AE&M 62-4 by Sociedade Brasileira de Endocrinologia e Metabologia

ISSN 2359-3997

OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF THE BRAZILIAN SOCIETY OF ENDOCRINOLOGY AND METABOLISM Vol. 62 – No. 04 – August 2018

Archives of Endocrinology

and Metabolism

OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF THE BRAZILIAN SOCIETY OF ENDOCRINOLOGY AND METABOLISM

Archives of

Endocrinology

and Metabolism OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF THE BRAZILIAN SOCIETY OF ENDOCRINOLOGY AND METABOLISM

OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF THE BRAZILIAN SOCIETY OF ENDOCRINOLOGY AND METABOLISM Vol. 62 – No. 04 – August 2018

editorial 383 Region-specific reference intervals for TSH in pregnancy: time for changes in Brazil

Archives of Endocrinology José Augusto Sgarbi

OFFICIAL JOURNAL OFserum THETSH BRAZILIAN 386 Recent recommendations from ATA guidelines to define the upper reference range for in the first trimester match reference ranges for pregnant women in Rio de Janeiro Nathalie Anne de Oliveira e Silva de Morais, Annie Schtscherbyna Almeida de Assis, Carolina Martins Corcino, SOCIETY OF Débora Ayres Saraiva, Tatiana Martins Benvenuto Louro Berbara, Carolina Donner de Drummond Ventura, Mario Vaisman, Patrícia de Fátima dos Santos Teixeira ENDOCRINOLOGY 392 The effect of levothyroxine treatment on left ventricular function in subclinical hypothyroidism Valentina Velkoska Nakova, Brankica Krstevska, Elizabeta Srbinovska Kostovska, Olivija Vaskova, Ljubica Georgievska Ismail 399 The prevalence of binge eating and associated factors in overweight patients treatedAND in an METABOLISM outpatient unit

original articles

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Macksuelle Regina Angst Guedes, Bruna Reginatto Carvalho, Naiara Ferraz Moreira, Fabíola Lacerda Pires Soares

410 Association of serum thyrotropin levels with coronary artery disease documented by quantitative coronary angiography: a transversal study Pedro D. Ortolani Jr., João H. Romaldini, Ricardo A. Guerra, Evandro S. Portes, George C. X. Meireles, João Pimenta

416 Waist circumference measurement sites and their association with visceral and subcutaneous fat and cardiometabolic abnormalities Cláudia Porto Sabino Pinho, Alcides da Silva Diniz, Ilma Kruze Grande de Arruda, Ana Paula Dornelas Leão Leite, Marina de Moraes Vasconcelos Petribu, Isa Galvão Rodrigues

424 Dapagliflozin versus saxagliptin as add-on therapy in patients with type 2 diabetes inadequately controlled with metformin

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Julio Rosenstock, Chantal Mathieu, Hungta Chen, Ricardo Garcia-Sanchez, Gabriela Luporini Saraiva

431 Lean mass as a determinant of bone mineral density of proximal femur in postmenopausal women

Rosangela Villa Marin-Mio, Linda Denise Fernandes Moreira, Marília Camargo, Neide Alessandra Sansão Périgo, Maysa Seabra Cerondoglo, Marise Lazaretti-Castro

438 Combination therapy of curcumin and alendronate modulates bone turnover markers and enhances bone mineral density in postmenopausal women with osteoporosis

Endocrinology

Fatemeh Khanizadeh, Asghar Rahmani, Khairollah Asadollahi, Mohammad Reza Hafezi Ahmadi

446 Association between undercarboxylated osteocalcin, bone mineral density, and metabolic parameters in postmenopausal women Leila C. B. Zanatta, Cesar L. Boguszewski, Victoria Z. C. Borba, Carolina A. Moreira

452 Low serum 25-hydroxy vitamin D levels are associated with aggressive breast cancer variants and poor prognostic factors in patients with breast carcinoma

and Metabolism

Arunkumar Karthikayan, Sathasivam Sureshkumar, Dharanipragada Kadambari, Chellappa Vijayakumar

460 Hounsfield unit value has null effect on thyroid nodules at 18F-FDG PET/CT scans

Filiz Eksi Haydardedeoglu, Gulay Simsek Bagir, Nese Torun, Emrah Kocer, Mehmet Reyhan, Melek Eda Ertorer

466 Mutation screening in the genes PAX-8, NKX2-5, TSH-R, HES-1 in cohort of 63 Brazilian children with thyroid dysgenesis

OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF THE BRAZILIAN SOCIETY OF ENDOCRINOLOGY AND METABOLISM

Taíse Lima de Oliveira Cerqueira, Yanne Rocha Ramos, Giorgia Bruna Strappa, Mariana Souza de Jesus, Jailciele Gonzaga Santos, Camila Sousa, Gildásio Carvalho Vladimir Fernandes, Ney Boa-Sorte, Tatiana Amorim, Thiago Magalhães Silva, Ana Marice Teixeira Ladeia, Angelina Xavier Acosta, Helton Estrela Ramos

review 472 A brief review about melatonin, a pineal hormone Fernanda Gaspar do Amaral, José Cipolla-Neto

brief reports 480 The low-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein 5 (LRP5) 4037C>T polymorphism: candidate for susceptibility to type 1 diabetes mellitus Karla Simone Costa de Souza, Marcela Abbott Galvão Ururahy, Yonara Monique da Costa Oliveira, Melina Bezerra Loureiro, Heglayne Pereira Vital da Silva, Raul Hernandes Bortolin, André Ducati Luchessi, Ricardo Fernando Arrais, Rosário Dominguez Crespo Hirata, Maria das Graças Almeida, Mário Hiroyuki Hirata, Adriana Augusto de Rezende

485 Type 1 diabetes mellitus: can coaching improve health outcomes?

Thais Pereira Costa Magalhães, Rodrigo Bastos Fóscolo, Aleida Nazareth Soares, Janice Sepúlveda Reis

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editorial

Region-specific reference intervals for TSH in pregnancy: time for changes in Brazil José Augusto Sgarbi1

Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2018;62/4

Unidade de Tireoide, Divisão de Endocrinologia e Metabolismo, Departamento de Medicina, Faculdade de Medicina de Marília, Marília, SP, Brasil 1

Correspondence to: José A. Sgarbi Divisão de Endocrinologia e Metabolismo, Faculdade de Medicina de Marília Av. Monte Carmelo, 800 17519-030 – Marília, SP, Brasil jose.sgarbi@gmail.com Received on Ago/27/2018 Accepted on Ago/27/2018 DOI: 10.20945/2359-3997000000067

ver the past few years, the diagnosis of thyroid disorders during pregnancy has emerged as one of the major focuses of debate in clinical thyroidology. Whether we should or not universally screening all pregnant women in the first trimester of pregnancy (1) and what is the best pregnancy-trimester specific TSH reference range (2-4) has gained worldwide interest. Answers are necessary to guide clinicians and public health policies. It is well-known that many complex physiological adaptations in the thyroid economy occur over a normal pregnancy (5). In summary, the increased concentration of hepatic thyroid-binding globulin, of human chorionic gonadotropin, and the elevation of iodide renal clearance, stimulate the maternal thyroid machinery. All together, they lead to marked differences in TSH and thyroid hormone concentrations among pregnant and non-pregnant women, making interpretation of thyroid function tests difficult (6). Thyroid disorders in pregnancy are relatively frequent, and if not properly treated may be associated with a wide range of maternal and fetal adverse outcomes, most importantly miscarriage, premature delivery, preeclampsia, low fetal weight, reduced cognitive function in offspring and fetal death (7). Thus, despite controversies about the best strategy for screening thyroid dysfunctions in the first trimester of pregnancy, whether should be case-finding or universal screening approach (1), there is an understanding amongst medical societies guidelines that the diagnosis of gestational thyroid diseases should be based on pregnancy-method and region-specific reference ranges (8). Many centers and countries (including Brazil) do not have own local populationspecific TSH reference ranges available. In such cases, previous guidelines (9) recommend using fixed TSH upper limits of 2.5 mU/l or 3.0 mU/l for the first, second or third trimesters, respectively. However, it has been speculated that these reference intervals could result in overdiagnosis, additional investigations and potentially unnecessary levothyroxine treatment for many patients (10). Thererfore, the most recent American Thyroid Association (ATA) guidelines (8) recommend pregnancyspecific and local-specific references ranges for TSH and, if not possible, to adopt a reference interval derived from a population with similar features and TSH assay. If none of this is feasible, the last recommended alternative is to reduce 0.5 mU/l from the reference values for non-pregnant women, which would result in approximately 4.0 mU/l in Brazil. In fact, reference intervals for laboratory tests are crucial in patient’s care by differentiating a healthy individual from the diseased. However, it is a complex task.

383

TSH reference intervals in pregnancy

Pregnancy- and local specific reference limits for TSH can be markedly affected by multiple prenalytical and analytical factors, such as age, gender, ethnicity, antithyroid antibodies, iodine status, TSH assays, and alterations on proteins and free fatty acids levels (11). In addition, the non-Gaussian distribution and a high inter individual variation of TSH levels in the normal population confers an extra challenge (12). Subgrouping healthy reference intervals by age, gender and other characteristics, may help to improve the diagnostic accuracy (13). The National Academy of Clinical Biochemistry (NACB) has proposed strict selection criteria to establish 95% confident healthy limits for TSH in a population, including absence of family history of thyroid disease, negativity for thyroid antibodies, no visible or palpable goiter, and absence of medications (14). In this issue of the Archives, Silva de Moraes and cols. report the results of an acclaimed study (15) aiming to establish a local population-specific reference intervals for serum TSH on a Brazilian subpopulation. Using a crosssection design, they included 270 participants aged 18 – 35 years old, with spontaneous pregnancy and gestational age up to 12 weeks, from four prenatal outpatient clinics in a coastal area of the state of Rio de Janeiro. The study was challenging. Researchers innovated by creating groups with additional and even stricter selection criteria than those of the NCAB to establish TSH reference intervals. In a stepwise approach, they also excluded patients with thyroid ultrasound patterns of thyroiditis and those with iodine insufficiency defined according to the World Health Organization as median urinary iodine concentration < 150 µg/L. A reference group (RG) was composed of 225 participants who filled all NACB criteria. A selective reference group (SRG) was created excluding those with thyroiditis pattern on thyroid ultrasound (n = 170), and at a final step, a more selective reference group (MSRG, n = 130) was defined by excluding any pregnant women with urinary iodine concentration < 150 µg/L. The TSH reference ranges corresponding to the th 2.5 – 97.5th percentile in the first trimester in such studied subpopulation was 0.12 - 4.47 mU/l, 1.26 – 4.0 mU/l and 0.14 – 3.63 mU/l for the RG, SRG and MSRG groups, respectively. These results are in agreement with a previous study in a similar population from Rio de Janeiro (16) and above the fixed upper limits of 2.5 mU/l recommended in the previous ATA guidelines (9). These data support other recent studies 384

showing that arbitrary cutoffs values for TSH instead of local-specific reference intervals may inappropriately increase the rate of overdiagnosis (17). Despite some limitation such as the number of patients included being less than 400 (the number required to adequately define reference ranges for measurements with a skewed distribution such as TSH) (18), Silva de Moraes and cols. (15) offer a great contribution to the better understanding and diagnosing of thyroid dysfunction during pregnancy in Brazil. However, these results cannot be generalized to the entire population. As a matter of fact, in a previous Brazilian study (19) conducted in the continental state of Minas Gerais with 660 pregnant women, the upper limit of serum TSH reference in the first trimester of gestation was 2.68 mU/l. Potential explanations for the divergence include differences in iodine consumption among the populations. A recent trial (20) with pregnant women from Rio de Janeiro showed that this population is iodine sufficient, while some other have reported an increased iodine deficiency prevalence in the state of Minas Gerais (20). In addition, in the study from Minas Gerais (19), thyroid ultrasound and thyroglobulin antibody were not performed to exclude thyroid autoimmunity, but these differences could justify a higher, but not a lower upper serum TSH reference limit. Taken together, these data suggest that in such a diverse and continental-sized country as Brazil, each region should have its own specific reference values for TSH for each trimester of pregnancy, but this is still far away from reality (21). In addition, these finding may have implications for interpretation of results by clinicians and highlight the need for changes in the current Brazilian guidelines, which still recommends the arbitrary value of 2.5 mU/l for the upper limit of TSH in the first trimester of gestation (22). Disclosure: no potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.

REFERENCES 1. Vaidya B, Anthony S, Bilous M, Shields B, Drury J, Hutchison S, et al. Detection of thyroid dysfunction in early pregnancy: Universal screening or targeted high-risk case finding? J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2007;92(1):203-7. 2. Glinoer D, Spencer CA. Serum TSH determinations in pregnancy: how, when and why? Nat Rev Endocrinol. 2010;6(9):526-9. 3. Maciel LM. Are TSH normal reference ranges adequate for pregnant women? Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2016;60(4):303-6. Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2018;62/4

TSH reference intervals in pregnancy

4. Korevaar TIM. The upper limit for TSH during pregnancy: why we should stop using fixed limits of 2.5 or 3.0 mU/l. Thyroid Res. 2018;11:5. 5. Maciel LMZ, Magalhães PKR. Tireóide e gravidez. Arq Bras Endocrinol Metab. 2008;52(7):1084-95. 6. Glinoer D. The regulation of thyroid function during normal pregnancy: importance of the iodine nutrition status. Best Pract Res Clinl Endocrinol Metab. 2004;18(2):133-52. 7. Yasbeck CF, Sullivan SD. Thyroid disorders during pregnancy. Med Clin N Am. 2012;96(2):235-56. 8. Alexander EK, Pearce EN, Brent GA, Brown RS, Chen H, Dosiou C, et al. 2017 Guidelines of the American Thyroid Association for the Diagnosis and Management of Thyroid Disease During Pregnancy and the Postpartum. Thyroid. 2017;27(3):315-89. 9. Stagnaro-Green A, Abalovich M, Alexander E, Azizi F, Mestman J, Negro R, et al. Guidelines of the American Thyroid Association for the diagnosis and management of thyroid disease during pregnancy and postpartum. Thyroid. 2011;21(10):1081-125. 10. Korevaar TIM, Medici M, Visser TJ, Peeters RP. Thyroid disease in pregnancy: new insights in diagnosis and clinical management. Nat Rev Endocrinol. 2017;13(10):610-22. 11. Maciel LM. Are TSH normal reference ranges adequate for pregnant women? Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2016;60(4):303-6. 12. Vieira JG. Defining reference values for TSH: nearing perfection in a imperfect world. Arq Bras Endocrinol Metabol. 2010;54(7): 589-90. 13. Klee GG. Clinical interpretation of reference intervals and reference limits. A plea for assay harmonization. Clin Chem Lab Med. 2004;42(7):752-7. 14. Baloch Z, Carayon P, Conte-Devolx B, Demers LM, FeldtRasmussen U, Henry J, et al. Guidelines Committee, National Academy of Clinical Biochemistry. Laboratory medicine practice guidelines. Laboratory support for the diagnosis and monitoring of thyroid disease. Thyroid. 2003;13(1):3-126.

16. Felipe CL, Medina CC, Sieiro NL, Alexandru B, Mario V. Is an upper limit of 2.5 mUI/l for TSH appropriate for the first trimester of pregnancy among young TPO - women? Gynecol Endocrinol. 2010;26(1):54-7. 17. Amouzegar A, Ainy E, Khazan M, Mehran L, Hedayati M, Azizi F. Local versus international recommended TSH references in the assessment of thyroid function during pregnancy. Horm Metab Res. 2014;46(3):206-10. 18. Medici M, Korevaar TI, Visser WE, Visser TJ, Peeters RP. Thyroid function in pregnancy: what is normal? Clin Chem. 2015;61(5):70413. 19. Rosario PW, Carvalho M, Calsolari MR. TSH reference values in the first trimester of gestation and correlation between maternal TSH and obstetric and neonatal outcomes: a prospective Brazilian study. Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2016;60(4):314-8. 20. Saraiva DA, Morais NAOES, Martins Corcino C, Martins Benvenuto Louro Berbara T, Schtscherbyna A, Santos M, Botelho H et al. Iodine status of pregnant women from a coastal Brazilian state after the reduction in recommended iodine concentration in table salt according to governmental requirements. Nutrition. 2018;53:109-14. 21. Campos R de O, Barreto IS, Maia LR, Rebouças SC, Cerqueira TL, Oliveira CA, et al. Iodine nutritional status in Brazil: a metaanalysis of all studies performed in the country pinpoints to an insufficient evaluation and heterogeneity. Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2015;59(1):13-22. 22. Sgarbi JA, Teixeira PF, Maciel LM, Mazeto GM, Vaisman M, Montenegro Junior RM, et al. Brazilian Society of Endocrinology and Metabolism. The Brazilian consensus for the clinical approach and treatment of subclinical hypothyroidism in adults: recommendations of the thyroid Department of the Brazilian Society of Endocrinology and Metabolism. Arq Bras Endocrinol Metabol. 2013;57(3):166-83.

15. Silva de Moraes NAO, Almeida de Assis AS, Corcino CM, Saraiva DA, Louro Berbara TMB, Drummond Ventura CD, et al.

Recent recommendations from ATA guidelines to define the upper reference range for serum TSH in the first trimester match reference ranges for pregnant women in Rio de Janeiro. Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2018;62(4):386-91.

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original article

Recent recommendations from ATA guidelines to define the upper reference range for serum TSH in the first trimester match reference ranges for pregnant women in Rio de Janeiro Nathalie Anne de Oliveira e Silva de Morais1,2,3, Annie Schtscherbyna Almeida de Assis1, Carolina Martins Corcino1,2, Débora Ayres Saraiva1, Tatiana Martins Benvenuto Louro Berbara1, Carolina Donner de Drummond Ventura1, Mario Vaisman1, Patrícia de Fátima dos Santos Teixeira1 Departamento de Medicina Interna e Unidade de Endocrinologia, Faculdade de Medicina e Hospital Universitário Clementino Fraga Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (HUCFF/UFRJ), Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brasil 2 Unidade de Endocrinologia, Instituto Estadual de Diabetes e Endocrinologia Luiz Capriglione (IEDE), Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brasil 3 Unidade de Endocrinologia, Instituto Nacional de Câncer José Alencar Gomes da Silva (INCA), Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brasil 1

Correspondence to: Nathalie Anne de Oliveira e Silva de Morais Hospital Universitário Clementino Fraga Filho, Serviço de Endocrinologia Rua Rodolpho Paulo Rocco, 255, 9º andar, sala 9E23 21941-913 – Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brasil nathalieaos@gmail.com Received on Mar/10/2018 Accepted on Apr/9/2018 DOI: 10.20945/2359-3997000000064

ABSTRACT Objectives: American Thyroid Association (ATA)’s new guidelines recommend use of populationbased trimester-specific reference range (RR) for thyrotropin (TSH) in pregnancy. The aim of this study was to determine first trimester TSH RR for a population of pregnant women in Rio de Janeiro State. Subjects and methods: Two hundred and seventy pregnant women without thyroid illness, defined by National Academy of Clinical Biochemistry, and normal iodine status were included in this sectional study. This reference group (RG) had normal median urinary iodine concentration (UIC = 219 μg/L) and negative anti-thyroperoxidase antibodies (TPOAb). Twin pregnancy, trophoblastic disease and use of drugs or supplements that influence thyroid function were excluded. In a second step, we defined a more selective reference group (SRG, n = 170) by excluding patients with thyroiditis pattern on thyroid ultrasound and positive anti-thyroglobulin antibodies. This group also had normal median UIC. At a final step, a more selective reference group (MSRG, n = 130) was defined by excluding any pregnant women with UIC < 150 µg/L. Results: In the RG, median, 2.5th and 97.5th percentiles of TSH were 1.3, 0.1, and 4.4 mIU/L, respectively. The mean age was 27.0 ± 5.0 and the mean body mass index was 25.6 ± 5.2 kg/m2. In the SRG and MSRG, 2.5th and 97.5th percentiles were 0.06 and 4.0 (SRG) and 0.1 and 3.6 mIU/L (MSRG), respectively. Conclusions: In the population studied, TSH upper limit in the first trimester of pregnancy was above 2.5 mIU/L. The value of 3.6 mIU/L, found when iodine deficiency and thyroiditis (defined by antibodies and ultrasound characteristics) were excluded, matches recent ATA guidelines. Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2018;62(4):386-91 Keywords TSH; pregnancy; reference range

INTRODUCTION

he American Thyroid Association (ATA) has recently published new guidelines for the diagnosis and management of thyroid disease during pregnancy and the postpartum period (1). A substantial difference in these guidelines, compared with the prior version published in 2011 (2), is the question regarding the upper reference limit for serum thyrotropin (TSH) during the first trimester of pregnancy, defined previously as 2.5 mIU/L. ATA’s new guidelines recommend the use of population-based trimester-specific reference ranges for serum TSH derived from evaluation of 386

local population data. When local assessments are not available, the panel recommends that lower reference range of TSH should be reduced by approximately 0.4 mIU/L, while the upper reference range should be reduced by approximately 0.5 mIU/L in the first trimester of pregnancy, from the reference values for non-pregnant women (1). These cutoff changes were based on recent large cohorts from various countries that have published trimester-specific pregnancy reference ranges, demonstrating significantly higher serum TSH concentration in their populations than previously Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2018;62/4

TSH range of pregnant women in Rio de Janeiro

Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2018;62/4

ultrasound patterns compatible with thyroiditis (2022). International guidelines recommend populations with adequate iodine intake to be used to define TSH reference ranges. This is especially important in pregnant populations due to increased iodine demand during pregnancy (1,12,13). Not only iodine deficiency but also high iodine intake is associated with reduced thyroid function (23). From these data, we proposed this study aiming to establish a serum TSH reference range in the first trimester of gestation for a population that lives in the coastal area of the state of Rio de Janeiro. For this purpose, we assessed a sample of pregnant women without thyroid illness, defined by NACB strict criteria, normal ultrasound patterns, normal iodine status and absence of thyroid autoantibodies (TPOAb and TgAb).

SUBJECTS AND METHODS This cross-sectional study was performed on a subpopulation from an ongoing prospective cohort, and included pregnant women attending prenatal programs in maternity clinics in the public health system in the State of Rio de Janeiro. Four prenatal outpatient clinics in a coastal area of the state of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, participated in this study. The study was approved by the local Research Ethics Committee, and all subjects signed consent forms (CAAE: 22546213.0.0000.5275). A total of 270 pregnant women were enrolled from September 2014 to January 2017. The recruiting criteria included age ≥ 18 and ≤ 35 years old, having a spontaneous pregnancy and gestational age up to 12 weeks (defined by last menstrual period or ultrasound). According to Guideline 22 of the National Academy of Clinical Biochemistry (15), we excluded patients with personal or familiar history of thyroid disease, using drugs or supplements that might influence thyroid function, and with visible or palpable goiter. Women with multiple pregnancies, trophoblastic disease and other chronic diseases history were also excluded. Specific history and general physical examination were performed. Height and weight were measured with participants barefoot and wearing light clothing. Body mass index (BMI) was calculated as weight (kg) divided by height squared (m2). Samples of blood and spot urines were obtained from each participant in the morning, after 10 to 12 hours of fasting, to determine serum TSH, FT4, 387

reported in the literature (3-9). Two of these studies showed, by week-to-week evaluation, that TSH reference limits were variable during the first trimester. In their studied populations, median TSH from up to 6 weeks was much higher, similar to the reference range for non-pregnant women, than to the range for 7 to 12 weeks (3,4). This larger analysis also demonstrated substantial population differences in the TSH upperreference limit that can be explained by differences in ethnicity, geographic location, iodine intake, body mass index (BMI), thyroid peroxidase antibody (TPOAb)positivity and the TSH assays used for analysis (10). Recently, there have been published data concerning the normal range of serum TSH for the first trimester of gestation in a non-coastal area of Brazil (11). In the studied population, the TSH value corresponding to the 97.5th percentile was 2.68 mIU/L in the first trimester of gestation, which matches prior guidelines recommendations (2,12,13). In contrast, another smaller Brazilian study, which evaluated pregnant women in the first trimester in a coastal area of the country, found higher TSH levels with a 97.5th percentile of 4.43 mIU/L (14). The National Academy of Clinical Biochemistry (NACB) states that “TSH reference intervals should be established from 95% confidence limits of the logtransformed values of at least 120 rigorously screened normal euthyroid volunteers who meet the following criteria: no detectable thyroid autoantibodies (TPOAb or thyroglobulin antibody (TgAb), measured by sensitive immunoassay); no personal or family history of thyroid dysfunction; no visible or palpable goiter; and not using any medications (except estrogen)” (15). It is worth mentioning that NACB does not require thyroid ultrasonography to exclude thyroiditis, and that the presence of only one negative thyroid autoantibodies is necessary. The lower and upper limits of TSH are defined by the 2.5th and 97.5th percentile, respectively (16). In recent years, several studies have shown important additive effects of thyroid autoimmunity on maternal thyroid status with respect to pregnancy outcome. It turns out that women who are antibody positive have a greater risk of adverse events than do antibody-negative women, even when they have identical thyroid function (17,18). There are patients with undetectable thyroid antibodies who may have a thyroiditis pattern on ultrasound (19,20). Furthermore, population studies in non-pregnant women confirm that upper reference range of TSH is reduced after excluding those with

TSH range of pregnant women in Rio de Janeiro

TPOAb, TgAb and urinary iodine concentration (UIC). Thyroid ultrasound scan was performed in all participants. After this analysis, we excluded patients with positive TPOAb to create the reference group. This final sample, defined as reference group (RG), consisted of 225 pregnant women that filled all NACB criteria and had a normal median UIC. In a second step, we defined a selective reference group (SRG, n = 170) by excluding those patients with thyroiditis pattern on thyroid ultrasound scan and positive serum TgAb. This group also had normal median UIC. Ultrasound thyroiditis pattern was defined as the presence of a heterogeneous and/or hypoechoic gland. Classification of iodine status was made according to the World Health Organization (WHO) as follows: severe insufficiency, < 50 μg/L; mild-moderate insufficiency, 50 to 149 μg/L; sufficiency, 150 to 249 μg/L; more than adequate, 250 to 499 μg/L; and excessive, ≥ 500 μg/L. At a final step, a more selective reference group (MSRG, n = 130) was defined by excluding any pregnant women with UIC < 150 mg/L, which could reflect iodine insufficiency. We emphasize that MSRG meets all NACB criteria, including sample size greater than 120 individuals. Serum TSH, FT4, TPOAb and TgAb were performed by electrochemiluminescence immunometric assay on the Roche Modular Analytics® E170 (Roche Diagnostics). The Laboratory reference ranges of TSH were 0.4 to 4.3 mIU/L (for non-pregnant women), FT4 0.7 to 1.9 ng/dL, TPOAb < 34 IU/mL and TgAb < 115 IU/mL. The intra-assay coefficients of variation of serum TSH, FT4, TPOAb and TgAb were 7.2%, 2.79%, 6.3% and 4.9%, respectively. The interassay coefficients of variation were 3%, 2.9%, 7.0% and 6.3%, respectively. Urinary iodine concentration was determined by Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass

Spectrometry (ICP-MS-Spectroquant® Iodine Test – Merch KGaA, Germany). The manufacturer’s reference range was 26 to 705 μg/L. All thyroid ultrasound scans were performed by a single trained examiner, using a high-frequency SIEMENS-AUSONX 300 transducer (12 MHz). Thyroid volume was calculated by the formula: length x width x thickness x 0.52 of each lobe and the isthmus. Thyroid parenchyma characteristics were described according to their echogenicity and homogeneity. Statistical analysis was performed using the SPSS for Windows program, version 13.0. Mean, median, 2.5th and 97.5th percentiles were calculated for the TSH and FT4 values. Continuous variables were shown as the mean ± SD (median) and were compared between two groups using the Mann-Whitney test or Student t-test, according to the data distribution as evaluated by the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test. Comparisons among three or more groups were assessed by the Kruskal-Wallis test. Categorical variables were expressed as percentages and compared by the chi-squared test (χ2) or Fisher exact test. The analysis of the correlation between two variables was performed using Spearman’s correlation coefficient (rs). A p-value < 0.05 was considered to be significant.

RESULTS The clinical and biochemical characteristics of the three studied groups are described in Table 1. The RG, SRG and MSRG groups were similar in terms of age, BMI, gestational week at inclusion, frequencies of smoking and iodine status. Although there were no significant differences in UIC among the studied groups, MSRG have a higher median urine iodine, classified as more than adequate status. Our study population presented normal median values of BMI when we use BMI classification tables specific to pregnant women (24).

Table 1. Clinical and biochemical characteristics of the three studied groups of pregnant women, evaluated in the first trimester of gestation, inhabitants a coastal area of Rio de Janeiro State

Age (years)* Gestational week at inclusion (weeks)* BMI (kg/m )* 2

UIC (μg/L)* Smoking (%)

RG (n = 225)

SRG (n = 170)

MSRG (n = 130)

27.0 ± 5.0 (28.0)

27.4 ± 5.2 (28.0)

26.9 ± 5.0 (27.0)

9.0 ± 2.0 (9.0)

9.0 ± 2.2 (9.0)

8.9 ± 2.0 (9.0)

25.6 ± 5.2 (24.6)

25.8 ± 5.0 (25.2)

26.1 ± 5.5 (25.2)

234.0 ± 117.0 (219.0)

226.3 ± 103.6 (210.8)

278.6 ± 113.0 (252.8)

2.6 (n = 6)

3.5 (n = 6)

3.8 (n = 5)

* Mean ± standard deviation (median); RG: Reference Group; SRG: Selective Reference Group; MSRG: More Selective Reference Group; BMI: body mass index; UIC: urine iodine concentration.

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The means, 2.5th percentile, 97.5th percentile and median for serum TSH and FT4 values in the three studied groups are summarized in Table 2. The 97.5th percentile value of TSH decreased from 4.47 mIU/L to 4.00 mIU/L after we excluded pregnant women with positive TgAb or thyroiditis pattern in ultrasound scan. In addition, median TSH and 97.5th percentile value of TSH were lower in the more selective group (MSRG), which excluded any pregnant women with UIC less than 150 μg/L, compared to the other groups. In the reference group (RG), TSH was > 2.5 mIU/L in 19.6%. In the SRG and SSRG this prevalence was 17.1 and 14.6%, respectively. In the reference group (RG), TSH was slightly negatively correlated with FT4 (rs -0.142; p = 0.017) but was not correlated with age (rs -0.052; p = 0.221), BMI (rs -0.048; p = 0.236), gestational age (rs -0.025; p = 0.356) or UIC (rs 0.031; p = 0.323). However, when we evaluated only the group of pregnant women up to 6 weeks of gestation, we found a negative correlation between TSH and gestational age (rs -0.433; p = 0.025). This correlation was not maintained in the analysis of patients with more than 6 weeks of gestation (rs 0.065 p = 0.182). Furthermore, comparing TSH levels in these two subgroups (up to 6 weeks of gestation and > 6 weeks of gestation), we found lower levels of TSH in the group of patients up to 6 weeks of gestation. These data are described in Table 3.

DISCUSSION This is the first study designed to establish reference limits of serum TSH and FT4 values in a pregnant population that inhabits a coastal Brazilian area, in the state of Rio de Janeiro, that filled all NACB criteria. Additionally, to the best of our knowledge, this is the first study in the literature to apply so strict selection criteria intended to define a rational reference range of serum TSH for pregnant women in the first trimester, considering NACB criteria. Subclinical hypothyroidism (SCH) is defined as elevated serum TSH concentrations and normal levels of serum FT4. Strategies for the diagnosis of thyroid dysfunction differ in pregnant compared to nonpregnant women. The definition of a normal reference range of TSH in pregnant women is critical and should ideally be derived from local population data. Substantial variation exists between populations, with many recent investigations confirming a more liberal upper TSH reference range in healthy pregnant women with no thyroid disease (10). Previously, our group accessed the distribution of serum TSH values in the first trimester of pregnancy in a group of pregnant women with negative TPOAb and iodine sufficiency in Rio de Janeiro (14). This study has also showed a 97.5th percentile value of serum TSH above 2.5 mIU/L (95th percentile:4.43 mIU/L – 95%CI: 3.68 to 5.84). However, the final sample

Table 2. Reference values for serum TSH and FT4 in the first trimester of pregnancy in the three studied subgroups of pregnant women with iodine sufficiency TSH (mIU/L) n

2.5th centile

225

SRG

170

MSRG

130

FT4 (ng/dL)

Median

97.5th centile

2.5th centile

Median

97.5th centile

0.12

1.33

4.47

0.80

1.10

1.50

0.06

1.26

4.00

0.80

1.20

1.50

0.14

1.28

3.63

0.80

1.10

1.50

RG: Reference Group; SRG: Selective Reference Group; MSRG: More Selective Reference Group; TSH: thyrotropin; FT4: free thyroxine.

Table 3. Reference values for serum TSH in the first trimester of pregnancy in the three studied subgroups of pregnant women according to gestational age Gestational age ≤ 6 weeks

Gestational age > 6 weeks

p value

RG*

1.60 ± 1.32 (1.27) n = 21

1.97 ± 0.92 (1.71) n = 204

0.030

SRG*

1.47 ± 1.08 (1.24) n = 18

1.91 ± 0.89 (1.72) n = 152

0.038

MSRG*

1.41 ± 0.97 (1.26) n = 16

1.85 ± 0.93 (1.68) n = 114

0.073

TSH

* Mean ± standard deviation (median); RG: Reference Group; SRG: Selective Reference Group; MSRG: More Selective Reference Group; TSH: thyrotropin. Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2018;62/4

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TSH range of pregnant women in Rio de Janeiro

number evaluated in this study, after exclusion of positive TPOAb patients, was below 120, recommended by NACB to define TSH reference range in a given population. The disagreement between serum TSH reference values found in our study compared to those found by Rosario and cols. (11) may be due to differences between the two populations. Brazil is a continentalsized country with ethnic and geographic characteristics that differ from a region to another. The state of Rio de Janeiro is located in a coastal area, unlike Minas Gerais, which is located in a continental area. In addition, two limitations of that study were absence of iodine status evaluation and absence of ultrasound scan and TgAb measurement to exclude thyroid autoimmunity in their population. Although some studies have shown that excluding people with thyroid ultrasound abnormalities did not affect TSH reference range (25,26), some authors suggest higher TSH levels in the presence of thyroid autoimmunity detected by both ultrasound and autoantibodies (27). It appears reasonable that, in pregnant women who exhibit immunosuppression of pregnancy, thyroid ultrasound evaluation could add information regarding prediction of autoimmune thyroid disease. A recent study that evaluated women seeking fertility treatment showed that 5% of patients presented isolated TgAb positivity and 4% isolated TPOAb concentrations. Serum TSH values were significantly higher in the group of women with isolated positive TgAb compared to women without positive thyroid antibodies. This study demonstrated that testing for thyroid autoimmunity using only TPOAb would likely miss a small proportion of women with isolated TgAb (28). In our study reference population, there were no cases of hypothyroxinemia. Hypothyroxinemia was excluded in the sample of pregnant women studied by the presence of normal FT4 values. We believe that FT4 is a more useful index of thyroid function during early pregnancy than is total T4. Although FT4 immunoassays have been reported to be a less accurate method during pregnancy, this interference occurs mainly in the third trimester of gestation (29,30). In addition, total T4 concentrations are highly dependent on changes in thyroxine-binding globulin (TBG) concentrations, being more variable during early pregnancy than are free T4 concentrations (31). 390

It should be noted that there are still some concerns about the new reference range suggested by 2017 ATA thyroid and pregnancy guidelines, since it was based on studies that evaluated few women. In the five largest studies cited, only one presented an upper limit of normal TSH above 3.5 mIU/L (32). Although many studies suggest that subclinical hypothyroidism is associated with obstetric complications and impairment in neurocognitive development of at-risk children (33,34), the recommendations for screening and treatment remain controversial (35). The previously recommended TSH cutoff of 2.5 mIU/L appears to be too low and is likely to leading to overdiagnosis and overtreatment of thyroid disease during pregnancy (1). Additional studies evaluating the safety and benefits of treatment with levothyroxine in pregnant women with subclinical hypothyroidism are needed, especially to assess the differences between TPOAb-positive or negative patients. In addition, the authors believe that a larger population would be desired to bring more strength to the present study, despite having met the criteria required by NACB. In conclusion, the upper limit of serum TSH reference in the first trimester was above 2.5 mIU/L in pregnant Brazilian women that live in a coastal area of the country. The value of 3.6 mIU/L, found when iodine deficiency and thyroiditis (defined both by negative TgAb and TPOAb and normal thyroid ultrasound pattern) were excluded, appeared to match the recent ATA guidelines. Acknowledgments: this study was made possible thanks to grants from the Research Support Foundation of the State of Rio de Janeiro (FAPERJ). The authors are also grateful for the help of Dr. Rosalia Fernandes Cordeiro de Morais, who contributed significantly to this project. Disclosure: no potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.

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original article

The effect of levothyroxine treatment on left ventricular function in subclinical hypothyroidism Valentina Velkoska Nakova1, Brankica Krstevska2, Elizabeta Srbinovska Kostovska3, Olivija Vaskova4, Ljubica Georgievska Ismail5

ABSTRACT University “Goce Delchev”, Faculty of Medical Science, Clinical Hospital, Shtip, R. Macedonia 2 University Clinic of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolic Disorders, Medical Faculty, Skopje, R. Macedonia 3 University Clinic of Cardiology, Medical Faculty, Skopje, R. Macedonia 4 Institute of Patophysiology and Nuclear Medicine, Medical Faculty, Skopje, R. Macedonia 5 University Clinic of Cardiology, Medical Faculty, Skopje, R. Macedonia 1

Correspondence to: valentina.velkoska@yahoo.com Received on Jun/5/2017 Accepted on Oct/11/2017 DOI: 10.20945/2359-3997000000052

Objective: Treatment of subclinical hypothyroidism (ScH), especially the mild form of ScH, is controversial because thyroid hormones influence cardiac function. We investigate left ventricular systolic and diastolic function in ScH and evaluate the effect of 5-month levothyroxine treatment. Subjects and methods: Fifty-four patients with newly diagnosed mild ScH (4.2 < TSH < 10.0 mU/L) and 30 euthyroid subjects matched by age were analysed. Laboratory analyses and an echocardiography study were done at the first visit and after 5 months in euthyroid stage in patients with ScH. Results: Compared to healthy controls, patients with ScH had a lower E/A ratio (1.03 ± 0.29 vs. 1.26 ± 0.36, p < 0.01), higher E/e’ sep. ratio (7.62 ± 2.29 vs. 6.04 ± 1.64, p < 0.01), higher myocardial performance index (MPI) (0.47 ± 0.08 vs. 0.43 ± 0.07, p < 0.05), lower global longitudinal strain (GLS) (-19.5 ± 2.3 vs. -20.9 ± 1.7%, p < 0.05), and lower S wave derived by tissue Doppler imaging (0.077 ± 0.013 vs. 0.092 ± 0.011 m/s, p < 0.01). Levothyroxine treatment in patients with ScH contributed to higher EF (62.9 ± 3.9 vs. 61.6 ± 4.4%, p < 0.05), lower E/e’ sep. ratio (6.60 ± 2.06 vs. 7.62 ± 2.29, p < 0.01), lower MPI (0.43 ± 0.07 vs. 0.47 ± 0.08%, p < 0.01), and improved GLS (-20.07 ± 2.7 vs. -19.55 ± 2.3%, p < 0.05) compared to values in ScH patients at baseline. Furthermore, in all study populations (ScH patients before and after levothyroxine therapy and controls), TSH levels significantly negatively correlated with EF (r = -0.15, p < 0.05), E/A (r = -0.14, p < 0.05), GLS (r = ‑0.26, p < 0.001), and S/TDI (r = -0.22, p < 0.01) and positively correlated with E/e’ sep. (r = 0.14, p < 0.05). Conclusion: Patients with subclinical hypothyroidism versus healthy individuals had subtle changes in certain parameters that indicate involvement of systolic and diastolic function of the left ventricle. Although the values of the parameters were in normal range, they were significantly different compared to ScH and the control group at baseline, as well as to the ScH groups before and after treatment.The results of our study suggest that patients with ScH must be followed up during treatment to assess improvement of the disease. Some of the echocardiography obtained parameters were reversible after levothyroxine therapy. Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2018;62(4):392-8 Keywords Subclinical hypothyroidism; thyroid replacement therapy; systolic function; diastolic function

INTRODUCTION

ubclinical hypothyroidism (ScH) is defined as a condition with a slight increase in serum concentration of thyrotropin (TSH) with normal values of circulating thyroid hormones, free thyroxine (FT4) and triiodothyronine (FT3). The upper limit of TSH from which thyroid replacement therapy should start is still a topic of debate (1,2). Treatment is generally recommended in severe ScH (TSH value above 10 mU/L) (2-6). When the TSH value is less than 10 mU/L, treatment may be indicated in relation to age, presence of goiter, or antithyroid antibodies. One meta-analysis (7) proposed starting with thyroid replacement therapy when TSH levels are above 7 mU/L. Previous research (8) showed 392

increased risk of atherosclerosis in patients with ScH at levels above 7 mU/L. Thyroid hormones influence cardiac function (9,10). They regulate the transcription of structural and regulatory proteins in the cardiovascular system (11), predispose chronic inflammation and tissue changes (collagen alteration, dehydration), and also cause hemodynamic changes through their effect on smooth muscles in the arterial wall (10,12). All these can alter cardiac function and together with atherosclerosis increase the risk of cardiovascular manifestations. Research has revealed that substitution therapy with levothyroxine in ScH with TSH values above 10 mU/L could improve left ventricular (LV) function (13-16). Whether the same is true for mild ScH (TSH values less than 10 mU/L) is unknown. Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2018;62/4

Effect of LT4 on cardiac function

The aim of the study was to evaluate the effect of levothyroxine therapy on LV systolic and diastolic function in patients with a mild form of ScH (4.2 < TSH < 10.0 mU/L) and after 5 months in euthyroid stage, using two-dimensional echocardiography, pulse Doppler, tissue Doppler, and two-dimensional speckle tracking imaging. An additional aim of the study was to predict which parameters derived by echocardiography can be used to monitor patients with ScH.

or renal disease, ovulatory dysfunction, infertility, or pregnancy were also not included.

SUBJECTS AND METHODS

METHODS

Patients

At the first visit to the University Clinic of Endocrinology, blood samples for TSH, FT4, and FT3 were taken from all patients. At the same time, at the Outpatient Department of Cardiology Clinic, transthoracic echocardiography was done. Twodimensional (2D) echocardiography, pulsed wave (PW) Doppler, tissue Doppler imaging (TDI), and 2D speckle tracking echocardiography were used to assess left ventricular systolic and diastolic function.

Exclusion criteria Patients with a previous history of thyroid disease receiving therapy for thyroid or cardiovascular function were not included. Patients who were cigarette smokers or who had cardiovascular disease, hypertension, hypothalamic-pituitary disease, depression, psychosis, bipolar disorders, diabetes, chronic pancreatitis, hepatic Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2018;62/4

All patients gave informed consent to participate in the study after careful explanation of the testing protocol. The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and approved by the Ethics Committee at the Medical Faculty in Skopje, R. Macedonia.

Laboratory tests All blood samples for thyroid hormones were collected from the antecubital vein between 08.00 and 09.00 a.m. TSH, FT4, and FT3 were determined by the supersensitive chemiluminescent immunoassay (Immulite 2000, Siemens Medical Solutions Diagnostics, Los Angeles, CA, USA). The functional sensitivity for TSH was 0.004 μIU/mL, for FT4 0.3 ng/dL, and FT3 0.4 ng/dL.

