The Marscape Project

THE MARSCAPE PROJECT A STUDY OF ADAPTABLE LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE ON MARS

MARS

EARTH

Master’s thesis / Sanna Sarkama Aalto University / Autumn 2016

THE MARSCAPE PROJECT A study of adaptable landscape architecture on Mars Sanna Sarkama Master’s thesis Aalto University School of Arts, Design and Architecture Department of Architecture Landscape Architecture 11/2016 Thesis supervisor: Professor Jyrki Sinkkilä Thesis instructor: Mark Lindquist, Phd, Landscape Architecture All the figures and tables by the author unless referenced or credited otherwise.

Figure i (cover graphics): By the author.

Figure ii: Crater Spirit of St. Louis, Mars. Approximate true color image photographed by Opportunity. Image credit NASA/JPL-Caltech/Cornell University/Arizona State University

ABSTRACT Author: Sanna Sarkama Title: The Marscape Project

- A study of adaptable Landscape Architecture on Mars Department: Department of Architecture Professorship: Landscape Design and Construction Code of professorship: MA-94 Thesis supervisor: Professor Jyrki Sinkkilä Thesis instructor: Mark Lindquist, PhD Number of pages: 119 Year: 2016 Language: English Keywords: Mars, indoor landscape, Mars habitat, adaptation, isolation, subsurface

Human Space expeditions are evolving and one of the next steps is to send humans to Mars. Many parties involved in journeys to Mars plan on sending the first humans to Mars by the 2020’s and 2030’s. Even the shortest expeditions to Mars are a few years in duration and permanent settlements are planned to be established in the future.

As the conditions on the surface of Mars are not optimal for humans, inhabiting Mars requires carefully designed habitats to ensure human survival. In addition to the confinement caused by enclosed habitats, the distance from the Earth emphasizes the sense of isolation. The conditions of weaker-than-Earth-gravity, radiation and low light levels have their toll on humans and vegetation alike.

The studies conducted on Earth regarding the effects of nature experiences on human health are fairly unanimous in results showing that interaction with green elements and environments improve physiological and psychological health. To counterbalance the effects of multiple years spent in demanding physical and psychological conditions on Mars, access to a green recreational environment could be beneficial for the future Martians.

This thesis studies problems related to landscape architecture on Mars. The main questions studied in this thesis are: what landscape architecture would be on Mars and how landscape architecture can help humans to adapt to Mars. These problems are explored through the aspects of requirements of vegetation and humans on Mars, our perception of a space and how green environments can benefit human well-being.

Through the studies researched for this thesis, a concept for an outdoors indoors landscape is presented. This thesis suggests that the landscape should be subsurface, in caves or lava tubes. The concept proposes how different elements, requirements, and limitations can be integrated into the landscape in order to allow recreational and restorative actions to take place. The concept suggests creating a dynamic setting with familiar elements mixed with foreign to ease human adaptation to Mars.

TIIVISTELMÄ Tekijä: Sanna Sarkama Työn nimi: Marsema-projekti

- Tutkielma sopeutuvasta maisema-arkkitehtuurista Marsissa Laitos: Arkkitehtuurin laitos Professuuri: Maiseman suunnittelu ja rakentaminen Professuurin koodi: MA-94 Työn valvoja: Professori Jyrki Sinkkilä Työn ohjaaja: Mark Lindquist Sivumäärä: 119 Vuosi: 2016 Kieli: Englanti Avainsanat: Mars, maisema sisätilassa, Mars-asumus, sopeutuminen, eristäytyneisyys, maanalainen Ihmisten avaruusmatkailu edistyy ja seuraava suuri askel on lähettää ihmisiä Marsiin. Useat eri tahot osallistuvat matkojen suunnitteluun, ja monien niistä on tarkoitus toteutua 2020- tai 2030-luvulla. Lyhyimmätkin Mars-matkat kestävät vuosia, ja niiden lisäksi myös pysyvää asutusta Marsiin on suunnitteilla.

Marsin olosuhteet eivät ole otollisia ihmisten menestymiselle. Siksi Marsin asuttaminen vaatii huolellista suunnittelua asumusten osalta ihmisten selviytymisen takaamiseksi. Suljettujen asumusten lisäksi eristäytyneisyyttä lisää etäisyys Maahan. Marsin Maata heikompi painovoima, voimakas säteily ja matalat valaistusolosuhteet aiheuttavat ongelmia niin ihmisille kuin kasveillekin.

Maassa tehdyt tutkimukset ovat lähes yksimielisiä tuloksissaan viherympäristön tuomista hyödyllisistä vaikutuksista ihmisten fysiologiselle ja psykologiselle terveydelle. Mars-matkailun edellyttämän fyysisesti ja psyykkisesti haastavissa olosuhteissa vietetyn ajan vastapainoksi vapaa pääsy vihreään virkistysympäristöön saattaisi olla hyödyllistä tuleville marsilaisille.

Tämä diplomityö tutkii maisema-arkkitehtuuriin Marsissa liittyviä ongelmia. Tässä työssä vastataan kysymyksiin: Mitä maisema-arkkitehtuuri voisi olla Marsissa ja miten maisema-arkkitehtuuri voi auttaa ihmisiä sopeutumaan Marsiin. Näitä ongelmia tutkitaan erityisesti kasvillisuuden ja ihmisten vaatimusten kautta. Lisäksi tutkitaan ymmärrystämme tilan kokemisesta ja sitä, kuinka vihreä ympäristö voi tukea ihmisten hyvinvointia.

Tässä työssä käsiteltyjen tutkimusten pohjalta luodaan konsepti ulkotilaa matkivalle sisätilamaisemalle. Tämän työn mukaan maisema on maan alla laavatunneleissa tai luolissa, kuten pääasiassa muutkin tilat. Konsepti ehdottaa maiseman ja asumiseen liittyvien ratkaisujen, tarpeiden ja rajoitusten yhdistämistä kokonaisuudeksi, joka auttaa tulevia marsilaisia virkistäytymään ja palautumaan. Ehdotettu konsepti esittää dynaamisen ympäristön luomista siten, että Maasta tutut elementit sekoittuvat uuteen ja vieraaseen helpottaakseen ihmisten sopeutumista Marsiin.

TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract 4 Tiivistelmä 5 Preface 11 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 The subject 1.2 Goals 1.3 Methods 1.4 Framing and Assumptions 1.5 Structure

12 12 12 13 13 15

Terminology 16 2 MARS – AN OVERVIEW OF THE FUTURE ON THE RED PLANET 2.1 Future of Space travel 2.2 Mars – how to?

2.3 Mars facts 2.4 Life on Mars versus Living on Mars

19 20 22 23 25

3 PLANTS ON MARS – REQUIREMENTS FOR SUCCESSFUL PLANT GROWTH ON MARS 3.1 Light for vegetation 3.2 Soil, water and fertilizing 3.3 Fresh air, recycling and ecosystems

27 28 30 33

4 HUMANS ON MARS – HOW LIVING IN SPACE AFFECTS HUMANS 4.1 Humans in microgravity 4.2 Humans in isolation 4.3 Light for humans

35 36 38 43

5 CULTURAL SERVICES OF A SPACE 5.1 Ecosystem services 5.2 Recreation and health 5.3 Aesthetic appreciation and inspiration 5.4 Spiritual experience and sense of place 5.5 Conclusions

45 46 48 49 51 52

6 LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE – ASPECTS OF DESIGNING AND PERCEIVING A SPACE 6.1 Creating an outdoor-indoor space 6.2 Senses 6.3 Social interaction 6.4 Perception of space 6.5 Virtual reality

55 56 58 60 62 64

7 THE HABITABLE SPACE – HABITAT OPTIONS ON MARS 7.1 Surface and subsurface habitats 7.2 A scenario for the settlement 7.3 Utilization of the space

67 68 72 75

Figure iii: Dunes inside Gale Crater, Mars. Credit NASA/JPL-Caltech/MSSS

8 GREEN MARS – AN OVERVIEW OF GREEN DESIGNS FOR MARS 8.1 Greenhouses 8.2 By-products 8.3 Oasis 8.4 Terraforming

77 78 78 82 82

9 THE OUTDOORS – ELEMENTS OF THE OUTDOORS RECREATED INDOORS ON MARS 9.1 Use of the vegetation 9.2 The soil 9.3 The Sun and lighting 9.4 Weather and climate zones 9.5 Manipulating space

85 86 88 90 94 98

10 HUMANS IN THE OUTDOORS – ASPECTS ENHANCING AN OUTDOOR EXPERIENCE ON MARS 10.1 Adjusting the level of privacy 10.2 Activities 10.3 A pleasant place 11 CONCLUSIONS – TO DO 11.1 Summary of outcome 11.2 Reflections 11.3 Possible future directions

103 104 104 107 111 112 113 113

Afterword 114 Acknowledgements 116 References 118

Figure iv: Dust clouds over Hypanis Vallis, Mars. Credit NASA/JPL-Caltech/University of Arizona

PREFACE I first became interested in Mars during my Astronomy studies at the University of Helsinki, the year was around 2009. I was required to write an essay for a course of Meteorology, and I chose to study the atmosphere of Mars. Until then I was not aware that Mars had clouds, aurorae, and snowfall. That caught my interest since I had always found Mars fairly uneventful, dry and even a somewhat boring planet. Shortly after my Astronomy studies, Curiosity landed on Mars in 2011.

It has been sending amazing pictures from the surface of Mars ever since and made Mars much more approachable even for the general public.

Even though the first manned Mars mission might still seem like science fiction to many, I firmly believe I will see a man on Mars in my lifetime. I do not think humans should go to Mars to escape the damages we have done on Earth and to possibly make them again on Mars. I believe we should go there because humans are explorers and curious by nature. The amazing technology developed for Space and Mars exploration could aid us here on Earth too. My hope for Mars and Space travel is not to conquer but to learn and co-exist, and not perceive Space as a hostile place but a place of opportunities.

That was the motivation for my thesis. I wanted to find out what all is possible on Mars to make human adaptation feasible there. As a future Landscape Architect, I took on to study what will Landscape Architecture mean on Mars. I have truly enjoyed my journey combining the ever so exciting Space and my fascination to design a better environment.

I will encourage everyone to take the words of the Second Man on the Moon to their heart: Get your ass to Mars. -Buzz Aldrin

Figure v: Effects of wind on the surface of Mars photographed with HiRISE from orbit.

Credit NASA/JPL-Caltech/University of Arizona

1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 THE SUBJECT In the near future, humankind will take another giant leap as the first humans set their feet on Mars. The plans for Mars do not stop there, as permanent settlements with long-term human inhabitants are the goal for Mars expeditions. The lengths of stays on Mars are planned to be from a month to several years in the beginning. The result may be a permanent residence on Mars, generating a future society of Martians Long-term habitability requires an interdisciplinary approach to ensure human well-being on Mars. Long-term and even permanent residence in Space is not only an engineering problem.

The fundamental question is: What is required for humans not only to survive on Mars but also to thrive and adapt?

Human well-being has been widely studied in different conditions on Earth and in Space. Even though the individual elements and aspects of a beneficial effect of a green setting on human health are undetermined, the studies have shown fairly unanimously that a nature experience does increase psychological and physiological health. The need to grow food on Space expeditions has also brought the option of enjoying green environments even outside of Earth’s surface.

NASA, ESA, and other parties are constantly developing technologies and designs with architects for building habitats on the Moon and Mars. Engineers are solving technical problems for survival.

Astrobiologists are studying the future and history of life in Space. So far, the designing of green environments has not been addressed. Current designs for plant growth aim to optimize food production in greenhouses. The architectural approach is to ensure safe and somewhat comfortable indoor spaces for future Martians to dwell in.

Here I see an opportunity for landscape architects to step in. As the proof of the benefits of a nature experience is next to a fact, incorporating functional green spaces on Mars can increase the chances of succeeding in missions on Mars. The mere abstract indication of a green environment somewhere on Mars is not sufficient in order to create decent environments, as it is not on Earth either. This thesis is an opening to incorporate landscape architecture into the future plans of inhabiting Mars.

Inhabiting Mars by humans means life indoors, and hence it makes creating a green environment on Mars a complex problem. The scarce amount of in-situ materials to be used and the difficult logistics of sending resources to Mars require careful assessment of used elements and their usefulness on Mars.

As no green environments have been tested on Mars before the publication of this thesis, many aspects are somewhat speculative even in the eyes of experts of studied fields. Most of the proposed elements and solutions have been tested on Earth or on low earth orbits such as on ISS. Those which have not, are based on the best available knowledge of said subjects at this time.

1.2 GOALS This thesis aims at finding out: -

What would landscape architecture be on Mars?

-

How can landscape architecture help humans to adapt to Mars?

This thesis focuses on creating a green environment from the recreational point of view for humans. Much attention has also been given to the technical solutions and limitations regarding 12

growing plants on Mars to ensure a realistic approach to the problem.

To solve these problems this thesis discusses topics such as what is essential for plant growth on Mars, how humans react to living in Space and how to deal with it, and within reasonable limits, what sort of structural and spatial constructions are possible on Mars.

1.3 METHODS The research for this thesis comprises of literary research based on research reports of multiple fields of study and of interviews with three experts. The interviews were conducted as semi-structured interviews by e-mail and by phone. The interviewees represented the fields of plant physiology, astrobiology and Space architecture.

The used information is in accordance with the most recent research, though many of the fields have been studied for decades. The main type of reference used is research articles which are supported by publications and news articles mainly from various Space agencies. In addition, multiple books from the fields of architecture, landscape architecture, and Space expeditions are used.

The study results in a design concept of “outdoors indoors�. The end result is presented by suggestions for design solutions with the help of illustrations. The design concept finds interfaces where different aspects of studied fields can be combined to create a complete landscape.

1.4 FRAMING AND ASSUMPTIONS This thesis does not aim at detailed plans but rather guidelines in order to enable a possible application for multiple types of spaces on Mars. Due to the broad range of subjects related to designing for Space, multiple assumptions and extensive framing have been implemented.

Timewise, this thesis takes place in the future after the initial Mars explorations are over and more permanent settlements and living are implemented. When humans are inhabiting Mars long-term, the options and needs for more versatile environments are timely. In the scenario of this thesis, around 200 people will be inhabiting Mars.

By the time humans settle on Mars, the problems regarding material production and life support are solved, hence enabling more innovative elements for habitats.

The thesis does not include agricultural point of view but rather green setting for recreational purposes. The effects of microgravity on human health are presented, but as no consensus has been reached about how to best deal with them, they are not speculated in this thesis. The possibilities of using the outdoor surface on Mars, or terraforming, as a recreational space has are discussed in this thesis but are not studied in the depth of realisation.

In this thesis the possible constructions for habitats are not speculated but rather the assumptions are based on currently possible and planned options. As the understanding of a complete Mars settlement infrastructure is far beyond this thesis, only the proposed indoor landscape space, or Marscape, is studied in more detail. The surrounding elements of the future settlement are studied to the extent of their influence on the usability of the Marscape and its connection to the surface from a landscape point of view. Other architectural and city planning problems are not discussed further in this thesis.

Some aspects, even though presented, such as virtual reality and artificial ecosystems are not studied in full detail as they both would require a deeper understanding to be integrated into the design solutions of this thesis.

This thesis touches the subject of Ecosystem services, but design and research are focused on humans living permanently or long-term and hence aspects such as tourism are excluded. The problem of reacting to Martian life, if found, is presented but not solved in the length of this thesis.

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II

FUTURE MARS

IV

LIGHT FOR PLANTS SOIL, WATER, FERTILIZING ECOSYSTEMS

TH

MICROGRAVITY ISOLATION LIGHT FOR HUMANS

III

EM AR

SC

IX

AP EP

VEGETATION THE SOIL THE SUN

ROJ

THE HABITABLE SPACE

VIII

GREEN MARS

V

CULTURAL SERVICES

VI

OUTDOORS INDOORS SOCIAL INTERACTION

X

PRIVACY ACTIVITIES

Figure 1.1: Structural diagram of the The Marscape Project.

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ECT

VII

The only species of fauna discussed in this thesis is humans. Artificial ecosystems are introduced in this thesis but due to the requirement of vast understanding of complex technologies and engineering problems, the integration of ecosystems into this thesis is not studied further.

In this thesis the possible constructions for habitats are not speculated but rather the assumptions are based on currently possible and planned options. As the understanding of a complete Mars settlement infrastructure is far beyond this thesis, only the proposed indoor landscape space or Marscape is studied in more detail. The surrounding elements of the future settlement are studied to the extent of their influence on the usability of the Marscape and its connection to the surface from a landscape point of view. More architectural and city planning problems are excluded.

Some aspects, even though presented, such as virtual reality and artificial ecosystems are not studied in full detail as they both would require a deeper understanding to be integrated into the design solutions of this thesis. Therefore, integrating water features into the design is excluded. In addition, suggestions for plant species are excluded as no studies about species has been conducted apart from crops.

1.5 STRUCTURE The first part of this thesis is a theoretical approach studying the possible limits, requirements, and possibilities for an outdoor space indoors. The second part suggests design solutions combining the information required from the theoretical part.

The second chapter frames the current understanding of Space travel in general and establishes the requirements for traveling and inhabiting Mars. The conditions on Mars, as well as the ethics and problematics in Mars expeditions by humans, are discussed.

In the third and fourth chapters, the necessities for human and plants survival in Space are addressed. These chapters include lighting conditions, plant growth requirements and the physiological and psychological reactions of humans to the conditions of Space.

The fifth chapter observes the effects of a green setting on human well-being from Cultural services point of view. The studies about human psychological and physiological reactions to a natural setting are discussed in order to determine what type of arrangements are beneficial for humans.

The sixth chapter creates outlines for understanding human dwelling in an outdoor setting from Landscape Architecture point of view. Aspects such as social interaction and the effect of senses while perceiving surroundings are discussed. The seventh chapter presents current situation of green designs on Mars.

Chapters eight through ten are dedicated to present the options and design solutions for a functional indoor setting providing an experience of an outdoor setting. These chapters provide illustrations about suggested design solutions.

The conclusions state that according to extensive research on humans, a green environment on Mars could be beneficial for human well-being. The technologies used in Space expeditions are constantly developing, and the thesis is based on most current information and speculations available at the time of the writing. The thesis presents a starting point for landscape architecture beyond the Earth’s surface.

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TERMINOLOGY Adaptation: “The conventional biological processes which are physiological but also incorporating phenomenological processes which are psychological—in other words, how we perceive, experience, and cognitively process our environment.” (Lockard 2015, p. 9) Concordia: A research station in the Antarctica, where researchers are isolated for a 9-month period in the winter.

(ESA 2013) Ecosystem: “An ecosystem is defined as the interactions of species with each other and their physical environment.”

(Swenson et al 2000, p. 9110) ESA: European Space Agency, a coalition of different European nations’ effort in studying Space.

