World Declaration and Plan of Action for Nutrition. While huge populations remain undernourished, even less success has been achieved in setting and meeting water-related goals. it seems likely that an appropriate mix of economic, political and social strategies can be developed to reliably provide for basic needs. And despite a growing emphasis on markets, if a `market' system is unable to provide a basic water requirement, States have responsibilities to meet these needs under the human rights agreements. Unless international organizations, national and local governments and water providers adopt and work to meet a basic water requirement standard, large-scale human misery and suffering will continue and grow in the future, contributing to impoverishment, ill-health and the risk of social and military conflict. Ultimately, decisions about defining and applying a basic water requirement will depend on political and institutional will. 2.1.4 Factors that influence the selection of community water-supply technology It is important that the process be consultative and carried out in partnership with the operators and users of the services. An economic alternative to investing in new water-supply projects is to rehabilitate defective services but, as with a new scheme, the rehabilitation option must include analyses of the community’s preferences and needs, and of the
32 capacity of the community to linking technology choice with operation and maintenance sustain the system (potentially with the support of the water agency). When assessing the potential for rehabilitation, the community and the agency together need to study the reasons for the system’s breakdown, analyze the problems involved, and formulate recommendations for feasible alternatives to rehabilitate the system. Rehabilitation should not be confined to replacing broken equipment or infrastructure. It is also important to look into the reasons why the system was not sustained and is in need of rehabilitation, including poor management, lack of maintenance (especially preventive maintenance), lack of skilled personnel, poor-quality materials and equipment, etc.If a risk analysis is carried out for each water-supply option, then an attempt can be made to anticipate factors that may change and affect O&M. This will not be easy, especially in unstable economies where inflation and the availability of imported equipment and spare parts are difficult to predict. However, an indication of the risk attached to each option can be obtained by comparing the technologies. (a)
Technical factors
Demand (present and future consumption patterns) — dependence on fuel, power, chemicals; versus supply; — quality and durability of materials;
Capital costs; — availability of spare parts and raw materials;
extension capacity; — O&M requirements;
Compatibility with norms and legal frameworks; — compatibility with users’ expectations and preferences
Compatibility with existing water-supply systems; (both men and women);
Comparative advantages; — availability of trained personnel within the community;
Technical skills needed within, or outside, the — availability of mechanics, plumbers, carpenters and community. masons within and outside the community;
33
Potential for local manufacturing;
Potential for standardization.
(b)
Environmental factors
Availability, accessibility and reliability of water — O&M implications of water treatment; sources (springs, ground water, rainwater, surface — O&M implications of water source protection; water, streams, lakes and ponds); — existence and use of alternative traditional water
Seasonal variations; sources;
water quality and treatment; — O&M implications of wastewater drainage.
water source protection;
risk of a negative environmental impact.
(c)
Institutional factors
legal
framework;
—
roles
of
different
stakeholders
and
ability/willingness
regulatory framework; to take responsibilities for O&M;
national strategy; — availability of local artisans;
existing institutional set-up; — potential involvement of the private sector;
support from government, NGOs, external support — training and follow-up; agencies (ESAs); — availability and capacity of training;
stimulation of private sector; — skills requirement;
Transferring know-how. — monitoring.
(d)
Community and managerial factors
local economy; — managerial capacity and need for training;
living patterns and population growth; — capacity of the organization;
living standards and gender balance; — acceptance of the organizing committee by the
household income and seasonal variations; community;
34
users’ preferences; — gender balance in committee;
historical experience in collaborating with different — perception of benefits from improved water supply; partners; — the needs felt by the community;— village organization and social cohesion. — availability of technical skills;— ownership.
(e)
Financial factors
capital costs; — ability and willingness to pay;
budget allocations and subsidy policy; — level of recurrent costs;
financial participation of users; — tariff design and level of costs to be met by the
local economy. community;
costs of spare parts and their accessibility;
payment and cost-recovery system to be put in place;
financial
management
capacity
(bookkeeping,
etc.)
of
the
community.
2.1.5 Water Demand Management and Opportunity: Pricing Water for Social Objectives Water pricing is everywhere subject in principle to the constraint that the UN has specified minimum access to water as a fundamental human right which ought not to be constrained by ability to pay (UNDP HDR 2006). At a minimum, this means that every citizen has a right to about 20 liters of clean, safe water per day. Water Demand management (WDM) is not intended to reduce livelihood options or welfare. Indeed, the effort focuses initially on (economic) efficiency gains. However, there is no doubt that the effects of overall efficiency improvements on specific individuals can be
35 negative. At first glance, it is hard to see how pricing of water could possibly lead to increased economic opportunities for either the urban or rural poor. Higher prices for an essential good imply obvious welfare losses for the poor. While there is considerable evidence that such negative impacts are difficult to avoid, there is also evidence that they can be modified by careful design of specific WDM measures. In tackling this most obvious Challenge first, I argue that WDM may be implemented in ways that create more opportunities for the poor, or in ways that at least minimize welfare losses for poor water users. There are some general issues involve. The issue of water pricing is fundamental to WDM. It provides a foundation to motivate investment by users in efficient technologies and by distributors in reducing losses. It helps motivate behavioral change and generate revenues to sustain expansion of water supply. Even when water itself is regarded as a “gift of God�, there is widespread recognition that effective delivery is a service for which payment is inherently reasonable. Particularly if the cost of water is very low (or even zero), and if the cost is not tied to volumetric consumption, there is very little incentive for users to adopt WDM practices. There is already widespread acceptance of water pricing in principle throughout MENA (Brooks 2003). Access to water is directly linked to increases in rural farm income and creates the possibility of on farm employment in intensive agriculture (Moench, et. al. 2003). There is little point, analytically or politically, in distinguishing here between rural water use for productive purposes, whether crop production or livestock watering, and water for domestic consumption. Farmers dependent on scarce water supplies are likely to feel their rights threatened by reductions to either kind of use (Allan 2002). It is also important to recognize that many non land based livelihoods in rural or peri urban areas also depend on water access by the poor, such as brick making and street food production (Soussan and Arriens, 2004). WDM and Pricing for the Urban Poor
36 It is important to emphasize that, if we are concerned with poverty reduction, the WDM goal is not absolute reduction in the quantity of water used. Rather, it is the extension of the benefits from access to clean water through system efficiency gains that deliver water to more users. So, while water pricing serves three functions
revenue generation to finance
investments; incentive for conservation and efficiency investments; and signal for allocative efficiency between water and other inputs
it is largely
the first of these functions that offers the prospect of benefiting the poor. The issues relate to financing, cost recovery, organization of users and provision of supportive information related to water use and hygiene. These problems are also tied to: •
Persistent
challenges
of
regularizing
squatter
and
informal
settlements (whose residents otherwise are usually not entitled to official services); •
Designing suitable connection charges or rate structures to enable the poor access to piped water; and
•
Community
organization
to
enable
settlement
rationalization,
infrastructure planning and local contributions to service delivery and cost recovery (Sims and El Shorbagi 2006). Water pricing for urban users varies substantially across the region. Urban utilities in Morocco have the highest rate of operating cost recovery from revenues (Rabat and Casablanca over 100% in recent years), closely followed by Tunisia and then Jordan. Egypt’s urban water suppliers have among the lowest cost recovery ratios (World Bank 2007). In terms of pricing, there is widespread consensus on the need for some form of social tariff for urban water supply, such as lifeline rates or increasing block tariffs, which provide a minimum level of water use for poor households to meet health needs and the UN’s basic rights level at a low cost. In comparing different tariff designs, effective residential water tariffs will typically feature
37 low, but non zero, initial block prices and subsequent steep steps (Moilanen and Schulz 2002). However, even with a lifeline rate for the poor, there remain a number of practical issues related to water pricing. Individual metering of poor households in urban slums is often technically or economically unfeasible. There is a wide range of options such as fixed local charges for access to shared neighborhood taps or prepaid cards offering access to metered standpipes. In higher density or apartment districts, collective metering may be feasible through resident associations or landlords, but care must be taken to ensure that incentives for managing use at the household level are not lost. If water utilities are efficiently run and customer oriented, they may be wiling to finance installation and maintenance of such measures as low flow sanitary appliances or automatic shut off taps in households partly through general water rates, in order to help customers stay within the lifeline or social tariff thresholds. Although there are concerns that official urban service statistics in Egypt, for example, are misleading when they refer only to street level as opposed to household installations (Radwan et. al. 2005). 2.1.6 Water Demand Management and Security: reducing risks to poor water users Water use is closely linked to a series of livelihood risks that make it more difficult to escape poverty. In rural areas, irrigation system users need to be able to predict supply availability. The more efficient the irrigation system, in terms of matching water requirements to plant growth and metabolic needs, the more precise the timing of water supply must be to avoid production losses (although these tend not to be the kind of production systems used by the poor because they involve expensive water delivery hardware and controls). Urban water users need to be able to rely on the quality of their drinking water to avoid health risks. All water users need to be able to rely on effective system responses to seasonal or extreme shortages, which can mean both individual and collective adaptation to reduce losses. WDM can contribute to risk reduction in several ways. First, in rural irrigation systems,
38 reduction of distribution losses, better measurement of water volumes in the system, combined with volumetric pricing to support better operations and maintenance, all act to increase the certainty of water supply to farmers’ fields. By reducing losses, there is a better chance of maintaining distribution even in low water years. Measuring and monitoring volumes at key control points, including the point of extraction by farmers, provides better information to managers and users of system performance and water availability, and provides better oversight of withdrawals to secure access for downstream users. These kinds of improvements to rural irrigation systems, which can be justified as WDM, can allow farmers to invest in higher yielding crop varieties, or new high value crops entirely. By reducing the risks of water supply, these WDM measures permit farmers to take on risk in other areas (new technologies, credit, markets, etc). Reduction of urban health risks may require an increase in water use by some groups. When water systems are supply constrained, WDM can offer an opportunity to extend service to those groups who need it (as part of a package of system and pricing reforms). As in irrigation systems, a Note for example the challenges Egypt has faced in its irrigation management reforms (Kavanagh 2006) significant common benefit arises from distribution system investments to reduce unaccounted losses, extend service,
or
create
innovative
distribution
options
(e.g.
reselling,
collective financed standpipes, etc). Cost recovery and more efficient delivery of volumes to users are the key WDM elements in this. A different kind of security is provided by water rights. Secure water rights help to expand opportunities for farmers by reducing risks associated with appropriation by external agents, and lengthening farmers’ planning and investment horizons. Secure rights are also tied to both equity and to empowerment because they enable more egalitarian participation in decision making (Cremers et al 2005). Securing water rights through Water Users’ Associations has been reported by user groups themselves as a crucial follow up task to initial irrigation management transfers (Meinzen Dick and Bruns 2000). From a risk standpoint wastewater
39 re use in urban agriculture not only poses risks to the water users, but also to the eventual consumers of the food produced. In many countries, the appeal of wastewater re use is as much to reduce treatment and disposal costs as to substitute for fresh water (Brooks 2003). As a WDM strategy, wastewater use would concentrate on urban and peri urban agricultural applications (including home gardens), where it should represent incremental supply, especially in arid or semi arid climates, rather than backing out freshwater. Wastewater can be used for agricultural production – and to reduce poverty – by poor city residents to augment their production of high value marketable crops for market or domestic use. This must be accomplished without exposing them to higher health risks (Faruqui and al Jayyousi 2002). On the other hand, urban (“black”) wastewater often provides an important resource for poor urban and peri urban farmers (frequently recent migrants from rural areas) to earn a livelihood growing high value vegetable crops for commercial markets, particularly during the dry season when they are most valuable and no other sources of irrigation water are available (e.g. Ghana, Pakistan, Senegal). The problem is that to regularize
this
production
and
protect
the
health
of
consumers,
decentralized wastewater treatment mechanisms are needed to reduce pathogen concentrations in urban waste streams (Scott et. al. 2004). Clearly, the approach of cutting off wastewater use in agriculture (even if for public health reasons) is likely to increase costs for water users and food consumers. WDM strategies to address the health issues must involve regularizing use, developing monitoring procedures, and working with users to
establish
appropriate
treatment
and
cost
recovery
strategies.
Awareness building efforts may be combined with better matching of water source quality to type of crop, and combined with land tenure arrangements that provide legitimacy and security for these livelihoods. Jordan and Tunisia are among the most experienced countries in this regard, with restrictions – of varying effectiveness – on the types of crop that can be irrigated combined with formal tenure and regulatory oversight of producers (Scott et. al.2004). Urban wastewater re use is now being piloted in other
40 countries of MENA such as Syria, where similar attention is being paid to issues of capacity building and regulatory oversight (Bazza and Najib 2003). 2.1.7 Urban conflicts over water in squatter settlements For the purposes of this study, we shall focus attention on the local level of analysis of conflicts over water; that is, the level of neighborhoods or squatter settlements. This obliges us to take urban management as the arena or political field (Turner, 1974). There, conflicts over water are played out in squatter settlements, through the participation of a wide range of actors that includes the State, urban leaders, the urban poor, political parties and urban organizations, all of which represent different objectives and interests with respect to water. It is important to clarify that urban conflicts over water do not necessarily lead to collective actions, and that disputes can —and do— exist without such actions. However, as Alberto Melucci (1999) points out, the opposite is not true; i.e., there can be no collective action without conflict. This leads us to propose the following classification (Avila, 2001): 1.
Urban conflicts over water that lead to collective action: here we
include all those collective actions undertaken by the urban poor that are focused on the State and look to resolve the following demands:
Social demands such as the provision of urban services, or of access to existing services, in a socially segregated city.
Political demands related to the social control of an increasingly scarce and strategic resource in poor neighborhoods.
Cultural demands such as the participation of urban organizations in decision-making and water management in the city.
41 In all of these cases, the urban poor construct a collective identity that allows them to present a unified front in confrontations with the State, despite their internal social heterogeneity and divergences. As a result, conflicts over water become a factor that unites the urban poor. 2. Conflicts over water that do not lead to collective action: This category includes all the tensions and disputes that emerge in squatter settlements due to the lack of regulations or social agreements, or to the violation of existing ones. It also includes conflicts that result from gaps or deficiencies (technical, administrative) in the institutional system of water management (controlled by the State). Here, too, we find disputes among factions for the political control of water and others that arise as competition for the use of this resource intensifies with the spread of popular urbanization. These tensions tend to exacerbate differences among the urban poor in such a way that conflicts over water may actually come to divide their neighborhoods. In both cases, hydropolitics plays a determining role in both the development and management of such conflicts. These divergent attitudes over water, in turn, may lead the urban poor to form alliances with other actors (political parties, rural poor) and to adopt political stances in fields of opposing forces and in the arenas where such struggles are played out. However, if there are no established channels for conflict resolution, then violence becomes an alternative; above all, given that water is an essential resource for survival. Finally, these disputes are considered “micro-conflicts� or local disputes over water, because of their diffuse, bounded character. 2.1.8 Water Demand Management and the Urban Poor The provision of adequate water supply and sanitation to the rapidly growing urban populations is increasingly becoming a problem for governments throughout the world. The continuing expansion of the numbers of people in cities who need water and sanitation services and
42 who cannot readily get these services by self provision, form a continuous pressure to either invest in additional production capacity or to stretch the available supplies to serve more people. At the same time, industrial activity also demands the expansion of urban water supply services. The water resources are threatened not only by this rapidly increasing demand but also through diminishing quality caused by pollution and saline intrusion as well as reducing quantity caused by overexploitation and denuding of water catchment areas. Finally, water demand for agricultural use in most places is also growing and competing with water availability for urban use. The predominant approach towards meeting these increasing water demands has been towards supply augmentation schemes. But, the cost of developing new sources or expanding existing sources is getting higher and higher as the most accessible water resources have already been tapped. The real cost of water per cubic meter in second and third generation projects in some cities have doubled between a first and the second project and then doubled again between the second and third (Bhatia and Falkenmark, 1993). At the same time, governments are becoming reluctant to pay the rising investment costs as long as utilities are unable to meet these cost from user charges. It has been demonstrated in many countries that saving water rather than the development of new sources is often the best ‘next’ source of water, both from an economic and from an environmental point of view. Water demand management therefore is seen as the preferred alternative to meet increasing water demand and can be defined as a strategy to improve efficiency and sustainable use of water resources taking into account economic, social and environmental considerations. The main objective of water demand management is to contribute to more efficient and equitable provision of water and sanitation services and to reach this objective a number of instruments have been developed. These instruments are interdependent and mutually reinforcing and the most
43 optimal way they are applied will depend on the prevailing local conditions and are the topic of a number of presentations in this symposium. With regard to the domestic consumer, water demand management measures can be divided in: 1.
Water conservation measures:
Leakage detection
Reduction of illegal connections
In-house retrofitting
Out-of-house water saving measures
2.
Water pricing measures:
Water metering
Tariff structures
3.
Information and educational measures:
Awareness raising
Public involvement
In-school education
4.
Legal measures
Regulations on resale of water
In all cities Rules and regulations that form the basis of WDM policy
In all cities, a distinction can be made between different income groups (high, middle and low), between the different types of urban areas they live in and hence between the different water demand management measures which are applicable. Urban water supply coverage has actually decreased
44 between 1990 and 1994 in parts of the developing world, an indication of urban growth but also of deterioration of existing systems. Table 2.1.9a: Urban water supply coverage in 1990 and 1994
AREA
1990
1994
Latin America
90%
88%
Asia and the Pacific
83%
84%
West Asia
87%
98%
Africa
67%
64%
(Source: Water Supply and Sanitation Sector Monitoring Report, WHO, WSSCC and UNICEF, 1996) This coverage includes house connections and access to public standpost, managed by the water utility. The overview below gives some more insight in the division between the two types of supply. The people who are not covered by the public network, are dependent on private wells or boreholes, rivers or springs, vendors or neighbors.
Table 2.1.9b: Percentage of urban population connected to city network or dependent on communal water points
City
House connection
Public tap
45 Jakarta (1991)
30%
30%
Delhi (1992)
53%
37%
Phnom Penh (1992)
70%
-
Casablanca (1997)
80%
17%
Ouagadougou (1994)
38%
17%
Conakry (1989)
20%
5%
Buenos Aires (1993)
80%
-
2.1.9 Issues affecting Water Demand Management activities in lowincome areas One of the assumed results of Water Demand Management (WDM) is that the increased availability of water will lead to a more equitable distribution of this water, and thus enhance access of the poor to water supply services. Experience in water supply services to the urban poor, shows that some of the measures taken to facilitate access in fact makes the water more expensive for the poor and that a more equitable distribution needs an active, community focused strategy. Aspects that play a role in the development of such a strategy are legal conditions, water conservation measures, tariff setting, public information and demand responsiveness. In some places resale of water is restricted by law or by the utility. Reasons for the restriction vary from the impossibility to serve customers in an illegal area and free distribution at public standpost to the argument that profit made by formal or informal vendors should rather be made by the utility itself. Profits in the vending systems, especially where the access to the vending market is restricted, can be enormous.
46 In Nigeria, for instance, the vast majority of residents obtains its water from an elaborate and well organized water vending system, selling 2.96 million gallons per day for which they pay about US$28,000. At the same time, the public water utility was supplying about 1.5 million gallon per day for which they collected US$ 1,100. Thus the water vending system was providing double the supply and collecting 24 times as much revenue as the water utility (Whittington e.a., 1988). The vending systems may be controlled by people working in the utilities itself. Therefore deregulation of water sales and easing of supply constraints that could substantially lower both hauling costs and the price of water, may be very difficult to realize as this would threaten the interest of powerful groups (Lovei and Whittington, 1991). On the other hand, vending systems are a source of income generation for many otherwise unemployed people, and profits for these ‘small’ vendors tend to be not very large. Their prices are a reflection of the price per unit at source, time spent on the hauling of water and the waiting times at the water point. Since the higher and middle-income residents are more likely to be connected to the water network, it is the low-income groups who are most dependent on vendors. This invalidates the often used argument by public utilities and formal sector water providers that they cannot provide water in low-income areas because residents in low income areas cannot pay sufficient for their water to operate and maintain the system and also to get a return on the capital investment. To the contrary, the prices paid by consumers show willingness-to-pay and economic demand and provide a good basis for water investment decisions and for the design of tariffs. Households served by vendors pay considerably higher unit prices for water than those connected to the water supply system. An open market and no restriction with respect to resale of water will lower the price per unit and will give residents a chance to generate some income. In addition, it
47 gives communities the option to organize and manage their own water supply. 2.1.10 Water Supply – the natural monopoly It is widely accepted worldwide that the provision of water supply services is a natural monopoly with each customer limited to only one supplier. Although there have been several attempts to expose the sector to competition, e.g. the common carriage, inset appointments and competition for bulk supplies encouraged by OFWAT, the industry regulator for England and Wales, the impact on overall efficiency and price is limited. (Work done) This is not to say that the sector is without competition. Even most state-owned operators employ competition for the provision of capital works through competitive bidding. Competition in operations, however, is harder to achieve. Competition for the market, as opposed to competition within the market, generally through bidding for the right to operate the system under management, lease or concession contracts, can ensure competitive prices in the short term but do not guarantee long-term customer benefits. Regulatory intervention is required to ensure that efficiency gains do, in fact, trickle down to the consumer as they would if the industry was truly competitive. Regulation is therefore a surrogate for competition. 2.2
MANAGEMENT PRACTICE OF WATER SERVICE DELIVERY SYSTEM IN ASIAN COUNTRIES.
2.2.1 Study of Water Service Delivery System in Asian countries 2.2.1.1 Enabling Water Services Delivery to the Urban Poor In Asia, the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) implements
regional
water
and
sanitation
activities
through
the
48 Environmental
Cooperation-Asia
(ECO-Asia)
Water
and
Sanitation
Programme. ECO-Asia develops and implements pilot projects that demonstrate innovative strategies for expanding, improving and financing water services delivery in Asia. One programme focus is to develop innovative models that address technical, institutional and financial constraints to expanding water services to the urban poor. An estimated 84 million people in Asian cities do not have access to safe drinking water. Many do not have access to piped water and spend considerable time collecting water, and paying vendors much higher rates than those with connections to public utilities. Lack of access to safe water places the poor at risk to waterborne diseases, such as infectious diarrhea. More children die each year from lack of access to safe water and sanitation than from almost any other cause. Lack of piped water also directly affects economic productivities: According to the World Health Organization, each year an estimated six billion working days are lost globally due to unsafe water and sanitation. Connecting the urban poor is a difficult challenge for water service providers in Asia. Due to weak institutional capacity, governance systems and financial arrangements, most water service providers lack the ability to connect the urban poor. Most water service providers impose low tariffs or subsidies that limit their ability to invest in new systems and services for urban poor communities. Many are not even aware that the urban poor are willing and able to pay for piped water. 2.2.1.2 Optimizing Willingness to pay (WTP) WTP is influenced by several social, technical and institutional factors. As part of the on-going sector reform the conduct of WTP studies through socio-economic surveys has presented a useful yardstick for determining financing issues in the urban sector. In rural areas and small towns experience has shown that raising the level of WTP requires a strong link with beneficiaries and proper information flow that seeks to clarify financial responsibilities at all stages of the project.
49 2.2.1.3 Tariff structures and options for charges Existing subsidy mechanisms targeted at the poor to ensure affordability do not always work. Most houses in low income areas within urban areas are of the tenement type – which comprises several households sharing a compound and often water from a single metered source. In the Asafo area in Kumasi which benefited from a sewerage scheme under the Kumasi Sanitation Project (1989-1994), the average population per house was 63. Under the increasing block rate structure, the large populations lead to large water bills. Thus, poor households are unable to benefit from lifeline tariffs (3000 gallons/month). The economies of scale offered by large tenement households in most poor neighborhoods justify a review of the wholesale application of the block tariff system in urban areas. Under the on-going PSP, tariff studies have been conducted to obtain a better understanding of the issues. 2.2.2 Study of water service delivery for urban poor in south Asian\Cities. Water tariff designs currently in use in South Asia and their limitations Historically, fixed charges were the first means used in most countries to calculate monthly water bills for customers on piped distribution systems. In many small and medium size Indian cities they are still the most prevalent way to calculate a household’s monthly water bill. A typical practice would be for a household with a connection to the piped distribution system to pay Rs50 (US$1.09) per month, regardless of the amount of water used. For example, in Chennai the fixed monthly charge for an unmetered connection is Rs50, whereas in Hyderabad it is Rs140 (US$3.04). Occasionally the fixed charge is adjusted to reflect household size so that households with more members pay a higher fixed monthly charge than small households with connections. In some places the household’s fixed monthly charge depends upon the diameter of the pipe that a household uses to connect to the distribution line. For example, in Kathmandu a household with a 1⁄2″ tap (unmetered) on a branch line of the water distribution system pays a
50 monthly fixed charge of Rs59, while a 3⁄4″ tap costs Rs442 per month. In Dhaka the fixed charge is calculated based on an estimate of the annual valuation of the property. A recent study of 300 Indian cities found that only 13% used increasing block tariff structures (Raghupathi, 2002). However, in large South Asian cities increasing block tariff (IBT) structures are a common type of volumetric pricing (and all urban centers in Kerala and Rajastan use IBTs). However, even in large cities using IBTs, not all households with private water connections receive a water bill calculated on this basis. Many households still have unmetered private connections and receive a water bill based on a fixed charge. For example, in Chennai over 95% of households have unmetered connections and receive a monthly water bill based on a fixed charge. In Kathmandu approximately 20% of households with connections are unmetered and pay a fixed charge. In Hyderabad about 90% of households with connections are metered, but only about 40% of meters are working. Current municipal water tariff practices in South Asia have several limitations. First, there are large numbers of households in many cities with unmetered private connections; they are charged a fixed amount per month for water, regardless of the amount they use. This fixed charge gives the household no incentive to conserve water; it sends the signal: “additional water use is free”. This is a particular problem in those parts of South Asia where water supplies are scarce, and municipalities are increasingly turning to expensive, distant sources for new water supplies. The sector is thus incurring high costs to bring additional water into cities where at least a substantial portion of it is put to low-value uses. Second, even households that are connected to the system and face a volumetric charge receive the signal that “water is almost free”. Most cities in South Asia have a substantial minority of households without private water connections—either metered or unmetered. For example, a recent survey conducted in Kathmandu Valley suggests that approximately 30% of the households in the water utility’s service area do not have private
51 water connections (Whittington et al., 2002). They rely either on shared connections, public taps, traditional stone spouts (a form of public fountain) or water vendors. Low revenues not only mean that water utilities lack the incentives and resources to extend services to such unconnected households (a substantial proportion of whom are usually poor), but also lack the ability to attract capital to finance the development of new water sources. The poor households who share connections, the water bill for groups of households sharing a connection is often calculated on the basis of an IBT that was designed for a private connection for the exclusive use of a single household. The more households that share a connection, the higher the total water use billed through that single month average cost of water used (Whittington, 1992). Poor households sharing a connection thus typically pay higher average per unit costs than middle and upper income households, although because the tariffs in all blocks are low in South Asia, average costs of water even for households using shared connections are typically still low. In summary, the water tariffs in use in South Asia are not accomplishing their principal objectives. They are not generating sufficient revenues to ensure that utilities can recover their financial costs. They are not sending the correct economic signals to households, i.e. that water is scarce and must be treated as a valuable commodity. Many households do not have access to water from private connections, so service provision is inequitable. They are not helping the majority of the poor households, many of who are not connected to the piped distribution system. Most of the existing subsidies benefit the middle and upper income households connected to the piped distribution system.
52 Table 2.2.2 Residential water Tariff Structures in six Major South Asian Cities
First steps toward improved municipal water tariffs in South Asia It is clear that municipal water-pricing practices need to be improved in South Asian cities. How should this process begin? Getting started on the reform of municipal water tariffs requires that government and/or private
S.N
City
Consumption (m3)
Marginal Tariff Rate in US $
1
Chennai
10
0.1
2
Bangalore
20
0.2
3
Kathmandu
30
0.3
4
Dhaka
40
0.4
5
Hyderabad
50
0.5
6
Colombo
60
0.6
operators of municipal water utilities understand (1) the financial costs of providing customers with different levels of service, (2) the economic value of water in the sector and (3) household demand for improved services. Only with this information can one assess how changes in municipal water tariffs will affect the welfare of the utility’s customers.It has often been argued that municipal water prices must be kept low (i.e. subsidized) so that poor households can afford to purchase sufficient water to meet their basic needs. The usual corollary is that households are unable and unwilling to pay much for improved water services. If households are not willing to pay for improved services, there is little point in trying to raise prices to generate revenues that can in turn be used to improve services. Higher prices will simply mean that households will disconnect from the piped distribution
53 system (or stay connected but be worse off in terms of reduced income). Many will fall back on alternative water sources such as private wells, vendors and public taps that better match their needs for cash flow flexibility. But is it in fact true that most households in South Asia are unwilling to pay a substantial amount for improved municipal water services? The available evidence is limited, but raises doubts about this conventional wisdom. For example, in a recent survey in Kathmandu, we asked over 1500 households how they would vote on a plan to engage private water company to help with the management and operation of the municipal water supply system (Whittington et al., 2002). Households were asked to choose between (1) a private connection to the present water system (with low prices and unreliable service) and (2) a private connection to an improved water system (with 24-hour service, accurate water billing and potable water quality). We estimated that almost 80% of the 991 respondents who already had a private water connection were willing to pay about four times more per month for the improved system than their current water bill (US$1.50 versus US$6.00). Households currently without a private connection were willing to pay almost as much for a private connection to the proposed improved system. Respondents in this survey were also asked why they supported the plan to get a private company involved in the operation and management of the municipal water distribution system. The vast majority simply said they really wanted the improved water service; some said specifically that they were worried about the health risk of contaminated drinking water. When asked what they liked least about the water service from the current piped water system, over two thirds of respondents said “less than 24-hour service�. These results about households’ willingness to pay for improved service are consistent with observations throughout South Asia that households are spending
substantial
amounts
of
money
coping
with
intermittent,
54 contaminated public water supplies (Zerah, 2000). For example, in Kathmandu, only 77% of those households with a private connection used the water from it on a daily basis. Over 50% of respondents with private connections had overhead water storage tanks (at an average cost of about NR7400; approximately US$100). About two thirds of the population in Kathmandu Valley treat their water before drinking it (e.g. boil, filter, etc). The reform of municipal water pricing must thus start with an understanding of what would happen if prices were increased and services improved. In Kathmandu it appears that most people—including the poor—would prefer to pay higher prices for better services. In other cities one may find that households relying on both municipal water supply from the piped distribution system and on groundwater from privately owned wells have largely replicated the services provided by a 24-hour, 7-days-a-week service. In such cases, if the municipal water provider tries to raise tariffs, such households may increase their groundwater use. The next question is: “What will different levels of improved services cost?” Throughout South Asian cities, the provision for 24-hour, 7-days-a-week service will require major new capital investments in system rehabilitation. Without positive pressure throughout the distribution system on a 24-hour basis, The distribution system would continue to be subject to groundwater infiltration and contamination. If it appears that the likely costs associated with 24-hour, 7-days-a-week service are affordable by the majority of the population, then the possibility exists for a win–win situation. In other words, the municipal water utility (or a private operator engaged by government) can improve households’ wellbeing and still recover its financial costs. The reform process can then move to the next stage of planning concrete actions to improve the municipal water tariff structure. Assuming household demand and system capacity are sufficient to support a reform process leading toward higher prices and 24-hour, 7-days-a-week service, what then needs to happen in concrete terms to municipal water tariffs in South Asian cities? The first priority is clearly to put in place the
55 ability to implement a sound pricing policy; this is a prerequisite to raising the equity capital and debt financing needed for system rehabilitation. This requires that meters be installed on all private connections without them, and that meters be fixed where they are broken. Accurate bills can then be rendered to households and collected. If the available water supplies permit, unconnected households that want a metered private connection should be connected to the piped distribution system. All three of these tasks are things that private operators typically do well. In the process of putting in place the ability to implement a sound pricing policy, reformers should tackle two big problems: (1) the fixed charge (nonvolumetric) tariffs for calculating monthly water bills and (2) the inability of many poor households to finance the connection charges to the piped distribution system. Unless unmetered private connections are eliminated as a first step in the reform process, they will become increasingly large centers of revenue loss for the water utility as other reforms are undertaken; they will sharply limit what can be done to effectively and efficiently manage available water supplies. There are several reasons why many poor and middle-income households do not have private connections for the exclusive use of household members, but one of the most important is often their inability to pay the lump-sum (up-front) connection charges. Many poor households cannot access credit at reasonable interest rates, and without access to credit markets connection charges can be a major obstacle to obtaining a private water connection. Because a well-run water utility should be able to access capital markets much more efficiently than most poor households, an important early step in pricing reform is for the utility to offer households the option to finance the capital costs of a private connection. Such a policy effectively allows households to pay off the connection charge over time as part of their monthly water bill. This financing probably does not need to be offered at concessional rates; just the ability to access long-term capital markets at globally competitive interest rates is often a significant benefit to
56 poor households and should be more than enough to ensure high rates of connections by unconnected households. Once the utility has established a large customer base and the ability to accurately determine how much water most of its customers are using (and to render and collect bills), it is time to change the way that water bills themselves are calculated. Because the increasing block tariffs currently being used in many large cities in South Asia are not achieving their intended objectives, three changes are needed. First, shared connections should not be billed using an increasing block tariff. Owners of shared connections should be charged a single volumetric rate for each unit of water used. In situations where available water supplies are scarce and there is no excess capacity in the system, this single volumetric rate should be at least equal to the average financial cost of supplying the water; from an economic perspective it should reflect the full marginal cost of additional water supply (including the opportunity cost to potential users who must forgo further water use). Ideally this single volumetric rate for shared connections should not be different from the volumetric rate faced by households with private connections for their exclusive use because the marginal cost of serving both types of connections is essentially the same. Second, the IBT structures common throughout South Asia for calculating monthly water bills of households with private, metered connections should ideally be discontinued. The goal of the new tariff D. Whittington / Water Policy 5 (2003) 61–76 69 structure should be to balance three main objectives: (1) to send as many customers as possible the correct signal about the economic value of water, (2) to collect sufficient revenues to put the utility on a sound financial basis (but not more revenue than is necessary) and (3) to ensure that most poor households are better off than they were before the tariff reform. When demand for improved services is strong, this balancing task is often not as difficult as it might at first appear. The correct economic signal to send to customers will vary by location and season (i.e. marginal costs may be either below or above average costs
57 depending on local conditions). However, it is likely that for many municipalities in South Asia the marginal costs of water supply are higher than average costs, and the marginal costs are rising over time until capacity is added to the system8. In this case the signal must be sent to consumers that water is an economic good in scarce supply and must be treated as such. Sending this price signal does not need, however, to result in a household’s bill increasing to an amount equal to this price times the quantity of water consumed. It is the price that customers pay when they decide to use additional water that is important for this signal, not the aggregate monthly water bill (the monthly bill is, of course, important for the financial solvency of the utility). When marginal supply costs exceed average costs, there are two principal ways that the tariff can be structured so that most households face the higher incremental costs of supply without having to pay water bills that generate revenues for the water utility far above their financial costs. In many of the water-scarce regions of South Asia, the marginal cost of supplying water will vary by season. The marginal cost will be higher in the dry season because water demand will be higher, and where water supplies are constrained, the cost of one user of the municipal system abstracting water should include the opportunity cost to someone else of not getting that water. In such cases it will make sense to adopt seasonal water pricing to allocate the available water supplies to high-value users and forestall the need for water supply capacity expansion created by the peak dry season demands. Third, the common discrepancy between industrial (and commercial) and residential water tariffs should be eliminated. Industrial water use is typically much more price-elastic than residential water use. This means that prices to industrial customers must be raised a great deal to raise funds for cross subsidies, resulting in significantly reduced, inefficient water use by industries. Moreover, charging industrial users more than the real resource cost of providing them service often drives them off the distribution system
58 altogether, thus eliminating the possibility of any cross-subsidy. In the long run charging industrial and commercial users prices above marginal cost probably increases the prices of their products and hurts their competitive position. There is little evidence that this practice of charging industries prices for water above the real resource cost actually helps the poor. 2.2.2.3 Protecting the poor during the reform process In most South Asian cities the pricing reforms outlined above will benefit the majority of poor households. Like nonpoor households, poor households need reliable, high quality water supplies. In the present conditions in South Asian cities, many poor households are not connected to the piped distribution system, and thus end up paying high prices to water vendors, high costs in terms of collection time and high health-related costs from drinking
contaminated
water.
Poor
households
that
share
water
connections are penalized further by increasing block tariff structures because they end up paying higher average costs than households with private connections for the exclusive use of household members. Systemwide improvements in reliability and quality, and sound tariff reform, are thus an important means of serving the poor. But what about the minority of poor households that might not be helped by this package of pricing reforms? What can be done to assist them? There are in fact a number of pro-poor policies that can be used to ensure that the poor have sufficient water to meet their basic needs at a reasonable cost without sacrificing the objectives of economic efficiency and cost recovery. However, none of these pro-poor policies involve tinkering with the volumetric charge for water sold to households (or firms) with private connections. It is perhaps important to ask a prior question: “Why do many people (both those working in the water supply sector and elsewhere) assume that it is a good idea to deliver subsidies to the poor by reducing the price of water sold to households with private connections?� What is it about a piped water distribution network that makes it a good candidate for the delivery of subsidies to the poor? It does not follow that because water itself is a basic
59 need that a piped water distribution system provides an efficient, effective way to deliver subsidies to the poor. After all, people also have basic needs for food, health services and housing. The relevant question is: “Which subsidy mechanisms reach the poor most efficiently and effectively?” not “How can piped water services be subsidized most effectively?” In fact, the evidence from around the world suggests that private connections to a piped water distribution system are particularly poor candidates for a mechanism to deliver subsidies to poor households. If subsidizing the volumetric price of water sold from private connections is a bad idea, what other policies can be put in place in the municipal water sector to protect poor households from the higher prices of water from the piped distribution system that are required for the effective reform of the sector? Numerous regulations or policy initiatives can be coupled with the tariff structure to protect poor customers. The most obvious is simply to identify poor households and give them cash assistance to pay their water bills. This is essentially the approach now used in Chile. Even without such means testing, there are three main sets of pro-poor policies that are appropriate:
Subsidize connections, not volumetric water use
Rather than subsidize volumetric water use, any subsidies that are available to the sector are more appropriately targeted at reducing the upfront connection costs than used to reduce volumetric. Even without means testing, such subsidies will reach many poor households because unconnected households are likely to be poor. Subsidizing connection costs will enable many poor households to enjoy the benefits of an improved, reliable water system. Even if they can only afford to use a small amount of water after they are connected, poor households will have ready access to a convenient, high quality source of supply, and will be clear winners from the reform process. Create a well-run system of public taps as a safety net for the poor
60 Reformers need to look carefully at the system of public taps. In many locations public taps will in fact become obsolete. This is because in a situation where the majority of households have piped water connections, households without private connections will work out efficient ways of obtaining water from their neighbors at relatively low cost (Whittington et al., 1998). This solution depends on improvements in the reliability of the piped distribution system so that connected households do not have to worry about running out of water if they give or sell water to their neighbors. However, public taps may still have an important role to play because they may serve as a water source of last resort for the very poor. In some cases it is even possible to provide water free from public taps without substantially reducing the revenues of the water utility. This can occur when free water from public taps does not affect the number of households desiring private connections for the exclusive use of household members, and when only small numbers of households cannot afford private connections. As noted above, one source of potential revenue for financing a subsidized system of public taps is the excess revenues that are available if the volumetric price of water from private connections is higher than average costs (as would be the case if prices are set equal to marginal costs, and marginal costs are higher than average costs). 