Echocardiographic measurements Standard assessments of LV dimensions and wall thickness were performed in standard views on commercially available equipment (Vivid 7, GE) according to the joint recommendations of the American Society of Echocardiography and the European Association of Cardiovascular Imaging (18). LV volume and ejection fraction were calculated using the biplane method of disks (modified Simpson’s rule). Left atrial volume was derived by the biapical area-length method and indexed to body surface area (LAVI) (18). Diastolic parameters were obtained by pulsed Doppler by placing a sample volume at the point of touching the mitral leaflets: early mitral flow (E wave, in m/s) and late mitral flow (A wave, m/s), their ratio (E/A, m/s), and deceleration time (DT, 393

The prospective study was conducted at the University Clinic of Endocrinology and the University Clinic of Cardiology in Skopje, R. Macedonia. The study included a control group and patients with a newly diagnosed mild form of ScH. The control group consisted of 30 healthy euthyroid patients (normal FT4, FT3, and TSH of 0.2– 4.2 mU/L). The criteria for a diagnosis of mild ScH were 4.2 mU/L < TSH < 10.0 mU/L with normal serum FT4 10.3–24.45 pmol/L and FT3 4.2–8.1 pmol/L. According to the recommendations of the British Thyroid Association, patients with ScH were placed on thyroid replacement therapy if one of the following criteria were present: at least three signs or symptoms of hypothyroidism, positive anti-TPO antibodies and positive anti-Tg antibodies, positive family history of thyroid disease, and thyroid enlargement or goiter on ultrasonography (17). The starting dose of L-thyroxine was 25 μg. TSH was measured every 8 weeks for dose adjustment. After 5 months in continuous euthyroid state, echocardiography was repeated. The euthyroid state was achieved with a mean dose of 60.8 ± 19 μg in mean duration of 7.5 ± 2.2 months. During a period of three years, 54 consecutive patients were included in the ScH group. The control group was included to compare echocardiography parameters from the mild form of SCH at baseline.

Ethical aspects

Effect of LT4 on cardiac function

msec). Pulmonary venous flow was analysed using PW Doppler. We estimate peak systolic flow (S wave, m/s), early diastolic flow (d wave, m/s), s/d ratio, and atrial reversal flow (Ar, m/s), including Ar-A duration (msec) difference (19). PW TDI was performed in the apical 4-chamber view to assess annular early and late diastolic velocities (19). The recording was performed at a sweep speed of 100 mm/s at end-expiratory apnea. The septal, lateral, and average early diastolic velocities were measured, then the ratio of mitral flow E wave and TDI e’ wave (E/e’) for each of these annular velocities was calculated. By TDI we also estimate S wave like a maximal systolic velocity (m/sec) which is a parameter for evaluation of longitudinal systolic function (20). With the values of isovolumetric contractile time (IVCT, msec), isovolumetric relaxation time (IVRT, msec), and ejection time (ET, msec) derived by TDI, we calculated the myocardial performance index (MPI), which is a parameter for global left systolic function. We use the formula MPI = IVCT + IVRT / ET. The average of three consecutive cardiac cycles was taken for measurement of each echocardiographic index. Global and regional peak systolic longitudinal strain was assessed from apical 2-chamber, 4-chamber, and long-axis views using speckle tracking analysis (21). Recordings were processed using an acoustic tracking software (EchoPac, GE, USA), allowing offline semiautomated analysis of speckle-based strain. All images were recorded with a high frame rate (> 50 frames/s). A semiautomatic myocardial tracking system was used, with manual correction of the endocardial border in end-systole and manual adjustment of the region of interest, if needed. The end of systole was defined as the point of aortic valve closure. The software automatically detected the frame-to-frame movement of the natural ultrasound reflecting markers (speckles) on standard ultrasonic images in two dimensions. The LV was divided into 17 segments, and each segment was analysed individually. Only myocardial segments considered to be of adequate quality by both the automatic system and the operator were included in the analysis. Global longitudinal strain for the LV was automatically provided as the average value of the regional peak systolic longitudinal strain of the three apical views by the software.

Statistical analysis Categorical parameters were summarized as percentages and continuous parameters as mean ± SD. The normal 394

distribution of variables was verified with the ShapiroWilk test. As the distribution was normal, Student’s independent t-test was used for the comparison of the quantitative data between the control group and the ScH group at baseline. Student’s paired t-test was used for the comparison of the quantitative data before and after the levothyroxine therapy in the ScH group. For the comparison of categorical variables the chisquare test, Yates correction was used. The correlation between the tested parameters was determined using the Pearson correlation. All data analysis was performed using SPSS version 14.0 (IBM SPSS, Inc., Chicago, Illinois) and p value ≤ 0.05 was considered significant.

RESULTS Patients and normal controls were well matched for age, sex, BMI, and BSA. Heart rate was similar in both groups, but significantly increased in the ScH group after the levothyroxine treatment. The systolic blood pressure was significantly higher in the ScH group at baseline than in the control group, but the treatment with levothyroxine didn’t make any changes. The diastolic blood pressure was similar in both groups, without difference after levothyroxine treatment. As expected, TSH levels were significantly higher in the ScH group than in the control group. FT4 and FT3 levels, although in the reference range, were significantly lower in the ScH group at baseline than in the control group. Interestingly, after the thyroid substitution therapy, FT4 and FT3 levels significantly increased in the ScH group (Table 1). The LV diameters and volumes were similar in both groups, ScH at baseline and control groups. Overall, only EF (although in referent range in all analysed groups) statistically significantly increased in the ScH group after the levothyroxine therapy (Table 2). The results from echocardiography (systolic and diastolic parameters) in all analysed groups were in normal range, but some of them were statistically different compared to ScH and the control group at baseline, as well as to the ScH groups before and after treatment. The transmitral E/A ratio was lower and E/e’ sep. ratio was higher in the ScH group at baseline than in the control group. The E/e’ sep. ratio significantly decreased in the ScH group after levothyroxine therapy. The MPI was higher in the ScH group at baseline than in the control group and significantly decreased after levothyroxine therapy. The GLS was significantly Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2018;62/4

Effect of LT4 on cardiac function

reduced in the ScH group at baseline in comparison to the control group and significantly improved after

levothyroxine therapy. The S wave estimated from TDI was significantly lower in the ScH group at baseline

Table 1. Demographic, clinical, and hormonal parameters of study population Control group (n = 30)

Baseline ScH (n = 54)

Age (years)

39.3 ± 11.7

43.1±12.4

Sex (m:f)

3 : 27 (10%)

2.52 (3.7%)

BMI (kg/m2)

24.3 ± 3.0

26.7 ± 4.2

25.7 ± 4.2

BSA (m )

1.78 ± 0.15

1.79 ± 0.17

1.78 ± 0.16

HR (bpm)

76.4 ± 9.1

73.4 ± 9.8

77.1 ± 9.9

p < 0.05b

107.3 ± 28.4

123.3 ± 16.4

122.1 ± 14.2

p < 0.05a,c

Diastolic BP (mmHg)

77 ± 13.4

80.0 ± 9.3

79.2 ± 8.4

TSH mU/L

1.7 ± 1.05

8.1 ± 1.3

2.8 ± 2.6

p< 0.001a,b

FT4 pmol/L

15.4 ± 2.2

12.3 ± 2.0

15.2 ± 2.6

p < 0.01a,b

FT3 pmol/L

5.2 ± 2.1

4.5 ± 1.1

6.4 ± 3.3

p < 0.05a,b

Systolic BP (mmHg)

ScH after 5 months (n = 54)

Statistical significance NS NS

Displayed results are average ± std deviation and percentages. Comparisons between the groups were performed by Student’s t-test (independent and dependent) for continuous variables and χ2 test for categorical variables. a

Statistical significance for controls vs. baseline ScH; b statistical significance for baseline ScH vs. ScH after 5 months; c statistical significance for controls vs. ScH after 5 months.

BMI: body mass index; BSA: body surface area; HR: heart rate; BP: blood pressure; NS: no significance.

Control group (n = 30)

Baseline ScH (n = 54)

ScH after 5 months (n = 54)

Statistical significance

31.7 ± 3.1

31.3 ± 3.9

31.7 ± 3.9

24.4 ± 4.31

21.9 ± 5.77

20.7 ± 5.43

LA (mm) LAVI (ml/m ) 2

LVEDD (mm)

46.0 ± 4.8

46.4 ± 4.3

45.6 ± 4.1

LVED vol (mL3)

79.1 ± 11.9

81.7 ± 18.4

79.0 ± 18.6

LVES vol (mL )

31.3 ± 7.0

31.6 ± 7.8

30.6 ± 6.5

EF (%)

62.8 ± 2.3

61.6 ± 4.4

62.9 ± 3.9

p < 0.05b

IVS (mm)

10.4 ± 1.1

10.8 ± 0.9

10.8 ± 1.0

PW (mm)

8.7 ± 1.2

8.7 ± 1.1

E/A (m/sec)

1.26 ± 0.36

1.03 ± 0.29

1.09 ± 0.34

p < 0.01a,c

DT(msec)

156.8 ± 29.7

167.9 ± 38.6

158.5 ± 32.2

E/e’ sep.

6.04 ± 1.64

7.62 ± 2.29

6.60 ± 2.06

p < 0.01a,b

E/e’ lat.

6.08 ± 1.24

6.35 ± 1.62

6.03 ± 1.74

E/e’ average

6.06 ± 1.24

6.98 ± 1.9

6.74 ± 1.7

IVCT (msec)

60.04 ± 10.9

64.14 ± 13.4

60.29 ± 12.7

IVRT (msec)

66.39 ± 8.3

67.27 ± 13.7

65.0 ± 12.8

MPI

0.43 ± 0.07

0.47 ± 0.08

0.43 ± 0.07

p < 0.05a; p < 0.01b

s/d

1.26 ± 0.11

1.26 ± 0.16

1.25 ± 0.22

GLS (%)

-20.9 ± 1.7

-19.55 ± 2.3

-20.07 ± 2.7

p < 0.001a; p < 0.05b

S/TDI (m/sec)

0.092 ± 0.011

0.077 ± 0.013

0.078 ± 0.01

p < 0.01a,c

Ar-A

-18.87 ± 10.78

-25.2 ± 16.1

-23.4 ± 9.1

Statistical significance for controls vs. baseline ScH; b Statistical significance for baseline ScH vs. ScH after 5 months; c statistical significance for controls vs. ScH after 5 months.

LA: left atrial systolic diameter; LAVI: left atrial volume index; LVEDD: end-diastolic diameters; PW: the left ventricular posterior wall; IVS: interventricular septum thickness; LVESV: left ventricular end-systolic volume; LVEDV: left ventricular end-diastolic volume; EF: ejection fraction; E/A: ratio between transmitral early and late diastolic peak flow velocities; A dur: duration of the atrial contraction; DT: time between E velocity deceleration time to the baseline; S wave obtained by TDI, maximal systolic flow velocity; IVCT: isovolumetric contraction time; IVRT: isovolumetric relaxation time; MPI: myocardial performance index; s: systolic velocity of the pulmonary veins; d: diastolic velocity of the pulmonary veins; their ratio (s/d); Ar: retrograde pulmonary venous flow during the atrial contraction–atrial reversal; A-Ar: difference in time of duration of the A wave from transmitral flow by PW and duration of the Ar wave from pulmonary vein flow; GLS: global longitudinal strain. Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2018;62/4

395

Table 2. Echocardiographic parameters of left ventricular function in the study population

Effect of LT4 on cardiac function

than in the control group, without changes after the levothyroxine therapy (Table 2). Analysing how many patients had diastolic dysfunction, according to new guidelines for the evaluation of diastolic function by echocardiography, showed that there were only three patients with ScH (22). In all three patients diastolic dysfunction was reversible after thyroid replacement therapy. Considering the entire study population, the TSH levels (before and after levothyroxine therapy) significantly negatively correlated with EF (r = -0.15, p < 0.05), E/A ratio (r = -0.14, p < 0.05), GLS (r = -0.26, p < 0.001), and S/TDI (r = -0.22, p < 0.01) and positively correlated with E/e’ sep. (r = 0.14, p < 0.05).

DISCUSSION The results of the study presented subtle changes in the LV systolic and diastolic function which were reversible after thyroid replacement therapy. Although the values of the echocardiography parameters were in normal range in all analysed groups (control, ScH at baseline, and SCH after treatment), there were statistically significant differences between some parameters compared to the control and ScH group at baseline, as well as to the ScH group before and after treatment. Our results show that the ScH group at baseline had statistically significantly higher values for systolic blood pressure. This result is similar to the results in one meta-analysis published in 2014. The study includes the analysis of 20 studies and found a slight increase in systolic blood pressure in patients with ScH versus the control group (23). Systolic blood pressure did not decrease significantly after the levothyroxine treatment. The average value for systolic blood pressure in the ScH group at baseline was normal (123.3 ± 16.4 mmHg), so the thyroid replacement therapy probably had no clinical significance in reducing its value. Thus, we can conclude that ScH had no significant impact on the arterial blood pressure, in contrast to what is already known about clinical hypothyroidism. Therefore, we do not expect the thyroid replacement therapy to significantly decrease the already normal values for systolic blood pressure. Heart rate statistically significantly increased after thyroid replacement therapy. These changes are consistent with the known mechanism of action of thyroid hormones. From a clinical point of view, 396

the increase in heart rate after treatment was still in the normal range (77.1 ± 9.9 minute), but there was statistical significance. None of the patients after treatment had tachycardia or arrhythmia. At baseline, echocardiographic parameters of LV function were not significantly different between the control and the ScH group, which were similar with results from other studies (15,24-28). Five months of levothyroxine therapy statistically significantly increased the EF. Only a small (1.3%) increase in EF was sufficient to make EF equal to the value (62.9 ± 3.9%) as in the control group. In the study of Ilic and cols. (29), oneyear therapy with levothyroxine showed results similar to ours. It is important to mention that all studies (including ours) that analyse the EF in patients with ScH have normal values for EF. The parameter S derived from TDI, which is a parameter to assess systolic function of LV, was statistically significantly lower in the ScH group compared to the control group. This proves the abnormal longitudinal systolic function of LV in ScH, which is first affected in LV systolic dysfunction (30,31). The parameter S/ TDI did not recover after treatment, but there was statistically significant correlation between TSH and S/TDI. More aggressive treatment for lowering TSH value may result in statistically significant changes in S/TDI. Completely identical results were shown in the study of Ilic and cols. (29). The average age in the study of Ilic and cols. (29) is similar to ours, but they analysed only women aged less than 45 years. Probably studies with a large number of patients involving only women in reproductive age are needed to confirm the impact of ScH on S wave derived from TDI. Results for MPI showed deterioration in global systolic and diastolic function of the LV in ScH, and its reversibility after thyroid replacement therapy. Our results were consistent with those from other clinical studies (24,25,29). The average values of TSH in those studies are similar to this study. There was no statistically significant correlation between TSH and MPI. The lack of correlation between TSH and MPI may be due to small changes in the value of MPI that occur at higher values of TSH. Global longitudinal strain is considered more sensitive than EF in assessing LV global systolic function, especially when the EF is normal, in favour of subclinical LV dysfunction. Values of GLS in the control group and ScH group at baseline were within the normal range, but still with statistically significantly different Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2018;62/4

Effect of LT4 on cardiac function

Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2018;62/4

improves some parameters of LV function. We analysed only patients with mild ScH, which means rapid detection of thyroid dysfunction. If ScH is detected later, according to the correlations, we expected worsening of LV parameters. There are some limitations in this study. The design is not that of a blind or double-blind study which includes L-thyroxine and placebo. We followed the parameters of systolic and diastolic function, but we did not directly observe cardiovascular morbidity and mortality, which requires very long-term monitoring of patients. The advantages of the study compared to previous similar studies are the inclusion of young people with no risk factors for cardiovascular disease which can influence systolic and diastolic parameters, and the inclusion of patients with mild ScH. Thus, this study confirmed the benefit of levothyroxine treatment in patients with ScH with lower values of TSH. Today, when there is a lack of recommendations for treatment of mild ScH, this study moves the limits for initiation with treatment from the lower values of TSH. In conclusion, patients with ScH versus healthy individuals had subtle changes in certain parameters that indicate involvement of systolic and diastolic function of the LV in ScH. Although the values of the parameters were in normal range, they were significantly different compared to ScH and the control group at baseline, as well as to the ScH groups before and after treatment. The results of our study suggest that the patients with ScH deserve to be followed up during treatment. Disclosure: no potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.

REFERENCES 1. UK guidelines for the use of thyroid function tests. 2006. Available from: www.british-thyroid-association.org/TFT_guideline_final_version_July_2006.pdf. Accessed on: Jul 10, 2009. 2. Garber JR, Cobin RH, Gharib H, Hennessey JV, Klein I, Mechanick JI, et al.; American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists and American Thyroid Association Taskforce on Hypothyroidism in Adults. Clinical practice guidelines for hypothyroidism in adults: cosponsored by the American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists and the American Thyroid Association. Endocr Pract. 2012;18(6):988-1028. 3. Cooper DS. Clinical practice. Subclinical hypothyroidism. N Engl J Med. 2001;345(4):260-5. 4. Chu JW, Crapo LM. The treatment of subclinical hypothyroidism is seldom necessary. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2001;86(10):4591-9. 5. McDermott MT, Ridgway EC. Subclinical hypothyroidism is mild thyroidfailure and should be treated. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2001;86(10):4585-90.

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values in the ScH group. GLS significantly improved after the levothyroxine therapy. TSH significantly negatively correlated with GLS. Two studies examined GLS in ScH, and both of them showed results similar to ours (29,32). The results from Doppler transmitral flow and velocities estimated by TDI showed changes in some parameters which are defined as parameters for diastolic function assessment. Although the values of some parameters were in the normal range, there is a statistically significant difference between the values of the control and ScH groups. This is shown by statistically significantly lower E/A ratio, and higher E/e’ sep. ratio in the ScH group compared to the control group. After 5 months of euthyroid state, the E/A ratio did not increase significantly. In a study by Yazici and cols. (25) the E/A ratio was statistically significantly lower in patients with ScH compared to the control group. In the same study, the ratio increased significantly after 6 months of euthyroid state and continued to increase after 12 months of euthyroid state. A study by Erkan and cols. (33) showed results similar to ours. Therefore, a longer euthyroid state or more aggressive treatment for lowering TSH may be required to achieve a statistically significant increase in the E/A ratio, after treatment. At the end of the study the average TSH value was 2.8 ± 2.6 mU/L. In the assessment of diastolic function the E/e’ sep. ratio is a more sensitive parameter than the E/e’ lat. ratio. A statistically significant difference in the E/e’ sep. ratio, but not in the E/e’ lat. Ratio, was found in other studies (24,28). Three patients in the ScH group had diastolic dysfunction, which was reversible after thyroid replacement therapy. Diastolic dysfunction is mainly attributed to ScH because other potential causes of diastolic dysfunction (hypertension, diabetes mellitus) were excluded in this study. Parameters which measured diastolic dysfunction can be applied to all patients with ScH and also to follow them during treatment. Statistically significant correlations between TSH and analysed parameters were weak (r < 0.5). The weak correlation coefficient may be due to higher TSH values at the end of the study. The r values were lower for correlations with diastolic parameters. Probably systolic parameters are more sensitive on L-T4 treatment, and diastolic parameters need a longer period of treatment. Summarizing the results, ScH did not cause cardiac failure by itself, but thyroid substitution therapy

Effect of LT4 on cardiac function

6. Garber JR, Cobin RH, Gharib H, Hennessey JV, Klein I, Mechanick JI, et al.; American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists and American Thyroid Association Taskforce on Hypothyroidism in Adults. Clinical practice guidelines for hypothyroidism in adults: cosponsored by the American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists and the American Thyroid Association. Thyroid. Thyroid. 2012;22:1200-35. 7. Rodondi N, den Elzen WPJ, Bauer DC, Cappola AR, Razvi S, Walsh JP, et al.; Thyroid Studies Collaboration. Subclinical hypothyroidism and the risk of coronary heart disease and mortality. JAMA. 2010;304(12):1365-74. 8. Velkoska Nakova V, Bosevski M, Dimitrovski Ch, Krstevska B. Subclinical hypothyroidism and risk to carotid atherosclerosis. Arq Bras Endocrinol Metab. 2011;55(7):475-80. 9. Kahaly GJ. Cardiovascular and atherogenic aspects of subclinical hypothyroidism. Thyroid. 2000;10(8):665-79. 10. Biondi B, Palmieri EA, Lombardi G, Fazio S. Subclinical hypothyroidism and cardiac function. Thyroid. 2002;12(6):505-10. 11. Aksoy D, Cinar N, Harmanci A, Karakaya A, OkanYildiz B, Usman A, et al. Serum resistin and high sensitive CRP levels in patients with subclinical hypothyroidism before and after L-thyroxine therapy. Med Sci Monit. 2013;19:210-5. 12. Klein I. Thyroid hormone and the cardiovascular system. Am J Med. 1990;88(6):631-7. 13. Biondi B, Fazio S, Palmieri EA, Carella C, Panza N, Cittadini A, et al. Left ventricular diastolic dysfunction in patients with subclinical hypothyroidism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1999;84(6):2064-7. 14. Monzani F, DiBello V, Caraccio N, Bertini A, Giorgi D, Giusti C, et al. Effect of levothyroxine on cardiac function and structure in subclinical hypothyroidism: a double blind, placebo-controlled study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2001;86(3):1110-5. 15. Vitale G, Galderisi M, Lupoli GA, Celentano A, Pietropaolo I, Parenti N, et al. Left ventricular myocardial impairment in subclinical hypothyroidism assessed by a new ultrasound tool: pulsed tissue Doppler. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2002;87(9):4350-5. 16. Brenta G, Mutti LA, Schnitman M, Fretes O, Perrone A, Matute ML. Assessment of left ventricular diastolic function by radionuclide ventriculography at rest and exercise in subclinical hypothyroidism, and its response to L-thyroxine therapy. Am J Cardiol. 2003;91(11):1327-30. 17. British Ministry of Health – recommendations. Available from: http://www.bcguidelines.ca/guideline_thyroid.html. Accessed on: Feb. 23, 2012. 18. Lang RM, Badano LP, Mor-Avi V, Afilalo J, Armstrong A, Ernande L, et al. Recommendations for Cardiac Chamber Quantification by Echocardiography in Adults: An Update from the American Society of Echocardiography and the European Association of Cardiovascular Imaging. Eur Heart J Cardiovasc Imaging. 2015;16(3):233-71. 19. Nagueh SF, Appleton CP, Gillebert TC, Marino PN, Oh JK, Smiseth OA, et al. Recommendations for the evaluation of left ventricular diastolic function by echocardiography. Eur J Echocardiogr. 2009;10(2):165-93.

21. Mor-Avi V, Lang RM, Badano LP, Belohlavek M, Cardim NM, Derumeaux G, et al. Current and evolving echocardiographic techniques for the quantitative evaluation of cardiac mechanics: ASE/ EAE consensus statement on methodology and indications endorsed by the Japanese Society of Echocardiography. J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 2011;24(3):277-313. 22. Naguch SE, Smiseth OA, Appleton CP, Byrd BF, Dokainish H, Edvardsen T, et al.: Recommendations for the Evaluation of Left Ventricular Diastolic Function by Echocardiography: An Update from the American Society of Echocardiography and the European Association of Cardiovascular Imaging. J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 2016;29(4):277-314. 23. Ye Y, Xie H, Zeng Y, Zhao X, Tian Z, Zhang S. Association between subclinical hypothyroidism and blood pressure--a meta-analysis of observational studies. Endocr Pract. 2014;20(2):150-8. 24. Öner FA, Yurdakul S, Öner E, Arslantaş MK, Usta M, Ergüney M. Evaluation of ventricular functions using tissue Doppler echocardiography in patients with subclinical hypothyroidism. Turk Kardiyol Dern Ars. 2011;39(2):129-36. 25. Yazici M, Gorgulu S, Sertbas Y, Erbilen E, Albayrak S, Yildiz O, et al. Effects of thyroxin therapy on cardiac function in patients with subclinical hypothyroidism: index of myocardial performance in the evaluation of left ventricular function. Int J Cardiol. 2004;95(23):135-43. 26. Franzonia F, Galettaa F, Fallahia P, Tocchini L, Merico G, Braccini L, et al. Effect of L-thyroxine treatment on left ventricular function in subclinical hypothyroidism. Biomed Pharmacother. 2006;60(8):431-6. 27. Oztutk S, Alcelik A, Ozyasar M, Dikbas O, Ayhan S, Ozlu F, at al. Evaluation of left ventricular systolic asynchrony in patients with subclinical hypothyroidism. Cardiol J. 2012;19(4):374-80. 28. Ozturk S, Dikbas O, Baltaci D, Ozyasar M, Erdem A, Eyhan SS, et al. Evaulation of atrial conduction abnormalities and left atrial mechanical functions in patients with subclinical thyroid disorders. Endokrynol Pol. 2012;63(4):286-93. 29. Ilic S, Tadic M, Ivanovic B, Caparevic Z, Trbojevic B, Celic V. Left and right ventricular structure and function in subclinical hypothyroidism: the effects of one-year levothyroxine treatment. Med Sci Monit. 2013 Nov 10;19:960-8. 30. Ho CY, Solomon SD. A clinician’s guide to tissue Doppler imaging. Circulation. 2006;113(10):e396-8. 31. Gillam L, Otto CM. Advanced approaches in echocardiography. Rio de Janeiro: Elsevier. 2012. 32. Sunbul M, Durmus E, Kivrak T, Yildiz H, Kanar BG, Ozben B, et al. Left ventricular strain and strain rate by two-dimensional speckle tracking echocardiography in patients with subclinical hypothyroidism. Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci. 2013;17(24):3323-8. 33. Erkan G, Erkan AF, Cemri M, Karaahmetoglu S, Cesur M, Cengel A. The evaluation of diastolic dysfunction with tissue Doppler echocardiography in women with subclinical hypothyroidism and the effect of L-thyroxine treatment on diastolic dysfunction: a pilot study. J Thyroid Res. 2011;2011:654304.

20. Chaha NS, Lim TK, Jain P, Chambers JC, Kooner JS, Senior R. Normative reference values for the tissue Doppler imaging pa-

rameters of left ventricular function: a population-based study. Eur J Echocardiogr. 2010;11(1):51-6.

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Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2018;62/4

original article

The prevalence of binge eating and associated factors in overweight patients treated in an outpatient unit Macksuelle Regina Angst Guedes1, Bruna Reginatto Carvalho1, Naiara Ferraz Moreira1, Fabíola Lacerda Pires Soares1,2

ABSTRACT Objectives: To estimate the prevalence of binge eating among overweight patients treated in an outpatient unit and to assess associated factors. Subjects and methods: Cross-sectional study with 272 patients, aged 22–83 years (average 52 ± 13 years), conducted in an outpatient unit of a University Hospital of Grande Dourados-MS. Sociodemographic, behavioral, anthropometric, clinical and food consumption-related factors were collected. Results: Of the assessed subjects, 32.7% had periodic binge eating, which is more prevalent in women (84.3%) and younger adults (p = 0.007). Regarding body image satisfaction, 76.4% of patients with binge eating were dissatisfied. Of patients with binge eating, 57.3% reported having been following a diet. Regarding food intake, higher intake of sweetened drinks was observed in the group with binge eating disorder (p = 0.05). In a multivariate analysis, age, body image dissatisfaction, obesity and sedentary lifestyle were associated with binge eating disorder. Conclusion: The profile of patients who are compulsive eaters is mostly composed of women and younger adults. Another factor that deserves attention is that most patients with binge eating were dissatisfied with their body images. In addition, sedentary lifestyle and food intake are factors that may have contributed to the onset of diseases observed in this group. Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2018;62(4):399-409

INTRODUCTION

ntil recently, obese individuals were seen as a homogeneous group, with weight as their only similar feature, and behavioral factors, which in many cases are determinants of obesity, were neglected (1). However, it is currently known that eating behavior is something complex that transcends the act of eating and is also related to food intake as a result of internal and external stimuli, whether organic, psychological or social (2). Eating disorders are psychiatric disorders mainly characterized by significantly irregular eating patterns associated to excessive concern about weight, body image and food intake (3). Binge eating is an eating disorder characterized by the intake of large amounts of food over a short period of time (up to two hours), combined with the sensation of loss of control of what or how much is eaten (4). Other features such as subjective distress feeling with shame, disgust and/or guilt can also be present. In addition, binge eating is a factor that exacerbates obesity and impacts the quality of life and eating behavior of individuals (5). Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2018;62/4

Correspondence to: Macksuelle Regina Angst Guedes Faculdade de Ciências da Saúde, Universidade Federal da Grande Dourados Rodovia Dourados, Itahum, km 12 79804-970 – Dourados, MS, Brasil macksuelleangst@yahoo.com.br Received on Feb/2/2017 Accepted on Feb/7/2018 DOI: 10.20945/2359-3997000000053

When binge eating is found to have occurred at least twice a week over the past six months, associated with loss of control and not followed by compensatory behaviors such as fasting or purging to lose weight, such events indicate the presence of Binge Eating Disorder (BED) (4). There is a prevalence of 46% of binge eating among obese individuals enrolled in weight control programs (6). Of individuals with binge eating, around 20% are diagnosed with BED (1,5). Binge eaters who are obese are classified as a subcategory of the obese population and are more likely to suffer from psychopathologies, especially depression and personality disorder, in addition to spending most of their lives on diets and facing difficulties in social and occupational interaction (1). Changes in eating style are many times driven by obesity, and the entire context in which the obese individual is inserted should be sometimes considered, since choosing a healthy diet does not depend only on access to adequate nutrition information but also on the preferences developed in the relationships between individuals and food (7). 399

Keywords Obesity; metabolic disorders; eating behavior

1 Universidade Federal da Grande Dourados (UFGD), Dourados, MS, Brasil 2 Universidade Federal do Espírito Santo (UFES), Vitória, ES, Brasil

Prevalence of binge eating and factors

Given the significance of the information above and the lack of studies on the topic in a subclinical population, that is, patients who were not searching for diagnosis and treatment for binge eating and obesity, the present study was designed to estimate the prevalence of binge eating among overweight patients treated in an outpatient unit and assess associated factors.

SUBJECTS AND METHODS A descriptive cross-sectional study was conducted at the cardiology, vascular, endocrinology and metabolism, otorhinolaryngology and pulmonary outpatient units of the University Hospital of Grande Dourados-MS, Brazil. Data collection occurred during three months, from March to May 2015. All participants signed the Free Informed Consent Form. The inclusion criteria were patients of both genders who attended the outpatient units in the referred period, aged 18 years or older (younger adults: 18–59 years and older adults: ≥ 60 years) and overweight. (Adult patients with BMI of 25–29.9 kg/m2 were considered overweight, and older adults – ≥ 60 years–with BMI ≥ 28 to < 30 kg/m² were considered at risk of obesity (8,9). Indians, pregnant women, lactating women, patients in wheelchairs and psychiatric and neurological patients unable to verbally communicate were excluded. In the study period, 525 patients were examined, and 272 patients aged 22–83 years were considered eligible for the study. There were different reasons for not participating in the study, mostly related to failure to meeting the inclusion criteria (particularly age and body mass index [BMI]). There were 16 refusals to participate. However, all patients had unrestricted access to medical treatment, regardless of whether or not they participated in the study. It should be stressed that these patients were seeking treatment for diseases/ disorders other than obesity in these outpatient units. Study participants filled out a standardized questionnaire through face-to-face interviews. The instrument included questions related to the following aspects: sociodemographic, economic and behavioral (gender, ethnicity, age, income, schooling, marital status, practice of physical activity, use of tobacco and alcohol, presence of binge eating and body image satisfaction), anthropometric (weight, height and waist circumference – WC), clinical (diagnosis of diabetes mellitus – DM, systemic arterial hypertension – SAH, dyslipidemia and other disorders) and food intake. Based on these data, the variables of interest for this study were extracted. 400

Weight was assessed on a calibrated portable scale (Balmak Actilife®) up to 200 kg. Height was measured with a portable stadiometer (Alturexata®) with 213 cm in length and a precision of 0.5 cm, according to the technical standards of the Food and Nutrition Surveillance System (10). Based on weight and height, BMI in kg/m² (weight divided by squared height) was calculated; the adult patients with a BMI of 25–29.9 kg/m2 were considered overweight, those with BMI ≥ 30 kg/m² were considered obese (8); older adults (≥ 60 years) with BMI ≥ 28 to < 30 kg/m² were considered at risk of obesity, and those with ≥ 30 kg/m² were considered obese (9). Waist circumference (WC) was measured with graduated inelastic tape according to the technical standards of the Food and Nutrition Surveillance System (10). The cutoff points considered were: high ≥ 94 cm for men and ≥ 80 cm for women, and very high ≥ 102 cm for men and ≥ 88 cm for women (8). Practice of physical activity was assessed according to individuals’ reports as follows: “no physical activity” (No) when individuals were inactive (sedentary behavior), and “physical activity” (Yes) when individuals performed physical exercises, according to the recommendations of the Institute of Medicine/ Food and Nutrition Board (11). The use of tobacco and alcohol, regardless of quantity, was asked about. Body image satisfaction was assessed according to individuals’ reports: Are you satisfied with your body image? When satisfied (Yes), when dissatisfied (No). Regarding the presence of binge eating, aspects related to overeating and loss of control were considered according to Appendix B of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th edition (4). Subjects who answered “yes” to both questions were considered binge eaters. Other questions related to behavior associated with binge eating were also assessed: eating fast, eating until feeling uncomfortably full, eating large amounts of food when not feeling physically hungry, eating alone for being embarrassed about the amount of food and feeling ashamed, depressed guilty after binge eating. When at least three of these five questions had positive answers, patients were characterized as suffering from binge eating disorder (BED; 4). Clinical data were collected from medical records, were reported by patients themselves or were collected during assessment. For the diagnosis of metabolic syndrome (MS), the proposal of the International Diabetes Federation (12) was considered. Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2018;62/4

Food intake was assessed through the Food Frequency Questionnaire (FFQ), which was validated and described by Ribeiro and cols. (13). For assessment of the eating frequency of patients, food items were sorted into the following groups: milk and dairy products, meat and eggs, sausages, fat as a food additive, snacks and canned food, whole grains, refined and processed grains, legumes, tubers, vegetables, fruits, desserts/ sweets, sweetened drinks and diet and light products. The frequency of the consumption of sausages, snacks, desserts/sweets and sweetened drinks was assessed differently from the other groups, with eating frequency being considered the consumption of less than or equal to once a week. For the other food groups, eating frequency was grouped as follows: less than five times a week or more than five times a week. The present study was approved by the Research Ethics Committee of Anhanguera-Uniderp, under No. 838.813, according to Resolution No. 466, of December 12, 2012 of the Health Council–Ministry of Health. BM SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Science) Statistics®, version 22, was used for statistical analysis. Categorical data analysis was performed using the chisquare test or Fisher’s exact test. Continuous variables (expressed as means and standard deviation) were analyzed by the Student-t-test or Mann-Whitney test. P values ≤ 0.05 were considered statistically significant. Odds ratio (OR) and 95% confidence interval (CI95%) were calculated. Multivariable logistic regression analysis was performed. Only variables with p ≤ 0.05 were included in the study.

RESULTS In this study, 272 patients were assessed: the group was composed of 211 (77.6%) women and 61 (22.4%) men aged 22–83 years (average 52 ± 13 years), and of these, 194 (71.3%) were younger adults (Table 1). Regarding the presence of binge eating, 32.7% of the assessed individuals were binge eaters. Table 1 shows the sociodemographic and economic data collected from patients, distributed according to the presence of binge eating, which was more prevalent among women (84.3%; p = 0.08) and younger adults (82%; p = 0.007). Among outpatient units, the specialty with the highest number of patients with binge eating was otorhinolaryngology with 29.2%. A high percentage of patients with primary education (58.5%), monthly income from 2 to 3 minimum wages (54%) and married Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2018;62/4

or living with a partner (61%) was observed. Regarding the age of subjects in the different groups, patients with binge eating were mainly composed of younger adults (49 ± 12.5 years; p = 0.007). Regarding nutritional status, both adults and older adults with binge eating had, in general, BMI significantly higher than those without binge eating (33.2 ± 5.5 kg/m² vs. 30.4 ± 4 kg/m²; p < 0.001 and 36.5 ± 4.2 kg/m² vs. 32.7 ± 3 kg/m²; p < 0.001, respectively). In addition, most patients with binge eating showed increased WC (94.4%; p = 0.009). Regarding lifestyle, most subjects in the binge eating group declared themselves to be nonsmokers (62.9%), reported not drinking alcohol (76.4%) and reported being physically inactive (sedentary behavior) (88.8%; p = 0.03). Also, 76.4% (p = 0.003) of patients with binge eating reported body image dissatisfaction, and 57.3% followed a diet or had already been dieting (Table 2). Among patients suffering from binge eating, 60 (67.4%) individuals were characterized as suffering from BED. Regarding comorbidities, 26.1% of patients were diabetic, 53.7% were hypertensive, 38.6% had dyslipidemia and 75% reported other disorders, e.g., related to the gastrointestinal and respiratory tract (Table 3). Eating frequency assessment showed that the intake of meat and eggs in the group of patients with binge eating occurred with frequency of ≥ 5 times/week in 84.3% of subjects assessed. As for refined and processed grains, 98.8% of patients with binge eating consumed these items with a frequency of ≥ 5 times/week. The intake of sweetened drinks was higher in the group with binge eating (p = 0.05; Table 4). Multivariable regression analysis showed that variables exposure age, nutritional status, body image (shape) satisfaction and physical inactivity were strongly associated to binge eating (Table 5). Table 6 shows additional information on the characteristics of overweight patients. The assessment of differences between overweight and obese patients showed that most obese individuals are adults (p < 0.001) with a higher mean age (p = 0.001). Moreover, obese individuals had more comorbidities such as hypertension (60%; p = 0.005), diabetes (32%; p = 0.004), MS (41.7%; p = 0.03) and sleep apnea (14.3%; p = 0.001). The assessment of the intake of diet and light products by overweight and obese patients showed that obese individuals consumed these products more frequently (p = 0.01). 401

Prevalence of binge eating and factors

Table 1. Sociodemographic and economic data from patients treated in an outpatient unit of a University Hospital – UFGD, 2015 Total N = 272

Binge eating n = 89

No binge eating n = 183

Average ± SD

52 ± 13

49 ± 12.5

53.5 ± 13

n (%)

Younger adults

194 (71.3)

73 (82)

121 (66.1)

Older adults

78 (28.7)

16 (18)

62 (33.9)

Gender

n (%)

Female

211 (77.6)

75 (84.3)

136 (74.3)

Male

61 (22.4)

14 (15.3)

47 (25.7)

Variables Age (years) Classification by age classification

Specialty

n (%)

Cardiology

83 (30.5)

23 (25.8)

60 (32.8)

Vascular

48 (17.6)

15 (16.9)

33 (18)

Otorhinolaryngology

73 (26.8)

26 (29.2)

47 (25.7)

Endocrinology and metabolism

27 (9.9)

14 (15.7)

13(7.1)

Pneumology

41 (15.1)

11 (12.4)

30 (16.4)

Ethnicity

n (%)

White

163 (59.9)

53 (59.6)

110 (60.1)

Brownish

81 (29.8)

28 (31.5)

53 (29)

Black

28 (10.3)

8 (9)

20 (10.9)

n (%)

Illiterate

31 (11.4)

11 (12.4)

20 (10.9)

Primary education

159 (58.5)

48 (53.9)

111 (60.7)

Secondary education

63 (23.2)

22 (24.7)

41 (22.4)

19 (7)

8 (9)

11 (6)

Education

Higher education/ Graduate studies Income (minimum wage)

n (%)

Up to 1

104 (38.2)

32 (36)

72 (39.3)

2 to 3

147 (54)

51 (57.3)

96 (52.5)

More than 4

21 (7.7)

6 (6.7)

15 (8.2)

n (%)

Single

46 (16.9)

19 (21.3)

27 (14.8)

Married/living with a partner

166 (61)

52 (58.4)

114 (62.3)

Divorced

28 (10.3)

8 (9)

20 (10.9)

Widowed

32 (11.8)

10 (11.2)

22 (12)

Marital status

p 0.007 0.007

0.08

0.17

0.84

0.68

0.73

0.58

Significant difference: p ≤ 0.05; Student’s t-test; Chi-square test or Fisher exact test. SD: standard deviation; s.m: minimum wage.

DISCUSSION This is the first study to include a large subclinical sample of binge eaters in the region of Dourados-MS. The results obtained indicate that binge eaters are mostly younger adults and women dissatisfied with their body image who drink sweetened beverages. In addition, obesity and physical inactivity were strongly associated with binge eating. These findings were similar to those obtained in a study conducted by França, Gigante and Olinto (14), 402

who investigated the occurrence of binge eating episodes in adult men and women and observed that women had a significantly higher prevalence of binge eating behavior compared to men (9.6% vs. 5.6%; p = 0.001). In the same study, binge eating was more frequent among subjects aged 20–29 years (11.0%) and tended to decrease with aging (p = 0.001) (14). In a review by Klump, Culbert and Sisk (15), who analyzed studies on binge eating in humans and animals, they found that the proportion of women to adult men who had compulsive eating was 5:1 (15). Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2018;62/4

Prevalence of binge eating and factors

Table 2. Anthropometric and behavioral data from patients treated in an outpatient unit of a University Hospital – UFGD, 2015 Total n = 272

Binge eating n = 89

No binge eating n = 183

Average ± SD

Weight (kg)

81.2 ± 13.9

85.3 ± 14.7

79.2 ± 13.1

0.001

Height (m)

1.5 ± 0.08

1.5 ± 0.07

1.5 ± 0.09

0.86

BMI (kg/m²) Younger adults

31.5 ± 4.8

33.2 ± 5.5

30.4 ± 4

<0.001

BMI (kg/m²) Older adults

33.5 ± 3.6

36.5 ± 4.2

32.7 ± 3

<0.001

101.7 ± 11.4

103 ± 11.1

101±11.5

0.18

Variables Anthropometry

WC (cm) Nutritional status

n (%)

Overweight

97 (35.7)

20 (22.5)

77 (42.1)

Obesity

175 (64.3)

69 (77.5)

106 (57.9)

n (%)

WC classification No risk

5 (1.8)

1 (1.1)

4 (2.2)

High risk

36 (13.2)

4 (4.5)

32 (17.5)

Very high risk

231 (84.9)

84 (94.4)

147 (80.3)

n (%)

Yes

99 (36.4)

21 (23.6)

78 (42.6)

173 (63.6)

68 (76.4)

105 (57.4)

n (%)

Nonsmoker

176 (64.7)

56 (62.9)

120 (65.6)

Former smoker

70 (25.7)

25 (28.1)

45 (24.6)

Smoker

26 (9.6)

8 (9)

18 (9.8)

Yes

54 (19.9)

21 (23.6)

33 (18)

218 (80.1)

68 (76.4)

150 (82)

Yes

55 (20.2)

10 (11.2)

45 (24.6)

217 (79.8)

79 (88.8)

138 (75.4)

Yes

140 (51.5)

51 (57.3)

89 (48.6)

132 (48.5)

38 (42.7)

94 (51.4)

Body image satisfaction

Lifestyle

0.002

0.009

0.003

Use of tobacco 0.82

Alcohol intake 0.33

Physical activity 0.03

Is on a diet or has been on a diet 0.19

Only overweight patients receiving medical treatment in several specialties were assessed in the present study, and in none of the cases did patients receive treatment to lose weight. Literature findings suggest that 16% and 54% of obese individuals who seek treatment to lose weight are binge eaters (16,17). In the present study, there was a prevalence of 32.7% of binge eaters, although patients were not seeking help to reduce weight. In a populationbased study carried out in the city of Pelotas-RS, the prevalence of binge eating was 7.9% in the general population (14). Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2018;62/4

Although patients assessed in this study did not intend to obtain treatment for losing weight, 57.3% of individuals in the binge eating group reported following diets, indicating concern with body weight control. These individuals spend most of their lives following diets and facing difficulties in social and occupational interactions (1) and should be encouraged to adopt healthy eating habits, that is, a varied and balanced diet. Above all, they should be encouraged to eat with pleasure and without guilt, because many times, food intake is performed as a compensatory mechanism in situations of anxiety, depression, sadness and anger (18,19). 403

Significant difference: p ≤ 0.05; Student’s-t test or Mann-Whitney test; Chi-square test or Fisher exact test. SD: standard deviation; BMI: body mass index; WC: waist circumference.

