Figure 5: Building resilience based on understanding of vulnerability

Long-term changes in temperature and weather systems are referred to as climate change. It can be caused by both natural and man-made factors. However, it has been discovered that the primary cause is human-made.According to various research, climate change can be caused by natural internal processes, external forcing, or long-term anthropogenic changes in atmospheric composition or land usage.

Climate change has become such a severe concern around the world that cities are grappling with its negative externalities. Climate change, without a doubt, has a significant impact on cities. It affects the cities both physically, socially and economically by causing long term damage of buildings and both physical and social infrastructure The consequences can be categorized into two types: direct and indirect. The direct effects of climate change can be divided into two categories: immediate impacts such as hurricanes, tropical storms, and heat waves, and long-term implications such as sea level rise, average temperature increases, and long-term changes in the pattern of rainfall. Severe flooding, power breakdowns, increased risk of water or vector-borne infections, and heat stress are some of the indirect effects of these disturbances and strains on urban areas. During climatic events, a rise in disease incidence and heat stress can impose strain on the health system and infrastructure.

1.7.2 Impact of Climate Change

Figure 4 Number of climate related events and their perils

“Due to climate change, hundreds of millions of people in urban areas across the world will experience rising

sea levels, inland floods, more frequent and intense

storms, and more frequent periods of extreme heat and cold in the coming years”- WRI, India

“Slum dwellers in developing countries tend to be most vulnerable to climate change because they live along river banks, on slopes prone to landslides, near polluted grounds, on desertified land, in unstable structures, and along coastal waterfronts”- WRI, India

“Many cities have not yet addressed climate risks due to lack of relevant city policies and action plans, outmoded regulations on urban planning, lack of capacity to respond to climate disasters, and lack of public awareness “- WRI, India

By vulnerable population we refer to minor communities and also urban poors migrating from rural to urban areas for better living but ends up settling in the city’s most vulnerable neighbourhoods because they are not always included as part of the urban planning and governance paradigm. Hence due to lack of preparedness and problems like face stigma and discrimination they often miss out on disaster alerts, resulting in significant damage and loss. Indian cities are becoming more susceptible to natural and man-made disasters which is directly associated with the onset of climate change as a result of increasing urbanization. disaster risk reduction collectively forms the concept of Urban climate change resilience which takes into account the fact that cities are continuously developing as a result of urbanization and are constantly encountering the detrimental effects of climate change. The idea behind the concept is that a city is a complex socioecological system that is continually evolving to accommodate shocks and stressors. Figure 5 depicts how we must first comprehend the causes and elements that contribute to vulnerability as a result of abrupt climate change. Finally, based on a thorough understanding of the vulnerability, aim to create effective plans and methods to build resilience against climate change.

1.7. What is Urban Climate Resilience?

Climate change is an uncertain and dynamic process. Hence when we talk about builing climate resilient city, it is a multi-sectoral approach. Climate change adaptation, mitigation, and Adaptation v/s Resilience

Though both are interlinked but there are dichotomy. Resilience is a long term process which gets evolved based on the shocks and stress a city gets as an impact of climate change. Adaptation is an isolated process which is part of resilience. When we talk about climate, it uses the concept of resilience and not just adaptation.

Figure 5 Building resilience based on understanding of vulnerability

When we think of rapid urbanization, the first thing that comes to mind is the impact it has on the climate, which has resulted in a number of natural disasters in cities. Climate resilience is the core aspect to robust the urban resilience concept. The negative externalities of rapid urbanization have overwhelmed global cities. Cities are taking initiative to bounce back and forth against climaterelated disasters these days. Global cities have mainstreamed many programmes with the support of renowned organizations to build strategical frameworks in order to take appropriate action to adapt, mitigate, and reduce the impact of climaterelated disasters. These initiatives assist cities in identifying climate risks and vulnerabilities, and they try to make cities more resilient by integrating a variety of stakeholders. in this chapter we will discuss few of these great initiatives taken across the globe.

Global Initiatives for Climate Resilience

1. 100 Resilient Cities by the Rockefeller Foundation 2. City resilience Programme by the world bank 3. Making Cities Resilient Campaign (UNISDR) 4. Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) - The 2030 Agenda 5. Paris Climate Agreement 6. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) 7. International Carbon Action Partnership (ICAP) 8. Intergovernmental Panel On Climate Change (IPCC) 9. Sendai-framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (SFDRR) 10. UN Climate Resilience Initiative A2R