ISS: The International Space Station, a habitable artificial satellite in orbit of Earth since 1998. Currently, holds a crew of 6 astronauts. A joined project of Canada, Japan, Russia, NASA, and ESA. Martian: An inhabitant or feature of the planet Mars.

NASA: National Aeronautics and Space Administration of the United States.

Microgravity: The Earth’s gravity is referred to as 1g and much weaker gravities such as the Earth’s are referred to as microgravity. The weakest gravity is zero-gravity, meaning complete weightlessness.

Regolith: A loose mixture of dust, broken rock, and soil covering solid rock.

Space vs space: Because the word “space” has two different meanings in the English language and both are often used in this thesis, the meanings are separated by capitalizing the other. The capitalized Space refers to the area outside of Earth’s atmosphere (also known as the Outer Space), whereas space is an outdoor or indoor area used in architecture vocabulary.

Terraforming: Manipulating Mars’s atmosphere and temperatures to resemble those on Earth to support life from Earth. (McKay et al 1991) VR, virtual reality: An artificial experience of an environment, simulated by computers.

Figure 1.1: Alluvial fans formed from sediments deposited by flowing water at Saheki Crater, Mars. Credit NASA/JPL-Caltech/University of Arizona

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II 18

MARS

– AN OVERVIEW OF THE FUTURE ON THE RED PLANET This chapter introduces the current situation for plans on traveling and inhabiting Mars. The conditions on Mars are fairly hostile for Earth life (see chapter 2.3) and even a one-way trip to Mars takes several months (NASA 2015, p. 10). Once Mars is reached, options for exploration are defined by international treaties and ethics (Boston, P.J. personal communication). During the recent years, our understanding of Mars as a planet is taking giant leaps in order to guarantee safe human presence on the Red Planet.

Humans and life on Mars have been written about in science fiction since the 1600’s by writers such as Athanius Kircher. Mars has been a target of growing interest throughout the 20th century partly because of the Space Race during the Cold War between the Soviet Union and the United States (Heppenheimer 1999, pp. 131, 159). After the first Moon landing in 1969 Mars was put aside as a potential landing target for several decades and NASA decided to focus on Space stations instead (Heppenheimer 1999, pp. 98-99).

Findings of evidence of life on Mars have been reported multiple times throughout the history of studying Mars. In 1877 Italian astronomer Giovanni Schiaparelli made the first observation of the so-called Martian canals which were taken as a sign of life on Mars. They were proven to have been optical illusions many decades later. (Washam 2010) After the first Mars orbiters, landers, and rovers, scientists have not been relying only on visual sightings when trying to determine the conditions that are and have been on Mars. So far Mars has been found to have snow fall, clouds, dust storms, ice, even fairly recently flowing water and seasons (Webster et al 2008), but not yet confirmation of current or past forms of life (Conrad et al 2013).

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2.1 FUTURE OF SPACE TRAVEL Since the first man in Space, Yuri Gagarin in 1961, Space traveling has come a long way. The first vehicles that took men to Space were designed to get them there and back alive (NASA 2011, NASA 2016b). Comfort and ergonomics were not a primary concern. Even at the time of the Apollo missions, the main goal was to provide safe enough vehicles to guarantee a successful trip to the Moon and back and only the most necessary comforts for crew survival, even though the astronauts spent weeks in the vehicles (Apollo 11, About the Spacecraft n.d.).

After the International Space Station, later referred to as ISS, was permanently occupied by a changing crew in 2000 (Smith 2005, p. 9), the issue of the crew’s comfort and well-being has been given more attention (studies such as Stuster 2010). Permanent residence gives more opportunities to solve problems concerning work ergonomics but also the importance of leisure activities and comfort has become a significant factor in designing Space habitats.

The race to Mars is conducted by various private parties and Space agencies. Mars One is a project aiming at sending people on a one-way trip to Mars, starting in 2026 (Mars One 2016). The SpaceX project’s goal is to have people on Mars by 2024 and bring them back (Clark 2016). NASA and various Space agencies aim at sending people to Mars in 2030’s on a relatively short trip and bringing them back (NASA 2015). According to some researchers, such as Dr. Robert Zubrin, we are already more ready to go to Mars today than we were sending people to Moon in the 1960’s (Zubrin 2010, p. 3557).

It is fairly reasonable to be skeptical about a permanent mission to Mars with no opportunities of bringing the crew back under any circumstances. Even though Mars One roused great interest among applicants receiving over 100,000 requisitions from people willing to permanently settle on Mars (Mars One 2016), it is hard to make such promises without experience and knowledge about conditions of the future settlements (see chapters 4 and 7). Astronaut Scott Kelly recently returned to Earth from a year in Space on ISS. He gave statements after his journey that he could not imagine never being able to step outside for a breath of fresh air as the driving force to manage a year in orbit was the thought of it ending soon (Potenza 2016). As stated by Dr. Oleg Gazenko, the limitations and challenges of Space exploration are not due to human physiology or medicine but psychology (Stuster 1996, p. 165).

As journeys to Space become longer and habitation in Space more permanent, designing for Space habitats need to take human well-being even more strongly into consideration. Currently, the design for Space is highly engineering oriented, which often disregards the aspects of human well-being. As it is impossible to mimic Earth’s conditions anywhere else, permanent and long-duration habitation should be focusing not only on habitation but also adaptation to the new environments.

Adaptation to a new environment and conditions results in evolution. Once we get safely to Mars, we should not only be thinking about how we can survive there but how we can thrive there. We need to invent how humans and life as we know it can flourish in an environment we are not evolved to live in. How do Martians live?

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Table 2.1: Characteristics of Space expeditions by lenght and objectives. By E. S. 3 Shifting from Habitation to Adaptation in Space Lockard (Lockard 2015, p. 42).

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Fig. 3.2 Criteria for somatic adjustments based on different objectives

sense of the word) to Space environments, our technologies cannot be used to avoid confrontations with environmental resistances.

The prescriptions for psychological and physiological adjustment therefore depend on clarifying what our ultimate objectives are for venturing into Space.

Survival alone, because it entails designing a controlled environment to sustain the minimum standards for life, requires in some cases the least physiological adjustment and the greatest technological intervention (where conditions are life-threatening)— but ironically in other aspects, the most physiological adjustment and less technological intervention (under non-life-threatening conditions). Psychosocial needs, for the most part, are irrelevant in the survival scenario. Of the three objectives, habitation requires the least physiological effort on the part of the human because comfort criteria are intended to fall well within our somatic range. Unlike survival or habitation however, adaptation—understood in evolutional terms—demands a more careful analysis of the relationship between the physical environment and our somatic limits. Quantification of those conditions that are conducive to adaptation becomes even more challenging, and we should expect that some criteria for adaptation will diverge from those of either survival or habitation.

The next section delves into different modes of adaptation: the conventional physiological and psychosocial processes, but also introducing a phenomenological dimension.

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2.2 MARS – HOW TO? With current technology the missions to Mars have to be carefully scheduled in order to avoid excessive travel times and fuel consumption (NASA 2015, pp. 30-31). A one-way trip to Mars takes approximately 8 months depending on chosen technology and suitability of a launch window (Cain 2015). The best launch windows occur every 26 months, which makes the duration of a stay on Mars either one month or over one Earth year (NASA 2015, pp. 9-10). Most parties planning Mars expeditions agree that the longer period would be more beneficial for Mars exploration and as technology and knowledge advances, permanent settlements are to be established.

The curious nature of human beings urges us to find new environments to study and inhabit. It is also part of nature’s evolutionary programming to seek and find new environments in order to ensure a better survival for a species. The next step for humans is to find new places to inhabit in Space. Even if Mars exploration would take place only to explore and research other worlds, the human presence has its advantages compared with robots in conducting research (Levine et al 2010a, p. 3631). The conduction skills of humans will benefit research in Space as humans can judge which findings are interesting and require more inspection and what can be disregarded as non-essential (ibid.). The mere distance of Mars makes communication with Earth slow and inefficient, and therefore, more independent assessment on-site is needed.

Mars has already proven to contain water, has sufficient enough sunlight to enable the use of solar panels for energy, has a similar day-night-cycle to Earth, and has a reasonable gravity which is believed to be enough for human adaptation (Levine et al 2010a, pp. 3629-2630, NASA 2016a, McKay et al 1991 p. 489). Also, the gas mixture of Mars’s atmosphere and other resources on Mars can be used to extraction for materials needed for human habitation (Moses & Bushnell 2016, pp.

7-10). This is crucial, as the payload for journeys to Mars need to be minimal and self-sufficiency increases the chance of survival as the distance to the Earth is great.

As at least the first generations of the future Martians are originally Earthlings, the need to provide them with comfortable and familiar surroundings is necessary. The shock of future environments of confinement needs to be carefully addressed in order to minimize stress the new conditions may implement on the crew. This requires careful planning for versatile spaces, including recreational opportunities and the sense of freedom in the foreign environment.

Many risks in Space expeditions have something to do with the psychological health of the crew (Kanas et al 2009). Usually, the crew selected for expeditions is selected by characteristics such as capability to withstand hardship of long distance to home on Earth, confinement and danger (Kanas et al, p. 663). It is wiser to invest in characteristics enabling adaptation. Inhabiting Mars for long term will be easier if the surroundings are designed so that humans can adapt to them, rather than selecting crew based on their individual capabilities to survive. After all, the future of humans on Mars is as dependent on functioning habitation as it is on individual performance.

Figure 2.2 (right page): Location map. Planets and their relative distances are not in scale.

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2.3 MARS FACTS (Nasa 2016a)

MARS

SUN

Mars Earth Diameter

6791.43 km

12 813.59 km

Distance from the Sun

228.5x106 km

149.6x106 km

Year 687 Earth days 365.25 days Day

24 h 37 min

24 h

Gravity g=3,71m/s2 (38%) g=9,81m/s2 Temperature min.

-140 C°

-88 C°

Temperature max

30 C°

58 C°

Temperature average

-63 C°

15 C°

Atmosphere

96 % CO2

78.09% N2

1.93% Ar 20.95% O2 1.89% N2

0.93% Ar

0.145% O2

0.039% CO2

<0.01% CO Pressure 7.5 mbar 1013 mbar Cosmic radiation exp.

250 mSv per year

3.6 mSv per year

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2.4 LIFE ON MARS VERSUS LIVING ON MARS Even though no life on Mars has been confirmed up till the writing of this thesis, it has not been ruled out not to be there at all. The conditions on the surface of Mars are likely to terminate all life forms within a short period of time, but microbial life could still be found in subsurface environments (Boston et al 1992, pp. 300-308). It is widely accepted that Mars has been significantly warmer and moister in its earlier days. Due to Mars’s lack of tectonic activity and rotation of energy, it has cooled down and lost its atmosphere and warmth. (Levine et al 2010a, pp. 3629) Therefore, if life has developed on Mars, it will most likely be found in subsurface environments.

So far scientific studies on Mars have been conducted from orbit or by rovers, which means that subsurface habitats have been unsearched due to robots’ incapability of reaching caves or lava tubes (Levine et al 2010b, p. 3639). None the less, Mars is the subject of considerable interest from Astrobiology point of view (Boston, P.J. Personal communication, 1 August 2016). Especially since liquid water was observed on Mars, the hope for finding conditions supporting life has increased (Brown et al 2015).

The first steps of inhabiting Mars by humans is designed to happen in pressurized habitats either surface or subsurface (Boston et al 2007, Drake et al 2010, Cohen 2015). The most extensive plans for inhabiting Mars include the idea of terraforming, first introduced by Martin Fogg and Christopher McKay. Terraforming means to manipulate Mars’s atmosphere and temperatures to resemble those on Earth to support life as we know it now, which could take thousands of years (McKay et al 1991). The end result would be a entirely habitable surface or aided habitability, by only using gas masks for sufficient oxygen for humans (McKay et al 1991, p. 490). Since the time span needed to achieve even a partial terraforming, it is a problem for future humans to solve. This idea is basically an engineering problem regarding execution but also an ethical one.

Most countries have signed the Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, also known as the Outer Space Treaty, which will limit the actions of humans in Outer Space and in this case, on Mars. The Treaty states that: States shall be liable for damage caused by their space objects; and States shall avoid harmful contamination of space and celestial bodies. (The Outer Space Treaty of 1967) The Treaty will be problematic if life on Mars will be discovered and it will greatly limit where human habitats might be considered and which resources can be used. The most potential areas for life on Mars are called “special regions” which are also the most likely areas for holding resources such as liquid water near the surface (Boston, P.J. Personal communication, 1 August 2016). These areas, if as well habitats for Martian life, should therefore not be occupied by humans or robotics, if not fully sterilized first (ibid.).

In case life on Mars will be found and since it is most likely found subsurface, the possibility of habiting subsurface by humans will be more challenging. The absence of Martian life should be confirmed first. Surface habitation should not be a problem if subsurface resources are guaranteed not to be contaminated were needed. Also, terraforming Mars should be discussed further as terraforming would interfere with existing Martian life.

Figure 2.3: Warm seasons introduce recurring slope lineae produced by seeps of water on the surface of Mars. Credit NASA/JPL-Caltech/University of Arizona

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III 26

PLANTS ON MARS

– REQUIREMENTS FOR SUCCESSFUL PLANT GROWTH ON MARS In this chapter, the requirements for different aspects regarding plant growth are discussed. Growing plants in microgravity and in Space is not as straight forward as on Earth’s gravity and conditions. Multiple things easily obtainable on Earth are scarce on Mars. How plants actually grow in microgravity is still under ongoing research. Extensive studies conducted on board the ISS show that it is possible to grow edible plants in Space by adapting growing requirements to Space (Kitmacher 2006, p. 17). NASA has been developing the Vegetable Production System “Veggie”, which would provide plants all the resources they need to flourish in zero-gravity (Levine & Smith 2016).

The first food grown in Space was eaten on August 10, 2015, by ISS crew 44 and was reported to taste “good” (Pearlman 2015, Zabel et al 2016, p. 8).

Due to the duration of long distance Space travels, such as one to Mars, growing food on Space expeditions is widely regarded as a necessity. Carrying enough pre-packed food would additionally make the payload excessively heavy. Along with the payload point of view, the potentially uplifting experience of eating fresh food in Space and plants’ contribution to creating breathable air should not be ignored.

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3.1 LIGHT FOR VEGETATION Vegetation on Earth generally depends on sunlight to provide enough luminosity for plant growth.

Sunlight provides plants with all essential wavelengths. (Wang & Folta 2013, p. 70) On Earth, additional artificial light is generally needed in greenhouses to guarantee an all-year-round growing season for crops. As light-emitting diodes (LEDs) have been invented, providing artificial light in Space has become easier (Morrow 2008). According to Raymond Wheeler (Personal communication, 12 July 2016), the sunlight levels after radiation protection on Mars are not sufficient to guarantee plant growth. Additionally, frequent dust storms on Mars significantly reduce levels of sunlight on the surface and hence artificial lighting will be needed.

When designing technology for Space, everything comes down to energy efficiency. The ISS, satellites, and rovers mainly operate on solar power and the available energy is limited by solar panel capacity (Smith & Bazar 2010). So far, LEDs are the most energy-efficient option in the field of artificial light and therefore at the moment the most promising option for lighting in Space.

In addition to energy efficiency, LEDs have other useful aspects. LEDs can be selected and programmed to emit certain wavelengths at predetermined mixtures to optimize the spectrum of light. They can produce light levels matching those of sunlight and due to their coolness, they can be brought close to plant tissue (Morrow 2008, p. 1948).

Massa et al (2008, p. 1954) studied effects of different light spectrums on vegetation as well as the difference in light direction affecting plant growth with LEDs. The results showed that intracanopy light increased plantsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; total biomass compared with overhead light, as canopies were not shading the lower layers of leaves. Their studies point out that LEDs might be used to modify crop growth or to optimize emitted spectrums. Generally, better results are achieved by a wider range of wavelengths, which leads to the question whether the best light, after all, is actually white light. Plants have been studied with red, green and blue light. Green light is needed for most plantsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; photosynthesis, but also for human observation. Other studies show that when comparing intracanopy LED-towers with overhead high-pressure sodium lamps, tomatoes have reportedly increased 75% their fruit biomass (GĂłmez et al 2013, p. 96).

Within the limits of this thesis, it is not essential to study the aspects of artificial lighting in more depth. However, it is worth noting the general characteristics of possible solutions for lighting to aid creating guidelines. LEDs are so far the most probable solution for plant light on Mars and when creating a space where humans are meant to spend time, it will be important to determine the spectrum of used light to suit humans as well.

It is also worth noting, that this thesis is not aiming at designing a greenhouse for agriculture crops.

The general light for a landscape does not need to fulfil the same requirements as light for plants.

The overall light can be generated by separated light for plants and humans. The light should be sufficient enough to guarantee plant growth but can be designed in a more human-friendly manner.

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Fig. 2. Intracanopy light-emitting diode (LED) lighting (A)and compared with overhead (B) of a Figure 3.1: Comparison of intracanopy light (A) overhead light (B)LED onlighting leaf density. cowpea crop. Arrow in B shows leaf drop resulting from canopy closure and mutual shading in the Arrow points to leaf drop due to canopy closure. Intracanopy light enables greater overhead-lighted canopy. biomass production and reduces leaf drop. (Massa 2008)

(Kim et al., 2005 and referenc These studies are just the tip o unmapped iceberg of crop respo row-spectrum lighting. Future ne trolled environment crop manag will involve interactions of lighti ters with still other environmen Crop breeders could, for exam phenotypes with desirable trait in response to unique lighting co New questions arise when LEDs for horticultural lighting studies reported previously. Firs els/proportions of red, green, an will be required for particular c these optima change over the life crop, and how should waveban modified for optimal production be yield or appearance? Data f species already tested already sho diversity for narrow-band radia productivity generally is seen wit wavelengths and broadening of th This begs the question of whether rediscovering the importance of White LEDs do exist, but typica LEDs with phosphor coatings a nature are less efficient than the s peak LEDs. Plant studies with sources remain to be performe LEDs used as supplements to other types of lighting in gree growth chambers could modify c or development in a desired direc depriving crops of necessary w The trick will be to find the right intensity combinations for each that differences in light response exist even at the cultivar level.

Another issue in considering narrow-spectrum lighting with L to visualization of plants and ear of disease and disorder. Perhaps that have 29 no absolute green lig ment, green could be used only wh crops for easier and clearer visual the human eye, and when not und tion, the energy could be redirecte

3.2 SOIL, WATER AND FERTILIZING The conditions on Mars require growing plants in a greenhouse. As per Salisbury et al (2001, p.

167) protection against the outside temperature, dropping as low as -100°C, atmospheric pressure and high radiation on surface require a shelter to guarantee plant survival. Another notable aspect is whether increased radiation will affect plants (Wheeler, R. Personal communication, 12 July 2016).