Prevalence of binge eating and factors

Table 3. Clinical data from patients treated in an outpatient unit of a University Hospital, 2015 Total n = 272

Binge eating n = 89

No binge eating n = 183

n (%)

Yes

146 (53.7)

42 (47.2)

104 (56.8)

126 (46.3)

47 (52,8)

79 (43.2)

Yes

71 (26.1)

20 (22.5)

51 (27.9)

201 (73.9)

69 (77.5)

132 (72.1)

Yes

105 (38.6)

36 (40.4)

69 (37.7)

167 (61.4)

53 (59.6)

114 (62.3)

Yes

101 (37.1)

29 (32.6)

72 (39.3)

171 (62.9)

60 (67.4)

111 (60.7)

Yes

38 (14)

15 (16.9)

23 (12.6)

234 (86)

74 (83.1)

160 (87.4)

Yes

72 (26.5)

20 (22.5)

52 (28.4)

200 (73.5)

69 (77.5)

131 (71.6)

Yes

47 (17.3)

19 (21.3)

28 (15.3)

225 (82.7)

70 (78.7)

155 (84.7)

Yes

27 (9.9)

11 (12.4)

16 (8.7)

245 (90.1)

78 (87.6)

167 (91.3)

Yes

51 (18.8)

20 (22.5)

31 (16.9)

221 (81.3)

69 (77.5)

152 (83.1)

Yes

204 (75)

70 (78.7)

134 (73.2)

68 (25)

19 (21.3)

49 (26.8)

Variables Presence of disease

Systemic arterial hypertension 0.15

Diabetes mellitus 0.38

Dyslipidemia 0.69

Metabolic syndrome 0.28

Renal disease 0.35

Coronary disease 0.31

Thyroid disorders 0.23

Apnea 0.38

Psychological aspects 0.32

Other disorders 0.37

Significant difference: p ≤ 0.05; Fisher’s exact test.

For better results regarding weight control, individuals must be motivated to diet and to perform physical exercises. Some studies have shown the benefits of performing physical activities, since it can effectively reduce binge eating, resulting in the improvement of emotional and behavioral disorders and promoting health (20,21). However, the present study found that 88.8% (p = 0.03) of individuals with binge eating are less physically active than individuals with BED (22,23). When obese individuals are unable to control body weight, they are likely to experience psychological 404

suffering related to social discrimination due to their condition, body image depreciation, insecurity and feelings of failure related to weight loss (17,18). In this study, body image dissatisfaction was prevalent in 76.4% (p = 0.003) of patients with binge eating. In the study conducted by França, Gigante and Olinto (14), body image dissatisfaction, obesity and health selfassessment were strongly associated with binge eating. Another study that assessed non-clinical populations in five Brazilian cities has shown that individuals with binge eating had a greater prevalence of body Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2018;62/4

Prevalence of binge eating and factors

Table 4. Regular food intake of patients treated in an outpatient unit of a University Hospital – UFGD, 2015 Variables

Total n = 272

Binge eating n = 89

No binge eating n = 183

n (%)

< 5 times/week

119 (43.8)

36 (40.4)

83 (45.4)

≥ 5 times/week

153 (56.3)

53 (59.6)

100 (54.6)

< 5 times/week

57 (21)

14 (15.7)

43 (23.5)

≥ 5 times/week

215 (79)

75 (84.3)

140 (76.5)

≤ 1 time/week

181 (66.5)

62 (69.7)

119 (65)

> 1 time/week

91 (33.5)

27 (30.3)

64 (35)

< 5 times/week

113 (41.5)

40 (44.9)

73 (39.9)

≥ 5 times/week

159 (58.5)

49 (55.1)

110 (60.1)

≤ 1 time/week

226 (83.1)

73 (82)

153 (83.6)

> 1 time/week

46 (16.9)

16 (18)

30 (16.4)

< 5 times/week

237 (87.1)

78 (87.6)

159 (86.9)

≥ 5 times/week

35 (12.9)

11 (12.4)

24 (13.1)

Food intake frequency

Milk and dairy products 0.51

Meat and eggs 0.15

Sausages 0.49

Fat as a food additive 0.43

Snacks and canned food 0.73

Whole grains 1.000

Refined and processed grains < 5 times/week

9 (3.3)

1 (1.1)

8 (4.4)

≥ 5 times/week

263 (96.7)

88 (98.9)

175 (95.6)

< 5 times/week

51 (18.3)

20 (22.5)

31 (16.9)

≥ 5 times/week

221 (81.3)

69 (77.5)

152 (83.1)

< 5 times/week

255 (93.8)

80 (89.9)

175 (95.6)

≥ 5 times/week

17 (6.3)

9 (10.1)

8 (4.4)

< 5 times/week

100 (63.2)

31 (34.8)

69 (37.7)

≥ 5 times/week

172 (63.3)

58 (65.2)

114 (62.3)

< 5 times/week

130 (47.8)

45 (50.6)

85 (46.4)

≥ 5 times/week

142 (52.2)

44 (49.4)

98 (53.6)

≤ 1 time/week

187 (68.8)

56 (62.9)

131 (71.6)

> 1 time/week

85 (31.3)

33 (37.1)

52 (28.4)

0.27

Legumes 0.32

Tubers 0.10

Vegetables 0.68

Fruits 0.60

Desserts/ sweets 0.16

Sweetened drinks ≤ 1 time/week

45 (16.5)

9 (10.1)

36 (19.7)

> 1 time/week

227 (83.5)

80 (89.9)

147 (80.3)

< 5 times/week

224 (82.4)

73 (82)

151 (82.5)

≥ 5 times/week

48 (17.6)

16 (18)

32 (17.5)

< 5 times/week

223 (82)

78 (87.6)

145 (79.2)

≥ 5 times/week

49 (18)

11 (12.4)

38 (20.8)

0.05

Non sweetened drinks

1.000

Diet and light products 0.09

Significant difference: p ≤ 0.05; Fisher’s exact test.

Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2018;62/4

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Prevalence of binge eating and factors

Table 5. Association among risk factors in binge eating patients Variables

Unadjusted odds ratio

Adjusted odds ratio

IC95%

Younger adults

2.33

1.25–4.35

0.007

3.38

1.72–6.67

< 0.001

Older adults

1.0

1.34–5,20

0.005

Classification by age 1.0

Nutritional status Obesity

2.50

Overweight

1.0

1.40–4.46

0.002

2.64 1.0

Waist circumference High

0.50

0.04–5.65

0.57

0.19

0.01–2.52

0.21

Very high

2.28

0.25–20.78

0.46

0.65

0.06–7.11

0.73

No risk

1.0

1.13–3.94

0.01

1.17–5.60

0.01

0.75–3.96

0.20

1.0

Body image satisfaction No

2.40

Yes

1.0

1.36–4.25

0.003

2.11 1.0

Physical activity No

2.57

Yes

1.0

1.23–5.39

0.01

2.56 1.0

Sweetened drinks > 2 times/week

2.17

≤ 1 time/week

1.0

0.99–4.74

0.05

1.72 1.0

CI95%: 95% confidence interval; OR: odds ratio; adjusted by: age rating, waist circumference, nutritional status, body image satisfaction, physical activity, sweetened drinks. Significant difference: p ≤ 0.05.

weight dissatisfaction and excessive weight (24). Such circumstances indicate that unsuccessful attempts to lose weight are associated with excessive concern about weight, which generates emotional stress and binge eating as a compensatory behavior (18). Longitudinal studies on binge eating are important, particularly when supported by actions aimed at promoting improvements in symptoms, as in a study in Campinas-SP in which patients with binge eating were monitored during six months by a multidisciplinary team. In the referred study, the authors reported a significant decrease in binge eating symptoms and body image dissatisfaction, with improvement in depression and anxiety symptoms after treatment. Food intake and body weight also decreased (25). Food intake of binge eaters is an important aspect, and in this study, patients with binge eating showed a more frequent intake of sweetened drinks (p = 0.05) compared to those without binge eating. Another clinically relevant aspect is the consumption of desserts/ sweets and refined and processed grains, which is higher among patients with binge eating, since these food groups are generally consumed by obese individuals 406

not only to alleviate hunger but also to fight stress, anxiety, mental fatigue and depression (2,18,26). Such a fact is probably due to psychological factors involved in the eating behavior once eating often reflects the hedonic value given to food, influencing brain response to what and how much is eaten (27). Another relevant issue concerning the consumption of these food groups is that, since they are usually rich in empty and low nutritional calories, they may contribute to obesity development. Assessment of the nutritional status of patients of this study showed that the group of patients with binge eating had higher weight, BMI and WC. Moreover, obesity can be a determinant for the development of other disorders, particularly cardiovascular, which are aggravating factors for associated risks such as hypertension, insulin resistance and dyslipidemia (28). It is noteworthy that obesity itself does not determine an eating disorder, as binge eating can occur both in normal-weight and obese individuals. However, obesity is a biased risk factor because it results from imbalanced food intake, and studies indicate a positive association between binge eating and increased adiposity (6,29-32). Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2018;62/4

Prevalence of binge eating and factors

Table 6. Complementary data according to overweight classification of a University Hospital – UFGD 2015 Total n = 272

Overweight n = 97

Obesity n = 175

Average ± SD

52 ± 13

48.5 ± 11.6

54 ± 13.4

n (%)

Younger adults

194 (71.3)

85 (87.6)

109 (62.3)

Older adults

78 (28.7)

12 (12.4)

66 (37.7)

Presence of

n (%)

Yes

146 (53.7)

41 (42.3)

105 (60)

126 (46.3)

56 (57.7)

70 (40)

Yes

71 (26.1)

15 (15.5)

56 (32)

201 (73.9)

82 (84.5)

119 (68)

Yes

105 (38.6)

36 (37.1)

69 (39.4)

167 (61.4)

61 (62.9)

106 (60.6)

Yes

101 (37.1)

28 (28.9)

73 (41.7)

171 (62.9)

69 (71.1)

102 (58.3)

Yes

38 (14)

15 (15.5)

23 (13.1)

234 (86)

82 (84.5)

152 (86.9)

Yes

72 (26.5)

20 (20.6)

52 (29.7)

200 (73.5)

77 (79.4)

123 (70.3)

Yes

47 (17.3)

12 (12.4)

35 (20)

225 (82.7)

85 (87.6)

140 (80)

Variables

Age (years) Classification by age

0.001 < 0.001

Systemic arterial hypertension 0.005

Diabetes mellitus 0.004

Dyslipidemia 0.79

Metabolic syndrome 0.03

Renal disease 0.58

Coronary disease 0.11

Thyroid 0.13

Apnea Yes

27 (9.9)

2 (2.1)

25 (14.3)

245 (90.1)

95 (97.9)

150 (85.7)

Yes

51 (18.8)

13 (13.4)

38 (21.7)

221 (81.3)

84 (86.6)

137 (78.3)

Yes

204 (75)

69 (71.1)

135 (77.1)

68 (25)

28 (28.9)

40 (22.9)

n (%)

< 5 times/week

223 (82)

87 (89.7)

136 (77.7)

≥ 5 times/week

49 (18)

10 (10.3)

39 (22.3)

0.001

Psychological aspects 0.10

Other disorders

Food intake frequency

0.30

Diet and light group products

0.01

Significant difference: p ≤ 0.05; Student’s t-test; Chi-square or Fisher’s exact test. SD: standard deviation.

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Prevalence of binge eating and factors

The characteristics of the sociodemographic profile of subjects in this study are typical of binge eaters of the public health system, who have primary education, a monthly income of 2–3 minimum wages and a stable marital status (married/living with a partner). Similar results were obtained in the study of Pacanowski and cols. (33), who assessed binge eating in individuals from Minnesota (USA). In the referred study, corroborating our findings, the authors also observed a greater prevalence of white, employed and married individuals. This model of holistic approach was observed in the study by Carvalho-Ferreira and cols. (25) in which interdisciplinary intervention in binge eaters contributed to improve the physical and psychological symptoms of patients. Therefore, eating behavior has aroused the interest of many researchers, as it is a major element for successful treatment (34). The assessment of subclinical samples is important because these samples consist of patients who did not seek diagnosis and treatment for binge eating and obesity in outpatient units. Thus, without the identification of this condition, patients cannot be properly treated, which might lead to aggravation of their symptoms. It was concluded that the profile of binge eaters consists mostly of younger adults and women. Another factor that deserves attention is that most patients with binge eating were dissatisfied with their body image and with a high prevalence of elevated WC. Moreover, factors such as physical inactivity and high consumption of sweetened drinks as well as high (though not significant) rates of consumption of desserts/sweets and refined and processed grains may have contributed to the onset of disorders detected in this group. Contribution of each author: MRAG – research creation and design, data collection, data analysis and interpretation, statistical analysis and writing of the manuscript; BRC – data collection; AESM – data collection; NFM – statistical analysis; FLPS – research creation and design, data analysis and interpretation, critical review of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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Disclosure: no potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.

21. Vancampfort D, Vanderlinden J, De Hert M, Adámkova M, Skjaerven LH, Catalán-Matamoros D, et al. A systematic review on physical therapy interventions for patients with binge eating disorder. Disabil Rehabil. 2013;35(26):2191-6.

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original article

Association of serum thyrotropin levels with coronary artery disease documented by quantitative coronary angiography: a transversal study Pedro D. Ortolani Jr.1, João H. Romaldini1, Ricardo A. Guerra1, Evandro S. Portes1, George C. X. Meireles2, João Pimenta2

Serviço de Endocrinologia, Hospital do Servidor Público Estadual de São Paulo, Instituto de Assistência Médica ao Servidor Público Estadual (HSPEIAMSPE), São Paulo, SP, Brasil 2 Serviço de Cardiologia, Hospital do Servidor Público Estadual de São Paulo, Instituto de Assistência Médica ao Servidor Público Estadual (HSPE-IAMSPE), São Paulo, SP, Brasil 1

Correspondence to: Pedro Dirceu Ortolani Júnior Serviço de Endocrinologia, Hospital do Servidor Público Estadual Rua Pedro de Toledo, 1.800 04039-000 – São Paulo, SP, Brasil pdojr@terra.com.br Received on Oct/3/2017 Accepted on Mar/10/2018 DOI: 10.20945/2359-3997000000054

ABSTRACT Objective: The association between coronary artery disease (CAD) and thyroid function remains controversial. We evaluated the thyroid function and graduated well-defined CAD as confirmed by quantitative coronary angiography (CA). Subjects and methods: We evaluated the serum TSH, free thyroxine, free triiodothyronine and thyroid antibody levels in 300 consecutive patients (age 61.6 ± 9.9 years and 54% were male) undergoing CAD diagnosis as confirmed by CA. Plaques with ≥ 50% stenosis being indicative of obstructive CAD, and patients were divided into groups according to main epicardial coronary arteries with plaques (0, 1, 2, 3). Lipid profiles and a homeostasis model assessment (HOMA-IR) were determined. Results: Serum median (25% and 75% percentile) TSH levels in patients with group 2 and 3 (2.25; 1.66-3.12 mU/L and 4.99; 4.38-23.60 mU/L, respectively) had significantly higher TSH concentrations (p < 0.0001) than the group 0 (1.82; 1.35-2.51 mU/L). Furthermore, patients of group 3 had higher TSH concentration (p < 0.0001) than those of group 1 (1.60; 0.89-2.68 mU/L). Group 3 were older (64 ± 8.5 vs. 59 ± 9.5, p = 0.001), had more patients with dyslipidemia (84% versus 58%, p < 0.001), male (54% versus 44%, p = 0.01), hypertension (100% versus 86%, p < 0.001), and smoking (61% versus 33%, p < 0.001) than group 0. Multivariate stepwise logistic analysis showed TSH, age, HbA1c, and HOMA-IR were the CAD associated variables. Conclusions: In this cohort, elevated TSH levels in the high normal range or above are associated with the presence and severity of CAD besides may represent a weak CAD risk factor. Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2018;62(4):410-5 Keywords TSH; coronary artery disease; coronary angiography

INTRODUCTION

ypothyroidism is typically associated with elevated endothelial dysfunction and increased all-cause mortality in addition to cardiac death and/or hospitalization (1-3). Several studies have shown that coronary atherosclerosis in subjects with hypothyroidism is more frequent and severe than in normal subjects (4). In addition, there is some evidence that an elevated serum TSH in association with serum thyroid peroxidase antibody (TPOAb) may alter the traditional risk factors for coronary arterial disease (CAD), perhaps because of the accumulation of circulating levels of atherogenic total cholesterol (TC) and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol particles (5-9). Consequently, the relation between thyroid dysfunction and CAD remains questionable (10), however, some authors have found a positive correlation between serum TSH levels and the 410

presence and severity of coronary stenosis (6,11-14); other authors have found no correlation between these two parameters (15,16). In contrast, Coceani and cols. observed a negative correlation with serum FT3 (but not with FT4 levels) and CAD (17). On the other hand, Miura and cols. found that independent of conventional cardiovascular risk factors, thyroid hormones (FT3 and FT4) inversely correlated with coronary artery disease, especially men (18,19). A meta-analysis demonstrated that high TSH values were associated with cardiovascular risk in patients < 65 years old, whereas another study reported that in patients > 85 years old, increased serum TSH values played a protective role against the development of CAD (20,21). Furthermore, it remains to be determined whether serum TSH, FT4, FT3, TPOAb or thyroglobulin antibody (TgAb) levels are associated with CAD development. The aim of this Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2018;62/4

Coronary artery disease and TSH levels

SUBJECTS AND METHODS

coronary arteries (such as the right coronary, left anterior descending, or circumflex arteries) and classified as group 1, 2, or 3 according the number of vessels with significant stenosis (24). Patients were classified as group 0 if they had no CAD or when the main epicardial coronary arteries were < 50% of the internal diameter.

Patients

Biochemical analysis

Data were obtained from 343 consecutive patients in the Cardiology Outpatient Unit, Hospital do Servidor Público Estadual de São Paulo, Instituto de Assistência Médica ao Servidor Público Estadual (HSPE-IAMSPE) in Brazil that were referred for CA because of signs or symptoms relevant to CAD. All of the patients satisfied two inclusion criteria: 1) characteristic signs of myocardial ischemia on non-invasive tests and 2) clinical recommendation for further assessment. We used a questionnaire to assess classical risk factors for CAD such as diabetes, hypertension, dyslipidemia, smoking, and a family history of premature CAD (defined as ≤ 55 years old for males and ≤ 65 years old for females). Patients were excluded in cases with a history of thyroid diseases, documented CAD, acute CAD, or ischemic equivalent (such as dyspnea, sickness, confusion, stroke or pulmonary edema, compatible electrocardiographic signs, or increased creatine kinase-MB [CK-MB)] and/or troponin levels) (22). We excluded patients who were using amiodarone, levothyroxine, or antithyroid drugs (such as methimazole or propylthiouracil). Forty-three patients were excluded, and the remaining 300 patients were enrolled in the study. All of the patients included in the study received an explanation of the purpose of the study and signed a consent form. This work was submitted to the Research Ethics Committee of IAMSPE and approved without restrictions.

Blood samples were drawn after overnight fasting prior to the CA. For the hormone assessment, patient samples were stored at -20°C until the time of measurement and analyzed in our laboratory. Blood glucose levels were estimated using the glucose oxidase method. Hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c), CK-MB, and cardiac troponin levels were determined by HPLC, electrochemiluminescent immunoassay, and twosite enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay methods, respectively. Serum TC, triglycerides (TG), and highdensity lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol levels were measured enzymatically. To determine LDL-cholesterol levels, the formula from Friedewald and cols. was used (25). Serum creatinine level was analyzed using a colorimetric method, and hepatic enzyme levels were determined enzymatically.

Assessment of CA All of the patients were assessed via CA and further analyzed by an independent observer who was not involved in patients medical care. The quantification of the CA was performed manually. The CA was carried out using a femoral approach and a 6- or 7-F guiding catheter. Right and left CAs were performed in multiple projections using standard techniques and used to evaluate coronary artery stenosis (23). CAD was defined according to CA results, and significant stenosis was defined as a decrease in internal diameter of ≥ 50%, which could affect one or more of the main epicardial Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2018;62/4

Hormonal analysis Serum TSH, FT4, and FT3 levels were measured using direct chemiluminescent technology (Advia Centaur XP Immunoassay System; Siemens Healthcare Diagnostics, Deerfield, IL, USA) using reference values ranging from 0.3–4.1 mU/L for TSH, 0.8–2.0 ng/dL for FT4, and 1.6–4.1 pg/mL for FT3. The mean interassay CV was 3.1, 11.0, and 8.9 % for TSH, FT4, and FT3, respectively. TPOAb and TgAb serum concentrations were determined via a chemiluminescent immunometric assay (Diagnostic Products Co., Los Angeles, CA, USA), and values > 35 IU/L were considered to be positive. Serum insulin was analyzed using a chemiluminescent immunometric assay (Diagnostic Products Co.). The homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance (HOMA-IR) index was determined using serum glucose and insulin values: fasting insulin (mU/mL)×fasting blood glucose (mg/dL)/405. Body mass index (BMI) was expressed as kg/m2.

Statistical analysis Differences between the groups were verified by the Kruskal-Wallis in conjunction with the Dunn’s multiple 411

study was to yield greater insight into the assessment of thyroid function parameters and lipid concentrations in consecutive patients undergoing quantitative coronary angiography (CA).

Coronary artery disease and TSH levels

RESULTS Characteristics of patients that were analyzed and patient demographics are reported in Table 1. All enrolled patients underwent all tests according to schedule. The mean age was of 61.6 ± 9.9, > 90% of patients had hypertension, 72% had dyslipidemia, and almost half of them were smokers. Mean serum TSH levels were 3.0 ± 2.7 (SD) mU/L, and 11% of patients had positive thyroid antibodies. Significant stenosis (≥ 50% in one or more main epicardial vessels) Table 1. Baseline characteristics of 300 patients participants in the study Variables

Number (%) or mean ± SD

Age, years

61.6 ± 9.9

Male

162 (54)

Diabetes mellitus

107 (36)

Hypertension

275 (92)

Smoking Family history of CAD

70 (23)

Dyslipidemia

215 (72)

BMI, kg/m2

28.2 ± 4.5

Total cholesterolemia, mg/dL

178.7 ± 37.9

HDL-cholesterolemia, mg/dL

49.1 ± 14.1

Trygliceridemia, mg/dL

6.3 ± 1.4

LDL-cholesterolemia, mg/dL

101 ± 31.9

Thyroid antibodiesb

34 (11)

TSH, mU/L

3.0 ± 2.7

FT4, ng/dL

1.2 ± 0.4

FT3, ng/dL

2.9 ± 0.6

SD: standard deviation. CAD coronary artery disease. peroxidase antibody.

412

Presence of serum thyroglobulin antibody and thyroid

6 a 3

Grade 0

Grade 1

Grade 2

Grade 3

Coronary arterial lesions

134 ± 73.1

HbA1c, %

147 (49) a

was observed in 62% (185) of patients. Arterial vessel stenosis was observed in 60 patients (group 1), 64 patients had two stenosed vessels (group 2), and 61 patients had three stenosed vessels (group 3). Figure 1 shows the results of serum TSH concentration in patients undergoing CA examination. Serum median and a 25% and 75% percentile of TSH levels in patients of group 2 (2.25; 1.66-3.12 mU/L) and group 3 (4.99; 4.38-23.60 mU/L) had significantly higher TSH concentrations (p < 0.0001) than the group 0 (1.82; 1.35-2.51 mU/L). Furthermore, patients of group 3 had higher TSH concentration (p < 0.0001) than those of group1 (1.60; 0.89-2.68 mU/L) as shown Figure 1. Moreover, group 3 had significant more patients with dyslipidemia, hypertension and smoking than group 0 patients. In group 3, the mean HbA1c levels were higher than other groups, and were older as shown Table 2. The group 2 had similar figure; had more male, smoking and diabetes patients as well as high HbA1c level, and older than group 0. Univariate logistical regression analysis revealed that male sex, diabetes mellitus, hypertension, dyslipidemia, smoking, older age and TSH were significant risk factors for CAD (Table 3). Thereafter, as shown in Table 4, the stepwise backward multiple regression model of CAD identified TSH, older age, HbA1c, and HOMA-IR as CAD risk factors (R2 = 0.377; Adjusted R2 = 0.369; SE = 0.922 F = 42.526; p-value = 0.0001).

TSH mU/L

comparison tests, and thereafter they were compared two-by-two using the Mann-Whitney rank test. Chisquare or Fischer’s exact tests were used to compare proportions Univariate and multivariate analyses with multinomial logistic regression analysis were used to evaluate the risks associated with CA results. For univariate analysis a less-restrictive alpha level with a 0.1 was used, and so a broad range of variables are considered for inclusion in the model. Thereafter, a backward stepwise multiple regression analysis was employed using CAD as dependent variable. A beta coefficient, standard error of beta coefficient (SE), and 95% confidence interval were obtained. SAS software version 9.4 (SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC) was used for all analyses.

Figure 1. Box-and-whisker plot of the differences in the serum TSH median observed between patients undergoing the coronary angiography. Group 0; absence of coronary artery disease (when the vessels were < 50% of the internal diameter). Group 1, 2, and 3; according to the number of vessels with significant stenosis. The median is the center line, the ends of the box represent the 25th and 75th percentiles, and the ends of the lines extend to the 2.5th and 97.5th percentiles. Differences between the groups were analyzed by the Kruskal-Wallis test. (H = 203.5; p < 0.0001). p < 0.02 vs. group 0; b p < 0.0001 vs. group 0, 1 and 2 (Verified by the Mann-Whitney test was used). a

Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2018;62/4

Coronary artery disease and TSH levels

Table 2. Characteristics of patients according to the coronary artery angiography Variables

Group 0a

number

Group 1

Group 2

Group 3

0.002

64.7 ± 8.5

115

59 ± 9.5

61.4 ± 10.1

63.8 ± 10.6

Male, n (%)

51 (44)

31 (52)

36 (56)

0.015

33 (54)

0.01

Diabetes mellitus, n (%)

31 (27)

19 (32)

25 (39)

0.0001

33 (54)

0.107

Hypertension, n (%)

99 (86)

55 (92)

60 (94)

0.142

61 (100)

0.0001

Smoking, n (%)

38 (33)

32 (53)

39 (65)

0.001

37 (61)

0.0007

Familiar history of CAD

24 (21)

17 (28)

13 (20)

1.001

17 (28)

0.259

Dyslipidemia, n (%)

67 (58)

44 (73)

54 (84)

0.142

51 (84)

0.0001

Age, mean ± SD

BMI, Kg/m2, mean ± SD

61 0.001

29.0 ± 4.9

27.2 ± 4.0

27.5 ± 4.3

0.059

28.3 ± 3.9

0.097

Total cholesterolemia, mg/dL

185.2 ± 35.2

174.7 ± 39.1

174.4 ± 39.2

0.610

175.3 ± 38.9

0.088

HDL-cholesterolemia, mg/dL

50.3 ± 11.7

49.7 ± 12.4

48.0 ± 15.7

0.210

47.4 ± 12.7

0.130

Trygliceridemia, mg/dL

131 ± 70.6

136.3 ± 83.2

133.3 ± 65.4

0.450

137.6 ± 76.2

0.213

LDL-cholesterolemia, mg/dL

108 ± 32.5

97.7 ± 33.7

99.5 ± 29.8

0.750

100.5 ± 33.1

0.923

6.0 ± 1.2

6.1 ± 1.3

6.5 ± 1.4

0.002

6.7 ± 1.8

0.018

12 (10)

9 (15)

7 (10.9)

0.607

7 (11.4)

0.596

TSH, mU/L

2.7 ± 2.1

3.1 ± 2.6

2.9 ± 2.1

0.025

3.5 ± 3.8

0.0001

FT4, ng/dL

1.1 ± 0.2

1.2 ± 0.2

0.139

1.1 ± 0.2

0.758

FT3, ng/dL

2.9 ± 0.5

2.9 ± 0.6

3.0 ± 0.5

0.254

2.9 ± 0.5

0.800

HbA1c, %, mean ± SD Thyroid antibodiesd, n (%)

SD: standard deviation. Group was classified as the number of main epicardial vessels with stenosis: Group 0 when vessels without lesion or less than 50% of the internal diameter, Group 1 when one vessel with lesion equal or more than 50% of the internal diameter, Group 2 when two vessels with lesion equal or more than 50% of the internal diameter, Group 3 when three vessels with lesion equal or more than 50% of the internal diameter. a

p-values significant between patients with Group 0 and Group-2, and no significant with Group 1.

p-values significant between patients with Group 0 and Group 3, and no significant with Group 1 and Group 2.

Presence of serum thyroglobulin antibody and thyroid peroxidase antibody Kruskal-Wallis was used (H = 7357.8; p < 0.00010. Mann-Whitney test was used for continuous variables between the groups, and the Chi-Square or Fischer`s exact test was used for categorical variables. d

Table 3. Risk factors associated with coronary arterial disease in patients undergoing coronary angiography by univariate logistic regression analysis Variable

Adjusted odds ratio

95% Confidence Interval

Age, years

1.05

1.02–1.07

< 0.01

Male

1.93

1.27–2.93

< 0.01

Diabetes mellitus

1.17

1.41–3.34

< 0.01

Hypertension

3.55

1.53–8.24

< 0.01

Dyslipidemia

2.74

1.70–4.42

< 0.01

Smoking

2.35

1.54–3.57

< 0.01

HOMA-IR

1.12

1.05–1.20

< 0.01

HbA1c

1.32

1.13–1.54

< 0.01

TSH

1.07

0.99–1.16

= 0.08

Variables such as familiar history of CAD (p = 0.45), BMI (p = 0.21), thyroid antibodies (p = 0.78), FT4 (p = 0.58) and FT3 were not independent risk associated with CAD.

Variables

Coefficients

SEa

Beta

TSH

0.238544459

0.021348719

0.52981

11.173

0.0008

Age

0.018485266

0.005520596

0.159255363

3.348

0.0009

HbA1cb

0.454384746

0.121113561

0.17814673

3.752

0.0002

0,026698419

0.11200489

0.112782451

2.38

0.017

HOMA-IR

Table 4. Result from stepwise backward regression analysis for presence of coronary arterial disease in patients undergoing coronary angiography

SE, the estimated standard deviation of the error in the model.

Hemoglobin A1c.

The homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance.

Independent variables such as sex (p = 0.31), diabetes mellitus (p = 0.27), hypertension (p = 0.33), dyslipidemia (0.25) and smoking (p = 0.94) were not included in the model. Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2018;62/4

413

Coronary artery disease and TSH levels

DISCUSSION In this study, we have demonstrated that within our study population, patients with two or three stenosed arterial vessels at the CA assessment had higher serum TSH levels than patients with no stenosis. This study shown that serum TSH level was associated with risk of stenosis, detected during the CA, especially for patients with older age, higher levels of HbA1c and presence of insulin resistance. Serum FT4 or FT3 levels had no effect on the presence of stenosis. Recent meta-analysis provided some important information about the role of thyroid autoimmunity as a possible risk factor for CAD and suggested that biomarkers of thyroid autoimmunity do not add independent prognostic information for CAD outcomes (26). In the present study population, there was no association between significant stenosis seen on the CA and the presence of circulating TPOAb or TgAb. Although our findings using stepwise backward multiple regression model of CAD identified TSH, older age, HbA1c, and HOMA-IR as CAD predictors besides TSH were a weak independent risk factor for CAD. These data are consistent with the hypothesis that serum TSH values, even within in the upper normal reference range, are associated with the presence of stenosis (10). Endothelial dysfunction has been detected in hypothyroid patients, and it has been shown to be associated with low-intensity chronic inflammation, arterial vasodilatation reduction, and the presence of circulating TPOAb or TgAb (27,28). A limitation of our study was the small number of enrolled patients, which reduced the strength of the reported associations. Furthermore, in an attempt to decrease the influence of acute coronary syndrome, we included only select patients without clinical symptoms of cardiac disease such as chest pain or patients with manifestations of ischemic heart disease. On the other hand, it seems that there was no clear agreement on the association of serum TSH, FT4, and FT3 values with CAD. A multicenter prospective study, including 55,000 patients, revealed that elevated serum TSH levels (particularly levels > 10 mU/L) were associated with an increased risk of cardiac events and mortality due to CAD, and Chaker and cols. found that high levels of TSH might increase the risk of stroke in patients < 65 years old (29,30). Auer and cols. identified a positive correlation between serum TSH levels and the presence and severity of CAD without excluding patients with previous thyroid disease (31). Miura and cols. studied angina patients found in CAD patients lower FT4 and 414

FT3 levels as compared to patients without coronary stenosis (18). On the contrary, Coceani and cols. assessed approximately 1,000 patients (excluding individuals with acute myocardial infarction) and found no correlation between serum TSH or FT4 levels and CAD and observed a negative correlation only with serum FT3 levels (17). We did not find any association between serum FT4 and/or FT3 levels and CAD. A direct correlation between TC and LDL cholesterol is well-known, even when serum TSH values are within the reference range, and is usually associated with insulin resistance and in smokers (8,32). Among the many factors associated with CAD, Tatar and cols. reported a direct effect of serum TSH in the upper normal reference range on an increase in arterial stiffness in dialysis patients with euthyroidism (33). On the other hand, serum TSH also increased inflammatory molecules and inhibited nitric oxide production due to oxidative stress as demonstrated by Desideri and cols. and Dardano and cols. (34,35). We were unable to find any evidence for an association between lipid profiles and serum TSH levels, most likely due to the fact that the majority of patients were taking dyslipidemia drugs. Despite the elevated frequency of hypertensive patients in our study population, no association with serum TSH values was noted. Some paper found results similar to ours study: Yun and cols. used a serum TSH cutoff point of 2.1 mU/L; observed a significant correlation between serum TSH levels and coronary artery lesions in patients with unstable angina (36). Furthermore, using the median serum TSH value (1.73 mU/L) as a cutoff value, Yang and cols. studied the hospital-based diagnoses of myocardial infarction in 318 patients and found an association between elevated serum TSH values (still within the reference range) and CAD (37). Daswani and cols. found lower FT3 levels in patients with three stenosed vessels were more affected in CAD than in normal patients (38). Finally, the possibility that serum TSH levels is a cardiovascular risk factor has been a subject of debate, and a broad studies are needed for answer this point. In summary, our study suggests that in a population with multiple risk factors for CAD development, there is an association with high serum TSH, even in the upper normal range, with presence and severity of CAD as detected with CA. Furthermore, elevated serum TSH may represent a weak CAD risk factor. Disclosure: no potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported. Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2018;62/4

Coronary artery disease and TSH levels

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REFERENCES

original article

Waist circumference measurement sites and their association with visceral and subcutaneous fat and cardiometabolic abnormalities Cláudia Porto Sabino Pinho1, Alcides da Silva Diniz1, Ilma Kruze Grande de Arruda1, Ana Paula Dornelas Leão Leite2, Marina de Moraes Vasconcelos Petribu2, Isa Galvão Rodrigues2

ABSTRACT Objectives: To estimate the degree of variability of the waist circumference (WC) when obtained in different anatomical sites and compare the performance of the measurement sites as predictors of visceral adipose tissue (VAT) and subcutaneous adipose tissue (SAT) and cardiometabolic abnormalities. Subjects and methods: Cross-sectional study involving 119 individuals with overweight (50.3 ± 12.2 years), in which six WC measurement sites were evaluated (minimal waist, immediately below the lowest rib, midpoint between the lowest rib and the iliac crest, 2 cm above the umbilicus, immediately above the iliac crest, umbilicus level), in addition to the VAT and SAT (quantified by computed tomography) and cardiometabolic parameters. Results: The differences between the measurements ranged from 0.2 ± 2.7 cm to 6.9 ± 6.7 cm for men, and from 0.1 ± 3.7 cm to 10.1 ± 4.3 cm for women. The minimum waist showed significant correlation with VAT (r = 0.70) and with a higher number of cardiometabolic parameters among men. Regarding women, the WC measurement showed high correlation with SAT and moderate correlation with VAT, not being found superiority of one measurement protocol in relation to the others when assessed the correlation with VAT and with cardiometabolic parameters. Conclusions: Greater variability between the measuring sites was observed among women. With respect to men, the minimum waist performed better as a predictor of VAT and cardiometabolic alterations. Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2018;62(4):416-23

Universidade Federal de Pernambuco (UFPE), Recife, PE, Brasil 2 Pronto-Socorro Cardiológico Universitário de Pernambuco, Recife, PE, Brasil 1

Correspondence to: Cláudia Porto Sabino Pinho Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Departamento de Nutrição Prof. Morais Rego Ave, 1235 Cidade Universitária 50670-901 – Recife, PE, Brasil claudiasabinopinho@hotmail.com Received on Nov/13/2017 Accepted on Mar/14/2018 DOI: 10.20945/2359-3997000000055

Keywords Waist circumference; visceral fat; subcutaneous fat; abdominal fat

INTRODUCTION

he waist circumference (WC) measurement has been recommended in clinical guidelines and by the leading authority in health and societies as a cardiometabolic risk predictor associated with central adiposity, both in clinical practice and in epidemiological studies (1-6). Despite the widespread use of this anthropometric parameter, there is no consensus on the evaluation protocol and the measurement standardization due to lack of consistent evidence justifying the superiority of one measurement site in relation to others, resulting in a wide variety of techniques reported in the literature. A systematic review of 120 studies showed eight different protocols for WC measurement (7), some endorsed by international bodies and other experimental protocols adopted to a lesser extent in the publications on the subject. The World Health Organization (8) and 416

the International Diabetes Federation (4) recommend the measurement at the midpoint between the iliac crest and the lowest rib. The National Institutes of Health (9), in turn, establishes the superior border of the iliac crest as the anatomical site of WC measurement. Other anatomical sites such as the minimal waist and the umbilicus are also commonly adopted (7,10). Although these measurement sites present close correlation, significant differences between the WC measures obtained at different locations have been reported (11-14). Previous studies comparing the different protocols showed a profound influence of the measurement site on the absolute values of WC (11,13,15). Those differences, even if subtle, could potentially affect the utility of the WC measurement for assessing the cardiometabolic risk, particularly when the stratification of the risk depends on dichotomous thresholds, with possible repercussion on the clinical Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2018;62/4

decision making (16). In addition, little attention has been given to the method for determining the WC when comparing data from different studies (13,14). This study aimed to estimate the degree of variability of the WC when obtained from different anatomical sites and compare the performance of the measurement sites as predictors of visceral and subcutaneous fat and cardiometabolic abnormalities.

SUBJECTS AND METHODS Cross-sectional study developed in a nutrition clinic of a public university hospital, reference in cardiology, in northeastern Brazil, involving individuals with overweight, of both sexes and age ≥ 20 years. In this clinic, the patients are predominantly individuals with non-communicable chronic diseases: obesity, hypertension, diabetes mellitus, metabolic syndrome and dyslipidemia. Overweight was established based on the body mass index (BMI) ≥ 25 kg/m² for adults (8) and ≥ 27 kg/m² for the elderly (17). The sample was built based on voluntary adhesion, being picked up patients in first consultation. Individuals with hepatomegaly and/or splenomegaly, ascites and recent abdominal surgery were excluded, as well as pregnant women and those who had children up to 6 months prior to the screening for the study, characteristics that may influence the intra-abdominal fat measurement and/or the anthropometric measurements. Assuming a 5% α error, a β error of 20%, an estimated average correlation between the WC measures and the metabolic changes of 0.4 (p) and a variability of 0.1 (d²), it was obtained a minimum sample size of 108 individuals. To correct possible losses, that number was increased by 10% [100/(100-10)], with a total sample of n = 119. The visceral adipose tissue (VAT) and the subcutaneous adipose tissue (SAT) were assessed by computed tomography (CT), using the Philips Brilliance CT-10 slice tomoghaph (VMI Indústria e Comércio Ltda., Lagoa Santa, MG, Brazil). The survey was conducted in four hours fasting with the patient in supine position. The tomographic cut was obtained with radiographic parameters of 140 kV and 45 mA, at the L4 level, having a thickness of 10 mm. The total area of total abdominal fat and the visceral fat area were manually outlined with free cursor contouring each region. The entire surface of the skin was excluded Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2018;62/4

from the marking area. The area of the VAT was determined using as limits the inner borders of the rectus abdominis, internal oblique and square lumbar muscles, excluding the vertebral body and including the retroperitoneal, mesenteric and omental fat. The subcutaneous fat area was calculated by subtracting the VAT from the total fat area. All areas of fat were described in cm². For identification of the adipose tissue, it was used the density values of -50 and -250 Hounsfield units (18-20). The WC was obtained by inelastic tape measure, with accuracy of 0.1 cm, directly on the skin, in six anatomical regions: 1) at the minimal waist (narrowest region between the chest and hips) (WC1) (10); 2) immediately below the lowest rib (WC2) (10,11); 3) at the midpoint between the lowest rib and the iliac crest (WC3) (4,8); 4) 2 cm above the umbilicus (WC4) (21); 5) immediately above the iliac crest (WC5) (9); at the umbilicus level (WC6) (7,22). The bony landmarks of the lowest rib and of the iliac crest were located and palpated by the examiner at the level of the middle axillary line. The measuring tape was placed on a horizontal plane around the abdomen in the locations described above and particular attention was given to ensure that the tape was parallel to the floor and perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the body. The measurement was performed at the end of the normal expiration with the inelastic tape adjacent to the skin, without compressing it, keeping the participant standing up, straight, with parallel legs and arms hanging down on the sides. For each evaluated anthropometric point, a double measurement was obtained by a trained examiner (12,23). When the measure difference between measurements was greater than 0.1 cm, a third measurement was performed. The final measure considered was the average of the two closest values. It were evaluated the following cardiometabolic parameters: fasting blood glucose, glycated hemoglobin (HbA1C), lipid profile (triglycerides (TG), total cholesterol (TC) and fractions, non-HDL cholesterol and TG/HDL-c ratio), C-reactive protein (CRP) and uric acid. Samples were collected with 9-12 hours fasting, considering a preparation protocol (24). Blood glucose, lipid profile and uric acid were analyzed by the enzymatic method, and HbA1c and CRP by turbidimetry. Biochemical analyses were carried out using a Cobas Integra 400® analyzer (Roche Diagnostics) in the Laboratory of Clinical Analyses in the service facilities. 417

Waist circumference measurement sites

The non-HDL cholesterol fraction, calculated by subtracting HDL-c from TC (non-HDL cholesterol = TC - HDL-c), was adopted as the estimate of the total number of atherogenic particles in the plasma (VLDL + IDL + LDL) (24). The TG/HDL-c ratio was used as atherogenicity index for reflecting the size of LDL-c particles (25). Data were analyzed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences, version 13.0 (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA). Continuous variables were tested for normal distribution using the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test, being described as mean and standard deviation or median and interquartile range, according to the distribution pattern. CRP was the only variable that showed nonnormal distribution. The Student t test for independent samples was used for comparison of the WC means between the sexes. The one-way ANOVA test was used for comparison of the six WC measurement sites, using the Bonferroni test a posteriori. Proportions were compared by Pearson Chi Square. The Pearson or Spearman correlation was used to evaluate the relationship between the different anatomical sites of WC measurement with VAT, SAT

and biochemical parameters. To analyze the correlation between WC and lipid profile, it were excluded subjects who reported use of lipid-lowering medications, and to verify the association between the WC sites and the glycemic parameters (fasting and HbA1c), it were excluded diabetic subjects. Statistical significance was considered when p < 0.05.