Preserve options for the poor
Poor households are hurt most when they have few options to help themselves and when others have restricted their choices. In such cases it is common to find poor households being exploited. This is astrue in the municipal water supply sector as elsewhere. One important way to protect poor households is to preserve their choices so that local mafia or other rent-seeking groups cannot exploit them. There are three main things that can and should be done. It is important to emphasize that this recommendation pertains to the intrasector allocation of any available subsides; it is not an argument for
61 subsidizing poor households’ connection costs to a water distribution system instead of subsidizing other kinds of infrastructure or social services. Indeed, the limited evidence available seems to suggest that poor households place a higher value on obtaining electricity than on piped water (Komives et al., 2001). (a)
Ensure that poor households (and others) can have a private water connection when they want it. Pro-poor policies should not trap poor households into always accepting a low level of off-site water service. If a poor household always has the option of choosing a private connection, when they can afford it, there are limits to the degree they can be exploited by rent seekers.
(b)
Legalize water vending and selling water by neighbors. Vendors and neighbors with private Connections create options for poor households; they promote competition in local water markets, limit the reach of spatial monopolies, and drive down water prices. The poor will benefit most from these lower prices. The system of public taps described above also adds to the choices available to poor households, fosters competition, and thus protects the poor from exploitation.
(c)
Do not give private operators exclusive rights to provide water within a service area. Contracts with private operators should not contain exclusivity clauses; these limit competition and typically end up restricting the choices of poor households. Small-scale providers can often lower the cost of providing piped water to poor households; they should be permitted to operate within the contract areas of larger private operators.
2.2.2.4 Water and Sanitation Initiative for urban poor Water supply for poor urban dwellers in Dhaka City is problematic. Much of the land in Dhaka is government owned, and most slum dwellers are illegal
62 squatters on this land. The agency, which provides water supply and sewerage in the city, Dhaka Water Supply and Sewerage Authority (DWASA), only provides connections to land owners, on presentation of a ‘holding number’ related to their plot. Slum dwellers therefore find themselves outside the official system. The institutional denial of services to the urban slum has encouraged a parallel growth of an informal market where the consumers pay an unregulated price as decided by the supplier of the services. DW ASA is deprived of the revenue and the illegal operators make large profits. The cost of this water is high, either in cash terms, as the people who control the connection usually sell the water, or in terms of time, as to find an operable water source from which to collect water can be a lengthy process. It is not surprising slum dwellers collect water by using a variety of other sources, such as ditches, ponds or factory effluent, despite the poor quality of this water. This situation means that demand for a reliable, good quality water supply is high. Slum dwellers have the willingness to pay for their water the way wealthier residents of the city do and share the same benefits of reliability and quality. However, the obstacles to this are both institutional and technical. The institutional obstacle is the lack of official recognition of slum dwellers and therefore the difficulty in providing them with legal, metered DWASA connections. The technical problem is the Dhaka does not have continuous water supply, and households must construct storage tanks to store water collected when water is available in the mains (often at night) for use later. Slum dwellers, who live in extremely poor housing, usually constructed of bamboo and plastic sheeting, cannot afford this infrastructure. Faced with these problems, one of WaterAid’s NGO partners developed a community-based solution, which relies on the NGO to play a crucial intermediary role. DSK approached DWASA for connections to the piped water system, and tried to convince the authorities that provision of community taps to slum residents was an economically viable project. They
63 also offered to mediate as guarantor for the security deposit and regular payment of water bills on behalf of the community. DWASA finally agreed to make an exception and sanctioned two water points to DSK for collective use by the community. The first water point of DSK was commissioned in October 1992. The responsibility for running the services was delegated to a group of enthusiastic young men from the Water and Sanitation Initiative for Urban Poor community. DSK signed an agreement with this group making them responsible for payment of water bills and weekly repayments of capital costs, operating a bank account and maintaining regular liaison with DSK. Unfortunately, this group very soon became dominated by a local influential mastaan. He appropriated the water point, ignored the agreement with DSK, and stopped paying the weekly instalments. The second water point was installed in April 1994. Based on the previous experience, intense discussions were held with the community on the modalities of operation and their responsibilities, and a more rigorous procedure was followed to organise a water management group. Two caretakers were also appointed to run the water points. This project was a success. The community was satisfied with the service, DWASA bills were paid regularly and DSK has fully recovered their investment cost. The significant lesson learnt by DSK was that user groups have to be organised, oriented to assume the responsibility, and involved in planning, implementation and management of the water point in order to instil a sense of community ownership and thereby ensure sustainability. Encouraged by the above experience, the UNDP-World Bank Water and Sanitation Program, the Swiss Agency for Development and Co-operation (SDC) and later WaterAid collaborated with DSK to further test the approach and develop a replicable model for sustainable water supply for the urban poor. DSK led the project while the donor partners provided guidance, technical support, and strategic supervision. The solution is to organise the community to build a shared water point and for the NGO to apply to DWASA on the community’s behalf to obtain a legal
64 connection. The water points have an underground storage reservoir topped with a concrete platform. Two simple suction hand pumps are mounted in the platform and used to pump water up so it can be collected for household use, or used at the water point for bathing or clothes washing. DWASA is willing to provide these water point connections if permission to use the site has been obtained from the landowner (usually the City Corporation), if a security deposit is made, and if the intermediary agency is trusted and makes a guarantee that the bills will be paid. 2.2.2.5.1 Water Distribution in Colombo (Srilanka) In Halgahakumbura, a squatter settlement in Colombo, sri lanka , 600 families used to receive their water through public stand posts. Because the water was free, the service gen erated no revenue for the National Water supply and drainage board (NWSDB) and encouraged wasteful used by the population. The quality of the service was poor and the people wasted time queing and carrying water home. The NWSDB considered that establishing house connections was too costly and risky, because the capacity and willingness of the residents to pay was unknown. In 2004, ESCAP forged a partnership between the NWSDB, the community, a local NGO and a small private company without experience in water distribution. The NGO organized consulations to asses the willingness to pay for the water and to develop the community’s ownership of the scheme in order to reduce the risk of non payment . The private company won a concession to lay pipes in the settlement , install individual water connections and distribute water to the households. The company sellswater at the official price and buys it in bulk from the NWSDB at a lower price set at the bidding process. Because the company is small and has low operating costs, it can make profit on small margins. It has opened office close to the community to facilitate payments and deal with customers. Neverthless, there have been several conflicts between the
65 community and the company, which were only overcome through the meditation of the NGO. The scheme required a change of attitude by all partners. The community has learned that it is beneficial to pay for the water it receives. The private company discovered that there is a market for water among the poor. The NWSDB is paid for the water it supplies without having to collect individual charges, and sees a reduction in the wastage of water. There are other examples in other countries of informal water pipe networks, often working on similar principles of low cost investment and community participation and ownership. 2.2.2.6
Study of Water for Urban Poor in Indian Cities
Ever since independence, poor Indians have been promised free, safe household water. It is hard to be against such an appealing idea. Poor people would obviously favor it, any nobody else, however rich or selfish, would deny them access to such a basic human need. For both reasons, politicians have been quick to embrace ‘free water’ as an election slogan. And even economists with sharp pencils will concede that subsidizing water for the poor has benefits for society as a whole. In a word, the promises have been broken. The poor still have inadequate access to safe water, and most are forced to live in highly insanitary conditions. They still have to pay for their water, sometimes 10 and 20 times more than their richer neighbors. Government subsidies now run at Rs.40 billion a year (through the paper, the Indian Rupee (Rs) is used as the unit of currency. At the time of writing (summer 1999) $1 exchanged for about Rs.43), but most of the benefits go to the better-off. Even the huge current subsidies come nowhere near the investment levels needed. And, in a cruel twist, the very policies that were designed to help supplier provide water cheaply to the poor have, in fact, resulted in such bad financial and operational management by suppliers that they provide very little service to everyone else.
66 The poor do not consume as much water as the rest of the population, but despite the promises, despite the bland assertions of politicians and policy makers, they can and frequently do pay for what little they consume. And they usually pay much more per liter consumed than those who are betteroff. Poor people for water in two rather different ways. First, there are ‘user charges’, the payments in cash and kind that people make willingly, in exchange for a reliable supply of water. And then there are ‘coping costs’ – payments that are outside the system and that ought not to be required, but that they have to pay to gain access to water even when it is supposedly free. Few poor people in India have access to safe, convenient and reliable supplies and few are charged. Yet there is a growing body of evidence that poor people in India will pay for reliable, convenient and locally valued water services. Firstly, it is reasonable to assume that poor people – just like everyone else – can be counted on as reliable paying consumers of dependable, convenient and safe water services. Secondly, in practice, there are many examples in India where the poorly served offer to pay for a fair service. Thirdly, there is evidence from numerous externally-funded projects that the poor, who have often grown weary of free-nut-inadequate water supplies, can and will contribute to the cost of better services. There is a great variety of projects throughout India where cost recovery arrangements appear to be working well and there are a few examples where a poor consumer contributes to state government schemes. An alternative form of local financing is simply borrowing money to repair or install a pump or other equipment, and repaying the debt over a period of time. In recent years, there has been a marked growth in the number and outreach of Micro Finance Institute (MFIs) disbursing infrastructure/housing loans to the urban poor in India. This is largely due to an institutional shift to recognize, support and facilitate MFIs working at the field level to enable poor communities’ access to improved infrastructure. Most successful MFIs,
67 such as SEWA Bank, Ahmedabad, have average loan repayment rates ranging from 90-100 percent; a powerful statistic to reinforce their sustainability. Conservative estimates indicate that there are currently about 50 MFIs disbursing infrastructure/housing loans to the economically weaker sections throughout India. Of these, approximately 15 are based in urban areas. There are also over 150 additional MFIs, currently supplying income generation and a small proportion of consumption loans to the poor. A large number
of
these
institutions
are
poised
to
being
on-leading
infrastructure/housing loans to their clients. These example do not yet represent normal practice in India, but payment for service to the poor is increasingly widespread. They serve to underline a very important truth about water and poor people everywhere, not just in India. While they obviously prefer to pay less rather than more, they are willing to pay fair user charge for needed water if it is actually delivered. And in the case of new schemes, they are willing to contribute their time, labor and cash if they are confident that water will by supplied, and their views are taken into consideration when decision about the scheme are being made. 2.2.3 Water Service Delivery System for urban poor in Nepal 2.2.3.1 Service delivery system in Nepal All four forms of the service delivery system are currently functional in the country. Most of the revisions envisaged in the Tenth Plan and implementation modalities set in subsequent budget announcements are either accomplished or are in the process of completion. The movement from direct service delivery to the other three stated systems is presented in sequence of legal/institutional, policy and outcome/operational reforms as follows: ď ś
Privatization/Abolition

The Government will allow the private sector to compete with Nepal Oil Corporation, a government monopoly in the petroleum trade. The
68 Government has announced a policy of transferring the ownership of milk processing centres to milk producer co-operatives.
Gradual privatisation or liquidation of government-owned enterprises is underway.
The process of converting Nepal Telecommunication Corporation into a company is complete and converting Rastriya Beema Sansthan (a government insurance service) into a company is towards the end of completion.
Consultant has been appointed and has started the work for the appraisal of assets and liabilities of Royal Nepal Airlines.
Kathmandu Valley Water Service Delivery System will handover to Public owned organization Kathmandu Upatyaka Khanepani Limited (KUKL) in near future
Alternative Service Delivery Mechanism
Irrigation Regulation 2057 will be amended so those Water User Groups can manage irrigation systems and levy water charges.
Public-Private Partnership (PPP) policy has been introduced to solicit ownership and support of civil society organisations and private sector in the delivery of services to citizens.
BOOT law ordinance has been enforced to attract the private sector in infrastructure building and operation.
User groups and municipalities will maintain feeder roads.
The Government will refrain from investing in large and medium sized hydropower projects.
69
Similarly, NEA will transfer electricity distribution responsibility to municipalities and electricity co-operatives. It will limit itself to bulk selling to these entities.
The Government has announced to provide 80% of the capital cost as a grant to DDCs and electricity co-operatives to promote extension of rural electrification.
The Government has adopted a double track system of farm management and has signed agreements with three of its horticulture and fishery farms.
An agriculture and rural development bank will be established under a management contract with the private sector.
Performance contracts have been signed with the Management of Udaypur Cement Factory, Hetauda Cement Factory, Agriculture Development Bank and Employees Provident Fund.
Most of the Urban Water System will be handover to users committee with full responsibility of the management.
Decentralization of Service Delivery
The Local Self-Governance Act 1999 (LSGA) has empowered local bodies (LBs) to deliver a range of social and economic services including infrastructure. The LSGA is a unified act that provides legal as well as institutional framework for local self-governance to both rural and urban bodies. As committed by the government and spelled out in the Decentralization Implementation Plan (DIP), the agriculture, education and health sectors will devolve a range of their services. Accordingly, three concerned ministries have issued separate guidelines for implementation. Despite announcement, devolution of the postal services is yet to come, as it requires understanding and endorsement from the international union of postal service agencies. The Government has in the mean time announced
70 to convert its postal department into a functionally autonomous entity. The scope and current status of decentralization of the stated three sectors (agriculture, health and education) are presented as follows: (a)
Agriculture: District Development Committee (DDC) is made responsible for agriculture and livestock extension services. DDC formulates plans with the technical assistance of district level agriculture line agency officials. A government block grant is sent through the District Development Fund (DDF) - a non-operating account under the DDC. The DDC can supplement it with its own income and in a situation of fund shortfalls can prioritize. Extension programs are generally executed through service centres located at the sub-district level. LSGA rules are to be followed in auditing and accounting by such centres under the co-ordinatorship of the DDC.
(b)
Health: The Health Ministry's guidelines have made provisions for managing sub-health posts by a committee called the Sub-Health Post Implementation and Monitoring Committee (SHPIMC). The Committee is chaired by the VDC chairman and is accountable to the VDC. Funds for the sub-health post are first sent to the DDF and then to District Health Office (DHO). The VDC makes a request to DHO for funds for the sub-health post. The DHO sends money to a VDC account, which is to be accounted as per LSGA procedures. The Government will hand-over more SHPs to VDCs within the fiscal year bringing the number to 500.
(c)
Education: The 7th Amendment of the Education Act includes provisions for the creation of District Education Committees chaired by DDC presidents. Outside of DDC institutional framework, the committee endorses the district education plan and the District Council then approves it. Implementing plans is the responsibility of the District Education Office (DEO). Similarly, at the VDC level, a Village Education Committee under the chairmanship of the VDC chairman, has been created for the promotion and monitoring of
71 education at the village level. The Education Ministry's guidelines have also promoted the transfer of government-run primary schools to communities. A community level school management committee will be constituted for school management. As in the case of subhealth posts, the fund will be channeled through the DDF to DEO. The DEO then allocates grants to schools. Currently, 616 primary schools have been handed over to communities. 2.2.3.2 Analysis of Service Delivery at the Local Level Delivery mechanisms introduced in the Ninth Plan and revised in the Tenth Plan, along with subsequent budget announcements for all stated socioeconomic and infrastructure service sectors are currently at different states of implementation at the local level (receiving points). Demand Side The overall approach for the delivery of services has been to match the supply side with local demand so that ownership and sustainability can be achieved. Local demand is determined through various instruments and water supply can be matched accordingly. ď ś
Preparation of Periodic and Annual Plans
As per the provision of the LSGA, since 2000-01 DDCs are to prepare fiveyear plans. As per NPC guidelines, participatory bottom-up planning processes where all stakeholders; NGOs, civil society organizations, local business chambers and sectoral line agencies, actively participate has been followed. Before the beginning of the Tenth Plan, 52 of 75 DDCs completed the plan. NPC together with all sectoral ministries have agreed to base local level sectoral programs on these periodic plans. Similarly, annual plans are prepared by LBs following the 14 step participatory bottom-up approach beginning at the settlement level. By now LBs are fairly attuned with this exercise. Citizen Charter
72 Many LBs have adopted citizen charters to streamline their service delivery functions as per the local demand. All loc al stakeholders have participated and greatly contributed to its preparation. ď ś
Catalytic Functions of NGOs
Following the restoration of democracy in Nepal, NGOs have taken on the role of articulating citizen's demand for services and have played a catalytic role in service delivery functions through social mobilisation. There are currently 17,000 NGOs active in this effort. ď ś
Social Mobilisation
Social mobilisation has been fairly well established at the local level as a popular approach for the empowerment of primary stakeholders as citizens begin to articulate their rights and demand services. The Small Farmers Development Program, Production Credit for Rural Women and Grameen Bank
introduced
social
mobilisation
nation-wide
early
on
through
government support. These promote targeted programs. From the midnineties, a number of new government supported programs were launched, which adopted a holistic approach to social mobilisation. The main programs launched are; the South Asia Poverty Alleviation Program (SAPAP), Sustainable Community Development Program (SCDP), Rural Energy Development Program (REDP), Rural-Urban Partnership program (RUPP), Parks and People, and SNV supported Social Mobilisation Programs. Side by side hundreds of NGOs and dozens of INGOs are engaged in social mobilisation works. It is estimated that they have altogether mobilised more households than government supported programs.Currently, altogether nearly 100,000 (23% of the total 4.25 million) Nepali households are participating in different forms of social mobilisation groups. These households are spread over 1,107 VDCs and 21 municipalities (New Era, Mapping of Social Mobilisation in Nepal, 2002). Local resource mobilisation through community organisations (COs) has also been very impressive. For instance, the PDDP -LGP program
73 supported 16,813 COs with 360,891participating households spread over 662 VDCs mobilised savings of over 572 million rupees (NPC/MLD/UNDP, LGP/PDDP bridging Phase program Unified Report 2003).Other than resource mobilisation, COs have been successful in the actual delivery of community services, such as literacy, public health awareness programs, drinking water and sanitation services, community forestry, income generating micro-enterprises, etc. They are also influential in articulating collective service demands from LBs. ď ś
Summing Up
There is no denying that grass-roots demand articulation is not complete. More efforts are required to mobilise marginalized groups and Dalits so that they can articulate their demands and be brought into the development mainstream, ensuring their access to services. Similarly, a number of improvements are required to make LB plans technically and financially feasible. Nevertheless, significant advances have been made to mobilise average level citizens to assert their demand for services. Similarly, LB plans have been largely successful in identifying local priority areas for service delivery. Therefore, articulated local priorities and needs are being reflected in formal planning processes and are increasingly getting space in the periodic as well as annual plans of the local bodies. The current challenge of the Government is to tailor the supply side of local service delivery at the receiving point with the articulated local demand. Supply Side
ď ś
Education
With the goal of providing Education For All by 2015, the Government has initiated a community managed school system, which offers a mechanism for effective and accountable school management.
74 Apart from the lack of political responsibility among formal governance bodies at the local level (i.e. to LBs) for the provision of education having implications for school funding, government grants to schools are generally under-funded. Therefore, there are very few teachers and a low teacherpupil ratio. Under funding also pushes schools to seek their own funding sources, which not only disfavors schools in poorer areas but also undermines achieving uniform minimum standards in public schools. Even in richer (mostly urban) areas, community schools will have to unsuccessfully compete with private schools due to free education provisions. Many schools in rural areas have been receiving occasional grants from LBs, which is likely to decline due to their non-involvement in the community school system and prevailing difficulty of receiving government LB block grants itself. Responding to local demands in the past, a number of VDCs have established schools funded by the VDC and/or their own revenue source. Unofficial estimates suggest that there are 35,000 teachers currently employed in these schools spread all over the country (DASU-Danida, the Devolution of Health, Agriculture and education: Field Study Report, June 2003). In the present conflict situation where block grants to VDCs are getting increasingly difficult to receive in time, such schools suffer. The government has recognized that with education funded through these means declining, a large portion of the population will be affected. Similarly, community schools need an adequate quantity of textbooks and other reading materials. The capacity of the government operated textbook producer, Janak Sichhya Samagri Kendra, is miserably low and cannot meet demands in time. The Government needs to look for better options. Also, regular teacher training and proper quality classrooms need to be provided. These requirements are difficult to meet at current education spending levels. ď ś
Health
The transfer of sub-health posts to local committees has not been accompanied with proper training or orientation and support, which is likely
75 to result in a drop in existing level of service quality. The transfer needs to be done with simultaneous upgrading of service providers through refresher training courses, minimum necessary equipment provision and assurance of regular and adequate supply of required drugs and chemicals. Instead, VDCs are envisaged to put forth money from their own fund, which because of the reasons stated above is not likely to come. Preventive measures such as immunisation have been quite good, but such campaigns fail to produce sustained results, as they are not included in regular programs, which can ensure continuity of such services at the local level. A number of such preventative public health services are bound to suffer if proper resource provisioning is not made at local service delivery points. ď ś
Infrastructures
Connecting
district
headquarters
with
roads
has
importance,
but
improvements in access to service delivery can take place with tertiary road networks built to link service consumption and production centres (i.e. settlements spread far and wide) with the highway. The Tenth Plan has envisaged building 10,000 km of tertiary roads through local bodies and community mobilisation. There are quite a few successful rural road models, but required resources have not been made available at the local level to harness community participation. Furthermore, successful programs supported by external sources are not continuing. Similarly, community built and operated drinking water programs are successful but have not reached all in need. This needs continuous resource support In the energy sector, highly successful community owned and managed rural energy development programs are there but due to a lack of resources, development of such alternative energy sources has not been expanded. ď ś
Income and Employment Generation
Increase in productivity with enough marketable surplus is the only solution to the chronic problem of low income and employment in the rural sector. In
76 order to improve the delivery of extension services to farmers, the government has decentralized its agriculture and livestock extension services to DDCs. The prevailing confusion regarding the role of VDCs in service delivery notwithstanding, the service centres are seriously suffering from development budget funding cuts. There are no short or medium term radical mass employment generation programs for the rural sector. Investment in rural infrastructures can address this problem. For instance, Rural Community Infrastructure Works (RCIW),
Rural
Infrastructure
Development
Program
(RIDP),
Rural
Infrastructure Project (RIP), Agriculture Roads (AR), District Road Support Program (DRSP), Suspension Bridge Program (BBLL) and number of others have made considerable contributions to employment generation in rural areas. There has been a massive flight of youths from conflict-affected areas to other countries for employment. Remittances, which now constitute one of the top contributors to foreign exchange earnings, are not being channeled to villages. In this way rural areas are doubly suffering, losing the productive population and their remittances as well. There have been considerable amounts of financial resources mobilised through savings by community groups. But, due to the poor scope of productive investment, these savings are losing their value overtime. There is therefore a need for creating and promoting investment areas at the local level. It will also generate employment opportunities.
ď ś Good Governance For efficient management of service delivery, he Government has adopted instruments for prioritization of programs, adherence to budgetary discipline, meeting deadlines, transparency in business and budget, and discouraging corruption. At the central level, the Government has already
77 adopted an annual Immediate Action Plan, which not only enforces prioritization but also holds agencies accountable for performance. Similarly it has adopted the Medium Term Expenditure Framework and expenditure tracking for all ministries to ensure budgetary discipline. At the local level, the government has enforced “public postingâ€? of district level projects' quarterly budget disbursement, spending and achievement, prepared code of conduct for local bodies to endorse and implement, and several local bodies have adopted a citizen charter. To investigate corruption at the local level, regional administrators and CDOs have been delegated power to investigate dealings of local agencies and bodies. The Government is continuing the decentralisation reform processes so that local government bodies and communities can be involved in development processes and address problems of social exclusion. ď ś
Service Delivery in Conflict Situation
Escalation of conflict has added further challenges to the already difficult task of delivering service to people living in remote areas for Government. Access, infrastructure and operation, all of these three vital prerequisites for the uninterrupted delivery of service have been targeted. Movement of deputed manpower and materials to needy areas has been disrupted. VDC buildings and local level service units of the Government have been targeted and destroyed. Infrastructure construction workers have been asked to leave the site. Food grains supplied by the Government in deficit areas have been looted. Government as per its commitment is striving to manage service delivery in this unfavorable atmosphere through various means and channels. For instance, it has introduced mobile camps to reach the needy people, which have produced very encouraging results. But operation of such camps has not been possible in all areas in need due to fiscal strains. 2.2.3.3 Efforts in Mitigating Gaps and Challenges
78
HMGN Efforts
The Government is aware of gaps and problems that have arisen in the course of broad based reforms initiated under the Tenth Plan. It has accordingly started to address them at various fronts. Corrective measures are as follows: HMGN has expedited the review of the sectoral acts that call for harmonisation with LSGA and are preparing bills for amendment through ordinances. A series of consultations with stakeholders have taken place.( Ministry
of
Finance,
Joint
HMGN/ADB/JBIC/WB
Nepal
Portfolio
Performance Review-2002, 19 February, 2004.)
The Government introduced an Immediate Action Plan (IAP) in June 2002 to implement social service programs of high priority. It also held the involved government agencies accountable for their performance. The Government has decided to continue with IAP as an annual process to monitor high priority actions, ensuring Tenth Plan success. Accordingly, IAP 2003 was prepared and enforced.
The Government has also introduced a Medium Term Expenditure Framework (MTEF) to adjust priority programs to the constrained fiscal situation of the country and protect them from failure despite fiscal constraints.
Development Partners' Efforts
Nepal has been receiving critical support from its development partners. In the current situation of escalating conflict and increasing fiscal pressures, continuation of development partners' support is very encouraging (Ministry of Finance, Mid-Term Evaluation of the Budget-2003/04, Magh, 2060BS.).
79
Within the first half of this fiscal year alone, Nepal has entered into agreements with development partners for grant assistance amounting to NRs.6.27 billion and loan assistance of NRs.7.32 billion.
During this period, Nepal will receive IMF's Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility.
It has also received from the World Bank a Poverty Reduction Support credit of more than NRs.5 billion.
Joint Efforts
A joint HMG-donor task force has been formed, which developed the IAP 2003. It has also identified "lead ministries" and "lead donor agencies" to undertake detailed assessment of the IAP. The joint working group has already conducted its first assessment of actions completed as of May 22, 2003. The effort is called the Nepal Portfolio Performance Review (NPPR).
Future Direction
The Tenth Plan provides vision and goals to be reached in regards to service delivery as set by the MDGs. The Government is building its future course of action based on current challenges it is facing in meeting these goals.
Inadequate Resources
The major challenge is the lack of resources to improve efficiency and efficacy of service delivery in remote areas of Nepal. The Government will develop and implement appropriate investment mechanisms to attract locally generated resources to support service delivery, particularly, rural
80 infrastructure
as
it
can
generate
attractive
returns.
Community
organizations have mobilised a considerable amount of resources, in terms of savings. There is a need to invest these resources in infrastructure building that can bring returns. Another locally generated resource to develop is remittances earned by local migrant workers, which are not being channeled into the rural areas at present. The third strategy is to attract the private sector to invest in infrastructure building under BOOT/BOT mechanisms. Despite these efforts, there will remain a lack of resources, and further investment will be needed. For this, the Government will review its budget allocation in critical sectors such as schools, health posts and rural roads. ď ś
Employment Generation
Government has rightly identified employment generate ion as one of the most important areas to address exclusion of marginalized communities and ultra-poor, and tremendous growth of unemployed youths because of escalation of conflict in remote areas. Programs like food for work will be emphasized, which address
income poverty, food deficiency and
malnutrition simultaneously. Given the intensity of unemployment and also its implication to conflict, short-term mass employment generation programs are called for. Massive investment on infrastructure building particularly labour-based rural roads is imperative. Government will review and explore avenues for fresh injection of spending in this service sector.
ď ś
Meeting Urban Sector Demands
Phenomenal growth of urban centers in the country has put forth a different set of issues in service delivery arena that calls for addressing them differently. Urban centers require both basic as well as advance services. From efficient street sweeping to water treatment, mass transportation, etc.
81 are required to be provided. For delivery of such type of services, government will expedite implementation of BOOT, PPP systems. The unregulated building construction in cities has added possibility of disaster should the earthquake occur. Therefore, government will strictly enforce building codes as a disaster prevention measure in the city. Urban services also need larger investments. Nepali municipalities will greatly suffer following accession of the country in the WTO. Therefore, the government will give serious attention to introduce efficient revenue mobilization system to harness potential revenue sources for municipalities. ď ś
Sincere Effort in Targeted Programs
Programs like food for work, affirmative action through giving priority in service delivery, and employment will be expedited under targeted programs. Adequate representation as well as effective participation of excluded communities will be ensured in local government bodies and COs to bring them into the mainstream. ď ś
Service Delivery in Conflict Situation
The success of improving service delivery to the people in Nepal is dependent primarily on restoration of peace and order. However, the government cannot just sit and wait until the peace is restored. To address service delivery in conflict situation flexible mechanism will be introduced. Given the success of mobile camps, such services will be extended. Larger involvement of local communities in delivery of services is the other strategy for ensured service delivery.
ď ś
Good governance for Effective Service Delivery
Good governance is the prerequisite for managing the service delivery functions that can be ensured through high accountability and transparency from the part of the government and local bodies and effective participation
82 of people in governance process. Therefore, the complementing future course of action will be to strengthen local bodies and civil societies by mitigating legislative gaps - particularly bringing sectoral Acts in harmony with LSGA, demarcate clearly the role and functions of civil society/NGOs and local bodies, and build capacity of local bodies and NGOs/COs in service delivery, and choice of appropriate delivery mechanism at the grass-roots. Accountability and anti-corruption will be ensured through effective exercise of instruments already introduced. 2.2.3.4 Consequences of the failure to meet basic needs for water Many international organizations work to meet the unmet water needs of human populations, including the United Nations, the Water Supply and Sanitation Collaborative Council, the World Bank, international aid organizations such as US AID, the Swedish Agency for Development Cooperation, the Canadian International Development Agency and nongovernmental organizations such as Water Aid and Water for People. These efforts have made significant progress in increasing access to basic water needs for hundreds of millions of people. Yet, despite these efforts, many water-related problems have worsened. The incidence of cholera soared in the 1990s and expanded in geographic extent. The populations in urban areas without access to clean water and sanitation actually increased between 1980 and 1990, despite great efforts to meet these needs (WHO, 1996). Even more distressing has been the apparent difficulty the world water community has had in setting new targets and goals for meeting basic needs. The world food community has set and continually revised action plans for reducing hunger. The World Food Council met in 1989 in Cairo to propose a specific Programme of Cooperative Action. In that same year, a meeting of food experts in Bellagio, Italy, set nutritional goals for the year 2000, which were reformed at the 1990 UN World Summit for Children. The 1992 UN International Conference on Nutrition laid out a World Declaration and Plan of Action for Nutrition. While huge populations remain undernourished, even less success has been achieved in setting and
83 meeting water-related goals. While this paper is not the place for a comprehensive discussion of water policy and politics, it seems likely that an appropriate mix of economic, political and social strategies can be developed to reliably provide for basic needs. And despite a growing emphasis on markets, if a `market' system is unable to provide a basic water requirement, States have responsibilities to meet these needs under the human rights agreements discussed above. Unless international organizations, national and local governments and water providers adopt and work to meet a basic water requirement standard, large-scale human misery and suffering will continue and grow in the future, contributing to impoverishment, ill-health and the risk of social and military conflict. Ultimately, decisions about defining and applying a basic water requirement will depend on political and institutional will. 2.3
PRESENT MANAGEMENT PRACTICE OF WATER SERVICE DELIVERY SYSTEM FOR URBAN POOR IN KATHMANDU VALLEY
2.3.1 Water Supply Situation in Kathmandu Valley The total population of Nepal in 2004 was estimated to be 4 million, growing at 4.7 percent per annum. It has been estimated that by 2021, the country’s population will reach 34 million, of which 27 percent (9.2 million) will be urban. The urban population is increasing at 6.6 percent per annum, reflecting both an increase in migration to towns as an escape from rural poverty and the on-going conflict and the reclassification of emerging towns from villages to municipalities. Almost all observers agree that Nepal’s population growth is far greater than what the country can afford to have and is a major obstacle to the alleviation of poverty. The Kathmandu Valley endures a significant portion of the country’s urban growth. The 2001 census has put the urban Kathmandu Valley population at almost 1.5 million. The Valley has 5 Municipalities (Kathmandu, Lalitpur, Bhaktapur, Kirtipur and Madhyapur Thimi) and a number of Village Development
84 Committees. In 2004, it was estimated that 4 million people lived in the rural and urban areas of the valley. Water Demand and Supply Coverage Water demand inevitably increases with population growth. By 2004, the estimated water need of the valley reached 147 MLD and is projectedto touch 268 MLD (82 percent increase) by 2016. These estimates are based on average per capita consumption rates of 74 to 92 lpcd. These rates are consistent with the findings of the Household Water Use Survey and Research Study in Urban Kathmandu Valley conducted by the NGO Forum for SAPI Phase II in 2003. The survey was conducted among 300 households plus an additional 50 households where 24 hours supply was recorded. The average domestic water demand under intermittent supply was 80 lpcd and 112 lpcd for the 24-hour supply area. NWSC reports 132,803 legal connections, of which 86% are metered, including 809 community taps. We calculate that this means that the proportion of households in the valley without a legal NWSC connection is around 45% (based on estimate of 240,000 households in the urban Valley). The 2001 census reported 17% of households without access to tap/ piped water (41,000 households in 2004). The reason for a discrepancy between this figure and the proportion of households without legal NWSC connections (45 percent) is likely due to a combination of illegal connections and use of community stand posts. The WTP study estimates that 34 percent of households are poor and 63 percent of unconnected households are poor. Therefore we estimate the number of poor households in the urban valley to be 82,000 (34 percent of 240,000) and the number of unconnected poor households to be around 26,000 (63 percent of 41,000). Regardless of whether or not a household has a connection, the water supply situation for almost all urban residents of Kathmandu valley is
85 desperate for most of the year. Most of those with such a connection receive an intermittent service of an hour or so a day, on alternate days in many areas, at very low pressure. Households that can afford to use electric pumps often ‘suck’ water from the pipes during the few hours when water flows in each locality, thus resulting in inequitable allocation that penalizes the poor. Households not connected to the official water supply network rely on a variety of sources, including shallow tube wells of uncertain quality. Status of the Water Supply Network The water supply network has been installed over the past five decades and is a mixture of pipes of various sizes and ages. Kathmandu Valley has 9 major supply systems, 15 water treatment plants, 9 branch offices and a complicated distribution network that has grown unplanned over the years some pipes are more than 100 years old to meet the increasing water demand. The volume of water available depends on the time of year and is greatest during the four-month long wet season. With the addition of the new Manohara supply, while running at a 100% capacity level and taking into consideration leakage rates of around 32%, the systems provide 73 MLD in the dry season and 98 MLD in the wet season. This is less than half the average daily demand during the dry season. Due to a combination of old and corroding pipes, an unknown number of illegal and poorly installed household connections and ineffective leak repair procedures, it is estimated that 32% of water that enters the supply system is lost through leaks. An increase in water supply pressure could significantly increase leakages and could disable large parts of the supply system. Even in the best-constructed water distribution networks, there is a certain amount of leakage due to the difficulty of installing a watertight pipeline. In addition to reducing system efficiency, leakages are also the cause
of
water
supply
contamination.
Systems
generally
prevent
86 contamination from entering leaks in the pipe network by maintaining constant 24-hour week-long water pressure. The Kathmandu Valley water has an extremely porous water system coupled with an intermittent supply, thus making it very vulnerable to water contamination. Between 14% and 33% of connections are unmetered and the vast majority of billings are not computerized (Gordon Hughes, ERM Consultant in a presentation to NGO Forum, June 18, 200) Total Unaccounted-for-Water (water produced less the water paid for) is estimated at 35 to 52 per cent and is a result of both technical (leaks) and administrative losses (unpaid bills, incorrect amounts charged). Illegal connections are currently not considered a serious problem, although the Management Contractor (MC) is likely to consider them both a technical problem – poor quality of connections result in more leakages, and an administrative problem – no revenue is collected from illegal connections. The causes of these problems are a matter of some debate. There is widespread acknowledgement that the performance of the Nepal Water Supply Corporation (NWSC) is not adequate but it is unclear if this is due to excessive political interference, poor management, inadequate investment or a combination of all three. Similarly, some feel that there is insufficient water available from existing sources while others argue that there is enough water but that it is poorly managed. Drinking Water Quality and Wastewater Services Only four of the Valley’s fifteen water treatment plants are equipped with modern facilities. The other systems use only reservoirs and simple chlorination. There is limited monitoring of water quality and Government of Nepal has not established water quality standards. Poor quality of drinking water supply usually results in an epidemic of water-borne diseases in the summer. Recently in Kathmandu, an outbreak of diarrhea was attributed to contaminated water that was supplied by KUKL distribution system. During
87 the latter stage of the outbreak, from May 24th to 27th, 2004, testing of 54 water samples from different parts of the valley found that 57% of samples were contaminated with excess levels of faecal coliform. The study also revealed that water distributed in Patan and Bhaktapur municipalities were relatively safe compared to water distributed in Kathmandu. The study confirmed that sewage was responsible for the contamination while insufficient levels of chlorine residuals in the system were to blame for the lack of a process of counterbalancing of the effects of the sewage. It should be noted that it is common for water and sewage pipes to be placed side by side and when leaks are present, contamination is inevitable. The report categorized various parts of the city from Boudha in the east to the neighbouring municipality of Kirtipur in the west as high risk zones due to the presence of excessive levels of faecal coliform bacteria. Approximately 1,360 patients were admitted to the Sukraraj Tropical Infectious Disease Hospital between May 2nd and 21st, 2004, with many cases of diarrhoea. Four out of the five major wastewater treatment plants in Kathmandu Valley are not fully operational, mainly due to poor maintenance, with the result that untreated sewerage is discharged into Kathmandu’s rivers. Water tariff - Justice to the Urban Poor The traditional thinking that globe is infinite and so are natural resources including water has changed in recent years. With this change several measures have been taken for the protection and conservation of natural resources. One variant of conservation measures of such resources is their efficient pricing. Nepal is likely to meet the target of drinking water as set in the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). However, there are several challenges in this sector including lack of safe water, poor management of water utilities, low cost recovery, and perverse flow of government subsidy and/or resources from rural to urban areas and from poor to better off households. Unless these issues are addressed, investment in water supply could not maximize the wellbeing of people on the one hand and sustain water services on the other.