Most of the experiments of growing plants in Space have been conducted around plant growing chambers, such as Veggie. One of the reasons for this is to discover a technique to grow plants in zero-gravity, such as on ISS or on a voyage to Mars. Plant growth chambers have been developed and tested since the first manned Space Stations, the earliest being Oasis series on the Soviet Salyut Space Station launched in 1971 (Zabel et al. 2016, p. 2). The basic concept of a growing chamber is to provide plants nutrients, water, light, and warmth in a closed system. So far, the results have been promising to enable different plants from orchids to eatable salads to be grown (Zabel et al 2016, pp. 1-9). All studies have been conducted with fairly small chambers and hence yet it is unknown how the systems will work in large scale enabling actual harvest.

According to studies on ISS, when provided with directional light, the plants grow their shoots towards light and roots away from light, even without gravity. With some differences in the growth habits of the plants on board ISS and their control group on Earth, the most distinctive difference was that the plants on ISS grew slightly slower than their comparable ground controls. (Paul 2012, pp 1-5.) Mars does have gravity, though smaller than that of the Earth, which could make it easier for plants to adapt. Space-grown plants have also been used to produce seeds in Space, which in turn have been planted. Such seeds have successfully sprouted and grown in Space, though they have been reported to have smaller germination percent compared with Earth-grown seeds and were weaker in size and quality (Ivanova et al 2001, p. 4).

It is unclear whether Martian soil can be used as a substrate. According to researches the soil does not provide all the nutrients required for plant growth, the water drainage and water holding capacities are not yet fully understood. In addition, compounds, such as chlorate salts present in some of the Martian regolith may cause toxicity problems. (Wheeler, R. Personal communication, 12 July 2016) Hydroponics and aeroponics are plant-growing methods without the use of soil (Jones Jr. 2016, p. 2). Both methods appear naturally on Earth, such as epiphytes on trees and duckweed in water.

These methods make growing plants in Space and on Mars more feasible due to the indifference of usability or even availability of soil. Nonetheless, according to Jones Jr. (2016, p. 2), hydroponics requires highly engineered systems to maintain sufficient nutrients and water for plants, the changes in which are more prominent in hydroponics than in regular soil based growing substrates. Pros for said methods are conservation of water and no losses of nutrients, the absence of soilborne diseases, more controllable environment and possibility of maximum fields. Cons are requirements for more careful maintenance and care, quickly spreading soilborne diseases if such are introduced, not suitable for all species of plants, and constant observation to guarantee correct nutrients and water.

Whether using soil or alternative methods to grow plants on Mars, the key problems to be assigned are sufficient water, nutrients and light (Wheeler, R. Personal communication, 12 July 2016). Water should be found in-situ as habitation without access to water would not be suitable for humans either.

The most efficient way to manage vegetation would be to incorporate it with an artificial ecosystem on Mars, which would enable recycling of materials to reduce the loss of water, nutrients, and biomass (see chapter 3.3). The most feasible method to grow plants on Mars is to combine different techniques regarding the species and purpose of the plant. Separated systems for plants would also be wise, in case one system fails everything would not be lost (Boston, P.J. Personal communication, 1 August 2016). From Landscape Architecture point of view, the growing chambers are not the visually ideal solution to be placed in areas meant for human dwelling and might be more efficient producing crops.

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image time-stamped 2010_02_19_09_4 corresponds in age (within an hour) to the Ground Control plate image 2010_02_25_10_39. This delay in the Ground control initiation allows for the programing of the Orbital Environmental Simulator with the ISS laboratory ambient environmental data collected on orbit.

Although plants germinated on orbit demonstrated a positive shoot phototropism and negative root phototropism that generally reflects the ground control growth patterns, the microgravity environment impacted several aspects of plant growth. These aspects were quantified with mapping options in Adobe Illustrator CS3. The analytical process is displayed in Figure 2. It can be visually seen that the growth patterns of 8.5 day old ground control (Figure 2A) and flight (Figure 2B) plants differed, but those differences can be quantified and evaluated by assigning numerical values to both the absolute distance grown and the degree of deviation

Plants on orbit grew more slowly than comparable ground controls

Arabidopsis plants on orbit grew more slowly than comparable ground control plants. Irrespective of features inherent to spaceflight, the environmental conditions (lighting, temperature, humidity, CO2) experienced by the two sets of plants were identical. The ground control and flight images for 8.5 day-old plants introduced in Figure 2 were again used to generate the morphometric data presented in Figure 3. The 8.5 day images for Ground Control 2010_02_25_10_39 (Figure 3A) and Flight 2010_02_19_09_40 (Figure 3B) are shown here overlaid with the traces that define growth and direction in each 6 hour period, traces alternating red and blue for clarity (two blue, two red, per 24 hour period â&#x20AC;&#x201C; see also Figure 2C). The grids on the plates measure 13mm and were used for calibration. Numerical values were calculated for each root and hypocotyl length, and then the

Figure 3.2: Ground control roots (left) and waving and skewing of plant roots grown in Space (right). (Paul et al 2012, p. 4)

Figure 2 Quantification of growth patterns with overlays provides information on the growth rates and habit. Root growth patterns of plants 8.5 days old from the ground control (A) and flight experiment (B) were quantified with mapping options in Adobe Illustrator CS3.

Numerical values were assigned to both the absolute distance grown and the degree of deviation from the vertical (C) which creates an overlay of data containing information on the growth rates and habit (detail in D).

There are no guarantees how plants will cope with stressful conditions on Mars, as no such experiments on Mars have yet been conducted. Therefore, everything on Mars will be highly experimental for a long time before establishing the most successful combination for plant growth. Because it is impossible to carry all required elements for plants from Earth, at least water should be found in-situ.

The use of Martian regolith as a substrate needs more studies to be qualified as possible. The final qualification may take place only when the regolith as a substrate will be tested on Mars. Cultivation systems relying more on technology, such as hydroponics, are easier to test as circumstances can be produced on Earth and on ISS. Vegetation on Mars can be realized by utilizing multiple growing methods and systems to guarantee plant growth and in order to create an interesting landscape for humans.

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CREW food

water CO2

O2

waste fibre degradation

higher plant compartment non-edible biomass

photoautotropic bacteria

thermophilic anaerobic bacteria

CO2 food

NO3O2

CO2 minerals

nitrifying bacteria CO2 minerals photoheterotrophic bacteria

Figure 3.3: Functional diagram of MELiSSA (Micro-Ecological Life Support System Alternative). After Hendrickx et al 2006.

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3.3 FRESH AIR, RECYCLING AND ECOSYSTEMS Requirements for a functioning habitable space for humans and plants are air of suitable gas mixture, nutrition, water, waste treatment and energy, broadly defined as life support. Humans and plants require different combinations and qualities of said elements but they can be provided by same systems. These systems are called artificial ecosystems which mimic the natural ecosystems but on a smaller scale and usually in completely enclosed circulation. (Hendrickx et al 2006, pp.

77-78) Air quality is a major challenge in enclosed spaces such as Spacecraft and habitats in Space. When on Earth one would simply open a window to let fresh air in, it is not an option outside of the Earth’s atmosphere. Oxygen for humans can be produced from in-situ resources on Mars by separating it from carbon dioxide found in Mars’s atmosphere and in Martian ice (Sridhar et al 1992).

Oxygen can also be separated in larger processes from hydrogen and coal found on Mars (Moses & Bushnell 2016, pp. 5-6). Methods such as these require a separate system for production but could be useful guaranteeing sufficient oxygen for humans.

Fresh air production integrated with habitation can be provided by plants. Indoor air quality provided by plants has been studied by various Space agencies but also for purposes on Earth. In most cases, this is inspired by poor air quality in many big cities (Kokkonen 2016). Studies have shown, that various plants are in fact highly effective at reducing impurities and harmful substances from the air (Wolverton et al 1989, Orwell et al 2004, Orwell et al 2006, among others). Some debate remains over how much influence soil and roots have on the overall effect of air purification.

Recycling waste and goods is essential on Space travels as raw materials are scarce and expensive as payload, and storing waste is challenging. Recycling inedible biomass from plants and human waste would help to provide plants water and fertilizers (Wheeler, R. Personal communication, 12 July 2016). Biomass from plants is also an effective way to preserve solar energy and can be easily storaged frozen at Martian temperatures (Salisbury et al 2001, p. 170).

Artificial ecosystems aim at providing previously defined elements, air, water, nutrition, and other goods, with minimum input from outside the ecosystem. Artificial ecosystems are optimized and enhanced versions of the Earth’s ecosystem to enable functionality. (Hendrickx et al 2006, pp. 7778, Swenson et al 2000) These ecosystems are designed for life support in Space to minimize the need for constant supplies from Earth (Hendrickx et al 2007, p. 231).

The Earth’s ecosystem is so complex that it is proven to be excessively difficult if not even impossible to mimic artificially, as observed in the Biosphere 2 experiment. Biosphere 2 experiment was an artificially created ecological system, occupied by 8 humans and a variation of different vegetation zones, with the only input from the outside was sunlight (Biosphere 2 2016). It was quickly discovered that the oxygen levels dropped to a harmful level due to microbial respiration, excessive amounts of organic matter introduced into the soil, and the habitats concrete structures (Severinghaus et al 1994).

One of the most promising artificial ecosystems is Micro-Ecological Life Support System Alternative, or MELiSSA for short, designed by ESA. MELiSSA has been tested on Concordia in the Antarctic since 2005 and has been reported to be functioning efficiently under real-life situations (ESA 2013a, p. 13). MELiSSA is inspired by the real ecosystem of a lake on Earth aiming at full circulation of waste, nutrients, and biomass. It introduces Arthospira spirulina as the main source of protein and oxygen as it produces 20 times more protein than soy and is far more efficient in carbon dioxide absorbing and oxygen production than trees. (Hendrickx et al 2006, Hendrickx et al 2007.) Naturally, the circumstances and functionality may change once used in Space which has not yet been tested with MELiSSA. Every space in Space intended for human habitation is a part of an artificial ecosystem even if the technology was hidden. As more permanent settlements of large scale are established on Mars, the integration of artificial ecosystems to the habitable spaces is worth studying. Plants are naturally always a part of air circulation but other elements, such as water purification, could be used as well.

Due to the complex nature of mimicking ecosystems observed in projects such as Biosphere 2, this thesis does not aim to integrate ecosystems in more depth.

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IV 34

HUMANS ON MARS

– HOW LIVING IN SPACE AFFECTS HUMANS Living in Space influences human well-being on many levels, which are discussed in this chapter.

Humans have been spending time in Space since 1961 when Yuri Gagarin went to Space for the first time. Since then, the length of stays has increased from a few day’s trip to a year in Space on ISS (Potenza 2016). With increased periods in Space, the importance of crew comfort and the influence of conditions of Space have been given more attention. Where Gagarin travelled to Space and back in something similar to a tin can (NASA 2016b), the crew on ISS can enjoy spare time activities and spaces assigned for different functions (Kitmacher 2006, pp. 26-56).

Though the conditions for humans in Space have been improving, dwelling in Space has multiple side effects. These include both psychological aspects due to stress and isolation, and physiological ones due to different circadian rhythm, microgravity and immunological changes (Abadie et al 2015). It is important to realize these aspects in order to guarantee the crew’s functionality and well-being on long Space voyages. A human’s well-being and comfort are currently not the driving force in Space design but it should be as the permanent inhabitation of Space draws nearer.

The long-term habitation on a foreign planet might be conditional to human adaptation to dominant conditions. Instead of trying to copy conditions currently dominant on Earth, it might be wise to adapt to the new surroundings. The daylight cycle on Earth and Mars differ, as does gravitation. Hence, it is important to study which elements are crucial for human well-being and how they could be translated to Mars.

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4.1 HUMANS IN MICROGRAVITY Humans face a number of health-related challenges outside of Earth’s atmosphere. The full effects of long periods in Space are still unknown, which creates even greater challenges regarding human well-being on another planet. This subject is not covered in full detail in this thesis but understanding these elements help to define aspects of designing on Mars more relatable.

NASA has been studying human physiology and psychology in space on ISS to determine what are the risks of space travel to a human body. Weaker-than-Earth gravity fields weaken the bone structure, muscle strength, shifts the balance of bodily fluids affecting vision, increases the chance of kidney stones and effects the reactions of medications. Hostile and closed environments effects negatively on stress hormone levels and immune systems, and it is easier for microbes to spread in a confined environment. (Abadie et al 2015) As per report by Olabi et al (2002), multiple studies have been conducted to understand the effects of microgravity to human senses of taste and smell. So far studies show, that there is a change in chemosensory perception in microgravity, though results conflict. The most unanimous result is regarding the sense of taste, which has usually weakened in microgravity. Astronauts often report that food in Space tastes bland. Due to small take of participants, the results are not absolute. The reported results can also be caused by Space sickness, the atmosphere in a Space shuttle, or by the effects of stress or radiation on the chemical senses.

On Earth and in low orbits around it, the Earth’s magnetic field protects all life from harmful radiation from Space (Abadie et al 2015, Frazier 2015). This protection grows weaker the further from Earth’s surface we are. Therefore, even on ISS extra protection is needed in case of Solar storms and increased radiation. Once on voyage to Mars and on Mars, the same protection has to be created artificially to prevent radiation-related sickness in astronauts and plants. This greatly effects on choice of habitats and limits the freedom of movement.

Even though micro-gravity has multiple negative and still unknown effects on human health, microgravity makes movement lighter and easier. Physical tasks and exercises performed in Earth’s gravity are greatly more manageable in weaker gravity, such as moving around, jumping and pushups (Nikkanen 2016, pp. 46-48). The Mars’s 38% gravity should be taken into consideration when designing space and activities on Mars. Vertical movement is much easier than on Earth, even with slowly weakening muscle and bone strength, since achieved movement is greater with less force.

Even though life on ISS in zero-gravity has been proven manageable, even weak gravity can help humans to orientate to their surroundings. Spatial understanding is easier when at least two directions are simply determined.

Long-term effects of microgravity on human health are hard to study on Earth. So far the studies about the effects have been performed on ISS and the former Russian MIR station, where occupants have continuously stayed a maximum of one year (Horneck et al 2006, pp. 755-756). The effects of longer stays on Mars are still to be studied. Currently, exercise is most commonly used to fight the negative effects of microgravity but have been proven insufficient with disorders such as bone loss and muscle atrophy (Horneck et al 2006, p. 757). The case for Mars is not as severe, as Mars does have a reasonable gravity compared with Earth’s. Exercise can, however, decrease the negative effects if not completely counterbalance them.

As it is difficult to determine how the effects of weaker gravity should be addressed to minimize the negative effects at this time, this thesis aims to provide suggestions to stimulate possibly weakened senses and mobility. The solutions presented in this thesis aim at creating a landscape which offers opportunities to use different senses and counterbalance the negative effects of weakerthan-Earth gravity.

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Vision weakens as bodily fluids shift.

Sense of taste changes, often becoming weaker than on Earth.

Sense of smell changes, often weakening.

Due to weaker gravity, vertical movement is lighter.

Stress from Space travel affects stress hormone levels and immune system.

Moving is easier at first, but eventually muscle mass weakens due to lack of resistance.

Weak gravity results in bone loss.

Figure 4.1: Effects of microgravity on humans.

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4.2 HUMANS IN ISOLATION A long space mission requires adaptation to isolation. Space agencies have been concerned about astronauts’ capability of coping with isolation since the 1960’s when the first space missions took place. It was speculated that isolation affects physiological and psychological health which later studies have confirmed. ESA and NASA are both conducting on-going research in order to find tools to ease the astronauts’ sense of solitude and confinement (ESA 2013a, Stuster 2010). Extended periods of isolation and confinement inflict behavioural issues in a group, develops sleep disorders, increases the chance of depression and creates general boredom (Abadie et al 2015).

Stuster (2010, pp. 1-58) conducted a study about ISS astronauts’ perception of their well-being from their diaries and by questionnaires. The study consisted of ten astronauts’ diaries from sixmonth-missions on ISS. The conditions on ISS during the study were a six-month confinement with 3-6 astronauts, contact with family on Earth over the internet, full day’s work of research and maintenance, no gravity, canned food, and free time inside the space station. Overall perceived well-being was average, with periods of frustration and boredom but also of excitement and awe.

After an observation cupola (see figures 5.2 and 5.3) was installed on ISS in 2010, the element of boredom was reported as “eliminated”. Around 40% of reported leisure or recreation activities on ISS were specifically described as viewing or photographing the Earth. Many astronauts discovered a new hobby of photographing on ISS. The overall tone of the entries about viewing the Earth was amazement and awe over the beauty of the planet. The retreat to the cupola also helped the astronauts in coping with the sense of solitude and loneliness while also feeling cramped in a small space. Personal space was scarce when the crew size was of six people and the moments of solitude were appreciated. Another major effect on the crew’s mood was sufficient time to recover and of restoration. Many times the schedule was so tight that there was only a little or no room for sufficient rest and recovery. After a few hours of free time, there was a significant increase in the mood. Other important aspects increasing the crew’s satisfaction were leisure activities as a group, such as movie nights or celebrating holidays, quality of food, support from the ground control and sufficient rest.

ESA (2013a, pp. 1-13) continuously studies the effects of isolation on humans at the Concordia research station in Antarctica. Concordia is a research station with 16 researchers inhabiting the station for a continuous duration of nine months. The station can be seen as a simulation of a space flight since it is only accessible from the outside for three months in a year. Outside temperatures are -80°C, the Sun does not set for six months in the Summer and does not rise for six months in the Winter, and the station is at the altitude of 3200 meters.

Because of the similarities between Concordia and a space mission, scientists have been able to study what happens to humans in conditions close to a space mission. Observed effects include insomnia, caused by the misalignment between internal circadian rhythm and outside elements, melancholy, due to the absence of sunlight, and boredom in the absence of sensory stimuli. ESA reports that the crew has often felt detached from the Earth and felt emotionally isolated due to long seasons and limited contact with the outside world. Also, changes in personalities and behaviour have been observed but it is yet unproven whether this is due to changes in brain structure affected by confinement, sensory monotony, and long-term isolation. (ibid.)

Even though isolation mostly promotes negative changes in humans, it also can have a beneficial effect on humans. Kanas et al (2009, p. 665) report that confinement and isolation can also lead to ingenuity, fortitude, and comradeship.

Conditions on Mars are extremely demanding and not the least because of the great distance to Earth. On average a radio signal takes 13 minutes from Earth to Mars and the same to get back (Ormston 2012). In case something happens on Mars, the information and response will take a long time to travel. Regarding this and the average travel time to Mars being 8 months (Cain 2015) the Martian crews are on their own. If the crews on Concordia have been reporting a sense of solitude and isolation from the outside world (ESA 2013a, pp. 1-13), it will most probably be the same for humans on Mars. According to Abadie et al (2015), distance from the Earth can increase the sense of isolation, add stress due to the fact that help is not near in case needed, and requires

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more careful planning on providing sufficient life support for the length of the journey. Isolation is enhanced by the predominant conditions on Mars, such as restricted movement due to the unbreathable atmosphere, radiation protection, and cold temperatures.

