Meet the team Chair Anna Shortt aes815@student.bham.ac.uk Vice-Chair Oriana Pateiro obp096@student.bham.ac.uk Secretary Esme Morgan exm100@student.bham.ac.uk Treasurer Zayna Ali zxa915@student.bham.ac.uk Layout Editors Ayesha Hashim axh728@student.bham.ac.uk Kayley Thacker krt167@student.bham.ac.uk Charlotte Tomlinson cxt838@student.bham.ac.uk SATNAV:Scope Editor Sophie Bauchinger sxb1436@student.bham.ac.uk
Contents 3. 4-5. 6. 7-8. 9.
Same Brain, New Ideas Anna Dalmasso Is DNA the Next Big Thing in Digital Data Storage? Katie Fegan Tomorrow’s World, Today Luca Adly Organocatalysis - A Greener Molecule Francis Hemsworth World Space Week
10.
Women in Space: Period Anwesha Sahu
11.
Adriana Ocampo: NASA’s Asteroid Catcher Esme Morgan
12-14. 15.
Reflections on ‘Blasting Off: A Panel Discussion with Women in Space and Tech’ Beyond Boundaries in Science Sai Potteru
Life Sciences Editor Holly Gregory hag907@student.bham.ac.uk
16-17.
Physical Sciences Editor Anwesha Sahu axs1603@student.bham.ac.uk
Ageing, Alzheimer’s and Immortality: Should Scientists be Working to Increase Lifespan? Emily Adams
18-19.
What Lurks Under the Sea Kayley Thacker
Technology Editor Samaiyah Rehman sxr990@student.bham.ac.uk
20-21.
To Mend a Broken Heart: The Past, Present and Future of Heart Sam Lee
22-23.
Crossword puzzle
Copy Editor Harry Jones htj840@student.bham.ac.uk Publicity Officer Molly Sun-Wai mxs1199@student.bham.ac.uk Outreach Officer Dorottya Beskid dxb871@student.bham.ac.uk Website Manager Adam Manning acm893@student.bham.ac.uk
Same Brain, New Ideas Anna Dalmasso explores the possibilities underlying scientific thought and discovery through a neuroscientific lens Over 1.2 trillion pounds are spent globally on research and development - a record high. Yet, fundamental progress in physics has stalled since the creation of the Standard Model in the mid 1970s, and in the opinion of many Nobel Prize winners, several other research fields are also “stuck” on the same inconclusive results. Why has science stagnated?
“Exploring how we process information can teach us how to improve our brain functions and allow us to specialize our teaching methods in order to learn faster and more efficiently...”
New ideas and theories are constantly being created, but the scientific method hasn’t evolved since the 17th century! To solve the problem, a new experiment explored the ability of our brain to develop brand new skills and knowledge by firstly understanding post-classical physics concepts, like fermions of duality. At Carnegie Mellon University, physicists Robert Mason and Reinhard Schumacher, and the D.O. Hebb University Professor of Psychology Martin Just, discovered where advanced scientific concepts reside in our brains and the skills attributed to that area. They asked a group of physicists to think about the properties of 45 different classical and post-classical concepts and rate how strongly the concepts agreed with the following dimensions: measurable magnitude, mathematical formulation, periodicity and time-dependence, and opposite relation to classical physics. By comparing this to an fMRI scan (functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging, used to record brain activity), a pattern emerged: each dimension corresponds to the activation of a specific neural pattern.
Concepts like wave function, gamma ray, and light are strictly associated to the dimension of periodicity, which is processed in the inferior frontal and middle temporal gyrus; ideas like torque and acceleration strongly agree with the dimension of measurable magnitude, activating clusters like middle and superior temporal gyrus and parietal gyrus. But what about entities like multiverse, antimatter, or quasar?
The main new finding concerning these post-classical concepts is the distinguishable neural signature opposite to the classical ones. Actually, such complex identities evoked new cognitive processes that required a more speculative and hypothetical approach: a consilience-seeking perspective, a more relative and counter-intuitive idea of causality and the ability of linking a single concept to a broader topic. Most importantly, the abilities required to deal with modern physics are the same ones we already use to complete other, more ordinary tasks. The simple act of reading, for example, unlocks the same skills as thinking about dark matter. The concept of multiverse requires a knowledge-management ability comparable to completing multi-step exercises. As future ideas are developed, additional dimensions could also emerge.
Scientific thought comes from the plasticity of our brains - they are elastic enough to take advantage of our previous knowledge to create new concepts. Exploring how we process information can teach us how to improve our brain functions and allow us to specialize our teaching methods in order to learn faster and more efficiently by following the best neural pathways. Therefore, we can “unlock” new discoveries simply by redirecting our previous knowledge. We do not need to create something new, but recycle what we already have.
SATNAV | February 2022 | 3
a
Is DNA the Next Big Thing in Digital Data Storage?
Katie Fegan discusses the future of digital data storage in a fast-growing world, and the crucial role DNA could play in securing this.
With a whopping 2.5 million trillion bits of data generated worldwide each day, there is no denying that we are fast outgrowing today’s storage systems. We could squeeze more information onto hard drives and tapes. Even if the storage capacity of contemporary hardware is increased to the petabyte range, millions of units would be needed to archive the world’s digital data. Scientists are on the hunt for new ways to store information efficiently and indefinitely. While companies like Hitachi are developing memory crystals for 5D optical data storage, some of the biggest names in the world are taking inspiration from one very famous molecule: deoxyribonucleic acid.