88 Drinking water supply in the Kathmandu Valley is very disappointing. It is largely insufficient in most of the places and no supply at all during some days in some other places. New connections are on the constant rise in spite of problems in water supply. However, the Kathmandu valley consumers are connecting and paying water bill with the hope that they will get enough water in future.
In view of the delay in the construction of Melamchi project and rapid growth of population in the Kathmandu valley, it is very likely that the Melamchi Water Supply Project can not provide sufficient water at the present water tariff by the time it is completed. A way to fulfil the demand for different strata of population is through efficient pricing of water. Both the production and the distribution cost of water of Nepal Water Supply Corporation (NWSC) are on the rise over the years. In recent years, the proportion of leakage is also on constant decline, showing improved management of drinking water. However, there is still 35 percent leakage, which is a significant proportion by any count and needs to be reduced to ease the water scarcity problem in the Kathmandu valley.
Table No. 2.3.1a
Number
of
Connections
inside
Kathmandu Valley, 2000/01 – 2004/05
and
outside
89
The NWSC has severe financial troubles as well. Its financial status is not sound because of low tariff, over staffing, unintended interventions, and significant amount of outstanding dues. On the other hand, service delivery is poor and water supply falls too short of water demand. Thus, in order to address these problems and improve the management, the current decision of the government to run the NWSC by a board and to hand over the management to private sector is opportune decision which needs to be implemented soon. The amount of revenue is increasing faster than the increase in expenditure in recent years. As a result, annual surplus is on the rise. However, as the amount of accumulated loss is significantly high, it will take a longer time to wipe it out unless tariff is increased and/or outstanding dues are collected. The NWSC’s priority of collecting outstanding dues is to be pursued soon with active support of the government. Apart from engaging in water supply and sewerage, NWSC can diversify its functions using its assets and properties. It is necessary that NWSC needs to develop its land and other properties and rent it out in order to increase its earnings. Water tariff for the Valley consumers should be higher than for the consumers in other parts of the country. The cost of water production is going to be very high in the Kathmandu Valley compared to many other towns outside the valley. The residents of the valley people earn significantly more than the people outside. Further, the poverty incidence in the valley towns is just 3 percent against 13 percent in other outside towns. In order to make it simple and to ease the burden of the NWSC, it is necessary that water management of valley towns and outside valley towns be managed by two different utilities. Comparatively, the water tariff in the Valley is low. It has increased gradually from 1993 to
90 2004 but the increase was far too high compared to the increase in consumer price index. However, the increase was less than the increase in income of households of Kathmandu valley, implying that there is scope for increasing water tariff. Table No. 2.3.1b Current water tariff structure of Kathmandu valley
Willingness to pay studies conducted in Kathmandu valley and outside the valley suggests that the consumers have higher willingness to pay when water services are improved. This is also justified from the fact that consumers of the valley are paying 14 times higher price of water from tanker service. Water tariff needs to be increased gradually. The recommended annual rate of 2007, 2008 and thereafter by KVWSMB is justifiable, however, it has not been implemented because the management has not yet been transferred to a private company. With the delay in the selection of a private company, the annual rise on the tariff rate is accumulating, and one-time rise of the accumulated high rate of tariff could invite a civil unrest that could jeopardize the situation of private management. Therefore, it is suggested that the recommended plan for tariff be implemented by the KVWSMB even before the selection of private contractor. The current water tariff of Rs 50 for 10 m3 of water just shares only 0.4 percent of average income of valley households. Even at the 70 lcd of water, a five-member household has to pay less than one percent of the income. However, because of higher inequality in the distribution of income in Kathmandu valley, this water cost shares 8 percent of the income of the
91 poorest quintile of households. This hints that some sort of equity measures be in place to protect the poorest groups of households. Towards this end, the two approaches undertaken are the provision of basic allowance and standpipes. Both approaches today seem inefficient in Nepal because of following reasons: â—?
More than 99 of all consumers are with the half inch connections, and majority of them are better off households.
â—?
A consumer with no meter has to pay more than the one which has the metered connection.
â—?
A consumer-using stand pipes will have to pay more than what a private connection householder has to pay. The UNDP Report highlights that even if the connection rates are low, and most of the households lacking a connection are poor, the social block tariff is unlikely to produce progressive outcome. For example, Nepal applies a rising block tariff structure but the subsidies benefit the non-poor more than poor (UNDP, 2006, p. 99). This is also evident from the fact that all the 99 percent of households of valley are receiving subsidized water, whereas only three percent of them are below the poverty line. Moreover, the plan is to make poor using standpipes pay more than what the householders with private connections are paying. Table No. 2.3.1c Distribution of Consumers 2006/07
92 Therefore, there is a need for revising the recommended tariff structure. The proposal for such a revision and other recommendations are as follows: ●
Decrease the minimum consumption from 10 m3 to 6 m3 with Rs. 50 as the minimum life line rate.
●
Increase the water tariff for additional consumption of water over and above the basic allowance.
●
Provide metered connections for all the households at the reduced rate as provisioned by the KVWSMB.
●
Fix the water tariff to be paid by the users of the standpipes at most at Rs. 50 for 5 m3 of water.
●
Increase all water tariffs including the lifeline rate annually accounting for the rate of inflation.
●
Diversify the functions of NWSC and/or management board to improve its financial status.
●
Increase income by renting out unused assets and properties including land assets of NWSC. Revising water tariff is only one aspect of the management improvement of the Nepal Water Supply Corporation. The other aspects are critically important. They include improvement
of
the
institutional
framework
including
the
management of human resources in order to improve the service delivery. Otherwise, mere increase in tariff could further weaken the sustainability of the NWSC. Therefore, a proper incentive structure is a must for the better delivery of services which could satisfy the consumers for the increased price that they pay in the near future. Table No. 2.3.1d Public stand post
93
According to the approved tariff structure in Kathmandu valley, for the metered domestic consumers, who constitute the upper class of society, the block subsidy of Rs. 50 for the first 10 m3 will remain constant, while the charge for every additional 1,000 litres will reach as much as Rs 23 from the existing Rs. 15. For the non-metered consumers, the flat rate will go up from the existing Rs. 360 to Rs. 552. For standpipes, used by the poorest in the Valley, the tariff for every 1,000 litres, applicable from the first 1,000 litres, will reach Rs. 16.10. Thus, while rich will pay only Rs. 50 for the first 10,000 litres, the poorest will pay Rs. 161 for the same. The Human Development Report 2006 states at the chapter on subsidies, “In Kathmandu the subsidies benefit the non-poor than the poor‌â€? In Kathmandu average poor household. This indicates that either the water charges for the stand posts be decreased or that of private connections be increased in view of the equity considerations. Willingness to Pay for Improved Water Supply in Kathmandu Valley In 2001, this survey was conducted by Research Triangle Institute (RTI). The survey included 1,500 households from five urban centers: Kathmandu, Lalitpur, Bhaktapur, Madhyapur, and Kirtipur. In the report, it is stated that average water collected from a household is 56 liters per day during rainy season by a poor household based on 247 respondents, and a non poor household collects about 330 liters per household per day on the average based on 194 respondents. On the other hand the study made by Multi Disciplinary Consultants for ADB in October 2002 (among the selected households ) concluded that overall per capita water consumption in
94 Kathmandu and Lalitpur municipalities is 59.7 liters based on 545 households. Household water use survey and research in urban Kathmandu Valley Municipal supply of NWSC is the primary source of water in urban Kathmandu Valley. Traditional sources like stone spouts and community wells are still serving the water demand in many part of the city especially in the old settlements of the valley. Once forgotten; Hities and wells are again explored to meet the water demand after the incapability of NWSC supplying adequate water . Hand pumps (especially rower pumps) and shallow wells became very popular in recent years. Although poor in quality, in most of the places, this is the water used for all purposes other than drinking and cooking. For drinking and cooking purpose NWSC water is preferred in general.
95 Table No. 2.3.1e Domestic Water Consumption from Various Source (24-hr Supply houses)
It was observed that about 68.4% of the water used by primary households and about 55.4% of the secondary/renter households were from NWSC (including private and neighbor's NWSC tap). Private Wells are serving 23.5% and 30.4% of the demand respectively for these two groups. Traditional sources like public (community) wells and stone spouts are serving 5.9% and 11.4% of the primary and secondary/renter households respectively. If combining primary and secondary/renter households together, the contribution ratio changes to 66.8% from NWSC supply and 24.4% from private wells. In addition, about 1% of the NWSC water is served through stand pipe. An Environment in Decline By 2000, 15% of the valleys land was classified as urban area as compared to 5% in 1984 (Optimizing Water Use In Kathmandu Valley (ADB-TA) Project, June 2004). Almost all aspects of the environment of the Kathmandu Valley are under pressure from urbanization. The air and water are polluted, much of the forest canopy has been lost, and much of the rich cultural heritage has been neglected.
96 Within the past thirty years, residents have had to abandon their traditional practice of using the river for bathing or religious purposes. Tons of household and commercial solid waste that is often dumped on streets get washed into sewers and rivers, and even the municipalities dump waste directly into the rivers. These become clogged and monsoon rains flood low-lying areas of the city. The Bagmati River and its tributaries form the main river system in the Valley. In the past, river water was used purposes such as drinking and irrigation as well as for religious and cultural practices. In recent years, however, the river, particularly at the stretches within urban areas and its immediate downstream, has been extremely polluted due to the dumping of solid waste, discharge of untreated domestic and industrial wastewater and the haphazard mining of sand. Ground water is extracted in an unregulated manner by the use of deep tube wells by big hotels, large-scale industrial and commercial establishments and small diameter shallow tube wells by thousands of households. There is no licensing or monitoring of groundwater usage to ensure adequate recharge although a more comprehensive Water Resource Act is being formulated. There is considerable stress on the finite ground water potential of the valley and signs of over extraction are becoming evident – falling water levels and reduced supply and caving. Sustainable withdrawal from the aquifer is estimated at 26.3 MLD compared to current ground water abstraction rates of 58.6 MLD (Stanley, 1994 and Metcalf and Eddy, 2000) The shallow aquifer, from which drinking water is drawn from shallow tube wells and dug wells, is becoming increasingly polluted due to disposal of untreated domestic sewage and industrial effluent, leaking septic tanks and highly polluted rivers. The dire environmental conditions disproportionately impact on the poor as slum and squatter communities are often located on river banks next to effluent discharge pipes and solid waste dumping sites; and the poor often rely on free traditional water sources, i.e. stone spouts, which are becoming
97 increasingly contaminated. Water supply service delivery in urban areas of Kathmandu valley is managed by Kathmandu Upatyaka Khanepani Limited (KUKL). Other remaining rural and sub urban areas are mostly served by the Department of water supply & sewerage (DWSS) and local authorities DDC, VDC. A study undertaken by Binnie Thames in Kathmandu valley water services, in 1998 indicate that about 204 million liters water is needed per day for Kathmandu valley with average domestic consumption rate of about 107 liter per capita per day in 2000 AD. However, the correct demand is difficult to determine as all survey are based on suppressed supply in a water shortage situation. There are two major water sources for Kathmandu valley in these days which are surface water sources from Valley River and another is ground water extraction. Production of both sources varies between about 67 million liter per day in March/April and 199 million liter per day in July, August, and September out of the above supply NWSC service about 47 million per day from ground water in the dry season, which is nearly three times the safe extraction rate of ground water in Kathmandu valley (JICA study 1999). Weak management of NWSC is further creating problems in water delivery in Kathmandu valley. In table 2.4 shows some indication of the utility performance in water service delivery.
98 Table 2.3.1f: Efficiency indication of Kathmandu valley water supply Sr.
Indication
Value
1
Unaccounted for water (UFW)
40%
2
Non- Revenue Water
40%
3
Operating Ratio
0.72
4
Accounts Receivable
5
Staff / 1000 connections
15
6
Customers getting 24 hr supply
5%
7
Samples failing bacteriological test
62/270
8
Total Connection
96,058
9
Total revenue 1997/98 (million NRs)
256.66
10
Total Cost 1997/97 (million NRs)
328.44
4.2 Months
(Source: Second Water Utilities Data Book – Data for 1995/96) Management information report of NWSC for October/November 1999 shows that 105 993 domestic ½" correction 85571 are metered and 19242 are without meter. There are about 1180 public Tap stand within the valley survey conducted by SILT consultant in 1996 report that 34% of all the private connection are not having meter. It also indicates that more than 64% of the population gets less than two hours supply in dry reason. It is also practices in these days that peoples are getting water in alternative days with very short duration of supply.
99 2.3.2 Existing
water
services
for
urban
Poor
community
in
Kathmandu valley Majority of the urban areas are served through NWSC water system and rest areas are supplied through different system developed by NWSS local Authorizing and NGO's & CBO’s working in the community. Water supply & demand in Kathmandu valley can not meet according to designed criteria developed for the urban water works. Both quality & quantity of water is the serious problem in Kathmandu valley. Urban poor are the group who suffer most from water service. But the condition of the urban poor is more critical. More than 50 percent poor are not having NWSC connection. Majority of the poor communities are dependent on low level ground water & traditional water spouts near by the communities. Water is supplied in major urban areas is managed by NWSC. Source of water is surrounding catchments area of Kathmandu valley and ground water extracted in various locations. NWSC is currently operating under the constraints of deficit water, a very old distribution system with high degree of leakage. NWSC management system is not serious to serve the urban poor, in such condition where everyone, irrespective of economic status is suffering from sub sufficient and sub efficient system attributes. It is for this reason that NWSC management has customary and ready answers contained in the form of public stand post, life line block tariff and free distribution tanker services when it comes to service the poor segment of consumers. NWSC water is supplied a mixture of ground and treated surface water and distributed to some 113600 private connection and 1278 public stand parts. Supply range from 120 MLD in the wet reason to 80 MLD in the dry reason which can not meet the demand of valley people. Even in the wet season it is intermittent and most of Kathmandu people’s services water for less than four hour per day and it becomes alternative day supply hence last few years in throughout the year in most of the core urban areas. Pressure in
100 water distribution is very low in most of the distribution system. At such low presence that many people extract water using hand pumps and electric pumps. It is studied that total daily demand in 2001 is about 213 MLD and shortfall is 93 MLD. The short fail arises from population growth, delays in implementing development program, decreasing yield from ground water sources, and leakage through distribution system. Unaccounted for water is estimated 30-40% Average domestic per capita consumption has been reported as 50-70 lpcd but it seems unlikely that users of shared taps or those without pumping and storage facilities would consume this quantity of water. Non domestic demand is estimated at just 5% of domestic demand, since most hotels and industries is extracting ground water in their own complex. It is also found that very nominal percentage of water is supplied through tanker services by NWSC & private sector. According to NWSC 87% of the urban population is served through NWSC connection. Table 2.3.2a Level of service provided by NWSC Fully Plumbed household connection
36%
Yard tap (Shared Connection)
46%
Public Stand post
18%
(Source: MEH consultant 1999) Table 2.5 shows that only one third of customers have fully plumed household connection. Majority of community peoples are getting water through shared connection i.e. yard tap and public stand post. Domestic connection is very low which is than 50% of the urban household. According to NWSC study Domestic connection is 113800 where urban household is 2, 20000. It shows that there is a significant connection gap. Unconnected peoples are getting water through public stand post traditional
101 water spouts and ground water. A 1997 consumer survey based on defined criteria found that only 34% of consumers served a supply that was good or sufficient while 67% have an inadequate supply. At least 15% received no water since long duration of time. Survey conducted by SILT consultants in 1996 reports that 34% of all the installed meter were either removed or non functioning for various region. More than 64% population gets less than two hours supply in the dry season. Table 2.6 show the result of the survey on consumer responses on quality of service being provided by NWSC. Table 2.3.2b
Result of the survey on consumer responses on quality of service being provided by NWSC
Supply condition
% of NWSC consumer
Supply hours per day Wet season
Dry season
Good
19%
6-24 hr
4-24 hr
Sufficient
15%
6-8 hr
4-6 hr
Poor
49%
3-4 hr
1-2 hr
No water
15%
0.5-1 hr
No response
13%
–
<1 hr â&#x20AC;&#x201C;
(Source: Kathmandu valley water supply, management lease contract for water supply and sewerage for urban areas of Kathmandu valley, Draft final RFP, 2000) 2.3.2.1 Reviving Traditional Sources in Lalitpur Municipality For many years the residents of Chocchen, a small, densely settled community in Ward No. 11 of Lalitpur Metropolitan city, survived on a piped government supply of water that was sporadic, and often of poor quality.
102 The residents struggled to meet their daily water needs for drinking and sanitation. In 2006, with the assistance of WaterAid Nepal and the Urban Environmental Management Society (UEMS), the community constructed a new dug well. The well was combined with two five thousand liter overhead tanks that are filled each day by an integrated electric pump, after which the caretaker distributes water to over fifty households. The caretaker, a local resident, does this twice a day, ensuring that each household gets thirty minutes of equal access per day. While some residents have rooftop storage tanks, many collect the water in buckets or other vessels until it is needed. While the quality of the well water is frequently checked by UEMS, many residents still use point of use (POU) treatment such as boiling, filtration, or chlorine to ensure that the water that they consume is of high quality. To keep the community system operational, residents each contribute NRs. 50 per month, NRs.1,200 of which goes to pay the caretakers salary. They rest of the money goes into a bank account established in the communities name where it remains for eventual repair and maintenance.
The
community members are very happy to be self sufficient: Before the installation of our own system, we received more false promises than water. We have now broken off our links to the central piped supply, and rely totally on our own community-managed system. With the water flowing, the community has begun to think about the next steps towards making their community system even more sustainable. They are currently consulting with UEMS and relevant experts on how to integrate a rooftop rainwater collection system to their recharge their well. With the government supply facing increasing strain in meeting community needs, decentralized community-managed systems such as the one in Chochhen will take on an even greater importance. 2.3.2.2 Kirtipur Housing Project It was designed to house the 44 families evicted following the Vishnumanti Link Road (VLR) Project located in Paliphal, Ward No.6 of Kirtipur
103 Municipality, the project is a first in urban poor housing, aimed at providing improved living conditions through adoption of eco-friendly principles rooted in CWRM. WaterAid Nepal's urban partner, Lumanti, a national NGO focused on urban shelter, was responsible for implementing the KHP with support from WAN and the Environment and Public Health Organization (ENPHO). The Kirtipur Housing Management Committee (KHMC) was established to manage and Oversee the KHP project. To ensure that the project prioritized the needs of the community, their involvement was sought from planning through to implementation. Because the families rehabilitated to this settlement cannot own this type of housing through immediate investment, the houses are provided under an interest free loan from the Urban Community Support Fund (UCSF) which the community will pay back within a period of 15 years. WAN provided financial and technical support for awareness campaigns and trainings on environmental sanitation, providing knowledge on waste and wastewater management, value based water education and promotion of health and hygiene education at local household and community level. In total 44 individual units were constructed within an area of 32,856 sq ft. Given the strain on resources and services available for urban water and sanitation, KHP integrates the concepts of recycling (water and waste water, solid waste and soil), regeneration, recovery of wasteland and encroached areas, recharging of the ground water table, and rejuvenation of rivers and water bodies. Rainwater harvesting techniques have been used throughout KHP to ensure alternate water supply facilities for the community. In addition to domestic use, the rainwater is also being used to recharge groundwater through the use of recharge pits. These help address the issue of water depletion caused by water extraction from the two community dug wells. In addition, KHP incorporates solid and liquid waste recycling, recovery and reusing mechanisms. Liquid waste is recycled and reused once it is treated through a decentralized wastewater reed bed treatment plant. The treated wastewater is used for washing, cleaning, gardening and also for irrigating adjacent farm land. To ensure
104 residents of the KHP are conscious of the surrounding environment, training was provided on collecting and managing solid waste, including composting techniques and demonstrations on recycling and reusing waste. As an outcome kitchen waste composting is now taking place and the fertilizer which is produced is sold generating a profit for the community. Residents were also made aware of water optimization concepts and the issue of water quality. Awareness of this was gained through water education and demonstration of water treatment techniques. Point of Use (POU) treatment mechanisms such as Solar Disinfection (SODIS), PIYUSH (chlorine liquid) and bio sand filters are now common practice for treating rainwater, groundwater and piped water. The KHP project has not only provided shelter to displaced families in Kathmandu but it has opened up avenues towards sustainable alternative solutions for managing urban water resources through
effective
community-based
programmes.
The
project
also
demonstrates how dynamic and innovative approaches can result when organizations with different but complimentary specializations work together. 2.3.2.3 Dhalko Bottled Drinking Water Project The bottled Drinking Water Project was conceptualized in the PPP modality to carter to Dhalkoâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s safe drinking water needs with technical and financial support of PPPUE/UNDP, UN-Habitat (Water for asian cities programme) and KUKL. Under this project water is conveyed directly to the users in water jars. Several activities were completed before starting the project. A survey was conducted to acquire the socio-economic status of the community and to identify the water demand as well as willingness to acquire the system. A series of community consultations and coordination with the local podland youth club helped to gain the consent of the community and to foster their
105 support for involvement during implementation and operation and maintenance. Dissemination of the concept behind the system and an awareness campaign encouraged community participation. A seven member steering committee with representatives from the community, KUKL UN-Habitat, PPPUE/ UNDP and UEMS was formed to advise, monitor, evaluate and backstop the system. In addition, a fifteen member users committee, including three women, was formed to oversee implementation and to operate the system.UEMS was given charge of operational implementation for an initial period of six months. Focus has been on increasing the involvement of dhalko Community members in the management and operation of the project.The revenue generated from the sale of bottled drinking water forms the basis for the sustainability of the project. As the system is demand driven the community has a strong sense of ownership and responsibility towards it, adding to its sustainability. Treated water is filled from the KUKL owned Bansbari Reservoir into 20 liters jars at the water filling plant constructed there for that purpose. The filled jars are transported to and distributed among residents through two distribution outlets. The deposit for each jar is Rs 300(USD 4.05). The price of water is Rs 5(USD 0.07) per jar. Membership cards have been issued which should be shown in order to exchange or return the bottles. The entire operation has now been handed over to the community and the management of the system is running smoothly. To ensure that the system is effectively and sustainably operated and maintained, the usersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; committee has developed various documents, including business plan, pricing and selling mechanisms and water quality control mechanisms. Employment has been provided to four individuals, two male and two female. While increasing overall water supply and improving citywide distribution are of high priority for Kathmandu, projects like the Dhalko bottled drinking
106 water project are equally important to solve the immediate needs of people. The Positive impacts to poorer sections of society can also be seen more directly. The original target was to serve a thousand households. The project has already extended its coverage to 266 households in Saur Bahal, an underserved pocket in Teku. 2.3.2.5
Water, Environmental Sanitation and Hygiene Program for Urban Poor
A program prepared to build upon, and consolidate; the on-going formal/informal engagement between the UN-Habitat Water for Asian Cities and WaterAid Programme in Nepal was formally launched in December 2006. With technical input and financial support from UN-H and WAN, the program will: (a) augment water, environmental sanitation programme for the urban poor in three diverse urban locations, (b) enhance institute capacity of partner NGOs to both effectively and efficiently plan, manage and monitor urban program, and (c) based on lessons learnt, influence and advocate for improved water and sanitation governance, practices and policies. The three urban locations are Bharatpur (Chitwan), Narayan Tole (Kathmandu) and Lubhu (Lalitpur) and the partner NGOs, as implementing agents, are Lumanti for Bharatpur and Naraan Tole and Center for Integrated Urban Development (CIUD) for Lubhu. 2.3.2.5
Improvement of System for Water Service Delivery in Urban Poor Sector
ADB is going to assist the Government of Nepal (GON) in improving its propoor water service and to support initial establishment of 3 institutions in Kathmandu Valley. Three institutions are (i) a public entity called Kathmandu Valley Water Supply Management Board (KVWSMB); (ii) the water utility operator, named as Kathmandu Upatyaka Khanepani Limitied (KUKL); and the Water Supply Tariff Fixation Commission. The Ministry of
107 Physical Planning and Works is the Executing Agency and the KUKL is the implementing agency. Prior to the establishment of KUKL on 13 February 2008, Kathmandu Valley Water Supply Management Support Committee (KVWSMSC), a GON appointed committee to oversee the institutional reform process, acted as the implementing agency. Under the KUKL, Low Income Community Support Unit (LICSU) served as the implementing unit under KUKL to look after water service delivery for urban poor. Consumer surveys in Kathmandu Valley indicate that an estimated 29% of households are not connected to the piped water supply network; of these, 60% are poor. However, because of lack of accurate data, it is difficult to obtain a definitive estimate of the unconnected poor population, which has to rely on traditional stone-spouts, public tapstands, shallow wells, or informal connections. Such alternative supplies are usually grossly inadequate even for basic hygienic needs; they are unreliable, poor quality, expensive, or combination of those. Considerable time is spent queuing at water sources and carrying water home, especially by women and children. Currently, it is estimated that there are at least 1,500 existing public tapstands in Kathmandu Valley, although there is no precise record of the number, or evaluation of the levels of service they provide. Many existing tapstands are in areas where they are underused, while there is a great need for new ones in other areas, particularly near squatter settlements. While squatter and slum communities are identifiable and their locations and population estimated, poor renters often living in cramped single rooms in city core areas are another group of low income consumers who lack basic water services. Most tenants living in water scarce areas do not receive enough water form the piped water connection in the house building they reside in. While most low income consumers lack financial resources to pay the connection fees, others who can afford can not do so because of technical and legal constraints. As low income consumers such as squatter communities often reside in marginal public lands such as river banks which are far from the distribution networks, piped connections to such consumers
108 are technically not feasible without network expansion or densification. Others lack land tenure certificate which is needed to apply for a connection. A single connection rule per house building irrespective of the number of households residing in it discriminate tenants who are poor from equitable access to piped water supply even when available. Basically major activities to improve the water service delivery for urban is divided into two components. Components one were: (i) preparing community participation strategy (CPS); (ii) piloting community tap stand program by rehabilitating 75 and constructing 25 public tap stands in selected pilot communities; (iii) pro-poor advisory services (preparing manuals on pro-poor service rules for LICSU and operation strategy for KUKL), (iv) establishing a program for monitoring and evaluation, and (vi) building capacity of LICSU to sustain its pro-poor service
management.
Component
Two
focused
on
supporting
establishment and initial operation of 3 institutions and assistance to the KUKL during the transition period. Extensive
stakeholder
consultations,
field
visits
and
focus
group
discussions were held with potential beneficiary communities in the initial period of the Study. Local NGOs and CBOs including Lumanti, CIUD, Water Aid, NEWAH, Lyamahapucha (CBO based in Thimi), Society of Squatters, UN-HABITAT, NGO Forum etc were consulted during various phases of the TA. Past studies and data on poor communities and their water supply status were reviewed and additional key informant survey was carried out. Due to political changes and other turmoil during the initial period of study, the activities of the study including the pilot tapstand implementation were stalled for a few months. Lumanti, a local NGO with experience working with urban poor in Kathmandu Valley, was selected to undertake the community mobilization
109 for the pilot tapstand program and preparation of the Community Participation Strategy (CPS) but the notice to proceed was delayed. Community mobilization was the most important part of the community tapstand program. The specific characteristics of the urban poor communities required a concerted effort to mobilise the communities. While the role of local leaders was important, focus group discussions and community awareness with all households in the community was necessary to mobilize the community. Some of the key issues that needed to be stressed during focus group discussions and community awareness were: •
Benefits of community management of tapstands
•
Formation of the water users group (WUG), its registration/affiliation in KVWSMB, tapstand MOU/agreement between KUKL and WUG
•
Payment of monthly tariff according to the quantity of water consumed (i.e. why was it necessary to convert from a freely distributed public tap stands to tariff paying community tapstands)
•
Roles and responsibilities of LICSU/KUKL and water users groups
•
Important issues for operation and maintenance of the tapstands by the community
•
Role of social mobilization is critical to the success of community participation
•
Cross visits by the communities to share each others experience and problems was useful for awareness
Public Tap stands There are around 1500 public stand posts within KUKL water distribution network serving communities who are mostly poor. These fall under the following broad categories.
110 •
About 1200 NWSC installed tap stands- monthly fixed tariff (NRs 990) paid by MOF
•
“Public” tap stands installed on the recommendations of Ward Offices- monthly tariff (private) paid by Ward Offices at par with domestic connections.
•
“Public” tap stands installed for communities mobilized by NGOs monthly tariff paid by users, registered in individual name, tariff at par with domestic connections
•
Individual taps used as “public taps”- tariff (at par with domestic connections) paid by individuals (philanthropic/social)
The last survey of the public stand posts carried out in 2005 identified 990 public tap stands within the five municipalities of Kathmandu Valley supplied by the piped water supply network of KUKL (then NWSC) (see Table 2). Out of which, only 62% were found to be in working condition. The original target was to rehabilitate 300 tap stands and to construct 50 new tap stands. However, due to the delay in the institutional reform process including the establishment of KUKL, the target was revised to rehabilitate 75 tap stands and construct 25 new tap stands. Some low income communities residing in water scarce areas within the KUKL service area could not be connected through the community tap stands due to technical reasons. Hence, it was also decided that some storage tanks will be installed in such needy communities which would be supplied with tanker water at a cost covering at least the operation costs of the tanker services. The management and distribution of water supplied would be the responsibility of the communities themselves. The 101 tap stands and storage tanks were used by 29 squatter communities, 49 slum areas, 18 poor renters and 3 religious locations. The total population and households (HHs) benefitted by the program is 15,300 and 2,523, respectively (not including the three tap stands installed for
111 religious purpose, including one in the cremation area). Average cost of the tap stand was about NRs 70,000 (US$ 1000), which included 53% for civil works and 47% for HDPE storage tanks. The average per capita cost comes out to be NRs 445 (US$ 6.5) and per HH cost is NRs. 2,725 (US$ 39). The rehabilitation and construction of 101 community tap stands and storage tanks were implemented over a period of eight months from November 2007 and June 2008. The construction works were carried out by local contractors except for two new community tapstands implemented directly by the community. Some of the key issues that needed to be considered during community tap stands implementation or scaling up are:
Close supervision of the contractors’ works was necessary for quality control.
The pilot program focused on the rehabilitation and construction of new tapstands at the users end and did not deal with service delivery and distribution network/system improvement. This led to some misunderstandings in the communities as service to the tapstands could not be improved by just rehabilitating the tapstand or installing storage tanks as the supply hours and pressure of supply was bad in most locations. The problemwas also exacerbated in the dry season period when the main implementation was carried out.
While the community involvement in the tapstand construction was desirable in terms of quality of work and ownership by the community,
only
two
tapstands
were
constructed
by
the
communities. Given the socio-economic characteristics of the urban poor, some communities who showed interest to undertake the works themselves however did not come forward to do so in the given time frame.
112
Some communities were unable to or reluctant to pay the 20% contribution for new tapstands
Communities residing in bad water supply service areas were more willing to participate and pay for the services than communities with better supply. Consistent policy and proper collection of dues based on actual use would help solve this problem.
Although the terms and conditions of the tapstand program including the need to pay the water dues were explained to the users and included in the tapstand MOU, some community members retracted their commitment including the payment of water dues later. Hence, a concerted effort to convince and motivate the consumers to stick to the agreed points needs to be made.
The location and the area required for the tapstands need to be confirmed with wider consultation with the user community as well as neighbors. As most low income communities live interspersed with other residents with private connections, there were several cases where the location came into dispute during implementation as some neighbors objected to the location as it blocked their property or due to conflict in ownership.
Monitoring and evaluation (M &E) of the completed tap stands need to be continuously done so that the lessons from the pilot program can be incorporated during scaling up.
Consistency of KUKL policy on water distribution should be maintained. The decision on the tariff to be charged for community tap stands need to be taken quickly so that the tap stands can be truly treated as community tap stands.
Adequate sensitization on pro-poor water services of the KUKL staff especially from the Branches is necessary.
113
Absence of elected representatives in the local bodies (wards) also hampered the involvement of local bodies in facilitating the selection and mobilization of communities. The ward offices could pay an important role in mobilizing the communities and in tap stand implementation.
Long-term Pro-poor Strategy The community tap stand program is an interim measure to address the immediate water needs of the low income consumers. The long term goal is to connect each household to a private connection. Hence, the following long-term pro-poor strategy is recommended:
The supply and distribution network constraints are not likely to allow individual tap connection to all low income consumers in the foreseeable future. KUKL should strive to provide water services to poor consumer groups through different modes. It should facilitate the recognition of such consumer groups or water user group (WUG) through their registration/affiliation in KVWSMB.
KUKL should help provide interim services to the poor to relieve the existing water stress in priority neighborhoods using rehabilitated and new community tapstands served by the piped water supply network of KUKL or tankers. A demand driven approach should be taken.
`
Community participation should be a key policy followed in all propoor water services. Community based institutional structure should be established in the management of water services to the poor.
A Community Participation Strategy (CPS) outlining the roles and responsibilities of all stakeholders in converting “public” tapstands to community tapstands should be adopted. Other modes of water services to the poor such as tanker services, bulk water supply to
114 communities, kiosks, informal small networks etc should be explored through
collaboration
with
NGOs/CBOs
and
beneficiary
communities.
The pro-poor water supply services should be operated on a “cost recovery” basis. KUKL should seek external funding to supplement the water dues collected from the consumers to ensure financial sustainability while serving the poor.
Policy consistency especially in public distribution of tanker supply and tariff is necessary. The tariff subsidy provided for the first block (10 m3) should be revisited. A lower first block for all types of consumers (private and community taps) may be more equitable
Most low income consumers reside in marginal government or public land far away from the distribution network. Any service improvement to such low income consumers is possible with distribution network improvement only. Hence, the proposed Low Income Priority Areas (LIPA) should be urgently prepared and distribution network improvement carried out accordingly.
LICSU should play a proactive role in providing pro-poor advisory services to the low income communities. It should handle consumer grievance
and
complaints
and
coordinate
with
appropriate
departments and branches of KUKL and other external agencies to resolve them within reasonable time period. As the role of LICSU is to liaison between the beneficiary community and KUKL Branches and not directly on service delivery, LICSU should assist in identifying the specific demand and requirements of poor consumers and ensuring pro-poor water services to the poor consumers
115 Policy and Procedure adopted in the Pilot Community Tapstand Program 1.
As a pilot program, ADB TA 4776 (NEP) will fund the rehabilitation of 75 community tap stands and the construction of 25 new community tap stands serving the low income communities within the piped network system in Kathmandu Valley.
2.
The TA will bear the full investment cost in the case of rehabilitation of existing tap stands. In the case of a new tapstand construction, 80% of the cost will be borne by the TA and 20% will be borne by the beneficiary community. Design, cost estimates and construction supervision will be done by LICSU/TA team. All procurement will be made as per the procurement guidelines of ADB.
3.
The rehabilitation or construction of new tapstands will be carried out only after a Community Tap Connection MOU/Agreement is signed between LICSU/KUKL and the operator of all Community Taps.
4.
LICSU will assist communities with the logistics of requesting new Community Taps and mobilizing Water User Groups to manage community taps.
5.
Each community tapstand will have the following facilities: (a).
Is supplied from its own 5 cubic meter tank, or a smaller size tank as appropriate, which is capable of being filled by tanker and from the piped distribution network;
(b)
Has a water meter installed;
(c)
Has a minimum 2 water saving taps installed;
(d).
has adequate drainage with no standing water and a secure platform for users;
116 6.
LICSU/KUKL will provide tanker water when piped water supply is not available. The three tankers to be purchased under the TA will be solely used to supply tanker water to the community tapstand. A 20 lpcd water demand will be adopted.
7.
The management responsibility for existing standposts will be transferred to Water User Groups (WUGs), municipalities or private water vendors as agreed with water users groups.
8.
The WUG or the operator selected by the community shall be responsible for the management of the tapstand, which will be based on the following: a.
The monthly water tariff (according to water meter) will be collected from the water users and duly paid to the operator (KUKL). The bulk volumetric tariff will not be more than 70% of the regular retail volumetric tariff.
b.
A full exemption and 50% exemption on the monthly tariff will be provided in FY 2007/08 and FY 2008/09, respectively.
c.
The operation and maintenance of the tap stand will be the responsibility of the WUG. A maintenance fund will be collected in advance. It will be the responsibility of the WUG to ensure that the water is distributed equitably among the water users. Proper hygienic conditions and water conservation measures shall be maintained.
d.
WUG shall ensure that the tap stand and its physical facilities are protected from theft and damage by anyone.
e.
No discrimination on the basis of economic condition, caste, creed, gender, religion or political affiliation shall be made for the use of the tap stand.
117 f.
Both house owners and tenants residing in the community willing to be members of the WUG shall be included and allowed to use the tap stand. This will be applicable to both residents residing before and after the implementation of the tap stand.
g.
One member of each household using the tap stand shall be a general member of the WUG. An elected executive committee shall be formed to undertake the functions of the WUG. The WUG will adopt a operating procedures in compliance with the responsibilities stipulated in the tap stand agreement.
h.
WUG will be registered in the Kathmandu Valley Water Supply Development Board (KVWSDB). The community tap stand agreement will be signed between LICSU and a duly registered WUG.