RESULTS Were included 124 individuals, but after discarding the losses for refusal or information inconsistency (n = 5), 119 patients were included in the final sample of the study. The mean age was 50.3 ± 12.2 years and women predominated (68.1%; CI95%: 59.2-75.8). Although men and women have displayed similar characteristics regarding age, nutritional status, subcutaneous fat and prevalence of diabetes mellitus and arterial hypertension, there were higher averages of visceral fat in men (p < 0.001) (Table 1). BMI averages were similar between sexes (p = 0.715), however, WC averages were higher among men, expressing, between sexes, a different distribution pattern of the body fat (Table 2).

Table 1. Sample characteristics, stratified by sex (n = 119) Variables

Males (n = 38)

Females (n = 81)

p-value*

49.9 (±13.7)

50.5 (±11.8)

0.817*

Arterial hypertension (%, CI95%)

68.4 (52.5-80.9)

59.3 (47.8-70.0)

0.420§

Diabetes mellitus (%, CI95%)

26.3 (15.0-42.0)

21.0 (12.7-31.5)

0.659§

Age, years (mean/SD)

BMI, kg/m² (mean/ SD) VAT (cm²) SAT (cm²)

33.1 (±4.9)

33.5 (±5.3)

0.715*

378.9 (±118.7)

258.6 (±75.4)

< 0.001*

506.3 (±162.2)

540.9 (±145.6)

0.294*

* Student t test for independent samples; Pearson Chi Square. SD: standard deviation; CI95%: confidence interval of 95%; BMI: body mass index; VAT: visceral adipose tissue; SAT: subcutaneous adipose tissue. §

Table 2. Comparative analysis of the averages of six anatomical sites of measurement of the waist circumference in individuals with overweight, according to sex Variables

Males (n = 38)

Females (n = 81)

p-value*

WC1 (cm)

106.2 (±10.6)

96.8 (±10.0) cma

< 0.001

WC2 (cm)

107.5 (±11.4)

97.6 (±11.3) cm

< 0.001

WC3 (cm)

112.9 (±12.5)

103.2 (±11.0) cmb

WC4 (cm)

112.3 (±11.5)

104.6 (±11.5) cm

WC5 (cm) WC6 (cm)

b,c

< 0.001 0.003

109.9 (±13.7)

106.7 (±10.7) cm

0.273

113.1 (±12.5)

106.8 (±10.7) cmc

0.012

0.143

< 0.001

p-value**

* Student t Test for independent samples. ** ANOVA one way. Different letters mean statistical diferences by the Bonferroni test. WC1: minimal waist; WC2: immediately below the lowest rib; WC3: at the midpoint between the lowest rib and the iliac crest; WC4: 2 cm above the umbilicus; WC5: immediately above the iliac crest; WC6: at the umbilicus level. a,b,c

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Waist circumference measurement sites

It was observed significant difference in the absolute values of the WC obtained in six anatomical sites of women (p < 0.001). Notwithstanding, among men, the difference was not observed (p = 0.143) and may suggest that they have uniformity in the waist circumference along the upper body (Table 2). The maximum absolute difference among the various protocols examined was observed when compared the WC obtained at the umbilicus (WC6) and at the minimal waist (WC1) in both sexes. The average differences between the measurements ranged from 0.2 ± 2.7 cm to 6.9 ± 6.7 cm among men, and from 0.1 ± 3.7 cm to 10.1 ± 4.3 cm among women. In men, the minimal waist (WC1) showed better correlation with VAT and lower correlation with

subcutaneous fat, unlike other measurement sites, which showed a higher correlation with SAT than with VAT. Furthermore, the minimal waist (WC1) was the only measurement site that showed correlation with triglycerides (r = 0.595, p < 0.05) and with the TG/ HDL-c ratio (r = 0.506, p < 0.05). The measures of the circumferences obtained at the bony landmark of the iliac crest (WC5) and at the umbilicus (WC6) showed higher correlation coefficients with SAT and lower correlation with VAT in both sexes. In women, these two anatomical sites have higher absolute values, expressing that the higher abdominal circumference can be much more represented by the SAT than by the VAT (Table 3).

Table 3. Pearson correlation (r) between waist circumference measures obtained at six anatomical sites with visceral and subcutaneous fat and cardiometabolic profile in subjects with overweight, according to sex Parameters

Males WC1

WC2

WC3

WC4

WC5

WC6

VAT

0.701*

0.598*

0.531*

SAT

0.621*

0.700*

0.800*

0.566*

0.358

0.426*

0.712*

0.836*

0.863*

-0.012

-0.147

HDL-c

-0.267

-0.336

-0.197

-0.207

-0.380

-0.300

-0.421

-0.431

-0.177

-0.415

LDL-c

-0.245

0.595*

-0.301

-0.316

-0.347

-0.464

-0.401

0.425

0.377

0.421

0.139

0.305

Non HDL-c TG/HDL

0.039

-0.082

-0.115

-0.124

-0.345

-0.219

0.506*

0.324

0.313

0.351

0.012

0.234

Glucose

-0.244

-0.253

-0.243

-0.258

-0.215

-0.264

HbA1C

-0.380

-0.500*

-0.529*

-0.555*

-0.484*

-0.553*

CRP#

-0.131

-0.193

-0.235

-0.230

-0.281

-0.248

Uric acid

0.032

-0.011

-0.022

0.017

-0.183

-0.032

Females WC1

WC2

WC3

WC4

WC5

WC6

VAT

0.462*

0.425*

0.397*

0.383*

0.332*

0.359*

SAT

0.714*

0.732*

0.758*

0.776*

0.783*

0.809*

-0.265

-0.199

-0.198

-0.234

-0.240

-0.241

HDL-c

-0.189

-0.130

-0.126

-0.086

-0.121

-0.110

LDL-c

-0.254

-0.193

-0.199

-0.225

-0.244

-0.229

-0.021

-0.030

-0.037

-0.100

-0.113

-0.143

Non HDL-c

-0.232

-0.177

-0.224

-0.222

-0.226

TG/HDL

0.027

0.022

0.032

-0.054

0.000

-0.074

Glucose

0.240

0.251

0.162

0.144

0.131

0.112

HbA1C

0.049

0.032

0.102

-0.012

0.068

0.000

CRP

Uric acid

0.239

0.205

0.238

0.293*

0.241*

0.246*

0.340*

0.238*

0.313*

0.325*

0.395*

0.362*

* p < 0,05. # Spearman correlation. VAT: visceral adipose tissue; SAT: subcutaneous adipose tissue; TC: total cholesterol; TG: triglycerides; HbA1C: glycated hemoglobin; CRP: C-reactive protein. WC1: minimal waist; WC2: immediately below the lowest rib; WC3: at the midpoint between the lowest rib and the iliac crest; WC4: 2 cm above the umbilicus; WC5: immediately above the iliac crest; WC6: at the umbilicus level. Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2018;62/4

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Parameters

Waist circumference measurement sites

It was found, for females, that the six evaluated protocols for obtaining the WC showed similar correlation with VAT (moderate correlation) and with SAT (high correlation). Regarding the metabolic abnormalities, it was observed, in females, that the uric acid correlated directly with the measures obtained at all measurement sites and that the CRP correlated with the three major measures observed among women (WC4, WC5, WC6).

DISCUSSION Although much progress has been made with respect to the use of the WC as a predictor of the cardiometabolic risk, up to now there is no ideal and uniform definition for using the WC measurement. One major objective of developing a definition is to minimize measurement errors and thus improve the efficiency in the estimates in studies of association and comparison involving this parameter. Lack of standards regarding anatomical site, posture, breathing phase and other factors contribute to measurement errors. Several protocols have been recommended, but the comparison between them has not been sufficiently explored. The results of this study indicate that the choice of the measurement protocol influences the magnitude of the WC measurement, especially in women. The substantial differences in the absolute values of the measures obtained for females were not reproduced in males. Similar result was reported by other authors (14,26), who indicated greater impact of the measurement site among women. These results observed for different genders may reflect sex differences in the abdominal fat distribution pattern. Similar measures among men indicate uniformity in the total fat accumulation deposited throughout the abdomen. Nonetheless, in women, the changes observed in the abdominal girth suggest a more curvilinear structure and with greater accumulation of adiposity in the lower torso. The maximum differences between the measures observed in this study (6.9 cm for men and 10.1 cm for women) reveal profound influence of the measurement site on the WC value. This result was relatively similar to the findings reported by Willis and cols. (12), who showed differences of 4.5 cm and 10.6 cm for males and females, respectively, when evaluating patients with an average BMI of 30 kg/m². Agarwal and cols. (13) reported mean differences between the measures of 5.3 420

cm for men and 5.5 cm for women, when evaluating 123 Asian subjects, with a mean age of 34 ± 8.7 years and average BMI of 23.9 ± 4.9 kg/m². Other studies (23,26) have indicated differences of approximately 2.0 cm for men and 5.5 cm for women. The variability in the differences between the measurement sites reported among diverse populations suggests that these differences may vary depending on the sample characteristics, including age, sex, race/ethnicity and level of adiposity. What seems to be consensus is that the results indicate greater influence of the measurement site on females. The differences in the measures, even if slight, can have particular effect on the abdominal obesity classification. The abdominal fat as a proxy of the cardiometabolic risk depends on dichotomized thresholds, and subtle variations can exert influence when this risk is stratified. Willis and cols. (12) reported that the estimates of prevalence of abdominal obesity (> 88 cm/> 102 cm) drastically varied according to the measurement site. In women, the measure taken at the minimal waist resulted in lower prevalence (31%) when compared to the measures obtained at the umbilicus (55%). In men, a small average difference between measures (2.5 cm) had a noticeable impact on the prevalence of abdominal obesity (34% when considering the measure taken at the umbilicus and 23% when using the minimal waist). Consequently, the choice of the measurement site can result in significant repercussions on the interpretation of epidemiological data. Therefore, small differences can be amplified when dichotomous cutoff points are used to define abdominal obesity. Despite the risks of using different protocols in the abdominal obesity classification, a systematic review of 120 studies demonstrated similar pattern of association of the different sites of obtention of the WC with cardiovascular diseases, diabetes mellitus and mortality (7). This study, by engaging a group of individuals with overweight and obesity, did not assess the impact of using different WC evalution protocols on the prevalence of abdominal obesity. Although some results elect the WC as a better indicator of the visceral fat and of the cardiovascular risk in comparison with the BMI and the waist-hip ratio (WHR) (27-29), few studies (12,23,26) compared the performance of different WC measurement sites as predictors of visceral fat accumulation. Furthermore, the available studies compared the use of only two Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2018;62/4

(12,26) or three measurement protocols (23), different from our study that compared six anatomical sites. This study showed among men that the minimal waist was a better marker of visceral fat than of subcutaneous fat, unlike other measurement protocols, which showed better correlation with the subcutaneous fat. This observation, coupled with the fact that no significant difference was observed in the WC measures for males, allows us to infer that the visceral fat is more concentrated in the upper abdomen and that VAT and SAT are not evenly disposed over the abdominal wall of males. Furthermore, the minimal waist was directly correlated with a greater number of cardiometabolic parameters (two) compared to the other measurement sites (one or zero). A similar result was produced by other research (12) that, when evaluating American adults with overweight and obesity, found that the minimal waist showed stronger correlation with VAT (r = 0.64; p < 0.001) and a higher number of metabolic parameters (three) compared to the measure obtained at the umbilicus, which presented lower correlation coefficient with VAT (r = 0.54; p < 0.001) and association with only two metabolic parameters. It is plausible to suppose that the measure offering the best correlation with VAT would have higher correlation with metabolic changes. It is well established the connection of the visceral obesity with a pro-atherogenic state (30,31) and the epicenter of most of the hypotheses postulated to explain this association (32,33) refers to the portal drainage of VAT, which provides direct access of free fatty acids and adipokines to the liver, by activating immune hepatic mechanisms for the production of inflammatory mediators, and thus promoting greater insulin resistance and increased production of triglycerides (34,35). Among women, it was found that the WC, regardless of the measurement site, was predominantly a subcutaneous fat index, corroborating the findings of another investigation (23). The minimal waist also showed a slight superiority in the correlation with VAT, when compared to the other measurements, while the larger abdominal circumferences (at the level of the umbilicus or the iliac crest) had lower correlation coefficients. These findings demonstrate that the larger perimeters reflect much more the excess subcutaneous fat than the excess visceral fat and corroborate the indication that the visceral fat would be proportionally more concentrated in the upper abdomen than in the lower abdômen (23,36). Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2018;62/4

WC reflects the abdominal adipose tissue, not being able to distinguish the deposits of visceral and subcutaneous fat (23,37). However, being used as a cardiometabolic risk predictor, it should better predict the VAT than the SAT, but this is not what the literature has shown (23,26,37), being very important the reflection on the widespread use of WC as a single parameter of risk screening. Some potential limitations need to be considered when interpreting the data presented. It was not a random sample and the participants of the study were taken from a hospital center which is reference in cardiology. In addition, it were included only individuals with overweight and obesity and therefore the data presented may not be generalized to individuals with low levels of adiposity. The small number of subjects included can also be a limitation in the statistical power of the study and compromise its external validity. Moreover, given that the racial characteristics influence the distribution of body fat, the extrapolation of data for individuals of different ethnic groups should be carried out with due caution. Another aspect that should be discussed within the framework of the topic and that has not been explored in this research refers to the technical issues of evaluation of the WC. Although the standardization for obtaining the WC is relevant, the reproducibility of the technique should be an aspect considered in the definition of the protocol for obtaining the measure. External landmarks (minimal waist and umbilicus) are widely used and may be more reproducible as they require less experience from the evaluator. Notwithstanding, the adoption of internal bony landmarks (iliac crest and lowest rib) as a reference shows advantages in the clinical follow-up of measurements, since they remain unaltered with changing adiposity (16). Thus, these aspects should be considered in future research and in the selection of the best assessment protocol. It should be noted that the comparison of the performance of six measurement sites and the use of a method considered “gold standard” for quantifying visceral fat are important aspects of the study. In summary, the magnitude of the WC is influenced by the anatomical site of measurement, particularly in women, indicating the need for standardization of protocols for obtaining the measurement and thus allowing valid comparisons between the studies. In conclusion, among men, the minimal waist showed better correlation with VAT and with 421

Waist circumference measurement sites

cardiometabolic parameters. In women, the WC seems to be a more accurate indicator of subcutaneous fat than of visceral fat. The findings of this study do not provide clear evidence of the superiority of a single measurement to predict the cardiometabolic risk. It would be important to conduct longitudinal studies involving a larger number of participants to compare the predictive ability of different WC measures for the development of cardiovascular and metabolic disorders. Therefore, data on the preference of a measurement protocol are still limited and more studies need to be developed in order to outline more conclusive evidence on the anatomical site of measurement that should be adopted as a clinical tool to assess the cardiometabolic risk. Replicating this approach in different populations will facilitate global comparisons. Transparency declaration: the lead author affirms that this manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study being reported. The reporting of this work is compliant with CONSORT1/STROBE2/PRISMA3 guidelines. The lead author affirms that no important aspects of the study have been omitted and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. Authors’ contributions: CPSP conceived of the study, carried out the studies and data analyses and drafted the manuscript. ASD and IKGA conceived of the study, and participated in its design and coordination to draft the manuscript. APDLL, MMVP and IGR performed the measurements. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. Funding: this research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. Disclosure: no potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.

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29. Rankinen T, Kim SY, Pérusse L, Després JP, Bouchard C. The prediction of abdominal visceral fat level from body composition and anthropometry: ROC analysis. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 1999;23(8):801-9. 30. Tchernof A, Després JP. Pathophysiology of human visceral obesity: an update. Physiol Rev. 2013;93(1):359-404. 31. Cartier A, Côté M, Lemieux I, Pérusse L, Tremblay A, Bouchard C, et al. Age-related differences in inflammatory markers in men: contribution of visceral adiposity. Metabolism. 2009;58(10):1452-8. 32. Bélanger C, Luu-The V, Dupont P, Tchernof A. Adipose tissue intracrinology: potential importance of local androgen/estrogen metabolism in the regulation of adiposity. Horm Metab Res. 2002;34(11-12):737-45. 33. Bergman RN, Van Citters GW, Mittelman SD, Dea MK, HamiltonWessler M, Kim SP, et al. Central role of the adipocyte in the metabolic syndrome. J Investig Med. 2001;49(1):119-26. 34. Jensen MD. Role of body fat distribution and the metabolic complications of obesity. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2008;93(11 Suppl 1):S57-63. 35. Korenblat KM, Fabbrini E, Mohammed BS, Klein S. Liver, muscle, and adipose tissue insulin action is directly related to intrahepatic triglyceride content in obese subjects. Gastroenterology. 2008;134(5):1369-75. 36. Shen W, Punyanitya M, Wang Z, Gallagher D, St-Onge MP, Albu J, et al. Visceral adipose tissue: relations between single-slice areas and total volume. Am J Clin Nutr. 2004;80(2):271-8. 37. Kullberg J, von Below C, Lönn L, Lind L, Ahlström H, Johansson L. Practical approach for estimation of subcutaneous and visceral adipose tissue. Clin Physiol Funct Imaging. 2007;27(3):148-53.

28. Pouliot MC, Després JP, Lemieux S, Moorjani S, Bouchard C, Tremblay A, et al. Waist circumference and abdominal sagittal

diameter: best simple anthropometric indexes of abdominal visceral adipose tissue accumulation and related cardiovascular risk in men and women. Am J Cardiol. 1994;73(7):460-8.

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original article

Dapagliflozin versus saxagliptin as add-on therapy in patients with type 2 diabetes inadequately controlled with metformin Julio Rosenstock1, Chantal Mathieu2, Hungta Chen3, Ricardo Garcia-Sanchez3, Gabriela Luporini Saraiva3

ABSTRACT Dallas Diabetes Research Center at Medical City, Dallas, TX, USA 2 UZ Leuven, Leuven, Belgium 3 AstraZeneca, Gaithersburg, MD, USA 1

Correspondence to: Julio Rosenstock Dallas Diabetes Research Center at Medical City, 7777 Forest Lane C-685 75230 – Dallas, Texas, USA juliorosenstock@dallasdiabetes.com Received on Jan/18/2018 Accepted on May/18/2018 DOI: 10.20945/2359-3997000000056

Objective: This analysis compared the efficacy and safety of the sodium–glucose cotransporter-2 (SGLT2) inhibitor, dapagliflozin, and the dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP4) inhibitor, saxagliptin, both added on to metformin. Materials and methods: This was a post-hoc analysis from a double-blind, randomized, 24-week clinical trial (NCT01606007) of patients with type 2 diabetes (T2D) inadequately controlled with metformin. We compared the dapagliflozin 10 mg (n = 179) and saxagliptin 5 mg (n = 176) treatment arms. Results: Dapagliflozin showed significantly greater mean reductions versus saxagliptin in HbA1c (difference versus saxagliptin [95% CI]: –0.32% [–0.54, –0.10]; p < 0.005), fasting plasma glucose (–0.98 [–1.42, –0.54] mmol/L; p < 0.0001), body weight (–2.39 [–3.08, –1.71] kg; p < 0.0001) and systolic blood pressure (SBP) (–3.89 [–6.15, –1.63] mmHg; p < 0.001). More dapagliflozintreated than saxagliptin-treated patients achieved the composite endpoint of HbA1c reduction ≥ 0.5%, weight loss ≥ 2 kg, SBP reduction ≥ 2 mmHg and no major/minor hypoglycemia (24% versus 7%). No major events of hypoglycemia were reported. More patients on dapagliflozin (6%) versus saxagliptin (0.6%) experienced genital infections. Conclusion: Dapagliflozin demonstrated greater glycemic efficacy than saxagliptin with additional benefits on weight and SBP, and the safety profile was consistent with previous studies. Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2018;62(4):424-30 Keywords Dapagliflozin; type 2 diabetes; SGLT2 inhibitor

INTRODUCTION Type 2 diabetes (T2D) is a progressive disease, requiring treatment intensification over time in order to maintain glycemic control. Metformin is the gold standard firstline pharmacological treatment (1), and thereafter as glycemia worsens, sequential add-on treatment decisions are based on a number of variables and usually involve the addition of other oral glucoselowering agents (2). Recommendations from clinical guidelines on the management of T2D vary, with some making no specific recommendations on the choice of add-on agent (1), and others advocating a hierarchical order for add-on therapies (3). The position statement of the American Diabetes Association (ADA) and European Association for the Study of Diabetes (EASD) recommends the use of one of six commonly used antihyperglycemic agents i.e. 1) a sulfonylurea, 2) a thiazolidinedione, 3) a dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP4) inhibitor, 4) a sodium-glucose 424

cotransporter-2 (SGLT2) inhibitor, 5) a glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) receptor agonist, or 6) a basal insulin analogue, as an add-on therapy when the individualized HbA1c target is not achieved after ∼3 months of treatment with metformin alone (1). The ADA/EASD position statement does not recommend any specific preference for a drug to be used as a dual therapy and instead suggests that the drug choice should be individualized based on patient preferences, hypoglycemia risk, side effect profile, and cost, in addition to other patient and disease characteristics (2). The ADA/EASD position statement further details that other drugs such as α-glucosidase inhibitors, colesevelam, bromocriptine and pramlintide may be used in specific situations but are generally not preferred due to their modest efficacy, side-effect profiles and dosing frequency. DPP4 inhibitors and SGLT2 inhibitors are widelyused therapies for T2D that are associated with a low incidence of hypoglycemia, with DPP4 inhibitors Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2018;62/4

Dapagliflozin vs saxagliptin add-on therapy

MATERIALS AND METHODS Study design This was a post-hoc analysis of 24-week data from a randomized, three-arm, double-blind, active-controlled Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2018;62/4

Phase 3 study (NCT01606007) (13). Patients with T2D were included in the original study if they were aged ≥ 18 years, had inadequate glycemic control (HbA1c ≥ 8.0% and ≤ 12.0%), were on stable metformin therapy (≥ 1500 mg/day) for ≥ 8 weeks before screening and had a BMI ≤ 45.0 kg/m2. The exclusion criteria were pregnancy, uncontrolled hypertension (SBP ≥ 160 mmHg and diastolic blood pressure ≥ 10 mmHg), fasting plasma glucose (FPG) ≥ 270 mg/dL during the 4-week lead-in period, cardiovascular disease (CVD) within 3 months of screening, congestive heart failure (New York Heart Association functional class IV), an estimated glomerular filtration rate < 60 mL/min/ 1.73 m2 or serum creatinine ≥ 1.5 mg/dL in men or ≥ 1.4 mg/dL in women, significant hepatic disease, or having received an antidiabetic medication other, having metformin for more than 14 days during the 12 weeks before screening. Patients initially underwent a 4-week lead-in period during which they received metformin extended release (1500–2000 mg/day) before being randomized 1:1:1 to receive dapagliflozin plus saxagliptin, dapagliflozin plus placebo or saxagliptin plus placebo, in addition to metformin. Primary and secondary efficacy endpoints were re-analyzed to evaluate the efficacy and safety of dapagliflozin versus saxagliptin as add-on to metformin. The study was designed and performed in accordance with the ethical principles of Good Clinical Practice as defined by the International Conference on Harmonisation and the Declaration of Helsinki. Institutional review boards or independent ethics committees approved each protocol, and each patient provided written informed consent.

Outcomes measured The primary endpoint was change from baseline to 24 weeks in HbA1c. Secondary endpoints were changes from baseline to 24 weeks in body weight, FPG levels, and 2-hour postprandial glucose (2-hr PPG) levels (from a liquid meal tolerance test). Composite efficacy endpoints were assessed as (1) HbA1c reduction ≥ 0.5% + body weight reduction ≥ 2 kg; (2) HbA1c reduction ≥ 0.5% + SBP reduction ≥ 2 mmHg; (3) HbA1c reduction ≥ 0.5% + body weight reduction ≥ 2 kg + no major/minor hypoglycemia; and (4) HbA1c reduction ≥ 0.5% + body weight reduction ≥ 2 kg + SBP reduction ≥ 2 mmHg + no major/minor hypoglycemia. Safety assessments included overall adverse events (AEs), hypoglycemia and AEs of special interest 425

being body-weight neutral (4) and SGLT2 inhibitors promoting weight loss and also reducing systolic blood pressure (SBP) (5-8). It is worth noting that in the 2017 American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists (AACE)/American College of Endocrinology (ACE) comprehensive glycemic control algorithm, SGLT2 inhibitors have been placed before DPP4 inhibitors in the hierarchical order of recommended use as monotherapy as well as add-on therapy (3). The SGLT2 inhibitors, canagliflozin and empagliflozin, have both been directly compared with a DPP4 inhibitor in prospective randomized controlled trials (9-12). Long-term treatment with empagliflozin 25 mg showed greater reductions in HbA1c, body weight and SBP in comparison with sitagliptin 100 mg (9,10). Canagliflozin 300 mg as add-on to metformin, or metformin and a sulfonylurea, reduced both HbA1c and weight to a greater extent than sitagliptin 100 mg (11,12). However, to date, no large randomized controlled trial has directly compared the SGLT2 inhibitor dapagliflozin with a DPP4 inhibitor. One previously published study compared the combination of dapagliflozin plus saxagliptin with either drug individually, as add-on therapy in patients inadequately controlled on metformin (≥ 1500 mg/d) (13). This study was powered at 90% to detect a 0.4% difference in HbA1c between the group receiving dapagliflozin plus saxagliptin and the groups receiving dapagliflozin or saxaglitpin individually, but was not powered for comparison of the groups receiving dapagliflozin or saxaglitpin individually. To provide clinicians with research evidence on the use of dapagliflozin compared with a DPP4 inhibitor to incorporate into their professional judgment and clinical decision making, a post-hoc analysis of the aforementioned study was conducted to compare the efficacy and safety of the two agents, dapagliflozin and saxagliptin, individually added on to metformin (14). It should be noted that saxagliptin and sitagliptin have demonstrated similar efficacy and safety profiles in a head-to-head noninferiority trial (15) and a systematic review (16).

Dapagliflozin vs saxagliptin add-on therapy

including urinary tract and genital infections. Hypoglycemic episodes were classified as minor (symptomatic or asymptomatic with plasma glucose concentration < 63 mg/dL, regardless of need for external assistance) and major (symptomatic requiring third-party assistance due to severe impairment in consciousness or behavior, with or without plasma glucose concentration, < 54 mg/dL, and prompt recovery after glucose or glucagon administration). Change from baseline to 24 weeks in SBP was recorded as a safety assessment.

Statistical analysis Statistical methods used in this post-hoc analysis were the same as those used in the primary analysis of the study (13). Adjusted mean change from baseline value and 95% CI were derived using the longitudinal repeated measures mixed model with nominal p-values. Composite endpoints were derived using logistic regression with the adjustment for baseline parameter (as applicable, depending on the outcome included in each individual composite endpoint). AE data were summarized using descriptive statistics.

RESULTS Patient population Patient demographics and baseline characteristics were balanced across treatment groups. Full baseline characteristics for the dapagliflozin and saxagliptin dose groups have been published previously (13). In brief, mean age was 54 years and mean duration of T2D was 7.6 years. Mean baseline HbA1c was 8.9% (73 mmol/mol) in the dapagliflozin group and 9.0% (75 mmol/mol) in the saxagliptin group. It should be noted that patients enrolled in this study had a high mean baseline HbA1c (8.9%), with 45% having a baseline HbA1c ≥9.0% (13). Mean baseline BMI was 31.5 kg/m2 in the dapagliflozin group and 31.8 kg/m2 in the saxagliptin group.

Efficacy outcomes As an add-on to metformin, both dapagliflozin and saxagliptin reduced HbA1C over the 24-week treatment period (Figure 1A). Dapagliflozin showed a greater adjusted mean reduction from baseline in HbA1c over the 24-week period (−1.20% [95% CI: −1.35, −1.04]) versus saxagliptin (−0.88% [−1.03, 426

−0.72]), with a significant mean difference of −0.32% [−0.54, −0.10]; p < 0.005). The significant differences in adjusted mean change in HbA1c with dapagliflozin versus saxagliptin were observed as early as Week 6 (−0.83% [−0.94, −0.71] versus −0.57% [−0.68, −0.46], respectively; p < 0.005). At 24 weeks, dapagliflozin reduced FPG (mean difference [95% CI]: −0.98 mmol/L [−1.42, −0.54]; p < 0.0001; Figure 1B), 2-hr PPG (mean difference [95% CI]: −1.94 mmol/L [−2.48, −1.39]; p < 0.0001; Figure 1C), and body weight (mean difference [95% CI]: −2.4 kg [−3.1, −1.7]; p < 0.0001; Figure 1D) to a significantly greater extent than saxagliptin. After 24 weeks, the adjusted mean (95% CI) % proportion of patients achieving an HbA1c < 7% was 22.2% (16.1%, 28.3%) with dapagliflozin versus 18.3% (13.0%, 23.5%) with saxagliptin (difference: −4.0% [−11.8%, 3.9%]; p = 0.32). A greater proportion of dapagliflozin-treated versus saxagliptin-treated patients achieved the composite endpoint of HbA1c reduction ≥ 0.5%, weight loss ≥ 2 kg, SBP reduction ≥ 2 mmHg and no major/minor hypoglycemic events (Table 1). Likewise, greater proportions of dapagliflozintreated versus saxagliptin-treated patients achieved other composite endpoints (Table 1). Supplementary Table 1 shows the proportion of patients falling into the different categories according to HbA1c decrease of < or ≥ 0.5% and weight loss of < or ≥ 2 kg.

Safety The incidence of AEs was similar between groups, and was described in detail in the main publication (13). The proportion of patients with ≥ 1 AE was 49% for dapagliflozin and 53% for saxagliptin (Supplementary Table 2). Hypoglycemic event rates were low and similar across treatment groups (2 [1%] patients in each group). No major hypoglycemia events were reported. Higher proportions of patients on dapagliflozin (10 [6%]) versus saxagliptin (1 [0.6%]) experienced genital infections. No cases of diabetic ketoacidosis, postural hypotension, amputation or hospitalization for heart failure were reported in this study. A statistically significant reduction in SBP from baseline to 24 weeks was observed with dapagliflozin (mean [95% CI]: −3.3 [−5.0, −1.7] mmHg) versus a small numerical increase observed with saxagliptin (mean [95% CI]: +0.5 [−1.1, 2.1] mmHg; p = 0.0008). Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2018;62/4

Dapagliflozin vs saxagliptin add-on therapy

Study week 0

0.0 DAPA + MET (n = 179; BL HbA1c = 8.87%)

–0.2 Adjusted mean change, % (95% CI)

SAXA + MET (n = 176; BL HbA1c = 9.03%) –0.4

–0.6

–0.8 –0.88 –1.0

p < 0.005

–0.32% (–0.54, –0.10)

–1.20

–1.2 p < 0.01

p < 0.005

–1.4 Patients per timepoint DAPA+MET 172 SAXA+MET 175

171 174

163 165

159 155

BL, mmoI/L (SD) n 0.0

10.27 (2.64) 148 DAPA+MET

10.63 (2.52) 142 SAXA+MET

151 143

BL, mmoI/L (SD) n 0

13.71 (3.12) 144 DAPA+MET

14.19 (3.57) 147 SAXA+MET

BL, kg (SD) n

86.25 (18.61) 152 DAPA+MET

1.0 0.0

– 0.78 –1.5

–2.0

–1

–2 – 1.98 –3

– 0.98 (– 1.42, – 0.54) mmoI/L p < 0.0001

–0.5 –1.0 –1.5 –2.0 –2.5

–4 – 1.76

–2.5

0.0 Adjusted mean (95% CI) change from baseline in body weight (kg)

Adjusted mean (95% CI) change from baseline in FPG (mmoI/L)

–1.0

Adjusted mean (95% CI) change from baseline in 2h-PPG (mmoI/L)

0.5

–0.5

87.98 (18.69) 145 SAXA+MET

–3.0

– 3.91 –5

– 1.94 (– 2.48, – 1.39) mmoI/L p < 0.0001

–3.5

– 2.39 – 2.39 (–3.08, –1.71) kg p < 0.0001

Figure 1. (A) Mean change in HbA1C over time in the 24-week treatment period and mean change in (B) FPG, (C) 2-h PPG, and (D) body weight at 24 weeks n is the number of randomized patients with non-missing baseline and Week 24 LOCF values; p-values are for the difference between treatment groups. BL: baseline; DAPA: dapagliflozin; Diff: difference; MET: metformin; SAXA: saxagliptin; CI: confidence interval; FPG: fasting plasma glucose; 2-hr PPG:

Small increases in total cholesterol of 3.8% (1.5%, 6.3%) and HDL-cholesterol of 7.7% (5.2%, 10.2%) and a non-significant increase in LDL-cholesterol of 1.5% (–3.1%, 6.4%]) were seen in patients receiving dapagliflozin. No significant changes in fasting lipids were seen in patients receiving saxagliptin.

DISCUSSION Early combination therapy using agents with complementary mechanisms of action is recommended Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2018;62/4

for advancing glucose control (1). Currently, two pharmacologic classes, DPP4 inhibitors and SGLT2 inhibitors, show promise as preferred second-line treatment options given their weight neutral and weight lowering effects, respectively, and low potential for hypoglycemia. Hence, the comparison between dapagliflozin and saxagliptin as add on to metformin is important in this context. Many patients with T2D are affected by multiple co-morbidities, including obesity, dyslipidemia, and hypertension, all of which are well documented risk 427

2-hour postprandial glucose.

Dapagliflozin vs saxagliptin add-on therapy

Table 1. DAPA+MET (n = 179)

SAXA+MET (n = 176)

HbA1c reduction ≥ 0.5% + body wt. reduction ≥ 2 kg + SBP reduction ≥ 2 mmHg + no major/minor hypoglycemia Adjusted* % (95% CI) Adjusted % diff. for SAXA+MET vs DAPA+MET (95% CI for diff.)

24.3% (18.0, 30.7) 17.3% (10.0, 24.7)

7.0% (3.3, 10.7)

38.2% (31.1, 45.4) 26.6% (18.0, 35.1)

11.7% (6.9, 16.4)

40.9% (33.7, 48.0) 13.1% (3.7, 22.5)

27.8% (21.4, 34.1)

37.7% (30.6, 44.8) 26.0% (17.5, 34.5)

11.7% (6.9, 16.4)

HbA1c reduction ≥ 0.5% + body wt. reduction ≥ 2 kg Adjusted* % (95% CI) Adjusted % diff. for SAXA+MET vs DAPA+MET (95% CI for diff.) HbA1c reduction ≥ 0.5% + SBP reduction ≥ 2 mmHg Adjusted* % (95% CI) Adjusted % diff. for SAXA+MET vs DAPA+MET (95% CI for diff.) HbA1c reduction ≥ 0.5% + body wt. reduction ≥ 2 kg + no major/minor hypoglycemia Adjusted* % (95% CI) Adjusted % diff. for SAXA+MET vs DAPA+MET (95% CI for diff.)

n is the number of randomized subjects who received at least one dose of double-blind medication during the treatment period. * Adjusted for baseline HbA1c.

DAPA: dapagliflozin; diff.: difference; MET: metformin; SAXA: saxagliptin; SBP: systolic blood pressure; wt.: weight.

factors for CVD. In our study, dapagliflozin reduced glycemic parameters including HbA1c, FPG and 2-hr PPG to a significantly greater extent than saxagliptin. Consistent with its glycosuric mechanism, dapagliflozin also reduced body weight and SBP versus saxagliptin. Weight reduction with dapagliflozin may benefit overweight/obese patients with T2D. Reduction in SBP with dapagliflozin is also an added benefit in view of the high prevalence of hypertension in patients with T2D. These results are consistent with other studies of SGLT2 inhibitors versus DPP4 inhibitors (10,11). Such findings may have contributed to the placement of SGLT2 inhibitors in the AACE/ACE comprehensive glycemic control algorithm, suggesting that SGLT2 inhibitors are an important addition for individualizing the treatment of T2D. The EMPA-REG OUTCOME trial showed that patients with T2D and established CVD disease who received empagliflozin versus placebo, had a lower rate of the primary composite of death from cardiovascular (CV) causes, non-fatal myocardial infarction or nonfatal stroke with substantial reductions in CV mortality when the study drug was added to standard care (17). The results from the CANVAS study further support the effects of SGLT2 inhibitors on CV outcomes, with a significantly lower rate of the composite outcome of death from CV causes, non-fatal myocardial infarction or non-fatal stroke in the canagliflozin group, and also for the exploratory outcomes of hospitalization for heart failure, although canagliflozin did not show a significant reduction on CV mortality (18). 428

More recently, real-world observational evidence has suggested a beneficial class effect of SGLT2 inhibitors (canagliflozin, dapagliflozin and empagliflozin) on CV outcomes (19,20), and findings from the ongoing CV study DECLARE (NCT01730534) may further establish this possible class effect. The CV outcomes trials of DPP4 inhibitors have shown no beneficial effects of DPP4 inhibitors on CV outcomes; however, no increase in the risk of major adverse CV events, such as the combined MACE outcome (CV death, nonfatal myocardial infarction and non-fatal stroke), versus standard care was noted. As expected, both dapagliflozin and saxagliptin were well tolerated in the current study. Higher proportions of patients on dapagliflozin versus saxagliptin reported genital infections, consistent with previous observations from the dapagliflozin clinical trial program (21). There was a low incidence of hypoglycemia in both treatment groups, which reflects the self-limiting modes of action of these agents, i.e. reduction in the amount of filtered glucose with decreasing blood glucose levels causes a low potential for hypoglycemia with dapagliflozin; and glucose-stimulated insulin secretion decreases in patients treated with saxagliptin as physiological glucose levels are approached, leading to a low risk of hypoglycemia. A limitation of this study is that it is a post-hoc analysis, and should be regarded as hypothesis-generating. These data are still of scientific value as findings from this study are similar to the previously reported data from comparisons between other SGLT2 inhibitors and DPP4 inhibitors in randomized controlled trials (11,12). Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2018;62/4

Dapagliflozin vs saxagliptin add-on therapy

Acknowledgements: the authors would like to thank the patients, their families and all investigators involved in this study. They would also like to thank Clifford J Bailey, Aston University, Birmingham, UK, for his contribution in the development of this manuscript. This analysis was supported by AstraZeneca. Editorial support was provided by Shelley Narula of in Science Communications, Springer Healthcare Ltd, London, UK, and was funded by AstraZeneca. Funding: AstraZeneca. Disclosure: JR has served on scientific advisory boards and received honoraria or consulting fees from companies involved in development of SGLT2 and DPP4 inhibitors, including Janssen, AstraZeneca, Eli Lilly, Boehringer Ingelheim, Sanofi, and Lexicon; and has also received grants/research support from Pfizer, Merck, Bristol-Myers Squibb, AstraZeneca, Janssen, Eli Lilly, Boehringer Ingelheim, Sanofi and Lexicon. CM serves or has served on the advisory panel for Novo Nordisk, Sanofi, Merck Sharp and Dohme Ltd., Eli Lilly and Company, Novartis, Bristol-Myers Squibb, AstraZeneca, Pfizer, Janssen Pharmaceuticals, Boehringer Ingelheim, Hanmi Pharmaceuticals, Roche Diagnostics, Medtronic, Mannkind, Intrexon and UCB; KU Leuven has received research support for CM from Novo Nordisk, Sanofi, Merck Sharp and Dohme Ltd., Eli Lilly and Company, Roche Diagnostics, Abbott, Intrexon and Novartis; CM serves or has served on the speakers bureau for Novo Nordisk, Sanofi, Merck Sharp and Dohme Ltd, Eli Lilly and Company, Boehringer Ingelheim, Astra Zeneca and Novartis. Hungta Chen, Ricardo Garcia-Sanchez and Gabriela Luporini Saraiva are employees of AstraZeneca

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Del Prato S, Nauck M, Duran-Garcia S, Maffei L, Rohwedder K, Theuerkauf A, et al. Long-term glycaemic response and tolerability of dapagliflozin versus a sulphonylurea as add-on therapy to metformin in patients with type 2 diabetes: 4-year data. Diabetes Obes Metab. 2015;17(6):581-90.

8. Johnsson K, Johnsson E, Mansfield TA, Yavin Y, Ptaszynska A, Parikh SJ. Osmotic diuresis with SGLT2 inhibition: analysis of events related to volume reduction in dapagliflozin clinical trials. Postgrad Med. 2016;128(4):346-55. 9. Ferrannini E, Berk A, Hantel S, Pinnetti S, Hach T, Woerle HJ, et al. Long-term safety and efficacy of empagliflozin, sitagliptin, and metformin: an active-controlled, parallel-group, randomized, 78week open-label extension study in patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2013;36(12):4015-21. 10. Roden M, Weng J, Eilbracht J, Delafont B, Kim G, Woerle HJ, et al. Empagliflozin monotherapy with sitagliptin as an active comparator in patients with type 2 diabetes: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase 3 trial. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2013;1(3):208-19. 11. Lavalle-Gonzalez FJ, Januszewicz A, Davidson J, Tong C, Qiu R, Canovatchel W, et al. Efficacy and safety of canagliflozin compared with placebo and sitagliptin in patients with type 2 diabetes on background metformin monotherapy: a randomised trial. Diabetologia. 2013;56(12):2582-92. 12. Schernthaner G, Gross JL, Rosenstock J, Guarisco M, Fu M, Yee J, et al. Canagliflozin compared with sitagliptin for patients with type 2 diabetes who do not have adequate glycemic control with metformin plus sulfonylurea: a 52-week randomized trial. Diabetes Care. 2013;36(9):2508-15. 13. Rosenstock J, Hansen L, Zee P, LiY, Cook W, Hirshberg B, et al. Dual add-on therapy in type 2 diabetes poorly controlled with metformin monotherapy: a randomized double-blind trial of saxagliptin plus dapagliflozin addition versus single addition of saxagliptin or dapagliflozin to metformin. Diabetes Care. 2015;38(3):376-83. 14. Rosenstock J, Bailey CJ, Mathieu C, Chen H, Garcia-Sanchez R, Saraiva GL. Composite endpoint analysis of dapagliflozin versus saxagliptin as add-on therapy in patients with type 2 diabetes inadequately controlled with metformin. Endocr Pract. 2017;23(1):38A. 15. Scheen AJ, Charpentier G, Ostgren CJ, Hellqvist A, Gause-Nilsson I. Efficacy and safety of saxagliptin in combination with metformin compared with sitagliptin in combination with metformin in adult patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Metab Res Rev. 2010;26(7):540-9. 16. Craddy P, Palin HJ, Johnson KI. Comparative effectiveness of dipeptidylpeptidase-4 inhibitors in type 2 diabetes: a systematic review and mixed treatment comparison. Diabetes Ther. 2014;5(1):1-41. 17. Zinman B, Wanner C, Lachin JM, Fitchett D, Bluhmki E, Hantel S, et al. Empagliflozin, Cardiovascular Outcomes, and Mortality in Type 2 Diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2015;373(22):2117-28. 18. Neal B, Perkovic V, Mahaffey KW, de Zeeuw D, Fulcher G, Erondu N, et al. Canagliflozin and Cardiovascular and Renal Events in Type 2 Diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2017;377(7):644-57.