Arguably the most important molecule on Earth, DNA has evolved over billions of years to store genetic information with a remarkably high storage density. Studies show that a single gram of the stuff can hold over 10 billion gigabytes of data – around 10 million times more than the Nimbus ExaDrive, the best solid-state drive on the market. Conveniently, the technology needed to read, write, and manipulate DNA can be found in most biochemistry labs.
“Studies show that a single gram of the stuff can hold over 10 billion gigabytes of data.”
SATNAV | February 2022 | 4
The digital file is first translated from binary (a series of 0s and 1s) into genetic code (a series of the nucleotide bases A, T, C, and G). Scientists then use this code to synthesise artificial DNA, which is later preserved in a designated storage facility. Using DNA sequencing, the genetic code can be read and converted back to digital format at will. The average solid-state drive is essentially a labyrinth of circuit boards and switches housed inside a plastic box. Unlike switches, DNA can be fused with filament and 3D printed into any number of everyday objects. By encoding the printing instructions in the DNA, these inanimate objects can even be designed to carry their own blueprint. Dubbed the ‘DNA of Things’, sequencing this blueprint allows researchers to create copies of the object – just like how cells use the genome, nature’s instruction manual, to self-replicate. DNA is also incredibly robust. Research suggests that files can be recovered up to 400,000 years after they are stored, far surpassing the lifetime of conventional hardware. If the information of today is to be accessible for generations to come, preserving our digital legacy is critical. This means creating technologies that will stand the test of time. A classic example is the floppy disc: once the cornerstone of data storage, it became obsolete in a matter of decades. As long as DNA-based life exists, DNA-based storage will remain relevant to future civilisations.
“If the information of today is to be accessible for generations to come, preserving our digital legacy is critical.”
Industries are starting to recognise the potential of DNA as a data storage medium. In October 2020, four of the world’s leading biotechnology companies – Twist Bioscience, Illumina, Western Digital, and Microsoft – founded the DNA Data Storage Alliance, an organisation dedicated to advancing the field. Before the technology is commercially viable, however, the cost of DNA synthesis and sequencing must fall. Using data provided by the Alliance, current models predict that we could be synthesising DNA at a cost of $1/ terabyte by the end of the decade.
The next generation of data storage is on the horizon. Perhaps one day this article could be retrieved from a DNA data archive!
SATNAV | February 2022 | 5
Tomorrow’s World, Today Luca Adly contemplates the striking intersection of pop culture and the trajectories of technological development past, present and future
Thunderbirds and Skype; Star Trek and Google Glass; Back to the Future II and Hoverboards. Popular culture has been incredibly perceptive in predicting the future of today, although some predictions like Tomorrow’s World’s the Worm Omelette have thankfully remained science fiction dreams. This 1960s BBC programme pondered the future of science and technology; other unrealised predictions of the programme include Hissing Sid the Robot Snooker Player, Paper Pants, and the Floating Bicycle. But successful predictions include mobile phones, breathalysers, ATM machines, microwaves, CD players, touchscreens, and laser eye surgery. Other TV shows have been similarly successful: Star Trek predicting the moon landing, Friends predicting Facebook, 2001: A Space Odyssey predicting iPads, The Jetsons predicting flat-screen TVs. Most intriguing is Contagion, a film portraying experts and doctors across the world fighting the outbreak of a deadly respiratory virus originating from a bat in China they predicted the COVID-19 pandemic all too well! Which present-day TV shows hold the correct predictions for our future, however, is anyone’s guess. Some predictions seem like obvious guesses. But others appear ridiculously far-fetched for their time and still end up being fulfilled consider The Simpsons and President Trump.
In present day TV shows, we are continuing to predict the future. In 2016, Black Mirror presented the idea of autonomous solar-powered drones to pollinate flowers and crops in the absence of real-life insects. Their existence in the future seems plausible, especially considering the rapidly declining bee populations. In fact, scientists have already begun to apply the principles of insect flight to the design of cutting-edge drones called Micro Air Vehicles (MAV) or Micromechanical Flying Insects (MFI). One of the major issues with these, however, is that they usually run out of power because of the amount of time they spend in the air. While they are not what was envisioned in Black Mirror, it does seem to be a possible direction for future science technologies. “Most intriguing is Contagion, a film portraying experts and doctors across the world fighting the outbreak of a deadly respiratory virus originating from a bat in China - they predicted the COVID-19 pandemic all too well!”
Even then, autonomous drone insects are just one of the many predictions made by current-day science fiction shows. Only time will tell which of these will come true. Essentially, the future is extremely hard to predict, but that doesn’t mean we can’t try, right? We might just inspire the future.
SATNAV | February 2022 | 6
Organocatalysis A Greener Molecule Francis Hemsworth outlines and argues for the use of Organocatalysis as a more sustainable cataylist.
A whopping 90% of all commerciallyproduced chemical reactions use a catalyst [1]. Unsurprisingly, this amounts to an enormous ~$34 billion valued catalytic market. With a projection of the market continuing to grow at an estimated 4.5% year on year until 2027, it cannot be disputed, then, that there is a great demand for research in this area. As such, recent studies have made scientific media coverage just last week (at the time of writing) when the Nobel Prizes were distributed, the wonderful field of organocatalysis was awarded its first prize. The work, carried out by Ben List and David MacMillan, focused on organocatalysis a brand new, more sustainable type of catalysis which uses small organic molecules, such as proline or phenylalanine (both amino acids), to speed up reactions, as opposed to expensive metal catalysts or more toxic molecules. Page | SATNAV | May 2021
The problem with the current catalytic market is that whilst the function of catalysts themselves is to reduce waste, the catalyst being used is either nonsustainable or highly toxic to the environment. Many of the nonsustainable metals are expensive, with platinum being a prime example. Furthermore, some are highly toxic to the environment like sulfuric acid, or worse, hydrofluoric acid. This is precisely where organocatalysts come in to fix the job!
