Capsaicin in Capsicum The fruit of most species of Capsicum contains capsaicin (methyl-n-vanillyl nonenamide), a lipophilic chemical that can produce a strong burning sensation (pungency or spiciness) in the mouth of the unaccustomed eater. Most mammals find this unpleasant, whereas birds are unaffected.[7][8] The secretion of capsaicin protects the fruit from consumption by insects[9] and mammals, while the bright colours attract birds that will disperse the seeds.
Capsicum C
apsicum (also known as peppers) is a genus of flowering plants in the nightshade family Solanaceae. Its species are native to the Americas, where they have been cultivated for thousands of years. In modern times, it is cultivated worldwide, and has become a key element in many regional cuisines. In addition to use as spices and food vegetables, Capsicum species have also found use in medicines.
place and type. The piquant (spicy) varieties are commonly called chili peppers, or simply "chillies". The large, mild form is called red pepper, green pepper, or bell pepper in North America and United Kingdom and typically just "capsicum" in New Zealand,[4] Australia, Singapore and India. The fruit is called paprika in some other countries (although paprika can also refer to the powdered spice made from various capsicum fruit).
The fruit of Capsicum plants have a variety of names depending on
The generic name is derived from the Greek word κάπτω (kapto),
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meaning "to bite" or "to swallow". [5] The name "pepper" came into use because of their similar flavour to the condiment black pepper, Piper nigrum, although there is no botanical relationship with this plant, or with the Sichuan pepper. The original term, chilli (now chile in Mexico) came from the Nahuatl word chilli or xilli, referring to a larger Capsicum variety cultivated at least since 3000 BC, as evidenced by remains found in pottery from Puebla and Oaxaca.
Capsaicin is present in large quantities in the placental tissue (which holds the seeds), the internal membranes, and to a lesser extent, the other fleshy parts of the fruits of plants in this genus. The seeds themselves do not produce any capsaicin, although the highest concentration of capsaicin can be found in the white pith around the seeds.[10] The amount of capsaicin in the fruit is highly variable and dependent on genetics and environment, giving almost all types of Capsicum varied amounts of perceived heat. The most recognizable Capsicum without capsaicin is the bell pepper,[11] a cultivar of Capsicum annuum, which has a zero rating on the Scoville scale. The lack of capsaicin in
bell peppers is due to a recessive gene that eliminates capsaicin and, consequently, the "hot" taste usually associated with the rest of the Capsicum family.[12] There are also other peppers without capsaicin, mostly within the Capsicum annuum species, such as the cultivars Giant Marconi,[13] Yummy Sweets,[14] Jimmy Nardello,[15] and Italian Frying peppers. Cuisine Capsicum fruits and peppers can be eaten raw or cooked. Those used in cooking are generally varieties of the C. annuum and C. frutescens species, though a few others are used, as well. They are suitable for stuffing with fillings such as cheese, meat, or rice. They are also frequently used both chopped and raw in salads, or cooked in stir-fries or other mixed
dishes. They can be sliced into strips and fried, roasted whole or in pieces, or chopped and incorporated into salsas or other sauces, of which they are often a main ingredient. They can be preserved in the form of a jam,[18] or by drying, pickling, or freezing. Dried peppers may be reconstituted whole, or processed into flakes or powders. Pickled or marinated peppers are frequently added to sandwiches or salads. Frozen peppers are used in stews, soups, and salsas. Extracts can be made and incorporated into hot sauces. Species and varieties Capsicum consists of 20–27 species,[23] five of which are domesticated: C. annuum, C. baccatum, C. chinense, C. frutescens, and C. pubescens. [24] Phylogenetic relationships between species were investigated using biogeographical,[25] morphological,[26] chemosystematic,[27] hybridization,[28] and genetic[23] data. Fruits of Capsicum can vary tremendously in color, shape, and size both between and within species, which has led to confusion over the relationships between taxa.[29] Chemosystematic studies helped distinguish the difference between varieties and
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species. For example, C. baccatum var. baccatum had the same flavonoids as C. baccatum var. pendulum, which led researchers to believe the two groups belonged to the same species.
