What is the value of aesthetics within graphic design?
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I would like to thank my Mum for her constant support.
Acknowledgments
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List of Illustrations Introduction Chapter One Chapter Two Chapter Three Conclusion Images Bibliography
Contents
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Figure 4: Subway Map, http://go.distance.ncsu. edu/gd203/wp-content/s/2014/11/6fe59d48bbacb3 a4fa65ea6c8e4dd371.jpg
Figure 3: Modem, http://crapisgood.com/modem/
Figure 2: Oceaan, http://crapisgood.com/oceaan/
Figure 1: 1989 Cranbrook Academy Poster, http://go.distance.ncsu.edu/gd203/wp-content/ s/2014/11/6fe59d48bbacb3a4fa65ea6c8e4dd371. jpg
List of Illustrations
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This purpose of this study is to ascertain the value of aesthetics within graphic design. To do so, it shall examine existing ideas of aesthetical judgment in order to discover the most appropriate for modern day. Explicit attention shall be paid to Modernism and Post-modernism and the various ways in which these impacted upon aesthetic standards. It shall also look into other factors that currently shape the aesthetic of today.
Aesthetics has always dealt with art in an attempt to determine its value. In recent past, however, it has been applied to a wider variety of art forms, including graphic design.
Introduction
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Edmund Burke, in his book titled ‘A Philosophical Inquiry
‘It is natural for us to seek a standard of taste; a rule by which the various sentiments of men may be reconciled; at least a decision, afforded, confirming one sentiment, and condemning another’. (Hume in Aaberg)
The judgment of aesthetics is a very intricate topic and the discourse that surrounds it provides proof of this. Aesthetics can be defined as the study of sensory values, often referred to as judgments of sentiment and taste by many, including philosopher David Hume, who believed it would be possible to construct rational arguments in order to debate beauty in a philosophical manner. He stated,
Aesthetics is a branch of philosophy that deals with art, beauty, and taste; along with ethics it forms axiology which is the study of value in its’ broadest sense. Sometimes referred to as the philosophy of arts, aesthetics has been a highly debated topic for centuries, its observation being evidenced in the literary works of theorists as early as Plato and Aristotle. The etymology of aesthetics originates from the Greek ‘aisthetikos’, meaning ‘I perceive, feel, sense’, which philosopher Hegel relates to when he explains the meaning of aesthetics as being ‘more precisely the science of sensation or feeling.’ (Inwood, 1993:3)
To begin the discussion of aesthetics within graphic design, one must first understand its meaning and significance throughout history. In addition to this, concepts of numerous theorists and philosophers, such as Kant, Hegel and Hume, shall be examined in order to understand the various ways in which aesthetic judgments are made.
Chapter One
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Secondly,
Conrad Fielders’ work ‘could be considered an extreme stance against the Hegelian notion that art is merely a vehicle leading toward greater truths’. He, like Kant, discusses the ‘separation of aesthetic judgments from cognition’, continuing to emphasise that ‘aesthetic judgments take place before cognitive ones.’ He believed that the judgment of aesthetics was instantaneous and therefore couldn’t be affected by the aforementioned criteria. (Gage, 2011:115)
‘Aesthetic judgment, or what Kant would call a judgment of taste, is made independently from how the object is ‘subsumed under concept’, that is, independent of the function, language, context, or other criteria extraneous to the form itself.’ (Gage, 2011:81)
Firstly,
Kant, however, believed that the rules of judging beauty were empirical; they were based entirely on observation and experience as opposed to logic or theory, and therefore could not ‘serve as stated laws a priori’. (Kant in Aaberg) Theodor Lipps stated that the ‘task of aesthetics is not to prescribe what or how has to be judged as aesthetics, but to understand aesthetical judgement.’ (Lipps in Aaberg) Kant believed that judgments of beauty are sensory, emotional and intellectual simultaneously; he used this theory as a basis to create three critical concepts in order to further understand and explain aesthetical judgment:
‘Beautiful objects must seem to have a small scale, must have a visual and tactile smoothness, must possess a gradual variation of lines, must possess a fragile delicacy, and must display gradients and variations of colour.’ (Mark Foster Gage, Aesthetic Theory: Essential Texts For Architecture And Design, Page 93) Similarly, Nick Zangwill believes that something can only attain beauty if it has ‘specific aesthetic properties’, and so concepts such as ‘the soul, and laws of nature, cannot be beautiful.’ (Gage, 2011:291)
Into The Origin Of Our Ideas Of The Sublime And Beautiful’, attempted just this and created his own criteria for beauty:
