ISSUE 21
Science And Technology News And Views Magazine
In this issue, we take a look at some recent BREAKTHROUGHS AND INNOVATIONS
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Issue 21
THE SATNAV TEAM: Chair Mia Wroe MXW858@student.bham.ac.uk Vice chair Daisy Cave DNC828@student.bham.ac.uk Treasurer Anna Shortt AES815@student.bham.ac.uk Secretary Charlotte Tomlinson CXT838@student.bham.ac.uk Layout Editors Luke Kurowski-Ford LSK709@student.bham.ac.uk Molly Sun-Wai MSX1199@student.bham.ac.uk Life Sciences Editor Katie Fegan KXF762@student.bham.ac.uk Physical Sciences Editor Anwesha Sahu AXS1603@student.bham.ac.uk
ARTICLES
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Climate-smart agriculture: the solution to a second green revolution? Tamsyn Dawson Earth Fusion: Future or Failure? Samaiyah Rehman The future of fashion: are bioengineered materials the next big trend? Rain Speake Life on… Venus? Giles Manning Frontiers of Sustainable Energy Integration Callum Peverell Getting to the heart of the matter Sam Lee A revolution in the sky Holly Dale Golden Rice: a biotechnology 20 years in the making Sarah Lloyd The development of anaesthesia—but at what cost? Adam Manning
Tech and Review Editor Aysh Yapa Copy Editor Lauren Malin LAM823@student.bham.ac.uk Publicity Officer Matthew Morris MCM823@student.bham.ac.uk Website Manager SHona Ferguson SJF082@student.bham.ac.uk January 2021 | SATNAV | 3
Climate-smart agriculture: the solution to a second green revolution? Tamsyn Dawson looks to the Green Revolution of the 1960s to evaluate the impact of new agricultural revolutions in response to climate change.
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t is estimated that two billion lives saved two billion people from starvawere saved by the increases in crop tion, especially in South East Asia and yields from the Green Revolution. Such sub-Saharan Africa. Agricultural inHerculean feats will be required again tensification resulted in 12-13% inin order to tackle the looming disrup- crease in food supply in developing tion to agriculture from climate countries, without which, global food prices would have been 18-66 % higher change. The Green Revolution began in 2000 than they actually were. As influential as the green rein the 1960s with Norman Borlaug, who developed new types of wheat volution was, it was not without conThe shift from plants. Whilst he was able to create sequences. plants with more grain, the extra conventionally grown varieties to weight frequently caused the "In a time where climate stalks to collapse, ruining the harvest. To counter this, Borlaug change poses a real threat to bred these plants with sturdier the agriculture industry, a dwarf varieties in order to create second green revolution is high-yielding varieties (HYVs). HYVs produce a large amount of currently needed to protect grain while remaining upright farmers and their lands." under the increased load. The FAO state of food and agriculture report for 2003-2004 indicated a HYVs resulted in a loss of genetic di200% increase in yield from the 1960s, versity and a high dependency on ferprimarily due to increased yields per tilisers, pesticides, and permanent hectare rather than increased land cul- water supply. Without these, HYVs produce less than traditional varieties. tivated. The concept of genetic im- Such inputs pollute the environment, provement was used by the Interna- reduce biodiversity, and can unsustaintional Rice Research Centre (IRRI) in ably deplete groundwater supplies. Adthe late 1960s to increase rice yield by ditionally, these requirements are not 109% in developing countries. Sub- always attainable or affordable for subsequently, HYVs of many crops were sistence farmers who grow crops developed. This is thought to have primarily to feed their family. Mean-
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Issue 21 while, richer farmers—who can afford to invest in fertilisers and labour—increase their profits and thus increase the financial divide. To add insult to injury, certain HYVs are also patented; in some cases, farmers have been charged tens of thousands of dollars for patent infringement after saving seeds from previous harvests. In a time where climate change poses a real threat to the agriculture industry, a second green revolution is currently needed to protect farmers and their lands. However, as observed in the 1960s, there is a tendency to promote scientifically complex Western technology in favour of sustainable and reliable practices of the indigenous population. Nevertheless, if scientific developments cannot be used by the people who need it most, they remain an academic exercise, an expensive thought experiment. Sustainable development must therefore come from collaboration with farmers in order to truly address their underlying needs. Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) is a concept of farming that addresses a number of the interlocked relationships between climate change and agriculture: productivity, mitigation, and adaptation. Nowadays, farms must generate more produce than ever before to meet rising demand whilst reducing their greenhouse gas emissions and adapting to the effects of climate change. It is difficult to do all this at once; CSA practices vary according to how much they mitigate emissions, improve production, or aid in adaptation. Some techniques have been practised for thousands of years and are passed down through traditional knowledge. Others are new techniques and technologies only just being developed. An example of the former is crop rotation, where the crop grown in each field changes annually. As well as