Most astronaut selection processes aim at finding applicants who are most suitable for coping with extreme stress caused by the conditions in Space, such as isolation (Kanas et al 2009, pp. 663664). This is crucial for the first explorers on Mars to guarantee successful missions but as more permanent settlements are to be built, the priorities concerning astronaut qualities can be altered.

Instead of selecting astronauts able to survive in extreme conditions, the selection can be shifted towards individuals and groups able to adapt to the new surroundings. This can be eased by the design of the future settlements, which can be fitted to compensate the deficiencies of Mars.

Cons

Pros

- Insomnia and sleeping disorders.

+ New hobbies and sense of awe.

- Emotional isolation and detachment from the Earth.

+ Ingenuity.

- Behavioral issues in a group.

+ Comradeship.

- Boredom and depression.

Figure 4.2: Effects of isolation on humans.

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D. Manzey / Acta Astronautica 55 (2004) 781 – 790

783

Table 1 Table 4.3: Psychologically featuresofoforbital missions high exploratory level of isolation 2004, p. 39). in Antarctica Comparison of psychologicallyrelevant relevant features spacewith missions, missions(Manzey to Mars and winter-over

Duration (in months) Distance to Earth (km) Transfer times to/from destination Crew size Degree of isolation and social monotony Crew autonomy Evacuation in case of emergency Availability of mission support measures: • ground-based monitoring • 2-way communication • E-mail up-/downlink • Internet access • Onboard entertainment • Re-supply �ights • Visiting crews Visual link to Earth ∗ Based

Orbital ISS Missions

Mars Mission∗

Winter-over in Antarctica

4–6 300–400 1–2 days 3–6 Low to high Low Yes

36 60–400 million 200–300 days 6 Extremely high Extremely high No

10–14 — 2–3 days 15–100 Medium to high High No

Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

Very restricted Very restricted Yes No Yes No No No

Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No No Yes

on features of the 1000-day reference missions de�ned by NASA and ESA [2,3].

station in Antarctica, long-duration missions in a nuclear submarine, or expeditions into unknown parts of the Earth in former centuries. Yet, there are also major di�erences which render missions to Mars a unique challenge from a psychological point of view. This can be illustrated by comparing psychologically relevant features of Mars missions with those of orbital space�ight or a winter-over in Antarctica which often is regarded as one of the best space analog environments (see Table 1). The most important unique features, of course, are related to the enormous distance to travel and the very long enforced stay on the martian surface. Of course, the Russian space program has proven that a stay in a low-Earth orbit up to 438 days is possible, but this evidence is based on just one cosmonaut who never experienced a period of extreme social monotony that lasted longer than a few months (due to crew exchange and visiting crews), and who got a large amount of ground-based support. During a voyage 40 to Mars and a stay on the martian surface, crew members are expected to endure extraordinary long periods of extreme con�nement and social isolation which amount up to 1000 days. During all this time,

audio-, video-, or data-transmissions between ground and space will be delayed up to 40 min, or even be entirely blocked for di�erent periods. Furthermore, no possibilities exist for any supply or short-term rescue �ights. Consequently, ground-based support currently used to foster crew morale, psychological well-being, and mental/behavioral health of crew members during long-duration orbital space�ight can only be provided to a minimal degree. Thus, it must be assumed that the risks for mission success and safety associated with all kinds of psychological issues known from di�erent isolated and con�ned environments on Earth or from orbital space�ight will largely be increased on Mars missions [19]. In addition, new psychological challenges will arise during these missions, some of them involving risks for mental and behavioral health which, in principle, cannot be assessed in advance.

3. New psychological challenges of Mars missions 3.1. Individual behavior and performance

Figure 4.4 (top): Dust storm on Mars in 2007. Credit NASA/JPL-Caltech/MSSS. Figure 4.5 (bottom): Two pictures from 2001 show a quickly spread global dust storm on Mars. Credit NASA/JPL-Caltech/MSSS.

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4.3 LIGHT FOR HUMANS The human biology has evolved to the rhythm of a 24-hour cycle like almost every other species on Earth. Light-dark -cycle controls the biological clock managing important hormones (van Bommel et al 2004, p. 260), also known as the circadian rhythm. This cycle has been found to be fairly exact even when interfered with a forced dark-light cycle and remains on average at 24 hours 10.8 minutes (Czeisler et al 1999, p. 2177). This notion becomes relevant when planning on long duration or permanent habitation on Mars, where the length of the day, or one sol, is 24 hours 37 minutes.

On Earth, the difficulties in circadian rhythm can be observed in high and low latitudes where the length of the day varies by season. These effects have been studied on Concordia, where the permanent residents endure six-month-periods of constant day or night. Studies have shown that blue light during the day and low light during the night can improve circadian rhythm when no natural daylight cycle is available. (ESA 2013a, pp. 17) Even though Mars does have a daylight cycle, the Martian daylight level is only approximately 43% that of the Earth’s on the surface (NASA 2016a). This is reduced even more by radiation protection required by safe habitation (see chapter 7).

Some debate remains over the natural length of a human circadian cycle. Some studies indicate that without light-dark cycle the average human circadian rhythm would be 25 hours 15-30 minutes (van Bommel et al 2004, p. 261). This is closer to Martian cycle but there has been no scientific research on long duration influence of longer daylight cycle on human well-being. So far some studies implicate that interfering with the biological rhythm can be harmful to health (van Bommel et al 2004, p. 261). One study on mice indicates that a shorter circadian rhythm compared with the length of a planet’s rotation cycle can be unbeneficial in terms of survival (Spoelstra et al 2016).

From a perception point of view, light is an elementary aspect in observing surroundings and the dynamic variation in natural daylight can be beneficial for stimulation and the quality of mood. (van Bommel et al 2004, p. 259). The constantly changing lighting conditions of outdoors renews the landscape and indoor spaces where the light penetrates. When no dynamic natural light is available, the same advantages can be produced by dynamic artificial light (van Bommel et al 2004, p. 263). Indoor spaces and especially working in them when having access to sunlight exposure are found more pleasant than spaces without natural light (Boubreki et al 2014, p. 15). The dynamic changing of daylight can be beneficial for indoor spaces architecturally, creating interesting variations even in an otherwise dull space (Rockcastle and Andersen 2013).

The quality of light has a significant effect on how an environment is perceived. Solid, bright light, such as solid overcast sky, is generally perceived as “dull” and too bright (Lam 1986, pp. 13-14).

The light should also be in proportion to the requirements of performed action. Cool, blue light is mostly observed in the morning and has a stimulating effect whereas reddish, calming light naturally occurs in the evening. (van Bommel et al 2004, p. 263) Producing light artificially is highly energy consuming but usually, the requirements for human comfort are lower than for example the requirements for plants. Technologies such as LEDs are energy efficient solutions when no natural light can be used. Ambient light can be produced by conducting light by optical fibres if light is available somewhere else than the target space.

In conclusion, the most significant aspects of light regarding human well-being is daylight cycle, artificial or natural, sufficient light regarding performed actions and lighting benefiting perception of surroundings. The question of producing sufficient energy for lighting solutions is not studied in this thesis as energy-related questions need to be solved by engineers before human habitation on Mars. Hence, the solution should be available when long-term habitation is at hand. The required light for recreational purposes is far lower in intensity than light needed for agriculture (Boston, P.J. Personal communication, 1 August 2016) and therefore should not be a defining problem.

Figure 4.6: Approximately true color image of a Martian sunset observed by Curiosity.

Credit NASA/JPL-Caltech/MSSS/Texas A&M University.

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CULTURAL SERVICES OF A SPACE This chapter discusses the psychological and physiological benefits a green setting can offer humans. Even though many studies regarding the psychological effects of vegetation and natural landscapes on human well-being are criticized for their small sample, long time span or otherwise not satisfying arrangements, the general direction of the results can be taken as a sufficient enough proof. Without much deviation, the studies have shown that regardless of a personâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s original state of physical or mental health interaction with nature has a positive influence on their well-being (Keniger 2013, pp. 917-918). Whether it is improving cognitive skills or work performance, reducing perceived pain, calming, reducing stress or anxiety, or simply restoration after a long day, contact with nature is almost essential for humans (Keniger 2013, p. 914). With a limited amount of space and limited opportunities inside the space calls for understanding how to make the most of it. In the case for Mars, studying the unique features of Mars can aid in making design decisions.

An experience is always in correlation with oneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s perception and reference. An environment might change from unpleasant into pleasant or vice versa in reference to an environment experienced before it. (Canter 1974, pp. 28-30) Therefore the idea of having a thriving green setting on Mars could be even more beneficial, considering that the natural outdoor environment on Mars is barren and hostile, and other indoor spaces are limited.

The elements of an environment fairly directly connected with human psychological or physiological health can be viewed as Cultural services provided by an ecosystem (MA 2003, p. 57). These services as a whole are called Ecosystem services, but due to the complex nature of designing landscape indoors on Mars, in this thesis, only the subcategory of Cultural services is used as a tool to guide the understanding of the different elements of a landscape. The titles have been constructed after the Millenium Ecosystem Assessment report of 2005 to Recreation and health, Aesthetic appreciation, and Spiritual experience and sense of place.

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5.1 ECOSYSTEM SERVICES As ecosystems are coalitions of living and non-living environments functioning together, ecosystem services are the benefits provided by an ecosystem (MA 2003, p. 49). Usually, Ecosystem services are observed from the benefits they provide for humans but fundamentally ecosystems have benefits for all their different occupants whether humans, animals or even soil. These services are usually under subcategories Supporting, Provisioning, Regulating and Cultural services (MA 2003, p. 78).

Supporting services are a product of long time spans and changes in them may not have an immediate effect on the other services and are sometimes overlapping with other categories, depending on the time scale inspected. Still, Supporting services play a major role in an ecosystem, providing benefits such as soil formation, oxygen production, nutrient cycling and habitats (MA 2003, pp.

59-60).

Provisioning services include elements of an environment producing goods. These contain elements such as food and fibres, fuel, genetic resources, biomedicals and fresh water. (MA 2003, pp. 56-57) Regulating services enable an environment to regulate climate, extreme natural events, diseases, purification of water, to prevent flooding and erosion, while providing pollination. (MA 2003, pp. 57-58) Cultural services provide humans nonmaterial benefits from an environment. These benefits are mostly intellectual and can be the most difficult to quantify. Cultural services include spiritual and religious values, educational values, inspiration, aesthetic values, social relations, sense of place and recreation (MA 2003, pp. 58-59).

In this thesis, the viewpoint is the immaterial benefits for humans provided by Cultural services.

This is mainly because of the highly complex nature of a complete ecosystem and services provided by it. The ecosystem on Mars occupied by humans is artificial (see chapter 2.2) and does not cover all the elements we are accustomed to finding in an ecosystem. At this point, the planned Martian ecosystems do not include fauna, except for humans, and also the limited indoor space where the ecosystem takes place is cut off from outside influences. Observing every aspect of an ecosystem on Mars and determining the services the ecosystem could provide will go far beyond this thesis and therefore, regarding this thesis the most important category of Ecosystem services is Cultural services.

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PROVISIONING SERVICES

REGULATING SERVICES

ECOSYSTEM SERVICES

SUPPORTING SERVICES

CULTURAL SERVICES

RECREATION & HEALTH

AESTHETIC APPRECIATION

SPIRITUAL EXPERIENCE

INSPIRATION TOURISM

Figure 5.1: Ecosystem services. Modified after Ariluoma (2012, pp. 142-143).

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5.2 RECREATION AND HEALTH Rather than reacting to the environment, people interact with it. Therefore, there is no easy correlation between design or engineering elements when trying to determine a personâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s well-being in an environment. (Canter 1974, pp. 8-9) Many studies have been conducted about humansâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; well-being in correlation to viewing natural scenes. Based on the results of these studies, it is possible to make fairly good assumptions about what elements are most likely to increase a personâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s well-being and gaining positive effects from their surroundings. This, in turn, can and should be used as a source of information when designing for Mars where the options for spaces to dwell in are limited. According to Kevin Thwaites and Ian Simkins (2007), a restorative place offers experiential opportunities, such as the feeling of getting away either psychologically or physically, experiences different to those of everyday life and arousing a sense of excitement. The connection might not always need to be physical or visual but even a moment of silence may be enough.

Studies have shown that viewing scenes dominated by natural elements, such as water, flowers or greenery, has a significantly restorative effect on reducing stress. Restorative effects can take place after five minutes by indicating positive changes in heart activity, blood pressure, and muscle tension. These effects are even more prominent when compared to a control group that has no or little exposure to natural landscape or elements. Natural environments have also been proven to increase employee satisfaction. Even short periods of time can reduce stress and longer exposure to natural elements can increase calmness and improve clinical outcomes. Patients in healthcare facilities with a view to a garden are more likely to spend less time in a hospital and need less medication for pain than those without a view. Studied elements include flowers, ground cover, water and sounds of nature. Additionally, the most preferred type of scenery is that with savanna-like elements, such as grass covered open spaces and scattered trees. (Ulrich 2002, pp. 1-10) Even though most studies indicate the restorative effects of natural landscapes, not all increase well-being. Cramped spaces imply more danger, such as snakes and other unseen hostile species, and therefore increase phobias. In open areas, the predator can be seen leaving and the relief of danger will reduce blood pressure and stress hormones. Short-term stress can be beneficial in increasing performance, but long term stress reduces well-being. Stress-relief and restoration are at some levels comparable but where stress-relief only appoints to immediate relief from physiological arousal or negative psychological excitement, restoration also indicates to relief from prolonged boredom and under-stimulation. A large quantity of research indicates the importance of activities and leisure in natural settings in helping people to cope with stress and other challenges threatening their well-being. Studies also suggest that natural scenes tend to improve restoration from stress more than viewing scenes without nature. Even short periods of time viewing natural settings or dwelling in them are beneficial for restorative purposes. Restorative effects are greatest when applied to people under significant stress or people living in extremely confined spaces, such as prisons, hospitals or high-stress work environments. Views to nature in such environments can also prevent stress and falling ill. (Ulrich 1993, pp. 98-108) Even more useful than viewing natural scenes is to practise light exercise in them. Marc Berman et al (2012, pp. 300-305) conducted a research on effects of a 50-minute walk in a natural environment versus a walk in an urban setting on a group of 19 people suffering from major depressive disorder. Despite the small sample size, the results were significant: Subjects walking in a natural setting experienced a five times larger increase in their perceived mood compared to the walk in an urban setting.

As stated in previous chapters the circumstances on Mars and in Space travel, in general, are highly demanding and stressful. Therefore, studying and comprehending the elements of a landscape aiding restoration and increasing well-being should be given high attention.

Results from a meta-analysis of studies about effects of green environment on well-being conducted by Barton and Pretty (2010, pp. 3953-3954) encourages designers to take more care to create environments with access to green settings. The same analysis shows that the greatest benefit from contact with a green environment is gained by a 5-minute-interaction (Barton & Pretty 2010, p. 3) suggesting that even a walk to work through a green landscape is beneficial for human well-being.

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5.3 AESTHETIC APPRECIATION AND INSPIRATION Aesthetic appreciation and inspiration are benefits gained from a landscape perceived as beautiful. This includes covering unwanted sights, enjoyable views, art, and innovation. Naturally, one landscape cannot be deemed to be beautiful for all. There can, however, be elements of landscapes which combined can produce a setting pleasing to many.

Aesthetic appreciation is a benefit mainly gained by the sense of sight. The sense of sight is comprised of the light that is reflected on a retina and of the human’s perception of what is reflected on the retina and therefore, a human’s perception is an important aspect of the sense of sight since it is not free from the person’s previous experiences (Canter 1974, p. 40). Sight is also one of the easiest senses to fool (Rock 1964). This could be used in advantage in challenging spaces such as those on Mars. A space can be constructed in such a way that it appears bigger, smaller, or so that one might perceive sunlight when there is none. Manipulating the perception of a space is comparable to the illusion of a space. The illusion may play a major role in creating a Natural landscape to Mars, where there is no nature as we have learned to understand it.

Viewing a scene which is found pleasant by the observer increases the perceived effect of restoration (Ulrich 1993, pp. 108-109). A surrounding is more feasibly perceived as pleasant when the observer feels safe. (Ulrich 1003, p. 100) A sense of mystery and wonder can increase aesthetic appreciation and inspiration. Mystery hints that something more might be to come and lures the one experiencing it to go further (Kaplan & Kaplan 1989, p. 55). Mystery, at its easiest, is accomplished by covering views and making a path meandering. Wonder is a reward from sensing or experiencing something unexpected or new-found beauty, such as a surprising view or element in the landscape. The challenge in this on Mars will be the fact that the same people use the same spaces over and over again. Even the most innovative solutions get old when they have been seen enough times.

The reported observation of Earth aboard ISS afforded the astronauts aesthetic appreciation and inspiration provided by the entirety of our ecosystem. The view of an entire planet with ever changing atmospheric conditions and the variation of daylight cycle gave the astronauts something new to look at on every passing. (Stuster 2010, p. 24) (See also chapter 4.2.) This is an extreme scale example of an inspirational view, one that is not possible on the surface of Mars. On Earth, the same kind of experience can be found with viewing the ocean and in smaller scale watching moving water or fire.

The sense of inspiration can be aided by virtual technology, to create landscapes unavailable due to location, accessibility or non-existence. On Earth, virtual reality (later referred to as VR) is often used to produce imaginary experiences. On Mars and in Space travel, the function could be opposite. VR could be used to produce sightings of familiar places instead of exotic to aid well-being and ease longing for home (Lockard 2014, pp. 98-100).

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Figures 5.2 (top) and 5.3 (bottom): Astronauts enjoying and photographing views from the cupola on ISS. Credit NASA/Cady Coleman (top); NASA/Tracy Caldwell Tyson (bottom).

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5.4 SPIRITUAL EXPERIENCE AND SENSE OF PLACE On Earth, humans tend to find comfort and calmness from interacting with nature (Ulrich 1993, p. 101). On Mars, the concept of nature may be different from that on Earth, but the need for interacting with one is not likely to disappear from human genetics fairly soon. Especially for humans immigrated from Earth to Mars connecting with something “from home” could be important. Nature is a fairly universal concept for humans and interacting with nature, even an artificial one, on Mars could be a way of helping one defining their identity as a human from Earth. Most likely the Martian landscape will evolve into something we could not have imagined due to the ever evolving technology and studies about living in Space. Even though the future Martians may have a diverse cultural heritage, the universally connecting factor could just be nature.