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According to Kant, it is only if these three criteria are met that something can be labeled as having aesthetic value. This being said, the beliefs of Kant, Hegel and Hume all date back to the 18th and 19th century, and are discussing aesthetic judgment in relation to fine art; the ways in which we now make aesthetic judgments has altered. This essay shall focus on the third Kantian rule and, more specifically, shall extract from it and explore the main theory within aesthetic judgment: subjectivism. Subjectivism dictates that people have their own sense of beauty, hence something is judged to be beautiful simply if someone say it is beautiful; and for the same reason, something is art purely because someone says it is. Often, this will result in people declaring the beauty of an object
‘Though the principles of taste be universal, and nearly, if not entirely the same in all men… few are qualified to give judgment on any work of art, or establish their own sentiment as the standard of beauty.’ (Hume in Korsmeyer, 1998:145)
Thirdly, Kant describes the idea that the judgment of beauty requires a cultivated mind, which he calls a ‘subjective universality’. ‘Beauty lies not in the eye of the beholder; it requires a skilled interpretation.’ (Gage, 2011:82) Hegel too agreed with the concept of the spectator of art being equally as important as the maker. Despite stating ‘each mind perceives a different beauty’ (Hume in Korsmeyer, 1998:139) Hume too believed that
When discussing objects of beauty, Hegel states, in agreement with Kant, that ‘if we have an interest, by way of curiosity for instance… then the objects are not important to us for their own sake, but for the sake of our want’, going on to suggest that this isn’t beauty, which should be allowed ‘the external existence to subsist free and independent, giving license to the object.’ (Inwood, 1993:64)
‘Kant introduces the concept of ‘disinterestedness’’… which explains that ‘when making an aesthetic judgment, he says, it is critical not only to avoid cognition of the objects’ identity or use but also to be free from desire regarding the object.’ (Gage, 2011:81)
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The distinction between fine art and design is a very unclear one and is the cause of much deliberation. Jacques Aumont suggests that there are three functions that graphic images perform, which are: the ‘symbolic’, the ‘epistemic’ and the ‘aesthetic’. Aesthetic images are ‘intended to please the spectator (or) to produce in the spectator specific sensations’, Aumont stating that any image that does so is automatically perceived as ‘art’. (Jacques in Barnard, 2005:13) This would, in turn, imply that design is unable to produce such feelings within its audience. Other people use meaning and communication as aspects that differentiate art and design, such as Jonathan Jones who, when writing about a sculpture, said that ‘this is an object so forthright, so plain,
Despite having always dealt with art in an attempt to determine its value, aesthetics has more recently been applied to other art forms including, but not exclusively to, poetry, film and graphic design. It is very hard to explain what beauty is to someone. Elaine Scarry describes beauty by the things it makes us want to do, stating that beauty ‘makes us draw it, take photographs of it, or describe it to other people.’ (Scarry, 2006:3) Stephen Bayley instead suggests that, regardless what the object in question is, ‘we know something is beautiful if we want more of it.’ (Bayley, 2012:212) What makes a painting beautiful is altogether different to what makes music beautiful, and the same can be said across all disciplines. Within graphic design, certain traits help to determine the aesthetic value of an object, whereas, ‘it is much more difficult to say what beauty unattached to any object is.’ (Scarry, 2006:9) This concept implies, then, that each art form has its own language for the judgment of aesthetics, reinforcing the idea that much of the theories previously discussed are now out-dated, as they were written during a period in which fine art was the only form of visual culture.
without being able to reinforce their thoughts with theory or reasoning, echoing Kant’s notion of aesthetical judgments being empirical. Subjectivism would indicate, then, that the beauty of an object is indisputable; although different people will have varying opinions, an individual’s judgment of beauty cannot be wrong. ‘An aesthetical judgment does not demand everybody’s agreement, it only invites to such an agreement. It permits other opinions.’ (Aaberg)
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However, in the 21st century, the term ‘aesthetics’ has become hazy and frequently used incorrectly, wrongly replacing words like style and form. Wolfgang Welsch questions the meaning of the word ‘aesthetics’ within modern society, asking ‘if the polysemantic use of the word aesthetic does not make it a ‘passepartout-word’ which fits everywhere because it does not mean anything.’ (Welsch in Aaberg) Due to the interchangeable relationship the word has adopted, the evaluation of aesthetic value has become a much more arduous task; first one must clarify the difference between the three. Form and style are branches of aesthetics within modern design, tools that, when used correctly, help to increase the aesthetic merit of a design. These are things considered during the design process in order to achieve aesthetic quality, to achieve beauty. Therefore it is impossible to talk about aesthetics within modern design without also discussing form and style, as well as function, and the relationship between them.