2.4
PRESENT STATUS OF URBAN POOR COMMUNITIES IN KATHMANDU VALLEY
Kathmandu Valley, the capital city of Nepal is consist of five major municipalities Kathmandu, Lalitpur, , Madhyapur and Kirtipur as well as 98 designated fringe rural areas. Many of fringe areas are grown into semi urban or densely populated urban centers. There are several figures available for the growth rate of Kathmandu valley but rate of about 4 percent per annum has been a fairly accepted figure in design of water supply service. Although the extent of poverty in the Kathmandu valley is not precisely known, indirect indicators are available to the effect. Nepal living standard survey (NLSS) report 1996 gives the average household size being 4.9, the average per capita income in Kathmandu valley was Nrs 24084 per annum in 1995/96. The NLSS 1996 places higher value on household consumption over household income or an indicator of general welfare, that comparative
118 distribution of population by per capita consumption quintile between Kathmandu and other urban centers. These are however nominal consumption figure per annum and above not been adjusted for higher living costs of market price of commodities in Kathmandu. A survey conducted in 2000 AD by a locally based NGO, Lumanti of 2700 household in Lalitpur Municipality showed that 15% of the sample household had an annual per capita income NRs. 9000.00 or less and further 6% had an annual per capita income of NRs. 9000 to 20000. A qualitative but more easily comprehensible extent of living standard in Kathmandu valley which is based on the public point of view. Respondent perception on the living condition in Kathmandu valley is shown in table 2.4. Table 2.4:
Respondents
perception
on
living
condition
in
Kathmandu Condition
Adequacy living condition (% respondent) Less than Adequate
Just Adequate
More than Adequate
Cumulative
Food Consumption
36.27
61.82
1.92
100.00
Housing characteristics
28.64
71.36
0.00
100.00
Clothing
11.00
88.69
0.23
100.00
Health Care
4.44
95.56
0.00
100.00
Schooling
14.63
70.48
0.00
100.00
Total income
35.70
62.71
1.59
100.00
(Source: Nepal living standard survey 1996) As part of this study, information on the demographics of the urban poor was collected from secondary sources; through in many cases it was difficult to disaggregate information on the poor from other population data.
119 The five municipality of Kathmandu valley has a combined population of 4 million people.
If household size taken as 5, then household become
220000. However, data from NWSC suggested that household size is 6.7 and that there are 164,000 households. It is estimated that well over third i.e. 440,000 people live in what could be classified as slum dwelling, and a further 18000 people are squatters. Using the government poverty indicator NRs. 9000 per person per year which is common for Nepalese condition. It is estimated that approximately 15% of the population can be classified as poor. However it is arguable that this income figure is too low for Kathmandu. With its higher cost of living, and produces a consequent under estimation of urban poor. The proportion of household which are poor was examined in the willingness to pay study for water service in Kathmandu valley conducted by PSPC. If the poverty household of NRs 9000 per capita per annum is accepted, then both the NLSS survey in some urban areas of Kathmandu valley estimated of about 10 percent to 13 percent population at or belong that level. It is further assumed that the NRs. 9000 level is under estimate for Kathmandu where living cost is higher than other urban areas, then a conservative estimate of the percentage if Kathmandu residents below the poverty income level in 12-15 percent. Majority of poor community live in either in slum, squatter settlement or rented accommodation. Slums are generally from low cast e.g. sweepers and butchers while squatterâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s settlement land to be more heterogeneous. Rental accommodation is occupied by a range of low income groups. Such as day labors, hawker, unskilled & semis killed labors. Large semi urban settlements are not common that in instead the poor live in small settlements mixed up with middle class communities. Since high and low income groups are interwoven in this situation water shortage affect both rich and poor alike. The difference is that who can afford to install shortage facilities and pumps that enable them to cope with an intermittent and unreliable public supply.
120 The urban poor settlement in Kathmandu valley is found in four distinct forms. They are squatter Settlement, slum community, poor household mixed u with middle class community and poor house hold located at fringe community. 2.4.1 Squatter Community Squatter are the easiest group to quantity amongst the poor or they tend to live in defined settlement on marginal government owned land generally riverbank the squatter population has grown & steadily over the last twenty year. Following figure in table 2.3 studied from city development strategy Kathmandu metropolitan council (2001) indicate clear upward trends of squatter population in Kathmandu valley. The existing 65 communities corresponds to a total squatter and slum population of approximately 3000 families , assuming overage 5 person in a family it become 15000 people. Most of the squatter communities are located in Kathmandu and Lalitpur municipality. A study by LUMANTI in 1996 found the oldest squatter settlement to be 45 year old, indicating that these settlements are not a new phenomenon. Average numbers of households was just 58 though one had 225 households. They also found that squatter had their original all over the country. It is estimated that 70% of urban poor come from rural areas for better life. This suggest a rural to urban migration that is a multi step process that is people they may initially live in another better form of rented accommodation in the valley before moving to a rent free squatter community. The Nepali word for squatter is â&#x20AC;&#x153;Sukumbasiâ&#x20AC;? meanly a person or family without land or regular income. In fact most squatter are having temporary nature of jobs such as small vendors, sweepers, semi skilled & unskilled labor or servants household weaving, breading pig chicken slaughter animal and bewaring home made alcohol. Survey conducted by LUMANTI in 1999 found that monthly household income were in the range of NRs 1000-3000, though some were as high as NRS 15000.00 There is thus
121 different economic situation within the settlement. Settlement composition is mostly heterogeneous with people from a Varity of castes and not only the lowest one. Public attitude towards the squatters are generally negative squatter may also been as opportunistic land grabbier who already have a home and are simply looking for more property. It may be true that not everyone live in a squatters settlement as a last resort. Nevertheless, many sites are so marginal that they have little investment potential. 2.4.2 Slum Community Different organizations have coined different definitions of slum for their working purposes. Among them, the definitions of slums provided by LUMANTI for Nepal and definition of slum by UN Habitat are worthy to share. According to Lumanti, slum communities are defined by poverty, low income, inadequate living conditions and sub-standard facilities. These communities are usually inhabited by socially disadvantaged people (people regarded as lower caste). Unlike squatter settlements, the residents of these slum areas generally own their land and houses, which are very small in size and have formal title papers (Lalpurja) to prove their ownership. These communities are also officially recognized by authorities. On the other hand, a slum area, where the residents do not have Lalpurjas is defined as a squatter settlement. Thus, all squatter settlements are slums but a slum may not be a squatter settlement. According to UN Habitat, a slum is an area that constitutes of inadequate access to safe water, inadequate access to sanitation and other infrastructure, poor structural quality of housing, overcrowding and insecure residential status. A slum is a cluster of houses - a slum is an area therefore, an individual house is not considered as a slum. Slum is defined as a cluster of houses with following criteria:
122 1.
Crowded - Population density of that area is very high, that is the population size is much higher in comparison to the land they occupy.
2.
Low income - Majority of residents in that area has very low income or they are economically deprived.
3.
Socially deprived - Majority of residents in that area is socially deprived such as lower cast people.
4.
Infrastructure â&#x20AC;&#x201C; The area do not have or very poor accessibility to basic public services such as road, water and sewerage.
Slum is permanently or traditionally settlement in the Kathmandu valley Generally these slum communities are traditional settlement inhabited by so called
low
cost
communities
who
are
socially
and
economically
disadvantages. They may have strong social ties but lack of common organization. These slum communities are more vulnerable toward being marginalized in a new process. There are also high numbers of rental population living in such community. As the rent is comparatively low, most of the renters are also from low income family, this also adds to the pressure on public utilities like water supply services & other. Most slum comprise pucca and semi pucca housing which was originally of good quality but has become dilapidated and over crowed. The residence usually having a Government land holding paper .However, division of facilities and distribution of the family assets are sometimes not registered to save the government fees. This result is single ownership but multiple housing such a situation is an obstacle to getting water connection or for building family bathroom due to lack of space. Unlike squatters, the majority of households have their own title deeds and the settlement as a whole also officially recognized by the local authorities. The NLSS data for Kathmandu reported 39% of households lived in building with non cement bonded walls and 45% had non cement floor. If these are
123 accepted as crude indicate of slum dwelling then a conservative estimate of the number of slum households be 80000, which is 40 percent of the total household in Kathmandu valley. 2.4.3 Poor household mixed up with middle class communities There are many poor household generally found in traditional settlement in the core area of urban community. Poor family or house hold is interwoven in to middle class household. It is very difficult to find out the exact numbers of household which is mixed with middle class communities. But it is believed that this type of poor household is constantly large. To serve these poor household is difficult task. A large numbers of such populations are believed to be composed of renters. Generally these poor family numbers are economically very weak. Average Annual of family income is NRs 300012000. Most of the family member of these poor household are involved in low skilled work or work as a helper in business center, however, and traditional less income business such poor family in Kathmandu valley in expected around 40000. Majority of these poor houses are mixed up with middle class family communities. It is estimated that 24% of urban families are renter, according to study conducted by LUMANTI in Kathmandu municipality ward no. 21 show that 50,000 population also in rent houses within 250000 populations. The NLSC found 29% of respondents to be renders, suggesting a total 64000 household are in rent. It is reasonably be assumed that may of these households are poor. Renter typically live in crowded condition and share the some water supply as house owner. As they are dispersed within the house owner population they tend not to be organized into self help organization and are part to locate them during study. Due to this vulnerable situation water services for poor household mixed of with middle class communities were not well.
124 2.4.4 Household Located in Fringe Areas in Kathmandu Valley This household are located at the outside of the Ring road. There are 98 designated fringe semi urban and rapidly developing rural areas, within Kathmandu valley. Many of the identified traditional settlement are in the process of fast development. Generally these fringe communities are developed in specified areas which are commonly surrounded by agriculture land. It is found that most of the fringe traditional community is composed of same cast, culture & traditional practice. Most of these community peoples are based on agriculture and marginal groups are involved in government & private sector service in urban area. Average annual income of each family is NRs 3000-20000. Environmental health & sanitation is not so satisfactory. Water service delivery generally though public tap stand from government or local Authority built water supply systems. 2.5
POLICIES AND PROGRAMS FOR WATER SERVICE DELIVERY IN URBAN POOR COMMUNITIES
Poverty alleviation is considered as a focus sector in national plan and policy. Government have realized poverty as the major part and consider as a special provision for delivering of basic human services to the poor to affordable & appropriate level. Water supply sector is higher propriety area of the national development. The Ninth five year plan, (1997-2001) National planning commission report 1996 has recognized poverty as the main National challenge and has defined poverty alleviation as its one and only goal. A number of strategies, policies and programmers have been defined to attain this broadest objective of poverty alleviation. Human resources development has been identified as are integral component of the poverty alleviation program and the plan has committed to spending a large portion of investments to programs related to education, health, drinking, water supply and local development, literacy and woman development etc.
125 In the assessment of the eight five year plan period has reality that private and non government investments are crucial to the development of the water supply sector. Private sector participation both in terms of management and operation is encouraged. The ninth five year plan has set a target of providing water supply facilities to 100 percent of the National population by the end of the plan period (2002 AD). The plan document has also committed to defining different service standard in the water supply and collected important of service standard within next twenty years. With the current figure 66 percent national coverage in water supply, National target of 100 percent coverage is ambitious target of the sector which could not achieved in targeted period. 2.5.1 National water supply sector policy Government of Nepal promulgated the National water supply sector policy in April 1998. The policy has inherited the spirit of the ninth five year plan and has extended it to twenty year vision. Three broad objectives outlined by the sector policy are to: ď&#x201A;ˇ
Ensure the provision of safe, convenient and adequate water supply to all the Nepalese population with Nepalese focus on financially disadvantaged group
ď&#x201A;ˇ
reduce the incidence of water related diseases and
ď&#x201A;ˇ
Lessen the suffering of woman and children, who are traditionally involved in collecting and carrying water.
2.5.2 Urban water Supply and Sanitation policy 2009 The Policy recognizes that the scope of urban water and sanitation services extends beyond fulfilling the basic human needs, which aims towards achieving improved quality of life through providing safe, reliable, adequate and enhanced services at affordable prices to the consumers. Compatible infrastructure, appropriate institutional setup, rationalized cost recovery,
126 favorable financing environment, enhanced people’s participation and their role in decision making and appropriate partnership with the private sector and recognized as core elements towards achieving this objectives in a sustainable manner. The policy also aims to adopt measures to safeguard the environment and emphasizes achieving a balance with other competing uses of water through adoption of demand and discharge management measures. The major policy principles in this regard are:
It is duly recognized that fresh and usable water is finite and precarious resource and it must be judiciously utilized for municipal consumption. Thus demand side management strategies will be duly considered and promoted while developing and expanding new water supply and sanitation systems. Adequate provisions will be adopted to protect the watershed for ensuring sustainable availability of water. Discharge into natural water bodies will be gradually regulated to protect the ambient water quality.
Effective and appropriate institutions will be prompted depending upon the characteristics, size and complexity of water supply and sanitation systems to develop implement, operate and manage water supply and sanitation systems is an efficiently consumer responsive manner within the limits of financial affordability. Central subsidies shall be generally discouraged at the operational level unless for needy targeted cases. The state shall continue to provide partial investment for development of water supply and sanitation systems for communal benefits.
Users involvement will be prompted through enhanced role in decision making at all levels to inculcate community ownership with aims to achieve a long term financial sustainability and consumer responsiveness in system development implementation operation and maintenance and effective service delivery.
127
Apart from delivering the services through conventional approaches due preferences will be given to promotion of alternative technical options like rainwater harvesting, water reuse and recycling etc. through the research development and up scaling of such alternative systems, which have a potential to be develop as complementary sources to meet the deficit in supply.
Poor and the marginalize sections of the communities within the project areas will be mainstreamed as valid customers for service delivery through defining pro-poor strategies for connection and sustained use of services.
Private
participation
will
be
encouraged
on
development,
implementation, operation and maintenance of water supply and sanitation service delivery systems by fully or partially outsourcing provision of bulk water, system maintenance, management and other components of service delivery, as feasible.
Bench marking and monitoring of urban water supply and sanitation systems against pre-defined indicators and service standards will be accord a high priority at the national level. The knowledge and information management for the sector will be enhanced through creation, updating of central database and sharing through publication and dissemination.
2.5.3 Water supply sector strategy for Kathmandu valley Government of Nepal adopted a water supply sector strategy specified to kathmandu valley in November 2000 the plane has defined specific strategies related to the five following attributes.
Sartorial Planning and infrastructure improvement .
Individual set up.
128
Legal frame work
Cost recovery and tariff structure. and
Provision of service for financial disadvantaged groups.
The strategy has identified private sector participation in management of kathmandu valley water supply services as a fundamental element of the reform process and it has realized the urban poor as a group deserving special attention of merit. The strategy has openly spelled out that pro poor performance indicator will be defined in the private operator’s contract and a free and autonomous regulatory body that in to be established, prior to the award of private operators contract will look after the concern of the poor consumers. 2.5.4 Public private partnership in water supply sector Government of Nepal is giving higher priority for water supply sector. Special attention is given to revisit the waster supply service utility organizational set up in Kathmandu valley to improve upon the situation related to water distribution. A private sector participation high level committee (PSPC) was constituted in 1997 for creating an environment to attract the private sector participation in management of NWSC services in Kathmandu valley. The contract is being developed by the PSPC as a management because contract for an initial period of 10 years. The PSPC operations are being supported by financial assistance of the World Bank. According to PSPC it is expected that the private operator will continue to manage the Kathmandu valley NWSC water services by September 2003. Legislative improvement like the regulatory body Act for the formation and functioning of the regulatory body, a drinking water supply Act for providing on Enabling environment to the private operator are under consideration of HMG.
129 The main objectives of management contract are:
To reduce unaccounted for water
To improve billing and collection of tariff
To reduce operating cost and
To improve standard of service delivery and quality.
The operator is to be paid for its services through a lease contract rate per cubic meter of water distribution which would cover all operating cost including direct cost of the management contract. The contract will include incentives for the operation with respect to reaching target performance indicator ratios. The operator is also to take part in investment works for rehabilitation as an implementing agency. Basic services for the poor and PPPs Market failures Millions of people still have no access to water despite the fact that many of those are willing and able to pay an adequate price for the services. In fact, many of the poor are already paying high prices for their water either in cash through the informal market or in kind through time wasted and foregone income opportunities. Very few private companies have identified this market as a growing business opportunity. Prahalad (2005) has argued that corporations need to change their strategies in order to service this large and expanding market and an increasing number of large companies are starting to do so, particularly in the consumer goods industry(Hammond et al 2007) Although there is effective demand for water services among the poor, there is no market on which formal companies can operate because many of the institutions needed for a well functioning market are missing or are not working properly. Companies may find more difficult to estimate
130 demand or access risk because information about customers and competitors at the lower end of the market is not available or not reliable. Property rights are not well defined so if the company has to install physical infrastructure its ownership would be uncertain. Finally, the enforcement mechanisms are not effective, so they would not be able to pursue customers who fail in their obligations. These problems raise transaction and enforcement costs and increase the risks forcing companies to charge more than what the customers are willing and able to pay. The result is a market failure in which institutional constrains prevent the formation of mutually beneficial transactions between private companies and the poor. One of the most important institutional barriers that prevent the development of a water market for the poor is the legal status of the customers. The fact that many poor people have no legal title over their houses and are often threatened with eviction increase the risks of investing in installing pipes and other fixed assets. In some cases the potential customers can have an illegal status in the place where they are living which prevents any company to enter into formal agreements with them. Illegal immigrants are the clearest example, but in some countries internal migrants also need official permits to live in cities. Some other times the barriers relate to cultural aspects or life styles, which may provoke mistrust between the community and the private company. More important can be the way the business practices of a formal company may clash with the habits and priorities of poor citizens. For example, many water utilities collect payments in large installments (to reduce collecting and processing costs), while people who rely on daily incomes would prefer smaller and more frequent payments. In the case of the Halgahakumbura water distribution system, the company ensured that the payment mechanism was adequate for the needs of its customers and this fact was critical in the acceptability of the scheme.
131 Informal Sector Solutions When the government and the formal companies cannot provide water despite effective demand, community organizations or informal entre previous many step in. Informal organization can operate in these environment because they have low entry, costs are close to the community and can rely on informal mechanisms of enforcement for their operations. Informal entrepreneurs are normally poor people from the same community that they serve. They operate on a small scale, with minimum investments in fixed capital, which minimizes the risks of operating in uncertain environments. Because they have close knowledge of their customers (and because they are not concerned with official regulations) they can tailor their services to the exact needs of the community, including aspects such as the working hours or payment methods. They operate entirely in an informal environment, where customers, providers, and the community follow informal mechanisms of accountability, so they are not affected by ineffectual formal enforcement mechanisms. In many slums and peri-urban areas across Asia informal entrepreneurs transport water in trucks and sell it to households without pipe connection. Creating Pro Poor PPPs : Policy Implications Several experiences exist of PPPs that have combined the capital, technology and managerial capacity of formal companies with the informal sectorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s ability to reach the poorest customers. The practices documented and mentioned in this paper fall under this category, and are referred to as pro poor PPPs. We can call them pro-poor because they target the poor, with specific mechanism to deliver water and other basic services to them and because poor people are included in the design and management of the operations. Another important feature is that they are partnership that go beyond an agreement between a private company and a government agency,
132 including as well NGOs community organisations and even informal entrepreneurs. 2.5.5 Issues & Initiation for urban poor Institutional reform of NWSC and private sector participation in water service delivery in Kathmandu valley raises several issues. Such as how equity of supply will be achieved, connection right for informal settlements, subsidy & cross subsidy for the urban poor, management of the interface between operator, social intermediates, small scale local service providers and regulation of non NWSC supply in Kathmandu Valley. As a result of changed new concept of management, it should be ensure that poor will not be marginalized. It is necessary to have a better understanding on the nature and magnitude of the urban poor related issues. Toward the above effect the UNDP World Bank and sanitation program for South Asia has supported a study that was undertaken in the year 2000 jointly by Water Aid, NEWAH and LUMAMTI, the study was undertaken in 14 communities of which 6 were squatter settlement, 4 were traditional slum and remaining were poor household mixed up with middle class water stressed communities. This study has made the following observation.
The water delivery problem of urban poor are, in physical terms, of solvable size.
The poor are valid customers who are able and willing to pay for the services
Consumption of NWSL water in low income communities is restricted made by supply factor than the cost.
The present draft request for proposal, inviting application from the short listed operator does not contain specific provision towards service the poor. These are more indirect connection to this effect through requirements,
133 specified as performance indications that should be achieved by the operator towards a more equitable supply and increased number of connecting. It has been realized that the further study should contain more specific provision towards ensuring the delivery of service to the poor. Incentive and penalty provision must be built in the contract to bind the operator to achieve the desired services. There are many projects and programmers which is initiated by different organization working in Kathmandu valley. All these development partner are concern to provide basic services in Kathmandu valley. Some organization are working with related to urban poor. Kathmandu Metropolitan city The Asian development bank (ADB) is supporting a program to develop the capacity of KMC to deliver services under the new decentralized regime. This includes adoptive of a new organizational structure. Overstaffed at the junior level with too few manager and ward office can play an important role at the interface between municipality and community people. Further reforms includes the introduction of a unified property Tax, or envisaged under the local self Government Act, from which half of the proceeds will be retained by the ward and use for new infrastructure, operating and maintenance costs. If the program succeeds, KMC could play a key role probably via the wards in needs assessment and facilitating the extension of water services to the urban poor communities. Cities Alliance This world bank and UNCHS (Habitat) funded initiative was recently launched in Kathmandu. It will facilitates the prepare of a city development strategy with special focus on upgrading of urban poor settlements.
134 Urban development through local effort (DDLE) This bilateral project supported by GIE has been running since 1988. Its objective is to increase the capacity of municipalities to initiate and manage urban development and its has provided support to town through out the country. UDLE program is focus in the establishment and strengthening of a community development sector which facilitates a range of services in partnership with local NGO's and community contracting for local infrastructure improvement specially for urban poor. Red Barna (Norway save the children fund) One of the first low income urban poor communities project in Kathmandu valley was an initiated by Red Barna from 1989 to 1998 in Dhalko â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Dhobicahur
neighborhoods. There are sweeper and laundry cast
community in Ward no. 17 of Kathmandu municipality program initiated with community development activeness and special focus in water & sanitation activities. Yala Urban Health Project Since 1991 YUSP has focused on improving the water quality of the dug well in Patan. It has worked with communities and wards rehabilitate 40 dug wells by a process of draining, removal of sediment, relining, covering, installing of modified rower hand pump and chlorination. Cost per well varies between NRs 25000 and NRs 80000 and communities must contribute 10% of the estimated total cost â&#x20AC;&#x201C; which is deposited in a maintenance bank account. They also contribute labor and some materials. Community volunteers are responsible for monitoring residual chlorine levels every few days, replenishing the pot chlorinators as required and maintaining the hand pump. These volunteers are trained for this role and also provided with continuing training opportunities and support.
135 Lumanti-Support Group for Shelter Being the vision, urban poor living in improved shelter and socio-economic condition, with increased self-dignity, Lumanti is a non-government organization dedicated to the alleviation of urban poverty in Nepal through the improvement of shelter condition. At Lumanti, Shelter means the whole living environment. Therefore, Lumanti’s activities include shelter upgrades, health, water and sanitation, micro-finance, education and children’s programmes, gender equality and advocacy. It’s members come from various backgrounds including planning, architecture, training, social work, sociology and geography. Lumanti means “memory” in the Newari language. The organization was established in 1993 in the memory of Ramesh Manandhar, who died in a plane crash in 1992. Ramesh was a driving force behind moves in the early 1990’s to raise awareness about urban poverty and shelter condition. Public Private Partnership for Urban Environment (PPPUE) In order to meet its development objective of increasing the access of the urban citizens to basic services, and therewith, to contribute to the creation of a healthy environment and the improvement of living conditions in the urban and peri-urban areas, PPPUE together with its partners works towards raising awareness of the potential of PPPs at both local and national levels and creating an enabling environment for PPPs in local urban service delivery with continued capacity building and policy/legislative interventions. Dhalko bottled water project is one of the well appreciated approach from it. 2.5.6 Willingness to pay study for water service delivery Water is a basic need for community development. In the context of developing country the public sector is unable to finance the provision of drinking water in urban areas because the price charge can not cover the
136 investment cost. In the city areas urban poor are the main victim of drinking water services. The willingness to pay refers to the perception of customers to the water services. It is also states that willingness to pay or the level of services that consumer's want and prepare to pay for it. As water is considered as public goods therefore it can not have a market price, economic assessment of true value of water is difficult. Factor Affecting willingness to pay are
The perceived convenience and amenity of the system, which are indicators of how convenient, it is to the consumers. The convenience is related to the level of service and availability of any alternative.
Average income levels of households affects the WTP of the house and in general higher the income the higher the WIP
Perceived Health benefits of service helps in improving the WIP.
WIP depends also a household sign and the larger the size the higher the WTP.
The versatility of services in translators in to tangible economic benefit helps in increasing the WTP.
Method for predicting WTP Water products have to make both sustainable and affordable, then improved planning method is required which include a procedure for eliciting information on the value placed on different level of service. Water price must be set so that at least operating and maintenance costs and preferably capital cost as well, can be recovered, If people are willing to pay the full costs of a particular service then it is clear that the service is valued and will probably be used and maintained. In such cases, it should be possible to generate the funds required to sustain in affordable means. It is
137 therefore essential to estimate willingness to pay for water, so that water project can be designed in a way which is likely to per most cost recovery and project replication. It is not possible to estimate consumers WTP by improvement from actual behavior. Rather, one many have to measure preference in hypothetical situation or in artificial created market. Two basic theoretical approaches are used for making reliable estimates of WTP. The indirect approach uses data on observed water use behavior, such as quantities used, travel time to collect point, and perception of water quality to assess the responses of consumers to different characteristic of an improved water system. The techniques demand, hedonic price analysis and the travel cost method. The direct approach is simply to ask an individual how much they are willing to pay for improved water service for example a public water stand post. This is called confident valuation method (CVM). CVM user survey to elicit information about individualâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s household preference for good or service. Respondent to the survey are asked how much they value a good or service. The technique is termed "contingent" because the situation in which the respondent is asked to obtain a monetary measure of the change in well being that an individual would obtain from the provision of a particular good or service. Contingent valuation study typically focuses on performances for public or private public goods. The interview for contingent valuation method study can be conducted by mail, telephone, in person or in some combination of these. Each type of interview is appropriate under certain condition. In developing countries in person interviews are typically the only option because a substantial portion of the population does not have a telephone and is not able to read a mail questionnaire. For this reason, in person interview were used in this study to assess urban poor community WIP for holder.
138 Analysis of willingness to pay respondents The information obtained from contingent valuation survey is typically analyzed in there increasingly sophisticated ways. First one can examine the frequency distribution of the responses to the valuation questions. Second can look at cross tabulation between WTP respondent and such variables as socio-economic characteristics of the respondent and attitude toward the environment. Third, one can use multivariate statistical techniques to estimate a valuation function that relates the respondent's answer to the socio-economic characteristics of the respondent and attitudes towards the environment. These analysis serve two broader purposes, first, they allow the researcher to assure whether respondents answers are consistent with both economic theory and common service. In order to increase confidence in the result, second, they establish statistical relationship or models used to aggregate sample responses to the overall population or to develop forecast of benefits under alternative scenario. Multivariate Analysis of the Determination of WTP Responses Multivariable analysis com provides more insight in the determinants of WTP than simple cross tabulation. The general approach is to estimates a valuation function that relates the hypothesized determinants to WTP responses. The division on what determinants of WTP should be included in the valuation function is typically based on the consumer demand theory, socio economic and demographic characteristic of household (SE) and price and availability of substitute goods and service (PS) are commonly used. The valuation function thus takes the form WTP = (SEi, PSI) Where i is an index of households in the sample Since the answers to open ended questions provide a continuous measure of willingness to pay for good or service, ordinary least â&#x20AC;&#x201C; square regression
139 models (OLS) can normally be used to explain the variation in the dependent variable WTP. OLS Technique has the advantages of being widely used, and the parameter estimates are easily to interpret. OLS requires that the determinants of the WTP respondents be exogenous in order for the parameter estimates to be unbiased and consistent. Willingness to pay study in Kathmandu Valley A comprehensive willingness to pay study was undertaken in 2001 by Clarissa Brocklehurst, Water and sanitation consultant in his study to design the institutional Interface for serving poor in Kathmandu valley. Main objective of his study was to determining how much the general people of Kathmandu are willing to pay for improved water service. This study was undertaken as part of the studies of poor as it was felt to be determining the willingness to pay of the urban poor. It is difficult task to collect sample of poor household only during the overall study of the Kathmandu Valley people. The study used a sampling method to randomly selected 1500 households. The study collected information on household characteristics, water sources use, environment priorities and support for private sector participation. The database then provides valuable information on a Varity of subject. According to his finding 34% of the sample is category as poor with reference to their living condition. The willingness to pay survey contained a contingent valuation section to elicit respondentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s maximum willingness to pay for improved water service. Contingent valuation is a method that has been specifically developed to elicit maximum WTP for a service by presenting consumers with a scenario in which they have the opportunity to obtain the described service. For this study, the existing water supply situation was first described, and then a plan was presented to each respondent under which a private sector operator would provide clean and safe water twenty four house a day with regular & fair billing based on metered use. Depending on the respondent's current housing situation and water supply situation, one of several CV scenario
was proposed; the
scenario differed in terms of the nature of the connection private or shared
140 the arrowed of water available i.e. 300, 200 liter per day, the amount of connection charge, and amount of the mostly tariff. The connection charge presented to respondents was NRs 5000 for a private connection and NRs 1000 for a shared connection. The monthly bills ranged from low NRs 100 to high NRs 1000 for shared connection, and a low of NRs 200 to high of NRs 2000 for private connections. It should be noted that the lower amounts are designed to be ones that practically any household will accept, and higher amount ones that practically any household will reject. Each household was presented with only one option and could chose to accept or reject. By varying the option across households, the analyst can built a statistical model of willingness to pay. WTP date from CV survey measure the amount of monthly income that the household could give up after the improved water supply and be just as well off as in situation without an improved in water supply. Thus, it is measure of the economic value the household place an improved water supply. The WTP study found significant demand for improved water service. Almost 70 percent of the household who are already connected to the network are willing to pay monthly tariff of NRs 600, Arrange household who are currently not connected to the network, almost 50 percent are willing to pay a monthly bill NRs. 500 for similar service. For the sample of household who connected to the network, the main WTP for improved services is NRs. 1030 per month. Among unconnected household, the mean WTP for and improved service from a private connection is NRs. 840 per month. The mean WTP for an improved water supply from shared connection is NRs 230 per month. For poor household currently connected to NWSC the mean WTP of the poor household is NRs. 800 per month. The mean monthly WTP of poor household currently not connected to NWSC is NRs 620 for private connection and NRs 240 for a shared connection. 2.6
GROWTH OF URBAN POOR IN KATHMANDU VALLEY
Growth of urban poor in Kathmandu valley is increasing day by day. It is mainly due to the unplanned settlement and the application of rules and
141 regulations ineffectively. Major reason of growth of urban poor populations is the declining economic condition of the middle class families in Kathmandu valley. Migration from the rural areas is another
main reason
of growth of urban poor community in the valley. Majority of urban poor are usually arriving from others parts of the country and who have settled in unclaimed public land. Most of these type of settlement found in low land or along the river banks which have grown very fast. There are very old poor slums community in the core area of the city. it is also found
some
squatters older than 50 years and some older than 25 years ,but majority of these squatters are settled within 10 years in unclaimed public land or the government lands. Growth of squatters first tends to settled in plastic paper and cardboards shacks which are slowly developed to semi pucca and pucca houses. The community generally governed by internal division of family marriages , adulthood etc. Growth of urban poor communities is presented in table 2.6.
142 Table 2.6 :
Growth of urban poor communities
Year
Nos. of Settlement
No. of Household
Population
1985
17
340
2,134
1988
24
348
3,665
1990
19
859
4,295
1992
33
1271
6,355
1996
47
1783
8,927
1998
49
2021
10,312
2000
61
2031
11,862
2002
65
2256
15792
2004
70
2450
17190
2006
127
4318
2598
2008
174
5669
40234
Source:
City development strategy, Kathmandu Metropolitan Council, 2008 Lumanti study
2.7
SELECTION CRITERIA FOR URBAN POOR
The research work is conducted in randomly selected 74 squatter community 96 slum community, 96 poor community mixed up with middle class family and 144 fringes poor community with different situation from 5 municipality and three districts of Kathmandu valley.
143 The methodology applied for the filed work are :
30 % of community household is considered for individual family data collection.
Randomly selected household is considered during study in urban poor community for individual interview.
Organize a meeting with community leader with the represent of NGO working in that community to inform about research work.
Walk around the community for an over view of the settlement characteristics, water services and problems related to water.
Location of urban poor community in identified and mark in Kathmandu valley map to identify the position of urban poor community within Kathmandu valley.
2.7.1 Identification of Urban Poor Poor is a multidimensional phenomenon. It is significantly more complex than what can be captured by traditional instrument of analysis. In the broaden approach poor is regarded as the absence of immaterial assets like education, health, security and voice. This approach arises challenging conceptual and practical issues. Where as it has traditionally been easy to deal with single dimension, income or consumption poverty. These conventional method or analyses are inadequate to deal to identify the urban poor. Main problem in urban poor sector is the complex physical, economic and social constraints. Alternative way of dealing with the multi dimensional poverty approach consists of defining a poverty line in each dimension. In other words the urban poor itself is now multi dimensional hoe ever two major aspects such as health related poverty and social related poverty, while addressing urban poor. In such context one would define a person as being poor who is below the poverty line in any one of the various dimensions. In the context of poverty, there is a first analyzed
144 along each dimension, immaterial assets, vulnerability, voiceless and so on. But single dimensional economic poverty analysis usually start with and often limited to very simple concept of measuring in the context of urban poor areas that is
Labor based family
Family headed by women
Illiterate and disable family members with less income
Family size more than six with dependent on single person income.
The ultimate analysis to define the poor is best on normative economic analyses. This study is Particularly relevant because of the rapid growth in the number and proportion in the city like Kathmandu valley. The current population of the valley is estimated to be about 4 million and population growth is around 4.7 % per annum. It is very difficult task to identify the real number of urban poor in any city area. It is estimated that one third of the people (i.e. 440000) living in slum dwelling and further 18000people are in squatter. According to NLSS study, as per the Neplese living condition the per person annual income of less than NRs 9000 has been considered being below poverty line. As per NLSS survey information it is estimated that 15% of the population can be classified as poor. In the case of Kathmandu valley where living condition is slightly defer with the general people in the country. With the higher cost of living and limited income the urban poor number can be more than the estimated number. Once NRS 9000 per capital per annum is accepted than a conservative estimate of the percentage of Kathmandu valley residents below the poverty income level in 12 % – 15 % .The population of house holds which are poor was examined during the study under taken by PSPC in the willingness to pay study .Using the multifaceted study of the poverty which includes income, type of housing materials, physical facilities community people.
and self description of the
145 2.7.2
Estimation of Urban Poor
There are different definition and figures regarding the urban poor estimation of the poor people vary by definition of poverty and by population survey households or individuals are counted. As the information chart below (Table 3.3) shows that ,the common method has been to define a minimum daily caloric requirement and then estimate the cash income required to meet the consumption. The income requirement of non food essentials is added to this sum. One feature of the national survey has been the use of common poverty income threshold for both urban and rural areas. Table 3.3 :
Poverty income Threshold for both Urban and Rural Areas
Survey details National Household Survey of Income & Consumption, NPC, 1977; 932 urban HH & 4969 rural.
Poverty definition
Estimates of poverty (proportion below the poverty level )
19.9% of urban HH Income <NRs 2 per capita per day (NRs 730 42.2% of rural HH p.c. per annum) for 40.3% of all HH subsistence of 2,256 calories per day
Multipurpose Household Budget Survey, NRB, 1984/85; 1,661 urban HH & 3,662 rural HH
Income < per capita basic needs income of NRs 2,168 for mountains & hills; NRs 1,719 for terai for subsistence of 2,250 calories per day
1998 reprocessing of 1984/85 survey data
51% of urban terai population Income <USD 150 per 32% of urban hills population capita per annum 42% of all urban population 74% of all rural population
146
Survey details
Poverty definition
Estimates of poverty (proportion below the poverty level ) 71% of total population
1989 reprocessing of 1984/85 survey data
5% of urban terai population % of population whose 52% of urban hills population expenditure on food is 70% or higher 51% of all urban population 68% of all rural population 66% of total population
Nepal Living Standards Survey, 1995-96 & 9th Five Year Plan
Per capita annual Income<NRs 4,404 required for 2124 calories per day
9.8% of urban population are ultra - poor 13.2% of urban population poor 23.0% total urban population in poverty 44.0% rural population below poverty line 42.0% national average
FOND / Lumanti survey of 2,418 households in Lalitpur, 1999 Study During Thesis
Annual per income <NRs (USD 130)
capita 12.6% of Lalitpur HH 9,000
Average monthly income Nrs6000 20 % of Household Surveyed
(source: NLSS report 1995/96 provide an analysis by income quantity. The table further highlights the different economic condition within Kathmandu valley and other urban areas of the country)
147 If the poverty threshold of NRs 9000 per capita per annum is accepted, then both the NLSS and Lalitpur survey produce an estimate of around 10% to 30% of the Kathmandu valley population or at below the level. If it is further assumed that the NRs 9000 level is under estimated for Kathmandu where rents and other cost are higher than urban areas, then a conservative estimate of the percentage of Kathmandu residence below the poverty income level is 12% to 15%. Moat Kathmandu poor people live in either in slum (established legal settlement), squatter settlement, or rent accommodation ( often single rooms let by owner-occupiers). Of these, those living in slum are generally low cast, e.g. sweeper and butcher, while squatter settlement tend to be more heterogeneous. Rental accommodation is occupied by a range of lowincome groups, such as day laborers, hawkers and semi skilled factory workers. Large semi-urban settlement are not common; instead the poor live in small settlement sprinkled among higher income housing. As a result they are not highly visible, and low income renters are especially hard to locate, marking it difficult to quantify the number of poor families. Since high and low income groups are interwoven, and the city is small, water storages affect both rich and poor alike. The difference in that those who con afford to install storage facilities and pumps that enable them to cope with an intermittent and unreliable public supply, or buy water from commercial source. Socioeconomic condition of urban poor in Kathmandu valley is not satisfactory. The study found that the majority of the slum and squatter communities are having 3000 to 6000 per month(96%). It is also found that family income less than 3000 are also in considerable numbers. Basic requirement of the urban poor can not fulfill with there daily income. According to study majority of poor people are not able to pay high tariff of water services with there limited income.