Spiritual experience and sense of place also include the aspects of experiencing a space and using different senses to determine one’s surroundings. Many studies about humans’ well-being have not taken place in a real natural setting but rather an artificial one. Then, if studies implicate that also artificial views of nature do increase well-being and health, then why do we need real nature?

Marcus and Sachs (2013, p. 13) answer that even if simulated views do promote health, studies have also shown that when the subject not only sees but hears, smells or feels, the overall effect of viewing natural scenes is even more powerful. In studies about the relation between viewing natural scenes and pain medication, it was observed that combination of senses was more effective than one of the senses alone. When subjects have been asked what elements make them feel more comfortable in a garden setting, besides visual elements, also the feel of the sun, fresh air, smells and pleasant sounds have been mentioned.

According to Ulrich (1993, pp. 88-91), there are at least three different positive responses to natural landscapes: Liking response, restoration response and enhanced functioning response. Humans might be genetically programmed to find natural landscapes appealing due to the fact that nature has played a major role in providing humans food, shelter and water throughout the evolution of humankind. Savanna-like environments, compared with rain forests etc., have been found to be the most favourable from human perspective providing the best combination of the basic natural needs. Open savanna environments were the most suitable for humans to stand up and provided enough food combined with the best views of the surroundings. From the functional-evolutionary point of view, humans should prefer open landscapes but also the nearness of water. Water has provided humans with drinking water, attracted animals to be hunted, and food. Preferences to landscapes have been studied across different cultures and the results always indicate the same type of elements preferred in a natural scene: Forests with savanna-like open views, somewhat uniform grassy ground coverage and trees scattered in small groups across the view. In conclusion, humans should prefer natural elements over artificial ones because throughout human evolution natural elements have provided with the means of survival.

Liking response might be seen as a bonus element one gains from an environment compared with restoration and enhanced functioning responses, but psychologically it is a significant one. Liking, restoration, and enhanced functioning are all connected and supportive aspects to each other.

Usually, in an environment, one likes or feels comfortable in, restoration takes place. In the result of restoration, a person’s functionality enhances in the contrary to lowered functionality due to stress. (Ulrich 1993, p.89-92) Even though not all people perceive nature as a restorative place, it is evident that the more one spends time in a natural setting and has positive experiences from it, the more they will perceive a natural setting as likable and gain greater benefits as a restorative environment (Tang et al 2015, pp. 595-597). It is worth speculating that once humans have been transferred to live in a foreign and stressful environment, they are likely to long for something familiar.

Marcus and Sachs also speculate that humans’ preference in landscapes originates from what was needed for survival in prehistoric times. Thus, a clear view to one’s surroundings and shelter or protection behind one’s back are still valued elements in a landscape. (Marcus & Sachs 2013, p. 23) The Natural landscape can provide a sense of being away, or escape, as discussed by Kaplan and Kaplan. The escape is experienced by an absence of an aspect ordinarily present and often not preferred. This can be simple aspects such as noise or routine. More often, the escape is experienced when taking a rest from effort. The restorative effect of an escape is most prominent when the sense of “being in a whole other world” is experienced. (Kaplan & Kaplan 1989, pp. 183-184) On Earth, it is feasible to wander to a nearby park or forest to experience an escape. On Mars, the similar experience should be provided to offer the future Martians a place to escape the stress, isolation, and confined conditions.

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5.5 CONCLUSIONS The subject of Ecosystem services is only narrowly inspected in this thesis. The most relevant section of the services regarding humans’ well-being is Cultural services which cover all the major issues in human psychological health. A good psychological health also leads to better physical health which are both crucial in conditions such as those on Mars.

The studies introduced before are worth noting when designing an environment in extremely stressful and demanding conditions, such as Mars habitats. As many researchers have suggested, humans’ preference for natural landscapes may originate from our ancestors’ evolution. If so, that preference may be dominant for many generations to come and hence be important even when designing for Space. No studies have been conducted on humans who have never seen a natural landscape on Earth, such as humans born on Mars. They may perceive Mars completely differently compared with humans originated from the Earth. Still, preferences coded by evolution are hardly diminishing easily by only changing the surroundings and as long as humans are being sent to Mars from Earth, the need for natural landscapes should not be overlooked. The experience of moving outside only in a Space suit can increase the need to experience natural elements. As stated by Christiane Heinicke, who recently ended a 365 experience of simulated Mars habitation on Hawaii, after stepping outside without a Space for the first time in a year, the sense of wind and sound of footsteps on the gravel felt almost forbidden (Hannula 2016).

The landscape on Mars should feel connectable, safe and comfortable to all humans to increase their well-being on multiple levels, a pleasant place. This by no means is an easy task and far from being fully covered in one thesis. According to the studies introduced before the general aspects widely preferred in a landscape are the sense of security, recreational values, a savanna-like variation of views and shelter, and dominance of natural elements in contrast to built elements.

It would be extremely challenging, if not impossible, to mimic a landscape from Earth in Space and it could not be executed within a reasonable amount of resources. It is possible, however, to take the elements of “good” landscape and adapt the elements to what is possible on Mars. In addition, the concept of nature on Mars should be investigated further in order to create a more complete understanding of Ecosystem services on Mars.

Even though virtual reality will undoubtedly play a major role in future Space travellers’ lives, understanding the aspects, benefits and cons of such an element go beyond this thesis. It is worth noting that such a tool exists and it should be studied further (see chapter 6.4 for further discussion).

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Figure 5.4: A still from the movie The Martian: Stranded astronaut Mark Watney gazes over the Martian landscapes after being stranded on Mars. Credit 20th Century Fox.

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LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE â&#x20AC;&#x201C; ASPECTS OF DESIGNING AND PERCEIVING A SPACE

In this chapter, the physical elements of a landscape are studied from the userâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s point of view to aid the understanding of elements profitable in creating an indoor landscape. Understanding elements and requirements of a space can be learned by methods of landscape architecture. This chapter covers the concept of a landscape setting in an indoor environment. As terraforming is excluded as an option in this thesis, the only option to create a landscape on Mars is to create it indoors. This raises many challenges but by understanding human behaviour in a space and perception of an environment, creating an indoor landscape becomes feasible. The benefit and challenge of designing for Mars is that barely anything is already established. This also means that the landscape has to be created and determined from the very beginning.

Humans use different senses to determine their surroundings, not only the sense of sight (Gibson 1950, p. 12). Perceiving an environment with multiple senses can increase the impact of said environment. In addition to senses, social interaction usually is an important part of using a public space and different design methods can be used to either promote or inhibit social interaction (Gehl 2011, pp. 62-64).

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6.1 CREATING AN OUTDOOR-INDOOR SPACE Nowadays many people spend most of their time indoors, due to the fact that work tends to take place indoors. Therefore, outdoors is a place for recreation, breaks, nature experiences and leisure.

In the Northern countries, such as Finland, the importance of outdoors increases during summertime, since long, cold and dark winters keep people inside for most of the year. As stated in the previous chapter (chapter 5), outdoors offer multiple immaterial benefits for people dwelling in them. Since on Mars, it is impossible to step outside for a breath of fresh air at least for thousands of years if terraformed, the outdoors experience needs to be recreated indoors.

The outdoors experience usually is comprised of fresh air, vegetation, open spaces and views to the sky. On Earth, the outdoors gives a sense of freedom of movement. In Space, the available space is highly limited and tends not to emphasize the feeling of freedom (Potenza 2016 ). The sense of place can be manipulated, as according to Thwaites and Simkins our sense of centre and spatial understanding is in relation to our surroundings. We cannot perceive our proximity to others or the size of the space we are inhabiting without views elsewhere. An underground space with no views outside might easily become oppressive and spatially disorientating. This emphasizes the sense of isolation rather than location. (Thwaites & Simkins 2007, pp. 58-62) A space with limited views can quickly feel confined (Thwaites & Simkins 2007, p. 58). If no real views outside can be provided, making illusions of views might be helpful. Naturally, provided with a sufficient space in size, the sense of free space is easier to create. The experience of open sky tends to emphasize said feeling. As stated by Jaap Huisman (2003, pp. 105-106), even a small amount of sunlight from the ceiling can ease the experience of a subsurface space which can be witnessed in Temppeliaukion kirkko in Helsinki. In addition to sunlight, the variation in spatial hierarchy and ambiance can help the observer to ignore the reality of being underground.

Creating an outdoors like setting indoors is always artificial on many levels, even on Earth. Vegetation needs water and nutrients which are lacking indoors due to the absence of natural cycles of an ecosystem. On Mars, the indoor spaces and habitation require a great level of artificial systems, such as life support (Drake et al 2010, p. 26). Therefore, the required number of synthetic elements should not be an obstacle for an outdoor setting.

Bringing outdoor vegetation indoors is not a foreign phenomenon on Earth either. In recent years the growing concerns for â&#x20AC;&#x153;sick buildingâ&#x20AC;? syndrome has increased the number of studies regarding the best arrangement of greenery and species of vegetation for indoors to fight the negative effects of harmful indoor air quality. (Tiessalo 2016) Innovative solutions for green walls have been emerging and green walls have become a trendy element in indoor designs in order to purify indoor air. (Naturvention, n. d.)

The experience of free movement on Mars needs to be created indoors, at least for thousands of years until technology reaches high enough level. The radiation levels outdoors on Mars require protective Space suits (Drake et al, p. 405) which reduce the sense of freedom greatly. To endorse the experience of escape, the liberating outdoors experience has to be created indoors on Mars.

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TEMPERATURE RAINFALL

TASTES

WIND

SOUNDS

LIGHT

SEASONS VEGETATION

LIVING ELEMENTS

WEATHER SMELLS

DARKNESS

NIGHT

NATURAL ELEMENTS

THE OUTDOORS

ACTIVITIES

SHADOW

THE SUN

DAY

FREEDOM OF MOVEMENT

MEETING RECREATION

RESTORATION

VIEWING

RETRIEVING

OBSERVATION

THE ESCAPE SILENCE

Figure 6.1: Aspects of the outdoors.

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6.2 SENSES Senses are our way of gathering information from our surroundings. Senses result in a sensation which is the information given to our brain. The brain processes that information and in return interprets said information into perception, which is different for various species and individuals.

Perception is what we react to and make sense of our surroundings with. (Gibson 1950, p. 12) So far, Space vehicles and stations are very loud, due to continuous oxygen production and sounds from the engines (Stuster 2010, p. 27). Ensuring at least some quiet places can significantly improve crew satisfaction by offering a place to get away.

In microgravity, the sense of sight and taste can greatly alter (Olabi et al 2002, p. 470). The sense of sight usually normalises after adaptation to the new conditions, but the sense of taste can change so drastically that foods formerly perceived delicious can become revolting (Olabi et al 2002, p.

469).

Our perception is always in correlation to context and previous experiences (Canter 1974, p. 28) Therefore, it is impossible to predict responses to an environment on an individual level but can be determined to a group of people on average. A complete experience utilizes every available sense.

In an outdoor setting, the perception of the space is affected by dominant weather conditions and time of day (Lam 1986, p. 47). Due to these complex and varying elements, the same setting can be perceived differently by the same person depending on observation time.

An average human being has five different senses, the sense of hearing, sight, touch, smell and taste. The four preceding play a role of various importance in perceiving a space, whereas taste can make a space experience even more rewarding.

Echoes, distances, and direction of sound are the aspects of hearing which help us determine the size of a space. Muffled sounds indicate a small space whereas echoes or faintly heard noises normally regarded as loud indicate a large open space. Other qualities and aspects of a space can be discovered by movement of vegetation, howling of the wind and rattle of loose materials when we walk. Hearing also creates limits to the distance in which one can engage in a social communication (see figure 6.2) (Gehl 2011, p. 64).

By smell, we can observe the quality of the air, its freshness and whether we are outdoors or indoors. Different plants can produce odours and even humans can be identified by smell. The perceived quality of a smell can determine whether we want to stay in that place. Even though humans do not possess a particularly effective sense of smell, it is the only sense which comes with a crucial physiological activity required to sustain human life â&#x20AC;&#x201C; breathing.

Taste usually does not help us assessing our surroundings but rather the quality of individual objects. Therefore, taste could be categorized as a bonus element in experiencing a space. Most often this stands for eatable plants, such as fruits, berries or herbs, or even fresh drinkable water.

Touch can give us an indication of the suitability of an environment or elements to us. If it feels too hot or cold, moist or dry, and even too windy, we might not want to venture there. The difference between the temperature of sunlight and shadow makes a difference where we want to sit.

The sense of sight is usually given most focus in design solutions and it is often the most significant way to observe surroundings. A place that looks pleasing and interesting might lure into venturing there even though it might not smell or feel right. By sight, we can determine distances, estimate lightness or darkness, safety, enjoy views and observe actions of other people. The sense of sight also allows us to perceive elements of an environment from a longer distance than other senses (see figure 6.2) (Gehl 2011, p. 65).

Even though sight is our main sense of perceiving our surroundings, the other senses play an important role in emphasizing the overall experience. By stimulating senses such as touch, hearing and smell, a visually fairly mundane space can become interesting and varying without major rearrangements of the space.

To enable the use of these senses on Mars, a â&#x20AC;&#x153;shirt-sleeve environmentâ&#x20AC;? is required. This refers to 58

Sight: Intense contact 0-0,5 m, close interaction 0,5-7 m, maximum distance for social field of vision 100 m.

Smell: Smell of another person 0-1 m, strong odors 1-3 m.

Hearing: Distance for discussion 0-7 m, simple conversation or lecture 7-35 m.

Figure 6.2: The social fields of senses. Applied after Jan Gehl (2011, pp. 64-67).

conditions of temperature, air pressure and even composition of gases to be suitable for humans to inhabit a space unaided (Boston et al 2007, pp. 24-28). Shirt-sleeve conditions can also be created so that only the use of gas masks is required (ibid.), but this is not a desired condition for recreational spaces. Creating a shirt-sleeve environment is an engineering problem, but so far all plans for inhabiting Mars aim at spaces to enable human inhabitancy unaided. Creating a complete shirt-sleeve environment allows the inhabitants to fully enjoy the space as all the senses can be used to perceive the setting.

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6.3 SOCIAL INTERACTION Humans are social beings and that quality will only be emphasized during long travels and stays on Mars, where interacting with others is also a means of survival. On Earth, everyday life allows average people to choose who they interact with and on what level at least to some extent. On Mars, the case will be different for a fairly long time. Mostly due to restricted availability of space but also due to the fact that the number of people on Mars will be limited. Hence, the social circles available will be somewhat scarce. Of course, the humans to be sent to Mars will be carefully chosen to obtain features most suitable for such an expedition (Kanas et al, p. 663) but the availability to choose the level of social interaction could play a major role in the future Martians’ well-being, just as it does now for us on Earth.

Studying human behaviour in a public space implies that humans do not scatter around in a space evenly. Their chosen positions suggest that people tend to stop at a place which is away from other individual’s movement and gives some degree of shelter. In a waiting area people tend to stop beside a pillar or wall and in a restaurant, they occupy the tables beside a wall first instead of occupying the space in the middle. Studying these patterns of behaviour makes it clear that people do not use a space randomly. Much of a person’s behaviour in a space is in reference to other people in the same space. A place of rest is chosen so that other people can be viewed without turning. A dwelling place is also in relation to the nearness of other people and thus implying the territoriality of people. Designing a place can either increase or decrease peoples’ social interactions. Central location usually increases social interactions as there is likely to happen more encountering. (Canter 1974, pp. 110-123) People attract other people (Gehl 2011, p. 23). Even if one is not longing for socializing, observing others can be viewed as a social contact. This should be taken into consideration when placing seating arrangements in relation to activities and views. It has been observed that seating with views to other people and activities are more popular than seating without any (Gehl 2011, p. 27).

Social context influences our perception of our surroundings. In conclusion, humans perceive the world as conscious integrated human beings and not just as a collection of senses. (Canter, pp.

28-30) In a place, the sense of centre consists of the sense of direction and transition in order to determine a centre in relation to those. A sense of centre might change in a certain place according to time and activity. With multiple people, the centre might occur in the place where people most likely meet each other while being alone the centre is the best shelter and a view of the surroundings.

People attract people and the sense of centre increases with the quantity of people in a space. The sense of place can be manipulated with design by determining the place of seating, points of entrance and departure and views, presuming these elements are successful in reference to the space.

(Thwaites & Simkins 2007, pp. 58-65) The level of available social interaction opportunities is related to visual and audio communication possibilities. The distance of 100 meters or less is the limit for the social field of vision (Gehl 2011, p. 64). On Mars, this distance is rarely exceeded if occupying the same space unless referring to outdoors. In an indoor-outdoor space, the option to inhibit or promote social contact is by arrangements of the space. This can be done by walls and views, a variation of available levels and controlling distances for occupiable spaces (see figure 6.3) (Gehl 2011, p. 62). Socializing happens where people can meet each other (Gehl 2011. Pp. 168-169). A social centre forms where most contacts take place (Thwaites & Simkins 2007, p. 61), therefore opportunities for meeting should be arranged.

As in Space traveling the functionality of group-dynamics is essential for the success of the mission, the aspects of design focusing on inhibiting or promoting social interaction should be given great focus. Even with the careful selection of crew members to ensure functional social interaction, confined spaces should be carefully designed to provide a maximum amount of variation in levels of social interaction. On Earth, it is possible to step outside to get away from people and confinement. The same experience should be offered for humans on Mars to promote the sense of freedom and relaxation.

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1.

4.

2.

5.

3.

6.

Figure 6.3: Effects of physical arrangements on social contact.

Inhibiting contact: 1. Walls, 2. Long distances, 3. Multiple levels.

Promoting contact: 4. No walls, 5. Short distances, 6. One level.

Modified after J. Gehl (Gehl 2011, p. 62).

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6.4 PERCEPTION OF SPACE Inhabiting Mars will take place indoors, at least for the first few thousands of years (see chapters 2.4 and 7). In order to create an indoor space that feels larger than its size, elements of a landscape can be used and arranged accordingly. The sense of open space outdoors is obtained by the open sky and long views. In an indoor space, and especially on Mars, those features are limited.

According to Gary Robinette, outdoor spaces can be comprised from either “negative” or “positive”. Positive space has an inner focus where the space is directed at, whereas negative lacks a focus point creating a more dynamic place. (Robinette 1972, pp. 16-17) Outdoor spaces tend to be negative, as they often lack clear edges. Indoor spaces obtain more positive created by walls and ceilings. Windows create openings to indoor spaces enhancing the negative while screening and framing articulates outdoor spaces.

Per Gehl (2010, pp. 33-34) people perceive distance with different senses in two categories. The “distance” senses are hearing, seeing, and smelling whereas the “close” senses are touch and taste.