reducing pest build up over time, crop rotation can reduce greenhouse gas emissions and soil erosion. It has been practised all over the world: for example, farmers in the Philippines alternate rice with mung beans (Vigna radiata) between harvests to increase productivity and reduce weed growth. A more recent alternative is push-pull farming, a method of intercropping different plants with maize to ward off pests and increasing soil fertility. Desmodium species are planted between rows of maize, releasing volatile compounds which repel (or push!) moth pests. Meanwhile, Napier grass Pennisetum purpureum draws (pulls) pests in but harbours predators to kill them. These plants work together to reduce pest damage and increase crop yield. In addition, nitrifying bacteria in the legume Desmodium add the same amount of nitrogen to the soil as typical fertilisers, reducing the need for the latter. Unlike other methods, the ingredients for increased yield are accessible to low income farmers, and they are taught by fellow farmers. CSA is not a one size fits all solution. Different approaches should be considered for respective regions, farm sizes, and type of farmer. A revolution in the way we grow and distribute our food is essential in order to tackle the pre-existing inequalities and resulting effects of climate change. The main question is not if, but how. People are the priority, and such a revolution shouldn’t further feed glutinous corporations; rather, policy makers need to listen to the needs and knowledge of the people with the greatest experience in the area.
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Fusion: Future or Failure? Samaiyah Rehman investigates ITER and its efforts to bottle a star.
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Issue 21
he same phenomena that fuels the Sun could be used to produce unlimited clean energy to power Earth. This may sound like a dream, but a dream close to reality. In one of the most pioneering energy projects of the century, 35 partner countries have pooled their financial and scientific resources, and are currently involved in a 35-year collaboration with the aim to generate safe and emission free energy by utilising the principles of nuclear fusion. Based in the South of France, thousands of scientific professionals since 1985 have been working on the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER). Manipulating the tokamak concept of magnetic confinement, ITER aims to hold the title of the world’s largest magnetic fusion device used to harness nuclear power. To put things into perspective, it will be the size of 60 football grounds! Within the tokamak, high magnetic
plant, the neutron products (from the nuclear reaction) provide the thermal energy required to create steam and eventually generate electricity. This is implemented by the conventional process using generators and turbines. Should this avant-garde pull through and become triumphant in its efforts in reproducing the Sun’s fuel source, 500MW of power could be produced from 50MW for 300s; shockingly suggesting that the energy output is 10 times greater than the energy input. This completely contradicts the vital law of conservation of energy which has been instilled into our minds since high school but could be a historic breakthrough in energy production. The real beauty of this innovative project is the way in which many nations have put aside their political differences in order to excel in this revolutionary proposition. Participating nations include China, the European Union, India, Japan, Korea, Russia and the United States. ITER will not only create a sustainably greener Earth by providing a clean unlimited energy source but could also act as a vessel in sedating the “[ITER] could be a historic political climate breakthrough in energy production.” bringing us closer to a utopian world. Chinese fields can be used to ‘squeeze’ plasma President Xi Jinping described the within a doughnut shaped chamber. In ITER design as “one of the most imorder for the fusion reactions to occur, portant international scientific collabthere must be extremely high condi- orations… embodies the human desire tions of pressure and temperature for for the peaceful use of fusion energy". Rather than contributing monetary the deuterium (D) and tritium (T) nuclei within the chamber to fuse and resources directly to ITER, participatyield a nuclear energy release. The ing nations will manufacture complete magnetic fields are controlled by giant components which will be delivered to superconducting electromagnets that Southern France, where the most comare cooled to almost absolute zero. plex 10-million-piece 3D jigsaw puzzle Conversely, the plasma will be at a will be assembled. Quite poetically, temperature of approximately ITER translates to “The Way” in Latin 150 million degrees demon- and in 2025, where the first plasma strating that the heart of ITER stage will be carried out, it will be evidwill be housing one of the ent whether “The Way” has indeed largest temperature gradients in been paved in the nuclear power inthe Universe. Similar to a power dustry.
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The future of fashion: are bioengineered materials the next big trend? Rain Speake discusses biomaterials start-ups that are utilising synthetic biology to develop sustainable materials for the fashion industry.