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In conclusion, in this post-hoc analysis, addition of dapagliflozin or saxagliptin to metformin improved glycemic control in patients poorly controlled with metformin. However, significantly greater glycemic efficacy was observed with dapagliflozin compared with saxagliptin, together with reductions in body weight and blood pressure which may provide additional benefit to many patients with T2D. The safety profiles of both treatments were consistent with previous observations in their respective clinical trials.

Dapagliflozin vs saxagliptin add-on therapy

19. Nystrom T, Bodegard J, Nathanson D, Thuresson M, Norhammar A, Eriksson JW. Novel oral glucose-lowering drugs are associated with lower risk of all-cause mortality, cardiovascular events and severe hypoglycaemia compared with insulin in patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Obes Metab. 2017;19(6):831-41.

Heart Failure and Death in Patients Initiated on Sodium-Glucose Cotransporter-2 Inhibitors Versus Other Glucose-Lowering Drugs: The CVD-REAL Study (Comparative Effectiveness of Cardiovascular Outcomes in New Users of Sodium-Glucose Cotransporter-2 Inhibitors). Circulation. 2017;136(3):249-59. 21. Johnsson KM, Ptaszynska A, Schmitz B, Sugg J, Parikh SJ, List JF. Vulvovaginitis and balanitis in patients with diabetes treated with dapagliflozin. J Diabetes Complications. 2013;27(5):479-84.

20. Kosiborod M, Cavender MA, Fu AZ, Wilding JP, Khunti K, Holl RW, et al.; CVD-REAL Investigators and Study Group. Lower Risk of

Supplementary Table 1. Unadjusted changes in HbA1c and weight at 24 weeks DAPA + MET

HbA1c decrease of ≥ 0.5%

HbA1c decrease of < 0.5% or HbA1c increase

Weight decrease of ≥ 2 kg

37.6%

9.8%

Weight decrease of < 2 kg or weight increase

34.7%

17.9%

HbA1c decrease of ≥ 0.5%

HbA1c decrease of < 0.5% or HbA1c increase

SAXA + MET Weight decrease of ≥ 2 kg

12.0%

7.4%

Weight decrease of < 2 kg or weight increase

54.9%

25.7%

Data are proportions of patients (%). DAPA: dapagliflozin; MET: metformin; SAXA: saxagliptin.

Supplementary Table 2. Proportions of patients experiencing adverse events over 24 weeks n (%)

DAPA + MET (n = 179)

SAXA + MET (n = 176)

87 (49)

93 (53)

≥ 1 Serious adverse event

2 (1)

6 (3)

Adverse events leading to discontinuation

1 (1)

2 (1)

Urinary tract infection

7 (5)

9 (5)

Genital infection

10 (6)

1 (1)

≥ 1 Adverse event

Adverse events of special interest Hypoglycemia*

†

* Hypoglycemia includes minor and major; Patients with more than one type of hypoglycemic episode were counted within each category but only once for patients experiencing hypoglycemia; DAPA: dapagliflozin; MET: metformin; SAXA: saxagliptin.

†

430

Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2018;62/4

original article

Lean mass as a determinant of bone mineral density of proximal femur in postmenopausal women Rosangela Villa Marin-Mio1, Linda Denise Fernandes Moreira1, Marília Camargo1, Neide Alessandra Sansão Périgo2, Maysa Seabra Cerondoglo2, Marise Lazaretti-Castro1

ABSTRACT Objective: To verify which component of body composition (BC) has greater influence on postmenopausal women bone mineral density (BMD). Subjects and methods: Four hundred and thirty women undergoing treatment for osteoporosis and 513 untreated women, except for calcium and vitamin D. Multiple linear regression analysis was performed in order to correlated BMD at lumbar spine (LS), total femur (FT), femoral neck (FN) with body mass (BM), total lean mass (LM) and total fat mass (FM), all determined by DXA. Results: BM significantly correlated with all bone sites in untreated and treated women (r = 0.420 vs 0.277 at LS; r = 0.490 vs 0.418 at FN, r = 0.496 vs 0.414 at FT, respectively). In untreated women, the LM correlated better than FM with all sites, explaining 17.9% of LS; 32.3% of FN and 30.2% of FT; whereas FM explained 13.2% of LS; 27.7% of FN, 23.4% of FT. In treated women, correlations with BC were less relevant, with the LM explaining 6.7% of BMD at LS; 15.2% of FN, 16% of FT, whereas the FM explained 8.1% of LS; 17.9% of FN and 17.6% of FT. Conclusion: LM in untreated women was better predictor of BMD than FM, especialy for distal femur, where it explained more than 30% of the BMD, suggesting that maintaining a healthy muscle mass may contribute to decrease osteoporosis risk. Treatment with anti-osteoporotic drugs seems to mask these relationships. Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2018;62(4):431-7

INTRODUCTION

steoporosis is intimaly associated to the aging process and represents a social problem nowadays. Populational statistics shows that the situation can get even worse in the future due to the increase in longevity. Low bone mass is one of the main determinants of osteoporosis, which associates with bone microstructural changes resulting in a higher fracture risk. By comprehending what positively influences bone mass of individual health professionals will be able to create strategies to control bone loss throughout aging (1,2). Total body mass is one of the biological variables that best correlates with bone mass. However, it remains unclear what would be the influence of the different body mass components on bone metabolism (1,3-6). Gillette-Guyonnet and cols. (5) studied older osteoporotic women (75 to 89 years old) and observed a significant correlation between bone mineral density and body composition (BC), which includes body mass, Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2018;62/4

Correspondence to: Rosangela Villa Marin Mio Av. Salgado Filho, 2844, ap. 708, Torre 2 07115-000 – Guarulhos, SP, Brasil rosevillamarin@uol.com.br Received on Sept/30/2017 Accepted on Apr/2/2018 DOI: 10.20945/2359-3997000000059

fat mass and lean mass. In this study, fat mass showed a better association with bone mass than lean mass, suggesting that fat mass could exert a protective effect on the proximal femur. On the other hand, Binder and Kohrt (7), studying elderly men and women, observed that the lean mass was the BC component that best correlated with bone mineral density (BMD). The authors suggested that the association of lean mass and fat mass with bone mass reflects not only the effects of total body mass mechanical loading on bone, but also the functional relation between muscles and bones. It is believed that muscle contractions, as well as physical exercise, act as potent anabolic stimuli to strengthen bone tissue. On the other hand, low fat mass can represent especially relevant state of denutrition in elderly, which could reflect on the health of bone tissue, currently recognized as a tissue involved in energy metabolism (2,8). As studies about BC and bone mass still show controversial results, our aim was to determine which of 431

Keywords Osteoporosis; treatment; body weight; body composition

Disciplina de Endocrinologia da Universidade Federal de São Paulo (Unifesp), São Paulo, SP, Brasil 2 Disciplina de Geriatria e Gerontologia da Universidade Federal de São Paulo (Unifesp), São Paulo, SP, Brasil 1

Lean mass as a determinant of bone mineral density

the components of BC would be better related to bone mass in a representative population of postmenopausal women both treatment and treatment näive for osteoporosis.

SUBJECTS AND METHODS The sample consisted of 943 independent postmenopausal women, with age above 40 years old (average 66.9 ± 7.8 years old), who volunteered to participate in three different protocols to evaluate physical exercise effects on bone mass, conducted by the same group of researchers. The present crosssectional study used the baseline data from all these women as they entered the study protocols, which were conducted by the same professionals and utilized the same methodology for measurement of antrhopometric and body composition parameteres. The selection criteria for choosing study participants are described in details in the publications resulting from these three studies (9-11). For further analysis, these women were divided into two groups: 430 that were undergoing treatment for osteoporosis (47 to 87 years old, average of 68.3 ± 8.2 years old) (10,11) and 513 never treated for osteoporosis (41 to 87 years old, average of 65.8 ± 7.4 years old) (9,11). The study has the approval of the Ethics and Research Committee of Universidade Federal de São Paulo – Unifesp/EPM, numbered CEP: 32882/12, CAAE: 02252312.1.0000.5505. All the subjects signed an informed consent. The methods selected to evaluate the total and the segmental BC, as well as the total and the compartmental anthropometric measurements and sites of bone mineral density are described as follows. The total body mass was measured using a platformtype mechanical scale (Filizola, São Paulo, Brazil) with a maximum capacity of 150 kg and variation 0.1 kg. Height was measured using a vertical bar stadiometer with maximum range of 220 cm and accuracy of 0.1 cm. Body mass index – BMI (kg/m2), was calculated from weight and height measurements using the formula BMI = weight (in kg) divided by height (in m-2) (12). The BC and the bone mineral density (BMD) analyzes were obtained by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA), in a Hologic QDR 4500A equipment (Waltham, MA). This assessment was performed at the Bone Evaluation Laboratory of the Endocrinology Division, at Universidade Federal de Sao Paulo. In our hands the CV% for lumbar spine and 432

total femur is 1%, for trochanter is 1.2% and for femoral neck is 1.4%. The studied variables were: BMD in the sites of lumbar spine L1-L4 (LS), total femur (TF) and femoral neck (FN) in grams/cm² and the T-score values; in addition to the lean mass (LM) and fat mass (FM) in absolute values.

Statistical analysis Normality of the data was assessed by using the Kolmogorov-Smirnov adherence test. When the groups were divided into treated and untreated women, they were compared by the “t” test of Student for independent samples in order to determine whether the groups presented any different characteristics. The Pearson Linear correlation, as well as the univariate linear regression and the analysis of multiple linear regressions were performed, having the bone sites as the dependent variables and BC (total body mass, total lean mass) as the independent ones. The studied variables that presented p < 0.20 in the Pearson linear correlation analysis were selected and included in the models and, further, considered for inclusion in the multiple linear regression model. For this model, the stepwise forward modeling strategy was used. The variables that remained significant were kept in the final multiple linear regression model, always observing the possible collinearities. The variable age was considered as a control variable. All the analisys were made by using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences – SPSS for Windows – version 19”.

RESULTS All studied variables were different between the two evaluated groups – women treated and untreated for osteoporosis, emphasizing that the treated participants were older, thinner, shorter, presented a worse bone mass and lower values of body composition components (Table 1). In women not treated for osteoporosis, among all the studied variables, the total body mass was the one that best correlated with all sites of bone mass: LS r = 0.427 (p = 0.000), FN r = 0.490 (p = 0.000) and TF r = 0.496 (p = 0.000). The correlation between the different sites of bone mass with height or BMI showed values ranging from r = 0.120 to r = 0.430 (p = 0.000). For the same 513 women, the lean mass was the variable that best correlated with all sites of bone mineral density, r = 0.423 (p = 0.000) at LS, Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2018;62/4

Lean mass as a determinant of bone mineral density

r = 0.505 (p = 0.000) at FN and r = 0.520 (p = 0.000) at TF (Figure 1). The associations with fat mass were also significant but showed less expressive results in all sites [r = 0.361 (p = 0.000) for LS; r = 0.433 (p = 0.000) for FN and r = 0.430 (p = 0.000) for TF]. After performing the individual analyzes, we started to build statistical models to determine the influence of lean and fat mass on bone mass in the 513 untreated women and the 430 women treated for osteoporosis.

In untreated women, the coefficients of BMD determination found for lean mass models were better than the ones found for the fat mass: 17.9% in BMD of LS; 32.3% for FN and 30.2% of TF. On the other hand, models showed that fat mass could explain 13.2% of LS BMD; 27.7% of FN BMD and 23.4% of TF BMD (Table 2). In women treated with active drugs for osteoporosis, the correlation between BMD and body mass became

Table 1. Descriptive characteristics of bone mass and body composition of untreated and treated women for osteoporosis Untreated n = 513

Variables

min

Treated n = 430 max

min

Max

Age (years)

65.8*

7.4

68.3

8.2

Weight (kg)

70.8*

13.4

36.0

111.6

60.7

11.3

35.0

104.0

Height (m)

1.55*

0.06

1.36

1.90

1.53

0.07

1.33

1.74

BMI (kg/m )

29.5*

5.1

14.4

50.1

25.9

4.2

16.6

42.7

BMD LS (g/cm²)

0.933*

0.156

0.464

1.608

0.759

0.128

0.371

1.634

BMD FN (g/cm²)

0.764*

0.128

0.398

1.342

0.657

0.097

0.408

1.010

BMD TF (g/cm²)

0.878*

0.126

0.449

1.266

0.756

0.108

0.350

1.052

T score LS

- 1.0*

1.4

- 5.3

5.1

- 2.6

1.1

- 6.1

5.3

T score FN

- 0.8*

1.1

- 4.1

4.4

- 1.7

0.9

- 4.0

1.5

T Score TF

- 0.5*

1.1

- 4.0

2.7

- 1.5

0.9

- 4.9

0.9

Lean mass (kg)

42.1*

6.1

27.9

59.8

37.3

5.1

24.4

67.0

Fat mass (kg)

27.5*

8.1

9.5

50.9

21.9

6.9

7.5

48.5

* p < 0.05 treated vs untreated.

r = 0.427

1,000

,500

1,000 ,750 ,500

20,00 40,00 60,00 80,00 100,00 120,00 Weight (kg) 1,400

r = 0.505

1,000 ,750 ,500

BMD TF (g/cm2)

BMD FN (g/cm2)

1,250

1,000 ,750 ,500

30,00 40,00 50,00 Lean mass (kg)

60,00

r = 0.520

1,200 1,000 ,800 ,600

,250 20,00

,800

,400

1,250

1,500

1,000

20,00 40,00 60,00 80,00 100,00 120,00 Weight (kg)

r = 0.423

1,750

1,200

,600

,250 20,00 40,00 60,00 80,00 100,00 120,00 Weight (kg)

r = 0.414

,400 20,00

30,00 40,00 50,00 Lean mass (kg)

60,00

20,00

30,00 40,00 50,00 Lean mass (kg)

60,00

Figure 1. Correlation charts between the bone sites, total body mass and lean mass of untreated women for osteoporosis. Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2018;62/4

433

1,250

BMD TF (g/cm2)

1,500

,750

L1L4BMD (g/c2)

1,400

r = 0.418 1,250 BMD FN (g/cm2)

BMD LS (g/cm2)

1,750

Lean mass as a determinant of bone mineral density

weaker. In this group, the models for lean mass explained only 6.7% of LS BMD; 15.2% of FN BMD and 16% of TF BMD (Table 3), while the model for fat mass explained 8.1% of LS BMD, 17.9% of FN

BMD and 17.6% of FT BMD. Therefore, treatment of osteoporosis appears to modify the relation between bone mass and the anthropometric variables, decreasing the great influence of these parameters on the BMD.

Table 2. Results of the multiple linear regression analysis between the sites of BMD and lean body mass and fat mass variables of 513 untreated women for osteoporosis

DISCUSSION

Lumbar spine (g)

Independent variables

Femural neck (g)

Total femur (g)

Constant

0.480

0.000

0.669

0.000

0.659

0.000

Lean mass (kg)

0.011

0.000

0.009

0.000

0.010

0.000

- 4.508

0.996

- 0.005

0.000

- 0.003

0.000

Model lean mass

Age (years)* r

0.423

0.558

0.549

0.179

0.323

0.302

0.000

Model fat mass Constant

0.795

0.000

0.936

0.000

0.956

0.000

Fat mass (kg)

0.007

0.000

0.006

0.000

0.006

0.000

- 0.001

0.389

- 0.005

0.009

- 0.004

0.000

Age (years)* r

0.363

0.526

0.483

0.132

0.277

0.234

0.000

* All adjustments for age.

Table 3. Results of the multiple linear regression analysis between the sites of BMD and lean body mass and fat mass variables of 430 treated women for osteoporosis Lumbar spine (g)

Independent variables

Femural neck (g)

Total femur (g)

Constant

0.453

0.000

0.498

0.000

0.637

0.000

Lean mass (kg)

0.006

0.000

0.007

0.000

0.007

0.000

0.001

0.178

- 0.001

0.010

- 0.002

0.000

Model lean mass

Age (years)* r

0.258

0.390

0.399

0.067

0.152

0.160

0.000

Model fat mass Constant

0,577

0.000

0.632

0.000

0.786

0.000

Fat mass (kg)

0.005

0.000

0.006

0.000

0.006

0.000

0.001

0.191

- 0.001

0.009

- 0.002

0.000

Age (years)* r

0.285

0.423

0.419

0.081

0.179

0.176

0.000

* All adjustments for age.

434

The total body mass in adults is one of the biological variables that most consistently correlate with bone mass and fracture risk (8). In our study, this phenomenon was detected with greater relevance among women without treatment for osteoporosis. Treatment with specific drugs for osteoporosis made the relationship between BMD and body mass less relevant, probably because these drugs directly interfere on bone remodeling, mitigating the local influence of body mass (2). In a similar study with Italian Caucasian postmenopausal women, authors (13) concluded that both fat and lean masses might affect bone mass but depending on the osteoporotic status. In non-osteoporotic women, only lean mass was associated with BMD. In osteoporotic women treated for osteoporosis, however, the lean and fat masses had the same importance. Lewin and cols. (14) also studied a population of Brazilian Caucasian women and observed that heavier girls reached bone mass peak earlier, besides having higher BMD values. In addition, the bone loss caused by aging was reduced in those women with higher total body mass. In our study, the correlation of total body mass was more relevant with the proximal femur than with the lumbar spine, what could translate influence of the mechanical load and physical activity on bone mass of lower limbs. To contribute to this theory, in our results the lean mass was the component that best correlated with bone density in different places, especially the proximal femur. Reid (3), in a review study, emphasizes that total body mass is a main determinant of bone mineral density as well as fracture risk, and concludes that fat mass would be the main contributor to this relation. Controversely, other authors (6,15-17) sustain that a higher amount of lean mass would be beneficial and have a stronger influence on bone mass. Both statements have physiological plausibility. The fat tissue would represent the influence of neuroendocrine factors, as well as the metabolism of sex steroids (17) on bone density. The lean mass, on the other hand, would represent the mechanical and physical stimulation effect on bone tissue. Li and cols. (17), analysing perimenopausal Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2018;62/4

Lean mass as a determinant of bone mineral density

women (average of 49.6 years), revealed that both fat mass and lean mass had positive relations with BMD of lumbar spine and femur. However, using multiple regression analysis, authors observed that only lean mass and ethnicity remained significant predictors of BMD of femoral neck. The lean mass was the only predictor of BMD of the total femur, explaining in 38% the BMD at this site, while fat mass was not a significant predictor of BMD in any of the analyzed sites. The influence of total body mass and its different components on bone mass apears to vary according to age, gender and skeletal site of the studied populations (Table 4). In most studies, the lean mass apears to have a greater influence on bone density than fat mass, specialy at proximal femoral sites. In younger men, however, fat mass can have negative effects on bone mass (4). With aging, changes in body composition components induce an increment of fat mass followed by a decrement of lean mass. Considering postmenopausal American women, Chen and cols. (18) also observed that lean mass exerts a stronger influence on the BMD of differente bone sites. In a Korean rural population (19 to 80 years old, both genders), lean mass was an important determinant

of BMD either for young and elderly population, but fat mass showed a dual effect. High fat mass showed negative influence on bone mass in younger, however, with positive influence in postmenopausal women and older men (4). The physiological mechanisms that would explain this important correlation between bone mass and body mass are not completely defined yet. Some experimental studies suggest the existence of a bone remodeling central control that would work via neuropeptides and neurotransmitters, such as serotonin (21,22) in addition to adipokines, as leptin, which would connect fat tissue to bone metabolism (22). Karsenty (23) postulate that bone tissue has an endocrine role in the regulation of energy metabolism, especially decarboxylated osteocalcin, acting in the regulation of glucose homeostasis and insulin sensitivity (21-28). It is well established that mechanical loading has a powerful anabolic effect on bone tissue, an effect coordinated by osteocytes (29). This can be confirmed by increased bone mass observed in athletes, when compared with sedentary controls (30). On the other hand, immobility and inactivity are considered great causes for low bone mass, risk of falls and fractures (31).

Table 4. Description of published studies which investigated relationships between body compartments and bone density in different populations Country

Population

Age (years)

Lean mass

Fat mass

Chen and cols., 1997 (18)

USA

50 postmenopausal Caucasian women

> 65

Strongest determinant of bone mass, especially total bone mass and bone content

Ho-Pham and cols., 2010 (15)

Vietnam

210 postmenopausal women

50 to 85

Positive influence on spine and femur bone mass

Zhu and cols., 2015 (19)

Australia

915 men and 1014 women

45 to 66

Predicted bone mass in both genders

Gjesdal and cols., 2008 (16)

Norway

2214 men and 2991 women

47 to 50 and 71 to75

Predicted bone mass in both genders

Cui and cols., 2007 (4)

South Korea

737 men and 867 women

19 to 80

Younger: positive influence on all bone mass sites

Younger: negative influence on all bone mass sites

Older: positive influence on all bone mass sites

Older: positive influence on forearm and calcaneus bone mass

Premenopausal: positive influence with all bone sites

Postmenopausal: positive influence with all bone sites

The increase in body mass showed significant association with the increase in bone mass

Gillette-Guyonnet and cols., 2000 (5)

France

129 healthy womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2039;â&#x20AC;&#x2039; 75 to 89

Positive influence on all bone mass sites

Taaffe and cols., 2000 (20)

USA

54 women Non-Hispanic Caucasians and Mexican-Americans with BMI < 30 kg/m2

Non Hispanic: positive influence on bone mass of lumbar spine. Mexican-Americans: positive influence on bone mass of lumbar spine and trochanter

Non Hispanic: positive influence on femoral neck bone mass

Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2018;62/4

60 to 86

Additional finding

Lean mass was considered an important predictor of bone mass; however, fat mass also positively contributed to bone mass in postmenopausal women and older men

Author

435

Lean mass as a determinant of bone mineral density

Thus, lean mass measured by DXA can be interpreted as a marker of bone health, which means a greater mechanical load on the skeleton and would justify our findings. This gives better basis for the importance of encouraging physical activity to maintain muscle mass in preventing osteoporosis (32). In conclusion, revious studies, as well as the present one, confirm that several variables contribute to the association between lean mass, fat mass and bone mass. Among these variables we highlight the treatment for osteoporosis, different ages and stages of life, gender and ethnicity. Our data revealed an important relationship between total body mass and all bone mass sites in postmenopausal women without osteoporosis treatment. However, in women being treated for osteoporosis these correlations lose their relevance. Among the different BC components, we found that lean mass was the one that presented the best correlation with bone mineral density, mainly on the proximal femur. In multiple variables model, when lean mass was corrected by the age of women without treatment for osteoporosis it explained about 30% of proximal femur bone mass. These results suggest that maintaining a healthy muscle mass can contribute to decrese the risk for osteoporosis. Results like ours also stimulate the search for mechanisms that explain this phenomenon, as well as the relevance of BC parameters on bone mass during treatment of osteoporosis.

7. Binder EF, Kohrt WM. Relationships between body composition and bone mineral content and density in older women and men. Clinical Exercise Physiology. 2000;2:84-91. 8. Camargo MB, Cendoroglo MS, Ramos LR, de Oliveira Latorre Mdo R, Saraiva GL, Lage A, et al. Bone mineral density and osteoporosis among a predominantly Caucasian elderly population in the city of São Paulo, Brazil. Osteoporos Int. 2005;16(11):1451-60. 9. Moreira LD, Fronza FC, Dos Santos RN, Zach PL, Kunii IS, Hayashi LF, et al. The benefits of a high-intensity aquatic exercise program (HydrOS) for bone metabolism and bone mass of postmenopausal women. J Bone Miner Metab. 2014;32(4):411-9. 10. Camargo MB, Kunii LS, Hayashi LF, Muszkat P, Anelli CG, MarinMio RV, et al. Modifiable factors of vitamin D status among a Brazilian osteoporotic population attended a public outpatient clinic. Arq Bras Endocrinol Metabol. 2014;58(5):572-82. 11. Nascimento NA, Moreira PF, Marin RV, Moreira LD, Castro ML, Santos CA, et al. Relation among 25(OH)D, aquatic exercises, and multifunctional fitness on functional performance of elderly women from the community. J Nutr Health Aging. 2016;20(4):376-82. 12. Heyward V, Stolarczyk LM. Anthropometric method. Applied body composition assessment. Ed. Champaign: Human Kinetics; 1996. p. 76-85. 13. Gnudi S, Sitta E, Fiumi N. Relationship between body composition and bone mineral density in women with and without osteoporosis: relative contribution of lean and fat mass. J Bone Miner Metab. 2007;25(5):326-32. 14. Lewin S, Gouveia CH, Marone MMS, Wehba S, Malvestiti LF, Bianco AC. Densidade mineral óssea vertebral e femoral de 724 mulheres brancas brasileiras: influência da idade e do peso corporal. Rev Assoc Med Bras. 1997;43(2):127-36. 15. Ho-Pham LT, Nguyen ND, Lai TQ, Nguyen TV. Contributions of lean mass and fat mass to bone mineral density: a study in postmenopausal women. BMC Musculoskelet Disord. 2010;11:59. 16. Gjesdal CG, Halse JI, Eide GE, Brun JG, Tell GS. Impact of lean mass and fat mass on bone mineral density: The Hordaland Health Study. Maturitas 2008;59(2):191-200.

Disclosure: no potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.

17. Li S, Wagner R, Holm K, Lehotsky J, Zinaman MJ. Relationship between soft tissue body composition and bone mass in perimenopausal women. Maturitas. 2004;47(2):99-105.

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19. Zhu K, Hunter M, James A, Lim EM, Walsh JP. Associations between body mass index, lean and fat body mass and bone mineral density in middle-aged Australians: The Busselton Healthy Ageing Study. Bone. 2015;74:146-52. 20. Taaffe DR, Villa ML, Holloway L, Marcus R. Bone mineral density in older non-Hispanic Caucasian and Mexican-American women: relationship to lean and fat mass. Ann Hum Biol. 2000;27(4):331-44. 21. Borba VZC, Kulak CAM, Lazaretti-Castro M. Controle neuroendócrino da massa óssea: Mito ou verdade? Arq Bras Endocrinol Metab. 2003;47(4):453-7. 22. Ducy P, Amling M, Takeda S, Priemel M, Schilling AF, Beil FT, et al. Leptin inhibits bone formation through a hypothalamic relay: a central control of bone mass. Cell. 2000;100(2):197-207. 23. Karsenty G. Convergence between bone and energy homeostases: Leptin regulation of bone mass. Cell Metab. 2006;4(5):341-8. 24. Sharma S, Tandon VR, Mahajan S, Mahajan V, Mahajan A. Obesity: Friend or foe for osteoporosis. J Midlife Health. 2014;5(1):6-9. 25. Lee S, Rhee Y. Bone and energy metabolism. J Korean Diabetes. 2013;14(4):174-7.

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30. Lazzoli JK, Oliveira MAB, Leitão MB, Nóbrega ACL, Nahas RM, Rezende L, et al. Posicionamento Oficial da Sociedade Brasileira de Medicina do Esporte sobre: esporte competitivo em indivíduos acima de 35 anos. Rev Bras Med Esporte. 2001;7(3):83-92. 31. Zazula FC, Pereira MAS. Fisiopatologia da osteoporose e o exercício físico como medida preventiva. Arq Cienc Saúde Unipar. 2003;7(3):269-75.

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original article

Combination therapy of curcumin and alendronate modulates bone turnover markers and enhances bone mineral density in postmenopausal women with osteoporosis Fatemeh Khanizadeh1, Asghar Rahmani2, Khairollah Asadollahi3, Mohammad Reza Hafezi Ahmadi4

ABSTRACT Obstetrician/Gynecology, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Science, Tehran, Iran 2 Ilam University of Medical Science, Ilam, Iran 3 Clinical epidemiology, Departament of Social Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Ilam University of Medical Sciences, Ilam, Iran 4 Department of Pathology, Ilam University of Medical Science, Ilam, Iran 1

Correspondence to: Khairollah Asadollahi, Departament Social Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Ilam University of Medical Sciences, Ilam, Iran Masoud_1241@yahoo.co.uk Received on Nov/26/2017 Accepted on Apr/24/2018 DOI: 10.20945/2359-3997000000060

Objective: This study evaluated the effects of combination therapy of curcumin and alendronate on BMD and bone turnover markers in postmenopausal women with osteoporosis. Subjects and methods: In a randomized, double-blind trial study, 60 postmenopausal women were divided into three groups: control, alendronate, and alendronate + curcumin. Each group included 20 patients. Total body, total hip, lumbar spine and femoral neck BMDs were measured by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) at baseline and after 12 months of therapy. Bone turnover markers such as bone-speciďŹ c alkaline phosphatase (BALP), osteocalcin and C-terminal cross-linking telopeptide of type I collagen (CTx) were measured at the outset and 6 months later. Results: Patients in the control group suffered a significant decrease in BMD and increased bone turnover markers at the end of study. The group treated with only alendronate showed significantly decreased levels of BALP and CTx and increased levels of osteocalcin compared to the control group. The alendronate group also showed significant increases in the total body, total hip, lumbar spine and femoral neck BMDs at the end of study compared to the control group. In the curcumin + alendronate group, BALP and CTx levels decreased and osteocalcin levels increased significantly at the end of study compared to the control and alendronate groups. BMD indexes also increased in four areas significantly at the end of study compared to the control and alendronate groups. Conclusion: The combination of curcumin and alendronate has beneficial effects on BMD and bone turnover markers among postmenopausal women with osteoporosis. Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2018;62(4):438-45 Keywords Post menopause; osteoporosis; alendronate; curcumin; bone mineral density

INTRODUCTION

ne of the main health problems for postmenopausal women is a progressive loss of bone density and, possibly, osteoporosis (1). Studies have shown that half of these patients suffer from osteoporosis and its associated complications, such as bone fractures. Studies have demonstrated that most changes of bone density in postmenopausal women are due to the hormonal changes associated with ovarian function after menopause (2). Despite a growing trend of osteoporosis in postmenopausal women, effective therapeutic and preventive measures have yet to be developed. Bisphosphonates and hormone replacement therapy (HRT) are two main methods to prevent or treat osteoporotic womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s postmenopausal problems. The use of HRT is limited due to its cardiovascular complications, 438

increased risk of breast cancer and vaginal bleeding (3). Long-term bisphosphonates application raises concerns about microdamage accumulation and excessive acceleration of mineralization, osteonecrosis of the jaw and atypical insufficiency fractures in the skeleton system (4). These disadvantages explain why so many studies focus on finding new anti-osteoporotic treatments. Natural substances can be complementary or alternative means to prevent and treat osteoporosis (5). Curcumin, derived from the turmeric plant (Curcumin longa L.), has been shown in laboratory studies to have anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antifungal and chemopreventive effects (6). Recently, the effects of curcumin on bone remolding and metabolism have been reported in animal studies (7). The anti-osteoporotic effects of curcumin include inhibiting osteoclastogenesis Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2018;62/4

Combination therapy in osteoporotic women

SUBJECTS AND METHODS Patient selection and study design This randomized, double-blind clinical trial study was conducted in an outpatient clinic, specialized in osteoporosis treatment. The study’s participants were among healthy postmenopausal women, 55 to 65 years of age, who had at least 5 years since their last menstrual period. In the present study osteoporosis was diagnosed by bone mineral densitometry that was defined by both WHO and applied protocol by previous studies (18). Bone density which was 2.5 SD or more below the young normal mean (T score <-2.5) was classified as Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2018;62/4

showing osteoporosis, while a BMD T score between –1 and –2.5 was classified as showing osteopenia. The WHO definition is applied to postmenopausal women using DXA measurement at the spine, hip or forearm. The aims and scope of the study were orally explained to all subjects, and written informed consent was obtained from all participants. The study was confirmed by the ethics committee of Ilam University of Medical Sciences according to the ethical issues of clinical trials (code no: Ir.medilam.rec.1394.184). The study was registered with the Iranian registry of clinical trials (code no: IRCT2016030424308N1) and the study duration was 12 months. All subjects were identified as new cases of osteoporosis and had not yet received any associated treatment. Exclusion criteria in the current study were as follows: history of bone metabolic diseases; application of drugs affecting bone and metabolism such as bisphosphonates, calcium, and vitamin D, current or past vitamin D deficiency; hormonal problems and HRT; coagulopathy and thromboembolic diseases; cardiovascular and cereberovascular diseases; history of drug abuse, smoking or alcohol use and any unwanted reaction or drug side effect during study. Those who could not continue until the end of study were also excluded. Sixty qualified patients were randomly divided into 3 equal groups of control, alendronate, and alendronate + curcumin (the eligible patients entered into the 3 mentioned groups one by one respectively). The alendronate was administered by 5 mg/day dose, determined from a previously study (15), and the curcumin was administered by 110 mg/day dose (11); both were given for 12 months. All subjects also received calcium supplements (1,000–1,500 mg/day) of calcium carbonate. The control group only received calcium supplements as described above. The drugs dosages applied in this study were the same as used by previous studies in which the effectiveness and safety of the drugs were confirmed. Patients were advised to report any unwanted reaction or drug side effects promptly and in case of need refer to our clinic or emergency department. One of the excluding criteria for participants was any unwanted reaction or drug side effect during drug application. All participants completed the study period without dropping out.

BMD measurement BMDs of the lumbar spine (L1–L4), femoral neck, total hip and total body were determined by dualenergy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) at the beginning of the study and after 6 months using equipment 439

by activating NF-kB ligand (8), inhibiting osteoclasts proliferation, and increasing osteoclasts apoptosis (9). Curcumin’s protective effect against the bone deteriorations, induced by glucocorticoids through the activation of microRNA-365 via the suppression of matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9), has also been reported (10). Studies have also reported that curcumin produces beneﬁcial changes in bone turnover and bone strength (11). Despite the beneficial effects of curcumin on bone metabolism, the anti-osteoporotic effects of curcumin have not been studied comprehensively in postmenopausal women with osteoporosis. An experimental study reported that the combination of alendronate and curcumin had beneficial effects on bone remodeling and bone mechanical strength in ovariectomized rats (12). Another study showed significant changes in bone turnover and bone strength in a rat model of postmenopausal osteoporosis reported for curcumin (13). Randomized clinical trial (RCT) study reported that treatment of postmenopausal women with alendronate suppressed bone turnover and increased the BMD (14,15). Also, alendronate can reduce the incidence of vertebral fractures in these patients (16). The safety and efficacy have been reported in long term (10-year) treatment with alendronate in RCTs (17). Despite the inhibitory effects of curcumin on the osteoporotic process in various conditions, the effects of curcumin have not been investigated in the treatment or prevention of osteoporosis in postmenopausal women. The current study investigated the combined effects of curcumin and alendronate on bone turnover markers and bone densitometric features related to osteoporosis in postmenopausal women.

Combination therapy in osteoporotic women

manufactured by a single supplier (Hologic, Waltham, MA). The raw BMD data from all subjects were pooled for analyses. The study defined osteoporosis according to World Health Organization (WHO) criteria (19).

Bone turnover markers assay To evaluate the biomarkers, fasting blood samples were obtained from all subjects at the beginning and end of study. The obtained blood samples were centrifuged (1,000 rpm for 10 min) and stored –at -70°C to measure the biomarkers. All assessments were performed in a central laboratory. For the bone formation assay, this study measured the level of BALP (Hybritech, San Diego, CA) and osteocalcin (CIS Biointernational, France) using the radioimmunoassay systems method (18). For the bone resorption marker, this study analyzed the level of urine C-terminal cross-linking telopeptide of type I collagen (Crosslaps, Osteometer A/S and Copenhagen, Denmark) (18).

Statistical analysis The quantitative and qualitative data are presented as the mean ± standard deviation (SD) and frequency, respectively. T test, Chi-square and ANOVA were applied for comparison of the results appropriately. Statistical analysis of data was performed by SPSS 19 (SPSS Inc, Chicago, USA) software. A p value < 0.05 was considered significant.

RESULTS Patients’ data The mean ± SD years of postmenopausal state in patients treated with alendronate (10.40 ± 1.50 years)

and alendronate + curcumin (9.85 ± 1.89 years) did not statistically differ from the control group (10.45 ± 1.90 years, p = 0.669). The mean ± SD of estradiol levels among alendronate (23.64 ± 10.61) and alendronate + curcumin (26.53 ± 9.11) groups also did not show any significant difference to the control group (25.63 ± 9.54, p = 0.531). The mean ± SD of the follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) levels were not significantly different between groups (p = 0.874). The levels of markers related to bone metabolism and osteoporosis (such as calcium, ALP and phosphorus) also did not differ significantly among the three groups (p = 0.459, p = 0.621 and p = 0.341) (Table 1).

Effect of alendronate and curcumin on bone turnover markers The mean ± SD of bone turnover markers among differennt groups is shown by Figure 1. Figure 1A shows that by the end of study, the BALP of patients in the control group (13.96 ± 1.1 μg/L, 95% CI: 12.0315.1) slightly increased compared to the baseline (13.29 ± 1.5 μg/L, 95% CI: 12.65-14.3) (p = 0.432). However, in both groups of alendronate alone and in combination with curcumin, the BALP level at the end of study decreased compared to the beginning (11.04 ± 0.9 μg/L, 95% CI: 9.02-13.1 vs. 13.54 ± 1.6 μg/L, 95% CI: 11.6-15.1, p = 0.023 and 13.16 ± 1.3 μg/L, 95%CI: 10.05-14.6, vs. 10.2 ± 1.2 μg/L, 95%CI: 9.0212.4, p = 0.012 respectively). The BALP level of the alendronate group was also significantly lower than the BALP level of the control group by the end of study (p = 0.030). Also, the BALP level at the end of study in the alendronate + curcumin group differed significantly from the alendronate only and control groups at the end of study (p = 0.020, p = 0.035, respectively).

Table 1. Basic information of participants Variables

Control

Alendronate

Alendronate+Cur

P value

Age (year)

58.55 ± 12.45

60.50 ± 11.95

58.00 ± 10.78

0.772

BMI (kg/m )

24.95 ± 3.14

24.55 ± 3.60

24.50 ± 5.70

0.840

Postmenopausal duration (year)

10.45 ± 1.90

10.40 ± 1.50

9.85 ± 1.89

0.669

Estradiol (pg/mL)

25.63 ± 9.54

23.64 ± 10.61

26.53 ± 9.11

0.531

87.43 ± 16.43

79.13 ± 21.43

83.54 ± 18.43

0.874

ALP (IU/L)

126.32 ± 42

129.43 ± 37

122.24 ± 27

0.621

Calcium (mg/dL)

9.32 ± 0.34

9.04 ± 0.51

9.21 ± 0.63

0.459

4.3 ± 1.3

4.76 ± 0.76

4.7 ± 0.61

0.341

Phosphorus (mg/dL) Total number

BMI: body mass index; FSH: follicle-stimulating hormone.

440

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Combination therapy in osteoporotic women

Figure 1B shows the osteocalcin results for the three groups. The mean ± SD of osteocalcin increased at the end of study compared with the baseline in the control group, although this increase was not statistically significant (19.37 ± 1.7 μg/L, 95%CI: 19.07-20.05 vs. 18.95 ± 1.3 μg/L, 95%CI: 18.87-20.01, p = 0.432). In the alendronate group, the level of osteocalcin at the end of study decreased compared to the baseline (19.45 ± 1.2 μg/L, 95%CI: 19.02-21.3 vs. 19.75 ± 1.4 μg/L, 95%CI: 19.12-21.6, p = 0.620). Similarly, the mean ± SD of osteocalcin in the alendronate + curcumin group level at the end of study decreased compared to baseline. This decrease was not statistically significant (19.02 ± 1.1 μg/L, 95%CI: 17.06-22.14 vs. 20.3 ± 1.3 μg/L, 95%CI: 18.4-23.1, p = 0.231).

Initial End

CTx changes are shown in Figure 1C. At the end of study, the levels of CTx marker in the control group significantly increased compared to the baseline (0.326 ± 0.027 μg/L, 95%CI: 0.12-0.48 vs. 0.317 ± 0.033 μg/L, 95%CI: 0.22-0.53, p = 0.020). Unlike the control group, the CTx levels in the alendronate group, at the end of study showed a significant reduction compared to the baseline (0.318 ± 0.012 μg/L, 95%CI: 0.19-0.44 vs. 0.323 ± 0.011 μg/L, 95%CI: 0.25-0.46, p = 0.043). Levels of CTx in alendronate + curcumin group showed a significant reduction at the end of study compared to the baseline (0.301 ± 0.017 μg/L, 95%CI: 0.27-0.42 vs. 0.318 ± 0.033 μg/L, 95%CI: 0.23-0.35, p = 0.013). The mean serum level of CTx in the alendronate + curcumin group was also significantly

Osteocalcin (µg/L)

BALP (μg/L)

* €#

10 8 6

Initial End

* €

15 10

2 0

* € #

*€

Control

Alen

Alen + Cr

0.33

Alen

Control

Alen + Cr

Initial End

0.325 0.32

CTx (μg/L)

0.315

* € #

0.31 0.305 0.3 0.295

0.285

Control

Alen

Alen + Cr

Figure 1. Effect of different drug groups on bone turnover markers in postmenopausal women with osteoporosis. * = p < 0.05: end level compared with initial of study in control group. € = p < 0.05: end level compared with initial of study in alendronate. # = p < 0.05: end level compared with end of study in alendronate + curcumin group. BALP: bone-speciﬁc alkaline phosphatase, CTx: C-terminal cross-linking telopeptide of type I collagen. Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2018;62/4

441

0.29

Combination therapy in osteoporotic women

less than its level in the alendronate alone and control groups (p = 0.020, p = 0.037, respectively).