Sight is the most developed of our senses and we can identify an object in the distance as humans from as far away as 300 to 500 meters, depending on lighting conditions. At 100 meters, more detailed features can be observed. An open square of dimensions 70 meters by 100 meters gives the observer the possibility to simultaneously observe the overall space and details of others occupying the space (Gehl 2010, p. 38).

Even though sight is the most developed sense we perceive our surroundings with, it has its limitations. Looking down is easy for humans and the field of vision is fairly broad horizontally. Up is the most difficult direction for humans to look at and should we look high enough, it creates the effect of “craning one’s neck”. An elevation of 13.5 meters is the limit for a vertical contact to the ground. Humans perceive most details of their surroundings on eye-level and lower, whereas it is hard to see someone hiding in a tree. (Gehl 2010, pp. 40-41) As the field of vision is not at its strongest in vertical observation, a closed ceiling in an indoor space might not be a defining factor in creating a sense of an open place. Nonetheless, the indoor ceiling is required to be high enough to not be observed in a regular activity, with openings or a sense of openings enhancing the effect.

The perception of distance can be manipulated by adjusting height and colour of the elements.

Light shades appear to retreat while dark shades seem to advance. The distance to an object in comparison with its height affects how open or closed space is perceived. Elements outside a cone of 45o appear fuzzy. An object viewed from the distance of its height (1:1) occupies 45o from a person’s vertical field of vision and therefore promotes a sense of nearly full enclosure, especially if experienced from three or more sides. A relation of 1:2 is the edge of perceiving a space enclosed.

At a relation of 1:4 an element is merely a detail in a broader scene. (Robinette 1972, p. 18) The perceived space appears larger when a human feels small in relation to the space. This sense can be enhanced by selecting objects of overly large sizes, such as oversize trees. Thick tree trunks and high canopies make a human appear small. The effect can be reversed by using undersize trees where the extreme effect can be achieved with bonsai trees. (Robinette 1972, p. 120)

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Figure 6.4: The effect of an oversize or undersize trees to the percieved size of space. Modified after Robinettte (1972, p. 120).

Figure 6.5: Combination of negative and positive spaces.

After Robinette (1972, p. 17).

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6.5 VIRTUAL REALITY In the recent years, virtual reality (later referred to as VR) has taken big steps in execution and functionality. It is no wonder the use of VR has been widely speculated in the use of Space expeditions as a way to diverse the experience of the environment in isolated and confined surroundings.

VR here refers to all aspects of environments and experiences created by virtual technologies.

VR can help to broaden the landscape of confined spaces and enable an experience in an unfamiliar landscape, such as that of Marsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s. It is possible to venture and study environments impossible to access any other way due to the hostility or danger of said environment. (Lockard 2015 p. 98) On Mars, a simulation of a walk on the Martian surface can be augmented. On Earth, VR usually aims to create simulations of exotic situations and landscapes, whereas the same technology could be used to create landscapes of familiar places on Earth to ease the transition to a foreign environment on Space expeditions. By creating familiar landscapes with VR, symptoms of homesickness can be eased. (Lockard 2015, p. 99) On the downside, the use of VR has been reported to induce cybersickness and aftereffects. Cybersickness is believed to be the result of mixed signals induced by different senses while using VR. Aftereffects occur upon leaving VR, as time is needed to readapt and recalibrate to non-VR. (Rizzo et al 1998, p. 25) Nonetheless, a conflict between the sense of touch and sight is usually overruled by sight. A study where an object was simultaneously touched and observed visually through a distorting lens resulted in the participants to the perception of the object as they saw it, disregarding the information they received by touch (Rock & Victor 1964, pp. 595-596).

At this time of the evolution of VR, it is mainly possible to engage the senses of sight and hearing.

As virtual technologies develop further, it might be possible to augment experiences for other senses as well. This will significantly improve the usability of VR in Space. Even though VR would eventually evolve into an experience stimulating all the human senses, the importance of physical environment should not be forgotten. If we go through the trouble of moving humans into Space, why would we want live in VR? The use of VR instead of actually experiencing the new environment can be harmful for adaptation and in the end lead to alienation from the new surroundings.

As per Elizabeth Lockard (2015, p. 99), VR should be used to explore Mars rather than to support nostalgia.

The positive side of including VR in an environmental experience would give the observer a possibility to view the scenery they find most pleasing and hence remove the dilemma of providing one landscape preferred by all. The danger in using VR lies in if VR becomes a means of escape rather than an aid in adaptation.

The use of VR in the Martian landscape experience could be useful and beneficial for human well-being, but requires much more extensive research than is possible in the extent of this thesis.

Therefore, the use of VR is not integrated further but rather the aspects of the physical environment are in main focus.

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Figure 6.6: A virtual landscape of a forest. Credit Eoin Oâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Broin.

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VII 66

THE HABITABLE SPACE â&#x20AC;&#x201C; HABITAT OPTIONS ON MARS

The different options for habitats on Mars are introduced and discussed in this chapter. A habitat refers to an environmental or ecological area inhabited by a particular organism. Hence, a Mars habitat is an enclosed indoor space where humans and plants alike can thrive despite the conditions on Mars.

From a landscape architectâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s point of view, the decision around a habitat is not always the most determining when designing landscapes. In the case where landscape architecture, in fact, happens inside the habitat, the problem is much more crucial. Then, the choice of habitat defines the size of an indoor space and what kind of structures and elements are possible in said space.

In this thesis, the construction of a habitat or the key structures around it are not the main focus.

Rather it is important to understand restrictions and functions defining the final indoor space in order to make design decisions inside a habitat. The scenario is to inhabit 200 humans on Mars.

Planned Mars surface habitats can roughly be divided into three categories: Surface habitats, partially subsurface habitats, and subsurface habitats. Every type of habitat faces the same problems and brings different benefits regarding the indoor space. Fundamental challenges include protection against radiation and physical impacts, providing suitable temperature and breathable air, and lastly comfort and suitability of the space (Lockard 2015, pp. 31-33). Benefits which can be achieved are the size of the space, accessibility, and sense of security.

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7.1 SURFACE AND SUBSURFACE HABITATS Surface and partially subsurface categories often overlap as some of the same techniques can be used for both. Both types of habitat are usually formed from a series of habitats or modules connected by tubes and airlocks. Sinking a surface habitat usually provides additional shelter against radiation and temperatures. ESA is designing a 3D printed habitat using in-situ materials to cover an inflatable support structure (ESA 2013b). NASA recently arranged a competition around the subject, which was won by a design which would be printed out of ice on Mars (Ramsey et al 2015).

On Mars, the available indoor space size is determined by the used form of habitat. The surface habitats are limited to fairly small sizes due to the pressure difference between the atmospheric pressure on Mars and the wanted indoor pressure. As the difference grows, the needed material thickness to withstand the pressure grows in relation. (Bannova, O. Personal communication, 5 September 2016) Surface and partially subsurface habitats can also be prefabricated and possibly inflated once on site (Cohen 2015, p. 25). NASAâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Deep Space habitat is based on the idea of prefabricating a habitat on Earth and then deploying it to the surface of Mars (NASA 2012). Partially subsurface habitat can be constructed by excavating regolith by appropriate size and inflating a wanted structure inside the excavated pit so that a part of the habitat stays on the surface, such as Hexamars-II (Sabouni et al 1992, pp. 228-235).

The benefits of a surface habitat are flexibility of programming space and indoor space sizes. In case of a breach in one compartment, it can be easily sealed off and other spaces can still be used.

Also, the connection to the surface is easier which could feel psychologically important. Views to outside environment can be opened fairly freely. The downsides include heavy protection against radiation and outside temperatures, which can result in loss of views to outdoors. Surface habitats also need to resist dust storms and possible impacts (Bannova O. Personal communication, 5 September 2016).

Subsurface habitats usually refer to settlements in caves or lava tubes (see table 7.2). Lava tubes and caves are formed by geological processes of multiple variations, such as lava flows, melting ice and erosion (Boston et al 2007, p. 9) As per Daga et al (2009, pp. 2-4), concluded from multiple observations of satellite imagery of Mars and Moon, it is evident that lava tubes do not only exist but are relatively common. Due to the effects of gravitation and temperature conditions on Mars and Moon, their lava tubes are speculated to be larger in every dimension compared with those on Earth even though the fundamental mechanisms behind formation are identical. Speculated sizes of lava tubes could span cross-sections of hundreds of meters and kilometres of length.

On Earth, the larger lava tube spaces can be the size of 40 meters in length, 10 meters wide and 10 meters high, such as Four Windows in New Mexico (Boston, P.J. Personal communication, 1 August 2016). As stated in the previous chapter, the lava tubes found on Mars are speculated to be substantially larger than those on Earth from orbital observations. Observations of Martian cave skylights have shown caves as large as 100 to 250 meters in diameter and over 50 meters in depth (Cushing et al 2007, p. 3). Martian lava tubes have been observed to be up to kilometres in length (Boston 2007, p. 23).

Caves have multiple advantages protecting life compared with any form of habitat on a surface of a planet. Thick layers of ground and rock protect the interior of the cave from cosmic radiation and physical impacts, and levels the variation of temperatures. Caves possibly possess access to many subsurface resources such as water, minerals, geothermal energy sources and reduced gases. Suitable caves or lava tunnels will be easy to access, horizontal and fairly shallow. Openings will not be essential as such can be produced by drilling. (Boston et al 2007, pp. 6-11) Another problem facing Mars habitats is dust mitigation. Mars is frequently occupied by dust storms and the surface is covered with very fine particles. Aside from being a natural radiation protection, lava tubes give protection against dust form the surface. Dust could pose a danger to possible science laboratories and other equipment alike. Dust mitigation also has negative effects on health. (Daga et al 2009, p. 5) 68

One option to implement the use of a subsurface cave or lava tunnel as a habitat would be to use an inflatable lining, which would seal a cave or lava tunnel intended for habitation. The final indoor space would be the size of the sealed cave which would be an improvement compared with surface habitats. Sealing is important in order to create a shirt-sleeve environment temperature- and gas mixture-wise. (Boston et al 2007, pp. 24-28) In this thesis, the chosen form of habitation is subsurface habitats even though the later suggested design elements could be applied to any type of habitat containing suitable elements. Subsurface habitats can provide the biggest continuous indoor space and they also offer an interesting dilemma with providing sufficient lighting. So far all the design proposals for surface habitats are based on multiple hubs or modules connected together, which are separately relatively small in size.

Subsurface habitats also provide with the most secure way of protecting against outside conditions on Mars and could provide easy access to subsurface resources.

Subsurface habitats could provide an interesting indoor space which could benefit architectural design. The variation in the size of a subsurface cave or lava tube could be used as an advantage in creating more inspiring designs. Mostly the sense of security could play a significant role in the future Martiansâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; well-being.

The nature of an enclosed subsurface space should not be treated as a problem that only has negative aspects. Humans have been inhabiting subsurface for centuries, for example, the cave dwelling of Matmata plateau in Tunisia since the year 1500 (Huisman 2003, pp. 90-92). We have moved above ground as building techniques evolved but are going underground again for transport and more space in densifying cities. Therefore, the subsurface habitats can quickly become a new normal for Martians, as they provide security and comfort, and then the thought of being underground might not be too daunting.

In a permanent habitat solution, the primary elements guaranteeing survival should not be the only determining factor. The crewâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s comfort, usability for multiple activities and availability to move are important aspects as well.

Figure 7.1: A concept for 3D-printed lunar base by Foster+Partners. Credit ESA/Foster + Partners.

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70

Table 7.3: Elements of habitat options on Mars.

surface habitat

partially subsurface subsurface habitat habitat radiation protection artificial partially natural / natural artificial micrometeorite artificial partially natural / natural protection artificial max size restrictions structures, pressure structures, pressure insulation, pressure outside conditions temperature changes, temperature none affecting the habitat weather, dust changes, weather, dust complete settlement network of individual network of fairly free-formed network of habitats individual habitats NIAC â&#x20AC;&#x201C; spaces Caves of Mars page 10 infrastructure airlocks to outdoors, airlocks to outdoors, access to surface, requirements transport between transport between pressurized spaces D. Desirablehabitats Cave Properties habitats subsurface

Caves on Earth differ vastly in their properties. We believe that the evidence suggests that this will also be the case on Mars, the Moon and other planets. Combinations of these various features make some caves suitable for some uses while not appropriate for others. We have developed checklists of properties required or desirable for various uses (Table II).

Table II â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Comparison of Various Subsurface Environments

Table 7.4: Comparison of various subsurface environments by Boston et al 2007, p. 10.

Subsurface Site Type

Scientific Value

Potential Resources

Habitat Protection

Construction Labor Reqâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s

Accessibility

Lava tubes, open Lava tubes, closed Solutional caves, open Solutional cavities, closed Tunnels

high

minerals

high

sealing

requires discovery

high

ices, gases, minerals

high

opening, sealing

requires discovery

high

minerals

high

sealing

requires discovery

high

ices, gases, minerals

high

opening, sealing

requires discovery

possible

ices, minerals

high

Subice structures Natural overhangs Created overhangs Bermed structures

possible

ices, gases

depth-dependent

requires access to canyons or mountains requires polar locale

high

minerals

some

possible

minerals

some

minimal

unlikely

some

massive drilling, excavation, sealing drilling, melting, stabilization major construction, sealing major drilling, excavation, sealing major excavation, Earth movement, stabilization

requires access to canyons or mountains requires access to canyons or mountains excellent siting by design

Caves of scientific interest have a high probability of interesting geological and biological features, e.g. extreme age, isolation from the surface, evidence of gases or water. They must be big enough for instrumentation, microrobotic access, or drilling into but not necessarily for humans. Caves of all depths may be scientifically interesting, but very deep caves may be the most interesting for Figure 7.2: A possible cave entrance at Elysium Mons, Mars. Diameter of the pit is stratigraphy, mineralogy, geomorphology, andoflife detection. Caves without approximately 130 meters.

Credit NASA/JPL-Caltech/University Arizona natural openings are highly desirable because of superior preservation of the contents. Certainly caves in or near geologically or hydrothermally active areas 71 would be of great interest to many scientific disciplines.

In contrast, the caves most suitable for human habitation will be shallow,

7.2 A SCENARIO FOR THE SETTLEMENT The outdoors indoors space discussed in this thesis is not an individual and isolated space but a part of the overall settlement system, not unlike outdoor spaces on Earth. The Marscape space offers a recreational outdoors space for humans on Mars during their everyday life. The integration of the Marscape to the rest of the settlement only enhances its purpose and therefore is advised.

In the scenario of this thesis around 200 humans are living subsurface on Mars. Some of the functions such as research habitats and solar energy are on the surface but mainly everyday life happens underground. The ideal location for the Marscape is in the middle of the habitat network, between workplaces and private spaces. In such location, the Marscape is a part of the route to work and is easily accessible at any given moment.

On Earth, the most use out of a green setting is obtained by easy access, short distances and a variety of functions. The same will hold true for Mars. The Martian infrastructure will be fairly dense as moving on the surface is difficult and a functional network of spaces guarantees safety in case something goes wrong. Therefore, the outdoor setting is naturally placed close to where humans reside.

As all the indoor spaces on Mars are pressurized and sealed, also the Marscape needs to be constructed in a separate space. The conditions for an indoors-outdoors space requires an enclosed system to maintain optimal conditions for plants and humans alike. Here, it is suggested that to enable the view to the Marscape on daily routes to work and home the Marscape is separated from transitional spaces by transparent materials. This will ensure quick transit for humans only passing by and a quiet outdoors space for humans wishing to use for recreation and restoration. The separation will also help to manage and adjust the integrity of different spaces.

The Marscape is provided with multiple entrances via airlocks to ensure convenient entrances and exits and to allow free movement through the space when desired. The design does not rely on only one outdoor space for the entirety of human population on Mars. Rather, it is proposed to have multiple spaces, one for every hundred inhabitants. Different spaces will have different landscapes, as enclosed environments allow individual adjustments to local climates, lighting conditions and vegetation (see chapter 8.4 for further discussion).

As discussed in the previous chapter by using a subsurface habitat the indoor space size can be substantially larger than a surface habitat can provide. The most use out of a subsurface habitat can be obtained by choosing a cave or lava tube of a size that can be lined in order to obtain a wanted level of pressure. Lining here refers to either inflatable fabric lining or sprayable foam, which line the inside walls of the space. By this method, the needed support for pressure is provided by the cave or lava tube itself and only a little additional structures are needed.

As the sizes of lava tubes on Mars are speculated to be grand, discussion about a suitable size of a space is needed. The maximum size is restricted by the size of a space possible to seal to maintain wanted pressure. As the studies about possible lava tubes and caves advance, the accessibility of the space will become a defining factor.

The minimum size for a suitable indoor space is determined by required dimensions to provide a sense of an outdoor environment. The suggested minimum size for an indoor landscape space in this thesis is 100 meters by 80 meters and 20 meters high for 200 people inhabiting Mars. A cave of this size can induce acoustical problems due to echoes. They are, however, decreased by the material used to line and insulate the cave as well as the large mass of vegetation. A space of said size enables incorporation of multiple activities and structures while still leaving sufficient space for vegetation and undetermined free space. The length of 100 meters is the edge of the social field of vision (see chapter 6.3) which allows the sense of solitude to be experienced in the landscape. In addition, the length begins to obscure the sense of edges in the space.

The height of the space will likely be even greater than 20 meters, according to observations of caves and lava tubes on Mars (Cushing et al 2007, p. 3). Higher spaces need additional attention for lighting arrangements to ensure sufficient light for the space.

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WORK

MARSCAPE

HABITATS

MARSCAPE

Figure 7.5: Conceptual master plan for the Martian settlement. Not in scale.

Green: Marscape. Gray: habitation. Orange: work. White stripe: main route inside the settlement.

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escape exercise meeting the woods

free space

recreation

activities

silence weather

meeting viewing

privacy

the woods the main route t the settle hrough ment

Figure 7.6: Conceptual space program for the Marscape. Solid circles represent the smaller isolated spaces. 1:1000.

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7.3 UTILIZATION OF THE SPACE To diminish the effect of completely enclosed underground place, a variation of spatial sizes is beneficial. The transition between spaces and variation between open and closed spaces will help to create an interesting whole that can be perceived as a landscape.

As the indoor spaces on Mars have limited opportunities to enable views outdoors, the perception of open views is an important aspect to address in order to diminish claustrophobic features of the space. Skylights can be provided by using transparent material filled with either water or hydrogen (Bannova, O. Personal communication. September 5, 2016). So far, thick materials are not suitable for providing clear views to the landscape outdoors but can be used for views to the sky and provide natural light indoors as well as creating a visual connection to the surface. As the skylights are high in the ceiling of the lava tube, structures are needed to provide access. Places near skylights can provide private spaces and views across the indoor landscape.