Given that the majority of organocatalysts are amino acids, these solve the above problem as well as two other major problems. The first problem it potentially corrects is the one concerning sustainability. Amino acids are naturally found in the body and hence can be sourced from a variety of organisms nuts, beans, plants, or meats. Since the demand of soybeans, for example, is going through the roof due to its versatility as a meat substitute, it’s no stretch to think that the supply of certain organocatalysts could easily be thrown into the mix, granting ample supply. The second widespread problem for catalysts is simply finding which one fits a specific reaction. The helpful facet of amino acids is that there happens to be only 20, saving chemists a generous amount of time by only needing to test a few out for each and every reaction.
Issue 21 The last problem although not so much a problem as an advantage is that whilst there are only a limited number of nonorganocatalysts in the periodic table, maybe only 30, amino acids have long been known to form more complicated proteins which mount easily into the hundreds of thousands. Some of these simpler proteins may hence have business in becoming effective organocatalysts. These benefits seem to make organocatalysts not only the future of sustainable catalysts but the future of catalysts in general. Additionally, it is worth concluding that organocatalysis has at best maybe a decade’s worth of true research, and with its best years to come, it’s my hope that it will be able to create a greener molecule.
January 2021 | SATNAV | Page
World Space Week:
Women in Space.
SATNAV | February 2022
Anwesha Sahu engagingly delves into some of the practical challenges faced by female astronauts Menstruation was once regarded as a valid reason to prevent women from becoming astronauts – after all, what if menstrual blood floats back in? How many tampons or pads would a female astronaut need to deal with menstrual blood in space? NASA engineers asked the same question to astronaut Sally Ride, “Is 100 the right number?”. I will not even try to answer that question. NASA first allowed women into the astronaut corps in the year 1978, yet it was grossly unaware of how to deal with a completely new suite of astronauts, despite the success rate of the female candidates in the physical testing being 68% for the Mercury mission – 12% higher than the men! “Many astronauts on long-duration trips choose to suppress their periods...However, this is a potential logistic issue for even longer term trips in future years – such as trips to Mars, which may typically be about three years. Such a trip would require roughly 1,100 pills.”
Today, it is known that menstruation does not affect astronauts’ abilities, and neither does menstrual blood float back in – the female body knows it needs to be rejected. Female astronauts today have the freedom to choose how to deal with their periods.. Menstrual suppression is a viable option. Alternatively, the astronaut would have to consider hygiene practicalities in outer space. Water is a limited resource and changing sanitary products in the Zero-G environment of outer space is quite challenging. Many astronauts on long-duration trips choose to suppress their periods, and the best option currently available to them is the oral contraceptive pill. However, this is a potential logistic issue for even longer term trips in future years – such as trips to Mars, which
Women in Space: Period. may typically be about three years. Such a trip would require roughly 1,100 pills. The associated logistics for coping with the transport and disposal of the pill packaging, and launching extra payload poses engineering challenges. Supposing these issues are resolved, another concern would be the long-term effects of contraceptives on bone mineral density, while in outer space. Astronauts follow rigorous work-out routines to reduce the risk of osteoporosis and fractures as bone loss in Zero-G is far more significant than on Earth. While there is some evidence that contraceptives such as injections with synthetic progestogen may make such bone conditions worse, this is a field which requires significant research. Space programs involving female astronauts have come a long way since 1978. With more provisions than before in place to make the trips as comfortable as possible, there has never been a better time to become an astronaut. As we celebrate women in space, I would like to leave you with a question, what does it really mean to be a woman in space?
SATNAV | February 2022 | 10
In our special World Space Week article, Esme Morgan explains the life and career of the amazing NASA scientist Adriana Ocampo
Adriana Ocampo: NASA’s Asteroid Catcher Though we are often in search of hard facts, many scientists get their drive to learn through their imagination. Young Adriana Ocampo, born in 1955 in Columbia, was no different. Making “spacecrafts”out of kitchen utensils and using her dog as a co-pilot, Adriana plotted her journey to the stars. This ambition never left and she devoted herself to a career in planetary geoscience. Adriana was the first person to discover the Chicxulub impact crater, also known as the landing spot of the famous asteroid that killed the dinosaurs! Using satellite imaging, she recognised that a circle of sinkholes were connected to the crater. The crater had eluded other scientists for decades but became the focus of Adriana’s Masters and PhD thesis; she also led six research expeditions studying the event. Presently, Adriana Ocampo continues to lead in her field as a Science Program Manager at NASA Headquarters Science Mission Directorate. She works in the Planetary Science Division which runs the New Frontiers program with the goal of furthering the human race’s understanding of the Solar System. As the Lead Program Executive for the New Frontiers program, Adriana manages the Juno probe sent to Jupiter, the New Horizons mission which will be
studying objects in the Kuiper Belt and the return journey of the asteroid sample OSIRIS-REX. Along with her contributions on Earth and across the Solar System, Adriana currently has a strong presence in our understanding of Venus. NASA’s partnership with the European Space Agency on the Venus Express mission, the Venus Exploration Analysis Group and Japan’s Aerospace Exploration Agency all have Adriana as the Lead Venus Scientist. Adriana attests her success to her parents’ unconditional support of her chosen career. An environment where young scientists are supported in their curiosity is vital, more so for young girls. For her services to planetary science, Adriana has been awarded the Woman of the Year Award in Science among other accolades. Perhaps her most notable commendation is Pluto asteroid 177120 Ocampo Uria which, in her name, explores the vastness of space that she dreamt of as a girl. Everyone, regardless of gender, should have the opportunity to reach for the stars. Adriana Ocampo is one of the many inspirational women that were celebrated during Space Week 2021, where more lives like hers can be held up to inspire the next generation of female scientists.