Species list 1.
Capsicum annuum L.
2. Capsicum baccatum L. 3. Capsicum buforum Hunz. 4. Capsicum campylopodium Sendtn. 5. Capsicum cardenasii Heiser & P. G. Sm. 6. Capsicum ceratocalyx M.Nee 7. Capsicum chacoense Hunz. 8. Capsicum chinense Jacq. 9. Capsicum coccineum (Rusby) Hunz. 10. Capsicum cornutum (Hiern) Hunz. 11. Capsicum dimorphum (Miers) Kuntze 12. Capsicum dusenii Bitter 13. Capsicum eximium Hunz. 14. Capsicum flexuosum Sendtn. 15. Capsicum friburgense Bianch. & Barboza 16. Capsicum frutescens L. 17. Capsicum galapagoense Hunz. 18. Capsicum geminifolium (Dammer) Hunz. 19. Capsicum havanense Kunth 20. Capsicum hookerianum (Miers) Kuntze 21. Capsicum hunzikerianum Barboza & Bianch. 22. Capsicum lanceolatum (Greenm.) C.V.Morton & Standl.
23. Capsicum leptopodum (Dunal) Kuntze 24. Capsicum lycianthoides Bitter 25. Capsicum minutiflorum (Rusby) Hunz. 26. Capsicum mirabile Mart. ex Sendtn. 27. Capsicum mositicum Toledo 28. Capsicum parvifolium Sendtn. 29. Capsicum pereirae Barboza & Bianch. 30. Capsicum pubescens Ruiz & Pav. 31. Capsicum ramosissimum Witasek 32. Capsicum recurvatum Witasek 33. Capsicum rhomboideum (Dunal) Kuntze 34. Capsicum schottianum Sendtn. 35. Capsicum scolnikianum Hunz. 36. Capsicum spina-alba (Dunal) Kuntze 37. Capsicum stramoniifolium (Kunth) Standl. 38. Capsicum tovarii Eshbaugh et al. 39. Capsicum villosum Sendtn. 40. Formerly placed here 41. Tubocapsicum anomalum (Franch. & Sav.) Makino (as C. anomalum Franch. & Sav.) 42. Vassobia fasciculata (Miers) Hunz. (as C. grandiflorum Kuntze) 43. Witheringia stramoniifolia Kunth (as C. stramoniifolium (Kunth) Kuntze)
Many varieties of the same species can be used in many different ways; for example, C. annuum includes the "bell pepper" variety, which is sold in both its immature green state and its red, yellow, or orange ripe state. This same species has other varieties, as well, such as the Anaheim chiles often used for stuffing, the dried ancho chile used to make chili powder, the mild-tohot jalape単o, and the smoked, ripe jalape単o, known as chipotle. Most of the capsaicin in a pungent (hot) pepper is concentrated in blisters on the epidermis of the interior ribs (septa) that divide the chambers of the fruit to which the seeds are attached.[30] A study on capsaicin production in fruits of C. chinense showed that capsaicinoids are produced only in the epidermal cells of the interlocular septa of pungent fruits, that blister formation only occurs as a result of capsaicinoid accumulation, and that pungency and blister formation are controlled by a single locus, Pun1, for which there exist at least two recessive alleles that result in nonpungency of C. chinense fruits.[31]
Synonyms and common names The name given to the Capsicum fruits varies between Englishspeaking countries. In Australia, New Zealand, and India, heatless varieties are called "capsicums", while hot ones are called "chilli"/"chillies" (double L). Pepperoncini are also known as "sweet capsicum". The term "bell peppers" is almost never used, although C. annuum and other varieties which have a bell shape and are fairly hot, are often called "bell chillies". Genetics Most Capsicum species are 2n=24. A few of the nondomesticated species are 2n=32.