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and do not reintegrate into the earth he textile industry is the one of the once disposed of. Similarly, naturallylargest polluting industries in the occurring fibres can also negatively imworld. Fabric fibres derived from unsustainable raw materials “Through genetic engineering, are one of the major culscientists can alter the genetic prits in fashion’s evermakeup of these microorganisms growing pollution probto produce biodegradable yet lem. For instance, hard-wearing fibers which are plastic-based synthetic subsequently made into fibres such as polyester, garments." nylon, and acrylic are all extracted from non-renewpact the environment. Protein-based able fossil fuels like petroleum. Their fibres such as wool and leather contribreliance upon the petrochemical inute to the rising methane output, dustry is particwhilst plant-based fibres such as cotton ularly require toxic pesticides which seep into unfavourable, as the soil and contaminate water sources. this sector is notoriIn the last decade, synthetic biology ous for catastrophic has been utilised to design and develop oil spills and its role more eco-friendly material alternatin biodiversity loss. In addition, synthetic ives. Synthetic biology is described as the construction of completely new biological systems and parts or the process of redesigning existing organisms for useful purposes. But this branch of science is not new. Humans have been harnessing its effects for centuries—just think of cheese, bread, beer, and even insulin. In the textiles industry, microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi, and yeasts act as mini “laboratories” or “factories” for fibres add to the biomaterials to grow. Through genetic global plastic panengineering, scientists can alter the gedemic as they are netic makeup of these microorganisms non-biodegradable
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Issue 21 to produce biodegradable yet hardwearing fibers which are subsequently made into garments. Listed below are some examples of biomaterial start-ups that are currently combining the fields of biology, engineering, materials science, and design to develop sustainable products for future commercial use.
Modern Meadow Modern Meadow produces ZOA™, an animal-free leather alternative made using collagen proteins derived from genetically engineered yeast. This material is more environmentally friendly compared to its traditional leather counterpart as its production does not require livestock rearing or farmland. This consequently reduces the greenhouse gas emissions and waste associated with cattle farming.
Bolt Threads Bolt Threads currently has two trademarked textile biomaterials: Microsilk™ and Mylo™. Microsilk is fabricated through the bioengineering of yeast cells to produce spider silk proteins. When isolated and purified, the silk proteins are then spun into biodegradable fibres which have shockingly similar characteristics to acrylic and rayon. Unlike Microsilk, Mylo does not use genetic engineering technology. Instead, this bio-based leather is made from mycelium that is grown, processed, and dyed in indoor vertical farming facilities.
AlgiKnit AlgiKnit creates yarns derived from kelp which do not rely on harmful pesticides and fertilisers. Moreover, kelp is regarded as one of the most renewable organisms on the planet and is also known to combat global warming by sequestering CO2. As kelp is a natural resource, the yarns biodegrade under the correct composting conditions. However, outside these humid compost environments, they retain their durability and practicality which make them suitable for everyday wear. For fashion designers, synthetic biology and biofabrication offer exciting new opportunities to create materials possessing specific textures and properties. For the planet, these biomaterial innovations hopefully signal the beginning of a greater and greener revolution within the textiles industry and beyond.
Spiber Spiber has developed a protein fibre called Brewed Protein™ using a microbial fermentation process that is also based on the DNA used to produce spider silk. This fibre boasts uses in a variety of applications, from delicate, silk-like filaments and cashmere-like yarns to resins imitating animal horn and tortoiseshell.
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Life on‌ Venus? Giles Manning reports on the recent detection of phosphine gas on Venus and how this impacts our current understanding of the origin of life in the universe.