What Mukarovsky is implying is this idea of subjectivity; an individual decides the beauty of an object and the aesthetic norm, which represents society, governs aesthetic value through a shared cultural understanding of preconceived ideas about beauty and taste.
that it falls short of being art’. This also infers that due to communicating as ‘unambiguously and easily’ as possible, design cannot be art. (Jones in Barnard, 2005:163) Malcolm Barnard argues this, stating that this logic doesn’t take into account ‘cultural, class, national, gender, age, ethnic or indeed any other differences.’ Despite the struggle to distinguish art from design, it is these criteria, as listed by Barnard, that collectively shape modern societies aesthetical judgments. Aesthetic judgment is based around a cultural understanding and agreement on beauty, which in modern society can change rapidly. Jan Mukarovsky’s work on the aesthetic function discusses how it can be separated into norms and values: ‘An aesthetic norm arises from interaction with other norms in a social formation. It structures what is and isn’t held to be ‘aesthetic’’ and ‘aesthetic value, which is usually harboured by individuals, is stabilised by the norm.’ (Mukarovsky, in Cobley and Jansz, 2004:151)
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Modernism was a movement founded on the belief that ‘form is legitimised on the basis of content – form is truthful or aesthetically valid when it faithfully represents content.’ (Blauvelt, Eye Magazine) In relation specifically to graphic design, Blauvelt links the ‘problem’ with the content and the ‘solution’ with the form; thus emphasising the inseparable relationship between the two, whilst also making reference to the Modernist mantra of ‘form shall ever follow function’. (Blauvelt, Eye Magazine) ‘What we specifically perceive as form, and therefore as beauty, is the natural, self-evident, and functional appearance.’ (Bill in Blauvelt, Eye Magazine) The underlying concept of all Modernist design was that form shall always be dictated by function, as ‘beauty lies in fundamentals while ugliness, as it were, was only skin-deep.’ (Bayley, 2012:210) By ensuring that the form of a design was a direct result of the function it was to perform, the Modernists believed that they could achieve a true beauty, ‘an aesthetic absolute.’ (Wild in Bierut, Drenttel, Heller, and Holland, 1994:56) They equated cleanliness and purity, to beauty. The hierarchy of function over form, of fundamental
Having come to terms with the meaning of ‘aesthetics’ and the way in which its value is affected by society, both Modernism and Post-Modernism shall now be examined in order to comprehend the ways in which their ideologies and beliefs shaped the value of aesthetics within design; the intentions of both movements shall be compared, their successes and failures reviewed and discussed. Both movements have caused drastic alterations in the way different 21st century designers approach style, form and function. Within this section, the relationship between the three shall be put under scrutiny in an attempt to determine the impact they have had upon the aesthetics of graphic design.
Chapter Two
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What Petroski is acknowledging, in agreement with Rand, is the idea that despite the importance of aesthetic value within design, function is the driving force behind all design and,
It is imperative to understand the difference between ‘form follows function’ and ‘form and function’; it is the inseparable relationship between the two that Modernists believed resulted in beauty. Paul Rand appreciated that beauty is not the only desirable trait of a design and ‘rarely has beauty been an end in itself ’, (Rand, 1985:3) but stated ‘that the separation of form and function, of concept and execution, is not likely to produce objects of aesthetic value has been repeatedly demonstrated.’ (Rand, 1985:3) Rand hints at the idea that both form and function are essential components in the creation of aesthetic quality; that to suggest a dichotomy between the two would be counter productive in the search for beauty. He implies that design was frequently produced with functionality as its sole concern, the consideration of form, and consequently aesthetics, falling by the wayside. It is in fact the harmony between form and function that creates beauty; the way in which they work together that creates design of real aesthetic merit. ‘Aesthetic considerations may certainly influence, and in some cases even dominate, the process whereby a designed object comes finally to look the way it does, but they are seldom the first causes of shape and form.’ (Petroski, 1992:32)
elements over superfluous decoration, resulted in design with communication its foremost by-product. ‘Our ethic then was one of discipline, clarity, and cleanliness. The highest praise for a piece of graphic design was: ‘This is really clean.’’ (McCoy in Bierut, Drenttel, Heller, and Holland, 1994:50) The basic idea behind this principle was simple: if all nonessentials were removed, a timeless aesthetic would be attainable. Understanding the way in which beauty functions within society, our idea of beauty constantly fluctuating, the Modernists established boundaries within which eternal beauty was achievable; they realised that it was, in fact, the indulgence of form that was anathema to this. This was not to say, however, that strictly adhering to this principle would result in design that would transcend the idea of subjectivity. As with the nature of subjectivity, there will always be people who disagree with the beauty of an object.
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What designers of the Modernist era perceive as beauty is different to what others may perceive as beauty. In his book, The Conduct Of Life, Ralph Waldo Emerson discusses the issue of ugliness and states that ‘the secret of ugliness consists not in irregularity, but in being uninteresting.’ (Emerson in Heller in Bierut, Drenttel, Heller, and Holland, 1994:157) Heller discusses, in relation to Emerson’s theory of ugliness, that design is therefore only ugly when lacking in aesthetic or conceptual forethought; implying that when design involves considerable contemplation of these factors, its ‘beauty and ugliness are mitigated by context and purpose.’ Modernist designers sought to purify the visual environment and created design that was free from ornamentation, prioritising
The attitude of Modernist designers, their intention to declutter the visual environment, was a clear attempt to attain true beauty, impervious to time, and ‘improve the design of everything that can be made – to make it better.’ (Vignelli in Bierut, Drenttel, Heller, and Holland, 1994:51) It is inherent within all designers to aspire to create beauty; this is viewed as being the ultimate reward. By focusing their efforts on creating functional, clean design, Modernists shaped the way in which society viewed beauty within design, setting aesthetic standards that had to be met.