The amount of capsaicin in hot peppers varies significantly between varieties, and is measured in Scoville heat units (SHU). The world's current hottest known pepper as rated in SHU is the 'Carolina Reaper' which had been measured at over 2,200,000 SHU. Breeding Several breeding programs are being conducted by corporations and universities. New Mexico State University has released several varieties in the last few years. Cornell has worked to develop regionally adapted varieties. Many types of peppers have been bred for heat, size, and yield. GRAS Only Capsicum frutescens L. and Capsicum annuum L. are in the GRAS.
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Tamil elakkai and Malayalam elakkay. The second element kai means "seed" or "fruit". The Malabar region had historical trade connections and was a prominent area of cardamom cultivation. Types and distribution There are two main types of cardamom: 1. True or green cardamom (or, when bleached, white cardamom[10]) comes from the species Elettaria cardamomum and is distributed from India to Malaysia. 2. Black cardamom, also known as brown, greater, longer, or Nepal cardamom, comes from two species, Amomum costatum and Amomum subulatum, which are distributed mainly in Asia and Australia. The two types of cardamom, κάρδαμομον and ἄμωμον, were distinguished in the fourth century BCE by the Greek father of botany, Theophrastus. Theophrastus and informants knew that these varieties came to Greece originally and solely from India. Uses Both forms of cardamom are used as flavorings and cooking spices in both food and drink, and as a medicine. E. cardamomum (green cardamom) is used as a spice, a masticatory, and in medicine; it is also smoked.
Cardamom C
ardamom sometimes called cardamon (mostly in the UK) , is a spice made from the seeds of several plants in the genera Elettaria and Amomum in the family Zingiberaceae. Both genera are native to Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Indonesia, Nepal, and Pakistan; they are recognised by their small seed pods, triangular in cross-section and spindle-shaped, with a thin, papery outer shell and small black seeds. Guatemala, where the German coffee planter Oscar Majus Kloeffer introduced Indian cardamom before World War I,[1]
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has become the biggest producer and exporter of cardamom in the world, followed by India. Some other countries, such as Sri Lanka, have also begun to cultivate it. Elettaria pods are light green, while Amomum pods are larger and dark brown. Etymology The word "cardamom" is derived from the Latin cardamomum,[2] itself the latinisation of the Greek καρδάμωμον (kardamomon),[3] a compound of κάρδαμον (kardamon), "cress"[4] + ἄμωμον
Food and drink
(amomon), which was probably the name for a kind of Indian spice plant.[5] The earliest attested form of the word κάρδαμον signifying cress is the Mycenaean Greek ka-dami-ja, written in Linear B syllabic script,[6] in the list of flavourings on the "Spice" tablets found among palace archives in the House of the Sphinxes in Mycenae.[7] The modern genus name Elettaria is derived from the local name. The root ēlam is attested in all Dravidian languages[8] viz. Kannada elakki [ಏಲಕ್ಕಿ], Telugu yelakulu
Cardamom has a strong, unique taste, with an intensely aromatic, resinous fragrance. Black cardamom has a distinctly more smokey, though not bitter, aroma, with a coolness some consider similar to mint. Green cardamom is one of the most expensive spices by weight,[citation needed] but little is needed to impart flavor. It is best stored in pod form because once the seeds are exposed or ground, they quickly lose their flavor. Grinding the pods and seeds together lowers both the quality and the price. For recipes requiring whole cardamom pods, a generally accepted equivalent is 10 pods equals 1½ teaspoons of ground cardamom.[citation needed]
Cardamom Seeds