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hile David Bowie and pop culture would have us think that Mars is the most likely place in our solar system to harbour life, recent research published in Nature Astronomy suggests that we should in fact be looking in the other direction. What does the detection of phosphine gas on Venus mean for our understanding of life beyond Earth? In September 2020, an international group of astronomers detected the presence of phosphine gas in the atmosphere of Venus. Specifically, it was found within the planet’s notoriously thick, acidic clouds. This is significant because, to our current understanding, phosphine gas is not produced without the presence of microbes or via manmade chemical reactions. Multiple groups around the world are now interrogating this finding by corroborating the published data with observations from different telescopes. Nevertheless, if found to be true, what implications would this have for the occurrence of extraterrestrial life—not just within our solar system, but the wider universe? To our present knowledge, the only
life in existence is on Earth. Abiogenesis, the technical term for the origin of life from non-living substances, has fascinated scientists for centuries. How did simple organic matter transform into the abundance of living organisms present on our planet today? Much work has gone into understanding the mechanisms through which non-living chemicals could have assembled into systems which we define as ‘alive’. There are some who believe that life originated on Earth itself, with early planetary conditions allowing mo-
space searching for a place to call home, panspermia suggests that precursory molecules or microorganisms arrived on Earth via meteoroids or other celestial bodies. This would suggest that life is widespread throughout the universe. Whilst the possible discovery of life on Venus wouldn’t prove or disprove either of these theories, it could certainly indicate that the conditions required for life are more common than previously thought. If Venusian life does really exist, it could transform the way we perceive and approach the search for “How did simple organic matter extraterrestrial life. As distransform into the abundance of appointing as it is that we haven’t spotted big green aliliving organisms present on our ens through a telescope, it planet today?” certainly is an exciting prospect that there could be life lecules to arrange themselves into livforms on our doorstep, just waiting to ing, replicating systems. This does not be discovered. mean that life couldn’t exist elsewhere, but it does decrease the probability. The alternative theory of panspermia states that the seeds of life already existed in the universe before coming to Earth. Like spores diffusing through
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Issue 21
Frontiers of Sustainable Energy Integration Deck. Callum Peverell
explores breakthrough projects within sustainable energy.
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lobal perception of the energy industry is changing. Oil prices and UK vehicle emissions have decreased throughout the COVID-19 pandemic and appetite for a sustainable energy network is growing. The United Kingdom faces an ambitious target of achieving net zero emissions by 2050, a feat which will require the widespread integration of multiple sustainable energy sources. Here we will explore some of the current focal points and breakthrough projects within the sustainable energy community.
Vanadium Flow Batteries A boom in lithium ion cell demand for grid energy storage, vehicular use, and use in appliances from smartphones to drones, has led to scepticism of the longevity of widespread battery cell integration. Monopolies on mining operations, specifically that of cobalt (a typical lithium ion cell cathode component) in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and their links to poor conditioning and human rights violations, has caused this scepticism to grow, bringing forth the question of whether continued operation in this way is ‘sustainable’. One option to keep up with the rising focus on energy storage for renewable sources is the Vanadium Flow Battery (VFB). Some investors and star-
tainable technologies. Will VFBs ultimately be doomed to the same fate as lithium ion batteries? Will an increase in mining lead to dwindling levels of precious metals which are economically viable materials for electrodes and cells? Can the construction and continued operation of these batteries be maintained in a sustainable way? “Links to poor conditioning and Only time and inhuman rights violations, has caused dustry investment this scepticism to grow, bringing forth will shed light on these doubts. the question of whether continued In October 2020, UK Prime operation in this way is 'sustainable'.” Minister Boris electrolyte, which is used as an energy Johnson pledged that offshore wind storage carrier, is reduced at the anode farms would be able to supply enough (negative half-cell) and oxidised at the electricity to power every home in the cathode (positive half-cell), driving a United Kingdom by 2030, but just how transfer of electrical energy to chemical realistic is this target? energy. Wind Energy A startup company has secured $7 million in funding for their VFB technology advancements. VoltStorage, a Wind power generates electricity causGermany-based company, is proposing ing the blades of a turbine to rotate, to use these VFBs at scale in residential thereby converting kinetic energy to homes, offering an energy storage mechanical energy. This rotation furmechanism to a local photovoltaic sol- ther turns an internal shaft to increase ar system. These batteries can offer a the speed of rotation before spinning a constant power output of 1.5 kW, at- generator and producing electricity, taining more than 10,000 charge cycles which can then be supplied to the grid. without any capacity loss, with an averBut what if there is no wind? Fortuage reduction of 80 kg CO2 equivalent nately, wind power does not require per year when combined with unsus- constant operation to supply electritup companies are calling for the integration of VFBs into more residential and commercial applications. VFBs typically operate through two separate tanks containing a vanadium-based electrolyte, one at a positive charge state and one at a negative, fed by closed circuits into a battery stack. If the electrical energy is being stored, the
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city. At times when supply is greater than demand, energy can be stored in large batteries (another potential use of VFBs), and during peak energy times these batteries can be used to supply energy to the grid. This means, in principle, if enough energy could be stored during off-peak hours to meet peak electricity demand, wind energy could then meet the target. The difficulty arises in the creation of the infrastructure to supply this energy and in the integration into the UK electric grid. In 2017, around 15% of the UK’s electricity came from wind power generation, approximately 29 million tonnes of oil equivalent (toe), whilst the residential demand for electricity in the UK was approximately 41 million toe, representing a 12 million toe discrepancy between the demand and the wind energy supply. So, can we close this gap? Aurora Energy Research has calculated that a £50 billion investment will be required to meet Boris Johnson’s target with the equivalent of one wind turbine installed every weekday for the next decade. Chief Executive of Scottish Power
“The difficulty arises in the creation of the infrastructure to supply this energy and in the integration into the UK electric grid." Keith Anderson has stated he is “absolutely confident that the industry can achieve this”. If successful, completion of this project will be a key step in meeting the net zero UK emission target by 2050, and will also create a vast array of employment opportunities in the sector.