148 2.7.3 Selection criteria for urban poor There are 174 poor communities within the Kathmandu Valley, which includes slums & squatter, renters and poor household mixed with middle class families and urban for poor communities in fringe areas. Only 52 different forms of urban poor communities has been selected and following criteria has also been developed to select the urban poor families for the purpose of the study. Randomly selected 96 slum families from Kathmandu valley.
Randomly selected 74 squatter families from various location and
Different situation
Ninety eight poor families located at mixed with middle class families.
One hundred forty four household located in fringe areas
OO]FilJ.TW ]Fil)UYTSEtt[ ooJrll r Joldeqc
149
CHAPTER - THREE
RESEARCH METHOD This Chapter discusses the research methodology applied for the study. Basically it discusses the rational for the selection of study area, research design, nature and source of data, pattern and sampling, Data collection technique, reliability and validity of data, data analysis and limitation of the study. 3.1.
RATIONAL OF SELECTION OF THE STUDY AREA
Urban poor are found in almost all developing cities of the country. The poor settlement exists in four distinct forms namely squatters, slum, mixed up with middle class family and designated fringe areas. There are numbers of urban poor communities in Kathmandu Valley among them 174 urban poor communities are well settled in Kathmandu Valley. The urban poor are the group that suffers most from the deficiencies in basic need such as health services, food, water and sanitation etc. These Communities are the source of communicable diseases and social disorders. On other hand, they are the sources of labor in different development activities in city. Urban poor becomes the serious problem in Kathmandu valley. Very little work has been done in urban poor sector. With the help of limited study and available information this research work explore the socio-economic status, the life style and water service delivery and problem faced by the urban poor. 3.2.
RESEARCH DESIGN
This research adopted the exploratory and descriptive research design. It has explored and described the socio economic condition of urban poor. It
150 has also analyzed the management practices for drinking water service delivery for urban poor. It also describe the existing water service mainly focus on quality, quantity hardship and reliability and management system in urban poor community. 3.3.
NATURE AND SOURCE OF DATA
The researcher used both primary and secondary data as well according to the needs of the study. 3.3.1 Secondary Data: The secondary data were those, which have already been passed through the statistical process (Kothari 1998) Library method of data collection technique was implied and books, reports, journals papers presented in different seminar and workshop etc were reviewed extensively. 3.3.2 Primary Data: The primary data are those collected for the first time and these happen to be original in characters. The sources of primary data were inhabited of urban poor communities, located at the different places within Kathmandu Valley. To collect the primary data open ended questionnaire and observation were used. For the case study of water service delivery and management in urban poor communities' descriptive interview were refered. 3.4.
UNIVERSE AND SAMPLE
There are very limited studies in urban poor sector. According to previous study (Clarissa Broklehurt, 2002) study to design institutional interface for serving the poor in Kathmandu Valley the member of urban poor communities is about 174. The researcher may select the whole
151 Kathmandu Valley as a research area because of challenges and fast growing tendency of urban poor communities within Kathmandu Valley. The information was collected from 520 responders from 52 urban poor communities. Within the identified urban poor community certain selection criteria were considered to represent all forms of urban poor community within Kathmandu Valley. Among 520 respondents only 411 were valid and expressed in the report. The families include 96 randomly selected slum families, 74 squatter families, 96 mix up urban poor with middle class families and 144 designated fringe areas families. 3.5.
DATA COLLECTION TECHNIQUE
Method of the data collections are the most important for the study. It plays vital role in the whole research activities. So following method of the data collection technique is carried out for the study. -
Primary Data
-
Secondary Data Collection
-
Key informal
-
Observation
-
Case Study
3.5.1 Primary Data Collection: It is highly essential to identify the urban poor communities within Kathmandu Valley. Due to limited resources and time researcher select some urban poor communities, which can represent all urban poor within valley. It was not possible to take interview of all families within the selected communities so randomly selected communities had been interviewed. All total 520 urban poor households selected in different location were consider for the study purpose.
152
3.5.2. Secondary Data Compilation Limited study has conducted in urban poor sector. In the case of Kathmandu Valley some studies have been done with the support of development parties in these sectors.
Few INGO & NGO have been
working in urban poor water and sanitation sector. Few case studies of water supply and sanitation service in Kathmandu Valley, urban water supply reform study provided some secondary data for research work. 3.5.3 Interview with Key Informants Key informant interviews were conducted during the field work to identify the water service delivery and management in urban poor communities. Responsible personals of the water authority, municipality, VCD and community leaders, NGO's and INGO working in urban poor communities were also interviewed during field study for reliable and depth information on the subject concerned. 3.5.4 Observation Observation is probably one of the most effective techniques of data collection. Observation as a systematic and deliberate study through the eye of spontaneous occurrence at the time they occur (young 1998). The author argued that the purpose of observation is to perceive the nature and extent of significant interrelated elements within complex social phenomena particularly on human conduct. In this research, the researcher visited selected urban poor communities in different situation. An open-ended questionnaire is applied for the interview purpose as well as actual situation of the urban poor is closely observed. 3.5.5 Case Study The successful cases regarding water service delivery management from different places were studied. The cases studies were as follows:
153 Community management of ground water treatment and distribution in jar for drinking and cooking purpose in Chasal, Lalitpur and drinking water distribution through bulk pipe and developed shared connection for the community in Machhya Village, Kathmandu and tanker supply in collection tank and distribution in Lagan, Kathmandu. 3.6.
RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY OF THE DATA
Presented data was derived from survey using in depth interviews using pre tested semi-structured questionnaire and observations amongst the urban poor of identified four forms. In addition, researcher himself was involved in the questionnaire interview and other forms of information collection. 3.7.
DATA ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION
Data analysis is the most critical part of any research work. Both descriptive and statistical method of data analysis was used. Collected data were inserted in the SPPS program in computer for analysis purpose. Because of the qualitative nature of the study information on the physical facilities, nature of community, mechanism of the activities selected with water service delivery and management practices, and economic capability to pay for service are analyzed in detail. Similarly, data on the socioeconomic condition, water service delivery, existing facilities, and quality of water used, quantity of water used, hardship and reliability and management system were analyzed in detail and result were presented in tables, graphs and descriptive forms. 3.8.
LIMITATION OF THE STUDY
This present study is an academic research to be conducted as a practical fulfillment of the PhD. degree in management. Therefore, the study has few limitations. First limitation of the study is that the study was not conducted for entire country; the study was limited to the Kathmandu Valley. However, the
154 results can be generalized and extrapolated for entire Nepal due to similar urban conditions prevailing in the country. The study was conducted with the researcher’s own expenses and other resources within the limited timeframe. Therefore, the sample pool was limited to 30% of the universe to meet the minimum requirement.
The
research was focused on water issue of the urban poor; water service delivery and management and other issues were not taken in to account. Therefore, further research or study might be required for the holistic management of the urban poor. Furthermore, the result of the study can be generalized to the Kathmandu Valley and Nepal, and only to similar urban poor communities in South Asia to ensure the constant effect and authenticities of the data collected and the validity of the conclusion can be reached.
Chapter r Four
PRESENTATNON OF RESEARCH WORKS
155
CHAPTER - FOUR
PRESENTATION OF RESEARCH WORK
4.1
MANAGEMENT PRACTICE OF WATER SERVICE DELIVERY IN URBAN
POOR
COMMUNITIES
AND
ITS
IMPACT
IN
KATHMANDU VALLEY 4.1.1 Socio-economic condition of urban poor of Kathmandu Valley The study has been focused on the socio-economic condition of the urban poor in Kathmandu Valley. During the study it has been found that urban poor communities were indulged in different occupation. To identify the economic condition of the community people, condition of household, physical facilities in side house and average monthly income were intensively investigated. However, it was assumed that average monthly income is the major factor, which has helped to identify the economic situation of the urban poor people. From the analysis of collected data different family size and their respective income range is shown in Figure 4.1.1 Socioeconomic condition of urban poor in Kathmandu Valley is not satisfactory. Thirty nine percent of the urban poor families are having NRs.3000 to NRs.6000 per month. Seven percent of the studied families were found having income less than Nrs. 3000. It was also found that very few families are having monthly income above NRs.12000 (17 percent). Basic requirement of the urban poor cannot be fulfilled by their present daily income. According to study majority of poor people are not able to fulfill their basic need and it is very difficult for them to pay high tariff for water services with their limited income sources.
156
Average monthly family income 50
40 39
37
30
20
P e r c e n t
17 10 7 0 Below 3000
3000-6000
6000-12000
A bove 12000
Average monthly family income
Figure 4.1.1 Household Vs Income distributions
4.1.2 Water service delivery in urban poor settlements The existing water supply situation is not satisfactory. Population congestion, unsanitary living conditions are the major problem faced by the urban poor communities. The over croweded living condition in these poor settlements and failure of local government (municipalities) to provide basic services like drinking water, sanitation, education and health services are the two main causes of environmental degradation in these poor habitats. Major problems for urban poor in Kathmandu Valley with related to water services and tariff system can be summarized as below: ď&#x201A;ˇ
Poor are suffering with inadequate supply of domestic water. This is mainly due to inadequate supply of water and insufficient distribution network in urban poor settlements.
ď&#x201A;ˇ
Beside the piped water supply alternative arrangement like tanker supply is being provided by KUKL in some communities but these are inefficient and ineffective.
157
Major problem to connect the private connection for the poor is the connection charge which is very high (NRs 12000 – NRs 25000). Poor urban people are not able to pay that big amount of money at once.
The public taps are servicing satisfactorily, but due to nonpayment of these public connection from the local authorities leading to cancellation of public tap stands by KUKL.
Squatters have difficulty in getting connection as they don’t have a legal land holding paper (Lalpurja); without which KUKL is not ready to give connections for the poor.
The water delivery pipeline pressure is significantly low; many households in Kathmandu usually install a 0.5 to 1 horsepower capacity pump to pump the water during the hours of supply from the distribution pipeline. But the poor communities cannot afford high cost for water pumping electric bills and the installation charges. Such a pump usually cost about NRs.1200 in the local market and there are other cost associated such as cost of pipes and fittings. In spite of water pumping from distribution pipelines using pumps being illegal, the practice is usual. KUKL frequently publishes notices in local newspapers warning the clients that the activity is an offence and the offenders will be liable to pay fine and will be disconnected upon discovery. Initial deal of KUKL to penalize such offences has largely been ineffective in the present days. The urban poor households on the other hand have neither resources to install these pumping facilities nor able to pay for the electricity charges. They have to depend upon public taps and locally available resources. Such practices results in extremely unfair competition over limited resources between the rich and the poor communities. The rich have the resource and thereby the comfort or the commodity, the poor don’t have any.
158 During the field study, it is found that majority of the urban poor are dependent on secondary sources of water such as water spouts, shallow level ground water (roaring pumps), traditional wells and rivers. There are very few public tap stands found in urban poor community. These public taps are not properly functioning and not well managed. According to respondent of the urban poor, from figure 4.1.2 below shows that 30.4% of the urban poor families are dependent on public tap stand and 27.9% community peoples are still depends on ground water. During the present situation, the majority families (34.2%) are having private connection which is used as a shared connection within the poor community. Most of the slum areas are located at old community so they are collecting water from traditional water spouts ,it is found that 7.5% of the urban poor communities are highly depend and on these polluted water spouts. Generally, squatter communities are located at scattered newly established areas so water distribution main is far from the community. This is the reason that the connection charge becomes very high and difficult to arrange municipal water system for urban poor communities. Table 4.1.2 Household Response Vs. Existing water services
S. No.
Responses
No. of responses
Percentage of responses
1.
Regular house connection
178
34.2
2.
Regular public stand post
158
30.4
3.
Regular spouts
water
39
7.5
4.
Ground water, wells, rowing pump, tanker
145
27.9
Total
520
100
(411 valid cases)
traditional
159
4.1.3 Quality of water served: Most of the urban poor communities are not connected with municipal water; very few connections from KUKL supply is provided in limited slum and squatter communities. Water quality is not satisfactory in urban poor communities. Faecal coliform test was carried out in the water sample from several sources in individual houses which is presented in the form of pie chart below. These data shows that most of the water used by urban poor community is unsafe; shallow ground water which is highly used by the poor communities is completely unsafe. During the field study community people were asked regarding the water quality. Three water quality conditions were presented: acceptable, unacceptable and moderate. Majority of the respondents responded that water quality is acceptable. Study found that 47.32 percent of drinking water acceptable and about 12.44 percent of drinking water are unacceptable by the communities but still they are using it for drinking purpose.
Water quality of drinking water
moderate 40.24
acceptable 47.32
unaccptable 12.44
Figure 4.1.2 Water quality of drinking water
160 4.1.4 Quantity of water used Quantity of water used by each family is also an important parameters to exhibit the sanitation and health status of the community. During the field study it was found that very few households are using big storage tank. Household in slum and squatter settlements have limited storage capacity. In general poor community conduct their washing and bathing activities in public water spouts requiring less volume of water to be fetched to household. Figure 4.1.4 shows that 26 percent of poor families consume 50-100 liters per family per day and 30 percent of community peoples are having 100-200 liters per day per family. Only 14% poor community family use water more than 200-300 Liters per day. Higher numbers of poor community family consume 100-200 Liters per day and very few families consume more than 300 Liters per day, which is just 2 percent. So we can assume that 100-200 Liters per day per family may be the practical water demand in urban poor community. This shows that the majority of urban poor community people are using very less quantity of water in their daily life which may be the main reason of poor health status in urban poor communities.
Quantity of water collected per day 40
30
P e r c e n t
30
29 26 20
14 10
2
0 Less than 50 litre
100-200 litre
50-100 litre
More than 300 litre 200-300 litre
Quantity of water collected per day
Figure 4.1.3: Household Response vs. Quantity of water used per day
161 4.1.5 Service delivery and hardship 4.1.5.1 Service delivery Water supply service delivery should be easily accessible. In Kathmandu Valley water supply system is irregular; generally water is supplied in alternative days and only for two to three hours. There is no fixed supply hours. During the study respondent says that KUKL water supply system is reliable, whereas rest of the other water sources are unreliable. Figure 3.5 indicates that 25% family out of 411 that families’ water supply are reliable. 30% families’ respond that service delivery is unreliable and 45% families’ respond for moderate type of delivery system. These three types of service delivery system simply describe as a reliable as a good service and unreliable as a bad service delivery and moderate in between.
Service delivery of drinking water 50
45 40
30
30 25
20
P e r c e n t
10
0 Reliable
Unreliable
Moderate
Service delivery of drinking water
Figure 4.1.4.1 Household Response Vs. Service delivery 4.1.5.2 Hardship In the case of urban poor community most of the people are not dependent on KUKL supply due to unreliable and untimely supply of water. Sometimes in some location the water is supplied at midnight for few hours; It is very
162 difficult to collect water at mid night from far distance especially for women, spending an average 50 minutes time to collect water in urban poor community. Collection time and distance is higher in squatter area comparing with slum area .From figure 4.1.5.2, 30% of the urban poor are collecting water form 100 meter distance and 10% poor families are collecting water from 200 meter distance and very less number of urban poor are still collecting water from more than 300 meter distance. In some communities it is also found that people are collecting water from more than one kilometer. Due to the collection time schedule, and distance urban poor people are using very less quantity of water. It may be the reason for growth of communicable disease especially in urban poor communities.
Distance travel to collect the water from public post 60 50
54
40 30
P e r c e n t
30 20 10 10 0 Less than 100 meter 100 meter
200 meter
More than 300 meter 300 meter
Distance travel to collect water from public post
Figure 4.1.4.2: Household Response Vs. Collection distance
4.1.6
Tariff Practice
4.1.6.1 Existing water tariff Billing and tariff system of KUKL is not so practicable and effective. In the case of urban poor community the government have attempted to provide a
163 water consumption subsidy in tariff .The tariff used at the most metered domestic connections is a “Block Tariff “, with the first block of 10 meter cube set at the fixed rate i.e. NRs 50 (2002) .Well below the cost of supply and higher block with a per m3 volumetric charge designed to cross subsidized users in the first block. However at the moment the cross subsidy does not operate as even the users in the higher block are not paying below the cost of supply. A new tariff was introduced in early 2002 which has the same basic structure but slightly higher rate that is Rs 50 for the first 10 meter cube block and rest 11. 9 per meter cube.
Average monthly pay for water 60
53
50
Percent
40
30 29 20
10
11 7
0 Up to 50
50-100
100-300
Above 300
average monthly pay for water
Figure 4.1.5 Average monthly pay for water
4.1.6.2 Subsidy in water service There are substantial numbers of people who don’t have subsidy in the first block at all. It is estimated that 29% of the population of Kathmandu valley is not connected to the network. The majority of these i.e. 63% can be categorized as poor that is overall about 48% of the poor are not
164 connected. The 77% of the KUKL connected household are non poor. In the condition of the urban poor majority of the poor people use water less than first block, where price of the block is fixed in this condition poor are considered as general people. In this condition per cubic meter payment is much higher. Another problem is that the size of the first block is such that many middle class families do not consume above it ,in which case they receives nothing but heavily subsidized water and never pay in upper block. Major issue is that families that share connections pay for more of their water in second block. They receive the fewer subsidies than the families with private connection. The second block was in fact above the cost of supply, as is intended; these families would actually be subsidizing their richer neighbors who used less than first block. It can thus be concluded that the non poor get subsidy where as poor do not receives subsidy, who are actually entitle to receive. A preliminary analysis of the Kathmandu valley according to WTP data shows that 22% of the subsidy financed by the government is delivered to the poor and 78% goes to the non poor. In the urban poor communities people are ready to pay the standard tariff fixed by government but they are demanding subsidy in their domestic connection charge which is very high and almost impossible to pay by urban poor communities. 4.1.7 Willingness to pay for water Willingness to pay for improved water service is asked for the respondent of the urban poor community. There are quite a few negative responses to the question of willingness to pay. This willingness to pay is more in the case of house connection then public stand post. The different willingness to pay is not only due to the economic condition of the respondent but also it may be due to the attitude of the urban poor community toward paying for water. Though this may have also occurred due to the strategic bias in the contingent valuation method, it is generally found that the attitude toward
165 public goods or public service is considered as freely available goods. During field study different type of service and there corresponding willingness to pay ranges is represented to the respondent. From the analysis of the collected information it is found that 59 percent of the urban poor communities are willing to have private connection with subsidy and they are willing to pay NRs 200 per month. At present this household does not pay for water. The average willingness to pay bid is high in water scarce area and low in water available area. WTP also varies with economic the importance of safe water for healthy life. This is true irrespective of the prevailing economic condition and hence pricing of water on the basis of willingness to pay may be erroneous. A blanket pricing policies may be biased against urban poor with respect to their ability to pay. Given the present pattern of household expenditure on the health and the link between hygiene water and health condition, the evidence supports the ability of the urban poor household to pay for water. However, in order to achieve the objective equity, discriminatory pricing policies across income groups need to be adapted.
Willingness to pay for different water service delivery 70 60 59 50 40
P e r c e n t
30 20 15
10
11
9
0 Private connection w
6 Public stand post ch
Bulk distribution f o
Ground w ater extract
Tanker supply in com
Willingness to pay for different water service delivery
Figure 4.1.7 Willingness to pay for different water service delivery
166 Analysis results in figure 4.1.7 shows that 59% urban poor people are willing to have a private connection, because urban poor cannot pay higher connection charge and high charge of monthly tariff. Only 15% people want to have public tap stand in their community. It may be the reason of present situation of the public tap stand which is mostly misused or unmanaged, so urban people are not in the support of public tap stand. In some community people are willing to have super shared connection. 10 % urban poor situated at fringe areas are generally favored of bulk distribution and developed their own shared connection. In general only 9% of the urban poor are in the favor of bulk distribution with shared water system this number can increase once these are consider only fringe areas of the valley. Urban poor community where distribution main of water service is very far in this situation people prefers tanker supply in community and then developed shared system or install community tap. Only 11% people are in the favor of this type of model. Last option where distribution main of water system cannot supply properly and existing ground water wells are available in this situation ground water extraction/treatment and distribution in 19 liters plastic jar model is suitable only 6% of the respondents are in the favor of this model. But generally slum community and urban poor mixed up in middle class families are willing to have this type of water system in their community. 4.2
DIFFERENT MODELS FOR THE MANAGEMENT OF WATER SERVICE DELIVERY IN URBAN POOR COMMUNITIES IN KATHMANDU VALLEY
KUKL supply is unable to meet the urban people need in Kathmandu valley. It is mainly due to the very old distribution system with high degree of leakage and water organizational management. KUKL has very little time to think about the concern of the poor in such a scenario. According to KUKL authority they are managing public tap stand, life line block tariff system and free distribution tanks service especially for the urban poor. Each ward has number of public taps stands which supply water free to users with the municipality is responsible to pay the bills. Public tap stand are in fix
167 numbers KUKL is not willing to increase the public tap stand due to regulations in payment or public stand post through local Authorities. There are three practically used models for service delivery to the urban poor, they are, and public tap stand, shared metered connection and tanker service. All these three models are not sufficient and practicable to serve urban poor so it is envisioned five types of models for service delivery to urban poor for research work they are private connection with subsidy, public taps change into community tap, Bulk connection for community, and develop shared connection system, tanker supply in community reservoir tank and develop shared connection system and ground water extraction, treatment and distribution in jars. 4.2.1 Private connection with subsidy KUKL policy revealed that officially squatter are not entitled to water connection through in practice KUKL does install facilities in some cases, if the application is supported by an local authority & NGO's working in the communities. Most poor communities have developed a good relationship with their ward committee
Private connection with subsidy 500 8.6%
300 15.6%
200 75.8%
Figure 4.2.1 Private connection with subsidy
168 NGO's and CBOâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s though it has taken time to develop. In the case of squatter settlement many of which were threatened with eviction in the past. Though this relationship residents may receive support with application for KUKL supplies or direct assistance with materials for new water points. Access to service for the urban poor is not planned and materialized due to the great involvement of societies in development activities. The cost of a KUKL household connection in urban poor communities is very high. Where territory networks are missing and households must lay significant length of half inch galvanized iron pipe to connect to secondary means. In some communities which had NWSC connection it was found that these had been paid for urban poor though ward and NGO's working for the low income group. Private connection can be developed in such urban poor community where they have strong user committee and good network within the community. Private connection provision can be developed with the cooperation of ward office NGO and CBO. In such communities KUKL need to develop special subsidy policy in connection charge which needs to develop. Private connection may be the first choice of the people but there is a big challenge to maintain it in urban poor communities. Most of the community people prefer to pay NRs. 200 for the connection which is 75.8 percent and the rest of the percents are constituted by others given as follows. 4.2.2 Public taps change into community taps The Public tap stand is established to serve the urban poor. Consumers of this type of tap stand not need to pay. Government is paying to KUKL through local authority at a flat charge of NRs 809 per month for each public tap stand. The extent of population served by this connection is not known, but the second water utilities data book of ADB provides an estimate of 42 people per tap. This gives the total population served about 50,000.
169 Although this season to be a reasonable figure it is difficult to say how many of these taps are in function and what population is really served from public tap stand. Free tap stand posts neither provide any incentive for prudent use of the limited water nor are there any measures designed to implicate disincentives for the wasteful use. Sincerely saying this wastage is adversely affecting the equitable distribution of water. In Kathmandu there are around 1500 public tap stands serving urban poor communities. All these public tap following broad categories such as about 1200 NWSC installed tap stands monthly fixed tariff NRS 990 per month this is generally paid by government . Generally public tap stand installed on the recommendation of ward office and also paid by municipality. In another form of public tap stand installed for the communities in the support of NGO in this case public tap registered in individual basis and tariff collect as domestic private corridor. Recent survey undertaken by the KUKL shows that only 62% of the total public taps stands are in working condition. It is also found that the condition of the public tap stands are also non responsive. This is basically due to lack of ownership of these public tap stands. So, it is highly essential to convert public tap stand into community tap with bulk meters. This may be the one of the suitable option to serve urban poor. Figure 4.2.2 explores the fact that highest percentage (45.9 percent) choice are constitutes for NRs. 25. But NRs. 50 has the similar percentage which is given below.
170 Public stand post change in to community tap 25 45.90 / 45.9%
100 9.84 / 9.8%
50 44.26 / 44.3%
Figure 4.2.2 Public stand post change in to community tap
4.2.3 Bulk connection for community and develop shared connection system Bulk connection for the community reservoir and then develop shared connection is suitable option for the urban poor community in fringe areas around Kathmandu valley. Since water resources in these areas are very limited and ground water extraction is also very costly means so it is very suitable to give them bulk connection and develop their own shared internal system within poor community. There is also a provision of bulk connection in such communities in Melamchi water supply project in Kathmandu valley. Some communities have initiated to develop bulk connection and develop shared system within the communities. So, this type of model is recommended for the fringe areas around Kathmandu and some small slum communities in city core areas. Figure below explores that population of willingness to pay for NRs. 100 is 61 percent which is highest, NRs. 150 is 6 percent and NRs. 200 is 31 percent which is lowest.
171
Bulk distribution for community and develop shared connection 70 60
61
Percent
50 40 30
31
20 10 8 0 200
150
100
Amount in Rs.
Figure 4.2.3 Bulk distribution for community and develop shared connection
4.2.4 Tanker supply in community reservoir tank and develop shared connection system Water distribution system cannot be developed in all corners of the small communities. In Kathmandu, urban poor communities are scattered all around the valley. Some communities are also settled in such areas where distribution main is very far and ground water table is also very deep. In such communities there is no other means of water supply so this type of model is immersed for such a different urban poor community. In this model community will develop shared connection with reservoir or water authority will feed water by tanks to such reservoir in intermittent basis. Generally less than fifty families communities are suitable for this type of model. To make this type of model sustainable, it is highly essential to develop strong water users committee in urban poor areas. This alternative model is being paid by community highest for NRs. 75 which is 43.5 percent.
172
Tanker supply in community reservoir and supply as community tap 25 28.3% 75 43.5%
50 28.3%
Figure 4.2.4 Tanker supply in community reservoir and supply as community tap
4.2.5 Ground water extraction, treatment and distribution in jar There are different forms of urban poor communities within Kathmandu valley. In the city core areas so many slum communities and poor household mixed up with middle class families. In such communities private tap connection cannot supply water in their required way. Most of these slums and poor families mixed in middle and higher communities are highly suffered to have a basic requirement of water. Generally such communities are dependent on traditional water spouts, wells sallow tube wells but due to firstly developing trend of Kathmandu valley all these traditional sources become dry and low discharge during dry season. So, it is very essential to protect existing water spout wells and develop treatment and storage facilities and distribute in jars. This model can be success only where user committee are strong and dedicated for the safe water. This system will able to meet their basic requirement of water demand. The figure given below explains about the willingness to pay for the groundwater extraction,
173 treatment and distribution in 19 liters plastic jar which is maximum (46 percent) for NRs. 10 and minimum (25 percent) for NRs. 15.
Ground water extraction/Treatment and distribution in 19 litre plastic jar 50
46
Percent
40
30 29 25 20 25
15
10
Amount in Rs.
Figure 4.2.5 Ground water extraction/treatment and distribution in 19 litre plastic jar
Ghapter
r Five
R]ESINITS AND DNSCUSSNONS
174
CHAPTER - FIVE
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 5.1
WATER SERVICE DELIVERY FOR URBAN POOR COMMUNITIES IN KATHMANDU VALLEY
A case study on management of drinking water delivery system for urban poor in Kathmandu Valley was conducted with the exploration of water service delivery practice in urban poor communities. Water service situation of the slum, squatter, fringe poor community and urban poor families mixed up with middle class community was carried out during the field study. The field work was carried out in September 2009 and covered 52 communities from 3 districts and five municipalities of Kathmandu valley. All together 520 households participated during the field study. Along with community consultation and consultation with NGO representative working in urban poor communities, consultative meeting with local leaders to collect the data of water service delivery practice in urban poor communities. As part of the study, demographic data of the urban poor was collected from the secondary sources. Though in many cases, it was difficult to disaggregate information on the urban poor from the available population data and meeting with concern authority. The municipalities of Kathmandu Valley have a combined population of 24.7 Million people. It is estimated that well over one third of the population can be classified as slum and squatter according to the government poverty indicator; Rs. 9000 per person per year all over the country. Approximately 15 % of the population can be classified as poor. However, it is agreed that the income figure is too low for urban poor of Kathmandu Valley as compared to the high cost of living. Poor is categorized as household headed by women, household depended on daily wages and household headed women with disabled member are considered as marginalized urban poor in the context of Nepal.
175 Though water service delivery is not satisfactory in urban poor communities, people are aware of water quality and its impact on health. Analysis shows that KUKL supply in some urban poor communities are satisfactory but these types of facilities are available in limited communities. Analysis shows that 45% respondents from those communities having KUKL supply accepted that present service delivery is moderate and satisfactory. Since KUKL supply system is intermittent, people are able to get water every alternative day. Most people need to manage extra storage facilities to meet their requirement. But in the case of urban poor most of them are not able to manage extra storage facilities. From the analysis results 30% of the urban poor people are consuming less than 200 Liter per family per day, which is nearly 30 liter per capita per day. In the urban poor communities very limited people are having KUKL connection. It is found that only 14% of the urban poor families are having private connection and 37% people are collecting water from public tap stand. Rest 18% people are depending on traditional water spouts or on ground water. It shows that service delivery is a challenging task in scattered urban poor communities where majority of the people depend on public tap stands and alternative water resources in the nearby the community. Water service delivery is inadequate and distribution system is inefficient. With this situation urban poor are suffering the most. There are few alternative water sources around the poor communities but most of them are under-managed. Water distribution network is far from the poor communities so it makes high connection charge which is unaffordable to the urban poor. Improper access to water service delivery, rich household practice direct pumping from means has to be seriously controlled so that everyone will be able to fetch water equally during distribution hours. One of the effective provisions is the community taps. It is essential to lower tariff for community taps. Squatter are not able to have KUKL connection due to lack of legal landholding paper. So, special consideration should be made
176 for those squatter communities to have a basic water service delivery. Awareness program should be launched for both poor and rich communities for the proper use of water at household levels. Four level of water service system are generally practiced, those are private connection, shared connection and public stand post and tanker supply. It is envisioned that a different situation and condition of urban poor may need different type of water service system. Therefore, five different models with different tariff is presented to respondent which are i. Private connection with subsidy apply, proposed tariff Nrs. 500, 300, 200 ii. Bulk distribution for community and develop shared connection. Proposed tariff NRS 200,150,100 iii. Public stand first charge into community tap proposed tariff NRS 100,50,25 iv. Tanker supply in community reservoir and supply as community tap v. Ground water extraction /treatment and distribution in 19 litre jar proposed tariff NRS 25,15,10 With the analysis of the research data we may recommend private connection with subsidy in city core slum community and urban core community mixed up with middle class families can afford. Fringe areas of Kathmandu valley are proposed with bulk distribution for community and develop shared connection. In the case of squatter communities both shared connection and public tap stands changed into community tap stands is the possible model. The squatter settlement away from main distribution system and where water table is very low, tanker supply in reservoirs and supply in community tap will be the best option. In Kathmandu Valley city core areas are developed with slum and poor household mixed up with middle class families. These communities are basically depending on traditional water spout, well and shallow ground
177 water. Due to rapid urbanization all these water sources are in critical state, mainly most of the traditional water spouts discharge is decreasing and some are completely dry. Same situation are also faced by the shallow water sources and traditional well. In this vulnerable situation it is highly essential to protect all these water resources and develop modern water treatment and pumping facilities and develop filling system from stored water with the effective management of local users committee and need to be support by NGO and other water authorities. 5.2
TARIFF STRUCTURE FOR URBAN POOR OF KATHMANDU VALLEY
Water tariff for the domestic consumption is mostly metered connection with block tariff with the first block charging NRs. 50 per month for 10,000 liters and NRs. 6.65 per cubic meter for additional supplies. Currently Government of Nepal has attempted a water service delivery with subsidy for the poor in tariff. The tariff used at most meter domestic connection is a block tariff with the first block of 10,000 liters and higher block with per cubic meter volumetric charge designed to cross subsidize users in the first block. However at the moment the cross subsidy does not operates as even the users in the higher block are paying below the cost of supply. A new tariff was introduced in early 2009 which has the same basic structure but slightly higher rates that is NRs 50 for 10000 liter and NRs 16.10 per cubic meter for additional supply. There are substantial numbers of people who do not receive the intended subsidy in the first block. It is estimated that about 29% of the population of the Kathmandu Valley is not connected to KUKL network. The majority amongst the unconnected is in urban poor communities, especially slum urban poor mixed up with middle class. There are additional inequalities even if poor families are connected to the present water service delivery. For example, poor generally consume less than first block and the price of the block is fixed. They pay the same as the other rich family who use the entire block. This shows that poor are paying higher charge. In addition, the
178 size of the first block is such that many middle class families do not consume above it. In this case they receive nothing but heavily subsidized water and never pay in the upper block. Some examples, using the 2001 tariff structures and estimated cost of the supply of NRs 29
Small middle class families use 10000 liters and pay NRs 40, per meter cube Cost is NRs 4. This family pays NRs 40 but get water worth NRs 290. Thus, subsidy is NRs 250.
Small poor family uses 2 meter cube and pay NRs 40 .Per meter cube cost is NRs 20 .This family pay NRs 40, but gets water worth NRs 58. Subsidy is NRs 18.
There are thus both “error of inclusion” in which the non poor get a subsidy they are not entitled to, and “error of exclusion” in which the poor do not get subsidy they are supposed to receive. It can thus be concluded that poor are not getting subsidy. With the help of WTP it was found that only 22 % of subsidy finance by government is delivered to the urban poor. And 78 % non poor are getting the benefit of the actual subsidy in Kathmandu valley with prevailing tariff practice. In general, households are willing to pay substantially more than the current tariff, once improved service levels have been achieved. A related tariff decisions is whether to continue with block tariff or introduce volumetric pricing where payment is directly related to volume consumed. Increasing block tariff penalize share connections by receiving the average cost per cubic meter. A final major tariff decision is whether to distinguish between different classes of areas those are destitute, poor households, non poor household and commercial users. Three level of tariff are proposed for urban poor community in Kathmandu valley.
179 Alternative-1 Assume consumption of 30 lpcd or 6 cubic meters per house hold per month at cost of NRs 30 per meter cube. Alternative -2 Assume consumption of 15 lpcd or 3 cubic meters per household per month at the actual average cost of NRs 15 per meter cube. Alternative -3 Assume consumption rate less than 15 lpcd or 3 cubic meters per household per month (10 lpcd) at the average cost NRs 50 per month as a flat rate. We can also speculate that if tariff were raised to these levels, there would be significant demand management and many households would reduce their consumption thus making more water available for existing and additional consumers. Three levels of domestic service are currently envisaged those are private connection used by one family with a meter and a monthly bill, Second shared connection with single meter used by two to fifteen household shared monthly bill and metered stand post used by up to 50 household who pay a flat fee of NRs 25 – 75 a month. With the help of finding and assessment of water tariff two levels of tariff can be propose for urban poor. To fulfill general water requirement 30 lpcd or 6 cubic meter per household per month in this condition consumers have to pay NRs 30 per cubic meter.
180 ď&#x201A;ˇ To fulfill basic water requirement 15 lpcd or 3 cubic meters per household per month in this condition consumer have to pay NRs 15 per cubic meter for shared connection. Willingness to pay study analysis exhibits that more than 50% urban poor people are willing to pay NRs 50 per month for shared type of connection. These results indicate that if basic water requirement is provided with improved well managed system majority of urban poor people are in favor of shared connection. With all this study and findings it can be recommended that urban poor communities should be served through shared connection as per community choice to fulfill their basic water requirements with affordable tariff structure. Major barrier to urban poor household having a KUKL connection is the connection charge which is generally NRs 1000 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 18000, depending on network main distance. There is no fixed criteria to charge the connection charge, which is found unreliable and impractical. In this scenario poor are not able to pay such high connection charge and can be reformed in different ways such as, with the basis of actual cost. Currently there is suspension that connection charge subsidies consumption tariff. There should be provision to pay in installments basis within 3 to 5 years. Another way is that it could be treated as an operating expense and paid by all consumers in their monthly tariff. 5.3
Management system of water service delivery in urban poor communities
Kathmandu valley is one of the fast growing cities in South Asia. The annual population growth rate is 4.7% which is very close to other fast growing cities of the world. With the fast and unplanned development and recently settled civil war in the Nepal, internal migration rate has become very high.
181 Due to all these reason Kathmandu has become a suitable city to grow slum and squatters. One decade ahead there were very low numbers of slum and squattersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; settlement in the valley. Presently 137 slum and 37 squatter communities have settled in Kathmandu valley. All these urban poor settlements are facing acute problem of water service delivery. Traditional water spout, shallow well and public stand post are the main source of water for all these urban poor communities. Government of Nepal adopted prolonged strategies of infrastructure development and institutional refer in the water service delivery in Kathmandu valley. The institutional reform displaced former water utility operator Nepal water supply corporation (NWSC) from the valley and the entities were formed to manage water service delivery system in Kathmandu valley. They are Kathmandu valley water supply management Board (KVWSMB) Kathmandu Upatyaka Khanepani Limited (KUKL) and water supply tariff fixation commission (WSTF). With these entire mega organization are still in confusion and cannot develop the efficient management system for the efficient management system for the better water system in Kathmandu Valley. In these circumstances management of water service delivery for urban poor communities becomes in a low priority area even though all these organizations are responsible to create mandatory provision to serve the urban poor. An institution complaint mechanism to address the needs and concern of urban poor consumer has been set up as low income consumer support unit in KUKL. This type of unit establishment under water utility becomes pioneering in the South Asia, specially addressed to the urban poor. But LICSU is unable to address all the urban poor communities in Kathmandu Valley. Hence there is an urgent need of effective management system to be developed for different types of urban poor in Kathmandu Valley. Effective management system for urban poor in slum, squatters poor household mixed up with middle class families and urban poor in fringe areas of the valley has been explored during this research investigation
182 work. During the field study and meeting with staking different management systems and practice has been discussed. With the analysis of findings most of the urban poor communities are in the favor of users managed water systems in their communities. For this they need some support from NGO working in urban poor sector and concerned authority of the sustainability of their own water service system. Urban poor communities are found aware with water quality quantity and economic and technical aspect of the water service system. Majority of urban poor communities are in the favor of different types of shared connection systems with the effective water users committee managed.
i
t
I t
Chapter r Six CONCLUSNON
ANI) RECOKIIVIENDATNONS
183
CHAPTER - SIX
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
6.1
CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions were developed with the outcome of findings and analysis of the research study. 1.