It is a common ingredient in Indian cooking and is often used in baking in the Nordic countries, in particular in Sweden and Finland, where it is used in traditional treats such as Finnish sweet bread pulla and in the Scandinavian Christmas bread Julekake. In the Middle East, green cardamom powder is used as a spice for sweet dishes, as well as traditional flavouring in coffee and tea. Cardamom is used to a wide extent in savoury dishes. In some Middle Eastern countries, coffee and cardamom are often ground in a wooden mortar, a mihbaj, and cooked together in a skillet, a mehmas, over wood or gas, to produce mixtures as much as 40% cardamom. In Asia both types of cardamom are widely used in both sweet and savory dishes, particularly
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in the south. Both are frequent components in spice mixes, such as Indian and Nepali masalas and Thai curry pastes. Green cardamom is often used in traditional Indian sweets and in masala chai (spiced tea). Both are also often used as a garnish in basmati rice and other dishes. Individual seeds are sometimes chewed and used in much the same way as chewing gum. It is even used by confectionery giant Wrigley; its Eclipse Breeze Exotic Mint packaging indicates it contains "cardamom to neutralize the toughest breath odors". It is also included in gin and herbal teas. Traditional medicine Green cardamom is broadly used in South Asia to treat infections in teeth and gums, to prevent and treat throat troubles, congestion of the lungs and pulmonary tuberculosis, inflammation of eyelids, and digestive disorders. It also is used to break up kidney and gall stones, and was reportedly used as an antidote for both snake and scorpion venoms. Amomum is used as a spice and as an ingredient in traditional medicine in systems of the traditional Chinese medicine in China, in Ayurveda in India, Pakistan, Japan, Korea, Nepal, and Vietnam. Among other species, varieties, and cultivars, Amomum villosum cultivated in China, Laos, and Vietnam is used in traditional Chinese medicine to treat stomach problems, constipation,
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dysentery, and other digestion problems. Tsaoko cardamom, Amomum tsao-ko, is cultivated in Yunnan and northwest Vietnam, both for medicinal purposes and as a spice. Main constituents: The content of essential oil in the seeds is strongly dependent on storage conditions, but may be as high as 8%. In the oil were found α-terpineol 45%, myrcene 27%, limonene 8%, menthone 6%, β-phellandrene 3%, 1,8-cineol 2%, sabinene 2% and heptane 2%.[12] Other sources report 1,8-cineol (20 to 50%), α-terpenylacetate (30%), sabinene, limonene (2 to 14%), and borneol.
Increased demand since the 1980s, principally from China, for both A. villosum and A. tsao-ko, has provided a key source of income for poor farmers living at higher altitudes in localized areas of China, Laos, and Vietnam, people typically isolated from many other markets. Nepal was previously the world's largest producer of large cardamom. [citation needed] According to estimates of the Asociación de Cardamomeros de Guatemala (Cardegua), the harvest of 2012 will reach to about 29,000 mt, 12% more than in 2011, when it was 26,000 mt.
In the seeds of round cardamom from Jawa (A. kepulaga), the content of essential oil is lower (2 to 4%), and the oil contains mainly 1,8 cineol (up to 70%) plus β-pinene (16%); furthermore, α-pinene, α-terpineol and humulene were found. World production Guatemala is the largest producer of cardamom in the world, with an average annual yield between 25,000 and 29,000 metric tons. India is the second producer worldwide (formerly the largest[13]), generating around 15,000 mt annually.[14] Cardamom was first introduced to Guatemala in 1914.[13]
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(cassia) bark, but milder. •
(the Hindi term for Indian bay leaf), creating confusion between the two herbs.
Indonesian bay leaf or Indonesian laurel (salam leaf, Syzygium polyanthum, Myrtaceae) is not commonly found outside of Indonesia; this herb is applied to meat and, less often vegetables.[2]
•
West Indian bay leaf, the leaf of the West Indian bay tree (Pimenta racemosa, Myrtaceae), used culinarily and to produce the cologne called bay rum.
•
Mexican bay leaf (Litsea glaucescens, Lauraceae).