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Nuclear Nuclear energy is seen as one of the main intermediates between the current fossil fuel industry and reaching a sustainable energy utopia. Whilst nuclear reactors do not directly produce carbon dioxide emissions, mining and refining of reactor feedstock can require copious amounts of energy and a large requirement for metal and concrete in their construction. So, whilst it may currently be considered a cleaner energy source than fossil fuels, the combination of large energy requirements and nuclear waste production means nuclear energy is far from being this utopic sustainable energy source. That being said, nuclear energy could act as a key transition catalyst between the current fossil fuel market and full sustainable energy integration. France carries this mindset, with around 75% of its electricity being generated from nuclear sources. Currently, Électricité de France (EDF) is constructing two new nuclear reactors at Hinkley Point in Somerset, capable of providing 3,200 MWe of the UK’s energy requirement (approximately 6%). This will be the first nuclear power station to be installed in the UK in over 20 years and is causing quite the buzz amongst nuclear enthusiasts. These reactors, expected to be completed in 2025, are estimated to use 17% less uranium than preceding technologies with an expected carbon dioxide offset of 9 million tonnes of CO2 equivalent per year. Will this bring us closer to widespread sustainable energy? Protest group ‘Stop Hinkley’ think not, with a fear of risks such as leaks and radiation levels from nuclear waste storage. This is despite a UK government plan to construct a geological storage facility for this waste. Whilst perhaps not an ideal solution, if integrated successfully, these nuclear reactors will offer
more sustainable energy sources for the UK grid and contribute to destabilising the oil monopoly held by the Organisation of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC).
“Nuclear energy could act as a key transition catalyst [to]... full sustainable energy integration." The world still continues in its search for large-scale sustainable energy integration with some steps forward presented within this article. With this momentous task, one thing is clear, a successful sustainable network of energy will rely on a global effort and the incorporation of many different technology sources.
Issue 21
Getting to the heart of the matter Sam Lee highlights how microscopy are aiding in heart attacks.
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iseases affecting the heart and blood vessels remain the leading cause of death across most of the world. The British Heart Foundation estimates that some 200,000 people in the UK are hospitalised every year because of heart attacks. A heart attack, also called a myocardial infarction, is caused by blockages within the blood vessels that supply the heart muscle. Heart attacks are commonly caused by fat build-up on the inside of the vessel. If these fat deposits rupture, a blood clot can form, which can detach and lodge itself within a smaller vessel downstream. Deprived of blood, and therefore oxygen, the heart muscle will start to die. Although removing the clot is essential, restoring blood flow can counterintuitively lead to further immediate damage to the muscle
advances in fluorescence the fight against
tissue, otherwise known as reperfusion injury. Worse still, the smallest blood vessels—just several micrometres wide—may remain blocked, even after the initial clot has been removed. A blockage of these microvessels is referred to as myocardial infarction with non-obstructive coronary arteries (MINOCA) and cannot currently be visualised in a hospital setting. To understand how reperfusion injury occurs, and to develop treatments that restore flow with minimal tissue damage, researchers have developed cutting-edge microscopy techniques to see inside the microvessels of the heart. Traditionally, thin slices of heart tissue are stained with antibodies that are designed to attach to, and therefore label,
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blood vessels and cells. Like microscopic beacons, these antibodies glow (or fluoresce) under laser light; researchers then view this fluorescence with a microscope. This is called fluorescence microscopy and is shown in Figure 1. However, this type of microscopy cannot see through thick tissue. To see these deeper vessels more clearly, a technique called two-photon microscopy is used, as seen in Figure 2. The physics behind this gets complicated in a hurry, but to put it briefly: light is comprised of photons, and it is these photons that cause fluorescent molecules to glow. In traditional (one-photon) fluorescence microscopy, each fluorescent antibody molecule is excited by a single photon. In two-photon microscopy, each fluorescent molecule absorbs two photons at (practically) the same time. Because two photons are required, and each of these photons has a lower energy and a longer wavelength, they can penetrate deeper into the tissue and cause less damage. However, both of these techniques can only be used on fixed sections of tissue removed from the heart, not ideal for monitoring the heart function of a living patient. To see inside the microvessels of an intact heart, as it is beating, a technique called intravital microscopy is required. In animal models, we can access the heart relatively easily: point a microscope at it, introduce fluorescent antibod-
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ies, and watch them move through the vessels. But the heart is constantly beating; without external help, the image produced on the microscope will constantly shift out of focus. By using a 3D-printed stabiliser, a small area of the heart can be fixed in place and attached to the microscope to minimise blur. Now, we can watch blood moving through the vessels, observe the inflammatory cells and markers start growing in number after a heart attack, and even see blood clots form in real-time (Figure 3)! Through these advances in microscopy, biomedical scientists can finally unravel the mechanisms behind reperfusion injury and the blockage of microvessels following a heart attack. Understanding these mechanisms will allow us to develop new ways of treating these conditions and hopefully reduce the catastrophic impact that heart attacks have on patients around the world. Wit h special t hanks to Dr Neena Kalia, Dr Dean Kavanagh, Juma El-awaisi and Manon Owen for t heir assistance in wirting t his article.