Effect of alendronate and curcumin on bone densitometry Densitometric changes of the total hip BMD are shown by Figure 2A. The mean ± SD of BMD decreased significantly at the end of study compared to the baseline (0.796 ± 0.003, 95%CI: 0.74-0.82 vs. 0.807 ± 0.007, 95%CI: 0.78-0.83, p = 0.031). In the alendronate alone and alendronate + curcumin groups, the mean ± SD of BMD showed a significant increase at the end of study compared to the baseline (0.817 ± 0.007, 95%CI: 0.77-0.84 vs. 0.806 ± 0.009, 95%CI: 0.76-0.83, p = 0.001 and 0.829 ± 0.002, 95%CI: 0.76-0.84 vs. 0.812 ± 0.006, 95%CI: 0.75-0.83, p = 0.01, respectively). Changes in the total hip BMD (Figure 2B) in the alendronate alone and alendronate + curcumin groups significantly increased compared to the control group at the end of study (p = 0.035, p = 0.046, respectively). The total hip BMD level in the alendronate + curcumin group showed a significant

0.84

Total hip BMD (g/cm2)

0.83

0.8

0.79 0.78 Control

Alen

0.925

*€

Initial End

* * €

0.72 0.718 0.716

0.714 0.712 0.71 0.708 Control

Alen

Alen + Cr

* € #

1.01

* €

1.005

Initial End

0.92

0.91 0.905 0.9

Initial End

Total body BMD (g/cm)

Lumbar spine BMD (g/cm2)

0.724

0.706

Alen + Cr

0.935

0.915

0.722

0.81

0.93

Initial End

0.82

0.77

* €

*€

Femoral neck BMD (g/cm2)

increase compared to the BMD level in the alendronate group (p = 0.044). Changes in the femoral neck BMD (Figure 2C) were almost similar to the total hip BMD results; the mean ± SD of the BMD in the control group was significantly lower at the end of study than the baseline (0.712 ± 0.002, 95%CI: 0.69-0.74 vs. 0.718 ± 0.008, 95%CI: 0.70-0.73, p = 0.024). In the alendronate group, the mean ± SD of the femoral neck BMD at the end of study also increased compared to the baseline (0.720 ± 0.002, 95%CI: 0.66-0.78 vs. 0.718 ± 0.003, 95%CI: 0.67-0.79, p = 0.56). The alendronate + curcumin group also showed increased levels in the femoral neck BMD at the end of study compared to the baseline (0.718 ± 0.001, 95%CI: 0.67-0.78 vs. 0.715 ± 0.002, 95%CI: 0.63-0.75, p = 0.063). Changes in the BMD in both alendronate and alendronate + curcumin groups compared to the control group were statistically significant (p = 0.025, p = 0.030, respectively). Changes in the total body BMD are shown in Figure 2D. Like the other variables, the mean ± SD values of BMD in the control group decreased significantly at the end of study compared to the baseline (0.985 ± 0.006,

0.995

0.99 0.985 0.98 0.975 0.97

Control

Alen

Alen + Cr

0.965

Control

Alen

Alen + Cr

Figure 2. Effect of different drug groups on bone mineral density (BMD) in postmenopausal women with osteoporosis. * = p < 0.05: end level compared with initial of study in control group. € = p < 0.05: end level compared with initial of study in alendronate. # = p < 0.05: end level compared with end of study in alendronate + curcumin group. 442

Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2018;62/4

95%CI: 0.91-1.2 vs. 0.998 ± 0.004, 95%CI: 0.95-1.3, p = 0.024). The mean ± SD values of total body BMD among alendronate and alendronate + curcumin groups increased significantly at the end of study compared to the baseline (0.998 ± 0.002, 95%CI: 0.97-1.34 vs. 0.987 ± 0.003, 95%CI: 0.94-1.42, p = 0.022 and 1.005 ± 0.002, 95%CI: 0.98-1.45 vs. 0.981 ± 0.003, 95%CI: 0.93-1.33, p = 0.020). The mean ± SD values of BMD in the alendronate and alendronate + curcumin groups also significantly increased compared to the control group (p = 0.034 and p = 0.014, respectively).

DISCUSSION Postmenopausal women are commonly at risk of a progressive loss of bone density and, possibly, osteoporosis. The aim of this study was to evaluate the combined effects of curcumin and alendronate on BMD and bone turnover markers in postmenopausal women with osteoporosis. Studies have shown that aging is associated with reduced BMD and bone tissue microarchitecture destruction and that these changes increase bone fragility (20). These destructive and progressive changes occur more rapidly in postmenopausal women. Postmenopausal women, due to hormonal deficiencies, fail to achieve peak bone mass or bone mass is more readily destroyed (21). The results of this study showed that markers related to bone turnover (such as BALP and CTx) increased significantly among postmenopausal women in the control group at the end of study compared to other groups, while osteocalcin decreased in this group. Similarly, the densitometric results showed that BMD indices in postmenopausal women at the end of study significantly decreased compared to other groups. The mechanism driving these changes indicated various factors and showed that estrogen deficiency in postmenopausal women leads to decreased BMD through the thinning of bone trabeculae. Thus, when estrogen decreased, differentiation and proliferation of osteoclasts dramatically increased (22). According to this mechanism, one means of preventing osteoporosis in postmenopausal women is HRT and in this field, bisphosphonates are the most important and wellknown drugs. This study’s results showed that alendronate effectively reduced the levels of BALP and CTx and increased osteocalcin by the end of study. When compared to the values at the study’s onset, these changes were significantly different for the BALP Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2018;62/4

and osteocalcin markers but were not significantly different for the CTx. The results showed that the mean level of BALP and CTx in the alendronate group decreased significantly after one year. The osteocalcin levels in the alendronate group also increased significantly compared to the control group. These results mean that alendronate could effectively decrease bone turnover markers in postmenopausal women. A densitometric study also showed that the alendronate group exhibited a significantly increase in total body, waist, hip and lumbar spine BMDs at the end of study compared to the onset. This outcome revealed that alendronate is beneficial to preventing the development of osteoporosis in postmenopausal women. Previous clinical and laboratory studies support this study’s finding. For example, a study by Iwamoto et al demonstrated that treating women, with and without type 2 diabetes, with alendronate reduced the level of alkaline phosphatase (ALP) and increased lumbar spine BMD compared to control group (23). That study also examined the possible side effects of alendronate and did not observe any instances of complications such as atrial fibrillation, atypical diaphyseal femoral fracture or jaw osteonecrosis. Another study by Iwamoto showed that alendronate significantly decreased the average levels of ALP and NTX and increased lumbar spine BMD in postmenopausal women after one year. That study also showed that alendronate reduced the incidence of vertebral and non-vertebral fractures (24). Correspondingly, the present study’s results showed that treatment with alendronate for one year reduced bone turnover markers and increased the BMD values of the total body, waist, hip, and lumbar spine. Experimental investigations have reported evidences supporting the assertion that alendronate inhibits osteoporosis. Lindtner and cols. examined the osteoanabolic effects of alendronate and zoledronate on the process of human bone marrow stromal cells (hBMSCs) osteogenesis in women with osteoporosis and that these compounds could increase the differentiation of hBMSC classes. That study also reported that these compounds could reduce the osteopontin marker levels in hBMSCs lines (25). While most studies on the effects of alendronate on osteoporosis in postmenopausal women utilized monotherapy, Hejdova and cols. examined the beneficial effects of combining alendronate and calcitonin on BMD in postmenopausal women (26). Although several studies 443

Combination therapy in osteoporotic women

have reported alendronate’s antiresorptive properties and it has been used as a first-line treatment for osteoporosis, possible side effects have raised concerns about the benefits and harms of bisphosphonates. In fact, studies have shown that long-term use of BPs was associated with an increased risk of stroke and deep vein thrombosis (DVT); this effect is probably caused by an estrogen-induced effect due to release of clotting factors (27-29). As for these concerns the current study aimed to combine alendronate with curcumin, which has reportedly shown beneficial effects on osteoporosis in clinical and in vitro investigations and can inhibit alendronate’s side effects through its antioxidant properties (30). For example, studies have shown that curcumin can inhibit the activity of the tissue factor involved in thrombotic disorders and decrease platelet activity or inhibit platelet aggregation (31). In addition to curcumin’s advantage in reducing the side effects of BPs, several studies have reported curcumin’s beneficial effects in preventing osteoporosis in experimental and clinical models (32). The present study’s results clearly showed the efficacy of curcumin in combination with alendronate on bone turnover markers and densitometric indices. The results showed that curcumin in combination with alendronate significantly decreased BALP and sCTx markers at the end of study compared to the control group. The present study also found that curcumin in combination with alendronate significantly increased BMD compared to the alendronate and control groups alone. This study’s results are the first to report the beneficial effects of a therapy combining curcumin with a BP in postmenopausal women with osteoporosis. To date, no study had been conducted with this type of combination therapy. Most studies had been carried out as monotherapy and administered curcumin or alendronate separately. Similar results were observed in Cho and cols.’s study, which showed that eight weeks application of high doses of curcumin decreased the ALP, telopeptide-C, and osteocalcin markers in ovariectomized rats compared to the control group. That study also showed that curcumin could reveal a dose-dependent increase in BMD compared with the control group (33). Another study by Cho and cols. showed that curcumin in combination with alendronate reduced the bone turnover markers (ALP and CTX) compared with a control group in ovariectomized rats. In another study by Kim and cols, models of ovariectomized rats demonstrated that curcumin 444

inhibited osteoclastogenesis by increasing the activity of a receptor-mediated of NF-kB (34). While previous clinical trial studies have reported some beneficial effects of curcumin on other musculoskeletal problems such as osteoarthritis, cartilage disease (Cartilaginous), and sarcoma pathology of skeletal muscle (35), our study is the first to report the effects of a combination therapy on osteoporosis among postmenopausal women. The exact mechanisms through which curcumin significantly inhibits osteoporosis have not been determined, but evidences suggest that curcumin inhibits the process of osteoporosis by a series of multi-stage activities. The stages of this process include inhibiting NF-kB and RANKL signaling, inhibiting the production of nitric oxide and reactive oxygen species (ROS) and synthesizing inflammatory cytokines. Curcumin also may inhibit the differentiation and proliferation of osteoclasts (5). This study revealed that both curcumin and alendronate improved the densitometric status and bone remodeling markers of postmenopausal women; however, these findings were significantly higher among those who received curcumin and alendronate as combined compared to the groups receiving these medications lonely. This result indicated that combined application of curcumin and alendronate may be a useful option for prevention and treatment of osteoporosis among postmenopausal women. This study had some limitations such as: groups treated with curcumin alone and the effects of curcumin were not revealed because of limited screening and patient numbers as well as patients’ incompatibility. The study also did not examine the fracture risk of women in the study and only examined bone turnover markers and BMD. It is hoped that these points will be examined in future clinical trial studies. Authors’ contributions: Khanizadeh F and Hafezi Ahmadi MR participated in data collection, data analysis, and interpretation of the results and drafted the manuscript. Asadollahi K and Rahmani A participated in manuscript preparation and critical review. All authors have read and approved the article for publication. Acknowledgements: we thank our colleagues in the Faculty of Medicine, Ilam University of Medical Sciences, participants, coordinators and data reviewers who assisted in this study. Funding/Support: Ilam University of Medical Sciences, Ilam, Iran, supported this study. Disclosure: no potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported. Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2018;62/4

Combination therapy in osteoporotic women

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apy, and placebo on bone turnover in postmenopausal women. Osteoporos Int. 2003;14(10):814-22. 19. Gifre L, Vidal J, Carrasco JL, Muxi A, Portell E, Monegal A, et al. Risk factors for the development of osteoporosis after spinal cord injury. A 12-month follow-up study. Osteoporos Int. 2015;26(9):2273-80. 20. Canpolat S, Tug N, Seyran AD, Kumru S, Yilmaz B. Effects of raloxifene and estradiol on bone turnover parameters in intact and ovariectomized rats. J Physiol Biochem. 2010;66(1):23-8. 21. Riggs BL, Khosla S, Melton LJ. 3rd Sex steroids and the construction and conservation of the adult skeleton. Endocr Rev. 2002;23(3):279-302. 22. Parhami F. Possible role of oxidized lipids in osteoporosis: could hyperlipidemia be a risk factor? Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 2003;68(6):373-8. 23. Iwamoto J, Takeda T, Sato Y, Uzawa M. Comparison of the effect of alendronate on lumbar bone mineral density and bone turnover in men and postmenopausal women with osteoporosis. Clin Rheumatol. 2007;26(2):161-7. 24. Iwamoto J, Sato Y, Uzawa M, Takeda T, Matsumoto H. Three-year experience with alendronate treatment in postmenopausal osteoporotic Japanese women with or without type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Res Clin Pract. 2011;93(2):166-73. 25. Lindtner RA, Tiaden AN, Genelin K, Ebner HL, Manzl C, Klawitter M, et al. Osteoanabolic effect of alendronate and zoledronate on bone marrow stromal cells (BMSCs) isolated from aged female osteoporotic patients and its implications for their mode of action in the treatment of age-related bone loss. Osteoporos Int. 2014;25(3):1151-61. 26. Hejdova M, Palicka V, Kucera Z, Vlcek J. Effects of alendronate and calcitonin on bone mineral density in postmenopausal osteoporotic women. An observational study. Pharm World Sci. 2005;27(3):149-53. 27. Shiraishi A, Miyabe S, Nakano T, Umakoshi Y, Ito M, Mihara M. The combination therapy with alfacalcidol and risedronate improves the mechanical property in lumbar spine by affecting the material properties in an ovariectomized rat model of osteoporosis. BMC Musculoskelet Disord. 2009;10:66. 28. Yang KY, Lin LC, Tseng TY, Wang SC, Tsai TH. Oral bioavailability of curcumin in rat and the herbal analysis from Curcuma longa by LC-MS/MS. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci. 2007;853(1-2):183-9. 29. Carroll CE, Benakanakere I, Besch-Williford C, Ellersieck MR, Hyder SM. Curcumin delays development of medroxyprogesterone acetate-accelerated 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene-induced mammary tumors. Menopause. 2010;17(1):178-84. 30. Hussan F, Ibraheem NG, Kamarudin TA, Shuid AN, Soelaiman IN, Othman F. Curcumin Protects against Ovariectomy-Induced Bone Changes in Rat Model. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. 2012;2012:174916. 31. Pan CJ, Tang JJ, Shao ZY, Wang J, Huang N. Improved blood compatibility of rapamycin-eluting stent by incorporating curcumin. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces. 2007;59(1):105-11. 32. Mawani Y, Orvig C. Improved separation of the curcuminoids, syntheses of their rare earth complexes, and studies of potential antiosteoporotic activity. J Inorg Biochem. 2014;132:52-8. 33. Cho DC, Jung HS, Kim KT, Jeon Y, Sung JK, Hwang JH. Therapeutic advantages of treatment of high-dose curcumin in the ovariectomized rat. J Korean Neurosurg Soc. 2013;54(6):461-6. 34. Kim WK, Ke K, Sul OJ, Kim HJ, Kim SH, Lee MH, et al. Curcumin protects against ovariectomy-induced bone loss and decreases osteoclastogenesis. J Cell Biochem. 2011;112(11):3159-66. 35. Peddada KV, Peddada KV, Shukla SK, Mishra A, Verma V. Role of Curcumin in Common Musculoskeletal Disorders: a Review of Current Laboratory, Translational, and Clinical Data. Orthop Surg. 2015;7(3):222-31.

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REFERENCES

original article

Association between undercarboxylated osteocalcin, bone mineral density, and metabolic parameters in postmenopausal women Leila C. B. Zanatta1, Cesar L. Boguszewski1, Victoria Z. C. Borba1, Carolina A. Moreira1,2

ABSTRACT Divisão de Endocrinologia (SEMPR), Departamento de Medicina Interna, Universidade Federal do Paraná (UFPR), Curitiba, PR, Brasil 2 Laboratório PRO, Seção de Histomorfometria Óssea, Fundação Pró-Renal, Curitiba, PR, Brasil 1

Correspondence to: Carolina Aguiar Moreira Medicina Interna, Universidade Federal do Paraná Av. Agostinho Leao Junior, 285 80030-110 – Curitiba, PR, Brasil carolina.aguiar.moreira@gmail.com Received on Dec/12/2017 Accepted on Mar/20/2018 DOI: 10.20945/2359-3997000000061

Objective: Osteocalcin has been associated with several effects on energy and glucose metabolism. However, the physiological role of undercarboxylated osteocalcin (U-osc; the hormonally active isoform of osteocalcin) is still controversial. To correlate the serum levels of U-osc with bone mineral density (BMD) values and metabolic parameters in postmenopausal women. Subjects and methods: Cross-sectional study including 105 postmenopausal women (age 56.5 ± 6.1 years, body mass index [BMI] 28.2 ± 4.9 kg/m2) grouped based on the presence of three or less, four, or five criteria of metabolic syndrome according to the International Diabetes Federation (IDF). The subjects underwent dualenergy x-ray absorptiometry (DXA) for the assessment of body composition and BMD and blood tests for the measurement of U-osc and bone-specific alkaline phosphatase (BSAP) levels. Results: The mean U-osc level was 3.1 ± 3.4 ng/mL (median 2.3 ng/mL, range 0.0-18.4 ng/mL) and the mean BSAP level was 12.9 ± 4.0 ng/mL (median 12.1 ng/mL, range 7.3-24.4 ng/mL). There were no associations between U-osc and BSAP levels with serum metabolic parameters. Lower fasting glucose levels were observed in participants with increased values of U-osc/femoral BMD ratio (3.61 ± 4 ng/mL versus 10.2 ± 1.6 ng/mL, p = 0.036). When the participants were stratified into tertiles according to the U-osc/ femoral BMD and U-osc/lumbar BMD ratios, lower fasting glucose levels correlated with increased ratios (p = 0.029 and p = 0.042, respectively). Conclusion: Based on the ratio of U-osc to BMD, our study demonstrated an association between U-osc and glucose metabolism. However, no association was observed between U-osc and metabolic parameters. The U-osc/BMD ratio is an innovative way to correct the U-osc value for bone mass. Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2018;62(4):446-51 Keywords Undercarboxylated osteocalcin; metabolic syndrome; glucose; energy metabolism; diabetes mellitus; bone mineral density

INTRODUCTION

ome studies over the past decade have shown that bone is associated with important physiologic mechanisms involving the control of energy metabolism and glucose homeostasis, attracting great interest in the understanding of the role of bone as an endocrine organ (1-9). Osteocalcin is a protein produced by osteoblasts and present in two forms, carboxylated and undercarboxylated (U-osc). The carboxylated form is synthesized and stored in the mineral matrix, while U-osc is produced from the degradation of bone matrix and released into the circulation as a hormonally active isoform (2). U-osc has been shown to stimulate cell proliferation and increase insulin production. 446

In addition, U-osc stimulates adiponectin expression in adipose cells, which in turn increases insulin sensitivity and energy metabolism (10).Insulin has direct participation in the process of decarboxylation of osteocalcin, allowing the formation and release of metabolically active U-osc (11). These actions together reveal a positive feedback mechanism involving pancreatic beta cells, adipose tissue, and bone. Some epidemiological studies have supported the hypothesis of a positive effect of osteocalcin on glucose and energy metabolism (12-23). However, the association of these metabolic parameters with U-osc, in particular, remains elusive (24-36). Based on these facts, the aim of the present study was to correlate serum levels of U-osc and bone mineral density (BMD) Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2018;62/4

with metabolic parameters in a group of healthy, postmenopausal women.

SUBJECTS AND METHODS The recruitment for the study occurred between February 2012 and March 2013. The inclusion criteria comprised female gender, postmenopausal status (amenorrhea for more than 1 year), and age below 70 years. The exclusion criteria included diabetes mellitus; renal, hepatic or cardiac dysfunction; bone disease or secondary osteoporosis; cancer; and use of hypoglycemic agents, glucocorticoids, anticonvulsants or antiresorptive drugs. A total of 180 women were evaluated. Of these, 35 were excluded due to a diagnosis of osteoporosis based on densitometric values and use of antiresorptive medications, 36 due to a diagnosis of diabetes, and 4 due to a diagnosis of cancer (Figure 1). Enrollment

Assessed for elegibility (n = 180)

Excluded (n = 75) Osteoporosis or antiresorptive medications (n = 35) Diabetes (n = 36) Cancer (n = 4)

Analysis

Signed a free and informed consent form approved by the institution's Ethics Committee on Human Research (n = 105)

Figure 1. Study Flowchart.

All participants signed a consent form approved by the institution’s Ethics Committee on Human Research. The participants underwent a clinical evaluation and were classified according to clinical parameters, including body mass index (BMI), waist circumference, and blood pressure, which followed the 2005 classification of the International Diabetes Federation (IDF 2005) (37). Values of BMI were considered normal if between 18.5–24.99 kg/m2, overweight if 25–29.99 kg/m2, class I obese if 30-34.99 kg/m2, class II obese if 35-39.99 kg/m2, and class III obese if greater than 40 kg/m2. Blood samples were collected between 8:00 and 9:00 am after an 8-hour overnight fast. Levels of U-osc were measured with the Glu-OC EIA Kit (Takara Bio Inc., Otsu, Japan; reference values 0.25-8 ng/mL, intra-assay Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2018;62/4

and interassay variations 4.4% and 5.67%, respectively). For this measurement, blood was collected in ice-cold tubes and immediately centrifuged in a cold centrifuge, and the serum was stored in cryotubes at -80°C. Levels of bone-specific alkaline phosphatase (BSAP, a specific marker of bone formation) were determined with the LIAISON® BAP OSTASE® assay (normal range 15-120 μg/dL, intra-assay variation 4.5%) simultaneously to those of U-osc in order to better evaluate the hormonal action of osteocalcin on bone metabolism. Glucose was measured by a hexokinase/glucose6-phosphate dehydrogenase method (normal values < 99 mg/dL) and insulin by chemiluminescence (normal values 2.5-30 μUI/mL). The homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance (HOMA-IR) was used to measure insulin sensitivity using the following formula: (fasting glucose in mg/dL X fasting insulin in UI/mL) / 405 (38). The methods used to measure the remaining variables and their respective normal values are as follows: C-reactive protein (CRP) – turbidimetry (normal values < 0.5 mg/dL); high-density lipoprotein (HDL)-cholesterol – direct, homogeneous method (low values ≤ 40 mg/dL and high values ≥ 60 mg/dL); triglycerides (TG) – glycerol phosphate oxidase (optimal values < 150 mg/dL, borderline values 150-200 mg/dL, increased values > 200 mg/dL); creatinine – alkaline picrate method (normal values 0.57-1.11 mg/dL); calcium – Arsenazo III (normal values 8.6-10.3 mg/dL); phosphorus – UV phosphomolybdate (normal values 2.3-4.7 mg/ dL); PTH – chemiluminescence (normal values 11.761.1 pg/mL); 25-hydrox yvitamin D3 – CLIA (normal values 30-100 ng/mL); alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) – colorimetric method (normal values 0-55 IU/L and 5-34 IU/L, respectively). All patients were evaluated in regards to the presence of criteria for metabolic syndrome and grouped according to the number of criteria present as (A) three or fewer, (B) four, or (C) five. According to the IDF 2005 recommendations, the participants were deemed as having a normal waist circumference when this measurement was below 80 cm, and normal blood pressure when the values were below 130/85 mmHg. The finding of serum glucose levels below 100 mg/dL, TG below 150 mg/dL, and HDL-cholesterol above 50 mg/dL was also considered normal. The participants were also evaluated and categorized according to parameters of body composition. 447

Undercarboxylated osteocalcin and metabolic parameters

Measurements of lumbar spine (L1 to L4) and total femoral BMD, as well as those of body composition (percentage total fat), were performed with a properly calibrated Lunar Prodigy Advance (GE Healthcare, Madison, WI, USA), with a coefficient of variation of 2% and by the same examiner. The ratios U-osc/lumbar BMD and U-osc/femoral BMD were calculated using absolute U-osc (ng/mL) values divided by the BMD observed in the lumbar and total femoral regions (g/m2), respectively.

comparisons between groups. The chi-square test was used to estimate the association between U-osc categorized into tertiles and parameters of metabolic syndrome. Correlations between U-osc and the ratios U-osc/lumbar BMD and U-osc/femoral BMD with values of metabolic variables and BMD were estimated using Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient. A p value below 0.05 was considered significant.

Statistical analysis

The clinical characteristics and results of biochemical tests of the study participants are summarized in Table 1. A total of 76 women (72.4%) presented three or fewer criteria for metabolic syndrome, while 18 (17.1%) had four criteria, and 11 (10.5%) had all five criteria for the syndrome. Osteopenia was observed in 57 (54%) participants, while osteoporosis was observed in 21 (20%) of them. When the participants were categorized according to BMI values, 26 (25%) had normal weight, 44 (42%) had overweight, 22 (21%) had class I obesity, and 13 (12%) had class II or III obesity. There were no significant correlations observed between U-osc levels and metabolic parameters, percent total fat, or CRP levels. The median values of the ratio U-osc/femoral BMD were significantly different in participants with normal (< 99 mg/dL) compared with those with increased (≥ 100 mg/dL) blood glucose levels (2.6 mg/dL and 1.4 mg/dL, respectively, p = 0.036), as demonstrated in Figure 2.

Serum U-osc and BSAP levels, as well as the ratios U-osc/ femoral BMD and U-osc/lumbar BMD were compared with the following metabolic parameters: BMI, waist circumference, systolic and diastolic blood pressure, and total fat percentage assessed by dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry (DXA; total fat), TG, HDL-cholesterol, fasting glucose, insulin, HOMA-IR, and CRP. Levels of PTH, 25-hydroxyvitamin D3, calcium, inorganic phosphorus, albumin, AST, ALT, and creatinine were measured to exclude bone, kidney, and liver disease. The data are described as mean and standard deviation values unless otherwise stated. The MannWhitney and Kruskal-Wallis tests were used for

Table 1. Clinical characteristics and results of biochemical tests of 105 postmenopausal women included in the study Variable

Mean

Median

Range

Age (years)

56.5

56.0

6.1

43.0 - 70.0

BMI (kg/m2)

28.2

27.4

4.9

19.7 - 41.1

Waist circumference (cm)

91.7

90.0

11.3

66.0 - 122.0

Total body fat (%)

41.2

41.7

6.6

23.7 - 54.9

SBP (mmHg)

127.4

120

11.26

90 - 190

RESULTS

3.00

78.8

19.57

60 - 110

Triglycerides (mg/dL)

126.7

107.5

58.0

43.0 - 319.0

HDL-cholesterol (mg/dL)

47.8

46.0

12.3

29.0 - 100.0

Blood glucose (mg/dL)

92.7

91.0

10.6

65.0 - 126.0

1.00

Insulin (μUI/mL)

10.5

9.1

5.9

2.9 - 33.0

0.50

HOMA-IR

2.5

2.0

1.6

0.6 - 9.0

CRP (mg/dL)

0.53

0.33

0.71

0.33 - 6.73

25-hydroxyvitamin D3 (ng/mL)

21.1

20.7

7.0

7.5 - 55.0

U-Osc (ng/mL)

3.1

2.3

3.4

0.0 - 18.4

BSAP (μg/dL)

12.9

12.1

4.0

7.3 - 24.4

448

p = 0.078*

2.2

2.50

DPB (mmHg)

SD: standard deviation; BMI: body mass index; SBP: systolic blood pressure; DBP: diastolic blood pressure; HDL-cholesterol: high-density lipoprotein cholesterol; HOMA-IR: homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance; CRP: C-reactive protein; U-Osc: undercarboxylated osteocalcin; BDAP: bone-specific alkaline phosphatase.

p = 0.036* 2.6

2.00 1.50

0.00

1.4

Undercarboxylated Osc/Femur BMD

Undercarboxylated Osc/Lumbar BMD

Normal glucose levels

High glucose levels

Figure 2. Relationship between the median values of the ratio undercarboxylated osteocalcin (U-osc)/lumbar body mineral density (BMD) and U-osc/femoral BMD with glucose levels in postmenopausal women. Normal glucose values = below 99 mg/dL; high glucose values = equal to or above 100 mg/dL. * Mann-Whitney test; p < 0.05. Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2018;62/4

Undercarboxylated osteocalcin and metabolic parameters

When the ratios U-osc/lumbar BMD and U-osc/femoral BMD were categorized into tertiles, participants in the upper tertiles of both ratios had lower fasting glucose levels. Among participants with lumbar ratio values above 2.985 (ng.mL)/(g/m2), only 12% presented increased glucose levels (p = 0.042) (Figure 3), while for those with femoral ratio values equal to or greater than 3.31 (ng/mL)/(g/m2), only 10% had increased glucose levels (p = 0.029) (Figure 4).

No correlation was observed between U-osc and femoral or lumbar BMD values (r = 0.122, p = 0.218 and r = 0.058, p = 0.560, respectively). Similarly, the correlation between fasting glucose levels with femoral and lumbar BMD was not significant (r = 0131, p = 0.186 and r = 0.033, p = 0.737, respectively). Levels of BSAP were not significantly associated with BMD values or metabolic parameters.

90%

84%

88%

80% 65%

70% 60%

p = 0.042*

50%

35%

40% 30%

16% 12%

20% 10% 0%

Normal glucose

U-Osc/lumbar BMD ≤ 1.567

High glucose

U-Osc/lumbar BMD 1.568 to 2.985

U-Osc/lumbar BMD ≥ 2.986

Figure 3. Percentage of women with ratios of undercarboxylated osteocalcin (U-osc)/lumbar body mineral density (BMD), categorized into tertiles according to blood glucose levels. * Chi-square test; p < 0.05.

90%

81%

90%

80% 70%

p = 0.029*

65%

60% 50% 35%

40% 30%

19%

20%

10%

10% 0%

Normal glucose

U-Osc/femur BMD ≤ 1.8295

High glucose

U-Osc/femur BMD 1.8296 to 3.3310

U-Osc/femur BMD ≥ 3.311

Figure 4. Percentage of women with ratios of undercarboxylated osteocalcin (U-osc)/femoral body mineral density (BMD) categorized into tertiles according to blood glucose levels. * Chi-square test; p < 0.05. Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2018;62/4

Lorem ipsum

The results of this cross-sectional study show an inverse association between the ratio U-osc/femoral BMD with blood glucose levels, which was demonstrated by greater ratio values in the subgroup of patients with normal glucose levels. Similarly, when the ratios (lumbar and femoral) were stratified into tertiles, there was an inverse association of both ratios with blood glucose levels. The U-osc/BMD ratio is an innovative way to correct t U-osc values according to the patient’s bone mass and was applied in this study in a similar way that leptin/fatty tissue ratio was applied in a study by Paz-Filho and cols. (39). Since osteocalcin is a specific bone protein that is increased in postmenopausal, resorptive conditions, we believe that the correction of osteocalcin values by the patient’s BMD yields a more adjusted parameter of the involvement of bone on energy and glucose metabolism. Similar results were not observed for BSAP, a marker exclusively related to bone and without metabolic effects. Additionally, no correlation of BMD values and U-osc or glucose alone was observed, which allows us to infer that these independent variables had no influence on osteocalcin values. Similarly to our findings, Shea and cols. and Mori and cols. found no association between U-osc and indices of insulin resistance (30,31). Additionally, Kanazawa and cols. evaluated women with diabetes and found no association between U-osc and blood glucose parameters (25). Another group of researchers found no association between metabolic syndrome and U-osc (32). Schafer and cols. reported that anabolic treatment for osteoporosis with PTH(1-84) increased U-osc levels, but showed no correlation with increased leptin levels (33). It is important to point out that the studies focused on U-osc differ from those assessing total osteocalcin, which has been associated with metabolic and 449

DISCUSSION

Undercarboxylated osteocalcin and metabolic parameters

atherosclerotic parameters in diabetic and nondiabetic populations of both genders (12-23). An important limitation of studies with U-osc is a lack of homogeneity and specificity of commercially available assays to detect this specific osteocalcin isoform (34-36). In contrast to our findings, Hwang and cols. found that tertiles of U-osc values had a significant inverse correlation with blood glucose levels and insulin sensitivity (24). Other authors have also shown an inverse association between U-osc levels and fasting glucose, HbA1c, total body, and visceral fat in 180 diabetic men (25). Diaz-Lopez and cols. found that lower levels of total osteocalcin and U-osc were independently associated with a higher risk of diabetes mellitus in individuals with increased cardiovascular risk (26). Pollock and cols. evaluated 140 children with and without prediabetes and observed that children with prediabetes had lower total osteocalcin and U-osc levels, along with worst indices of insulin secretion (27,28). Yeap and cols. showed that increased U-osc level was both a marker of bone turnover and an independent predictor of reduced diabetes risk. Additionally, the increased rate of bone remodeling in senescence could be associated with a reduced risk of diabetes mellitus (29). The limitations of the present study include the small number of women with increased blood glucose levels (only 24 of the 105 participants), class II and III obesity (only 13 participants), and of those with all criteria for metabolic syndrome (11 participants). Physical activity (resistive or aerobic), which could influence U-osc levels and BMD values (42,43), was not considered in the statistical models. The oral glucose tolerance test and the hyperinsulinemic-euglycemic clamp, which are superior tests in evaluating insulin resistance compared with the HOMA-IR index, were not performed. The cross-sectional evaluation of this study does not allow us to infer a causal relationship between U-osc levels and metabolic parameters. In conclusion, the results of this study show that the ratios U-osc/lumbar BMD and U-osc/femoral BMD had a significant inverse association with blood glucose levels in a group of nondiabetic, postmenopausal women. This finding reinforces the link between glucose and bone metabolism. Acknowledgment: we thank SEMPR (Endocrinology Department) for excellent assistance during the studies. The authors wrote the manuscript and are responsible for its final content. All authors read and approved the final version of the manuscript. 450

Disclosure: no potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.

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a marker of metabolic risk in healthy postmenopausal women. Menopause. 2011;18(5):537-41. 20. Fernández-Real JM, Izquierdo M, Ortega F, Gorostiaga E, GómezAmbrosi J, Moreno-Navarrete JM, et al. The relationship of serum osteocalcin concentration to insulin secretion, sensitivity, and disposal with hypocaloric diet and resistance training. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2009;94(1):237-45. 21. Saleem U, Mosley Jr TH, Kullo IJ. Serum osteocalcin is associated with measures of insulin resistance, adipokine levels, and the presence of metabolic syndrome. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2010;30(7):1474-8. 22. Bao Y, Ma X, Yang R, Wang F, Hao Y, Dou J, et al. Inverse relationship between serum osteocalcin levels and visceral fat area in Chinese men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2013;98(1):345-51. 23. Winhofer Y, Handisurya A, Tura A, Bittighofer C, Klein K, Schneider B, et al. Osteocalcin is related to enhanced insulin secretion in gestational diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care. 2010;33(1): 139-43. 24. Hwang Y-C, Jeong I-K, Ahn KJ, Chung HY. The uncarboxylated form of osteocalcin is associated with improved glucose tolerance and enhanced beta-cell function in middle-aged male subjects. Diabetes Metab Res Rev. 2009;25(8):768-72. 25. Kanazawa I, Yamaguchi T, Yamauchi M, Yamamoto M, Kurioka S, Yano S, et al. Serum undercarboxylated osteocalcin was inversely associated with plasma glucose level and fat mass in type 2 diabetes mellitus. Osteoporos Int. 2011;22(1):187-94. 26. Diaz-Lopez A, Bullo M, Juanola-Falgarona M, Martinez-Gonzalez MA, Estruch R, Covas M-I, et al. Reduced serum concentrations of carboxylated and undercarboxylated osteocalcin are associated with risk of developing type 2 diabetes mellitus in a high cardiovascular risk population: a nested case-control study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2013;98(11):4524-31. 27. Pollock NK, Bernard PJ, Gower BA, Gundberg CM, Wenger K, Misra S. Lower uncarboxylated osteocalcin concentrations in children with prediabetes is associated with beta-cell function. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2011;96(7):E1092-9. 28. Reinehr T, Roth CL. A new link between skeleton, obesity and insulin resistance: relationships between osteocalcin, leptin and insulin resistance in obese children before and after weight loss. Int J Obes (Lond). 2010;34(5):852-8. 29. Yeap BB, Alfonso H, Chubb SA, Gauci R, Byrnes E, Beilby JP, et al. Higher serum undercarboxylated osteocalcin and other bone turnover markers are associated with reduced diabetes risk and lower estradiol concentrations in older men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2015;100(1):63-71.

32. Fodor D, Vesa S, Albu A, Simon S, Craciun A, Muntean L. The relationship between the metabolic syndrome and its components and bone status in postmenopausal women. Acta Physiol Hung. 2014;101(2):216-27. 33. Schafer AL, Sellmeyer DE, Schwartz AV, Rosen CJ, Vittinghoff E, Palermo L, et al. Change in undercarboxylated osteocalcin is associated with changes in body weight, fat mass, and adiponectin: parathyroid hormone (1-84) or alendronate therapy in postmenopausal women with osteoporosis (the PaTH study). J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2011;96(12):E1982-9. 34. Vergnaud P, Garnero P, Meunier PJ, Bréart G, Kamihagi K, Delmas PD. Undercarboxylated osteocalcin measured with a specific immunoassay predicts hip fracture in elderly women: the EPIDOS Study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1997;82(3):719-24. 35. Nimptsch K, Hailer S, Rohrmann S, Gedrich K, Wolfram G, Linseisen J. Determinants and correlates of serum undercarboxylated osteocalcin. Ann Nutr Metab. 2007;51(6):563-70. 36. Aonuma H, Miyakoshi N, Hongo M, Kasukawa Y, Shimada Y. Low serum levels of undercarboxylated osteocalcin in postmenopausal osteoporotic women receiving an inhibitor of bone resorption. Tohoku J Exp Med. 2009;218(3):201-5. 37. Alberti KG, Zimmet P, Shaw J; IDF Epidemiology Task Force Consensus Group. The metabolic syndrome – a new worldwide definition. Lancet. 2005;366(9491):1059-62. 38. Matthews DR, Hosker JP, Rudenski AS, Naylor BA, Treacher DF, Turner RC. Homeostasis model assessment: insulin resistance and beta-cell function from fasting plasma glucose and insulin concentrations in man. Diabetologia. 1985 Jul;28(7):412-9. 39. Paz-Filho GJ, Volaco A, Suplicy HL, Radominski RB, Boguszewski CL. Decrease in leptin production by the adipose tissue in obesity associated with severe metabolic syndrome. Arq Bras Endocrinol Metabol. 2009;53(9):1088-95. 40. Miura M. Biochemical markers of bone turnover. New aspect. An automated assay for measuring bone turnover markers. Clin Calcium. 2009;19(8):1160-9. 41. Szulc P, Chapuy MC, Meunier PJ, Delmas PD. Serum undercarboxylated osteocalcin is a marker of the risk of hip fracture in elderly women. J Clin Invest. 1993;91(4):1769-74. 42. Levinger I, Zebaze R, Jerums G, Hare DL, Selig S, Seeman E. The effect of acute exercise on undercarboxylated osteocalcin in obese men. Osteoporos Int. 2011;22(5):1621-6. 43. Pollock NK, Bernard PJ, Wenger K, Misra S, Gower BA, Allison JD, et al. Lower bone mass in prepubertal overweight children with prediabetes. J Bone Miner Res. 2010;25(12):2484-93.

30. Shea MK, Gundberg CM, Meigs JB, Dallal GE, Saltzman E, Yoshida M, Jacques PF, Booth SL. Gamma-carboxylation of osteocalcin and insulin resistance in older men and women. Am J Clin Nutr. 2009;90(5):1230-5.

31. Mori K, Emoto M, Motoyama K, Lee E, Yamada S, Morioka T, et al. Undercarboxylated osteocalcin does not correlate with insulin resistance as assessed by euglycemic hyperinsulinemic clamp technique in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Diabetol Metab Syndr. 2012;4(1):53.

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original article

Low serum 25-hydroxy vitamin D levels are associated with aggressive breast cancer variants and poor prognostic factors in patients with breast carcinoma Arunkumar Karthikayan1, Sathasivam Sureshkumar1, Dharanipragada Kadambari1, Chellappa Vijayakumar1

ABSTRACT Department of Surgery, Jawaharlal Institute of Postgraduate Medical Education and Research (JIPMER), Pondicherry, India 1

Correspondence to: Sathasivam Sureshkumar Jawaharlal Institute of Postgraduate Medical Education and Research 605006 – Pondicherry, India drsureshkumar08@yahoo.com Dharanipragada Kadambari Jawaharlal Institute of Postgraduate Medical Education and Research 605006 – Pondicherry, India kadambari1901@gmail.com Received on Jan/24/2018 Accepted on Apr/24/2018 DOI: 10.20945/2359-3997000000062

Objective: This study was conducted to assess the serum 25-hydroxy (OH) vitamin D levels in patients with breast cancer compared to healthy controls and to identify its association with aggressive breast cancer phenotypes. Materials and methods: Serum 25-OH vitamin D levels of 78 breast cancer patients and 78 matched healthy controls were estimated using ELISA. The cases and controls were matched with respect to age, menopausal status, parity, weight, height and co-morbidities. Prognostic factors like grade of tumour, hormone receptor status, HER2 neu status and lymphovascular invasion were compared with 25-OH vitamin D levels. Results: The mean serum 25-OH vitamin D levels of cases were significantly lower compared to the controls (22.33 ± 8.19 vs. 37.41 ± 12.9 ng/mL; p = 0.0001). Patients with higher grades of tumour, non-luminal types of breast cancer and breast cancers with estrogen receptor negativity had significantly lower serum 25-OH vitamin D levels than their opposing groups. Patients with excellent and good Nottingham’s prognostic Index (NPI) had significantly higher serum 25-OH vitamin D levels than the moderate and poor NPI groups. Conclusion: Newly diagnosed breast cancer patients have significantly lower serum 25-OH vitamin D levels than healthy controls. Lower level of serum 25-OH vitamin D correlates with aggressive breast cancer phenotypes. Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2018;62(4):452-9 Keywords 25-hydroxy vitamin D; carcinoma breast; prognostic factors; vitamin D metabolism; cancer prophylaxis

INTRODUCTION

reast cancer is the commonest malignancy among women worldwide (1). Vitamin D has a wide range of immunogenic and anti-proliferative action throughout the body, in addition to its well-known endocrine actions. Vitamin D deficiency has been correlated with increased incidence of malignancies of breast, prostate, and colon (2). Suboptimal vitamin D levels are hypothesized to lead to unhindered cellular proliferation, angiogenesis, and metastasis (3). Suboptimal vitamin D levels in women diagnosed with breast cancer have been shown to correlate with poor overall survival and decreased distant disease free survival (4). Though Western literature shows a correlative relationship between vitamin D status and increased incidence of breast cancer, its impact in the Indian population is of questionable value because India is a tropical country with abundant sunshine throughout 452

the year. This study might form part of the missing links in the vitamin D and breast cancer scenario in India. The Indian and white European populations vary significantly in their characteristics, and a positive correlation in this study as in its Western counterparts might pave the way for larger observational studies defining the level of vitamin D deficiency in Asian Indians (5). If large-scale studies show a significant correlation, it might pave the way for better understanding in the management of breast cancer.

MATERIALS AND METHODS Study design This study was a hospital-based case control study conducted over a period of 2 years. All the newly diagnosed breast cancer patients presenting to a tertiary care center in South India were included in Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2018;62/4

Low vitamin D level associates with aggressive breast cancer

Cases and controls Newly diagnosed breast cancer patients not on any vitamin D supplementation for the past 6 months were included in the study. Patients who were diagnosed elsewhere or partially treated at outside hospitals and who had taken vitamin D supplementation in the previous 6 months were excluded from the study. Details regarding demographic parameters, parity, menopausal status, co-morbidities, family history of breast cancer, clinical features, height, weight, examination findings pertaining to breast carcinoma, and baseline laboratory parameters were collected. The controls were selected from apparently healthy women volunteers accompanying the patients attending this institute after due informed written consent. The cases and controls were matched with respect to age, menopausal status, parity, weight, height, co-morbidities and renal function test, so that the confounding factors affecting the serum 25-OH vitamin D levels are avoided. All the participants included were the residents of Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry states in South India with latitude of 11.1271° N- 11.9139° N, 78.6569° E- 79.8145° E. The climate in this part of country is classified as tropical wet and dry (megathermal) by the Köppen-Geiger system where the population gets sun exposure in most parts of the year. Additionally, the clothing habit of women in this part of the country enables them to get adequate sun exposure.

Serum 25-OH vitamin D level estimation The serum 25-OH vitamin D levels were estimated with DIA Source immunoassay KAP 1971 25-OH vitamin D Total ELISA Kits. The assay was calibrated to the ID-LC/MS-MS reference method. 25-OH vitamin D level ≥ 30 ng/mL was considered sufficiency. Ten to < 30 ng/mL was taken as 25-OH vitamin D insufficiency and 0 to < 10 ng/mL as deficiency. The above cut-off Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2018;62/4

values were selected based on the recommendation of Endocrine Society practice guidelines (6).

Outcome parameters studied The bold sample for serum 25-OH vitamin D level estimation was taken at the time of diagnosis confirmation by core needle biopsy. The blood sample was collected from the healthy female volunteers after matching at the outpatient department. The demographic characteristics were recorded including age, BMI, height, weight, and Hb. Status of menopause was recorded in both the groups. Details of all the breast cancer patients were discussed in the tumor board for making informed decisions regarding the treatment plans. The breast cancer patients’ biopsy reports were followed up after surgery. Details like grade of the tumor, hormone receptor status, HER2 neu status, lymphovascular invasion, and Nottingham’s prognostic index (NPI) were collected and studied to compare the level of vitamin D and its association with the above parameters.