SATNAV | February 2022 | 11
Reflections on ‘Blasting Off: A Panel Discussion with Women in Space and Tech’ “It was inspiring to hear the different routes of the panellists into the space industry, and just the sheer number of roles available! It was also interesting to consider the crossover with different industries...”
This year’s theme for World Space Week was WomThis year’s theme for World Space was Women in Space. In collaboration withWeek SATNAV, WiSE en in PPS, Space. In collaboration with Off: SATNAV, WiSE and AstroSoc hosted Blasting A Panel Disand PPS, AstroSoc hosted Blasting Off: A Panel Discussion with Women in Space and Tech with Panelcussion Women in Space andVincent Tech with lists Drwith Emma Taylor, Christine andPanelNiamh lists Dr Emma Taylor, Christine andpoints Niamhin O’Neill-Berest. All three are atVincent different O’Neill-Berest. All three are at has different points in their space journey; Dr Emma 30 years’ expetheir space journey; Emma in hasthe 30space years’industry experience, Christine hasDrworked rience, Christine has worked in the space industry for 2 years, and Niamh is working towards a degree for years, andEngineering! Niamh is working degree in 2 Aerospace Topics towards such as athe space inindustry Aerospace Topics spacein andEngineering! the challenges of such beingasa the woman industry and discussed, the challenges of being a woman STEM were with specific focus on the in inSTEM were discussed, withdifferent specific backgrounds focus on the intersection of skills from and tersection skills from different backgrounds and the spaceof industry. Below, two attendees, our Chair, the space Below, two attendees, Anna, andindustry. Vice-Chair, Oriana, reflect on our theChair, event. Anna, and Vice-Chair, Oriana, reflect on the event.
How did the event inspire you? How did the event inspire you?
Oriana: I have considered the space industry as a Oriana: haveofconsidered space industry asI’m a potentialI field work after the graduation. However, potential of work after into graduation. However, I’m not sure field if I want to jump it right away. Dr Emnot sure if I want to jump into it right away. Dr Emma’s journey back to the space industry after a long ma’s journey back to the industry after a long 20-year pause settled myspace worries. As Christine said 20-year pause settled my worries. As Christine said “Professional careers are not linear” and any steps I “Professional careers are notlead linear” and anyinsteps I want to take will eventually me to a job a field want to take me to awith job in a field I enjoy. The will facteventually that theselead 3 women different I backgrounds enjoy. The fact that these 3 women with different and paths found their way to space backgrounds and paths found their way to space at different points in their career really inspires me. at different points in their career really inspires me. Anna: As a final year maths student, I spend a lot of Anna: As aconsidering final year maths student,possibilities I spend a lot of my time the career after my time considering the career possibilities after graduation. Finance doesn’t interest me – I would graduation. Finance interest the me world – I would love a job that helpsdoesn’t me understand a bit love a job that helps me understand the world a bit better, and with lots of opportunities to learn! Bribetter, withamazes lots of me opportunities to learn! Brian Coxand always with his space programs, an amazes mespace with his spaceindustry programs, butCox I’vealways never considered a viable for but I’ve never considered space a viable industry for me. It was inspiring to hear the different routes of me. was inspiring to hear different of the Itpanellists into the spacethe industry, androutes just the the panellists into the space industry, and just the sheer number of roles available! It was also interestsheer of roles available! with It was also interesting tonumber consider the crossover different indusing to I consider crossover with previous different interest industries; especiallythe related to Niamh’s tries; I especially to Niamh’s previous in cyber security.related My parents are of the jobinterest for life in cyber security. Myexciting parentstoare of the the women job for life mentality, so it was hear talk mentality, so it was exciting to hear the women talk about moving from one interesting job to the next. about moving from one interesting job to the next.
How did the event make you excited about How did the event make you excited about Space and Tech? Space and Tech?
Oriana: We are in the second race to space with Oriana: We new are in the second race trying to space all these private companies to with comallmercialise these new private companies trying to comspace travel – It seems that is the only mercialise – Itscientist seems that is the only goal for space young travel aspiring nowadays (and goal for young aspiring scientist nowadays (and Mars of course). However, we must find balance. Mars of course). However, we must find balance.
SATNAV | February 2022 | 12
Panellists talked about the importance of safety, sustainability, and the concerning topic of space debris. Space debris describes the way waste in space is increasing at a rapid rate causing astronomical observations and space travel operations to have a higher risk of failure. Despite these negative consequences, companies don’t seem to put enough effort into finding solutions for this problem. Awareness must be spread about space debris and the threat that it represents for the future of the space industry. Reduction of space debris is without a doubt a scientific advancement people in STEM should look forward to! Anna: Maths is very theoretical, so it always amazes me to consider what can be achieved in the tech industry. What excited me most was seeing the level of collaboration between different industries and how skills and knowledge built in one area can be used in the next. I think space and tech are a good frontier for diversity because it really seems to value the diversity of experience and knowledge, for example Dr Emma Taylor’s experience in the transport industry, and Christine’s degree in Biology with Psychology interlinking with space and tech. Working in space and tech will be a great opportunity for me to keep learning!
How did you relate to the challenges the panellists faced as women in STEM?