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Figure 1: Fluorescence microscopy: Fluorescence microscopy of
Figure 2 (Right): Two-photon microscopy: Large scan of heart
heart tissue at 20x magnification, red/pink denotes t he lining of
tissue (A ); smaller, high resolution images of heart tissue (B);
blood vessels. Four large macrovessels are shown, surrounded by
3D image (C). Platelets (which form blood clots) are shown in
red streaks which are t he microvessels.
blue, and cells which indicate inflammation and damage (neutrophils) are shown in red.
Figure 3: Intravital microscopy: Intravital microscopy showing (from left to right) t he movement of a blood clot (shown in red and denoted by t he arrows) t hrough one of t he blood vessels of t he heart. By taking images multiple times per second, short animations can be created showing t he movement of platelets and cells t hrough t he vessel.
The above microscopic images are t he intellectual property of t he Microcirculation Research Group, University of Birmingham.
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A revolution in the sky Holly Dale explores the utilization of drones in our future, whether that be good or bad.
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pected to boost the UK Gross Domestic Product (GDP) by £42 billion by 2030 across many industries including media, agriculture, construction, parcel delivery and transport. However, the use of drones in congested airspace risks collisions with manned aircraft, with drone-aircraft near misses becoming increasingly common. In December 2018, a drone sighting at Gatwick Airport caused around 1000 flights to be cancelled or diverted, affecting hundreds of thousands of passengers. Imposing regulations on drone ownership and usage can reduce the risk of accidental damage, but will not prevent intentional acts by criminals. Potential criminal applications range from privacy violations and illegal surveillance to smuggling drugs into prisons or across borders. There are also concerns about the possibility of terrorists using drones to release a biological or chemical agent into a crowd. “In the right hands drones can The question is, how can we eliminate the threats so that we improve our lives and our can continue to benefit from drones in our daily lives? economy, but in the wrong Clearly there is a need to dehands they have the potential tect, identify, and neutralise mato be lethal.” licious drones. Radar is large as that of large commercial air- emerging as a leading drone surveillance method, it is capable of offering craft. Drones are particularly useful in 24-hour surveillance under all weather situations that are unsafe or unsuitable conditions, unlike visual identification. for humans. For example, they can be Drones are relatively small and they fly used to aid the emergency services by at low altitudes and velocities, meaning facilitating search and rescue missions, that a radar with high sensitivity is assisting at accident scenes, and redu- needed for detection. Consequently, lots of other targets are also detected cing the risk of harm to firefighters. The increasing number of drones is ex- and birds, animals, vehicles, and even icture this: the year is 2030 and you are plunged into darkness as a cloud of drones flies overhead. Is this a society thriving on innovation, or a terrifying dystopian landscape? Either way, this scenario might not be as farfetched as you think - our airspace is currently undergoing a revolution. In recent years, the number of drones that have exploded, and the total number of air vehicles is expected to double in the next 10 years. The miniaturisation of electronic components means that drones are becoming smaller, cheaper, and easier to operate, making them increasingly attractive for both commercial and recreational use. A vast array of drone models are available, with choice of weight, wing span, flight altitude, and battery life, making them suitable for a range of applications. Miniature electromechanical ‘smart dust’ drones can have a wingspan as small as 1 mm, whilst large drones can have wingspans as
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air conditioning units can cause false alarms. Ground based targets can be filtered out using height measurements, but distinguishing drones from birds can be difficult. Researchers are currently investigating methods of distinguishing between drones and birds using deep learning techniques. If the problem wasn’t already challenging enough, drones can be disguised in many ways. Biologically inspired drones with flapping wings have been designed to
mimic the flight of birds, bats, and insects. Electronic components have been added to taxidermy animal and bird bodies, resulting in a RoboSparrow and even an OstrichCopter. In the right hands drones can improve our lives and our economy, but in the wrong hands they have the potential to be lethal. This is why it is so important to develop techniques of tracking drones so that we know exactly what is flying over our heads. Whether the thought of a swarm of drones coming over the horizon fills you with excitement or with terror, one thing is for certain: drones are here to stay.