Statistical analyses The distribution of data on 25-OH vitamin D levels will be assessed by using the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test and accordingly expressed as the mean with standard deviation. Data were analyzed using SPSS software version 17. The 25-OH vitamin D levels between the two groups were compared by using chi-square test, and the mean 25-OH vitamin D level was compared using Student’s t-test. Association between serum 25-OH vitamin D levels and various breast cancer prognostic parameters such as tumor stage, grade, histological type receptor status, etc., was analyzed using ANOVA and Student’s t-test. A p value of < 0.05 was considered as statistically significant.

RESULTS All the newly diagnosed patients attending the breast cancer clinic were screened for inclusion in the study. Seventy-eight cases over a period of 2 years were included after satisfying the inclusion/exclusion criteria. Seventy-eight controls were studied after necessary matching as mentioned in the cases and control definition. Demographic parameters like age, height, and weight in both control and breast cancer groups were comparable. The BMI was the same in both groups and fell within the normal range for all of the subjects and controls (Table 1). 453

the study. The study was evaluated by the institute’s ethics committee and a formal clearance was obtained (JIP/IEC/2012/26/324). The nature, methodology, and risks involved in the study were explained to the patients and informed consent was obtained. All the information collected was kept confidential and patients were given full freedom to withdraw at any point during the study. All provisions of the Declaration of Helsinki were followed in this study.

Low vitamin D level associates with aggressive breast cancer

Table 1. Comparison of baseline characteristics between cases and controls Parameters

Controls (n = 78) (Mean ± SD)

Cases (n = 78) (Mean ± SD)

p value (Student t test)

Age (years)

45.8 ± 10.1

47.1 ± 10.7

0.439

BMI (kg/m2)

22 ± 2.3

22 ± 2.2

0.940

Height (cm)

162.6 ± 2.6

161.9 ± 2.7

0.133

Weight (kg)

58.2 ± 5.8

57.8 ± 5.4

0.660

Hemoglobin (g/dL)

12 ± 0.8

11.8 ± 0.8

0.184

Base line vitamin D levels Around 4% of the women in the breast cancer group were vitamin D deficient, whereas in the control group no women had vitamin D deficiency. Of the breast cancer patients, 82% had vitamin D insufficiency, in contrast to 35% in the control group (p < 0.001). Only 14% of patients had sufficient vitamin D levels compared to 65% of controls who had sufficient vitamin D levels (Table 2).

Vitamin D levels versus breast cancer prognostic parameters An equal number of premenopausal and postme nopausal women were in the two groups. No significant difference was observed between serum 25-OH vitamin D levels in postmenopausal women and premenopausal women (20.13 ± 8.51 ng/mL vs. 23.7 ± 7.77 ng/mL; p = 0.06). Women who did not fall into the clear-cut category of premenopausal or postmenopausal were classified into the perimenopausal group, and seven of such women were not included in the analysis. No patients presented in stages I and IV. The clinical stage of a tumor did not bear any statistically significant relationship with the serum 25-OH vitamin D levels in this study. A statistically significant association (p = 0.001) was observed between serum 25-OH vitamin D levels and histological grades of breast cancer. Patients with poorly differentiated (grade 3) breast cancer had lower 25-OH vitamin D levels than patients with moderately (grade 2) and well-differentiated (grade 1) tumors (Table 3).

Table 2. Comparison of serum 25-OH vitamin D levels in cases and controls Controls

Cases

N (%)

25(OH) vitamin D Level (ng mL) Mean ± SD

N (%)

25(OH) Vitamin D Level (ng/mL) Mean ± SD

3 (3.9%)

8.5 ± 1.5

Insufficiency

27 (34.6%)

26 ± 2.8

64 (82%)

20.3 ± 4.7

< 0.001*

Sufficiency

51 (65.4%)

43.5 ± 10.8

11 (14.1)

38.1 ± 4.8

0.112*

37.4 ± 12.2

22.3 ± 8.2

0.0001**

25-OH vitamin D levels

Deficiency

Mean serum 25(OH) vitamin D level

p valuex

* Chi-square test, ** Student t test.

Table 3. Association between serum 25-OH vitamin D levels and breast cancer prognostic parameters Serum 25(OH) vitamin D level (ng/ mL)

Breast cancer prognostic parameters Menopausal status

Stage of tumour

Grade of tumour

Premenopausal (n = 48)

23.7 ± 7.8

Postmenopausal (n = 23)

20.1 ± 8.5

Stage I (n = 0)

Stage II A (n = 9)

24.8 ± 7.7

Stage IIB (n = 40)

21.3 ± 8

Stage IIIA (n = 25)

23.4 ± 9.2

Stage III B (n = 4)

21.1 ± 4.1

Grade 1 (n = 16)

29.5 ± 10.4

Grade 2 (n = 53)

21.7 ± 6

Grade 3 (n = 9)

13.4 ± 3.7

p value 0.060*

0.598**

0.001**

Student’s t test, **ANOVA.

454

Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2018;62/4

Low vitamin D level associates with aggressive breast cancer

Vitamin D levels versus NPI NPI was used as a surrogate indicator for aggressiveness of a tumor. On analyzing the association with the individual prognostic category, 25-OH vitamin D levels did not show a significant association with the NPI. However, when the NPI was grouped to include various prognostic categories into two groups – Group I (index ≤ 3.4) consisting of the excellent (index ≤ 2.4) and good prognostic categories (index ≤ 2.4-3.4) and Group II (index > 3.4) consisting of the moderate I (index 3.41-4.40), moderate II (index 4.41-5.4), and poor (index ≥ 5.41) prognostic categories – serum 25-OH vitamin D in Group II showed significantly lower mean concentration than in Group I (25.48 ± 8.86 ng/mL vs. 20.46 ± 7.24 ng/ml; p = 0.008) (Table 4).

Table 4. Association between serum 25-OH vitamin D levels and Nottingham’s prognostic index (NPI) NPI Score

Serum 25 (OH) Vitamin D levels (ng/mL) Mean ± SD

≤ 2.4

28.6 ± 10.3

Good (n = 22)

2.4 – 3.4

24.5 ± 8.4

Moderate I (n = 21)

3.4 – 4.4

20.6 ± 7.5

Moderate ll (n = 19)

4.4 – 5.4

19.9 ± 8.4

Poor (n = 9)

> 5.4

21.3 ± 3.6

Group I (n = 29) (Excellent, good)

≤ 3.4

25.5 ± 8.9

Group II (n = 49) (Moderate I & II, Poor)

> 3.4

20.5 ± 7.2

Prognostic category Excellent (n = 7)

p value

0.075*

0.008**

* ANOVA, ** Student’s t Test.

Table 5. Association between serum 25-OH vitamin D levels and molecular phenotypes of breast cancer Serum 25 (OH) Vitamin D Levels (ng/mL) Mean ± SD

Molecular Phenotypes Luminal (n = 37)

24.3 ± 8

Non-luminal (n = 41)

20.6 ± 8.1

Luminal A (n = 25)

23.6 ± 7.4

Luminal B (n = 12)

25.7 ± 9.4

Her 2 (n = 15)

21 ± 9.1

Basal (n = 26)

20.3 ± 7.6

p value

0.045*

0.206**

Student’s t Test, ** ANOVA.

Vitamin D levels versus lymphovascular invasion and estrogen receptors The group of patients with lymphovascular invasion in breast cancer had no significant association with lower mean vitamin D value compared to the group without lymphovascular invasion (p = 0.360). Patients with estrogen receptor positivity had significantly higher serum 25-OH vitamin D levels compared to the patients with negative estrogen receptors (24.28 ± 7.99 vs. 20.57 ± 8.08; p = 0.045) (Table 6).

Table 6. Association between serum 25-OH vitamin D Levels with histopathology parameters Serum 25 (OH) Vitamin D levels (ng/mL)

Histopathology parameters Lymphovascular Invasion

Present (n = 17)

20.7 ± 7.2

Absent (n = 61)

22.8 ± 8.5

Estrogen Receptor

Present (n = 37)

24.3 ± 8

Absent (n = 41)

20.6 ± 8.1

p value (Student t test) 0.360 0.045

Vitamin D levels versus IHC molecular phenotypes

Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2018;62/4

DISCUSSION Multiple studies have shown associations between adequate vitamin D, circulating vitamin D levels, and a decreased incidence of malignancies of colon, breast, ovary, prostate, kidney, pancreas, etc. (3,4). It has been shown that a mean vitamin D level of 40 to 60 ng/mL will be able to prevent about three-fourths of the deaths from breast and colon cancer in the United States and Canada (2). Multiple laboratory tests on tissue cultures have shown that the malignant cell growth is inhibited by vitamin D metabolites, and there has been redifferentiation in some instances (3,4,7). The proposed 455

The molecular phenotypes of breast cancer were segregated using IHC status as surrogate markers. On analyzing the individual molecular phenotype, the vitamin D levels did not yield any significant association with any of the luminal A, luminal B, HER2, and basal phenotypes of the tumors. However, when the phenotypes were categorized into a non-luminal group (HER2 and basal) and a luminal group (luminal A and luminal B), the non-luminal group had a significantly lower mean serum 25-OH vitamin D level as opposed to the luminal group (20.6 ± 8.1 vs. 24.3 ± 8 ng/mL; p = 0.045) (Table 5).

Low vitamin D level associates with aggressive breast cancer

mechanisms for the said action includes up-regulation of adherence and signaling between epithelial cells, contact inhibition of proliferation, differentiation, cell cycle stabilization, promotion of apoptosis, antineoangiogenesis, and down-regulation of glycogen synthase kinase 3 (GSK-3) that decreases the in-vitro proliferation of colorectal, pancreatic, prostate, and other cancer cells (7). According to Garland’s DINOMIT model of carcinogenesis, vitamin D deficiency plays a role in arresting carcinogenesis at various levels. This finding could pave the way for including vitamin D in the adjuvant treatment regime of epithelial cancers (2). Vitamin D and its metabolites, if linked with specific cancer types, can be used as nonspecific markers of aggressiveness. Adequate vitamin D levels are beneficial not only to decreasing the incidence of malignancy but also in a multitude of various health conditions, autoimmune conditions, infections, and chronic medical disorders. Food fortification with vitamin D could be considered if future large-scale studies show a similar picture. In the current study, vitamin D insufficiency in the control group was around 35%, which was much lower than the range reported in Indian literature (5). Largescale population-based studies have shown that serum 25-OH vitamin D levels are inversely associated with breast cancer risk in a concentration-dependent fashion (7). Garland and cols. reviewed around 3000 articles investigating the association of vitamin D and its metabolites with cancer (2). Imtiaz and cols., in their study on Pakistani women, found that 95.6% of women with breast cancer and 77% of healthy women were deficient in vitamin D, which was statistically significant (p < 0.001) (3). Harinarayan and cols. in their study found that 70% of South Indian women are deficient in vitamin D, 29% have insufficient levels, and only 1% has sufficient vitamin D levels (5). Previous studies have shown a correlation between high BMI and low vitamin D levels (8). Since the BMI of the patients and controls were matched in the present study, the effect of BMI as a confounding variable has been suppressed to prevent a spurious association of vitamin D insufficiency with cases. In the current study, the postmenopausal women in the cases had low mean serum 25-OH vitamin D levels compared to the premenopausal group; however, the difference was not statistically significant. Using a statistical adjustment for menopausal status is advocated if the difference in 456

the mean 25-OH vitamin D levels significantly differ in both the groups. Earlier studies have shown that postmenopausal women may have a relatively low 25-OH vitamin D concentration (9).

Association of 25-OH vitamin D levels with breast cancer patients The clinical stages of tumors did not bear any statistically significant relationship with the serum 25-OH vitamin D levels in this study. A similar finding was obtained in the study by Imtiaz and cols. on Pakistani women (3). The commonest presentation of breast cancer is a painless breast lump. Most of the people in rural India tend to neglect these symptoms. As a result, patients with advanced clinical stage at presentation are a common occurrence in the Indian setting. Because patients’ health-seeking behavior is a confounding factor in assessing the clinical staging at presentation, it may not be expected to show any association with vitamin D levels (10). Patients with poorly differentiated breast cancer had lower vitamin D levels than patients with moderately and well-differentiated tumors. The above finding has been explained by previous studies in which it was demonstrated that vitamin D metabolites inhibit proliferation and promote apoptosis and differentiation (11). Chollet and cols. showed that NPI, which was used to prognosticate primarily operable breast cancer in the adjuvant setting, retains its prognostic value in the neoadjuvant setting also (12). When the NPI prognostic groups were reorganized to form two groups – namely Group I (excellent and good prognosis) and Group II (moderate I, moderate II, and poor prognosis) – it was found that Group I had statistically significant higher serum 25-OH vitamin D levels than Group II (p = 0.008). NPI is directly proportional to tumor grade. In the present study, the serum 25-OH vitamin D levels of the patients at diagnosis have a statistically significant association with tumor grade. Hence, the relationship of serum 25-OH vitamin D levels with various grades of tumors might contribute to its association with NPI. Because NPI has been used as a marker for prognosis, it could be assumed that a low serum 25-OH vitamin D level is one of the markers of poor prognosis. Gene expression profiling in breast cancer has resulted in the identification of several major breast cancer subtypes. The best characterized of these Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2018;62/4

subtypes are luminal A, luminal B, HER2, and basallike carcinoma. Immuno-phenotyping with ER, PR, and HER2 biomarkers can be used as a surrogate for molecular category of breast cancer (13-15). Luminal sub-group constitutes approximately 70% of invasive breast cancers. It is characterized by high expression of hormone receptors that are found more in luminal A. Luminal B tends to be at a higher histological grade than luminal A. Luminal B, sometimes called triple positive breast cancer, is more likely to have lymph node metastasis and may respond more to chemotherapy. Some luminal B tumors over-express HER2. These tumors are slow growing, respond well to hormone therapy and usually has a better prognosis (14,15,20). HER2 constitutes around 15% of invasive breast cancers which are characterized by HER2 over-expression, gene amplification and low expression of hormone receptors. These tumors have relatively poorer prognosis. Basal tumors are subgroup of the so-called triple-negative breast cancers. It is characterized by low expression of hormone receptors and HER2 genes. Basal epithelial genes and basal cytokeratins (EGFR, CK 5/6) are highly expressed. The BRCA-associated breast cancers fall in this group. It has a poorer prognosis (15). Using IHC findings as surrogate markers, luminal A and luminal B were grouped as luminal type breast cancer. HER2 neu and basal-like groups were classified as non-luminal breast cancer. Like other study results, patients with luminal types of breast cancer had higher serum 25-OH vitamin D levels than patients with the non-luminal types (14-16). The presence of lymphovascular invasion in the pathology specimen is a marker of poor prognosis. In the current study, the difference between serum 25-OH vitamin D levels among tumors with and without lymphovascular invasion was not statistically significant (p = 0.360). A similar observation was reported in the study by Imtiaz and cols. (3). Because the presence of tumor emboli within vascular spaces within the realm of a tumor is a common finding, rigorous sampling techniques are required to prevent this finding from being mistaken for the presence of true lymphovascular invasion (15). Estrogen receptor negativity is one of the poor prognostic indicators in breast cancer (13). The antiproliferative action of vitamin D in breast cancer could partly be mediated by its role in down-regulating estrogen receptor abundance in breast cancer (7,11). Because estrogen causes increased growth of breast cancer, this anti-estrogenic effect of vitamin D is of much interest. Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2018;62/4

Vitamin D induces estrogen receptor expression in ER-negative breast cancers, thereby restoring their response to anti-estrogens, according to Santos-Martinez and cols. (16). The above-mentioned fact could form the way for a possible new therapeutic approach of adding vitamin D to potentiate adjuvant hormonal therapy in the future. Imtiaz and cols. could not demonstrate a correlation of vitamin D levels with parameters like histological grade of a tumor and estrogen receptor status (3). The present study, however, was able to document a statistically significant correlation between grade of a tumor (p = 0.001), estrogen receptor status (p = 0.045), luminal and non-luminal breast cancer (p = 0.045), and serum 25-OH vitamin D levels. A unique feature of this study is that the study population was from the southern part of India, where studies comparing breast cancer and serum 25-OH vitamin D levels are scarce in this population. The study and control groups were matched meticulously in various aspects like age, BMI, menstrual status, parity, and co-morbidities like diabetes and hypertension. According to Chollet and cols., NPI also retains its prognostic value in the post-chemotherapy setting (12). In the present study, NPI had been used as an indicator of poor prognosis. Robsahm and cols. analyzed the published literature on the inverse association of vitamin D on cancer survival and evaluated the possible reverse causation (17). It has been shown that the duration of the cancer, chemotherapy, and other modalities of cancer treatment may have an adverse effect on vitamin D levels. It is plausible that the inverse association of lower vitamin D levels and cancer could be due to the adverse effect of cancer treatment on vitamin D levels with a potential reverse causation. Because the duration and severity of cancer, various cancer treatments, and time of serum sample collection play a vital role in establishing the temporal association, the present study excluded patients who were diagnosed elsewhere or partially treated at outside hospitals. To avoid the possible adverse effect of chemotherapy and hormonal therapy on vitamin D levels, only newly diagnosed breast cancer patients were included in the present study. Despite the different stages of cancer, oneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s population group and different sites of cancer may have an effect on vitamin D levels. Robsahm and cols. concluded that the association of lower vitamin D levels and inferior cancer survival is consistent even after adjusting for these confounders. Because a possibility of 457

Low vitamin D level associates with aggressive breast cancer

introducing vitamin D supplementation for the general population exists when extrapolating the study results, until strong evidence to prove the inverse association of vitamin D levels and breast cancer is available from the carefully structured prospective trials, the potential reverse causation should be considered when discussing this important subject. Results from the VITamin D and OmegA-3 TriaL (VITAL) on the efficacy of vitamin D supplementation in the prevention of cancer are much awaited and could possibly answer the above unsolved issue (18). A limitation of this study was that patients who attended the hospital were selected based on convenient sampling. The current study was not a communitybased one and patients were not followed up. Because it was a one-time estimate of vitamin D levels, it cannot be taken as an indicator of the duration of exposure to low serum levels of vitamin D that may have contributed to the increased risk for breast cancer. The sample size included in the present study is relatively small due to limited resources. A population-based study with a larger sample may provide better insight into this important subject. Future studies may also include detailed assessment of nutritional status and quantification of sunlight exposure (time of exposure, duration) and skin color that would enable examination of the association of the above factors with serum 25-OH vitamin D levels. Large-scale studies that measured serum parathormone, serum calcium, bone mineral density, and serum 25-OH vitamin D levels in the Indian setting will help in defining a vitamin D classification in the Indian setting. The response to chemotherapy in patients in the neoadjuvant setting and its correlation, if any, with the vitamin D values could be studied. If a positive correlation were found, then it would pave the way for using vitamin D levels as a prognostic marker for assessing the response to chemotherapy (19). In conclusion, higher grades of tumors had lower serum 25-OH vitamin D levels than lower grades. Luminal types of breast cancer had higher serum 25-OH vitamin D levels than the non-luminal types. Patients with estrogen receptor positivity had higher serum 25-OH vitamin D levels than those with absence of estrogen receptor. It was found that patients with excellent and good NPI prognoses had statistically significant higher serum 25-OH vitamin D levels than the moderate and poor NPI prognoses groups, whereas menopausal status, the clinical stage 458

at presentation, and lymphovascular invasion did not show a statistically significant correlation with serum 25-OH vitamin D. Funding: there was no fund/financial grant obtained for this study. Disclosure: no potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.

REFERENCES 1. Estimated cancer incidence, mortality and prevalence worldwide in 2012. Globocan 2012. Available from: http://globocan.iarc.fr/ Pages/fact_sheets_population.aspx. Accessed on: Nov 28, 2017. 2. Garland CF, Gorham ED, Mohr SB, Garland FC. Vitamin D for cancer prevention: global perspective. Ann Epidemiol. 2009;19(7):468-83. 3. Imtiaz S, Siddiqui N, Raza SA, Loya A, Muhammad A. Vitamin D deficiency in newly diagnosed breast cancer patients. Indian J Endocrinol Metab. 2012;16(3):409-13. 4. Vrieling A, Hein R, Abbas S, Schneeweiss A, Flesch-Janys D, Chang-Claude J. Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D and postmenopausal breast cancer survival: a prospective patient cohort study. Breast Cancer Res. 2011;13(4):R74. 5. Harinarayan CV, Ramalakshmi T, Venkataprasad U. High prevalence of low dietary calcium and low vitamin D status in healthy south Indians. Asia Pac J Clin Nutr. 2004;13(4):359-64. 6. Holick MF, Binkley NC, Bischoff-Ferrari HA, Gordon CM, Hanley DA, Heaney RP, et al. Evaluation, treatment, and prevention of vitamin D deficiency: an Endocrine Society clinical practice guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2011;96(7):1911-30. 7. Crew KD, Gammon MD, Steck SE, Hershman DL, Cremers S, Dworakowski E, et al. Association between plasma 25-hydroxyvitamin D and breast cancer risk. Cancer PrevRes (Phila). 2009;2(6):598-604. 8. Holick MF, Chen TC. Vitamin D deficiency: a worldwide problem with health consequences. Am J Clin Nutr. 2008;87(4):1080S-6S. 9. Aggarwal S, Nityanand. Calcium and vitamin D in post menopausal women. Indian J EndocrinolMetab2013; 17(Suppl 3): S618-20. 10. Subramanian P, Oranye NO, Masri AM, Taib NA, Ahmad N. Breast cancer knowledge and screening behavior among women with a positive family history: a cross sectional study. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev. 2013;14(11):6783-90. 11. James SY, Mackay AG, Colston KW. Effects of 1, 25dihydroxyvitamin D3 and its analogues on induction of apoptosis in breast cancer cells. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol. 1996;58(4):395-401. 12. Chollet P, Amat S, Belembaogo E, Cure H, de LM, Dauplat J, et al. Is nottingham prognostic index useful after induction chemotherapy in operable breast cancer? Br J Cancer. 2003;89(7):1185-91. 13. Manjunath S, Prabhu JS, Kaluve R, Correa M, Sridhar TS. Estrogen Receptor Negative Breast Cancer in India: Do We Really Have Higher Burden of this Subtype? Indian J Surg Oncol. 2011;2(2):122-5. 14. Lips EH, Mulder L, de Ronde JJ, Mandjes IA, Koolen BB, Wessels LF, et al. Breast cancer subtyping by immunohistochemistry and histological grade outperforms breast cancer intrinsic subtypes in predicting neoadjuvant chemotherapy response. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 2013;140(1):63-71. 15. Sanati S, Hameed O, Warrick JI, Allred C. Breast Pathology. In: Humphrey PA, Dehner LP, Pfeifer JD, editors. The Washington Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2018;62/4

Low vitamin D level associates with aggressive breast cancer

16. Santos-Martinez N, Diaz L, Ordaz-Rosado D, Garcia-Quiroz J, Barrera D, Avila E, et al. Calcitriol restores antiestrogen responsiveness in estrogen receptor negative breast cancer cells: a potential new therapeutic approach. BMC Cancer. 2014;14:230.

18. Manson JE, Bassuk SS, Lee IM, Cook NR, Albert MA, Gordon D, et al. The VITamin D and OmegA-3 TriaL (VITAL): rationale and design of a large randomized controlled trial of vitamin D and marine omega-3 fatty acid supplements for the primary prevention of cancer and cardiovascular disease. Contemp Clin Trials. 2012;33(1):159-71.

17. Robsahm TE, Schwartz GG, Tretli S. The inverse relationship between 25-hydroxyvitamin D and cancer survival: discussion of causation. Cancers. 2013;5(4):1439-55.

19. Goodwin PJ, Ennis M, Pritchard KI, Koo J, Hood N. Prognostic effects of 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels in early breast cancer. J Clin Oncol. 2009;27(23):3757-63.

Manual of Surgical Pathology. 2nd ed. Washington; Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2012. p. 298-328.

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original article

Hounsfield unit value has null effect on thyroid nodules at 18 F-FDG PET/CT scans Filiz Eksi Haydardedeoglu1, Gulay Simsek Bagir1, Nese Torun2, Emrah Kocer3, Mehmet Reyhan2, Melek Eda Ertorer1

ABSTRACT Baskent University Faculty of Medicine Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Adana, Turkey 2 Baskent University Faculty of Medicine Department of Nuclear Medicine, Adana, Turkey 3 Baskent University Faculty of Medicine Department of Pathology, Adana, Turkey 1

Correspondence to: Filiz Eksi Haydardedeoglu, Baskent University Faculty of Medicine Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism Dadaloglu mah Serinevler 2591 sk. No: 4/A 01250 – Yüregir, Adana, Turkey filizeksi@hotmail.com Received on Feb/25/2018 Accepted on May/18/2018 DOI: 10.20945/2359-3997000000063

Objectives: Detection rate of thyroid nodules is increasing with the use of new imaging modalities, especially in screening for malignancies. Positron emission tomography/computed tomography (PET/ CT)-positive thyroid nodules should be differentiated for malignancy to avoid unnecessary operations and further follow-up. Most trials evaluate the role of SUVmax, but there is no definitive information about the utility of Hounsfield unit (HU) values for prediction of malignancy. This study aimed to evaluate the HU values beside SUVmax for detecting malignancy risk of PET/CT-positive thyroid nodules. Subjects and methods: Results of 98 cancer patients who had fine needle aspiration biopsy (FNAB) for thyroid nodules detected on PET/CT between January 2011 and December 2015 were assessed. The FNABs and surgical pathological results were recorded. Results: FNABs revealed benign results in 32 patients (32.7%), malignant in 18 (18.4%), non-diagnostic in 20 (20.4%), and indeterminate in 28 (28.5%). Twenty-four patients underwent thyroidectomy. The mean HU values were not significantly different in benign and malignant nodules (p = 0.73). However, the mean SUVmax was significantly higher (p < 0.001) in malignant ones. Area under curve (AUC) was 0.824 for SUVmax; the cut-off value was over 5.55 (p < 0.001), with 80% sensitivity, 84.5% specificity. Conclusions: Our current study demonstrated that HU value does not add any additional valuable information for discriminating between malignant and benign thyroid nodules. We also defined a SUVmax cut-off value of 5.55 for malignant potential of thyroid nodules detected on PET/CT. Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2018;62(4):460-5 Keywords Thyroid nodules; malignancy; PET-CT, SUVmax; Hounsfield Unit

INTRODUCTION

he detection rate of incidental thyroid nodules is increasing steadily due to the use of new radiological imaging modalities, such as 18 F-fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG) positron emission tomography/computed tomography (PET/CT). Uptake of 18F-FDG by the thyroid gland can be detected either diffusely or focally. Diffuse 18F-FDG uptake is usually due to benign processes, such as thyroiditis, while focal uptake can be due to either a benign or a malignant nodule. The detection rate of new thyroid nodules by PET/CT has been reported as 1-4% (1). In the absence of a familial history of thyroid cancer or external beam radiation to the neck, the malignancy rates of thyroid nodules detected on PET/CT ranges between 27.8-74%, whereas it is only 5-13% using ultrasound, CT, or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) (1-3). Malignant cells tend to have higher glucose metabolism and thus may have positive 18F-FDG PET/CT scans. Although 460

they tend to have higher maximum standardized uptake values (SUVmax) than benign nodules, the definitive cutoff SUVmax for the prediction of a malignant thyroid nodule has not yet been defined (4). The Hounsfield unit (HU), which was first introduced by Sir Godfrey Newbold Hounsfield, is used in CT scans and is a quantity proportional to the degree of X-rays that pass through or are absorbed by tissues (5). HU have since been used to evaluate and quantify tissues and fluids. The radiodensity of water is defined as 0, fat has a negative HU, and blood and other tissues have a positive HU, which are measured and reported in a variety of clinical approaches (6). Thus far, there is no clear information about the utility of HU values for the prediction of thyroid malignancy. 18 F-FDG PET/CT-positive thyroid nodules tend to have higher rates of malignancy, which should be further investigated by thyroid ultrasonography to enlightment for the features of thyroid nodules. Clinically suspicious features of malignancy on thyroid Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2018;62/4

Hounsfield unit of thyroid nodules

SUBJECTS AND METHODS We retrospectively investigated the medical records of 98 patients with various cancers who had FNAB performed following the detection of 18F-FDG PET/ CT-positive thyroid nodules between January 2011 and December 2015. None of the patients in our study group were evaluated for thyroid cancer as a primary site. The study was approved by our Institutional Review Board and Ethics Committee (Project number: KA16/23). Medical records of all cancer patients with 18F-FDG PET/CT-positive thyroid nodules subjected to FNAB were extracted from the hospital database. The 18F-FDG PET/CT procedures were performed for the staging and/or follow-up of a cancer. The ultrasonographic features of these nodules were also noted. The FNAB examinations were reported according to the Bethesda system for thyroid cytopathology (9). According to the Bethesda system, the cytopathology of thyroid nodules is separated into six groups: 1) nondiagnostic or unsatisfactory, 2) benign, 3) atypia of undetermined significance or follicular lesion of undetermined significance, 4) follicular neoplasm or suspicious for a follicular neoplasm, 5) suspicious for malignancy, and 6) malignant. For this particular study, the FNABs were grouped as: 1) nondiagnostic, 2) benign, 3) malignant and suspicious for malignancy, and 4) indeterminate. The indeterminate group included follicular neoplasm/suspected follicular neoplasm, or Hürthle cell neoplasm and atypia of undetermined significance subgroups. If more than one nodule was detected on a PET/CT scan, FNAB was performed on the nodule that had the higher SUVmax. Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2018;62/4

Together with SUVmax, HU values of the 18F-FDGpositive nodules were also calculated as an additional tool to predict malignancy during non-contrast CT scans taken together with PET imaging. Calculations were performed by the same experienced nuclear medicine physician. The ultrasonographic features and cytological and surgical results were compared with SUVmax and HU of 18F-FDG PET/CT-positive nodules.

Whole body 18F-FDG PET/CT imaging The patients were imaged using a dedicated PET/CT system (General Electric Medical System, Milwaukee, WI, USA). Patients fasted for at least 6 hours before intravenous administration of 2.5 MBq/kg 18F-FDG. Before 18F-FDG injection, blood glucose concentration was measured to confirm that patient levels were below 150 mg/dL. During the distribution phase, the patients were kept in the supine position in a quiet room. Combined image acquisition was performed 60 minutes after 18F-FDG administration. First, an unenhanced CT scan (3.3 mm slice thickness) from the base of the skull to the inferior border of the pelvis was acquired using a standardized protocol (140 kV and 80 mA). The subsequent PET scan was obtained in three-dimensional mode from the base of the skull to the inferior border of the pelvis (6-7 bed positions, 2.5 minutes per bed position) without repositioning the patient on the table. Patients were breathing shallowly while CT and PET images were acquired. Attenuation was corrected by the CT images obtained after 18F-FDG injection. Thyroid lesions were analyzed semiquantitatively according to SUVmax values. The SUVmax was calculated automatically by software, as the ratio of the maximum tissue concentration of FDG (kBq/mL) in the structure delineated by the region of interest (ROI) to the activity injected per gram body weight of the patient (kBq/g). An 18F-FDG PET-CT-positive thyroid nodule was defined as a thyroid lesion with a calculated SUVmax greater than 2 MBq/kg FDG. The HU value was measured at the region of thyroid nodules marked by a non-contrast CT scan, and calculated as the mean value.

Statistical analysis The data are expressed as means ± SD or as medians for data that do not fit a normal distribution. The baseline differences between the two groups were analyzed by 461

ultrasonography are hypoechogenicity, taller than wider appearance, irregular margins, hypervascularity, and microcalcifications (7). Many authorities, including the American Thyroid Association (ATA), recommend fine needle aspiration biopsy (FNAB) for exclusion of malignancy in thyroid nodules (8). Although FNAB is a simple, easily performed procedure for the detection of malignancy, in 15-30% of cases the results can be inconclusive. In most cases, repeat FNAB or diagnostic surgery needs to be carried out. More accurate and less invasive diagnostic approaches are required. The aim of this retrospective study is to evaluate the use of SUVmax and HU values for detecting the malignancy risk of 18 F-FDG PET/CT-positive thyroid nodules.

Hounsfield unit of thyroid nodules

Student’s t-test. Pearson’s chi-square test, and Fisher’s exact test were used to compare the ratios between groups. The baseline differences between groups were also analyzed by the Kruskal-Wallis test and MannWhitney U test. In this study, the cut-off value of SUVmax was defined. The sensitivity and specificity of the calculated SUVmax and the area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUROC) were also measured. A p value < 0.05 was considered statistically significant. All statistical analyses were performed using SPSS for Windows software (ver. 23.0; SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA).

RESULTS Ninety-eight patients were included in the study. The mean age of the study population (n = 98) was 57.6 ± 13.8 years, and 75 (76.5%) were women. The most common primary malignancy evaluated was breast cancer at 25.5%. Thirty-four patients had solitary nodules (34.7%); the remainder had two or more nodules. Mean maximum diameter of 18F-FDG PET/ CT-positive thyroid nodules was 22.5 ± 11.8 mm. The general characteristics and ultrasonographic features of the patients are shown in detail in Table 1. Cytological examination of FNABs were reported as benign in 32 patients (32.7%), malignant in 18 (18.4%), nondiagnostic in 20 (20.4%), and indeterminate in 28 (28.5%). Thyroidectomy was performed on 24 patients. One of 20 patients in the nondiagnostic FNAB group had surgery, and the nodule was found to be malignant.

Two of 32 patients with benign cytology were operated on and were found to have benign nodules. Nine of 18 patients with malignant and suspicious for malignancy FNABs were operated on, and all operation specimens were found to be malignant. The remaining 9 patients with malignant FNABs were not subjected to thyroidectomy because of their accompanying poor general health. Twelve of 28 patients with indeterminate FNABs were subjected to thyroidectomy; 6 of them were diagnosed as malignant, and the remaining were diagnosed as benign. The final pathological examination of 24 cases subjected to thyroidectomy revealed one patient with thyroid metastasis of primary cancer, one with anaplastic thyroid carcinoma, one with follicular carcinoma of thyroid, 13 patients with papillary carcinoma of thyroid, and the remaining eight were diagnosed as benign. These results are summarized in Figure 1.

98 Patients with FNAB Results

Non-diagnostic: 20 Patients 1 Operation Result: 1 Malignant

lndeterminate: 8 Patients 12 Operations Results: 6 Benign and 6 Malignant

Benign-32 Patients 2 Operations Results: 2 Benign

Malignant-18 Patients 9 Operations Results: 9 Malignant

Figure 1. The surgical outcomes of the patients who underwent thyroidectomy.

Table 1. General characteristics of the patients, ultrasonographic features of 18F-FDG PET/CT positive nodules regarding FNAB results Benign (n = 32)

Malignant (n = 18)

Indeterminated (n = 28)

Non-diagnostic (n = 20)

p value

56.6 ± 14.4

53.55 ± 20.93

57.42 ± 11.61

62.2 ± 10.5

0.15

Female (n, %)

27 (36%)

11 (14.6%)

21 (28%)

16 (21.4%)

Male

5 (21.7%)

7 (30.4%)

4 (17.4%)

24 (33.8%)

8 (11.3%)

21 (29.5%)

18 (25.4%)

0.39

Age (year)

Type of nodule Solid Solid-cystic

4 (44.4%)

1 (11.1%)

2 (22.2 %)

2 (22.2%)

0.29

22.03 ± 10.5

21.46 ± 13.73

21.93 ± 11.47

22.5 ± 12.71

0.65

18 (32.7%)

14 (25.5%)

13 (23.6%)

10 (18.2%)

0.52

Hyperechogenic

1 (20%)

2 (40%)

1 (20%)

0.67

Isoechogenic

10 (50%)

1 (5%)

6 (30%)

3 (15%)

0.27

Microcalcification

2 (25%)

1 (12.5%)

5 (62.5%)

0.034

Taller than wider

1 (33.3%)

2 (66.7%)

0.32

3 (30%)

4 (40%)

0.23

Size (max diam.mm)

Hypoechogenic

Vascularity NS: not significant.

462

Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2018;62/4

Hounsfield unit of thyroid nodules

ROC curve 1.0

Sensitivity

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0

0.2

0.4 0.6 0.8 1- Specificity Diagonal segments are produced by ties

1.0

Figure 2. Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve of standardized uptake value (SUV max). The sensitivity and specifity in the prediction of malignant thyroid nodules. Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2018;62/4

Table 2. SUV max and Hounsfield values of 18F-FDG PET/CT positive nodules regarding FNAB and postoperative pathological results SUV max

Hounsfield Unit

Benign (n = 38)

Malignant (n = 25)

4.68 ± 4.02 min = 2 max = 22.4 median = 3.3

17.94 ± 19.10 min = 2.1 max = 82.2 median = 11.3

43.9 ± 17.25 min = 12 max = 67 median = 51

50.5 ± 16.93 min = 15 max = 91 median = 49

p value < 0.001

0.73

SUV max: Maximum Standardized Uptake Value.

DISCUSSION In this study, inquiring the malignancy risk of 18F-FDG PET/CT-positive thyroid nodules via using SUVmax and HU values, we found that SUVmax values of nodules with malignant pathology were higher. However, the HU values exhibited statistically insignificant difference. The malignancy risk of thyroid nodules ranges between 5-15% (10), and the risk increases if they are detectable on PET/CT scans 27.8-74% (3). Although the prevalence varies widely, according to a recent meta-analysis, 34.8% of thyroid nodules detected by 18F-FDG PET/CT are malignant (11). Even though, only 24.5% of the cases were subjected to thyroidectomy due to their inconvenient general health conditions, keeping in accordance with the analysis above, the malignancy rate was 25.5% in our cohort. The use of the SUVmax as a semiquantitative parameter to discriminate between benign and malignant tumors has been suggested previously (12,13). This measure reflects the metabolic activity of the lesions and, in general, a higher SUVmax value may imply malignancy (14). One of the factors affecting SUVmax is the expression of glucose transporters, and thyroid cancer cells usually have increased GLUT-1 expression (12). It has also been suggested that the SUVmax is influenced by different grades of inflammation, blood flow, and the size of the malignant lesions (15). Because of the high risk of malignancy, it is important to identify malignant 18F-FDG-positive nodules and determine which patients require surgical intervention. However, there is inconsistent information about the diagnostic role of SUVmax values for determining malignancy. Some studies have shown no significant difference between the SUVmax values of benign and malignant thyroid nodules (16-18), whereas numerous others have suggested its usefulness for identifying malignant 463

When we evaluate FNAB and postoperative pathological results of nodules together, 38 of them were considered as benign (32 patients with benign FNAB results and 6 of 12 patients with indeterminate FNAB results who subjected to thyroidectomy) and 25 of them were malignant (18 cases with malignant FNAB results and 6 cases with indeterminate FNAB results who subjected to thyroidectomy) and one with non-diagnostic FNAB result who subjected to thyroidectomy. The mean SUVmax was found to be significantly higher (p < 0.001) in malignant nodules than benign ones: 17.94 (min = 2.1, max = 82.2, median = 11.3, SD = 19.10) versus 4.68 (min = 2, max = 22.4, median = 3.3, SD = 4.02). The under the curve (AUC) was 0.824 for SUVmax; the cut-off value was over 5.55 (p < 0.001), with 80% sensitivity and 84.5% specificity (ROC curve) (Figure 2). However, mean HU values of these malignant and benign thyroid nodules were not significantly different (p = 0.73), 50.5 (min = 15, max = 91, median = 49, SD = 16.93) and 43.9 (min = 12, max = 67, median = 51, SD = 17.25), respectively (Table 2). We also grouped the patients according to SUVmax cut-off level (5.55). We found that SUVmax was correlated to HU values in all patients (p = 0.03). The nodules that have higher SUVmax have higher HU values. However, when only benign and malignant nodules were evaluated, we did not find any correlations between SUVmax and HU values.

Hounsfield unit of thyroid nodules

lesions (14,19,20). The importance of SUVmax and its definitive cut-off value for predicting malignancy have not yet been established among patients with 18F-FDG PET/CT-positive thyroid nodules. The cut-off value for SUVmax was found to be 5.55 in the current study, which is corroborated by a previous report (21). The inconsistent results in current medical literature may be due to differences in glucose metabolism among detected lesions and/or differences in tumor size. Accordingly, Kim and cols. reported no significant difference in SUVmax between malignant and benign thyroid nodules less than 1 cm in size (22). When the nodules in our study were categorized up to 1 cm size cut-off, there was no significant difference regarding SUVmax between malignant and benign nodules, as well. To avoid unnecessary surgical operations and further investigations, an additional diagnostic tool besides SUVmax is required. Recently, Kim and cols. demonstrated that the HU values of thyroid nodules detected on 18F-FDG PET/CT scans were higher in malignant than benign ones, and the sensitivity, specificity, and accuracy of HU values were all higher than those of SUVmax (22). This is the only study proposing the use of HU value as a new parameter to classify the risk of malignancy of 18F-FDG PET/ CT-positive thyroid nodules. For confirmation, we calculated the HU values of thyroid nodules on noncontrast CT in addition to SUVmax. There was no significant difference between mean HU value of benign and malignant thyroid nodules in our study. The HU measurement seems to have no additional value for the identification of malignant and benign thyroid nodules detected on PET/CT scans. Our finding is consistent with the study by Sayman and cols. (23), although conflicting with Kim’s study (22). Further studies are required to verify these results. Our study has some limitations. The retrospective design is one of them. The other is the relatively low number of cases that were subjected to thyroidectomy in indeterminate and non-diagnostic groups. Only one of the 20 patients with nondiagnostic FNAB, and 12 of the 28 patients with indeterminate FNAB, had thyroidectomy. The final pathological examination showed one malignancy in the former group, whereas 6 cases exhibited thyroid malignancy following thyroidectomy in the indeterminate FNAB group. If all of the nondiagnostic and indeterminate results could have been confirmed by repeat FNAB or surgery, the results would have been surely higher. However, this 464

was not possible due to the critical health condition of the patients (most of whom were metastatic). If the cut-off value for SUVmax of 5.55 was applied to nondiagnostic thyroid nodules, 9 of 20 patients would have been above that value. If the same cut-off was applied to the indeterminate patients who did not undergo operation, half of them would have been over that value. These probabilities do not necessarily mean that these nodules were malignant, but suggest that the nodules should have been evaluated further. In conclusion, we defined an SUVmax cut-off value of 5.55 and demonstrated its importance in determining the malignant potential of thyroid nodules. Most of the published research on the issue of thyroid incidentaloma detected at 18F-FDG/PET CT focus on the role of SUVmax and its potential role in the differentiation of malignant and benign thyroid lesions. Our study deals with the potential role of additional information obtained from the CT part of this imaging modality. The analysis of HUs of metabolically active thyroid nodules does not have any additional valuable information for discriminating between malignant and benign nodules. Authors’ contributions: Dr. Filiz Eksi Haydardedeoglu: Project development, data interpretation/collection, manuscript writing and editing. Gulay Simsek Bagir: Data collection. Nese Torun: Interpretation of PET/CT data and analysis of results. N. Emrah Kocer: Analysis of pathological results. Mehmet Reyhan: Data collection and drafting of manuscript. M. Eda Ertorer: Data interpretation and drafting of manuscript. Acknowledgment: we do thank Cagla Sariturk for calculating and supporting all statistical analyses. Disclosure: no potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.