The gravity on Mars is only approximately 38% of the of the Earthâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s (NASA 2016). This is harmful to the human body, as stated in previous chapters (see chapter 5). Nonetheless, moving in microgravity is easier than moving on Earth, at least for newcomers. Movement on Mars requires only half of the force required to move on Earth which can be used as an advantage when designing for a recreational space on Mars.

As moving is easier, vertical space can be used more freely than on Earth. Climbing up makes the space more accessible in every direction. This can be used to create multi-level spaces, allowing the user to view the space from different levels. On Earth, the view above tree canopies is a special treat but could be a normal way of viewing the landscape on Mars. For vertical transitions, stairs should be preferred over ramps due to lack of friction caused by weaker gravity (Bannova, O. Personal communication, September 5 2016).

In addition to vertical space, the Marscape can contain smaller spaces inside itself. Smaller sealed transparent spaces can be used to inhabit different types of environments, such as moister climate or smells. Smaller enclosed spaces guarantee containment and make it feasible to change the conditions frequently.

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VIII 76

GREEN MARS

â&#x20AC;&#x201C; AN OVERVIEW OF GREEN DESIGNS FOR MARS The plans for Mars expeditions vary from 30-day visit to the Red Planet to terraforming Mars and inhabiting it without constraints (see chapter 2). Most plans for extended stays on Mars include vegetation at some level, usually to provide the future crews with food to survive the length of the expedition. Growing plants on Mars has its challenges, as discussed in chapter 3. This has not stopped visionaries from imagining future settlements to be anything from simple small greenhouses to complete forests on Mars.

This chapter presents an overview of different categories of plans to make Mars green. Timewise, these plans take either place at the very beginning of Mars expeditions or at the far future, where technology has evolved into something we do not know about yet. What is common for all is that they are either very engineering orientated or highly conceptual visions of the future.

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8.1 GREENHOUSES Greenhouses on Mars (figures 8.1 and 8.2) are individual compartments dedicated solely for plants.

Greenhouse concepts for Mars generally have one goal: To produce food for the crew. Self-sufficiency is key on Mars as the quantity of pre-packed food taken from Earth is limited. Greenhouses are engineered carefully to optimize harvest by irrigation, fertilization and lighting by automated systems. NASA is developing systems based on hydroponics, maximizing control over said elements. Test beds for using Martian regolith as a growing substrate are included but on a smaller scale to ensure sufficient crops. Even with high automation inside a greenhouse, manual harvest by astronauts is required. Lighting is provided mainly by LEDs optimized for plants. (NASA 2016c) Additionally, the plant growth chambers can be compared with greenhouses. Plant growth chambers, as well as greenhouses, are optimized for maximizing plant growth with minimum loss of resources. As discussed in chapter 3.2, plant growth chambers have been studied with fairly smallsized chambers and actual harvest has been small. The first chamber designed for producing food is the Veggie-system, whereas others have been focusing on studying the effects of conditions of Space on plants. (Zabel et al 2016) As greenhouses for Mars are designed for plants, they are not optimal for people. Human presence is minimal and only required for harvest and maintenance. Especially lighting for plants is not pleasant for human dwelling. Greenhouses are necessary to ensure sufficient food supplies for the crew, but recreational spaces should be looked for elsewhere. Separate greenhouses are the most popular solution for plants on Mars, as they are easiest to integrate to the infrastructure. Individual deployable modules are easily assembled and control over conditions is effective.

8.2 BY-PRODUCTS By-products (figures 8.3 and 8.4) are relatively well described by their name: They are not the main focus of a design but often an additional feature in the overall concept. By-products most often are found in conceptual architecture designs, where food production or air purification is addressed by featuring vegetation inside a habitat.

The Mars Ice House, winner of NASAâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Mars habitat contest, presents a vertical hydroponic garden between inside the habitable inner space of the structure. The garden is designed to produce food and oxygen to the crew as well as variation in the otherwise red landscape outdoors. The hydroponic garden is referred to as a greenhouse in the design. (Mars Ice House 2015) The presented garden is small in size, suitable for personal use of the small crew. A garden integrated with the habitable space suggests that the life support is an integral part of the habitat rather than a separate system.

The scale of by-product green areas is comparable with indoor green walls and indoor plants on Earth. When applied generously, air-purification and small scale food production can be achieved.

The presence of green elements in a habitat can be highly beneficial and therefore, the importance of by-product green areas should not be ignored.

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Figure 8.1 (top): A concept for plant growth module on Mars. Credit: NASA/Langley.

Figure 8.2 (bottom): A view inside a growing chamber on Mars. In reality windows will be much fewer of non-existent due to radiation protection. Credit NASA/Langley.

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Figure 8.3: Section of the Mars Ice House, vertical gardens are visible in green. Credit Clouds AO / SEArch.

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Figure 8.4 (top): A concept of a habitat for the Mars One project. Credit Bryan Versteeg / Spacehabs.com.

Figure 8.5 (bottom): A concept for a Mars impact crater habitat with a garden. An example of an oasis on Mars. Credit Bryan Versteeg / Spacehabs.com.

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8.3 OASIS Oasis is a term chosen in this thesis to describe luscious indoor green environments, which are most often seen in visions for future Space colonies (figure 8.5). Oases are generally large areas of greenery, expanding to the extent of the entire settlement. Oases are indoor settings, though their scale gives the impression of the outdoors.

More often than on celestial bodies, oasis designs are found for in-orbit or deep Space settlements.

Their goal is to create a complete settlement where the inhabitants may freely transit between the indoors and “the outdoors”. Most often, these designs are featured in science fiction as they require highly advanced technology and extensive amounts of resources.

8.4 TERRAFORMING Terraforming, or ecosynthesis, is a process aiming at modifying conditions of a celestial body to resemble those on Earth. The purpose of this process is to enable flora and fauna to survive on another planet or other celestial body unaided. Therefore, Mars could be green and warm and suitable for human habitation on the surface of Mars. (McKay et al 1991, pp. 489-490, McKay 2000, p. 7) Terraforming requires modification of the temperatures of Mars as well as the chemical composition of Mars’ atmosphere. The presence of liquid water is crucial as well. (Todd 2007) The first plants to be grown on the surface of Mars would be hardy species found in polar and alpine regions on Earth. In addition to plants, anaerobic micro-organisms help to transform the atmosphere into a breathable mixture of gases. (McKay et al 1991, p. 489, McKay 200, p. 8) As stated in chapter 2.4, the time-scale for terraforming Mars is beyond the objectives of this thesis. Also the engineering and ethical problems related to the subject are far too complex to be discussed here. Nonetheless, terraforming has its supporters in the community of Space expedition visionaries and presents one viewpoint on the future of human migration to Space.

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Figure 8.6: A visualization of terraforming Mars. Credit Bryan Versteeg / Spacehabs.com.

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IX 84

THE OUTDOORS

â&#x20AC;&#x201C; ELEMENTS OF THE OUTDOORS RECREATED INDOORS ON MARS Creating an indoor landscape is challenging, even on Earth. To create an outdoors indoors setting on Mars, the aspects of vegetation, cultivation, and vegetation, lighting arrangements and manipulating climate conditions are discussed in this chapter.

Elements representing outdoors are created artificially in an indoor space on Mars in order to create an innovative, restorative and stimulating environment for the future Martians. The chosen aspects are based on studies and theories discussed in the earlier chapters of this thesis.

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9.1 USE OF THE VEGETATION As stated in previous chapters, the presence of green elements in a view increases the nature experience and health benefits of viewing a scenery (see chapter 5), the use of plants should be a priority in a landscape on Mars. The most useful plants to grow in Space are the species with the highest harvest index i.e. ratio of edible mass to total biomass. (Wheeler, R. Personal communication, 12 July 2016) The use of living green enriches the landscape experience with smells in addition to visual stimuli.

From the landscape architectural point of view, the use of a variety of species and plants of different sizes and habitus is encouraged in order to create a versatile space with a limited number of elements. Views from multiple levels can be made varying by layered use of vegetation, so views open and close depending to the observation height. The use of large plants is not impossible but can be challenging, as larger plants tend to have lower harvest index and greater requirements for water and nutrients (Wheeler, R. Personal communication, 12 July 2016). NASA is currently studying the use of plum trees and also vines are considered possible (ibid.).

Luckily, the possibilities for different habitus created with the use of vines can make up for the absence of large trees generally present in an outdoor landscape. Vines can be guided to grow along vertical or horizontal wires to create a resemblance of tree trunks and canopies. Structures for vines can be integrated with irrigation systems and lighting to minimize the need for multiple constructions.

The use of flowering vegetation, such as fruit producing plants, will increase the fluctuations in the landscape scenery, even when the natural changes of seasons are not occurring. In the absence of insects and wind, the pollination has to be carried out manually to ensure a harvest. Even though generally the vegetation studied for Mars is optimized for near-constant harvest, the use of species that have a resting season can add the sense of variation in the landscape. The seasonal cycle of vegetation can be aided by manipulating lighting and temperature conditions of the space.

By choice of species, the landscape scenery can vary between different Marscape spaces. The landscapes can vary from open savanna-like landscapes to more dense and tropical scenery. By varying the types of landscape profiles the likelihood of finding a preferred landscape by the future Martians increases.

To recreate a savanna-like setting, preferred by the majority of humans (Marcus & Sachs 2013, p.

23; Ulrich 1993, pp. 88-91; Ulrich 2002, pp. 1-10), the variation of ground cover, shrubs and vertical vegetation is essential. The aspect of maintenance should be conceivable with as little maintenance as possible. Especially the need for mechanical maintenance should be minimal in order to decrease risks and payload. As it is yet undecided what material the inner surface of a cave habitat will be, the use of green walls should be considered in order to guarantee a pleasant edge to the landscape. The use of aero- and hydroponics allow more innovative ways of treating plants in a landscape. Said systems can ease the use of green walls and innovative placement of plants in vertical directions.

The proposed method to use plants in the landscape is to use vines guided by vertical and horizontal wires to create simulations of canopies and tree trunks. The use of large trees is excluded due to the possibly non-worthwhile relation between resources and benefits. Small flowering fruit trees can be used to create variation in the landscape during â&#x20AC;&#x153;seasonsâ&#x20AC;?. These larger plants combined with green walls, shrubs and ground cover give plenty of opportunities to create an interesting landscape.

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CANOPIES

TASTE

SEASONS

“WOODS” OPEN SPACES

SMELL

Figure 9.1: Conceptual arrangement of vegetation.

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9.2 THE SOIL The most economically and ecologically resilient choice of materials to use in a Martian landscape are in-situ materials. These are Martian regolith, minerals, gasses, water and ice. Recent researches have invented a Martian concrete produced from Martian resources (Wan et al 2016). Concrete is a versatile material which can be used for paving, structures or surfaces. Some care should be implemented when using concrete in enclosed habitats, as at least the concrete produced on Earth draws in oxygen from the air, as witnessed in Biosphere 2 experiment (Severinghaus et al 1994).

Most of the materials for structures will most probably need to be imported from Earth, but weaker gravity allows lighter structures to be built on Mars.

Even though it would be ideal to use in-situ materials to provide plants with growing substrate, the use of Martian regolith might be problematic (see chapter 3.2). The Martian regolith needs to be processed before using it as soil and might be unusable due to toxicity problems (Boston, P.J. Personal communication. 1 August 2016.). Plants growing in soil are the most familiar form of vegetation on Earth for humans. Therefore, it might be worth the trouble to use soil as a growing medium at least for some of the vegetation.

In addition to using Martian soil as a substrate for plants, some regolith can be considered to be used as a surface for the general landscape to provide more wearing surface for humans. The finest dust cannot be used in order to avoid harmful dust mitigation interfering with sensitive technology or human perspiration. The use of loose surface materials instead of only concrete can make the space feel more natural and create a more interesting soundscape.

Plant growth can be aided with specially designed growing systems, such as the Veggie system developed by NASA (Levine & Smith 2016, Zabel et al 2016, p. 7). It would guarantee sufficient water and nutrients for plants even if soil were lacking those features. The problems with such systems are size constraints concerning possible sizes of plants, light spectrums optimized for plants and usually a chamber isolating the plants from outside space. This is not the preferred growing method in order to create a pleasing landscape for humans and should be used for agricultural purposes.

Other potential growing mediums are hydroponics and aeroponics. These methods are mainly used for agricultural purposes in challenging conditions on Earth and therefore still fairly unfamiliar to many from the landscape point of view. Aeroponics and hydroponics might be effective methods to adapt vegetation to Mars. By these methods, the problems with soil can be ignored, and water and nutrients can be provided with a more accurate distribution. Using aeroponics also provides a method of distributing vegetation vertically.

Hydroponics require some form of support for plants, as they cannot naturally anchor their roots to soil. This can be done by supporting plants by an artificial support system or hydroponics can be integrated with a medium from Martian regolith to enable anchoring. The later one can lessen the foreignness of hydroponics and create a visually more pleasing setting. The medium grain size should be large enough to allow smooth water flow through the regolith without interfering with nutrients.

With fully functional hydroponics, the biomass of plant roots can be minimized to 3-5% compared with 20-50% of conventional substrate methods (du Toit & Labushagne 2013, p. 120). This is beneficial as hydroponics plants can be grown more easily above ground level as no large chambers for roots and soil are required.

The most preferable growing method for plants is the conventional soil substrate, as it is the most familiar for humans from Earth. In addition, to make growing more feasible on Mars, the integration of hydroponics and aeroponics is encouraged. As the landscape on Mars can never be a perfect copy of that of the Earthâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s within reasonable efforts, new and innovative growing methods should not be overlooked in order to create a landscape on Mars.

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Table 9.2: Challenges and benefits of use of vegetation on Mars.

challenges

benefits

no large plants (trees) maintenance

enriches the landscape experience smells

lack of natural pollination

variable use of vines

lack of natural seasons

familiar landscape variable vegetation zones variable seasons (artificial) innovative cultivation

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9.3 THE SUN AND LIGHTING As stated in earlier chapters, the lighting requirements for plants and humans differ greatly (see chapters 3 and 4). The proposed solution is to separate the two lighting systems to enable more range of adjustments for both. One consistent light from the ceiling would be inefficient for plants and not suited for human needs. The lighting is one of the most energy consuming elements of inhabiting Mars, but also necessary to guarantee plant growth and to enable human functioning. In this thesis, it is assumed that the energy production is solved with a sufficient system, such as solar energy. Luckily, the technology is constantly advancing and already the LED-technology provides a relatively energy-efficient solution.

The light for plants can be provided from a fairly short distance if LEDs or similar non-heating solution is used (Morrow 2008, p. 1948). By using specifically targeted light from a short distance above the vegetation or even intracanopy light, the luminosity and spectrum can be adjusted to be most suitable for plants without interfering with humans. Intracanopy light can also be used where denser growth is needed for landscape architectural purposes and where the general light would otherwise be insufficient for plant growth.

The sunlight can be brought subsurface by skylights covered with translucent materials, such as transparent membranes filled with hydrogen or water. This would provide the subsurface space with natural daylight cycle and the changing lighting conditions of the surface. As the sunlight levels on Mars are only 43% from that on the Earth, additional lighting for plants and possibly humans as well is required. Benefits of using natural light from skylights are the lack of glaring due to scattered light from the Sun, dynamic lighting conditions and the sense of connection to the surface.

The general light for humans needs to be produced artificially if no radiation protective translucent material is available for skylights. One solution is to convey sunlight from the surface by fibres.

This, as skylights, would provide the subsurface space with a natural daylight cycle and changing lighting conditions in correlation with the weather on the surface. Then, extra light could be provided when necessary, such as during dust storms. If no natural light is available, artificial sunlight can be provided by indirect light from the ceiling mimicking sunlight as perceived on the surface.

The method of using light conveying fibres can be criticized by whether the gained benefits are in correlation with cost and trouble building the system.

Outdoor lighting conditions vary by the minute due to clouds, differences in the atmosphere, and time of the day and seasons. Changing shadows and brightness can change a landscape completely and hence make it enlightening to observe over and over again. Therefore, a mimicked daylight cycle in a highly limited indoor space can make it more enjoyable. The light should follow the movements of the Sun and change in temperature and luminosity in correlation with natural sunlight. With LED-technology, a changing light is merely a matter of programming. In addition to increased well-being by observation, the benefits of artificial sunlight are the absence of harmful aspects of radiation present in full sunshine and the presence of only beneficial radiation.

The daylight cycle is crucial for human well-being to guarantee a functional circadian cycle (Lowden et al 2015). Also, most plants require at least some dark periods to flourish (Dodd et al 2005, McClung 2006). Hence, designing lighting to correlate with the Martian daylight cycle could be beneficial for plants and humans alike. The arrangements of lighting enhance the perception of a space gained by the sense of sight. The proposed method for achieving this, if no natural light is available, is to use indirect artificial light programmed to mimic the natural fluctuations of sunlight and the daylight cycle. Light level detectors can be installed on the surface to transfer the information of current surface conditions to the subsurface lighting system. With hidden light source, the negative effect of perceiving the real light source and glaring from direct light can be decreased.

The proposed method for lighting is to use natural light from skylights where possible. Supplementary light can be provided from the ceiling for humans and light for plants can be integrated with structures to provide intracanopy and optimized light. Artificial light guarantees sufficient lighting for indoor spaces in case of a prolonged dust storm blocks the sunlight from the surface.

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Figure 9.3 (above): Principles of integrating plant light into the structures.

Figure 9.4 (next spread): Illustration of morning light from a skylight. Credit author and Petri Ullakko. In addition to ground level, privacy can be found on different levels The highest level provides a view to a skylight and to the grounds below. While observing from the heights allows views to others, the observer remains hidden as if hiding in a tree.

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9.4 WEATHER AND CLIMATE ZONES As stated previously in the thesis, the availability of in-situ water will be crucial for life on Mars.

Even though most of the water can be recycled by artificial ecosystems, such as MELiSSA, an outside source of water will increasingly ease the possibilities for life. To create a landscape with well-doing plants, a substantial flow of water is required.

In addition to using water directly as irrigation for plants, it can be used to create different weather and temperature conditions in a space. The artificial atmosphere tends to be fairly dry. Though a space with plants and irrigation is naturally moister than spaces lacking vegetation, additional moisture can be created by mist. Misting the air would benefit not only the nearby plants but would help to create a different feel of the environment for humans and could be integrated into the supporting structures of vines. The temperature for mist can be either colder or warmer than the air in a space to emphasize the change in the “weather”. The sense of weather adds the sense of touch to the landscape experience.

The use of aero- and hydroponics and every other type of cultivation of plants on Mars require highly advanced systems of water management, which will make novelty uses of water easier as hardly any additional systems are required. The effect of microgravity should be taken into consideration in order to avoid the excessive escaping of the mist as the water does not rain down as quickly as it does on Earth. Too much moisture can interfere with the delicate technology used in life support systems. The solution is to use enclosed smaller spaces inside the Marscape (see chapter 7.4). Transparent membrane enables the connection to the surrounding landscape but contains moisture inside. Weather conditions can also be created by sound and light.