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Golden Rice: a b 20 years in the m
Sarah Lloyd explores the turbul modified rice that promised to
“Golden rice [is] a perfect concoction of medicinal and humanitarian dreams�
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biotechnology making
lent history of the genetically curb Vitamin A deficiency.
A ‘
humanitarian panacea’. This bold headline was announced by Golden Rice to the world in 2000. Constituting a genetically modified (GM) strain of rice, this biotechnology was projected to prevent childhood blindness and death in the developing world. Two decades on from its public debut, Golden Rice is still struggling to gain approval in most nations. What went wrong? Golden Rice was created to address the global Vitamin A deficiency. Estimated to affect over 250 million children annually, this deficiency can lead to blindness and even premature death. Our bodies cannot synthesise Vitamin A; instead, we must acquire the nutrient from the food we eat. Vitamin A deficiencies are inherently linked to poor diet, therefore developing countries are disproportionately affected. Rice is a staple meal in many of these countries. While rice is a good source of energy, it is naturally very low in Vitamin A. Golden Rice has been genetically modified to contain two additional genes, resulting in higher biosynthesis of beta-carotene. This orange-coloured pigment is the precursor for Vitamin A, hence the name ‘Golden Rice’. Consuming Golden Rice would thereby increase Vitamin A uptake. It sounds like a solid plan: improve the nutrient quality in staple crops and make them freely available to poor farmers. How could anyone have a
problem with that? But, as with most GM biotechnologies, Golden Rice has had its fair share of hate—ranging from media fear-mongering to flawed scientific papers. Environmental groups are often the loudest critics. It isn’t so much Golden Rice they have an issue with; opposition from these groups stems from a preconceived prejudice against all GM crops. They fear the repercussions on the environment and human safety. Perhaps these concerns are fuelled by a lack of understanding surrounding genetic modification. After all, sensationalist headlines surrounding GM crops have become an all too familiar sight. Regardless, some environmental groups persist in their efforts to thwart the production of GM crops. Take Greenpeace. The organisation is particularly vocal in its disdain for Golden Rice, declaring it to be a hoax created to divert resources from other humanitarian efforts. They continue to campaign against it to this day: numerous speeches, articles, petitions, and demonstrations have been held against Golden Rice. In one extreme incident, activists went as far as destroying a test field of the GM crop. Despite continual scientific rebuttal, their claims have created a general mistrust of GM food. Golden rice—a perfect concoction of medicinal and humanitarian dreams —represents a biotechnology that had the potential to win over the public. But the biotechnology has not only faced opposition from activists: the crop has been caught up in a bureaucratic war. The Precautionary Principle of the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety, an international trade deal agreed in 2003, declared that if a biotechnological product posed a possible risk to human health, measures should be taken to restrict or prevent its introduction. Of course, safety should always be top priority when it comes to implementing new technologies. However, there are concerns that the clause contains loopholes that allow politicians
with anti-GM agendas to justify delayed approval of new biotechnological products. GM crops are investigated from every possible angle, entangling them in a never-ending net of rules, guidelines, restrictions, and prohibitions. Supporters of Golden Rice have likened the clause to ‘guilty until proven innocent’. Delayed Golden Rice development as a result of these regulations has arguably led to avoidable losses of sight and life. However, there is hope. Many scientists have lobbied around GM crops. In 2015, Golden Rice was formally recognised as a humanitarian gamechanger and received the Patent for Humanity Award by the White House Office of Science and Technology Policy. In 2016, over 100 Nobel Laureates formally backed Golden Rice, helping to improve its profile. Even better, they didn’t just praise the product; they actively condoned those against it, declaring, “How many poor people in the world must die before we consider this a crime against humanity?” Golden Rice has even won over some of those who originally opposed it. Patrick Moore, one of Greenpeace’s founders, became outraged with his organisation’s continued disapproval and launched a rival campaign: Allow Golden Rice Now. He has since organised protests across Europe. This ongoing support has led to great advances for the crop. In the last few years, Golden Rice has been slowly commercialised in target countries. Thwarted by anti-GM activists and weighed down with red tape, no crop has ever been so exhaustively criticised or researched. But the wait is almost over. In December 2019, the Philippines became the first country to permit its growth, with Bangladesh closely following suite in 2020. More countries will follow. This is a colossal victory in a long and exhausting battle fought by scientists and humanitarians alike.