1.8.1 Kyoto Protocol

The Kyoto Protocol was signed on December 11, 1997, and entered into force on February 16, 2005, after a prolonged ratification process involving 37 industrialized countries and European Community countries. This procedure was designed to keep greenhouse gas emissions in check. Its first commitment period lasted from 2008 to 2012, during which the participating industrialized countries pledged to cut their GHG emissions by at least 5% below 1990 levels. During the second commitment period, from 2013 to 2020, Parties pledged to reduce GHG emissions by at least 18% below the emission level of 1990. however, the composition of Parties in the second commitment period changes from the first. The protocol was flexible enough through which countries can easily fulfill their obligation regarding GHG emission target. It offered three marketbased mechanism to the countries in order to fulfill their target. These mechanisms areInternational Emissions Trading through which countries could purchase emission credits from other countries which have excess emission units to spare. This help to reducing domestic emissions of the countries. As carbon is the major green house gas, hence it became the main product to be tracked and traded which introduced the new terminology “Carbon Market”. Joint Implementation process in which countries which supports emission removal projects in other developed counties will obtain Emission Reduction Units. Clean Development Mechanism is also another emission reduction commitement under Kyoto protocol where the emission removal projects in developing countries can earn emission reduction credit which is equivalent to 1 ton of carbon di oxide. The Kyoto Protocol also included a compliance mechanism. For every ton of emissions by which a country exceeded its quantified emission limitation and reduction objective, it would have 1.3 tons of emissions deducted from its assigned amount for a subsequent commitment period (Kuh. K.f., 2018). The protocol was more concerned about the developed countries than developing countries as

they are more potential to GHG emission. Also The Protocol set the path for carbon emission trading and related financial instruments by establishing internationally binding emission reduction targets. formulation of INDC framework includes multiple stakeholders from central government ( Niti Aayog, Ministry of climate change etc), industrial associates, aacademicians, civil society goups and what not. Keeping the interest of urban poors and farmars intact, the above mentioned stakeholders do a prime minister level consultation with Ministers based on existing plans and policies on climate change, NAPCC and SAPCC. Followings are few of the major targets those are mentioned in the INDC framework. 1. To reduce the emissions intensity of its GDP by 33-35% by 2030 from 2005 level. 2. To maintain high economic growth with low per capita emission. 3. To expand the percentage of non-fossil fuelbased electricity, the target is to account for 40% of installed capacity by 2030. 4. To create additional carbon sink of 2 5 3 billion tonnes of CO 2 equivalent through additional forest and tree cover (increase of about 680 817 million tonne of carbon stock). 5. To better adapt to climate change by enhancing investments in development programmes in sectors vulnerable to climate change, particularly agriculture, water resources, Himalayan region, coastal regions, health and disaster management. 6. To mobilize Domestic and New additional funds from developed countries to implement the mitigation and adaptation actions mentioned in INDC in view of the resource required and the resource gap. 7. To build capacities, create domestic framework and international architecture for quick diffusion of cutting edge climate technology in India and for joint collaborative R&D for such future technologies. 8. To put forward and further propagate a healthy and sustainable way of living based on traditions and values of conservation and moderation. 9. To adopt a climate friendly and a cleaner path than the one followed hitherto by others at corresponding level of economic development.

1.8.2 Paris Agreement

India’s Nationally Determined Contribution (INDC)

The Paris Agreement was signed on 12th December, 2015 which came into action on November 4, 2016. It is a five-year cycle that has been accepted by Germany and the European Union, as well as 196 countries around the world. The agreement’s goal is to stabilise greenhouse gas emissions and maintain global warming below 2 degrees Celsius, if at all possible, and to limit global temperature rise to 1.5 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels. Participating nations are required to develop and submit a Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) report in order to maintain transparency regarding their greenhouse gas reductions, according to the agreement. The pact states that developed countries will provide financial assistance to developing countries. Nations, communities, and enterprises all across the world are looking into low-carbon options to achieve a carbon-neutral goal. In a range of economic sectors that account for 25% of total emissions, zero-carbon solutions are becoming more competitive. The trend is most noticeable in the transportation and electrical sectors, and it has provided opportunities in a variety of linked industries. In industries that account for more than 70% of global emissions, zero-carbon solutions may be competitive by 2030.

Nationally Determined Contribution plays important role to guide the government to structure climate related policy framework as a part of the Paris Agreement. The process of

Table 2 Various Initiatives to build resilience globally

Source: Adapted from various reports

1.9 Initiative taken by India under various entry points

Resilience planning in India can be integrated into urban development through existing policies and programmes (climate protection), as well as new policies and programmes that promote adaptation and mitigation efforts in Indian cities. These policies and strategies are prepared at National, State and city level. National Level missions: On June 30, 2008, India’s National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) was launched, laying out the country’s goals for adaptation and mitigation research and policy measures through eight National Missions. The missions listed below provide direct and indirect opportunities for urban resilience planning through the NAPCC. 1. National Mission on Sustainable Habitats (NMSH) by MoUD 2. National Solar Mission by MNRE 3. National Mission on Enhanced Energy Efeciency by- MoP & BEE 4. National Water Mission by MoWR 5. National Mission for Green India by MoEF 6. National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for