Develop poverty Map to identify the priority areas which are low served or un-served. It will help to develop a plan to serve all the urban poor communities to improve the water service delivery, source protection and rehabilitation needed in near future.
2.
Develop different types of connection with suitable and affordable tariff structure with effective management system and make private, shared connection, super shared connection and provision of community stand post which are more affordable and accessible to urban poor.
3.
Urban poor communities are generally willing to pay the regular water charges but poor people are not able to pay high connection charge. So connection cost should be revised with heavy subsidy which will allow the poor to easily connect to the network. Extension of pipe line network close to urban poor community make connection charge low which should be implemented.
4.
To make sustainable and well managed water service system in urban poor community. Small scale private parties, water users committee, CBO, NGO effort have to be coordinated with the KUKL or water authority. Intermediation by the word Water Users
184 Committee and NGO are found more effective in urban poor community. 5.
Availability of low Quantity of water in Kathmandu valley these days is creating unequal competition between rich and poor. So it is very essential to conduct a study especially traditional water resource within the urban poor community, which will help to develop alternative option for serving the scattered poor communities and provide them better water availability at affordable cost.
6.
Community awareness program is the most important component which will help to motivate community people for the effective use of the drinking water resources, their moral responsibility to maintain equitable service for both poor and rich.
7.
Effective application of prevailing rules and regulations towards the better service delivery is also a lagging sector. Strict enforcement of rules and regulation will discourage illegal practice like direct pumping from the mains, which will allow helping to maintain equitable distribution of water within the community.
8.
Once the mega water project for Kathmandu Valley â&#x20AC;&#x153;Melamchi Water Supply Projectâ&#x20AC;? will be completed, all the existing water resources around Kathmandu Valley will be connected to the fringe communities located around Kathmandu Valley.
9.
It is highly essential to develop effective rules and regulations for the extraction of ground water and water vending practice by water tanker.
10.
Ground water recharging system needs to develop in most of the urban centers to protect traditional water spouts and well in core city areas.
185 11.
With the development of trunk water line around the Kathmandu Valley by “Melamchi Water Supply Project” bulk distribution policy need to develop in fringe communities around Kathmandu Valley.
12.
It is highly essential to develop strong and well managed water authority with the public private partnership approach to enhance effective water service delivery system for all types of communities within Kathmandu Valley.
13.
To develop sustainable and well managed water system in all types of urban poor communities. Water service authority should develop separate division to address specially the urban poor issues.
6.2
RECOMMENDATIONS
Water service delivery in urban poor is unsatisfactory. Majority of urban poor communities are dependent on ground water and traditional water spouts. Generally during summer urban poor is the community who has to face acute water supply problem. Water burns and water related disease are generally spread from these urban poor communities. It is highly essential to consider the urban poor water supply problem to improve the urban poor environment in future. To overcome this burning problem following recommendation is suggested:
The poor community should be identified and legalized ( if needed) and given should be easy access to connect municipal water service with reliable and affordable connection charge with suitable tariff structure.
Intermediation by small scale private parties like NGO should encourage the coordination of municipal water utility operator. Suitable incentive should be provided for operator to deal with issues related to urban poor. Institutional arrangement with the participation of water users will be the appropriate solution to feed the urban poor communities in a sustainable manner.
186
Public tap stand, shared connection and super shared connection should be promoted in the water shortage communities. Water tariff should be fixed with result oriented and willingness to pay. For the sustainability of this public tap and management by the community water users committee with the active participation of women should be done.
It is very essential to treat the poor as valid consumers. In the mean time it is also important to take into consideration the protection of existing water sources which are the main source of water.
Water quality is not given importance in the urban poor communities. It is due to lack of awareness and in another reason is high cost of treatment that is boiling and other household treatment facilities. So, community should be requested to adopt low cost water purification technique at household level such as use of Chlorine tablets and liquid and recently envisioned technique like solar disinfection and household slow sand filters.
Water quantity is also directly concerned with water related diseases. So, it is highly essential to feed urban poor communities with basic standards of water. It will help to improve urban environment and health status of the urban poor communities which is the major part of the population of Kathmadu valley. This can be true for the communities in any developing country and this research can be used as a data base for the planning of water distribution in any area selected in any part of on the world scenario.
R]EFER]ENCES
186
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tfttl
I
l
APPEN]D]D(
Annex L: Questionnaire sheet Management of Water Service Delivery for Urban Poor Communities in Kathmandu Valley General Ouestionnaires for urban poor communitv
A.
Location
1. 2" 3. 4"
Municipality: Ward no : Settlement type : Name of Settlement
:
B. Identification
l.
Name of house owner
3"
Age: Sex:
2. 4.
:
Family size and distribution:
Below 15 years t5-45 years Above 45 years
C. Economic status
1. Occupation 2. Land holding : 3. Ownership of house 4. Area occupied : 5. Tlpe of house : 6. Physical facilities in :
:
7.
side
tap
8.
the
taplToilet/Electri city/Radio/TV/Telephone How much do you pay for Toilet Electricity Water
Average monthly income
D. Education Literacy numbers: Illiterate Read and write
Schooline Camous level Hisher education
tami Below 3000 3000-6000 6000-12000 Above 12000
Radio
house:
Water
TV
Telephone
E. Existins water supplv facilities
1.
What is your existing source of water supply? a. Regular house connection b. Regular public stand post c. Regular traditional water spouts d. Ground water (Wells, Rowing pump)
2.
What did you think about service delivery? a. Reliable b. Unreliable c. Moderate
3.
What did you think about your water quality? a. Acceptable b. Unacceptable c" Moderate
4. If you are collecting
water from public post what distance you travel to collect
water?
a.
b. c. d, e.
5.
Lessthan l0Ometer 100 meter 200 meter 300 meter More than 300 meter
What is your quantity of water needed per day? a. 300 b" 200
c. 150
d. e.
f.
100 50 Less than 50 Liter
6, What Quantity of water did you collect per day? a. Private connection Liter b. Public tap stand Liter
c. Traditional
d. e.
f.
spouts
water Liter Ground water (Wells, Rowing pump)Liter Liter Tanker Liter Water
supply jar
F) Private Connection Biling and Terrifying Services 1" Do you have private connection?
2,
3"
4. 5. 6. 7.
When did you connect your private tap? (Year) How much do you pay for new oonnection? How much do you pay per month? Do you feel that you need subsidy in connection charge? What will be the suitable amount for connection charge? Is there any problem you feel to get private connection?
G) Customer responses towards existing system
1.
Do you made any complaint for service delivery which you are getting?
a. KUKL b. Municipality
c. DDC d. e.
f.
VDC DWSS
Municipality
g. Others h. No Complain
2.
How do they respond to your complaints? a. Promptly b. On their own priority c. No responses H) Response toward Management System Planning 1" For the sustainable water service delivery which of the following model will be suitable. a. Private connection with subsidy apply b. Public tap change into community taps c. Bulk distribution for community reservoir tank and develop shared connection
in
d.
Tanker supply
e.
connection Ground water extraction / treatment and distribution jar
community reservoir tank and develop shared
2. Organization /
in
19 liters plastic
operation of the system what will be the suitable management system for your sustainable water service delivery a. Managed by Community Water (Jser's Committee b. Managed by NGO c. Managed by private party d. Managed by KUKL e. Managed by Local Government authority (VDC/Ward Committee)
additional (Related to servi systern)
Appendix 2: Survey Data Municipalit y/VDC
Ward No.
Type of settlement
Name of community
Age of respondent
Sex
Literac y number
Occupation
Type of house
Monthly income
Service delivery
KMC KMC KMC KMC KMC KMC KMC KMC KMC KMC KMC KMC KMC KMC KMC KMC KMC KMC KMC
11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 16 16 16 17 15 19 17 17 16
Squatter Squatter Squatter Squatter Squatter Squatter Squatter Squatter Squatter Squatter Squatter Squatter Squatter Squatter Squatter Squatter Squatter Squatter Squatter
28.00 25.00 54.00 68.00 35.00 52.00 18.00 19.00 18.00 22.00 47.00 40.00 48.00 46.00 60.00 70.00 40.00 41.00 47.00
Female Male Female Male Male Male Male Female Female Female Female Female Female Female Male Female Female Female Female
5 3 6 5 9 6 4 13 6 4 5 4 4 2 5 13 3 5 8
Service Agriculture Retailer Service Labour Skill Labour Retailer Skill Labour Service Labour Retailer Retailer Labour Skill Labour Labour Retailer Retailer Retailer Retailer
Semi-pakka Semi-pakka Kachcha Pakka Semi-pakka Kachcha Semi-pakka Kachcha Kachcha Kachcha Semi-pakka Semi-pakka Semi-pakka Pakka Semi-pakka Semi-pakka Pakka Pakka Semi-pakka
6000-12000 3000-6000 3000-6000 Above 12000 6000-12000 6000-12000 Above 12000 Above 12000 6000-12000 Above 12000 3000-6000 6000-12000 6000-12000 3000-6000 3000-6000 3000-6000 Below 3000 3000-6000 3000-6000
. . . . . Moderate Unreliable . . . Unreliable Unreliable Unreliable Moderate . Moderate . Moderate Unreliable
KMC
16
Squatter
43.00
Male
4
Skill Labour
Semi-pakka
3000-6000
Moderate
KMC
16
Squatter
54.00
Female
3
Labour
Pakka
6000-12000
Unreliable
KMC
16
Squatter
46.00
Female
8
Labour
Pakka
3000-6000
Unreliable
KMC
16
Squatter
53.00
Male
4
Skill Labour
Pakka
6000-12000
.
KMC
16
Squatter
30.00
Female
2
Labour
Semi-pakka
6000-12000
Unreliable
KMC KMC KMC KMC KMC
6 6 7 7 11
Squatter Squatter Squatter Squatter Squatter
30.00 36.00 35.00 35.00 50.00
Male Female Female Female Female
5 5 3 5 6
Skill Labour Labour Labour Labour Skill Labour
Semi-pakka Semi-pakka Kachcha Semi-pakka Kachcha
3000-6000 3000-6000 Below 3000 Below 3000 6000-12000
Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate .
KMC
11
Squatter
Basnighat Basnighat Basnighat Basnighat Basnighat Basnighat Basnighat Basnighat Basnighat Basnighat Machhapokhari Machhapokhari Machhapokhari Dhalko Dhalko Dhalko Dhalko Dhalko Buddhajyoti marga, Balaju Buddhajyoti marga, Balaju Buddhajyoti marga, Balaju Buddhajyoti marga, Balaju Buddhajyoti marga, Balaju Buddhajyoti marga, Balaju Kumaritole Kumaritole Gairigaun Gairigaun Pourakhigaun, Thapathali Pourakhigaun,
34.00
Female
6
Skill Labour
Kachcha
6000-12000
.
KMC
11
Squatter
KMC
11
Squatter
KMC
11
Squatter
KMC
11
Squatter
KMC
11
Squatter
KMC
11
Squatter
KMC
22
Squatter
KMC
22
Squatter
KMC KMC KMC KMC KMC KMC KMC KMC KMC KMC KMC KMC KMC KMC KMC KMC KMC KMC KMC KMC KMC KMC KMC KMC KMC KMC
6 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
Squatter Squatter Squatter Squatter Squatter Squatter Squatter Squatter Squatter Squatter Squatter Squatter Squatter Squatter Squatter Squatter Squatter Squatter Squatter Squatter Squatter Squatter Squatter Squatter Squatter Squatter
Thapathali Pourakhigaun, Thapathali Pourakhigaun, Thapathali Pourakhigaun, Thapathali Pourakhigaun, Thapathali Pourakhigaun, Thapathali Pourakhigaun, Thapathali Pourakhigaun, Thapathali Pourakhigaun, Thapathali Kumaritole Sankhamul Sankhamul Sankhamul Sankhamul Sankhamul Sankhamul Sankhamul Sankhamul Sankhamul Sankhamul Sankhamul Sankhamul Sankhamul Sankhamul Sankhamul Sankhamul Sankhamul Sankhamul Sankhamul Sankhamul Sankhamul Sankhamul Sankhamul Sankhamul Sankhamul
55.00
Male
3
Labour
Kachcha
Below 3000
.
37.00
Female
6
Skill Labour
Kachcha
3000-6000
.
20.00
Female
2
Retailer
Pakka
6000-12000
.
34.00
Female
5
Labour
Kachcha
6000-12000
.
32.00
Female
5
Labour
Kachcha
3000-6000
.
26.00
Male
4
Labour
Pakka
3000-6000
.
21.00
Male
4
Retailer
Semi-pakka
6000-12000
.
40.00
Male
5
Retailer
Kachcha
3000-6000
.
45.00 42.00 48.00 70.00 63.00 65.00 42.00 49.00 52.00 18.00 27.00 54.00 53.00 42.00 51.00 75.00 73.00 60.00 76.00 25.00 18.00 42.00 31.00 57.00 35.00 30.00
Female Female Female Female Female Male Female Male Male Male Male Female Male Male Male Male Male Female Female Female Female Female Male Female Female Female
6 4 5 4 5 11 5 6 4 6 7 4 5 5 3 6 3 6 6 7 4 5 6 6 5 5
Labour Labour Labour Labour Labour Labour Skill Labour Labour . Labour Service Labour Labour Retailer Service Retailer Retailer Service Labour Service Service Retailer Service Retailer Labour Service
Semi-pakka Semi-pakka Semi-pakka Semi-pakka Semi-pakka Pakka Kachcha Kachcha Pakka Semi-pakka Pakka Kachcha Semi-pakka Semi-pakka Semi-pakka Kachcha Semi-pakka Semi-pakka Kachcha Kachcha Semi-pakka Semi-pakka Semi-pakka Semi-pakka Semi-pakka Semi-pakka
3000-6000 Above 12000 3000-6000 Below 3000 Above 12000 Above 12000 6000-12000 3000-6000 Above 12000 6000-12000 6000-12000 3000-6000 3000-6000 6000-12000 3000-6000 6000-12000 6000-12000 6000-12000 Below 3000 6000-12000 Above 12000 6000-12000 6000-12000 3000-6000 6000-12000 6000-12000
Moderate Reliable . . Reliable . . . Moderate . . Moderate Moderate Moderate Unreliable Reliable Reliable Unreliable Moderate Moderate . . . . . Moderate
KMC KMC KMC KMC KMC KMC KMC KMC KMC KMC KMC KMC KMC KMC KMC KMC KMC KMC KMC KMC KMC KMC KMC KMC KMC KMC KMC KMC KMC KMC KMC KMC KMC KMC KMC KMC KMC KMC KMC KMC KMC KMC KMC
6 6 6 7 7 9 9 22 22 22 13 13 13 13 13 13 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 15 15 15 15 15
Slum Slum Slum Slum Slum Slum Slum Slum Slum Slum Slum Slum Slum Slum Slum Slum Slum Slum Slum Slum Slum Slum Slum Slum Slum Slum Slum Slum Slum Slum Slum Slum Slum Slum Slum Slum Slum Slum Slum Slum Slum Slum Slum
Kumaritole Kumaritole Kumaritole Gairi Gaun Gairi Gaun Bangalamukhi Bangalamukhi Bangalamukhi Bangalamukhi Bangalamukhi Bhimmukteshwor Bhimmukteshwor Bhimmukteshwor Bhimmukteshwor Bhimmukteshwor Bhimmukteshwor Dhalko Dhalko Dhalko Dhalko Dhalko Dhalko Dhalko Dhalko Dhalko Dhalko Dhalko Dhalko Dhalko Humat Humat Humat Humat Humat Humat Humat Humat Humat Lagal Lagal Lagal Lagal Lagal
50.00 41.00 41.00 27.00 24.00 62.00 33.00 25.00 49.00 40.00 46.00 20.00 17.00 50.00 72.00 30.00 28.00 48.00 40.00 65.00 24.00 46.00 64.00 59.00 65.00 54.00 34.00 50.00 35.00 35.00 50.00 50.00 60.00 50.00 30.00 56.00 24.00 70.00 92.00 45.00 49.00 51.00 31.00
Female Male Male Male Female Male Female Female Male Female Male Male Male Male Female Female Female Male Male Male Female Female Male Male Female Male Female Female Female Female Male Female Female Female Female Female Female Female Male Male Female Female Female
5 3 13 9 5 12 5 5 4 10 7 4 6 6 5 6 5 3 3 2 3 4 9 6 4 4 5 6 5 7 8 11 3 3 3 2 5 8 13 5 3 4 7
Retailer Skill Labour Labour Skill Labour Labour Retailer Retailer Service Skill Labour Retailer Retailer Retailer Service Retailer Agriculture Retailer Service Labour Service Agriculture Service Service Retailer Retailer Retailer Retailer Labour Skill Labour Skill Labour Labour Retailer Retailer Retailer Labour Labour Retailer Service Labour Agriculture Agriculture Skill Labour Retailer Retailer
Pakka Pakka Semi-pakka Kachcha Kachcha 0 Pakka Pakka Pakka Pakka Pakka Semi-pakka Pakka Semi-pakka Semi-pakka Pakka Semi-pakka Kachcha Semi-pakka Semi-pakka 0 Pakka Pakka Pakka Pakka Pakka Pakka Semi-pakka Semi-pakka Pakka Pakka Pakka Semi-pakka Pakka Pakka Kachcha Pakka Pakka Pakka Pakka Pakka Semi-pakka Semi-pakka
3000-6000 6000-12000 6000-12000 3000-6000 6000-12000 3000-6000 6000-12000 Above 12000 3000-6000 Above 12000 6000-12000 Above 12000 6000-12000 Above 12000 3000-6000 3000-6000 6000-12000 Below 3000 3000-6000 3000-6000 6000-12000 3000-6000 6000-12000 6000-12000 3000-6000 Above 12000 6000-12000 3000-6000 6000-12000 3000-6000 6000-12000 6000-12000 Below 3000 3000-6000 3000-6000 3000-6000 Above 12000 3000-6000 3000-6000 6000-12000 3000-6000 3000-6000 6000-12000
Moderate Reliable Moderate Moderate Reliable Moderate Reliable Reliable Moderate . Moderate Unreliable Unreliable Unreliable Reliable . Reliable Moderate Moderate Reliable Moderate Moderate Reliable Moderate Moderate Moderate Reliable Unreliable Unreliable Moderate Unreliable Moderate Moderate Unreliable Reliable Moderate Unreliable Moderate Reliable Moderate Moderate Moderate Reliable
KMC KMC KMC KMC KMC KMC KMC KMC KMC KMC Ramkot VDC
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 9
KMC KMC KMC KMC KMC KMC KMC KMC
33 33 33 33 16 16 16 1
KMC
5
KMC
5
KMC
5
KMC
5
KMC
30
KMC
30
KMC
30
KMC
30
KMC
30
KMC
16
KMC
16
KMC
16
Slum Slum Slum Slum Slum Slum Slum Slum Slum Slum Fring area (scattered) Slum Slum Slum Slum Slum Slum Slum Fring area (scattered) Mixed up community Mixed up community Mixed up community Mixed up community Mixed up community Mixed up community Mixed up community Mixed up community Mixed up community Mixed up community Mixed up community Mixed up
Gavunucha Tole Gavunucha Tole Gavunucha Tole Gavunucha Tole Gavunucha Tole Gavunucha Tole Gavunucha Tole Gavunucha Tole Gavunucha Tole Gavunucha Tole Ramkot
87.00 80.00 75.00 68.00 30.00 55.00 55.00 49.00 20.00 50.00 46.00
Male Male Male Male Female Male Male Male Female Female Female
7 5 6 10 4 5 6 6 3 7 6
Agriculture Agriculture Agriculture Service . Labour Skill Labour Retailer Retailer Agriculture Retailer
Pakka Pakka Pakka Semi-pakka Semi-pakka Semi-pakka Semi-pakka Semi-pakka Pakka Semi-pakka Pakka
3000-6000 3000-6000 3000-6000 6000-12000 3000-6000 3000-6000 6000-12000 Below 3000 3000-6000 3000-6000 6000-12000
Reliable Reliable Reliable Unreliable Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Reliable Unreliable Moderate
Hadigaun Hadigaun Hadigaun Hadigaun Sukumbasi Tole Sukumbasi Tole Sukumbasi Tole Thankot
33.00 49.00 53.00 38.00 48.00 28.00 29.00 30.00
Female Male Female Female Female Male Male Female
3 6 6 4 8 10 4 5
Labour Skill Labour Labour . Retailer Skill Labour Labour Labour
Pakka Kachcha Semi-pakka Semi-pakka Semi-pakka Semi-pakka Pakka Pakka
Below 3000 3000-6000 Below 3000 3000-6000 3000-6000 6000-12000 3000-6000 3000-6000
Moderate . . . Moderate Moderate Moderate Unreliable
Hadigaun
46.00
Female
4
Service
Pakka
Above 12000
Moderate
Hadigaun
41.00
Female
5
Retailer
Pakka
3000-6000
Moderate
Hadigaun
25.00
Female
3
Retailer
Pakka
3000-6000
Unreliable
Hadigaun
30.00
Male
3
Skill Labour
Pakka
Above 12000
Moderate
Bagbazar
57.00
Female
6
Retailer
Pakka
6000-12000
.
Bagbazar
44.00
Male
5
Retailer
Pakka
6000-12000
Reliable
Bagbazar
74.00
Male
10
Retailer
Kachcha
Above 12000
Reliable
Bagbazar
34.00
Female
9
Retailer
Pakka
Above 12000
Moderate
Bagbazar
34.00
Male
15
Retailer
Pakka
Above 12000
Unreliable
Chhetrapati
39.00
Male
5
Retailer
Pakka
6000-12000
Unreliable
Chhetrapati
33.00
Female
4
Retailer
Pakka
6000-12000
Unreliable
Chhetrapati
50.00
Male
4
Service
Pakka
Above 12000
.
KMC
16
KMC
16
KMC
27
KMC
27
KMC
27
KMC
27
KMC
27
KMC
21
KMC
21
KMC
21
KMC
21
KMC
21
Lalitpur Municipality Lalitpur Municipality Lalitpur Municipality Lalitpur Municipality Lalitpur Municipality Lalitpur Municipality Lalitpur Municipality Lalitpur Municipality Lalitpur Municipality Lalitpur
14
community Mixed up community Mixed up community Mixed up community Mixed up community Mixed up community Mixed up community Mixed up community Mixed up community Mixed up community Mixed up community Mixed up community Mixed up community Squatter
14
Squatter
14
Squatter
14
Squatter
14
Squatter
14
Squatter
14
Squatter
14
Squatter
14
Squatter
14
Squatter
Chhetrapati
48.00
Female
3
Retailer
Pakka
Above 12000
Unreliable
Chhetrapati
36.00
Male
4
Retailer
Pakka
Above 12000
Unreliable
Chhetrapati
58.00
Male
6
Retailer
Pakka
Above 12000
Unreliable
Asan
60.00
Male
5
Service
Semi-pakka
Above 12000
Unreliable
Asan
50.00
Male
5
Retailer
Pakka
Above 12000
Unreliable
Asan
32.00
Male
8
Retailer
Pakka
Above 12000
Unreliable
Asan
40.00
Male
8
Retailer
Pakka
Above 12000
Unreliable
Jaisidewal
25.00
Male
3
Service
Kachcha
Above 12000
Moderate
Jaisidewal
44.00
Female
4
Retailer
0
3000-6000
Reliable
Jaisidewal
25.00
Female
6
Retailer
Semi-pakka
6000-12000
Moderate
Jaisidewal
78.00
Male
4
Labour
Pakka
6000-12000
Reliable
Jaisidewal
31.00
Male
5
Retailer
Pakka
6000-12000
Moderate
Phalphul Mandi Bazar Phalphul Mandi Bazar Phalphul Mandi Bazar Phalphul Mandi Bazar Phalphul Mandi Bazar Phalphul Mandi Bazar Phalphul Mandi Bazar Phalphul Mandi Bazar Phalphul Mandi Bazar Phalphul Mandi
5.00
Male
4
Labour
Semi-pakka
6000-12000
Moderate
34.00
Female
2
Labour
Kachcha
3000-6000
Moderate
20.00
Female
5
Labour
Kachcha
3000-6000
Moderate
58.00
Male
3
Labour
Semi-pakka
3000-6000
.
45.00
Male
5
Labour
Kachcha
3000-6000
Moderate
40.00
Male
4
Labour
Kachcha
3000-6000
Moderate
27.00
Male
3
Labour
0
3000-6000
Moderate
22.00
Female
4
Skill Labour
Semi-pakka
6000-12000
Moderate
24.00
Female
2
Retailer
Pakka
3000-6000
Moderate
20.00
Female
4
Skill Labour
Kachcha
3000-6000
Moderate
Municipality Lalitpur Municipality Lalitpur Municipality Lalitpur Municipality Lalitpur Municipality Lalitpur Municipality Lalitpur Municipality Lalitpur Municipality Lalitpur Municipality Lalitpur Municipality Lalitpur Municipality Lalitpur Municipality Lalitpur Municipality Lalitpur Municipality Lalitpur Municipality Lalitpur Municipality Lalitpur Municipality Lalitpur Municipality Lalitpur Municipality Lalitpur Municipality Lalitpur Municipality Lalitpur Municipality Lalitpur
22
Slum
Bazar Bangalamukhi
18.00
Female
5
Retailer
Pakka
6000-12000
.
22
Slum
Bangalamukhi
50.00
Female
6
Retailer
Pakka
6000-12000
Unreliable
22
Slum
Bangalamukhi
26.00
Female
3
Skill Labour
Semi-pakka
3000-6000
Moderate
22
Slum
Bangalamukhi
33.00
Female
16
Retailer
Pakka
6000-12000
Reliable
22
Slum
Bangalamukhi
43.00
Male
4
Retailer
Semi-pakka
6000-12000
.
4
Slum
Gachhe Tole
50.00
Female
9
Retailer
Pakka
6000-12000
Unreliable
4
Slum
Gachhe Tole
27.00
Female
5
Service
Pakka
6000-12000
Reliable
4
Slum
Gachhe Tole
50.00
Male
4
Retailer
Pakka
Above 12000
Reliable
4
Slum
Gachhe Tole
32.00
Female
6
Retailer
Pakka
6000-12000
Reliable
3
Slum
Pulchwok
44.00
Male
4
Service
Pakka
6000-12000
.
3
Slum
Pulchwok
29.00
Female
9
Skill Labour
Kachcha
6000-12000
Moderate
22
Slum
Alko
48.00
Female
5
Labour
Pakka
3000-6000
.
22
Slum
Alko
62.00
Male
5
Agriculture
Pakka
Above 12000
.
22
Slum
Alko
52.00
Female
4
Labour
Semi-pakka
Above 12000
Unreliable
22
Slum
Alko
39.00
Female
11
Retailer
Semi-pakka
6000-12000
Reliable
22
Slum
Alko
40.00
Female
6
Agriculture
Pakka
Above 12000
.
22
Slum
Alko
36.00
Male
10
Retailer
Semi-pakka
3000-6000
.
22
Slum
Alko
29.00
Male
9
Skill Labour
Semi-pakka
Above 12000
Moderate
22
Slum
Alko
51.00
Male
3
Labour
Pakka
6000-12000
Unreliable
22
Slum
Alko
38.00
Male
9
Retailer
Semi-pakka
3000-6000
Moderate
22
Slum
Alko
55.00
Male
7
Service
Semi-pakka
6000-12000
Moderate
20
Slum
Natole
35.00
Male
5
Retailer
Semi-pakka
6000-12000
Moderate
Municipality Lalitpur Municipality Lalitpur Municipality Lalitpur Municipality Lalitpur Municipality Lalitpur Municipality Lalitpur Municipality Lalitpur Municipality Lalitpur Municipality Lalitpur Municipality Lalitpur Municipality Lalitpur Municipality Lalitpur Municipality Lalitpur Municipality Lalitpur Municipality Lalitpur Municipality Lalitpur Municipality Lalitpur Municipality Lalitpur Municipality Lalitpur Municipality Lalitpur Municipality Lalitpur Municipality Lalitpur
20
Slum
Natole
45.00
Male
12
Retailer
Pakka
6000-12000
Moderate
20
Slum
Natole
45.00
Male
9
Labour
Pakka
3000-6000
Unreliable
20
Slum
Natole
30.00
Female
6
Skill Labour
Pakka
Above 12000
.
8
Mixed up community Mixed up community Mixed up community Mixed up community Mixed up community Mixed up community Mixed up community Mixed up community Mixed up community Mixed up community Mixed up community Mixed up community Mixed up community Mixed up community Mixed up community Mixed up community Mixed up community Mixed up community Mixed up
Saugal
18.00
Male
3
Retailer
Semi-pakka
6000-12000
Unreliable
Saugal
20.00
Male
2
Labour
Pakka
6000-12000
Unreliable
Saugal
42.00
Female
6
Labour
Pakka
Above 12000
Moderate
Mangalbazar
71.00
Male
5
Service
Kachcha
3000-6000
Moderate
Mangalbazar
35.00
Female
2
Retailer
Pakka
Below 3000
.
Mangalbazar
73.00
Male
4
Service
Kachcha
Above 12000
Reliable
Mangalbazar
23.00
Female
4
Service
Pakka
6000-12000
Moderate
Babahal
66.00
Male
6
Skill Labour
Pakka
Above 12000
Unreliable
Babahal
85.00
Male
2
Retailer
Pakka
Above 12000
Moderate
Babahal
60.00
Male
4
Skill Labour
Semi-pakka
3000-6000
.
Babahal
42.00
Female
7
Retailer
Pakka
Above 12000
.
Babahal
23.00
Male
5
Service
Pakka
Above 12000
Moderate
Babahal
61.00
Male
6
Retailer
Semi-pakka
3000-6000
Moderate
Pulchwok
27.00
Female
3
Retailer
Pakka
3000-6000
Moderate
Pulchwok
46.00
Male
5
Retailer
Pakka
6000-12000
Moderate
Pulchwok
42.00
Male
4
Skill Labour
Kachcha
3000-6000
Reliable
Pulchwok
40.00
Female
2
Retailer
Pakka
6000-12000
Moderate
Pulchwok
35.00
Female
4
Service
Pakka
Above 12000
Unreliable
Patandhoka
36.00
Male
5
Retailer
Pakka
Above 12000
Moderate
8 8 11 11 11 11 18 18 18 18 18 18 5 5 5 5 5 21
Municipality Lalitpur Municipality Lalitpur Municipality Lalitpur Municipality Lalitpur Municipality Bhaktapur Municipality Bhaktapur Municipality Bhaktapur Municipality Bhaktapur Municipality Bhaktapur Municipality Bhaktapur Municipality Bhaktapur Municipality Bhaktapur Municipality Bhaktapur Municipality Bhaktapur Municipality Bhaktapur Municipality Bhaktapur Municipality Bhaktapur Municipality Bhaktapur Municipality Bhaktapur Municipality Bhaktapur Municipality Bhaktapur Municipality Bhaktapur
5
community Mixed up community Mixed up community Mixed up community Mixed up community Slum
5
21
Patandhoka
35.00
Male
9
Retailer
Pakka
6000-12000
.
Patandhoka
38.00
Male
8
Retailer
Pakka
Above 12000
Reliable
Patandhoka
40.00
Female
4
Retailer
Pakka
3000-6000
Moderate
Patandhoka
39.00
Female
5
Retailer
Semi-pakka
6000-12000
Reliable
Jagate
48.00
Male
8
Skill Labour
Semi-pakka
6000-12000
Moderate
Slum
Jagate
30.00
Male
5
Agriculture
Semi-pakka
3000-6000
Moderate
5
Slum
Jagate
64.00
Male
4
Agriculture
Kachcha
Below 3000
.
5
Slum
Jagate
45.00
Female
6
Labour
Semi-pakka
3000-6000
Moderate
3
Slum
Jagate
34.00
Female
4
Labour
Semi-pakka
3000-6000
.
3
Slum
Jagate
28.00
Female
6
Retailer
Pakka
Above 12000
Reliable
10
Mixed up community Mixed up community Mixed up community Mixed up community Mixed up community Mixed up community Mixed up community Mixed up community Mixed up community Mixed up community Mixed up community Mixed up
Byasi
40.00
Female
5
Retailer
Semi-pakka
3000-6000
Reliable
Byasi
52.00
Male
9
Retailer
Pakka
6000-12000
Unreliable
Byasi
54.00
Male
6
Retailer
Semi-pakka
3000-6000
Unreliable
Byasi
55.00
Female
7
Retailer
Pakka
Below 3000
Moderate
Byasi
40.00
Female
6
Skill Labour
Semi-pakka
Below 3000
Reliable
Nyatapole
42.00
Male
7
Retailer
Semi-pakka
6000-12000
Reliable
Nyatapole
23.00
Male
9
Retailer
Semi-pakka
6000-12000
Unreliable
Nyatapole
42.00
Female
6
Retailer
Pakka
6000-12000
Moderate
Nyatapole
51.00
Male
7
Retailer
Kachcha
6000-12000
Reliable
Nyatapole
61.00
Male
7
Retailer
Pakka
6000-12000
Moderate
Datrataya
40.00
Female
4
Labour
Pakka
Above 12000
Moderate
Datrataya
19.00
Male
6
Labour
Pakka
3000-6000
Reliable
21 21 21
10 10 10 10 11 11 11 11 11 3 3
Municipality Bhaktapur Municipality Bhaktapur Municipality Bhaktapur Municipality Bhaktapur Municipality Bhaktapur Municipality Bhaktapur Municipality Bhaktapur Municipality Bhaktapur Municipality Bhaktapur Municipality Bhaktapur Municipality Bhaktapur Municipality Bhaktapur Municipality Bhaktapur Municipality Bhaktapur Municipality Bhaktapur Municipality Madyapur T M Madyapur T M Madyapur T M Madyapur T M Madyapur T M Madyapur T M Madyapur T
6
community Mixed up community Mixed up community Mixed up community Mixed up community Mixed up community Mixed up community Mixed up community Mixed up community Mixed up community Mixed up community Mixed up community Mixed up community Mixed up community Mixed up community Mixed up community Slum
4
3
Datrataya
42.00
Male
4
Retailer
Semi-pakka
6000-12000
Unreliable
Datrataya
30.00
Female
6
Agriculture
Semi-pakka
6000-12000
Unreliable
Datrataya
16.00
Female
8
Skill Labour
Pakka
6000-12000
Moderate
Sukuldhoka
63.00
Male
3
Retailer
Pakka
3000-6000
Reliable
Sukuldhoka
37.00
Male
18
Service
Pakka
Above 12000
Unreliable
Sukuldhoka
21.00
Male
4
Skill Labour
Pakka
Above 12000
.
Sukuldhoka
50.00
Male
10
Retailer
Kachcha
Above 12000
Reliable
Sukuldhoka
39.00
Male
3
Retailer
Pakka
6000-12000
Unreliable
Sukuldhoka
59.00
Male
5
Retailer
Semi-pakka
3000-6000
Reliable
Chyamasingh
24.00
Female
7
Skill Labour
Semi-pakka
6000-12000
Unreliable
Chyamasingh
60.00
Female
12
Retailer
Semi-pakka
6000-12000
Unreliable
Chyamasingh
33.00
Female
4
Retailer
Semi-pakka
3000-6000
Moderate
Chyamasingh
40.00
Female
4
Agriculture
Pakka
3000-6000
Moderate
Chyamasingh
69.00
Female
4
Service
Pakka
6000-12000
.
Chyamasingh
25.00
Male
5
Agriculture
Pakka
6000-12000
Reliable
Nagadesh
72.00
Male
6
Agriculture
Semi-pakka
6000-12000
Moderate
Slum
Nagadesh
35.00
Female
4
Retailer
Semi-pakka
3000-6000
Reliable
5
Slum
Nagadesh
54.00
Male
9
Agriculture
Semi-pakka
6000-12000
Unreliable
5
Slum
Nagadesh
21.00
Female
5
Service
Semi-pakka
6000-12000
Moderate
6
Slum
Nagadesh
67.00
Female
7
Agriculture
Semi-pakka
Above 12000
Moderate
13
Mixed up community Mixed up
Old bazar
60.00
Male
6
Agriculture
Kachcha
3000-6000
Reliable
Old bazar
13.00
Male
4
Retailer
Kachcha
6000-12000
Unreliable
3 3 8 8 8 8 8 8 1 1 1 1 1 1
13
M Madyapur T M Madyapur T M Madyapur T M Madyapur T M Madyapur T M Madyapur T M Madyapur T M Madyapur T M Madyapur T M Madyapur T M Madyapur T M Madyapur T M Madyapur T M Kirtipur Municipality Kirtipur Municipality Kirtipur Municipality Kirtipur Municipality Kirtipur Municipality Kirtipur Municipality Kirtipur Municipality Kirtipur Municipality Kirtipur
13 13 13 14 13 13 13 14 13 14 13 13 13 14 14 14 6 6 6 6 2 2
community Mixed up community Mixed up community Mixed up community Mixed up community Mixed up community Mixed up community Mixed up community Mixed up community Mixed up community Mixed up community Mixed up community Mixed up community Mixed up community Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Mixed up community Mixed up community Mixed up community Mixed up community Fring area (scattered) Fring area
Old bazar
40.00
Male
4
Retailer
Pakka
6000-12000
Reliable
Old bazar
24.00
Male
8
Skill Labour
Pakka
6000-12000
Moderate
Old bazar
38.00
Male
9
Retailer
Pakka
6000-12000
Moderate
Old bazar
76.00
Female
6
Agriculture
Kachcha
6000-12000
Unreliable
Old bazar
65.00
Female
5
Service
Kachcha
6000-12000
Moderate
New bazar
35.00
Female
4
Agriculture
Pakka
3000-6000
Reliable
New bazar
80.00
Female
4
Retailer
Pakka
3000-6000
Unreliable
New bazar
30.00
Female
4
Agriculture
Pakka
6000-12000
Reliable
New bazar
37.00
Female
4
Labour
Pakka
6000-12000
Moderate
New bazar
33.00
Female
3
Retailer
Pakka
6000-12000
Reliable
New bazar
40.00
Male
4
Skill Labour
Pakka
6000-12000
Moderate
New bazar
63.00
Male
9
Retailer
Semi-pakka
3000-6000
Reliable
New bazar
72.00
Male
12
Retailer
0
3000-6000
Moderate
Chobhar
28.00
Female
11
Retailer
Semi-pakka
6000-12000
Moderate
Chobhar
52.00
Male
7
Skill Labour
Pakka
6000-12000
Unreliable
Chobhar
60.00
Female
2
Agriculture
Semi-pakka
Below 3000
Reliable
Nayabasti
89.00
Male
5
Skill Labour
Pakka
3000-6000
Reliable
Nayabasti
90.00
Female
6
Skill Labour
Pakka
6000-12000
.