‘The reality is that graphic design is a profession wholly in thrall to its own visions of formal beauty. Beauty is the single quality designers most value and crave.’ (Poynor, Page 44)
To them, Modernism was a way of approaching design that would improve the world, to make it better through design. Figure 4 shows a subway map designed by Vignelli, which showcases the clear ambition to remove any confusing elements within a design to ensure it becomes functional, and can withstand the test of time (Fig 4).
‘Was and still is the search for truth, the search for integrity, the search for cultural stimulation and enrichment of the mind. Modernism was never a style, but an attitude.’ (Vignelli in Bierut, Drenttel, Heller, and Holland, 1994:51)
whilst aesthetic value is aimed for, it is not an end in itself. The disciples of Modernism truly believed that it
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Massimo Vignelli believed that, despite having upmost faith in the modernist movement and all that it stood for, Post-modernism was essential in order to provide ‘a critical evaluation of the issues of Modernism’. It helped to improve, correct and expand the issues of Modernism and without it ‘none of us would be the same’. (Vignelli in Bierut, Drenttel, Heller, and Holland, 1994:51) Instead of viewing the work of Post-modernists as being counter-intuitive in the search of a new aesthetic standard, Vignelli suggests that it be viewed simply as a critique of Modernism that, in turn, enabled it to tackle its flaws.
A reaction of the Modernist movement, Post-modernism, or New Wave as it was known within graphic design, occurred in the late 20th century. The focus of this movement was to challenge the preconceived notions of beauty that were established within the Modernist era. Unlike the Modernism, Post-modernism didn’t concern itself with conforming to existing ideas of beauty or the betterment of mankind, rejecting the idea of social progress. Instead, it reintroduced the application of ornament and decoration within design, allowing for self-expression and new styles to emerge.
function in lieu of form; in doing so, Heller suggests, they created work that was arguably ‘uninteresting and therefore as ugly as any non-designed newsletter or advertisement.’ (Heller in Bierut, Drenttel, Heller, and Holland, 1994:157) This is of course, as with beauty in any circumstance, entirely subjective; the design created during this era perfectly reflects the existing archetypes of beauty established throughout Modernism and appeals to the Modernists’ sensibilities. However, ‘it becomes necessary to suspend popular notions of beauty so that alternative aesthetic standards can be explored’ (Heller in Bierut, Drenttel, Heller, and Holland, 1994:157) As Heller suggests, it is essential for the progression of design that existing archetypes of beauty are questioned in order for alternatives to be explored. Many designers, tired of the monotony of Modernist design, went in search of new aesthetic standards, much to the dismay of the old guard. Rick Poynor states that ‘new forms of expression and a new kind of beauty were emerging, and some people didn’t get it’; (Poynor, Page 44) he was referring to Post-modernism.
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‘Sometimes the decorative elements in a piece of work are not merely sampled from a palette of choices but emanate directly from content and are integrated at a deep level with concept. They do as much work as the word or the image in communicating.’ (Twemlow in Bierut, Drenttel, and Heller,
Katherine McCoy, looking for a more expressive outlet than Modernism couldn’t provide, went to study at Cranbrook Academy of Art, an institution that became infamous for its role in the production of New Wave design. Whilst there, she created this poster (Fig 1). Although at first glance it may appear any consideration of function or purpose has been ignored, she explains that it is, in fact, the contemplation of these that actually shape and inform her design decisions and her use of expressive form. The idea of functionalism within decorative design is reinforced by Alice Twemlow, who believes that
‘(It) seems to be a habit of functionalism that shapes my process… I have never lost my faith in rational functionalism, in spite of appearances to the contrary.’ (McCoy in Bierut, Drenttel, Heller, and Holland, 1994:50)
As Wild indicates, the process of design itself involves intentional thought towards purpose and function, regardless to the way in which something finally comes to look. Despite much Post-modern design being dismissed as ‘‘empty formalism’ whose excesses mask a poverty of content’, (Blauvelt, Eye Magazine) this idea of reasoning and functionalism is embedded within the process of creation, and therefore within Post-modern design also.