In the Philippines, dried bay laurel leaves are added as a spice in the Filipino dish Adobo. Bay leaves can also be crushed or ground before cooking. Crushed bay leaves impart more of their desired fragrance than whole leaves, but are more difficult to remove, and thus they are often used in a muslin bag or tea infuser. Ground bay laurel may be substituted for whole leaves, and does not need to be removed, but it is much stronger due to the
by the ancient Greeks.[4] They are a fixture in the cooking of many European cuisines (particularly those of the Mediterranean), as well as in the Americas. They are used in soups, stews, meat, seafood, vegetable dishes, and sauces. The leaves also flavor many classic French dishes. The leaves are most often used whole (sometimes in a bouquet garni) and removed before serving (they can be abrasive in the digestive tract). Thai cuisine employs bay leaf (Thai name bai kra wan) in a few Arab-influenced dishes, notably massaman curry.[5] In Indian and Pakistani cuisine, bay laurel leaves are sometimes used in place of Indian bay leaf, although they have a different flavor. They are most often used in rice dishes like biryani and as an ingredient in garam masala. Bay (laurel) leaves are frequently packaged as tejpatta
Bay leaf B
ay leaf (plural bay leaves) refers to the aromatic leaves of several plants used in cooking. These include:
•
Bay laurel (Laurus nobilis, Lauraceae). Fresh or dried bay leaves are used in cooking for their distinctive flavor and fragrance. The leaves are not meant to be eaten, although it is safe to do so. The leaves
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are often used to flavor soups, stews, braises and pâtés in Mediterranean cuisine. The fresh leaves are very mild and do not develop their full flavor until several weeks after picking and drying.[1] •
California bay leaf – the leaf of the California bay tree (Umbellularia californica, Lauraceae), also known as
Taste and aroma
California laurel, Oregon myrtle, and pepperwood, is similar to the Mediterranean bay laurel, but has a stronger flavor. •
Indian bay leaf or malabathrum (Cinnamomum tamala, Lauraceae) is somewhat similar in appearance to the leaves of bay laurel, but is culinarily quite different, having a fragrance and taste similar to cinnamon
If eaten whole, bay leaves are pungent and have a sharp, bitter taste. As with many spices and flavorings, the fragrance of the bay leaf is more noticeable than its taste. When dried, the fragrance is herbal, slightly floral, and somewhat similar to oregano and thyme. Myrcene, which is a component of many essential oils used in perfumery, can be extracted from the bay leaf. They also contain the essential oil eugenol. Uses Bay leaves were used for flavoring
increased surface area and in some dishes the texture may not be desirable. Bay leaves can also be used scattered in a pantry to repel meal moths,[6] flies,[citation needed] roaches,[citation needed] mice,[citation needed] and silverfish.[citation needed] Bay leaves have been used in entomology as the active ingredient in killing jars. The crushed, fresh, young leaves are put into the jar under a layer of paper. The vapors they release kill insects slowly but effectively, and keep the specimens
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relaxed and easy to mount. The leaves discourage the growth of molds. They are not effective for killing large beetles and similar specimens, but insects that have been killed in a cyanide killing jar can be transferred to a laurel jar to await mounting.[7] It is not clear to what extent the effect is due to cyanide released by the crushed leaves, and to what extent other volatile products are responsible. Safety Some members of the laurel family, as well as the unrelated but visually similar mountain laurel and cherry laurel, have leaves that are poisonous to humans and livestock. While these plants are not sold anywhere for culinary use, their
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visual similarity to bay leaves has led to the oft-repeated belief that bay leaves should be removed from food after cooking because they are poisonous. This is not true - bay leaves may be eaten without toxic effect. However, they remain very stiff even after thorough cooking, and if swallowed whole or in large pieces, they may pose a risk of scratching the digestive tract or even causing choking. There are multiple cases of intestinal perforations caused by swallowing bay leaves and they should not be swallowed or left in the food before serving to prevent the occurrence of a possibly fatal surgical emergency.[8][9] Thus, most recipes that use bay leaves will recommend their removal after the cooking process has finished.
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