The presence of plants has a beneficial effect on the overall air quality of a space (Orwell et al 2006) and can be improved by choice of species. Even though artificial ecosystems will be the main source of fresh air on Mars, the air quality should be substantially better in an outdoor-like space with a rich amount of plants. This, in addition to moister-than-elsewhere-air, will strengthen the experience of “stepping outside for a breath of fresh air”.

The use of multiple indoor landscape spaces enables variation between the spaces. Different spaces can mimic different climate and vegetation zones to provide more options for humans with various preferences of landscapes. Whereas one space can inhabit a tropical and lush landscape, another can provide a setting for a more open landscape such as savanna or taiga. The climate conditions are also possible to modify to be suitable for said vegetation (see chapter 7.4).

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Figure 9.5 (top): Clouds over Mars in 1999. Credit NASA/JPL/MSSS. Figure 9.6 (next spread): A concept for a space inside a space with mist. Different smells, temperatures or weather conditions can be realized in enclosed transparent “bubbles”. Mist of different volumes and temperatures can be used to create “rain”.

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9.5 MANIPULATING SPACE As per chapter 7.2, the suggested space for the Marscape is 70 meters by 100 meters and a height of 20 meters. A space of said size is still small enough for humans perceive the edges of the space on eye-level (see chapter 6.4) but simultaneously large enough to provide multiple spaces of different sizes inside itself.

The height of 20 meters is high enough for humans not to observe it as a ceiling, as the cone of vision (Robinette 1972, p. 18) inhibits it to be observed clearly. Elements higher than 13.5 meters are hard to observe from below (Gehl 2010, p. 41). The ceiling can be observed only from a distance.

The feeling of an unenclosed ceiling, or perception of â&#x20AC;&#x153;open skyâ&#x20AC;?, can be enhanced by opening views upwards only so that views to skylights are provided. On the edges of the landscape space views upwards are screened by canopies so that sunlight is filtered through.

The Marscape provides spaces for different purposes and activities (see table 9.8). A large space in the centre provides views to the overall landscape and to the skylights while enabling multiple activities such as sports and gatherings. Smaller spaces can be found closer to the edges of the space or near the skylights. Small spaces surrounding the large space soften the edges of the landscape by opening and closing views with screening vegetation. Soft and varying edges attract the users to stop and observe and invite into the small, more private spaces. Transition between spaces of different sizes adds up to a sense of much bigger space than it actually is.

The edges of the Marscape are hidden by vegetation to inhibit any long views to end into a wall.

Views should also be arranged so that as few views through the overall space as possible are provided in order to further obscure the sense of the complete size of the space (see figure 9.7). Vegetation is arranged so that vertical views mainly end into skylights or canopies. In addition, different sizes and experiences of spaces are produced by the arrangement of vegetation (see figure 9.9).

the

te rou n i a

m

Figure 9.7 (top): Principles of views through different spaces of the Marscape. Views to bare edges are avoided while views of different lenghts increase the percieved size of the space. Not in scale.

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Table 9.8: Experiences of different space sizes.

diameter

experience

escape

2-3 m

privacy

3-5 m

views to down below or no views, secret hideout, intimate mostly enclosed, (weather,) observing, cozy

small gathering

5-8 m

some views to other spaces

semi public

8-15 m

some views to and from, fairly open

open

15-50 m

free open space, views to and from

canopies to walk under and to look at

privacy

bounding of space

guided view to the “sky”

Figure 9.9 (top): Principles of vegetation adjusting space. In absence of large trees the effects can be created by small trees and vines guided by wires. Not in scale. Modified after Robinette (1972, p. 12).

Figure 9.10 (following spread): A concept for a northern “savanna” landscape. An open space in the middle of the landscape with “trees” and other vegetation on the edges. Vegetation softens the effect of enclosed edges.

“Sunlight” can access the open space freely.

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HUMANS IN THE OUTDOORS

â&#x20AC;&#x201C; ASPECTS ON ENHANCING AN OUTDOOR EXPERIENCE ON MARS As the objective of this thesis is to study and implement methods promoting human well-being in an outdoors indoors setting, the aspects influencing human behaviour in said space are observed in this chapter. The conditions of inhabiting Mars play a major role in this type of setting, as Mars has unique limitations and opportunities regarding using and designing a space.

Weaker-than-Earth gravity influences the movement of humans by requiring less force. Therefore, the use of space can be approached differently than on Earth. Highly confined and limited space increases the importance of usable space and increases the importance of design solutions regarding levels of privacy and social interaction.

As on Mars, the recreational opportunities are scarce, providing diverse forms of activities is necessary. To combat the negative effects of confined and isolated space, the aspect of creating a space creating a perception of a bigger and more open one is to be given attention.

The overall goal is to create a pleasant place which will benefit as many people as possible with different likings and cultural backgrounds. It is not a simple task and therefore, the following chapters are to give guidelines to designing and creating such a place combining restrictions and benefits of an indoor space on Mars with the tools of Landscape Architecture.

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10.1 ADJUSTING THE LEVEL OF PRIVACY The studies conducted about human psychological well-being in demanding conditions, such as those in Space, indicate that the possibility to choose the level of privacy at least on free time will potentially be beneficial to said psychological health. Hence, places for both retrieving and meeting should be offered to guarantee options for different situations.

As walls, distance and different levels are key elements in defining the level of social interactions (see figure 6.3), combinations of these methods can be used to create a varying space. As the general size of an indoor space on Mars rarely exceeds the maximum distance of the social field of vision of 100 metres, defined by Jan Gehl (2011, p. 64), the methods of manipulating levels of social interaction have to be implemented by varying levels and limited views. Vegetation can be used as a way to manipulate spatial openness to offer different levels of social interactions. Also, the use of different levels of spaces increases the chance to either inhibit or promote social interaction as the general bottom level might be insufficient in area to provide all needed levels of privacy.

By using smaller spaces inside the large Marscape more places for retrieving an emphasized privacy are provided. A transparent membrane as a material for the small spaces allows a connection with the large landscape but provides privacy by muffling sounds and defining borders for a space.

The option of allowing individual lighting settings to be used in a small space can be used to increase the wanted level of privacy.

The variation of space sizes inside the Marscape enable free and spontaneous activities and stay in the space. Larger spaces give room for play, interaction and meeting. Smaller spaces are more hidden where the users can find their own spaces. Spaces are framed by vegetation and transparent walls. Vertical vegetation frames the large spaces and the smallest spaces can be found when settled among the shrubs â&#x20AC;&#x201C; a private space inside a space.

Intersections of routes inside the space are a natural meeting point for humans occupying the same space. Open landscape allows the occupants to observe others in the same space as well as providing a place for gathering. Social interaction can be enhanced by offering settings for different activities which bring people together. Places for privacy and retrieving should provide views to other spaces and shelter to ensure a calm and safe setting for restoration.

10.2 ACTIVITIES Recreational activities play a major role in an outdoors experience. Whether the activity is merely strolling in the woods, viewing the scenery or playing sports, the influence of recreation to mental health is evident. The sense of escape can be enhanced by offering activities unavailable in other settings and by occupying the mind with a focus on a pleasant function.

The astronauts on ISS have reported that the most needed space on the station is a free space with no assigned purpose. The freedom to do something not predetermined seems to be a welcomed change to otherwise highly scheduled and controlled missions. Such a space will naturally take place in an outdoor setting, where the mere existence of landscape is function enough.

Free space enables activities such as sports and gatherings. Some sports familiar on Earth could be transferred to Mars with adaptation to limited space and microgravity, such as climbing and ball games. Some sports and activities yet to be invented will most certainly emerge on Mars, specially designed to the conditions of the new environment. Microgravity allows the future Martian to create novel activities or modify the sports invented on Earth to Martian conditions. Climbing, such as bouldering, is easier for one and group sports such as ball games can be entirely reinvented.

What will be the national sport for the future Martians?

In a green setting, observing and interacting with nature as well as gardening are easily arranged options for activities. The presence of eatable plants promotes the sense of accomplishment during harvest. The main objective for the Marscape is to provide future Martians a place for recreation and restoration.

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Figure 10.1: Examples of activities in the outdoors: Gathering, exercize, restoration and privacy.

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10.3 A PLEASANT PLACE The outdoors indoors landscape on Mars, or Marscape, adds up to a stimulating, interesting, restorative and varying environment for humans. The overall solutions are aiming at creating a setting where humans can feel protected and safe while adapting to the new environment on Mars.

The solutions are designed to be a combination of foreign and familiar. Familiarity emphasizes the sense of security while the foreign safely transforms into familiar. The Marscape aims at not to disconnect humans from Mars but to ease the transition to the new environment. The end result of the Marscape is familiar scenery from Earth realized by elements and technologies suited for Mars.

The Marscape pursues to enable a sense of place for the future Martians. A space where free movement and a choice of the level of privacy are possible intend to ease the human habitation on Mars.

A sense of place is gained by combining all the different aspects of a place into a cohesive whole which enables humans to choose the nature of their interaction with their environment.

The main purpose of the Marscape is to provide a place for humans to rewind, and gain psychological and physiological benefits from a green setting. The aspects of recreation and restoration are realized with space hierarchy, aesthetic design solutions and sense of safety.

“A characteristic common to all optional, recreational, and social activities is that they take place only when the external conditions for stopping and moving about are good, when a maximum number of advantages and a minimum of disadvantages are offered physically, psychologically, and socially, and when it is in every respect pleasant to be in the environment.”

(Gehl 2011, p. 171) The Marscape suggests that the future indoor landscape on Mars should be a stimulating environment combining various experiences perceived by different senses in addition to multiple choice of activities. The space offers options for vertical and horizontal dwelling alike.

The spatial hierarchy of spaces inside a space with views arranged so that the enclosed space does not become confined promote the sense of free movement and personal space. The outdoors indoors provides a dynamic environment changing by lighting, seasons and weather.

Figure 10.2 (left page): Principles of the outdoors indoors elements of the Marscape. Not in scale.

Figure 10.3 (next spread): Illustration of a pathway through the Martian “lush savanna” forest. Areas with generous vegetation provide privacy and recreational pathways through “the woods”.

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CONCLUSIONS

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11.1 SUMMARY OF OUTCOME This thesis set out to answer two questions in particular: what landscape architecture would be on Mars and how landscape architecture can help humans to adapt to Mars.

A green landscape on Mars is inevitably a coalition of engineering, natural sciences and landscape architecture. The conditions for growing plants and inhabiting humans need to be created artificially. The suggested concept for a green landscape on Mars is a study about outdoors indoors, or Marscape. It incorporates elements of the outdoors with conditions on Mars in order to create a perception of an escape to an outdoor setting. The Marscape is designed with a presumption of future habitation subsurface. Landscape architecture on Mars is a combination of advanced technology and engineering combined with outdoor elements most beneficial for human well-being.

The curious and adventurous nature of humans calls for solutions for adaptation. A green landscape on Mars is only a part of it all but, if executed well, it can play a major role in the lives of the future Martians. The proposed design solutions aim at creating a familiar landscape adapted to the possibilities and restrictions on Mars in order to ease the process of human adaptation to Mars.

Creating a safe, restorative space where free being is made possible can benefit humans as individuals and migration to Space as a species. This thesis aimed at creating guidelines and frames for what should be considered in future landscape designs on Mars.

The studies about vegetation in Space suggests that growing plants on Mars is feasible. Successful plant growth requires a lot of technology and the presence of certain resources in-situ, such as water. In addition to challenges for plants, also humans are under a lot of stress in Space expeditions.

Isolation and challenging conditions take their toll on human health.

The relation between a nature experience and human well-being has been studied on Earth for decades. Time spent observing or interacting with a green environment has been proven to be beneficial for humans on psychological and physiological levels. These immaterial beneficial aspects are grouped under Cultural services of an ecosystem in this thesis. Landscape architecture was introduced as a method to understand and manage different elements of a landscape experience.

Understanding what type of an environment is perceived as pleasant and restorative was studied in this thesis. To create such an environment on Mars, the unique features of using a habitable green space on Mars were studied. These aspects combined resulted in an outdoors indoors concept for the Marscape. The goal for said landscape was to create an experience serving as means to help humans adapt to Mars. Detailed technical solutions were excluded from the design, as much research remains to be conducted in order to understand best methods of realization. Therefore, the proposed design remains at a level which is feasible to realize with various techniques.

The main aspects of the design were to promote the sense of freedom and the choice of level of privacy while using the Marscape. The green environment should also be easily accessed for the inhabitants to maximize the benefits of said landscape. Those aspects in mind, the landscape design provides a stimulating and dynamic setting in order to avoid boredom by constant usage of the limited space.

This thesis collected together the main aspects affecting humans and plants in a landscape and in Space. This thesis is not an absolute solution to the problems faced by humans inhabiting Space.

It is an opening for a discussion about the role of landscape architecture in Space expeditions and inhabiting Mars. The human migration to Space draws closer by the day and mostly the studies and designs are focusing on human survival and creating self-sustaining settlements.

The understanding of the creation of spaces helping human adaptation is still relatively low. The majority of studies show that interaction with a green environment is substantially beneficial for human health and therefore should be regarded as a part of future human habitation in Space. To create a green space aimed at human recreation requires understanding and combining multiple fields of study and a design point of view to incorporate it into a functioning setting.

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11.2 REFLECTIONS The outcome of this thesis does not answer all the questions related to creating a landscape in an indoor space on Mars. The study of creating a landscape in another type of indoor space than a subsurface lava tunnel was ruled out of this thesis. Hence, it is unclear how the suggested elements will work in another type of setting.

Many of the suggested aspects are not guaranteed to succeed once on Mars. The risks include plant survival on Mars depending on available water and substrate. Will the subsurface space be accessible easily and is it possible to connect the subsurface space to the surface by skylights? Those are questions to be studied further. The final size of indoor spaces will need to be re-examined once the solutions for creating them are agreed upon.

This thesis does not take a stand on detailed technical solutions. Their feasibility needs to be researched and the final design requires collaboration with engineers and experts from other fields.

The most crucial aspect for future studies is the feasible cultivation methods on Mars.

This thesis covers interdisciplinary aspects related to designing a landscape on Mars. All the major statements introduced in this thesis are results of leading research of their fields, and multiple of these fields have been studied for decades. The studies conducted and news published by NASA are overrepresented in this thesis due to the fact that NASA is the largest individual party researching the field of Space travel and publishes results fairly openly.

Considering previous aspects, the reliability of this thesis is fairly strong at the time of the writing.

In the field of inhabiting Space, many varying opinions are presented regarding execution and goals, and this thesis falls under one opinion. This thesis does not try to solve all the problems regarding inhabiting Mars but rather present a landscape architectâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s viewpoint of what should be taken into consideration. As stated previously in the thesis, many aspects presented in this thesis and studied by Space agencies are just that â&#x20AC;&#x201C; studies. Many questions remain unanswered until we are on Mars. The fast pace in which technology is evolving also calls for re-evaluating the methods presented in this thesis once the time for Mars is due.

11.3 POSSIBLE FUTURE DIRECTIONS To take the substance of this thesis further, the scale of inhabiting Mars and its permanence needs to be studied in more depth. Many of the problems and solutions presented in this thesis can only be verified once humans actually inhabit Mars.

Many aspects potentially to be used in creating a landscape on Mars, such as VR and the further incorporation of the landscape into architecture and life support on Mars, are merely introduced in this thesis. The use of VR on Space expeditions is a probable solution to counterbalance confined spaces and the lack of freedom of movement.

There is a possibility that technology advances in the upcoming decades so rapidly that the technology and requirements of the future Martians may need to be re-evaluated. More studies are required to survey the needs of future Martians as Space travel advances. It is important to research how humans will eventually react to the conditions on Mars.

As technology advances, it inevitably affects the habitat solutions on Mars. If other forms of habitats are to be chosen than the subsurface habitat presented in this thesis, also the landscape design opportunities suggested in the thesis need to be adapted into the chosen form of habitat.

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AFTERWORD I set out to write this thesis with a passion for Space and landscape architecture and I wanted to find out how those two fields could be integrated. In the process of this thesis, I studied interdisciplinary subjects including engineering, architecture, psychology, natural sciences and most importantly landscape architecture. I found all the subjects equally fascinating and the only downside was not to be able to study them further in the length of one thesis.

This thesis did not turn out to be a complete guide book for landscape architecture on Mars, nor did it ever set out to be one. Instead, I find that this is a starting point for many more studies to be conducted, many of which I hope I will be a part of one day.

Even if further planning for landscapes on Mars would not take place in my lifetime, the ideas, solutions and demanding conditions of Mars can be beneficial for landscape architecture on Earth.

This thesis has inspired me to discover extreme environments and conditions on Earth and I believe that all the future challenges we are facing on this planet require a deeper interdisciplinary understanding about design solutions. How can we inhabit the most challenging environments on Earth too? Many commodities used in everyday life now has been the result of Space exploration and Space sciences and landscape architecture can also benefit those fields.

I have thoroughly enjoyed the time I spent on this thesis and I am somewhat wistful now that it is over. I hope that I will be able to explore the designs for extreme environments further as a landscape architect.

I hope that this thesis gave you, reader, a new perspective on landscape architecture and its possibilities as they do not only limit to this planet. And hopefully Mars does not appear as a completely hostile place as I do hope humans will thrive there with respect to their new surroundings one day.

Figure vi: Subparallel furrows and ridges formed by lava flows on Mars. Credit NASA/ JPL-Caltech/University of Arizona

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Many people had their influence on this thesis and supported me to get it done in time.

I would like to thank my professor Jyrki Sinkkilä for being supportive and excited about my thesis from our first meeting. I will also thank my instructor Mark Lindquist for helping me find new perspectives and keep the thesis framed.

I highly appreciate the help I received from experts from multiple fields and having the patience to answer my questions, such as Ray Wheeler, Penelope Boston and Olga Bannova. I also thank Katri Pulli for inspiring conversations.

Thanks to my friends Veera, Pauliina, Kaisa, Helmi, Minni, Petri, Eeva and Saara for supporting and helping me through this. Special thanks to Laura for having the patience to go through my text. Also, thank you for everyone else who listened when I rambled.

The biggest thanks I owe to Lauri Lemmenlehti, for brainstorming with me for years, to my mom and dad for never-ending support, and to my little sister, Iina, without whom I would not have finished this thesis yet. Olin nopeempi.

Figure vii: Sand dunes formed by wind in southern Terra Cimmeria, Mars. Credit NASA/JPL-Caltech/University of Arizona

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REFERENCES INTERVIEWS Bannova, O. Architect (Master of Science of Space Architecture), Research Associate Professor in Sasakawa International Center for Space Architecture (SICSA). Interviewed by e-mail, and by Skype on 5 September 2016.

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