‘Despite those who would attribute functionalism solely to Modernism, functionalism can be seen as inherent in the definition of design itself; a series of actions taken to produce a desired effect.’ (Wild in Bierut, Drenttel, Heller, and Holland, 1994:57)
The work of New Wave designers often seems chaotic and arbitrary; clarity and communication have been replaced by noise and distortion, due heavily to a self-indulgence of form. However, functionalism, which many claim belongs to Modernism, continued to be a part of the design process.
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Here, Heller is recognising the intentional attempt to go against the former aesthetic standard, challenging the
‘Those who value functional simplicity would argue that the Cranbrook students’ publication, like a toad’s warts, is ugly. The difference is that unlike the toad, the Cranbrook students have deliberately given themselves the warts.’ (Heller in Bierut, Drenttel, Heller, and Holland, 1994:155)
Here, Heller is referring to ugly by comparing it to the work of the Modernist era, the aesthetic that it embodied. Ugliness is the antithesis of beauty, and in the same way that beauty is based around the theory of subjectivism, so must be ugliness. In this sense then, nothing can be ugly; ugly is simply a word that represents notions of beauty that are contradictory to the existing consensus as to what beauty is. Steven Heller opens ‘Cult Of The Ugly’ with a metaphor, taken from ‘Philosophical Dictionary’ by Voltaire, which discusses beauty, involving a comparison between what a toad would define as beauty, what Paul Rand would define as beauty and what Heller assumes a student from Cranbrook would define as beauty. (Heller in Bierut, Drenttel, Heller, and Holland, 1994:155)
‘Let us say that ugly design, as opposed to classical design (where adherence to the golden mean and a preference for balance and harmony serve as the foundation for even the most unconventional compositions) is the layering of unharmonious graphic forms in a way that results in confusing messages.’ (Heller in Bierut, Drenttel, Heller, and Holland, 1994:156)
In order to discuss the idea of ‘ugly design’, we must first identity exactly what this implies.
She, too, understands the way in which form can be utilised as a tool to enhance the function of a design, to aid in communication of the intended messages. Due to its sheer divergence from the ‘rules’ of design enforced by Modernists, there has much discourse surrounding the work that came out of Cranbrook Academy regarding its aesthetic value.
2006:91)
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The intention of the work was to force the spectator to truly ‘read’ the text, as opposed to just ‘look’. It was deliberately ambiguous in an attempt to allow for multiple interpretations and meanings, based on shared cultural understandings. Paul Stiff discusses this, stating that the work of institutions such as Cranbrook was intended to make the reader work and actively engage; this concept reinforced by Phil Baines who says that he was ‘trying to involve the viewer as an active participant rather than as a passive recipient.’ (Baines in Stiff in Bierut, Drenttel, Heller, and Holland, 1997:34) Lorraine Wild introduces ‘reception theory’, which she says is ‘another Post-modern construct… a revision of Modernist notions of function, use and meaning.’ (Wild in Bierut, Drenttel, Heller, and Holland, 1994:59) Reception theory relates to the way in which a reader interprets text. It states that when a group of readers have a shared cultural background, they will interpret the text in similar ways; so conversely, the greater the difference between the reader and artist, the less likely the
‘The Cranbrook theorists’ aim, derived from French philosophy and literary theory, is to deconstruct, to break apart and expose, the manipulative visual language and different levels of meaning embodied in a design.’ (Poynor in Stiff in Bierut, Drenttel, Heller, and Holland, 1997:34)
Steven Heller continues to discuss how, despite the lack of intention for their work to function in the commercial world, work of Cranbrook students was distributed to thousands of practicing designers across America, ‘so rather than remain cloistered and protected from criticism as on-campus “research”, it is fair subject for scrutiny.’ (Heller in Bierut, Drenttel, Heller, and Holland, 1994:159) Heller sees the work produced within Cranbrook Academy as being purely for research purposes, experimentation in order to discover the limitations of design. Cranbrook students utilised the safety of the institution, the opportunity to experience complete creative freedom, to investigate and explore the use of expressive form and meaning within design.
ideas and beliefs cemented by designers of the Modernist movement. He picks up on the idea of preconceived notions of beauty, any attempt to challenge this idea resulting in ‘ugliness’.
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What Heller is discussing here links back to Kant’s third rule of aesthetical judgment, in which, a cultivated mind is needed to judge and determine the beauty of an object. The
‘The problem with the cult of ugly graphic design emanating from the major design academies and their alumni is that is has so quickly become a style that appeals to anyone without the intelligence, discipline, or good sense to make something more interesting out of it.’ (Heller in Bierut, Drenttel, Heller, and Holland, 1994:159)
The problem with work from Cranbrook Academy and other similar institutions, however, came with the distribution of their ‘experiments’ into the real world.