Oriana: I related the most to Niamh when she talked about Impostor Syndrome. Multiple times the thoughts “I don’t belong here” or “I’m not smart enough” have run through my mind. As a woman in a male dominated degree sometimes I feel I must prove my worth to my peers. It shocked me when Christine said that most women will only apply for a job if they meet all the requirements, whereas men will apply even if they only meet 70% of them – that perfectly describes the how global the issue of impostor syndrome is among women. It’s important to be brave, make mistakes, ask questions, and go for opportunities. As a POC woman in STEM, the lack of representation described by Cristine was a big issue for me growing up. We need more events like this and other types of EDI in STEM programs, so we keep making a powerful impact of girls all around the world who are interested in science – Thanks to all women in STEM for being an inspiration! Anna: Similar to Oriana, I related to the feelings of Imposter Syndrome. When I have these thoughts and these insecurities inside my head, it feels like I’m the only one experiencing them, and admitting to thinking them is but another form of failure. But only through
“...most women will only apply for a job if they meet all the requirements, whereas men will apply even if they only meet 70% of them – that perfectly describes the how global the issue of impostor syndrome is among women. It’s important to be brave, make mistakes, ask questions, and go for opportunities.”
having these conversations can I learn how prevalent they are – knowing that imposter syndrome is a shared experience helps alleviate the issue. So I personally related to challenges the panellists mentioned of just opening up and having these difficult but necessary conversations.
What did you learn? Oriana: Quoting Anwesha – Chair of AstroSoc “Determination does create paths”, what I take away from this event is that hard work and passion will open doors for you in any field. Women in STEM face challenges particular to our gender, but more and more people are learning how to overcome them and guiding the future generation to a world with equality in STEM. The space industry is growing fast and it is to anyone to contribute, no matter “...mostopen women will who onlywants apply what have;reall set of skills are welfor a job if background they meet they all the come inwhereas the journeymen of figuring quirements, will out what is out there! apply even if they only meet 70% that describes I have more friends than I think, of themAnna: – thatI learnt perfectly and if you speak someone will listen. Dr Emma rethe how global the issue of imposflected heavily on how throughout her working life tor syndrome is among women.” she has made unlikely allies, and how mentoring and collaboration has really benefited her journey as a woman in STEM. I think what I will take away from this panel is to really reflect on the importance of diversity, especially in a growing field, and to consider how I can help facilitate it. Also space is really cool!
“The space industry is growing fast and it is open to anyone who wants to contribute, no matter what background they have; all set of skills are welcome in the journey of figuring out what is out there!”
a
Beyond Boundaries in Science
Sai Potteru breaks down the subtleties of scientific academia by looking at the links between various fields, and places emphasis on the need for a multidisciplinary approach in research. When was the last time you studied science? No, I haven’t severely misjudged the demographic that reads this magazine, and yes, this is a serious question. I’m not referring to particle physics or organic chemistry or cell biology - I mean science as a subject in its own right. For most, the answer would probably be primary school. Progressing through the education system, the science we study becomes increasingly specialised. To begin with, ‘Science’ is a pick and mix of fascinating topics, but as you reach academia, specialisations are so unique they would have constituted just a single lesson at high school. This is the norm, but is it ideal? In the past, the study of single strands of a subject may have been conducive to new breakthroughs, allowing a scientist to focus all their time and energy into a single area, making them an expert on a topic. The world, however, is not constructed upon three separate pillars of biology, chemistry, and physics. It is much more like a marbled cake with different flavours of science mixing together, and the boundaries between the flavours are unclear. Consider a problem which has plagued mankind in recent years - cancer. At first glance this seems to be an issue for the biologists and medics to tackle. Tumours form when cells undergo uncontrolled mitosis (cell division), and this uncontrolled cell division is typically a result of mutations in DNA. Sounds like the realm of biology, right? In recent studies, scientists have investigated a link between quantum mechanics and genetic mutations. Quantum tunnelling of protons between DNA base pairs is thought to lead to the formation of mutagens, which increase the likelihood of genetic mutations. While there is no conclusive evidence yet that this process causes cancer, it isn’t difficult to see the link between genetics and quantum mechanics. This mechanism, if true, brings cancer to the interface of two key sciences.
Yet another upcoming field is quantum computing, an innovative proposed solution to the problem of increasing the computing power of our electronics to meet the demands of modern life. This is currently achieved by reducing the size of transistors, the building blocks of the processing units of computers. Reducing their size allows more of them to fit in a device. However, as they approach nano scales, they become less effective at controlling the movement of electrons through them. Currently, transistors are around 14nm in size - any smaller and they would no longer be functional, as electrons can simply quantum tunnel through. Quantum computing uses single particles as transistors, allowing many more of them to fit into a device. Additionally, single particle transistors operate by making use of the quantum properties of particles, bypassing the need to interact with electrons. A quantum approach can reduce processing speeds drastically. This is yet another bridge across disciplines. What does this mean for science in the future? It is abundantly clear that posterity’s most fascinating scientific problems require a multidisciplinary approach to solve them. Perhaps to be best equipped as scientists, we must branch out our focus and immerse ourselves in issues beyond the boundaries of our primary subjects. After all, there is a whole universe of intermingled science for our perusing.
SATNAV | February 2022 | 15
Ageing, Alzheimer’s and Immortality: Should Scientists be Working to Increase Lifespan? Emily Adams explores the ethics and intricaces of the ageing process, and if at all we should even be considering tampering with our natural lifespans.