Nayabasti
38.00
Female
3
Service
Pakka
3000-6000
Moderate
Nayabasti
32.00
Female
5
Service
Pakka
Above 12000
.
Dabali
31.00
Female
7
Skill Labour
Kachcha
3000-6000
Reliable
Dabali
35.00
Female
5
Retailer
Pakka
6000-12000
Reliable
Municipality Kirtipur Municipality Mulpani VDC
5
Mulpani VDC
8
Mulpani VDC
3
Mulpani VDC
8
Mulpani VDC
8
Mulpani VDC
8
Mulpani VDC
8
Mulpani VDC
8
Mulpani VDC
6
Mulpani VDC
5
Mulpani VDC
5
Mulpani VDC
5
Mulpani VDC
5
Mulpani VDC
7
Mulpani VDC
5
Mulpani VDC
5
Tokha VDC
2
Tokha VDC
9
Tokha VDC
4
Tokha VDC
5
Tokha VDC
3
2
(scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area
Dabali
21.00
Female
5
Skill Labour
Pakka
6000-12000
Reliable
Mulpani
31.00
Male
4
Agriculture
Pakka
6000-12000
.
Mulpani
34.00
Female
6
Agriculture
Semi-pakka
6000-12000
.
Mulpani
35.00
Female
4
Agriculture
Semi-pakka
3000-6000
.
Mulpani
48.00
Female
5
Agriculture
Semi-pakka
6000-12000
Moderate
Mulpani
37.00
Female
3
Agriculture
Pakka
6000-12000
Moderate
Mulpani
35.00
Female
4
.
Semi-pakka
Above 12000
.
Mulpani
23.00
Female
8
Labour
Pakka
3000-6000
Reliable
Mulpani
30.00
Female
5
Labour
Pakka
3000-6000
Reliable
Mulpani
54.00
Male
7
Agriculture
Pakka
6000-12000
Reliable
Mulpani
30.00
Female
3
Retailer
Pakka
3000-6000
Reliable
Mulpani
28.00
Female
6
Retailer
Pakka
Above 12000
Reliable
Mulpani
22.00
Female
6
Retailer
Kachcha
6000-12000
Unreliable
Mulpani
40.00
Female
3
Retailer
Kachcha
6000-12000
Reliable
Mulpani
38.00
Female
5
Agriculture
Semi-pakka
3000-6000
Unreliable
Mulpani
42.00
Female
4
Service
Semi-pakka
3000-6000
.
Mulpani
20.00
Female
4
Skill Labour
Semi-pakka
Below 3000
.
Tokha
32.00
Male
4
Agriculture
Pakka
6000-12000
Unreliable
Tokha
54.00
Male
6
Agriculture
Semi-pakka
3000-6000
Moderate
Tokha
68.00
Female
7
Agriculture
Pakka
Above 12000
Moderate
Tokha
49.00
Male
6
Agriculture
Semi-pakka
6000-12000
Moderate
Tokha
38.00
Female
7
.
Semi-pakka
3000-6000
Reliable
Tokha VDC
8
Tokha VDC
8
Tokha VDC
8
Tokha VDC
7
Tokha VDC
3
Tokha VDC
5
Tokha VDC
9
Tokha VDC
2
Machchhega un VDC Machchhega un VDC Machchhega un VDC Machchhega un VDC Machchhega un VDC Machchhega un VDC Machchhega un VDC Machchhega un VDC Machchhega un VDC Machchhega un VDC Machchhega un VDC Machchhega un VDC Machchhega un VDC Machchhega
1 4 5 1 1 1 4 1 2 6 19 6 7 6
(scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area
Tokha
65.00
Female
5
Retailer
Pakka
Above 12000
Unreliable
Tokha
40.00
Male
13
Skill Labour
0
6000-12000
Moderate
Tokha
46.00
Male
5
Service
Semi-pakka
6000-12000
Unreliable
Tokha
68.00
Female
6
Agriculture
Semi-pakka
Below 3000
Moderate
Tokha
25.00
Female
4
Labour
Pakka
Below 3000
Reliable
Tokha
76.00
Male
16
Agriculture
Pakka
6000-12000
Unreliable
Tokha
45.00
Male
6
Labour
Semi-pakka
3000-6000
Moderate
Tokha
30.00
Female
6
Labour
Semi-pakka
6000-12000
Unreliable
Machchhegaun
32.00
Male
7
Agriculture
Kachcha
3000-6000
.
Machchhegaun
70.00
Male
5
Agriculture
Kachcha
3000-6000
.
Machchhegaun
21.00
Female
7
Skill Labour
Semi-pakka
6000-12000
.
Machchhegaun
32.00
Female
5
Skill Labour
Semi-pakka
3000-6000
.
Machchhegaun
45.00
Male
4
Skill Labour
Pakka
6000-12000
.
Machchhegaun
58.00
Male
6
Service
Pakka
3000-6000
.
Machchhegaun
35.00
Female
4
Agriculture
Semi-pakka
6000-12000
.
Machchhegaun
45.00
Female
5
Retailer
Pakka
3000-6000
.
Machchhegaun
67.00
Male
4
Agriculture
Semi-pakka
Below 3000
.
Machchhegaun
.00
Female
5
Skill Labour
Pakka
3000-6000
Moderate
Machchhegaun
54.00
Female
5
Labour
Pakka
3000-6000
Unreliable
Machchhegaun
26.00
Female
6
Agriculture
Semi-pakka
3000-6000
Moderate
Machchhegaun
38.00
Female
3
Service
Pakka
6000-12000
Unreliable
Machchhegaun
24.00
Female
3
Skill Labour
Pakka
3000-6000
Moderate
un VDC Machchhega un VDC Machchhega un VDC Machchhega un VDC Machchhega un VDC Machchhega un VDC Machchhega un VDC Machchhega un VDC Machchhega un VDC Lubhu VDC
4
Lubhu VDC
6
Lubhu VDC
5
Lubhu VDC
6
Lubhu VDC
6
Lubhu VDC
2
Lubhu VDC
2
Lubhu VDC
2
Lubhu VDC
2
Lubhu VDC
2
Lubhu VDC
4
Lubhu VDC
4
Lubhu VDC
9
Lubhu VDC
5
6 6 6 6 6 7 6 19
(scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area
Machchhegaun
48.00
Male
5
Agriculture
Pakka
3000-6000
Moderate
Machchhegaun
38.00
Female
8
Agriculture
Kachcha
3000-6000
Moderate
Machchhegaun
88.00
Female
3
Service
Semi-pakka
3000-6000
Reliable
Machchhegaun
56.00
Male
8
Skill Labour
Semi-pakka
3000-6000
Reliable
Machchhegaun
44.00
Male
7
Skill Labour
Pakka
Below 3000
Unreliable
Machchhegaun
62.00
Male
6
Agriculture
Pakka
3000-6000
Moderate
Machchhegaun
30.00
Female
5
Skill Labour
Semi-pakka
3000-6000
Unreliable
Machchhegaun
30.00
Female
2
Agriculture
Semi-pakka
3000-6000
Unreliable
Lubhu
60.00
Male
8
Retailer
Pakka
Above 12000
Moderate
Lubhu
56.00
Male
4
Retailer
Pakka
3000-6000
Moderate
Lubhu
45.00
Male
6
Retailer
Semi-pakka
3000-6000
Reliable
Lubhu
60.00
Male
4
Labour
Pakka
3000-6000
Unreliable
Lubhu
56.00
Female
5
Agriculture
Pakka
Above 12000
Moderate
Lubhu
63.00
Female
13
Retailer
Pakka
Above 12000
Moderate
Lubhu
60.00
Female
2
Service
Kachcha
3000-6000
Moderate
Lubhu
25.00
Male
6
Labour
Semi-pakka
6000-12000
Moderate
Lubhu
20.00
Female
5
Agriculture
Semi-pakka
3000-6000
Moderate
Lubhu
40.00
Female
4
Retailer
Pakka
Above 12000
Unreliable
Lubhu
34.00
Female
6
Retailer
Pakka
6000-12000
Moderate
Lubhu
64.00
Male
9
Retailer
Semi-pakka
6000-12000
.
Lubhu
65.00
Female
8
Retailer
Pakka
6000-12000
Moderate
Lubhu
40.00
Female
5
Retailer
Pakka
3000-6000
Unreliable
Lubhu VDC
5
Lubhu VDC
6
Lubhu VDC
7
Lubhu VDC
2
Lubhu VDC
2
Lubhu VDC
7
Lubhu VDC
7
Lubhu VDC
2
Lubhu VDC
9
Lubhu VDC
9
Gundu VDC
6
Gundu VDC
9
Gundu VDC
4
Gundu VDC
9
Ramkot VDC
7
Ramkot VDC
7
Ramkot VDC
9
Ramkot VDC
52
Ramkot VDC
3
Ramkot VDC
9
Ramkot VDC
8
Satungal
8
(scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area
Lubhu
50.00
Male
5
Retailer
Pakka
3000-6000
Unreliable
Lubhu
36.00
Female
6
Retailer
Pakka
6000-12000
Moderate
Lubhu
20.00
Female
5
Skill Labour
Pakka
Above 12000
Unreliable
Lubhu
40.00
Male
9
Retailer
0
Above 12000
Moderate
Lubhu
40.00
Male
5
Retailer
Semi-pakka
.
Moderate
Lubhu
31.00
Male
7
Retailer
Semi-pakka
3000-6000
Moderate
Lubhu
50.00
Male
7
Retailer
Semi-pakka
6000-12000
Unreliable
Lubhu
69.00
Male
4
Retailer
Semi-pakka
Below 3000
Unreliable
Lubhu
60.00
Male
6
Retailer
Semi-pakka
Below 3000
Unreliable
Lubhu
35.00
Male
4
Skill Labour
Semi-pakka
3000-6000
Moderate
Gundu
66.00
Male
3
Agriculture
Semi-pakka
Below 3000
Reliable
Gundu
72.00
Male
5
Agriculture
Semi-pakka
3000-6000
Unreliable
Gundu
46.00
Male
2
Agriculture
Pakka
6000-12000
Reliable
Gundu
24.00
Female
4
Agriculture
Semi-pakka
3000-6000
Reliable
Ramkot
38.00
Female
5
Agriculture
Pakka
6000-12000
Reliable
Ramkot
52.00
Male
6
Service
Pakka
Above 12000
Moderate
Ramkot
35.00
Female
4
Skill Labour
Pakka
6000-12000
Moderate
Ramkot
10.00
Male
10
Retailer
Semi-pakka
Above 12000
.
Ramkot
62.00
Female
10
Agriculture
Semi-pakka
3000-6000
Moderate
Ramkot
56.00
Male
6
.
Semi-pakka
Below 3000
.
Satungal
48.00
Male
5
Retailer
Semi-pakka
6000-12000
Moderate
Satungal
42.00
Female
6
Retailer
Pakka
6000-12000
Reliable
VDC Satungal VDC Naikap VDC
4
Naikap VDC
5
Naikap VDC
5
Naikap VDC
5
Naikap VDC
5
Naikap VDC
5
Naikap VDC
5
Dahachwok VDC Dahachwok VDC Dahachwok VDC Dahachwok VDC Khokana VDC Khokana VDC Khokana VDC Khokana VDC Khokana VDC Khokana VDC Khokana VDC Khokana VDC Khokana VDC Khokana
4
3
4 4 4 7 7 2 1 6 6 4 4 4 5
(scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area
Balkot
26.00
Female
10
Labour
Semi-pakka
3000-6000
Unreliable
Naikap
54.00
Male
5
Labour
Semi-pakka
3000-6000
Unreliable
Naikap
49.00
Male
7
Agriculture
Pakka
Above 12000
Moderate
Naikap
42.00
Female
4
Labour
Semi-pakka
3000-6000
Reliable
Naikap
43.00
Female
4
Labour
Semi-pakka
3000-6000
Unreliable
Naikap
52.00
Female
4
Labour
Semi-pakka
3000-6000
Unreliable
Naikap
48.00
Female
3
Labour
Semi-pakka
3000-6000
Reliable
Naikap
54.00
Male
3
Labour
Semi-pakka
3000-6000
Reliable
Dahachwok
45.00
Male
5
Agriculture
Semi-pakka
3000-6000
Reliable
Dahachwok
54.00
Female
4
Skill Labour
Semi-pakka
3000-6000
Reliable
Dahachwok
42.00
Male
4
Skill Labour
Semi-pakka
3000-6000
Unreliable
Dahachwok
85.00
Male
8
Agriculture
Semi-pakka
3000-6000
Unreliable
Khokana
73.00
Male
14
Service
Pakka
.
Moderate
Khokana
71.00
Male
2
Agriculture
Kachcha
6000-12000
Moderate
Khokana
29.00
Female
4
Skill Labour
Semi-pakka
3000-6000
Unreliable
Khokana
37.00
Male
9
.
Semi-pakka
3000-6000
Unreliable
Khokana
87.00
Male
7
Labour
Semi-pakka
6000-12000
.
Khokana
35.00
Female
3
Agriculture
Semi-pakka
3000-6000
Moderate
Khokana
80.00
Male
15
.
Semi-pakka
6000-12000
Unreliable
Khokana
46.00
Male
7
Retailer
Pakka
Above 12000
Unreliable
Khokana
22.00
Female
4
Retailer
Semi-pakka
Above 12000
Moderate
Khokana
23.00
Female
5
Service
Semi-pakka
6000-12000
Unreliable
VDC Khokana VDC Khokana VDC Khokana VDC Khokana VDC Khokana VDC Khokana VDC Khokana VDC Duwakot VDC Duwakot VDC Duwakot VDC Duwakot VDC Duwakot VDC Jhaukhel VDC Jhaukhel VDC Jhaukhel VDC Jhaukhel VDC Jhaukhel VDC Balkot VDC
7 7 6 5 7 8 7 3 6 3 3 3 8 8 8 5 5 2
Balkot VDC
1
Balkot VDC
3
Balkot VDC
3
Panga VDC
9
(scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area
Khokana
49.00
Male
5
Agriculture
Semi-pakka
3000-6000
Moderate
Khokana
69.00
Male
7
Labour
Semi-pakka
6000-12000
Unreliable
Khokana
37.00
Male
6
Skill Labour
Semi-pakka
6000-12000
Moderate
Khokana
23.00
Female
8
Retailer
Kachcha
Above 12000
Moderate
Khokana
33.00
Female
4
Agriculture
Kachcha
6000-12000
Moderate
Khokana
26.00
Female
11
Agriculture
Pakka
Above 12000
Moderate
Khokana
25.00
Female
4
Agriculture
Pakka
6000-12000
Unreliable
Duwakot
30.00
Male
4
Skill Labour
Semi-pakka
3000-6000
Reliable
Duwakot
67.00
Male
7
.
Pakka
3000-6000
.
Duwakot
30.00
Female
4
Labour
Semi-pakka
3000-6000
Reliable
Duwakot
92.00
Male
5
Agriculture
Semi-pakka
Below 3000
.
Duwakot
41.00
Female
7
Agriculture
Semi-pakka
3000-6000
Reliable
Jhaukhel
73.00
Male
13
Agriculture
Semi-pakka
Below 3000
.
Jhaukhel
66.00
Male
10
Agriculture
Semi-pakka
Below 3000
.
Jhaukhel
40.00
Male
17
Agriculture
Semi-pakka
6000-12000
.
Jhaukhel
56.00
Male
6
Agriculture
0
3000-6000
.
Jhaukhel
40.00
Male
6
Agriculture
Semi-pakka
3000-6000
.
Balkot
20.00
Female
3
Labour
Semi-pakka
3000-6000
Unreliable
Balkot
53.00
Male
5
Agriculture
Pakka
3000-6000
Moderate
Balkot
42.00
Female
5
Agriculture
Kachcha
3000-6000
.
Balkot
26.00
Male
4
Retailer
Semi-pakka
6000-12000
.
Panga
54.00
Female
5
Retailer
Semi-pakka
6000-12000
Unreliable
(scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered) Fring area (scattered)
Panga VDC
9
Panga VDC
9
Panga VDC
9
Panga VDC
9
Panga VDC
9
Panga VDC
9
Taudaha VDC Taudaha VDC Taudaha VDC
15
Water quality
Distance travel
Water need
Water collect
Complain for service delivery
Respond to complain
Sustainable model
Suitable management
For Effective management
For more connection
Quality control
Acceptable
.
15.00
No
.
Phone call ...
100 m
50.00
No
.
Bulk distribution... Public tap ...
Managed by NGO
Unacceptable
Less than 50 Liter 50 Liter
Phone call ...
Moderate
.
40.00
No
.
Managed by CWUC Managed by NGO
Acceptable
.
.
Yes
Moderate
.
Acceptable Moderate
Less than 100 m 200 m
Moderate
.
Moderate
.
With the increase ... With the approval ... With the approval ... With the increase ... With the increase ... With the increase ... With the increase ... With the approval ... With the
Need water quality... Need awareness... Need water quality... Need water quality... Need water quality... Need water quality... Need awareness... Need awareness... Need
15 15
More than 300 Liter 100 Liter
Panga
64.00
Male
6
Agriculture
Semi-pakka
3000-6000
Unreliable
Panga
48.00
Female
5
Skill Labour
Semi-pakka
6000-12000
Unreliable
Panga
64.00
Male
7
Agriculture
Semi-pakka
6000-12000
Unreliable
Panga
60.00
Female
6
Agriculture
Semi-pakka
3000-6000
Unreliable
Panga
45.00
Female
5
Retailer
Pakka
6000-12000
Unreliable
Panga
45.00
Male
6
Labour
Pakka
6000-12000
Unreliable
Taudaha
36.00
Female
4
Retailer
Pakka
6000-12000
Unreliable
Taudaha
62.00
Female
7
Agriculture
Pakka
Above 12000
Reliable
Taudaha
48.00
Female
6
Agriculture
Semi-pakka
Above 12000
Reliable
More than 300 Liter 100 Liter
30.00
Yes
20.00
Yes
On their own priority On their own priority Promptly
150 Liter
10.00
No
.
More than 300 Liter 200 Liter
25.00
Yes
Promptly
20.00
Yes
Promptly
Tanker supply ... Private connectio... Tanker supply ... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private
Managed by LGA/WC Managed by private party Managed by CWUC Managed by LGA/WC Managed by CWUC Managed by
Penalizing... Penalizing... Penalizing... Phone call ... Phone call ... Penalizing... Penalizing...
connectio... Private connectio... Public tap ...
Moderate
.
100 Liter
20.00
No
.
Moderate
200 m
50 Liter
20.00
No
.
Acceptable
100 m
100 Liter
40.00
No
.
Acceptable
200 m
100 Liter
85.00
No
.
Moderate
Less than 100 m 200 m
150 Liter
150.00
No
.
Less than 50 Liter 150 Liter
20.00
No
.
150.00
No
.
30.00
No
.
20.00
Yes
Moderate
Less than 100 m 100 m
Less than 50 Liter Less than 50 Liter 150 Liter
150.00
No
On their own priority .
Moderate
100 m
50 Liter
50.00
No
.
Unacceptable
50 Liter
25.00
No
.
Moderate
Less than 100 m 300 m
Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Ground water...
50 Liter
50.00
No
.
Ground water...
Moderate
100 m
50 Liter
20.00
Yes
Unacceptable
300 m
100 Liter
200.00
No
No response .
Private connectio... Ground water...
Moderate
100 m
50 Liter
50.00
No
.
Public tap ...
Moderate
100 m
20.00
No
.
Public tap ...
Moderate
100 m
Less than 50 Liter 50 Liter
50.00
No
.
Public tap ...
Moderate
100 m
150 Liter
150.00
No
.
Public tap ...
Moderate
.
50.00
.
.
Moderate
.
100.00
.
.
Moderate
.
Less than 50 Liter Less than 50 Liter Less than
100.00
.
.
Private connectio... Private connectio... Public tap ...
Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate
Less than 100 m 200 m
Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Public tap ... Private connectio... Public tap ...
LGA/WC Managed by LGA/WC Managed by CWUC Managed by NGO Managed by KUKL Managed by CWUC Managed by CWUC Managed by CWUC Managed by KUKL Managed by CWUC Managed by CWUC Managed by LGA/WC Managed by KUKL Managed by LGA/WC Managed by LGA/WC Managed by CWUC Managed by CWUC Managed by CWUC Managed by CWUC Managed by CWUC Managed by KUKL Managed by LGA/WC Managed by
Penalizing... Penalizing... Blocking... Public name ... Phone call ... Phone call ... Phone call ... Phone call ... Phone call ... Blocking... Phone call ... Phone call ... Penalizing... Phone call ... Penalizing... Phone call ... Phone call ... Phone call ... Phone call ... Blocking... Penalizing... Penalizing...
increase ... With the increase ... With the approval ... With the increase ... With the increase ... With the increase ... With the increase ... With the increase ... With the increase ... With the increase ... With the approval ... With the additional... With the increase ... With the increase ... With the additional... With the increase ... With the increase ... With the increase ... With the increase ... With the increase ... With the additional... With the additional... With the
awareness... Need water quality... Handle water ... Handle water ... Handle water ... Need operation... Need water quality... Need water quality... Handle water ... Need water quality... Need operation... Handle water ... Handle water ... Need awareness... Handle water ... Need operation... Need operation... Need water quality... Need operation... Need water quality... Handle water ... Need water quality... Need water
Moderate
.
Moderate
.
Moderate
.
Moderate
.
.
.
Moderate
.
Moderate
.
Moderate
100 m
Acceptable Acceptable
Less than 100 m .
Acceptable
.
Acceptable Acceptable
Less than 100 m .
Moderate
50 Liter 100 Liter
200.00
.
.
50.00
.
.
20.00
.
.
50.00
.
.
40.00
.
.
Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Public tap ...
20.00
.
.
Public tap ...
Less than 50 Liter Less than 50 Liter Less than 50 Liter Less than 50 Liter Less than 50 Liter Less than 50 Liter 150 Liter
60.00
.
.
Public tap ...
150.00
No
.
50 Liter
50.00
Yes
Promptly
100 Liter
20.00
Yes
Promptly
Less than 50 Liter 100 Liter
20.00
Yes
Promptly
Bulk distribution... Private connectio... Private connectio... Ground water...
90.00
Yes
Promptly
150.00
.
.
.
More than 300 Liter 150 Liter
100.00
.
.
Moderate
.
200 Liter
20.00
.
.
Moderate
Yes
150.00
No
No response .
Moderate
.
200.00
.
.
Moderate
100.00
No
.
50 Liter
120.00
No
.
Moderate
Less than 100 m Less than 100 m .
More than 300 Liter More than 300 Liter Less than 50 Liter 50 Liter
150.00
Acceptable
Less than 100 m .
150 Liter
110.00
.
.
Private connectio... Ground water...
Moderate
100 m
150 Liter
100.00
Yes
No
Private
Moderate
Private connectio... Private connectio... Bulk distribution... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Ground water...
CWUC Managed by KUKL Managed by KUKL Managed by LGA/WC Managed by private party Managed by NGO Managed by CWUC Managed by CWUC Managed by CWUC Managed by KUKL Managed by KUKL Managed by KUKL Managed by KUKL Managed by KUKL Managed by KUKL Managed by CWUC Managed by CWUC Managed by CWUC Managed by CWUC Managed by LGA/WC Managed by KUKL Managed by LGA/WC Managed by
Blocking... Penalizing... Penalizing... . Penalizing... Phone call ... Blocking... Phone call ... Penalizing... Public name ... Public name ... Penalizing... Penalizing... Public name ... . Phone call ... Blocking... Blocking... Phone call ... Public name ... Public name ... Phone call ...
approval ... With the additional... With the additional... With the additional... With the approval ... With the increase ... With the increase ... With the increase ... With the increase ... With the approval ... With the additional... With the increase ... With the approval ... With the additional... With the additional... With the increase ... With the increase ... With the increase ... With the additional... With the increase ... With the additional... With the increase ... With the
quality... Need awareness... Handle water ... Need water quality... Need operation... Need operation... Need operation... Need water quality... Need water quality... Handle water ... Need operation... Handle water ... Need water quality... Need water quality... Handle water ... Handle water ... Need awareness... Need water quality... Need awareness... Need awareness... Need awareness... Need awareness... Need
Moderate
100 m
50 Liter
20.00
No
response .
Moderate
Less than 50 Liter Less than 50 Liter .
20.00
Yes
Promptly
20.00
No
.
.
No
50 Liter
50.00
Yes
No response Promptly
Acceptable
Less than 100 m Less than 100 m Less than 100 m Less than 100 m .
150 Liter
85.00
No
.
Acceptable
.
150 Liter
175.00
Yes
Moderate
.
150 Liter
100.00
No
On their own priority .
Moderate
.
100 Liter
80.00
.
.
Acceptable
.
150 Liter
25.00
.
.
Moderate
50 Liter
105.00
No
.
100 Liter
100.00
No
.
Acceptable
Less than 100 m Less than 100 m 100 m
20.00
No
.
Moderate
100 m
Less than 50 Liter 100 Liter
100.00
No
.
Acceptable
More than 300 Liter 50 Liter
300.00
Yes
Acceptable
Less than 100 m 100 m
50.00
No
On their own priority .
Moderate
100 m
200 Liter
150.00
Yes
Acceptable
.
100 Liter
100.00
Yes
On their own priority Promptly
Acceptable
100 m
100 Liter
100.00
No
.
Moderate
.
50 Liter
50.00
Yes
Acceptable
100 m
150 Liter
100.00
Yes
Acceptable
.
Less than
25.00
Yes
No response No response No
Moderate Moderate Acceptable
Acceptable
connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Tanker supply ... Private connectio... Private connectio... Bulk distribution... Bulk distribution... Private connectio... Bulk distribution... Public tap ... Private connectio... Public tap ... Private connectio... Public tap ... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private
LGA/WC Managed by NGO Managed by KUKL Managed by NGO Managed by KUKL Managed by private party Managed by NGO
Phone call ... Phone call ... Phone call ... Phone call ... Phone call ...
increase ... With the approval ... With the increase ... With the approval ... .
Managed by private party Managed by NGO
Penalizing...
With the approval ... With the increase ... With the approval ... .
Managed by NGO
Blocking...
.
.
Phone call ...
Managed by CWUC Managed by LGA/WC Managed by LGA/WC Managed by CWUC Managed by LGA/WC Managed by LGA/WC Managed by LGA/WC Managed by NGO
Phone call ...
Phone call ...
.
Phone call ...
Managed by LGA/WC Managed by LGA/WC Managed by
Penalizing...
With the approval ... With the additional... With the increase ... With the increase ... With the increase ... With the approval ... With the increase ... With the increase ... With the increase ... With the approval ... With the approval ... With the approval ... With the
Penalizing... Blocking...
Penalizing... Penalizing... Penalizing... . Penalizing... Penalizing...
Phone call ... Blocking...
operation... Handle water ... Handle water ... Handle water ... Handle water ... Need awareness... Need water quality... Need water quality... Need awareness... Need awareness... Need awareness... Need awareness... Handle water ... Need operation... Need water quality... Need operation... Need operation... Handle water ... Need operation... Need water quality... Need operation... Need operation... Handle water
Unacceptable
.
Moderate
.
Unacceptable
.
Unacceptable
.
Unacceptable
.
Acceptable
.
Acceptable
100 m
Moderate
.
Acceptable Acceptable
Less than 100 m 300 m
Moderate
50 Liter More than 300 Liter 50 Liter More than 300 Liter 200 Liter
300.00
No
response .
50.00
No
.
300.00
Yes
15.00
No
No response .
16.00
No
.
50.00
No
.
Less than 50 Liter Less than 50 Liter Less than 50 Liter 50 Liter
35.00
No
.
45.00
Yes
50 Liter
50.00
No
No response .
50 Liter
40.00
No
.
.
50 Liter
50.00
No
.
Acceptable
.
150 Liter
150.00
No
.
Moderate
.
200 Liter
200.00
Yes
Promptly
Moderate
.
100 Liter
100.00
Yes
Moderate
.
200 Liter
200.00
Yes
Acceptable
.
50 Liter
50.00
Yes
Moderate
.
50 Liter
50.00
No
On their own priority No response On their own priority .
Moderate
100 Liter
100.00
Yes
50 Liter
50.00
No
No response .
Unacceptable
Less than 100 m Less than 100 m .
150 Liter
150.00
No
.
Unacceptable
.
150 Liter
150.00
No
.
Moderate
Less than
100 Liter
100.00
No
.
Moderate
connectio... Private connectio... Public tap ... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Public tap ... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private
CWUC Managed by private party Managed by CWUC Managed by LGA/WC Managed by CWUC Managed by NGO
Penalizing...
Managed by NGO
Penalizing...
Managed by LGA/WC Managed by LGA/WC Managed by LGA/WC Managed by LGA/WC Managed by CWUC Managed by CWUC Managed by CWUC Managed by CWUC Managed by CWUC Managed by LGA/WC Managed by LGA/WC Managed by CWUC Managed by CWUC Managed by CWUC Managed by CWUC Managed by
Penalizing...
Penalizing... Phone call ... Penalizing... Phone call ...
Penalizing... Penalizing... Penalizing... Penalizing... Phone call ... Phone call ... Phone call ... Blocking... Phone call ... Phone call ... Blocking... Phone call ... Penalizing... Phone call ... Penalizing...
approval ... With the approval ... With the approval ... With the increase ... With the increase ... With the increase ... With the approval ... With the increase ... With the increase ... With the approval ... With the approval ... With the increase ... With the increase ... With the increase ... With the increase ... With the increase ... With the increase ... With the increase ... With the increase ... With the increase ... With the increase ... With the increase ... With the
... Need operation... Need operation... Handle water ... Need water quality... Need water quality... Handle water ... Need water quality... Handle water ... Handle water ... Handle water ... Need operation... Need water quality... Need water quality... Need water quality... Need operation... Need operation... . Need water quality... Need water quality... Need water quality... Need operation... Need water
Unacceptable
100 m .
150 Liter
100.00
No
.
Moderate
.
100 Liter
100.00
No
.
Unacceptable
.
30.00
No
.
Unacceptable
.
35.00
Yes
Unacceptable
.
Less than 50 Liter Less than 50 Liter 50 Liter
50.00
No
No response .
Unacceptable
.
200 Liter
200.00
No
.
Acceptable
.
100 Liter
100.00
Yes
Promptly
Unacceptable
.
400.00
Yes
Moderate
100 m
30.00
No
On their own priority Promptly
Acceptable
.
40.00
No
.
Acceptable
.
More than 300 Liter Less than 50 Liter Less than 50 Liter 100 Liter
100.00
No
.
Unacceptable
.
100 Liter
100.00
No
.
Acceptable
.
100 Liter
100.00
No
.
Moderate
150 Liter
150.00
No
.
No
.
40.00
No
.
Unacceptable
.
Less than 50 Liter Less than 50 Liter 150 Liter
30.00
Acceptable
Less than 100 m Less than 100 m .
150.00
No
.
Acceptable
100 Liter
100.00
No
.
Moderate
Less than 100 m .
100 Liter
100.00
Yes
Promptly
Unacceptable
.
100 Liter
100.00
No
.
Acceptable
.
50 Liter
40.00
No
.
Moderate
Less than
Less than
30.00
No
.
Acceptable
connectio... Private connectio... Bulk distribution... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Tanker supply ... Bulk
CWUC Managed by LGA/WC Managed by KUKL Managed by KUKL Managed by LGA/WC Managed by KUKL Managed by private party Managed by CWUC Managed by LGA/WC Managed by CWUC Managed by CWUC Managed by CWUC Managed by CWUC Managed by CWUC Managed by KUKL Managed by CWUC Managed by LGA/WC Managed by KUKL Managed by LGA/WC Managed by CWUC Managed by CWUC Managed by LGA/WC Managed by
Penalizing... Phone call ... Penalizing... Phone call ... Penalizing... Penalizing... Phone call ... Phone call ... Phone call ... Phone call ... Penalizing... Penalizing... Phone call ... Phone call ... Blocking... Phone call ... Phone call ... Phone call ... Phone call ... Phone call ... Phone call ... Phone call ...
increase ... With the increase ... With the approval ... With the increase ... With the increase ... With the increase ... With the increase ... With the approval ... With the increase ... With the increase ... With the increase ... With the additional... With the increase ... With the increase ... With the approval ... With the approval ... With the approval ... With the increase ... With the additional... With the increase ... With the approval ... With the increase ... With the
quality... Need operation... Need operation... Need operation... Need operation... Handle water ... Need water quality... Need water quality... Need awareness... Need operation... Need water quality... Need water quality... Need water quality... Need water quality... Need water quality... Handle water ... Need awareness... Handle water ... Handle water ... Need water quality... Need operation... Handle water ... Handle water
Moderate
100 m Less than 100 m .
Acceptable
Moderate
50 Liter 50 Liter
50.00
No
.
25.00
No
.
.
Less than 50 Liter 100 Liter
100.00
No
.
Acceptable
200 m
100 Liter
100.00
Yes
Moderate
.
40.00
No
Acceptable
40.00
No
.
Moderate
Less than 100 m 200 m
10.00
No
.
Acceptable
.
400.00
No
.
Acceptable
.
Less than 50 Liter Less than 50 Liter Less than 50 Liter More than 300 Liter 50 Liter
No response .
50.00
Yes
Moderate
.
50 Liter
50.00
No
On their own priority .
Unacceptable
.
200 Liter
200.00
No
.
Acceptable
.
100 Liter
100.00
Yes
Acceptable
.
100 Liter
20.00
No
No response .
Acceptable
.
500.00
No
.
Acceptable
.
400.00
Yes
Promptly
Unacceptable
.
500.00
Yes
Acceptable
.
More than 300 Liter More than 300 Liter More than 300 Liter 50 Liter
20.00
No
On their own priority .
Acceptable
.
100 Liter
100.00
No
.
Moderate
.
200 Liter
200.00
No
.
Moderate
.
200 Liter
200.00
No
.
Moderate
.
60.00
No
.
Moderate
.
Less than 50 Liter 50 Liter
50.00
Yes
No
distribution... Private connectio... Private connectio... Tanker supply ... Tanker supply ... Private connectio... Private connectio... Public tap ... Private connectio... Private connectio... Tanker supply ... Bulk distribution... Bulk distribution... Tanker supply ... Bulk distribution... Private connectio... Tanker supply ... Bulk distribution... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Tanker supply ... Private
KUKL Managed by LGA/WC Managed by LGA/WC Managed by KUKL Managed by LGA/WC Managed by KUKL Managed by CWUC Managed by CWUC Managed by CWUC Managed by KUKL Managed by LGA/WC Managed by private party Managed by LGA/WC Managed by KUKL Managed by LGA/WC Managed by KUKL Managed by CWUC Managed by CWUC Managed by LGA/WC Managed by private party Managed by LGA/WC Managed by CWUC Managed by NGO
Blocking... Penalizing... . Blocking... Phone call ... Phone call ... Blocking... Phone call ... Penalizing... Penalizing... Blocking... Blocking... Phone call ... Blocking... Blocking... Penalizing... Blocking... Blocking... Penalizing... Phone call ... Phone call ... Phone call ...
approval ... With the approval ... With the additional... With the approval ... With the approval ... With the additional... With the additional... With the approval ... With the increase ... With the additional... With the increase ... With the increase ... With the approval ... With the increase ... With the approval ... With the approval ... With the increase ... With the additional... With the increase ... With the increase ... With the additional... With the additional... With the
... Need water quality... Need awareness... Handle water ... Need operation... Need operation... Need operation... Need awareness... Need water quality... Handle water ... Need operation... Need water quality... Need operation... Need operation... Need operation... Need operation... Need operation... Need operation... Need water quality... Need water quality... Need operation... Need operation... Need
Moderate
.
Unacceptable
.
Unacceptable
.
Acceptable
More than 300 Liter 100 Liter
200.00
Yes
50.00
No
response No response .
30.00
Yes
.
Less than 50 Liter 50 Liter
25.00
Yes
Acceptable
.
50 Liter
50.00
No
On their own priority On their own priority .
Acceptable
.
25.00
No
.
Unacceptable
.
Less than 50 Liter 200 Liter
300.00
No
.
Acceptable
.
50 Liter
45.00
No
.
Moderate
50 Liter
25.00
Yes
Promptly
50 Liter
80.00
No
.
Moderate
Less than 100 m Less than 100 m 100 m
50.00
No
.
Moderate
100 m
80.00
No
.
Moderate
.
35.00
No
.
Moderate
100 m
Less than 50 Liter Less than 50 Liter Less than 50 Liter 100 Liter
100.00
No
.
Moderate
100 m
Moderate
Moderate
40.00
No
.
100 m
Less than 50 Liter 50 Liter
100.00
No
.
Moderate
100 m
50 Liter
70.00
No
.
Moderate
Less than 100 m Less than 100 m .
Less than 50 Liter Less than 50 Liter 100 Liter
40.00
No
.
40.00
No
.
100.00
No
.
Less than 100 m Less than
50 Liter
50.00
No
.
Less than
30.00
No
.
Moderate Acceptable Moderate Moderate
connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Tanker supply ... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Public tap ... Private connectio... Tanker supply ... Tanker supply ... Tanker supply ... Tanker supply ... Tanker supply ... Tanker supply ... Tanker supply ... Tanker supply ... Tanker supply ... Tanker supply ... Public tap ... Private connectio... Private
Managed by LGA/WC Managed by KUKL Managed by private party Managed by private party Managed by private party Managed by NGO Managed by private party Managed by CWUC Managed by LGA/WC Managed by CWUC Managed by CWUC Managed by CWUC Managed by CWUC Managed by CWUC Managed by LGA/WC Managed by CWUC Managed by CWUC Managed by CWUC Managed by CWUC Managed by CWUC Managed by CWUC Managed by
Blocking... Phone call ... Blocking... . Penalizing... Blocking... Penalizing... Penalizing... Penalizing... Blocking... Penalizing... . Penalizing... Phone call ... . . Blocking... . Blocking... Phone call ... Penalizing... Penalizing...
increase ... With the increase ... With the increase ... With the approval ... . With the increase ... With the increase ... . With the additional... With the increase ... With the additional... With the additional... With the approval ... With the additional... With the approval ... With the additional... With the additional... With the approval ... With the approval ... With the approval ... With the increase ... With the increase ... With the
operation... Need awareness... Need operation... Need operation... Need operation... Need water quality... Need water quality... Need water quality... Need operation... Handle water ... Handle water ... Handle water ... Need awareness... Handle water ... Handle water ... Handle water ... Handle water ... Handle water ... Handle water ... Handle water ... Need water quality... Need operation... Need
50 Liter 200 Liter
200.00
No
.