Heller also discusses the work of American designer Art Chantry, stating that despite horrifying those designers who favour the more traditional style of design, favouring functionalism to the punk vernacular, ‘Chantry’s design is decidedly functional within its context’ and his ‘compositions prove that using ostensibly ugly forms can result in good design.’ (Heller in Bierut, Drenttel, Heller, and Holland, 1994:157) This demonstrates a perfect example of the beauty, and therefore ugliness, of design being mitigated by context and purpose. The style and form of Chantry’s work appeals to its intended demographic who, according to reception theory, can all interpret his intended message as they share a cultural background and understanding with him.
Referring back to Emerson’s theory of ugliness and applying it to the design of the Cranbrook Academy, for example, would indicate that their work actually contained aesthetic merit in its chaotic nature, as it does in fact pay explicit attention to concept and the creation of unusual and interesting compositions. So, by challenging the notions of beauty set by Modernism, designers like McCoy accomplished a new standard of beauty based around expressive form. However, due to its vast difference in appearance compared to the aesthetic standard that precedes it, thus greatly challenging what had become the norms of beauty, it was dismissed as ‘ugly design’.
spectator will be able to recognise the intended meaning.
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This sudden revival of decoration quickly became popularised and used as a style by designers in order to gain temporary success. This abrupt change in aesthetic standard meant that the new vision of beauty consisted of expressive form, decoration and ornament, the complete antithesis of the aesthetic Modernism endeavored to create. This is not to say, however, that the timeless aesthetic of Modernist design was no longer appreciated. Despite this renewal of ornament and decoration within design, Modernist designers continued on their mission to purify the visual world in strive of eternal beauty. New Wave designers, less concerned with complying to old notions of beauty, continued to question our idea of aesthetics; more interested in breaking free from the restrictions of Modernism in order to reveal new standards of beauty and expression. Society now finds itself in a situation where two contradictory notions of beauty co-exist. One, influenced by Modernism, focused around the principle of ‘form follows function’, in which ornament has been removed to produce design that’s beauty can withstand the test of time. The other, driven by Post-modernism, involves the indulgence of form in order to create design that is expressive of both the designer and the spectator. Both movements striving towards the creation of beauty; be it by adhering to old standards or by exploring new ones.
work of the Cranbrook Academy was taken on-board by neophytes and misunderstood as a viable model, individuals mistakenly interpreting this experimental approach as empty formalism, causing a new style to emerge which inevitably led to its misuse. (Heller in Bierut, Drenttel, Heller, and Holland, 1994:159)
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The use of style within graphic design has a stigma attached to it, which it adopted during the Modernist era and still cannot shake off. However, the role of style within society is very intricate and important; it is an aspect of design that, if utilised correctly, allows the designer to communicate
Contemporary graphic design is now divided over which version of beauty it finds most satisfying. It consist of designers influenced by both movements; some designers remain true to the Modernist ethos, creating design that is simple and clean in the hope to imitate the timeless beauty the Modernist ideology provides, whereas, other designers search for new forms of beauty through the exploration of self-expression and the indulgence of form. Beauty, as previously mentioned, can make its spectator feel or do various different things; one of which is evidenced within the earliest examples of fine art: imitation. ‘Sometimes it gives rise to exact replication and other times to resemblances.’ (Scarry, 2006:3) This idea of replicating beauty can be seen within recent graphic design; many current practitioners have recognised that by emulating the style of either Modernism or New Wave, they can cash-in on the movements aesthetic success and, by way of association, grant themselves instant popularity.
After having explored the ideas of Modernism and Postmodernism, it is clear that both have had significant impact on the aesthetics of design and its value, both promoting their own visions of beauty. The study shall now turn its attention to contemporary graphic design; examining the influences both movements have had on the way in which graphic designers currently approach aesthetic value, as well as looking into other factors that shape modern day aesthetics.
Chapter Three
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Since beauty is entirely subjective, there is a constant battle between what ‘true beauty’ is. This constant struggle to understand true beauty hasn’t gone unnoticed, and, whilst some believe that ‘the current trend may never be properly explained until it has passed’, (Frere-Jones in Bierut, Drenttel, Heller, and Holland, 1997:16) others have already begun examining and discussing the zeitgeist. In ‘Notes On Modernism’, Timotheus Vermeulen and Robin van der Akker discuss the stage that we are at today, giving it the title of
They play a vital role in the formation of current aesthetic standards; constantly renewing societies view of preconceived aesthetic standards.
‘Dismissals of style ignore the complex ways in which style operates in society: how styles circulate as communicative codes that distinguish cultural groups and social classes.’ (Blauvelt, Eye Magazine)
The use of a certain style allows the designer to visually embody the beliefs of an entire movement without actually having to consider any of the fundamental principles, ignoring the underlying principles that gave substance to the movement. ‘If style has a function, it is to be recognisable and categorisable. It must communicate with specific pockets of culture and lifestyles.’ (Andrew Blauvelt, Eye Magazine) This would enable the designer to be instantly associated with a movement, thus gaining arguably undeserved popularity amongst its enthusiasts. Effectively, they are buying into a lifestyle and culture that pre-exists in order to gain temporary success and recognition.