Ageing is a fundamental part of the human condition that has plagued many branches of the evolutionary tree, including that of humans, since evolution began. The idea of immortality has fascinated humans for generations, from Plato’s Affinity Argument that the soul, unlike the body, is immortal, to Quantum Immortality Theory.
If asked what the biggest risk factor of disease is, many people would give an answer referring to environmental factors such as smoking. However, the answer is staring us right in the face, while slipping by seamlessly with the tick of the biological clock. Ageing, and the functional deterioration that comes with it, is the biggest risk factor for major human diseases and pathologies, from cancer, to cardiovascular disorders, to neurodegenerative diseases [1]. Some scientists even argue that ageing should be defined as a disease itself. The coronavirus pandemic has held a microscope up to the question of age, with the Centre for Disease Control and Prevention reporting that patients over the age of 75 are 220x more likely to die from COVID-19 when compared with 18–29j year olds [2]. Richard Miller, director of the fessor of Pathology at the
Glenn Center and ProUniversity of Michigan
SATNAV | February 2022 | 16
Medical School, argues that: “People assume aging is immutable and that it is a fool’s errand to look for drugs that slow the aging process - but they are wrong.”[3]. Hence, modern science is faced with a pressing question: should scientists be working to slow or prevent the process of ageing? And is this even possible in the new future? A popular candidate for anti-ageing drug therapies was found in the soil of Easter Island in 1972: Rapamycin. Rapamycin was originally developed by Dr Surendra Sehgal as an anti-fungal drug and then later used for its immunosuppressive effects, becoming FDA approved in 1991. More recently, rapamycin has been proposed as a potential therapy to target the second most common neurodegenerative disease, increasingly prevalent with age. Alzheimer’s disease involves a build-up of proteins called beta amyloid plaques, and it is thought that rapamycin can promote the degradation of these pathological protein plaques in the early stages of the disease by increasing the rate at which they travel to the cell’s recycling system. Clinical trials for the safety and tolerability of this drug in patients suffering from Alzheimer’s disease began in August 2021 [4]. Rapamycin has already been used in the treatment of other diseases where a key risk factor is age, including cancer. It is currently being tested in humans and dogs for preventing heart attacks and diabetes. However, rapamycin is now being studied for its potentially anti-ageing effects. Some question whether this compound increases lifespan due to action against age-related disease. However, evidence supports the hypothesis that rapamycin can actually slow the physiological process of ageing. Rapamycin works by inhibiting part of the mTOR cellular pathway, which is involved in growth, autophagy (clearing out cells), and protein synthesis [1]. Different animal
models have shown that this inhibition can be associated with extending lifespan and increased longevity. In a 2016 study, administering middle-aged mice with rapamycin for just three months increased their life expectancy by up to 60% [5]. Yu-Xuan Lu, a postdoc in the Max Planck Institute for the Biology of Ageing, who authored a study on rapamycin and ageing in flies, says that “we use rapamycin to fine-tune the master regulator of cellular metabolism”. This cutting-edge research found mTOR inhibition by rapamycin improved gut health and increased life span in flies [6-7]. Though we are far off from preventing or even slowing ageing, the potential of anti-ageing therapies places a new power in the hands of scientists who are faced with pressing ethical questions surrounding longevity drugs. Blagosklonny et al., 2019 [8] warn that “not taking rapamycin may be as dangerous as smoking”, arguing that the potential years gained based on animal studies would equate to the average number of years lost in humans by smoking. However, problems associated with increased lifespan would be exacerbated if longevity drugs are developed, for example, overpopulation and health inequality across the wealth divide. An ethical argument against increased longevity would be ennui – the concept that with no natural deadline to life, our lives lose their value [9]. While research should continue to develop rapamycin-based therapies for age related diseases that cause mass suffering, science must next join forces with philosophy to balance the risks and benefits of using these same drugs for direct life-extension independent of pathology. In the world of science, research and development are inevitable. It is now science’s job to consider the ethics and applications of life-extension if this wonder drug ever comes to fruition.
SATNAV | February 2022 | 17
|
What lurks
Kayley Thacker considers the t world holds for mitigatin Is the next step in humanity’s progression really among the stars? The filthy rich run themselves ragged in the new age space race, leaving Joe Bloggs to salvage the rubble of the climate disaster. But perhaps he won’t have to search for too long. The answer may lie at our shores: does the ocean contain science’s most sought-after answers? The climate crisis is today’s most pressing issue. How, if at all, can we save our planet? Its struggle to survive centres around the body that covers more than 70% of it. Increased sea surface temperatures, melting ice caps, and the resulting rising sea levels are clear indicators of a worsening climate. According to the World Meteorological Organisation, sea levels increase by over 3mm a year on average. We can monitor these by using electromagnetic waves emitted from satellites and record data from temperature sensors on in situ buoys. To mitigate this disaster, the ocean’s role as Earth’s largest carbon sink is vital. We can maintain, protect, and enhance this carbon reservoir by encouraging coastal vegetation growth in salt marshes and sea grass beds, and increasing seawater alkalinity to shift the equilibrium of carbon dioxide-philic compounds in favour of higher carbon dioxide uptake. The marine world may also be integral to sustainable energy generation. Microalgae are a promising frontier in the development of green biofuels. With their high carbon content and resistance to the changing seasons, they can be grown in vast quantities for use as feedstock. For bioethanol production, microalgae could be an especially sustainable source, if a high yield process (converting its polymeric sugars to fermentable monomers) is developed.