150 Liter
150.00
No
.
150 Liter
50.00
No
.
200 Liter
200.00
No
.
150 Liter
150.00
No
.
150 Liter
150.00
No
.
Moderate
100 m Less than 100 m Less than 100 m Less than 100 m Less than 100 m Less than 100 m Less than 100 m .
200 Liter
100.00
Yes
Moderate
200 m
100.00
Yes
Acceptable
.
More than 300 Liter 200 Liter
160.00
No
On their own priority On their own priority .
Acceptable
.
200 Liter
180.00
No
.
Acceptable
.
50 Liter
10.00
No
.
Acceptable
.
200 Liter
200.00
No
.
Acceptable
.
200 Liter
100.00
No
.
Acceptable
.
375.00
No
.
Moderate
.
More than 300 Liter 150 Liter
120.00
No
.
Acceptable
.
50 Liter
35.00
Yes
Moderate
.
200 Liter
200.00
No
No response .
Acceptable
100 Liter
90.00
No
.
Moderate
Less than 100 m .
200.00
No
.
Moderate
.
Less than 50 Liter 200 Liter
200.00
No
.
Unacceptable
300 m
225.00
Yes
Unacceptable
.
More than 300 Liter Less than
100.00
Yes
On their own priority Promptly
Acceptable Acceptable Unacceptable Unacceptable Unacceptable Unacceptable
connectio... Private connectio... Public tap ... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Bulk distribution... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Public tap ... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private
CWUC Managed by CWUC Managed by CWUC Managed by CWUC Managed by CWUC Managed by LGA/WC Managed by CWUC Managed by private party Managed by LGA/WC Managed by CWUC Managed by KUKL Managed by KUKL Managed by KUKL Managed by KUKL Managed by LGA/WC Managed by KUKL Managed by LGA/WC Managed by NGO Managed by KUKL Managed by NGO Managed by KUKL Managed by CWUC Managed by
Phone call ... Phone call ... Phone call ... Phone call ... Penalizing... Penalizing... Phone call ... Phone call ... Public name ... Public name ... Penalizing... Blocking... Penalizing... Phone call ... Blocking... Blocking... Blocking... Phone call ... Phone call ... Phone call ... Phone call ... Blocking...
increase ... With the increase ... With the increase ... With the increase ... With the increase ... With the increase ... With the increase ... With the additional... With the approval ... With the approval ... With the increase ... With the approval ... With the increase ... With the increase ... With the approval ... With the increase ... With the approval ... With the additional... With the increase ... With the additional... . With the increase ... With the
operation... Need water quality... Need water quality... Need water quality... Handle water ... Need water quality... Need water quality... Need awareness... Need awareness... Handle water ... Handle water ... Handle water ... Need water quality... Need awareness... Need water quality... Need water quality... Need awareness... Need water quality... Need water quality... Handle water ... Handle water ... Need operation... Handle water
35.00
No
.
150.00
No
.
Moderate
Less than 100 m .
50 Liter Less than 50 Liter 150 Liter 100 Liter
100.00
Yes
Moderate
.
100 Liter
70.00
No
On their own priority .
Acceptable
.
30.00
No
.
Acceptable
.
Less than 50 Liter 100 Liter
100.00
Yes
Moderate
.
50 Liter
50.00
No
On their own priority .
Moderate
200 Liter
200.00
Yes
Promptly
Moderate
Less than 100 m .
200 Liter
200.00
Yes
Moderate
.
.
No
Acceptable
.
Less than 50 Liter 100 Liter
On their own priority .
100.00
No
.
Acceptable
.
32.00
Yes
Acceptable
.
Less than 50 Liter 100 Liter
100.00
No
On their own priority .
Moderate
.
100 Liter
100.00
Yes
Moderate
.
200 Liter
200.00
Yes
Acceptable
.
100 Liter
100.00
Yes
Unacceptable
.
100 Liter
100.00
No
Moderate
200 m
200 Liter
200.00
Yes
Moderate
.
30.00
Yes
Moderate
.
500.00
Yes
Acceptable
.
Less than 50 Liter More than 300 Liter 100 Liter
100.00
No
On their own priority On their own priority On their own priority .
Acceptable
.
150 Liter
30.00
Yes
On their
Moderate
.
Acceptable
On their own priority On their own priority On their own priority .
connectio... Tanker supply ... Public tap ... Tanker supply ... Bulk distribution... Bulk distribution... Bulk distribution... Private connectio... Private connectio... Tanker supply ... Bulk distribution... Private connectio... Tanker supply ... Ground water... Bulk distribution... Public tap ... Bulk distribution... Private connectio... Bulk distribution... Public tap ... Private connectio... Tanker supply ... Public tap ...
CWUC Managed by CWUC Managed by KUKL Managed by CWUC Managed by LGA/WC Managed by LGA/WC Managed by LGA/WC Managed by CWUC Managed by LGA/WC Managed by LGA/WC Managed by LGA/WC Managed by KUKL Managed by KUKL Managed by CWUC Managed by CWUC Managed by LGA/WC Managed by LGA/WC Managed by CWUC Managed by CWUC Managed by CWUC Managed by KUKL Managed by KUKL Managed by
Blocking... Blocking... Blocking... Penalizing... Blocking... Blocking... Penalizing... Public name ... Blocking... Phone call ... Penalizing... Penalizing... Blocking... Phone call ... Blocking... Phone call ... Phone call ... Phone call ... Phone call ... Penalizing... Phone call ... Penalizing...
increase ... With the approval ... With the additional... With the increase ... With the approval ... With the increase ... With the approval ... With the increase ... With the increase ... With the approval ... With the increase ... With the approval ... With the approval ... With the approval ... With the approval ... With the increase ... With the increase ... With the additional... With the approval ... With the increase ... With the increase ... With the increase ... With the
... Handle water ... Need operation... Handle water ... Need water quality... Need operation... Need water quality... Need operation... Need operation... Need operation... Handle water ... Need operation... Need operation... Need operation... Need water quality... Need water quality... Need operation... Need operation... Need operation... Need operation... Need operation... Need operation... Need
Acceptable
.
100 Liter
120.00
Yes
Acceptable
.
40.00
No
Acceptable
200.00
Yes
Acceptable
Less than 100 m .
Less than 50 Liter 200 Liter
Acceptable
own priority On their own priority .
35.00
No
100 m
Less than 50 Liter 200 Liter
On their own priority .
200.00
No
.
Acceptable
.
50 Liter
50.00
No
.
Moderate
.
200 Liter
200.00
No
.
Acceptable
.
100 Liter
100.00
Yes
Promptly
Moderate
.
100.00
Yes
Unacceptable
.
Less than 50 Liter 100 Liter
80.00
Yes
Acceptable
.
50 Liter
70.00
Yes
Acceptable
.
50 Liter
60.00
Yes
Moderate
200 Liter
200.00
Yes
Moderate
Less than 100 m .
40.00
No
Acceptable
.
Less than 50 Liter 100 Liter
No response No response No response On their own priority No response .
100.00
Yes
Promptly
Acceptable
.
200 Liter
200.00
Yes
Moderate
.
200 Liter
30.00
Yes
Acceptable
.
40.00
No
Acceptable
Less than 100 m .
Less than 50 Liter More than 300 Liter Less than 50 Liter 50 Liter
On their own priority No response .
200.00
Yes
30.00
Yes
45.00
100 Liter
100.00
Unacceptable Acceptable Moderate
Less than 100 m .
Tanker supply ... Private connectio... Private connectio... Public tap ... Private connectio... Tanker supply ... Bulk distribution... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Ground water... Private connectio... Public tap ... Public tap ... Private connectio... Public tap ... Private connectio... Public tap ...
No
On their own priority On their own priority .
Private connectio... Tanker supply ... Ground water...
Yes
On their
Private
private party Managed by LGA/WC . Managed by CWUC Managed by NGO Managed by KUKL Managed by LGA/WC Managed by KUKL Managed by LGA/WC Managed by LGA/WC Managed by CWUC Managed by CWUC Managed by NGO Managed by LGA/WC Managed by KUKL Managed by CWUC Managed by LGA/WC Managed by LGA/WC Managed by LGA/WC Managed by KUKL Managed by KUKL Managed by CWUC Managed by
Blocking... Blocking... Blocking... Public name ... Blocking... Phone call ... Phone call ... Phone call ... Blocking... Phone call ... Penalizing... Phone call ... Blocking... Phone call ... Phone call ... Blocking... Phone call ... Blocking... Blocking... Blocking... Blocking... Blocking...
increase ... With the approval ... With the increase ... With the approval ... With the increase ... With the approval ... With the approval ... . With the additional... With the increase ... With the approval ... With the increase ... With the increase ... With the increase ... With the approval ... With the increase ... With the increase ... With the increase ... With the additional... With the additional... With the additional... With the approval ... With the
operation... Need operation... Handle water ... Need awareness... Need water quality... Need operation... Handle water ... Need water quality... Need operation... Need water quality... Need water quality... Need operation... Need operation... Need water quality... Handle water ... Need operation... Need water quality... Need water quality... Handle water ... Need water quality... Need operation... Need operation... Handle water
300.00
No
own priority .
connectio... Ground water...
.
More than 300 Liter 50 Liter
40.00
Yes
Promptly
Acceptable
.
50 Liter
18.00
No
.
Moderate
.
200 Liter
200.00
Yes
Moderate
100 m
150 Liter
100.00
Yes
Acceptable
.
400.00
No
Acceptable
.
More than 300 Liter 50 Liter
No response On their own priority .
Tanker supply ... Tanker supply ... Public tap ...
75.00
No
.
Acceptable
.
50 Liter
15.00
No
.
Moderate
.
50 Liter
30.00
Yes
Acceptable
.
20.00
Yes
Moderate
.
Less than 50 Liter 50 Liter
50.00
No
On their own priority No response .
Moderate
.
150 Liter
150.00
Yes
Acceptable
.
50 Liter
50.00
No
On their own priority .
Acceptable
50 Liter
40.00
No
.
Acceptable
Less than 100 m .
50 Liter
50.00
Yes
Moderate
.
200 Liter
200.00
Yes
Acceptable
.
200 Liter
150.00
Yes
Acceptable
.
200 Liter
200.00
Yes
Acceptable
.
50.00
No
Moderate
.
Less than 50 Liter 150 Liter
No response On their own priority On their own priority No response .
150.00
No
.
Acceptable
.
50 Liter
40.00
No
.
Moderate
.
More than
200.00
Yes
Promptly
Acceptable
.
Acceptable
Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Public tap ... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private
LGA/WC Managed by LGA/WC Managed by CWUC Managed by CWUC Managed by KUKL Managed by LGA/WC Managed by KUKL Managed by NGO Managed by CWUC Managed by KUKL Managed by CWUC Managed by LGA/WC Managed by CWUC Managed by KUKL Managed by KUKL Managed by CWUC Managed by NGO Managed by KUKL Managed by LGA/WC Managed by CWUC Managed by KUKL Managed by KUKL Managed by
Phone call ... Blocking... . Blocking... . Phone call ... Public name ... Penalizing... . Phone call ... Penalizing... Blocking... Penalizing... Public name ... Penalizing... Phone call ... Penalizing... Blocking... Phone call ... Blocking... Penalizing... .
additional... With the increase ... With the increase ... With the increase ... With the increase ... With the additional... With the increase ... With the approval ... With the approval ... With the increase ... With the increase ... With the increase ... With the approval ... With the increase ... With the increase ... With the increase ... With the increase ... With the increase ... With the approval ... With the increase ... With the approval ... With the approval ... With the
... Need water quality... Need operation... Need operation... Need operation... Need water quality... Need operation... Handle water ... Need operation... Need operation... Need operation... Need water quality... Need operation... Handle water ... Handle water ... Handle water ... Need awareness... Need awareness... Need water quality... Need water quality... Handle water ... Handle water ... Need water
Unacceptable
.
Moderate
.
Acceptable
.
Acceptable
100 m
Acceptable
.
Moderate
.
Acceptable
.
Acceptable
.
Moderate
300 Liter 50 Liter
connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Ground water...
50.00
Yes
Less than 50 Liter 200 Liter
30.00
No
No response .
200.00
No
Promptly
Less than 50 Liter Less than 50 Liter Less than 50 Liter 50 Liter
20.00
No
.
30.00
No
.
10.00
No
.
Tanker supply ... Public tap ...
20.00
No
.
Public tap ...
30.00
Yes
.
Less than 50 Liter 150 Liter
100.00
No
On their own priority .
Acceptable
.
50 Liter
70.00
Yes
Acceptable
.
100 Liter
90.00
No
No response .
Acceptable
100 m
50 Liter
40.00
Yes
Promptly
Acceptable
Less than 100 m .
Less than 50 Liter 50 Liter
50.00
Yes
40.00
Yes Yes
35.00
Yes
Unacceptable
.
More than 300 Liter Less than 50 Liter 200 Liter
20.00
Moderate
More than 300 m 100 m
40.00
No
On their own priority On their own priority No response On their own priority .
Tanker supply ... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Public tap ...
Acceptable
100 m
100 Liter
100.00
No
.
Acceptable
100 m
200 Liter
200.00
Yes
Moderate
100 Liter
100.00
Yes
Moderate
Less than 100 m .
100 Liter
100.00
No
On their own priority On their own priority .
Moderate
.
100 Liter
100.00
No
.
Moderate Unacceptable
Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Public tap ... Bulk distribution... Public tap ...
CWUC Managed by KUKL Managed by CWUC Managed by CWUC Managed by CWUC Managed by KUKL Managed by CWUC Managed by KUKL Managed by NGO Managed by LGA/WC Managed by CWUC Managed by KUKL Managed by KUKL Managed by CWUC Managed by KUKL Managed by LGA/WC Managed by LGA/WC Managed by LGA/WC Managed by LGA/WC Managed by KUKL Managed by LGA/WC Managed by LGA/WC Managed by
Phone call ... Blocking... Penalizing... Public name ... Blocking... Phone call ... Penalizing... Phone call ... Phone call ... Phone call ... Public name ... Penalizing... Phone call ... Phone call ... Penalizing... Penalizing... Blocking... Penalizing... Penalizing... Phone call ... Penalizing... .
increase ... With the increase ... With the additional... With the approval ... With the additional... With the increase ... With the additional... With the increase ... With the approval ... With the increase ... With the increase ... With the increase ... With the increase ... . With the increase ... With the additional... With the increase ... With the increase ... With the additional... With the increase ... With the increase ... With the additional... With the
quality... Need water quality... Need awareness... Need water quality... Need operation... Handle water ... Need water quality... Need water quality... Need operation... Need operation... Need operation... Handle water ... Handle water ... Handle water ... Need water quality... Need operation... Need water quality... Need awareness... Need operation... Need operation... Need operation... Need operation... Handle water
Unacceptable
.
50 Liter
50.00
No
.
Acceptable
.
200 Liter
250.00
No
.
Moderate
.
350.00
No
.
Acceptable
.
More than 300 Liter 200 Liter
150.00
No
.
Unacceptable
.
200 Liter
200.00
No
.
Private connectio... Public tap ...
Moderate
100 m
50 Liter
55.00
No
.
Ground water...
Moderate
.
150 Liter
100.00
No
.
Ground water...
Moderate
100 m
100 Liter
100.00
No
.
Ground water...
Moderate
.
50 Liter
50.00
No
.
Public tap ...
Moderate
.
200 Liter
200.00
Yes
Acceptable
.
40.00
No
Bulk distribution... Public tap ...
Moderate
.
Less than 50 Liter 100 Liter
On their own priority .
95.00
No
.
Acceptable
.
200 Liter
200.00
.
.
Moderate
.
150 Liter
150.00
.
.
Unacceptable
100 m
40.00
Yes
Moderate
Less than 100 m Less than 100 m Less than 100 m Less than 100 m Less than 100 m More than 300 m More than
Less than 50 Liter 200 Liter
200.00
No
No response .
50 Liter
45.00
No
.
Bulk distribution... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Public tap ...
200 Liter
60.00
Yes
Less than 50 Liter 150 Liter
10.00
No
On their own priority .
100.00
No
.
More than 300 Liter Less than
750.00
Yes
35.00
No
No response .
Acceptable Moderate Moderate Unacceptable Moderate Moderate
Bulk distribution... Private connectio... Public tap ...
Public tap ... Bulk distribution... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private
CWUC Managed by CWUC Managed by NGO
Phone call ...
additional... With the additional... With the additional... With the increase ... With the approval ... With the additional... With the additional... With the increase ... With the additional... With the additional... With the approval ... .
Phone call ...
.
Phone call ...
With the approval ... With the approval ... With the increase ... With the approval ... With the increase ... With the additional... With the approval ... With the increase ... With the increase ... With the
Public name ... Public name ...
Managed by CWUC Managed by LGA/WC Managed by CWUC Managed by CWUC Managed by LGA/WC Managed by LGA/WC Managed by LGA/WC Managed by CWUC Managed by KUKL Managed by KUKL Managed by CWUC .
Penalizing...
Managed by CWUC Managed by CWUC Managed by KUKL Managed by LGA/WC Managed by LGA/WC Managed by KUKL Managed by LGA/WC Managed by
Phone call ...
Phone call ... Phone call ... Public name ... Phone call ... Phone call ... Blocking... Blocking...
Phone call ...
Phone call ... Penalizing... Penalizing... . Penalizing... Phone call ... Blocking...
... Handle water ... Need awareness... Need water quality... Need water quality... Need water quality... Need awareness... Handle water ... Need water quality... Handle water ... Need awareness... Handle water ... Handle water ... Handle water ... Handle water ... Need awareness... Need water quality... Handle water ... Handle water ... Handle water ... Need awareness... Need awareness... Need
Acceptable Acceptable Moderate Moderate
300 m Less than 100 m Less than 100 m 100 m
Unacceptable
Less than 100 m 100 m
Acceptable
.
Acceptable
.
Acceptable
.
Unacceptable
50 Liter 100 Liter Less than 50 Liter More than 300 Liter 150 Liter
75.00
No
.
connectio... Public tap ...
30.00
No
.
Public tap ...
300.00
No
.
100.00
No
.
Private connectio... Public tap ...
40.00
Yes
Promptly
40.00
Yes
50.00
Yes
30.00
No
On their own priority On their own priority .
.
Less than 50 Liter Less than 50 Liter Less than 50 Liter Less than 50 Liter 50 Liter
25.00
No
.
Acceptable
.
50 Liter
100.00
Yes
Promptly
Moderate
.
100 Liter
55.00
Yes
Acceptable
100 m
100 Liter
100.00
Yes
On their own priority Promptly
Acceptable
Less than 100 m .
150 Liter
50.00
Yes
100 Liter
100.00
Yes
On their own priority Promptly
More than 300 Liter Less than 50 Liter 200 Liter
50.00
No
.
200.00
No
.
Acceptable
More than 300 m More than 300 m 100 m
60.00
No
.
Moderate
300 m
200 Liter
60.00
No
.
Acceptable
100 m
50 Liter
40.00
No
.
Moderate
Less than 100 m Less than 100 m Less than
50 Liter
50.00
No
.
Less than 50 Liter 50 Liter
40.00
No
.
40.00
Yes
On their
Acceptable Moderate Moderate
Acceptable Acceptable
Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Bulk distribution... Private connectio... Bulk distribution... Public tap ... Bulk distribution... Public tap ... Tanker supply ... Bulk distribution... Ground water... Private connectio... Private connectio... Public tap ... Private connectio... Private connectio... Public tap ...
LGA/WC Managed by CWUC Managed by CWUC Managed by NGO Managed by LGA/WC Managed by LGA/WC Managed by LGA/WC Managed by LGA/WC Managed by CWUC Managed by NGO Managed by KUKL Managed by CWUC Managed by CWUC Managed by NGO Managed by CWUC Managed by CWUC Managed by CWUC Managed by CWUC Managed by CWUC Managed by LGA/WC Managed by NGO Managed by CWUC Managed by
Public name ... Penalizing... Phone call ... Phone call ... Phone call ... Blocking... Blocking... Phone call ... Penalizing... Phone call ... Phone call ... Public name ... Penalizing... Blocking... Public name ... Phone call ... Phone call ... Phone call ... Phone call ... Penalizing... Phone call ... Penalizing...
approval ... With the increase ... With the approval ... With the increase ... With the approval ... With the additional... With the approval ... With the increase ... With the approval ... With the additional... With the increase ... With the additional... With the approval ... With the additional... With the increase ... With the approval ... With the approval ... With the increase ... With the approval ... With the approval ... With the increase ... With the additional... With the
awareness... Handle water ... Need operation... Need operation... Need water quality... Need awareness... Need water quality... Need water quality... Handle water ... Need awareness... Need operation... Handle water ... Need operation... Need operation... Need operation... Need operation... Need operation... Need water quality... Need water quality... Need operation... Need water quality... Need operation... Need
Acceptable Acceptable Acceptable Acceptable Moderate Acceptable
100 m Less than 100 m Less than 100 m Less than 100 m Less than 100 m 200 m
100 Liter
80.00
Yes
own priority Promptly
Public tap ...
100 Liter
100.00
No
.
Public tap ...
100 Liter
100.00
Yes
100 Liter
100.00
Yes
100 Liter
60.00
No
No response On their own priority .
150 Liter
65.00
Yes
Less than 50 Liter 100 Liter
20.00
No
70.00
Yes
50 Liter
30.00
Yes
50 Liter
50.00
No
On their own priority On their own priority .
Private connectio... Tanker supply ... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Public tap ...
200 Liter
200.00
No
.
Acceptable
Less than 100 m Less than 100 m Less than 100 m Less than 100 m Less than 100 m Less than 100 m 200 m
50 Liter
50.00
No
.
Acceptable
200 m
50 Liter
50.00
No
.
Acceptable
Less than 100 m Less than 100 m Less than 100 m .
50 Liter
50.00
No
.
50 Liter
50.00
No
.
100 Liter
100.00
No
.
100 Liter
100.00
No
.
200 Liter
200.00
No
.
100 Liter
100.00
Yes
Promptly
150 Liter
150.00
Yes
Promptly
100 Liter
100.00
Yes
50 Liter
50.00
No
On their own priority .
Acceptable Acceptable Acceptable Acceptable Acceptable
Moderate Acceptable Moderate Unacceptable Unacceptable Unacceptable Unacceptable Acceptable
Less than 100 m Less than 100 m Less than 100 m Less than 100 m Less than
On their own priority .
Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Tanker supply ... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private
CWUC Managed by CWUC Managed by CWUC Managed by LGA/WC Managed by CWUC Managed by LGA/WC Managed by CWUC Managed by KUKL Managed by KUKL Managed by KUKL Managed by CWUC Managed by LGA/WC Managed by LGA/WC Managed by NGO Managed by LGA/WC Managed by LGA/WC Managed by CWUC Managed by LGA/WC Managed by CWUC Managed by CWUC Managed by LGA/WC Managed by CWUC Managed by
Penalizing... Phone call ... Penalizing... Blocking... Blocking... Phone call ... Penalizing... Penalizing... Penalizing... Public name ... Phone call ... Penalizing... Penalizing... Phone call ... Phone call ... Penalizing... Penalizing... Penalizing... Penalizing... Phone call ... Phone call ... Public name ...
increase ... With the increase ... With the increase ... With the additional... With the approval ... With the increase ... With the approval ... With the increase ... With the increase ... With the increase ... With the approval ... With the increase ... With the approval ... With the increase ... With the increase ... With the increase ... With the increase ... With the increase ... With the increase ... With the increase ... With the additional... With the increase ... With the
operation... Need operation... Need awareness... Handle water ... Need operation... Need water quality... Need water quality... Need water quality... Need water quality... Need operation... Need water quality... Need operation... Handle water ... Need operation... Need operation... Need operation... Handle water ... Need operation... Need water quality... Need water quality... Need operation... Need water quality... Handle water
Acceptable
100 m Less than 100 m Less than 100 m Less than 100 m Less than 100 m Less than 100 m Less than 100 m Less than 100 m .
Unacceptable
Acceptable
200 Liter
170.00
Yes
150 Liter
150.00
Yes
Less than 50 Liter 150 Liter
50.00
Yes
150.00
Yes
50 Liter
25.00
Yes
Less than 50 Liter Less than 50 Liter 100 Liter
15.00
No
No response No response On their own priority On their own priority No response .
20.00
Yes
Promptly
80.00
No
.
.
200 Liter
200.00
No
.
Acceptable
.
150 Liter
150.00
No
.
Acceptable
.
100 Liter
100.00
No
.
Moderate
.
50.00
No
.
Moderate
.
40.00
No
.
Moderate
.
Less than 50 Liter Less than 50 Liter 50 Liter
40.00
No
.
Acceptable
.
100 Liter
50.00
Yes
Promptly
Acceptable
Less than 100 m .
150 Liter
150.00
No
.
50 Liter
.
No
.
Acceptable Acceptable Acceptable Acceptable Acceptable Moderate
Moderate Acceptable
50 Liter
20.00
No
.
Acceptable
Less than 100 m 100 m
100 Liter
90.00
No
.
Unacceptable
.
100 Liter
115.00
No
.
Moderate
200 m
50.00
No
.
Acceptable
Less than
Less than 50 Liter 150 Liter
150.00
Yes
Promptly
connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Tanker supply ... Public tap ...
CWUC Managed by LGA/WC Managed by NGO
Blocking...
.
Phone call ...
Managed by LGA/WC Managed by NGO
Phone call ...
Managed by LGA/WC Managed by CWUC Managed by CWUC Managed by CWUC Managed by CWUC Managed by CWUC Managed by LGA/WC .
Phone call ...
Tanker supply ... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Bulk distribution... Ground water...
.
Phone call ...
Managed by KUKL Managed by LGA/WC Managed by KUKL Managed by LGA/WC Managed by CWUC Managed by CWUC Managed by KUKL Managed by
Phone call ...
Private connectio... Private
Phone call ...
Phone call ...
Blocking... Penalizing... Penalizing... Phone call ... Blocking... Phone call ... Phone call ...
Phone call ...
increase ... . With the approval ... With the approval ... With the approval ... With the increase ... With the approval ... With the approval ... With the approval ... With the increase ... With the increase ... With the increase ... With the approval ... With the approval ... With the approval ... .
Phone call ...
With the increase ... .
Phone call ...
.
Blocking...
With the additional... With the increase ... With the increase ... .
Phone call ... Phone call ... Phone call ...
... Handle water ... Need water quality... Need operation... Need water quality... Handle water ... Need operation... Handle water ... Handle water ... Handle water ... Need water quality... Need water quality... Need water quality... Need water quality... Handle water ... Handle water ... Need water quality... Need water quality... Handle water ... Handle water ... Need awareness... Handle water ... Need
Acceptable
100 m 100 m
50 Liter
50.00
No
.
Acceptable
100 m
50 Liter
50.00
No
.
Acceptable
100 m
50 Liter
50.00
No
.
Acceptable
100 m
50 Liter
50.00
No
.
Acceptable
100 m
50 Liter
50.00
No
.
Acceptable
.
30.00
No
.
Acceptable
.
Less than 50 Liter 50 Liter
50.00
No
.
connectio... Tanker supply ... Tanker supply ... Tanker supply ... Bulk distribution... Bulk distribution... Private connectio... Public tap ...
Acceptable
200 m
50 Liter
50.00
Yes
Acceptable
More than 300 m .
200 Liter
200.00
Yes
50 Liter
50.00
Yes
No response No response Promptly
Tanker supply ... Private connectio... Public tap ...
Less than 50 Liter 50 Liter
40.00
Yes
Acceptable
Less than 100 m .
30.00
No
On their own priority .
Moderate
100 m
100 Liter
80.00
No
.
Moderate
.
200 Liter
100.00
Yes
Moderate
.
150 Liter
100.00
Yes
Unacceptable
.
50 Liter
50.00
No
On their own priority No response .
Tanker supply ... Private connectio... Tanker supply ... Ground water...
Acceptable
.
200 Liter
200.00
Yes
Acceptable
100 m
200 Liter
150.00
No
Moderate
.
100 Liter
100.00
Yes
Acceptable
.
200 Liter
200.00
Yes
Unacceptable
.
150 Liter
150.00
Yes
Moderate
Less than
200 Liter
200.00
No
Acceptable Acceptable
On their own priority . No response Promptly On their own priority .
Private connectio... Bulk distribution... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Public tap ...
CWUC Managed by private party Managed by KUKL Managed by LGA/WC Managed by KUKL Managed by CWUC Managed by LGA/WC Managed by LGA/WC Managed by LGA/WC Managed by CWUC Managed by LGA/WC Managed by LGA/WC Managed by private party Managed by KUKL Managed by LGA/WC Managed by LGA/WC Managed by KUKL Managed by CWUC Managed by KUKL Managed by NGO Managed by KUKL Managed by KUKL Managed by
Blocking... Blocking... Penalizing... Blocking... Public name ... Penalizing... . Blocking... Phone call ... Phone call ... Blocking... Phone call ... Phone call ... Penalizing... Penalizing... Public name ... Blocking... Phone call ... Penalizing... . Phone call ... Penalizing...
With the increase ... With the additional... With the approval ... With the increase ... With the increase ... With the approval ... With the additional... With the increase ... With the increase ... With the approval ... . With the increase ... With the increase ... With the approval ... With the increase ... With the increase ... With the approval ... . With the increase ... With the approval ... With the approval ... With the
awareness... Need operation... Need operation... Handle water ... Handle water ... Handle water ... Need awareness... Handle water ... Handle water ... Handle water ... Handle water ... Handle water ... Handle water ... Handle water ... Need operation... Need operation... Need operation... Need water quality... Handle water ... Need operation... Need water quality... Need awareness... Handle water
Moderate Moderate
100 m .
50 Liter
50.00
Yes
Public tap ...
No
On their own priority .
50 Liter
50.00 150.00
Yes
Promptly
250.00
Yes
Promptly
30.00
No
.
Private connectio... Private connectio... Ground water...
Acceptable
Less than 100 m .
Public tap ...
Acceptable
.
Moderate
300 m
More than 300 Liter More than 300 Liter 50 Liter
Acceptable
.
50 Liter
50.00
No
.
Ground water...
Acceptable
200 m
50 Liter
50.00
No
.
Ground water...
Acceptable
.
50 Liter
50.00
No
.
Acceptable
150 Liter
140.00
No
.
Acceptable
Less than 100 m .
Bulk distribution... Public tap ...
150 Liter
150.00
No
.
Ground water...
Acceptable
.
150 Liter
150.00
No
.
Acceptable
.
50 Liter
60.00
Yes
Acceptable
.
150 Liter
150.00
No
On their own priority .
Tanker supply ... Ground water...
Acceptable
.
150 Liter
150.00
No
.
Unacceptable
.
50 Liter
25.00
Yes
Moderate
.
50 Liter
10.00
No
No response .
Moderate
.
100 Liter
100.00
No
.
Acceptable
.
200 Liter
200.00
No
.
Acceptable
100 Liter
50.00
Yes
Unacceptable
Less than 100 m 200 m
80.00
Yes
Acceptable
100 m
More than 300 Liter 100 Liter
80.00
No
On their own priority On their own priority .
Acceptable
Less than
150 Liter
60.00
No
.
Bulk distribution... Tanker supply ... Private connectio... Ground water... Private connectio... Ground water... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private
LGA/WC Managed by private party Managed by LGA/WC Managed by KUKL Managed by KUKL Managed by CWUC Managed by CWUC Managed by CWUC Managed by LGA/WC Managed by CWUC Managed by LGA/WC Managed by CWUC Managed by LGA/WC Managed by LGA/WC Managed by CWUC Managed by CWUC Managed by CWUC Managed by LGA/WC Managed by LGA/WC Managed by KUKL Managed by KUKL Managed by KUKL Managed by
Penalizing... Penalizing... Penalizing... Phone call ... Public name ... Public name ... Phone call ... Public name ... Blocking... Public name ... . Phone call ... . Public name ... Phone call ... Phone call ... Phone call ... . Penalizing... Penalizing... Public name ... Penalizing...
approval ... With the approval ... With the increase ... With the increase ... With the increase ... With the increase ... With the increase ... With the approval ... With the approval ... With the approval ... With the additional... With the additional... With the increase ... With the additional... With the approval ... With the increase ... With the increase ... With the approval ... With the additional... With the increase ... With the increase ... With the increase ... With the
... Need water quality... Need operation... Need water quality... Need water quality... Need awareness... Need awareness... Need awareness... Handle water ... Handle water ... Need operation... Handle water ... Need awareness... Handle water ... Need operation... Need awareness... Handle water ... Handle water ... Handle water ... Handle water ... Handle water ... Need operation... Need water
Acceptable
100 m 100 m
100 Liter
50.00
Yes
Acceptable
.
150 Liter
100.00
No
Acceptable
100 m
100 Liter
70.00
Yes
Acceptable
200 m
150 Liter
150.00
No
On their own priority .
Acceptable
.
200 Liter
250.00
No
.
Acceptable
.
150 Liter
150.00
No
.
On their own priority .
connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio... Private connectio...
KUKL Managed by KUKL Managed by KUKL Managed by KUKL Managed by CWUC Managed by KUKL Managed by KUKL
Public name ... Penalizing... Penalizing... Penalizing... Penalizing... Penalizing...
increase ... With the increase ... . With the increase ... With the increase ... With the increase ... With the increase ...
quality... Need water quality... Handle water ... Handle water ... Handle water ... Handle water ... Need operation...
Appendix 3: Analysis sheet Average monthly family income
Valid
Missing Total
Below 3000 3000-6000 6000-12000 Above 12000 Total System
Frequency 28 158 153 70 409 2 411
Percent 6.8 38.4 37.2 17.0 99.5 .5 100.0
Valid Percent 6.8 38.6 37.4 17.1 100.0
Cumulative Percent 6.8 45.5 82.9 100.0
Existing source of Water supply Valid
Yes 4 Total
Frequency 410 1 411
Percent 99.8 .2 100.0
Valid Percent 99.8 .2 100.0
Cumulative Percent 99.8 100.0
About water quality Valid
Missing Total
Acceptable Unacceptable Moderate Total System
Frequency 194 51 165 410 1 411
Percent 47.2 12.4 40.1 99.8 .2 100.0
Valid Percent 47.3 12.4 40.2 100.0
Cumulative Percent 47.3 59.8 100.0
Water collect per day Valid
1.00 2.00 Total
Frequency 410 1 411
Percent 99.8 .2 100.0
Valid Percent 99.8 .2 100.0
Cumulative Percent 99.8 100.0
About service delivery
Valid
Missing Total
Reliable Unreliable Moderate Total System
Frequency 81 98 145 324 87 411
Percent 19.7 23.8 35.3 78.8 21.2 100.0
Valid Percent 25.0 30.2 44.8 100.0
Cumulative Percent 25.0 55.2 100.0
If collecting water from public post, distance travel to collect water Frequency Valid
Missing Total
Less than 100 meter 100 meter 200 meter 300 meter More than 300 meter Total System
Valid Percent
Percent
Cumulative Percent
95
23.1
54.0
54.0
52 17 6
12.7 4.1 1.5
29.5 9.7 3.4
83.5 93.2 96.6
6
1.5
3.4
100.0
176 235 411
42.8 57.2 100.0
100.0
Quantity of water collected per day Frequency Valid
Missing Total
Less than 50 litre 50-100 litre 100-200 litre 200-300 litre More than 300 litre Total System
Percent
Valid Percent
Cumulative Percent
116
28.2
28.5
28.5
105 121 55
25.5 29.4 13.4
25.8 29.7 13.5
54.3 84.0 97.5
10
2.4
2.5
100.0
407 4 411
99.0 1.0 100.0
100.0
Willingness to pay for different water service delivery Frequency Valid
Private connection with subsidy apply Bulk distribution for community and develop shared connectio Public stand post change into community tap Tanker supply in community reservoir and supply as community Ground water extraction/Treatment and distribution in 19 lit Total
Percent
Valid Percent
Cumulativ e Percent
243
59.1
59.1
59.1
36
8.8
8.8
67.9
62
15.1
15.1
83.0
46
11.2
11.2
94.2
24
5.8
5.8
100.0
411
100.0
100.0
Private connection with subsidy
Valid
Missing Total
500 300 200 Total System
Frequency 21 38 185 244 167 411
Percent 5.1 9.2 45.0 59.4 40.6 100.0
Valid Percent 8.6 15.6 75.8 100.0
Cumulative Percent 8.6 24.2 100.0
Bulk distribution for community and develop shared connection
Valid
Missing Total
200 150 100 Total System
Frequency 11 3 22 36 375 411
Percent 2.7 .7 5.4 8.8 91.2 100.0
Valid Percent 30.6 8.3 61.1 100.0
Cumulative Percent 30.6 38.9 100.0
Public stand post change in to community tap
Valid
Missing Total
100 50 25 Total System
Frequency 6 27 28 61 350 411
Percent 1.5 6.6 6.8 14.8 85.2 100.0
Valid Percent 9.8 44.3 45.9 100.0
Cumulative Percent 9.8 54.1 100.0
Tanker supply in community reservoir and supply as community tap
Valid
Missing Total
75 50 25 Total System
Frequency 20 13 13 46 365 411
Percent 4.9 3.2 3.2 11.2 88.8 100.0
Valid Percent 43.5 28.3 28.3 100.0
Cumulative Percent 43.5 71.7 100.0
Ground water extraction/Treatment and distribution in 19 litre jar Frequency Valid
Missing
25
Percent
Valid Percent
Cumulative Percent
7
1.7
29.2
15
6
1.5
25.0
54.2
10
11
2.7
45.8
100.0
Total
24
5.8
100.0
System
Total
387
94.2
411
100.0
29.2
Average monthly pay for water Valid
Missing Total
Up to 50 50-100 100-300 Above 300 Total System
Frequency 12 88 49 18 167 244 411
Percent 2.9 21.4 11.9 4.4 40.6 59.4 100.0
Valid Percent 7.2 52.7 29.3 10.8 100.0
Cumulative Percent 7.2 59.9 89.2 100.0
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