‘Style itself is the visual language of a culture: in fashion, in consumer goods, in art, in literature, in all varieties of media. Style is ephemeral: it is timely. To be ‘in style’ is to embody the influences and values of your time.’ (Burdick in Bierut, Drenttel, Heller, and Holland, 1994:136)
directly to a precise section of society. This is done through the associations that come with the style; what the style represents. Contemporary designers apply the styles associated with Modernism or New Wave in order to attain the aesthetic that the style conveys.
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‘When scrolling quickly through a blog, we are only examining the visual; consequently the visual becomes more and more important to the highly strategic practice of graphic design.’ (Olivia Diaz, Idealisation and Standardisation Of Aesthetics)
What she is discussing here is the way in which graphic design is displayed online, through design platforms that only reveal a small preview of a project; amidst the plethora of thumbnails it becomes very easy for work to blend in and become invisible.
‘Functionalist ethics no longer apply. How could they, when the work is judged out of context, in split-second time, by criteria that goes no further than immediate impression?’ (Burdick in Bierut, Drenttel, Heller, and Holland, 1994:138)
Another factor that has substantially perpetuated our need for aesthetics within design is the Internet. A phenomenon that has transformed the way in which society views and interacts with design, the Internet has become the main source of inspiration and exposure for designers. Despite having always strived to create beauty, as previously discussed, designers are finding the consideration of aesthetics to become a much larger part of the design process. Anne Burdick explains this, suggesting that in circumstances when our work is compromised due to ‘budget constraints or client-imposed parameters’, and therefore falls short of our aesthetic expectations, the projects are demoted to ‘job’ status, regardless of its success in terms of function. She claims that the work which allows us creative freedom is the same work that wins awards and grants us our ‘good designer’ status. (Burdick in Bierut, Drenttel, Heller, and Holland, 1994:138)
‘metamodernism’; a term that addresses the way in which we are constantly shifting between antitheses yet simultaneously surpassing both in ‘search of new ground.’ (Adbusters, Jan/ Feb 2015) Alice Twemlow refers to the early 2000s as what she broadly characterises ‘neo-modernism’. She continues, equating the design world to a pendulum; forever swinging between contradictory notions of beauty and aesthetic value. (Twemlow in Bierut, Drenttel, and Heller, 2006:87)
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It is not unheard of for current ideas of good design and beauty to be challenged and criticised by its forerunners. ‘As difficult as it is, we must keep questioning preconceived notions of what good design is.’ (Wild in Bierut, Drenttel, Heller, and Holland, 1994:59) Not unlike the way in which designers of the Modernist era questioned the intentions of
Designers must take charge of the industry once more and lead the way towards ascertaining beauty.
‘The uncertainty of values in contemporary graphic design practice and the discourse that surrounds it now… has led to a notion that there has been a loss of consensus as to what constitutes ‘good’ design.’ (Wild in Bierut, Drenttel, Heller, and Holland, 1994:55)
The field of graphic design is an ever-increasingly competitive market due to the Internet making it accessible to everyone. Mr. Keedy discusses the idea that what designers consider to be ‘specialist knowledge’ is rapidly becoming basic literacy and software skills; yet goes on to question whether everyone will ‘have good taste, talent, skill, and a sense of style?’ (Keedy in Bierut, Drenttel, and Heller, 2006:98) Stating that graphic designers consider their expertise to be in ‘problem solving, communicating, organising information, and branding’, Mr. Keedy concludes by asking ‘to whom should people go for style and taste? Isn’t style too important to be left in the hands of amateurs?’ (Keedy, in Bierut, Drenttel, and Heller, 2006:98) This harps back to Kant’s theory of a cultivated mind being needed in order to judge about beauty. Newcomers are now able to create and release work into the world at an increasing rate that, due to their lack of expertise, could be detrimental to the portrayal of aesthetic standards within graphic design of today.
Modern society demands much more from designers; expecting a greater quantity of work at a much more frequent rate. ‘Today’s obsession for speed and quantity has profoundly influenced the ways in which we think and feel.’ (Kepes in Bierut, Helfand, Heller, and Poynor, 1999:98) This obsession for speed has meant that aesthetics are key to modern design, which must appeal to the spectator instantaneously or risk going completely overlooked.
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Elaine Scarry suggests that ‘conversation about the beauty of these things has been banished’, implying that the word beauty has become sparse in the discourse of modern design. (Scarry, 2006:57) It has become a word that’s meaning contains too much ambiguity. ‘Quantifying aesthetic value is very difficult. It’s not like there is one thing you can
Designers of the modern era are starting to once again explore new aesthetic standards, whilst simultaneously some designers continue to make a living from repeating past aesthetics through the process of applying certain styles.