SATNAV | February 2022 | 18
under the sea
thrilling untapped potential the aquatic ng society’s most critical concerns Inexhaustible, reliable, and widely available, waves are set to be a significant sector of renewable energy. Recent developments in triboelectric nanogenerators (TENGs) show notable promise over traditional wave energy generators. wave energy generators. They can be highly efficient and far more lightweight.
Whilst the potential of the ocean can be scaled up to serve greater societal needs, it can also impact the quality of everyday life. The marine world and its fascinatingly complex ecosystem is a playground of discoveries and intrigue for pharmaceutical researchers. Already, a plethora of unique bioactive compounds have been found and tested, yet more than 80% of this environment is unexplored. The rich and undiscovered aquatic biodiversity under the sea boasts great potential for treatment advances, including new compounds for anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, and antiviral drugs. Despite the barriers to both accessing and researching the largest ecosystem on Earth, it still remains one of the most curious facets of our planet. It is becoming increasingly important to broaden the conversation about saving our home before it’s too late. What lurks under the sea might just save us.
“The marine world and its fascinatingly complex ecosystem is a playground of discoveries and intrigue for pharmaceutical researchers.”
However, to be viable at an industrial level, further research is required on durable materials and stable networks for energy transmission and commercial distribution. Alongside offshore wind turbines, tidal power plants, and other forms of marine generators, this biome has remarkable faculties for the future of sustainable energy production and the future of modern life.
SATNAV | February 2022 | 19
To Mend Mend a a Broken Broken Heart: Heart: The To The Past, Past, Present and and Future Future of Present of Heart Heart Sam Lee offers an informative guide to pioneering advancements in heart Sam Lee offers an informative guide to pioneering advancements in heart treatments treatments
What is Heart Failure? W silH Hehaa rtt fia ure eaorct cFuarsiluwre he?n the
H t efaioluf reblooocd curpsum wpheedn tohuet voelaurm vboylutm hee hoef abrtloiosd inpsuum ffipceiedntou tot bmyeetht ethe hebaortdyis’s irnesquufifrie cim enetnttso. m erertenthtley, bhoedayr’st fraeiqluurierem Cu afefenctsts. C ffe[c1t]s, 92u0rr,e0n0t0ly,pehoepalret ifnailtuhree UaK 9w2it0h,00 20 00p,0e0o0pleneinw thdeiaU gnKos[1e]s, w i t h 2 0 0 , 0 0 0 n e w d i a g ers. being made each nyoesa bUenin fogrtunamtealdye , haelfachof tyheoasre. U y,ill hdaielf woitfhinthofisve dinafgonrtousneadtelw e dyieaagrnso. sed will die within five years. The left side of the heart T idefrom of thtehelunh ph ue mpslefbt loosd ge satrot pthuemrpesstbloofod thefrobm odtyh,ethluenrg esforto e tlh the(rwehfoicre ee ftsreidset dofhtehaertbofadiy lu, re h liesftm siodreed choem am rt ofnailuthre ( w h i c h an right issidemdo)recre co m m o n t h a ates a bacnklorgighotf sbildoeodd) cinrteoatetshe a lubnagcsk.logThoisf binloco hiin s redaseinstothethe preslusnugres. wT ith itnhcerebalsoeosd tvheessperle s s u r e w i t h i n s and results esuthlte s tih e b l o o d v e s s e l s n fluid leaking ouatndinrto ilnungflsuidpulelm akoinnagryoouetdeinmtoa. the lungs pulmonary oedema.
Page | SATNAV | May 2021 Page | SATNAV | May 2021
This reduces the efficiency by T whhiischreodxuycgeesn tehneteerfsficthieencbyloobdy w ich o thdeinbglooto d frohm thxeygelunnegnst,erslea fsrhoomrtnethse , atlhe,adfiantgigue to, s oluf ngbsre sahnodrtdnieffsicsultyof brberaetahtih , f a t i g u e ng at night, a ultdyow brne.athing at night wnhdiledliyffiincg while lying down.
What is the Current W ha attmenist thfe reanrtt Tre or CuHre T ent for Heart Fraeilautrm e? F ree?nt involves using Traeialu tm T ed aitcmaetin lvaeds theufslu inid g mre otn to inovfo flo m oaasde theblfoluoid d (deiudriectaictiso)n, todeocffrle (pdrieusrseutirces),(ACd e c r e a s e b l o o d E inhibitors), and p btiteors),(baenta d rere dsuscuere (hAeCaErt inhria rbelodcukceers). hH eaorw t everra,tesuffe (bre erta s ferraete rs, b wliollckeresv)e. ntH uo aw llyeverd, etseurfio w neilcl esseitvaetinntguallymordeeterriaodraicte a,l n ssein tattiinng themfo treecaetm orre m ofrahdeicaartl ttrre aa ntsm pleannttsinorth ae rtiffio ciraml doefvihce ea s.rt tO ravnesrp5la0nytseaorrsaortnificfrio am l dethveice firss.t O v e r 5 0 y e a r s o n f r o m t h e heart transplant in 19f6ir7s,t 1u 9r6e7s, h roeuagrthly t4r,a0n0s0plsaunct h pirnoced raoru eghlyca4r,r0ie0d0 suocuht proacnenduuarellys a wroerldwcidaerri[e2d]. out annually worldwide [2].