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The development of anaesthesia—but at what cost? Adam Manning Deck.
uncovers the dark history of general anaesthesia in
surgery.
S
urgery is a common, not always wanted, 21st century medical procedure performed by trained professionals. Thanks to our increased understanding of human physiology and sterile or aseptic practice, surgery is generally considered to be very safe. However, this hasn’t always been the case. In the Middle Ages, operations were often performed by “barber-surgeons” rather than physicians as barbers already had access to the sharp objects needed for both grooming and surgery. They routinely performed procedures like pulling teeth, amputations, and bloodletting. In fact, this is the reason why the famous barber’s pole remains red and white to this day, to symbolise the blood and bandages they were associated with. Surgery was dangerous to undergo during pre-Victorian times. It was used only as a last resort because patients were likely to die from infection and blood loss. The patients were also conscious, consequently they would be in an incredible amount of pain throughout. Therefore, surgeons would race against the clock to finish their procedures as quickly as possible. Members of the public and medical associations would come and marvel at these live surgeries for entertainment, which is why surgery is performed in an operating ‘theatre’. Many surgeons wanted to ease the pain that their patients experienced
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during surgery. One such person was Seishu Hanaoka, a Japanese surgeon who studied surgical techniques along with classical Japanese, Chinese, and Western medicine. Hanaoka invented a general anaesthetic called tsūsensan, made of six different plants and administered orally. Tsūsensan was used to remove a woman’s breast cancer for the first time in 1804, which became the first recorded historic use of a general anaesthetic in surgery. Unfortunately, his ideas didn’t spread out of Japan. The first general anaesthetic used in Western surgery was diethyl
"Members of the public and medical associations would come and marvel at these live surgeries for entertainment, which is why surgery is performed in an operating ‘theatre’." ether, commonly now known as ether. In 1846, William T.G. Morton demonstrated its use in front of a large audience in Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston. Whilst Morton was not the first to investigate ether as an anaesthetic, his demonstration gained international fame and helped popularise its use. A year later, British doctor James Simpson discovered that chloroform had similar sedating effects
and could also be used as an anaesthetic. Anaesthetics were commonly used after their discovery. In the 1850s, Queen Victoria used chloroform when giving birth to her children, further strengthening its popularity. However, these anaesthetics weren’t without risk. If administered incorrectly, anaesthesia can be toxic to the point of fatal. Chloroform espe-
Issue 21 cially became obsolete because it was very easy to overdose with it, killing the recipient. Doctors had limited knowledge of physiology at the time, making it difficult to establish the correct dose to give. In one case, Hannah Greener, a healthy 15-year-old girl, died on January 28th 1848, after receiving chloroform for surgery to remove her toenail. Ether, whilst highly flammable, was safer in terms of this problem and became more favourable despite the invention of a chloroform dosage mask. Anaesthesia had an immediate impact on surgeries, but counterintuitively, the number of deaths actually increased in what would become known as
the ‘Black Period of Surgery’. Anaesthetics allowed surgeons to slow down and conduct more invasive surgeries, but they did nothing to prevent infection or fatal blood loss. Without effective aseptic working conditions, antiseptics and blood transfusions, many died. It wouldn’t be until the 1900s, with the combination of multiple discoveries in regard to these problems, that the high mortality rate would begin to go down. The invention of anaesthesia was a major breakthrough that helped to bring surgery into the modern era. However, its dark journey to become the safe procedure we know it as today shows that not all innovations are as clear-cut as good or bad. Anaesthetics did indeed revolutionise surgery, but at the cost of the lives of many people. The breakthrough emphasises the indirect consequences that life-changing revolutions can have. Ultimately, it teaches us that it is our responsibility to be mindful of such consequences when developing future medical innovations.
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