‘We have to be bad. Not bad as in crap, but bad as in subordinate and disobedient… We can break the cycle of blandness… We can say “Why not do something that forces us to rewrite the definition of ‘good design”’. (Kalman in Bayley, 2012:246)
What Wild is suggesting here is that advancements, especially those that directly impact graphic design, are prone to casting doubt in the minds of some which often results in their disapproval. The popularisation of design platforms and blogs, such as Crap Is Good, has meant that a surge of design, which some refer to as ‘aesthetically questionable‘, (Heller in Bierut, Drenttel, Heller, and Holland, 1994:155) has emerged which once again begins to question our notion of good design, of our aesthetic standards. Figure 2 and 3 are examples of work featured on the site, typical of the current trend with graphic design (Fig 2 and 3). Heller questions the origins of this current trend, suggesting perhaps ugliness has ‘simply been assimilated into popular culture and has become a stylish conceit.’ (Heller in Bierut, Drenttel, Heller, and Holland, 1994:157)
‘Unfamiliar forms of work produced in response to major changes in technology are often classified as ‘ugly’ because of their formal strangeness, and interpreted as evidence of aesthetic malfeasance, the obliteration of standards and practices of craft.’ (Wild in Bierut, Drenttel, Heller, and Holland, 1994:5958)
Post-modernists, critics are starting to discuss the work of more recent times.
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Both Modernism and Post-modernism have had a significant impact on the ways in which designers attempt to achieve aesthetic value within design. Whether it is through the imitation of the Modernist style, or the application of superfluous decoration that was re-introduced through Postmodernism, designers of the modern era all have their own individual ideas of beauty. And thanks to the Internet, their thoughts can be instantly shared with the rest of society, thus helping to form a consensus as to what constitutes the modern aesthetic. The answer to which is, there is no singular aesthetic. Instead, there are numerous, sometimes contradictory, notions as to what true beauty is.
‘As the educator Jacques Girard states about critiquing work in the classroom these days, “Someone who refers to a design as beautiful, ugly, good or bad is not talking as much about the object as about himself.”’ (Wild in Bierut, Drenttel, Heller, and Holland, 1994:59)
measure.’ (Postrel in Keedy in Bierut, Drenttel, and Heller, 2006:99) Linking back to the theory of subjectivity, Postrel describes the difficulty in making aesthetic evaluations. She appreciates that there is no singular criteria by which this judgment can be made, but in fact, it is based around cultural understandings and individual preferences.
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Beauty has always been, and will always be, an integral part of design that holds great value. After all, ‘design is not for design’s sake… design is for man.’ (Kepes in Bierut, Helfand, Heller, and Poynor, 1999:99)
‘The challenge is to learn to accept that aesthetic pleasure is an autonomous good, not the highest or the best but one of many plural, sometimes conflicting, and frequently unconnected sources of value.’ (Postrel in Keedy in Bierut, Drenttel, and Heller, 2006:98)
As Poyner points out, ‘it makes no sense to talk about design and leave beauty out.’ (Poynor in Bierut, Drenttel, and Heller, 2006:45) Beauty is a part of everyday life and a ‘vital human need. It is an experience from which people have everything to gain and nothing to lose.’ (Poynor in Bierut, Drenttel, and Heller, 2006:45) The endeavor to create design that attains true beauty is the driving force behind progression and change; it is the reason that people want to become designers, to become creators of beauty. As Mr. Keedy constantly states, we live in an ‘age of aesthetics’, (Keedy in Bierut, Drenttel, and Heller, 2006:98) in which it is becoming increasingly more important to strive for aesthetic value.
Conclusion
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Figure 2:
Figure 1:
Images
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Figure 4:
Figure 3:
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Eagleton, T. (1990) The Ideology Of The Aesthetic, Oxford: Blackwell Publishing
Cobley, P. and Jansz, L. (2004) Introducing Semiotics, Royston: Icon Books Ltd.
Carroll, N. (2001) Beyond Aesthetics: Philosophical Essays, New York: Cambridge University Press
Bierut, M., Drenttel, W. and Heller, S. (2006) Looking Closer 5: Critical Writings On Graphic Design, New York: Allworth Press
Bierut, M., Helfand, J., Heller, S. and Poynor, R. (1999) Looking Closer 3: Critical Writings On Graphic Design, New York: Allworth Press
Bierut, M., Drenttel, W., Heller, S. and Holland, D.K. (1997) Looking Closer 2: Critical Writings On Graphic Design, New York: Allworth Press
Bierut, M., Drenttel, W., Heller, S. and Holland, D.K. (1994) Looking Closer: Critical Writings On Graphic Design, New York: Allworth Press
Bayley, S. (2012) Ugly: The Aesthetics Of Everything, London: Carlton Publishing Group
Barnard, M. (2005) Graphic Design As Communication, Oxon: Routledge
Books:
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