With an average waiting time o the an yaevaerrsagefowraitin tW hrie ag tihmeearot eseplanyteairns theforUKa, huhm ea an rt ttrharn troannosrpslaanrte iunnatb hlee tU d o Kfu, llyhummeaent asreplu o afu et tdhoenortrsan an na t bldeetm nldly m froem thheeart trfaanilu sp l a n t d e m a n d f r o m re patients, let alone h e a r t f a i l u other craerdpiaactientsc,olnedt itaiolonnse. otdhdeirtionalclya,rdiatrcansplcaonntsditioanrse. A iotnw aliltyh, cotrm ap nlsicpalatinotnss aanrde fAradudgith fbryaug3h0t wyietharcsomppolsictaotipoenrsatiaonnd, bn yly 3106%yeoafrspaptioesnttsopaerreatisotnill, o olnivlye, 1w6i% rervisvtailll a th tohfe paavteierangtse sau livee,be wiinthg 1 th1eya taim evaersra . ge survival tim 1ltyeera rsti.ves C leearblye,ing 1a na are C l e a r l y , a l t e r n a t i v e s are required. required.
A New Paradigm?
AhN ad T ere ewaP reartw o igmm a? in T h e r e a r e t w o m a in artificial devices: artificial devices:
types types
of of
SATNAV | February 2022 | 20
Issue 21 ventricular assist devices reducing the risk of rejection by However, recent trials have (VADs) and total artificial modifying the patient’s immune been carried out to line the hearts. VADs take over the system [4]; increasing the surfaces of such devices with function of the failing heart number of eligible donors; and biological tissue in order to chambers and have improving access to donor reduce the risk of clotting and traditionally been used as a hearts. However, with new the need to take longterm failure diagnoses medication [6]. “bridge to transplant” keeping heart the transplant But, as mortality reduces, the patient alive until a donor outstripping heart is found. Recently, UK provision, there is a limit to the several ethical questions are ised. With VAD implantation contto ribpioneering ution thatadvancements transplants inraheart guSam idelinLee es offers have anchinformative anged to guide sutreatments pport VADs as a “destination can make to the treatment of costing the NHS £91,000 per device [7], will such devices therapy” permanent heart failure. are not without become the domain of the alternatives to transplants. VADs Total artificial hearts were first significant drawbacks. Devices wealthy in societies without to universal trialled as a “bridge” in 1969, can weigh up to 500 grams [5] access ho has theW nh asatais“dH esetianrattiF on 19 a”iliunre ?82, anTdhisreqreudirueceasn ethxeterenffaicl ibeantctyeryby heWailtthhcaanrea?veIrnadgeeedw,aiw ting time o ff such witH h etahret fp wchkichoor xyagiren ceonm teprrsesthseorblotood thtehrereight yetoarsswitfcohr oa aa ilutireentoclivciunrgs fwohr e1n12the pa heart d e v i c e s i f f u r t h e r t r e a t m e n o p e r a t e , t h e w e i g h t ( ~ 1 k g ) a n d davyo s lumpeosotftrabnlosopdlanptu, mpaelb e i t d out from the lungs, leading to transplant in the UK, hut misan ed to be futile? witbhy athepo tysufofifcielinfet . to lim shitoerdtnb ea sstteroyf lifbere(a~t1h2, hfaotuigrsu)e, dedeom ho erartqu isaliin nors are unable to fully meet Usm ageeet otfhetobtaoldya’rstifriceiqaul irheemaertnsts. ofanw dhdicifhficualrtey bbro etahthianrgeaast nfiogrht Atshe thterantsrpelaatnmt endtemoafndhefarortm failure changes, the public’s tuhrieleolp ionn.. haC s urriennctrleya thffeeircts fuw yitnim g isdaotw , sheedart sfianicluere a heart failure patients, let alone p e rception of death and dying inc9e2p0ti,o0n0,0 a n d i n 2 0 1 3 , t h e people in the UK [1], other cardiac conditions. tsuarrlseont must also change. While nuw mibther 20o0f,00a0rtinfie ciw al didaegvniocsees VA WDhsaat nd iasrtificitahlehearC Additionally, transplants are rigtm geerinntg the fo forrmatioH neoafrt science can solve the practical, imp eratd oe ok theeacnhumbyeerar. risTkreta bleain ntgs ovm fraught with complications and i t is now up to society to b l o o d c l o t s , w h i c h c a n t r a v e l t o of U he a r t t r a n s p l a n t s c a r r i e d o u t nfortunately, half of those Failure? by 30 years postoperation, address the ethical for t h e b r a i n a n d c a u s e s t r o k e s . in N o r t h A m e r i c a [ 3 ] . involves using only 16% of patients are still diagnosed will die within five Treatment science is not absolute, it can U s u a l l y , p a t i e n t s t a k e l o n g t medication to offload theefrlm uid alive, with the average survival years. m(eddiuicreattiicosn), todecrreedauscee bcllooot d only go so far. The Future time being 11 years. Despite advances made in formation. The left side of the heart pressure (ACE inhibitors), and Clearly, alternatives are transplants and medical heart rate (beta required. pumps blood from the lungs to reduce devices, the mortality rate the rest of the body, therefore blockers). However, sufferers remains high. Recent efforts eventually deteriorate, A New Paradigm? leftsided heart failure (which will surrounding transplants have is more common than right necessitating more radical There are two main types of focused on: sided) creates a backlog of treatment in the form of heart artificial devices: blood into the lungs. This transplants or artificial devices. increases the pressure within Over 50 years on from the first the blood vessels and results heart transplant in 1967, in fluid leaking out into the roughly 4,000 such procedures are carried out annually lungs pulmonary oedema. worldwide [2].
To Mend a Broken Heart: The Past, Present and Future of Heart
Page | SATNAV | May 2021
January 2021 | SATNAV | Page
SATNAV | February 2022 | 21
Test your general scientific knowledge with our crossword!
SATNAV | February 2022 | 22
SATNAV | February 2022 | 23