REFERENCES 1. Chun AR, Jo HM, Lee SH, Chun HW, Park JM, Kim KJ, et al. Risk of Malignancy in Thyroid Incidentalomas Identified by Fluorodeoxyglucose-Positron Emission Tomography. Endocrinol Metab (Seoul). 2015;30(1):71-7. 2. Russ G, Leboulleux S, Leenhardt L, Hegedüs L. Thyroid incidentalomas: epidemiology, risk stratification with ultrasound and workup. Eur Thyroid J. 2014;3(3):154-63. 3. Kao YH, Lim SS, Ong SC, Padhy AK. Thyroid incidentalomas on fluorine-18-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomographycomputed tomography: incidence, malignancy risk, and comparison of standardized uptake values. Can Assoc Radiol J. 2012;63(4):289-93. 4. Brindle R, Mullan D, Yap BK, Gandhi A. Thyroid incidentalomas discovered on positron emission tomography CT scanning - Malignancy rate and significance of standardised uptake values. Eur J Surg Oncol. 2014;40(11):1528-32. Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2018;62/4

Hounsfield unit of thyroid nodules

5. Lamba R, McGahan JP, Corwin MT, Li CS, Tran T, Seibert JA, et al. CT Hounsfield numbers of soft tissues on unenhanced abdominal CT scans: variability between two different manufacturers’ MDCT scanners. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2014;203(5):1013-20.

lesions detected incidentally in 18F-FDG PET/CT examination. PLosOne. 2014; 9(10):e109612.

6. Kalender WA. Computed tomography: fundamentals, system technology, image quality, applications. 3. Erlangen, Germany: Publicis Publishing; 2011.

15. Ohba K, Nishizawa S, Matsushita A, Inubushi M, Nagayama K, Iwaki H, et al. High incidence of thyroid cancer in focal thyroid incidentaloma detected by 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose [corrected] positron emission tomography in relatively young healthy subjects: results of 3-year follow-up. Endocr J. 2010;57(5):395-401.

7. Yoon JH, Cho A, Lee HS, Kim EK, Moon HJ, Kwak JY. Thyroid incidentalomas detected on 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose-positron emission tomography/computed tomography: Thyroid Imaging Reporting and Data System (TIRADS) in the diagnosis and management of patients. Surgery. 2015;158(5):1314-22.

16. Eloy JA, Brett EM, Fatterpekar GM, Kostakoglu L, Som PM, Desai SC, et al. The significance and management of incidental [18F] fluorodeoxyglucose-positron-emission tomography uptake in the thyroid gland in patients with cancer. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 2009;30(7):1431-4.

8. Haugen BR, Alexander EK, Bible KC, Doherty GM, Mandel SJ, Nikiforov YE, et al. 2015 American Thyroid Association Management Guidelines for Adult Patients with Thyroid Nodules and Differentiated Thyroid Cancer: The American Thyroid Association Guidelines Task Force on Thyroid Nodules and Differentiated Thyroid Cancer. Thyroid. 2016;26(1):1-133.

17. Buyukdereli G, Aktar Y, Kara E, Uguz A, Sonmez H. Role of 18Ffluorodeoxyglucose Positron Emission Tomography/Computed Tomography in the Evaluation of Cytologically Indeterminate Thyroid Nodules. Iran J Radiol. 2016;13(1):e21186.

9. Cibas ES, Ali SZ. The Bethesda System for Reporting Thyroid Cytopathology. Thyroid. 2009;19(11):1159-65.

18. Are C, Hsu JF, Schoder JP, Shah JP, Larson SM, Shaha AR. FDGPET detected thyroid incidentalomas: need for further investigation? Ann Surg Oncol. 2007;14(1):239-47.

10. Tunbridge WM, Evered DC, Hall R, Appleton D, Brewis M, Clark F, et al. The spectrum of thyroid disease in a community: the Whickham survey. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 1977;7(6):481-93.

19. Wang N, Zhai H, Lu Y. Is fluorine-18 fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography useful for the thyroid nodules with indeterminate fine needle aspiration biopsy? A meta-analysis of the literature. J Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2013;42:38.

11. Soelberg KK, Bonnema SJ, Brix TH, Hegedüs L. Risk of malignancy in thyroid incidentalomas detected by 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography: a systematic review. Thyroid. 2012;22(9):918-25.

20. Kresnik E, Gallowitsch HJ, Mikosch P, Stettner H, Igerc I, Gomez I, et al. Fluorine-18-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography in the preoperative assessment of thyroid nodules in an endemic goiter area. Surgery. 2003;133(3):294-9.

12. Chen YK, Ding HJ, Chen KT, Chen YL, Liao AC, Shen YY, et al. Prevalence and risk of cancer of focal thyroid incidentaloma identified by 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography for cancer screening in healthy subjects. Anticancer Res. 2005;25(2B):1421-6.

21. Bertagna F, Treglia G, Piccardo A, Giovannini E, Bosio G, Biasiotto G, et al. F18-FDG-PET/CT thyroid incidentalomas: a wide retrospective analysis in three Italian centres on the significance of focal uptake and SUV value. Endocrine. 2013;43(3):678-85.

13. Yaylalı O, Kirac FS, Yuksel D, Marangoz E. Evaluation of focal thyroid lesions incidentally detected in fluorine-18-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography/computed tomography images. Indian J Cancer. 2014;51(3):236-40.

23. Sayman H, Uslu L, Topuz OV, Sager S, Halac M, Sonmezoglu K. Is adding hounsfield unit measurement on standardized uptake value helpful in differentiating thyroid nodules? J Nucl Med. 2013;54(Suppl 2):1900.

14. Stangierski A, Wolinski K, Czepczynski R, Czarnywojtek A, Lodyga M, Wyszomirska A, et al. The usefulness of standardized uptake value in differentiation between benign and malignant thyroid

22. Kim D, Hwang SH, Cha J, Jo K, Lee N, Yun M. Risk Stratification of Thyroid Incidentalomas Found on PET/CT: The value of Iodine Content on Noncontrast Computed Tomography. Thyroid. 2015;25(11):1249-54.

Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2018;62/4

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original article

Mutation screening in the genes PAX-8, NKX2-5, TSH-R, HES-1 in cohort of 63 Brazilian children with thyroid dysgenesis Departamento de Biorregulação, Laboratório de Estudo da Tiroide, Instituto de Ciências da Saúde, Universidade Federal da Bahia (UFBA), Salvador, BA, Brasil 2 Programa de Pós-Graduação em Biotecnologia em Saúde e Medicina Investigativa, Instituto Gonçalo Moniz ( IGM/ Fiocruz), Salvador, BA, Brasil 3 Associação de Pais e Amigos dos Excepcionais (APAE), Salvador, BA, Brasil 4 Grupo Fleury. 5 Programa de Pós-Graduação em Saúde Pública, Universidade Federal da Bahia (UFBA), Salvador, BA, Brasil 6 Programa de Pós-Graduação em Saúde Humana e Medicina, Escola Bahiana de Saúde e Medicina, Salvador, BA, Brasil 1

Taíse Lima de Oliveira Cerqueira1,2, Yanne Rocha Ramos1, Giorgia Bruna Strappa1, Mariana Souza de Jesus1, Jailciele Gonzaga Santos1, Camila Sousa1, Gildásio Carvalho3, Vladimir Fernandes4, Ney Boa-Sorte3, Tatiana Amorim3, Thiago Magalhães Silva5, Ana Marice Teixeira Ladeia6, Angelina Xavier Acosta2, Helton Estrela Ramos1,2

ABSTRACT Objective: To evaluate the candidate genes PAX-8, NKX2-5, TSH-R and HES-1 in 63 confirmed cases of thyroid dysgenesis. Subjects and methods: Characterization of patients with congenital hypothyroidism into specific subtypes of thyroid dysgenesis with hormone levels (TT4 and TSH), thyroid ultrasound and scintigraphy. DNA was extracted from peripheral blood leukocytes and the genetic analysis was realized by investigating the presence of mutations in the transcription factor genes involved in thyroid development. Results: No mutations were detected in any of the candidate genes. In situ thyroid gland represented 71.1% of all cases of permanent primary congenital hypothyroidism, followed by hypoplasia (9.6%), ectopia (7.8%), hemiagenesis (6.0%) and agenesis (5.5%). The highest neonatal screening TSH levels were in the agenesis group (p < 0.001). Conclusions: Thyroid dysgenesis is possibly a polygenic disorder and epigenetic factors could to be implicated in these pathogeneses. Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2018;62(4):466-71 Keywords Thyroid dysgenesis; congenital hypothyroidism; transcription factors

Correspondence to: Helton Estrela Ramos Departamento de Biorregulação, Universidade Federal da Bahia Av. Reitor Miguel Calmon, s/n. Vale do Canela, sala 301 40110-102 – Salvador, BA, Brasil ramoshelton@gmail.com Received on Dec/3/2016 Accepted on May/9/2018 DOI: 10.20945/2359-3997000000065

INTRODUCTION

ongenital hypothyroidism (CH) is the most common disorder of the endocrine system among newborns with a global incidence of about 1/3,0004,000 (1). Untreated CH can cause dwarfism and severe intellectual disability, with the delayed onset of thyroid replacement therapy by only a few weeks after birth being associated with reduced development of mental functions later on in life (2). Therefore, neonatal screening programs have been implemented to identify these patients earlier to ensure proper somatic growth and development of the central nervous system in infants (3). The causes of CH are broadly categorized into dyshormonogenesis accounting for 15% of the cases, and thyroid dysgenesis (TD) accounting for 85% of the cases (3-6). Dyshormonogenesis is caused by autosomal recessive mutations of key molecules of thyroid hormone 466

synthesis, in which thyroid hormone production fails in a structurally healthy thyroid gland (7). TD is caused by a wide range of different structural malformations in the thyroid that result in a wide variety of different phenotypes of CH (6,8-10). TD is subcategorized into: 1) thyroid agenesis – the most severe form, in which there is a complete lack of thyroid tissue (i.e. both lobes); 2) thyroid hemiagenesis – one of the thyroid lobes is completely missing; 3) thyroid hypoplasia – the gland is smaller but is still in a normal position; 4) thyroid ectopia – the gland is not positioned normally but rests along the migratory pathway of the primordium. While TD appears sporadically in the vast majority of cases (8), several findings have pointed to a genetic underpinning (11-13). Familial inheritance patterns have been observed in about 2% of cases (14) and a higher incidence has been found for girls (male to female Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2018;62/4

Genetic aspects of thyroid dysgenesis in 63 Brazilian children

SUBJECTS AND METHODS Patients with primary CH over the age of 3 years were recruited between 2012 and 2015 from the Association for Parents and Friends of Disabled Individuals (APAE) – Salvador – Bahia. Retrospective analysis of patient medical records was conducted to evaluate the clinical presentation including: 1) TSH; total T4 (TT4), and free T4 (fT4) at the time of neonatal screening, measured by immunofluorometric assays (Autodelfia®, Wallac Oy, Turku, Finland); and 2) congenital heart defects or other congenital malformations. The patients were characterized for TD by: 1) measuring thyroglobulin (Tg) levels, per immunofluorometric assays (Autodelfia®, Wallac Oy, Turku, Finland); 2) thyroid ultrasound, performed by Portable Mindray DP-4900 - 7-10 Mhz focused on the thyroid gland and cervical region. Total thyroid volume was calculated as described by Ueda, 1999 (16) and compared according to sex, age, height and body surface as described by Zimmermam and cols., 2004 (17); and 3) scintigraphy, performed by intravenous injection of 99Tc Pertechnetate. Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2018;62/4

This study was approved by both the Federal University of Bahia – Ethics Committee for Research Projects and the APAE-Salvador (Nº 125/2011 and Nº 22/2011, respectively). Participation was voluntary with written consent obtained from at least one parent or guardian.

Genetic testing DNA was extracted from whole blood using PureLink® Genomic DNA Mini kit (Life Technology®, Carlsbad, California). The entire coding region and promoter region of the PAX-8 gene, including exon/intron boundaries, was amplified from genomic DNA by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) using standard techniques (18). All 10 individual TSH-R exons were sequenced, with exon 10 subdivided into 2 overlapping primers (18). The coding region of the NKX2-5 gene was studied and each of 2 exons were amplified by a total of 3 PCRs (18). HES-1 exons were sequenced entirely using 5 pairs of primers with exon 4 divided into two parts (18). PCR products were sequenced directly on a ABI Prism® 3100 Genetic Analyzer (Applied Biosystem®, Carlsbad, California) using the Big Dye TM® Terminator Sequencing Standard Kit (Applied Biosystems®, Carlsbad, California). The results were analyzed by comparison with the standard sequence (www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed) for each gene specifically (PAX-8; TSH-R; NKX2-5 and HES-1) using the bioinformatics program BioEdit Sequence Alignment Editor, Version 7.2.5.0 (Ibis Biosciences, Carlsbad, California). All primers and PCR conditions are available upon request.

Statistical analysis The clinical parameters (TSH and fT4 serum levels) of the patients diagnosed with TD were compared with those of patients diagnosed with ISTG to assess the severity of conditions in patients with different phenotypes. Statistical analysis was conducted with SPSS 2.0 and Stata 12 software packages. Nonparametric Mann-Whitney U and Kuskall-Wallis tests were used whenever appropriate and a p-value of < 0.05 was considered significant. The Dunn test was used for multiple comparisons (19).

RESULTS Of the 1,188 newborns diagnosed with CH up to the year 2016, abnormal TSH levels were confirmed in 773 newborns and they are being followed-up. Of these, 2.84% (N = 22) were found to be transitory primary congenital hypothyroidism, based upon spontaneous 467

ratio 1:2) and among the Hispanic and Caucasian ethnoracial groups in comparison with Afro-descendants (15). Animal models have shown that several genes have been implicated from animal models were putatively associated with TD, however results from genetic association studies in human have been controversial (6). The relevance of understanding the genetic underpinnings of TD has important implications not only for further understanding of the genotype/ phenotype relationship of the disorder, but also to assist in the correct management of patients and screening programs for CH. The present study aimed investigate the etiology of the permanent CH diagnosed, with the purpose of identifying the cases due to TD, and evaluate the role of four different candidate genes that have been suggested as being involved in thyroid embryogenesis: (paired box gene 8 (PAX-8), thyroid stimulating hormone receptor (TSH-R), transcription factor related locus 5 (NKX2-5) and hairy/enhancer of split 1 (HES-1) and having an influence on these outcomes. We believe this study will contribute to the better knowledge of genetic basis of TD-caused CH.

Genetic aspects of thyroid dysgenesis in 63 Brazilian children

600

Screening TSH Level

First Serum TSH Level

500 p < 0.001

p < 0.05

400 TSH level (mU/L)

normalization of TSH between screening and diagnosis by the age of 3, thus resulting in 354 unrelated patients eligible for inclusion. During the study period May 2012-June 2015, 218 patients underwent imaging tests for TD characterization. Of the 218, 155 (71.1%) had ISTG with the remaining 28.9% (N = 63) having some form of TD: ectopy (N = 17; 7.8%), agenesis (N = 12; 5.5%), hypoplasia (N = 21; 9.6%) and hemiagenesis (N = 13; 6.0%). The overall gender distribution was 118 females: 100 males. A summary of the clinical parameters evaluated in newborns is shown in Table 1. In a broader comparison, patients with TD compared with those with ISTG had significantly higher screening TSH levels (p < 0.001) and confirmatory serum TSH levels (p < 0.05) (Figure 1). This difference was probably due to the group of agenesis, as this group showed significantly higher levels than the other groups of TD (Figure 2). In addition, the agenesis subgroup had lower fT4 levels (0.4, IQR 0.3-1.2 µg/dL), followed by the ectopy group (0.8, IQR 0.3-1.1 µg/dL) when compared with the other groups.

300 200 100 0 Thyroid dysgenesis

Thyroid dysgenesis

In situ thyroid gland

Figure 1. Comparison of median TSH levels of patients with thyroid dysgenesis and those with in situ thyroid gland. A) Comparison of Neonatal screening TSH levels B) Initial serum TSH. p-Value: Mann-Whitney U test.

1400

Genetics findings

1200

p < 0.001 p < 0.05

1000 TSH level (mU/L)

Six known single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) were found in patients with TD. Two in the NKX2-5 gene: a) rs2277923 (g.173235021T>C) was found in 34/63 (54%) patients – 19 heterozygotes, 15 homozygotes; b) rs72554028 (g.173233001C>G) was found in one patient (1/63 – 2%). Four polymorphisms were found in the TSH-R gene: a) rs1991517 (g.81610583G>C) was found in 31/63 (49%) patients – 27 heterozygotes, 4 homozygotes; b) rs2234919 (g.81422178C>A) was found in 4/63 (6%) – all heterozygotes; c) rs752184247 (g.78929481G>A) was found in 14/63 (22%) – all heterozygotes and; d) rs200551849 (g.8589551C>T) was found in 2/63 (3%) patients – both compound heterozygotes with the rs1991517 polymorphism.

In situ thyroid gland

p < 0.05

800 600 400 200 0 Hypoplasia

Ectopy

Hemiagenesis

Agenesis

Figure 2. Comparison of screening TSH levels among the different subtypes of thyroid dysgenesis. P-Value: the Dunn test for multiple comparisons.

Table 1. Newborn Screening Results by Diagnostic Category N = 218

ISTG

n (%)

Gender

Screening TSH (mU/L)

Confirmatory TSH (mU/L)

Serum fT4 (µg/dL)

Age of LT4 start (days)

Median

155 (71.1)

31.3

23.5

0.95

18.5

Ectopy

17 (7.8)

53.6

95.0

0.8

15.5

Agenesis

12 (5.5)

344

100.0

0.4

Hypoplasia

21 (9.6)

39.4

26.5

1.0

Hemiagenesis

13 (6.0)

39.6

21.8

1.1

ISTG: In situ thyroid gland. References values: Screening TSH: 9,0 mU/L. Confirmatory TSH: 0,3-4,0mU/L. Serun fT4: 0,9-2,6 ng/dL.

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DISCUSSION None of the 63 patients with TD (41 females and 22 males) had mutations in the studied candidate genes PAX-8, TSH-R, NKX2-5 and HES-1. The candidate genes PAX-8, NKX2-5, TSH-R and HES-1 proposed as those being the most likely cause of TD (8,20-24) were not responsible for the TD confirmed in our cohort. This finding implies that there may be other genes that are responsible for TD (6-8). In the cases of the patients with agenesis and ectopia, there was a clear gender bias towards females that was not seen in the ISTG, hypoplasia or hemiagenesis groups, which had a virtually equal distribution between the two genders. Along with a greater gender discrepancy, those with ectopy (p â&#x2030;¤ 0.05) and agenesis (p â&#x2030;¤ 0.001) had medians of TSH that were notably higher at the initial newborn screening and confirmatory serum TSH testing compared with hypoplasia and hemiagenesis. To the best of our knowledge we are the first researchers in Bahia to perform this type of genetic analysis for candidate thyroid embryogenesis genes PAX-8, NKX2-5, TSH-R and HES-1 in confirmed cases of permanent CH and TD (25). It should be noted that we excluded NKX21 and FOXE-1 from our analysis, based upon the fact that the phenotype presenting in our cohort showed no signs of Bamforth-Lazarus syndrome or neurological findings (26). Overall, the incidence of CH found in the Brazilian neonatal screening is 1/2,595 to 1/4,795 (10,27) in accordance with the expected global incidence reported of 1/3,000-4,000 infants (3,6,9). ISTG was the most common etiology found in our cohort, with a rise in incidence from previously reported measures, primarily attributed to the diagnosis of milder cases of CH due to a lower TSH threshold used for screening (28). The severity of hypothyroidism in children with TD has varied between studies. In our study, children with agenesis presented clinical parameters differing significantly from those of the other subtypes at both neonatal screening and confirmatory testing for hormone levels. This was consistent with the findings of other studies that have demonstrated that children with agenesis present worse neuropsychological development in comparison with children with hypoplasia, ectopy or dyshormonogenesis, and require higher doses of L-T4 (29-31). Thus, it is possible that treatment and followup schedules for TD need to consider the unique hormonal patterns and different responses to therapy in each different etiological category (4,7,30,31). Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2018;62/4

Similar to our study, only a few mutations have previously been found in large panels of patients (18,23). Mutations have previously been identified in familial groups with TD, however, in our population there are likely to be sporadic and unrelated cases, which could be an important factor to evaluate the impact of these genetic variants at population level (28). Of the polymorphisms found, rs1991517 in the TSH-R gene has frequently been reported in the Brazilian population (18,20,22) with a frequency as high as 10% (23), representing the second highest reported alteration in patients with CH. Previous studies, have found PAX-8 mutations ranging from 0-3.4% (8). Inactivating mutations on the human TSH-R gene can cause a resistance to TSH with a strongly variable type of disease. Several studies have found that TSH-R mutations are more frequent than expected in patients with TD with prevalence in cohorts between 3-6% and even as high as 16.5% (8). HES-1 has yet to be found in patients with TD (24). NKX2-5, also associated with cardiac malformations, was found with 3 heterozygote mutations in a single study with a cohort of 241 patients (32). In our study, seven patients (2 females and 5 males) presented congenital heart disease (CHD) associated with TD, previously described in electronic records (25). Studies have hypothesized that the molecular mechanisms underway in the very early steps of thyroid organogenesis were underlying in the etiopathogenesis of TD (11,33,34). However, it continues to be difficult to draw many conclusions from the murine models, as many fundamental differences with human thyroid development have been reported (i.e. localization, mode of inheritance and penetrance) (33,35-38). For instance, while heterozygous PAX-8 mutations in murine models do not display a pathological phenotype, heterozygous PAX-8 mutations have been reported in sporadic and familial CH patients with thyroid hypoplasia or ectopy (35,39-41). However, a heterogeneous biochemical and morphological phenotype has been observed among patients with the same PAX-8 mutations (40,41). At present, findings have suggested that genetic background plays an important role in phenotypic presentation (12,31,33,34). TD is likely to be of polygenic origin (12,31,34,36) and unlikely to occur from Mendelian transmission (12,31,34,37), with the existence of several modifier alleles contributing to a resulting phenotype (7,24,32,39,38,42). This is consistent with the theory that suggests that the molecular mechanisms 469

Genetic aspects of thyroid dysgenesis in 63 Brazilian children

resulting in defective thyroid morphogenesis may be “modulated by the genetic constitution of the embryo and/or the hormonal milieu of the fetus” (43). While many genes have been identified as important contributors to survival, proliferation and migration of thyroid precursor cells in fact, act as an integrated and complex regulatory network (7) and it will most probably require large samples of individuals to unravel the etiopathogenesis of TD. One of the significant limitations of thyroid ultrasound is the poor sensitivity in visualizing the ectopic thyroid when compared with radionuclide scanning (22,44). In attempts to reduce the chances of misdiagnosis of TD etiology we included only those patients with a complete description of TD. Our genetic analysis was performed following a standard protocol, however, we did not perform any analysis of other modifications found in the promoter (except for the PAX-8 gene) or complete intronic regions, which should also be considered. In conclusion, we did not find any mutations in the proposed thyroid embryogenesis genes TSH-R, PAX-8, NKX2-5, and HES-1 in 63 confirmed cases of TD. We found that patients with agenesis had clinically distinctive hormone levels at the time of the neonatal screening compared with those with other types of CH. The few genetic polymorphisms identified in the TSH-R, PAX-8, NKX2-5, and HES-1 were not sufficient to elucidate the pathophysiology and the molecular mechanisms underlying defects in the cases of TD.

2. Klein AH, Meltzer S, Kenny FM. Improved prognosis in congenital hypothyroidism treated before age three months. J Pediatr. 1972;81(5):912-5.

Acknowledgements: the authors are grateful to Renata Arruti, Monica Lima and the entire team of APAE-Salvador. We appreciate the cooperation of all the patients and their families, and the support received from Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado da Bahia (FAPESB) and Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq – National Counsel for Scientific Development and Technology).

17. Zimmermann MB, Hess SY, Molinari L, De Benoist B, Delange F, Braverman LE, et al. New reference values for thyroid volume by ultrasound in iodine-sufficient schoolchildren: a World Health Organization/Nutrition for Health and Development Iodine Deficiency Study Group Report. Am J Clin Nutr. 2004;79(2):231-7.

Financial support: this work was supported in part by grants from FAPESB (AMTL and HER) – Edital Nº12/2012 and CNPq (HER) – Edital Nº 14/2012. TLOC received financial support from CPqGM/Fiocruz-BA.

19. Dinno A. Nonparametric Pairwise Multiple Comparisons in Independent Groups Using Dunn’s Test. Stata J. 2015;15:292-300.

Disclosure: no potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.

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18. Ramos HE, Nesi-França S, Boldarine VT, Pereira RM, Chiamolera MI, Camacho CP, et al. Clinical and molecular analysis of thyroid hypoplasia: a population-based approach in southern Brazil. Thyroid. 2009;19(1):61-8.

20. Brust ES, Beltrao CB, Chammas MC, Watanabe T, Sapienza MT, Marui S. Absence of mutations in PAX-8, NKX2. 5, and TSH receptor genes in patients with thyroid dysgenesis. Arq Bras Endocrinol Metabol. 2012;56(3):173-7. 21. Mahjoubi F, Mohammadi MM, Montazeri M, Aminii M, Hashemipour M. Mutations in the gene encoding paired box domain (PAX-8) are not a frequent cause of congenital hypothyroidism (CH) in Iranian patients with thyroid dysgenesis. Arq Bras Endocrinol Metabol. 2010;54(6):555-9. 22. Beltrão CB, Juliano AG, Chammas MC, Watanabe T, Sapienza MT, Marui S. Etiology of congenital hypothyroidism using thyroglobulin and ultrasound combination. Endocr J. 2010;57(7):587-93. Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2018;62/4

Genetic aspects of thyroid dysgenesis in 63 Brazilian children

23. Alves EA, Cruz CM, Pimentel CP, Ribeiro RC, Santos AK, Caldato MC, et al. High frequency of D727E polymorphisms in exon 10 of the TSHR gene in Brazilian patients with congenital hypothyroidism. J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab. 2010;23(12):1321-8. 24. Carre A, Rachdi L, Tron E, Richard B, Castanet M, Schlumberger M, et al. HES-1 is required for appropriate morphogenesis and differentiation during mouse thyroid gland development. PLoS One. 2011;6(2):e16752. 25. Cerqueira TL, Ramos Y, Strappa G, Martin DS, Jesus M, Gonzaga J, et al. The c.63A>G polymorphism in the NKX2.5 gene is associated with thyroid hypoplasia in children with thyroid dysgenesis. Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2015;59(6):562-7. 26. Bamforth J, Hughes I, Lazarus J, Weaver C, Harper P. Congenital hypothyroidism, spiky hair, and cleft palate. J Med Genet. 1989;26(1):49-51. 27. Silvestrin SM, Leone C, Leone CR. Detecting congenital hypothyroidism with newborn screening: the relevance of thyroid‐stimulating hormone cutoff values. J Pediatr (Rio J). 2017;93(3):274-280.

gin of congenital hypothyroidism. Endocrinology. 2005;146(12): 5038-47. 34. Nilsson M, Fagman H. Development of the thyroid gland. Development. 2017;144(12):2123-40. 35. Weller G. Development of the thyroid, parathyroid and the thymus glands in man. Contrib Embryol. 1933;24:93-140. 36. Pohlenz J, Dumitrescu A, Zundel D, Martiné U, Schönberger W, Koo E, et al. Partial deficiency of thyroid transcription factor 1 produces predominantly neurological defects in humans and mice. J Clin Invest. 2002;109(4):469-73. 37. Daladoey J, Vassart G, Van Vliet, G. Possible non-Mendelian mechanisms of thyroid dysgenesis. Endocr Dev. 2007;10:29-42. 38. Fagman H, Nilsson M. Morphogenetics of early thyroid development. J Mol Endocrinol. 2011;46(1):R33-42. 39. Macchia PE, Lapi P, Krude H, Pirro MT, Missero C, Chiovato L, et al. PAX-8 mutations associated with congenital hypothyroidism caused by thyroid dysgenesis. Nat Genet. 1998;19(1):83-6.

28. Castanet M, Goischke A, Léger J, Thalassinos C, Rodrigue D, Cabrol S, et al.; on behalf of Fédération Parisienne pour le Dépistage et la Prévention des Handicaps de l’Enfant (FDPHE). Natural History and Management of Congenital Hypothyroidism with in situ Thyroid Gland. Horm Res Paediatr. 2015;83:102-10.

40. Hinton CF, Harris KB, Borgfeld L, Drummond-Borg M, Eaton R, Lorey F, et al. Trends in incidence rates of congenital hypothyroidism related to select demographic factors: data from the United States, California, Massachusetts, New York, and Texas. Pediatrics. 2010;125 Suppl 2:S37-47.

29. Ruchała M, Szczepanek E, Sowin8ski J. Diagnostic value of radionuclide scanning and ultrasonography in thyroid developmental anomaly imaging. Nucl Med Rev Cent East Eur. 2011;14(1):21-8.

41. Olivieri A, Stazi MA, Mastroiacovo P, Fazzini C, Medda E, Spagnolo A, et al.; Study Group for Congenital Hypothyroidism. A population-based study on the frequency of additional congenital malformations in infants with congenital hypothyroidism: data from the Italian Registry for Congenital Hypothyroidism (1991-1998). J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2002;87(2):557-62.

30. Cherella CE, Wassner AJ. Congenital hypothyroidism: insights into pathogenesis and treatment. Int J Pediatr Endocrinol. 2017;2017:11. 31. Léger J, Olivieri A, Donaldson M, Torresani T, Krude H, van Vliet G, et al.; ESPE-PES-SLEP-JSPE-APEG-APPES-ISPAE; Congenital Hypothyroidism Consensus Conference Group. European Society for Pediatric Endocrinology consensus guidelines on screening, diagnosis, and management of congenital hypothyroidism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2014;99(2):363-84. 32. Dentice M, Cordeddu V, Rosica A, Ferrara AM, Santarpia L, Salvatore D, et al. Missense mutation in the transcription factor NKX25: a novel molecular event in the pathogenesis of thyroid dysgenesis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2006;91(4):1428-33.

43. Diamanti-Kandarakis E, Bourguignon JP, Giudice LC, Hauser R, Prins GS, Soto AM, et al. Endocrine-disrupting chemicals: an Endocrine Society scientific statement. Endocr Rev. 2009;30(4):293342. 44. Perry RJ, Maroo S, Maclennan AC, Jones JH, Donaldson MD. Combined ultrasound and isotope scanning is more informative in the diagnosis of congenital hypothyroidism than single scanning. Arch Dis Child. 2006;91(12):972-6.

33. Amendola E, De Luca P, Macchia PE, Terracciano D, Rosica A, Chiappetta G, et al. A mouse model demonstrates a multigenic ori-

42. Vilain C, Rydlewski C, Duprez L, Heinrichs C, Abramowicz M, Malvaux P, et al. Autosomal Dominant Transmission of Congenital Thyroid Hypoplasia Due to Loss-of-Function Mutation of PAX-8 1. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2001;86(1):234-8.

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review

A brief review about melatonin, a pineal hormone Fernanda Gaspar do Amaral1, José Cipolla-Neto2

ABSTRACT Melatonin is a ubiquitous molecule in nature, being locally synthesized in several cells and tissues, besides being a hormone that is centrally produced in the pineal gland of vertebrates, particularly in mammals. Its pineal synthesis is timed by the suprachiasmatic nucleus, that is synchronized to the light-dark cycle via the retinohypothalamic tract, placing melatonin synthesis at night, provided its dark. This unique trait turns melatonin into an internal synchronizer that adequately times the organism’s physiology to the daily and seasonal demands. Besides being amphiphilic, melatonin presents specific mechanisms and ways of action devoted to its role as a time-giving agent, being widely spread in the organism. The present review aims to focus on melatonin as a pineal hormone with specific mechanisms and ways of action, besides presenting the clinical syndromes related to its synthesis and/or function disruptions. Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2018;62(4):472-9 Keywords Melatonin; pineal; hypermelatoninemia; hypomelatoninemia

Departamento de Fisiologia, Universidade Federal de São Paulo (Unifesp), São Paulo, SP, Brasil 2 Departamento de Fisiologia e Biofísica, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade de São Paulo (USP), São Paulo, SP, Brasil 1

Correspondence to: José Cipolla-Neto Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Neurobiology Lab, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Bldg 1, University of São Paulo Av. Lineu Prestes, 1524 05508-000 – São Paulo, SP, Brazil cipolla@icb.usp.br Received on Ago/31/2018 Accepted on Ago/31/2018 DOI: 10.20945/2359-3997000000066

MELATONIN Melatonin, N-acetyl-5-methoxytryptamine, is a ubiquitous molecule in nature, being found in almost all living organisms. It is an indolamine present in any compartment of the organism for its amphiphilic characteristics of diffusion (Figure 1). In vertebrates, mammals in particular, in addition of local production in several tissues, melatonin is centrally produced by the pineal gland and directly released in the blood, acting as a hormone. The pineal gland is an unpaired epithalamic neuroendocrine gland originating from the roof of the third ventricle containing, in mammals, melatoninproducing cells called pinealocytes, in addition to astrocytes and other cell types (1). Melatonin synthesis by the pinealocytes in the pineal gland is under the control of a neural system originating in the hypothalamic paraventricular nuclei, projecting directly and indirectly to the preganglionic sympathetic neurons of the first thoracic segments of the spinal cord. Following, through a projection of the postganglionary sympathetic neuron of the superior cervical ganglia, nerve fibers forming the conary nerves reach the pineal gland (Figure 2). 472

Norepinephrine released by the sympathetic terminals interacts with the classical beta and alpha noradrenergic receptors in the membrane of pinealocytes and activates cAMP-PKA-CREB and PLC-Ca++-PKC pathways to trigger melatonin synthesis (2). Melatonin synthesis initiates with tryptophan that, under the action of tryptophan hydroxylase, is transformed in 5-hydroxytryptophan that, in turn, is converted to serotonin, which is acetylated, by arylalkylamine N-acetyltransferase (AANAT) to N-acetylserotonin (NAS) that is converted to melatonin by acetylserotonin O-methyltransferase (ASMT) former called hydroxy-indole-O-methyltransferase (HIOMT). The three enzymes above are under the control of neural and endocrine systems that regulate time, duration and amount of produced melatonin (3) (Figure 3). The major control is exerted by the circadian timing system, mainly the hypothalamic suprachiasmatic nuclei, that times melatonin synthesis so that it is daily produced in synchrony to the light/dark cycle, being tightly restricted to the night, provided it is dark. Light stimulus (mainly in the blue range) activates melanopsin breakdown in retinal photoreceptive ganglion cells that Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2018;62/4

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secretion. This complex and very well-organized neural system control is the product of natural selection that turned the melatonin nocturnal profile into the internal representative of the environmental night. In addition, and as a consequence, the duration of melatonin nocturnal secretion episode follows the duration of the night as it varies along the year. Long winter nights determine long plasma melatonin duration episodes and the reverse occurs following the short nights of summer time.

Figure 1. Melatonin molecule (232,2 molecular weight).

Figure 2. Neural control of pineal melatonin synthesis. RHT: retinohypothalamic tract. SCN: suprachiasmatic nucleus. PVH: paraventricular nucleus. SCG: superior cervical ganglion. 473

project, via the retinohypothalamic pathway, to the hypothalamus, inhibiting melatonin synthesis (4). Due to its amphiphilic nature, melatonin is not stored inside the pinealocytes, being released as it is synthetized. The pineal gland is profusely vascularized and its attachment, dorsal and posterior, to the third ventricle wall allows melatonin to be released into the cerebrospinal fluid of the central nervous system during the night, as well as into the blood stream. In the blood, melatonin is usually bound to albumin, metabolized to 6-hydroxymelatonin by cytochrome P450 isoforms (mainly CYP1A2) and conjugated to 6-sulfatoxymelatonin in the liver, for the subsequent urinary excretion. 6-sulfatoxymelatonin production perfectly reflects the plasma levels of melatonin, so its urinary measurement is a less intrusive method to evaluate the pineal function and melatonin production (Figure 3). In the central nervous system melatonin is degraded to N-acetyl- N2-formyl-5methoxykynuramine (AFMK) that is deformylated to N-acetyl-5- methoxykynuramine (AMK) (5). Melatonin, as an ancient chemical messenger, developed several pleiotropic mechanisms of action (6). First, there are mechanisms that are not mediated by cellular receptors and involve the direct interaction of melatonin and other molecules, as its antioxidant action. Melatonin is one of the most powerful natural antioxidants, not only by directly chelating oxygen and nitrogen reactive species, but also by mobilizing the intracellular antioxidant enzymatic system. Second, as any other hormone, melatonin acts through specific cellular receptors. Membrane melatonin receptors, in mammals, are of two types, MT1 (MTNR1A, in humans) and MT2 (MTNR1B in humans). These membrane melatonin receptors are heterotrimeric Gi/ Go and Gq/11 protein-coupled receptors that interact with downstream messengers such as adenylyl cyclase, phospholipase A2 and phospholipase C, generally decreasing cAMP and cGMP production and/or increasing diacylglycerol and IP3 formation. MT1 and MT2 receptors are found in almost all peripheral tissues, as well as in the central nervous system. In addition to acting through membrane receptors, melatonin might interact with ROR/RZR (retinoid orphan receptors/ retinoid Z receptors) nuclear receptors (7) (Figure 4). As mentioned before, melatonin hormonal pineal production is restricted to the night and a light signal, mainly with the characteristics of day-light (predominance of the blue range), blocks melatonin

Melatonin hormonal ways of action

Figure 3. Melatonin synthesis pathway and hepatic metabolization. The enzymes are written in italic and the derived molecules are underlined.

Figure 4. Melatonin mechanisms of action. Classical receptor mediated and non-mediated pathways and the involvement of nuclear, cytosolic and membrane receptors.

Melatonin synthesis circadian rhythm synchronized to day/night cycle, restricted to the night and to its duration, converts melatonin to the internal representative of the daily and seasonal photoperiod. As a consequence of being a representative of the environmental photoperiod, melatonin has, in some way, to control the organism physiology during the 24 hours of the day and all through the seasons of the year. To do that, melatonin, using the classical hormonal mechanisms of action, developed several especial ways of action (8). As any other hormone, melatonin acts through the classical way in the sense that its effects are seen as a direct and immediate consequence of its interaction with molecular effectors. These are called immediate effects (Figure 5). Depending on the molecular effectors and 474

the involved mechanisms of action, such are the possible effects: antioxidant action; reduction of cAMP-PKACREB and cGMP; increased DAG, IP3, PKC activity; regulation of potassium and calcium channels; etc. As it would be expected for any hormone, the effects are dependent on the target tissue and the correspondent intracellular melatonin signaling pathway. However, in addition to this classical and expected hormonal way of action, melatonin developed another one that is not seen during the night when melatonin is being produced and released but, instead, it is only seen during the day, being triggered in the absence of plasma melatonin, provided it was present in the immediate previous night. These are called prospective effects and they are of two types (Figure 5). The first one, called proximal or consecutive, is seen right at the beginning of the morning, immediately after the cessation of melatonin production, when it is maximal and may extend to several hours. One example is the cAMP/ PKA/CREB pathway super or hypersensitization that is seen in several peripheral and central systems (9). That is to say that in consequence of the nocturnal sustained and prolonged adenylyl cyclase inhibition induced by melatonin through its Gi-protein coupled receptors, this signaling pathway shows, following the cessation of the inhibitory signal, an increased and potentiated response to any agonists that activates adenylyl cyclase through any Gs-protein coupled receptors. Depending on the system (suprachiasmatic nucleus, pancreatic beta cells, Leydig cells, pars tuberalis, etc.) such is the magnitude and the duration of the potentiating prospective consecutive melatonin effect (10-13). That is to say that melatonin, in spite of being produced only during the night, determines effects that are best seen during the day, when melatonin is not present anymore, and in this case, especially in the morning. The second type of melatonin prospective effects are called distal or prolonged effects. These are dependent on the action of melatonin controlling the transcription and/or translation of the well-known clock genes (CG) and the clock-controlled genes (CCG) (14-20). The clock genes are part of a complex molecular machinery that includes a cycle of transcription and translation of several genes and the resulting proteins might either reinforce the process or inhibit it, so that the cycle has a duration of approximately 24 hours (21). These proteins can also control, throughout the 24-hour cycle, the transcription and translation of other genes, called clock-controlled genes, that are responsible for Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2018;62/4

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profile and, most importantly, the direction of the daily change of its duration (towards increasing or decreasing nights resulting in increasing or decreasing duration of melatonin production) that is dependent on the typical relative duration of the day and night along the year, turns melatonin into the most powerful synchronizer of seasonal rhythms, being fundamental for the organism to anticipate and to adapt to the evolving environmental change along the year. The seasonal synchronizing effect of melatonin is mediated by its action on the pituitary pars tuberalis. From there, the signal is transduced to the hypothalamus, mediated by special glial cells called tanycytes, and to the distal hypophysis through several other mediators. In consequence of this functional system, melatonin is able to control seasonal events like reproduction, energy metabolism, immune response and thermogenesis, growth, body weight control, etc. (29-33). Finally, another melatonin way of action called transgenerational effect should be mentioned (Figure 5). In mammals, in humans in particular, pineal melatonin production increases as the gestation progress (34). Maternal melatonin freely crosses the placenta and reaches the fetus circulation, being its only source of melatonin (35-37). Considering this, several of the effects of melatonin that can be seen in the maternal organism are seen in the fetus, particularly, the chronobiotic

Figure 5. Melatonin ways of action. The upper boxes represent the different ways of action. The second-line boxes explain how melatonin causes the correspondent effects. The third-line boxes show examples of the correspondent effects. Note that the Prospective effects are further classified in Proximal ou consecutive and Distal or prolonged effects. Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2018;62/4

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almost all cell functions. That is to say that melatonin, through its prospective prolonged effects, controlling the cycling of the CG and CCG, is able to control cell and tissue function all over the 24-hours of the day, even being only produced and released during the night. Mediated by these immediate and prospective effects, melatonin developed others ways of action. One of them depends on the circadian characteristic of the melatonin signal and on the contrast between nocturnal and diurnal values of circulating melatonin. The precise daily repetition of melatonin signal and its perfect relation to the dark phase of the day turns melatonin into the internal synchronizer of circadian rhythms. This shapes the so-called chronobiotic effect of melatonin (Figure 5). Melatonin is one of the most powerful synchronizers of human circadian rhythms and is used in clinics to adjust circadian rhythmicity in cases like phase-delayed sleep onset disorder, jet lag, etc. (2225) The chronobiotic effect of melatonin depends on its action at several levels of the circadian timing system, including the suprachiasmatic nucleus and the clock genes located in peripheral tissues like, adipose tissue, muscle, pancreatic beta cells, reproductive organs, etc. Another important synchronizing effect of melatonin is related to the seasonal rhythms. It is its seasonal effect (26-28) (Figure 5). The duration of melatonin diurnal

Melatonin hormonal ways of action

and seasonal effects (38-40). Maternal melatonin is responsible for the circadian timing and priming of the fetus organism. Similarly, the seasonal timing is transferred from the mother to the fetus, preparing its neuroendocrine system to the future environment to be dealt with (41,42). In addition, maternal melatonin is necessary for the adequate neurodevelopment of the fetus (43).

MELATONIN PHYSIOLOGY, CLINICAL SYNDROMES AND THERAPEUTICS Melatonin, due to its phylogenetic history, its pleiotropic mechanisms of action and its unique ways of action, as described above, in addition of being delivered to the blood stream and directly in the CNS, is able to regulate several, if not all, the physiological and neural functions. Among them, circadian and seasonal timing of organism; sleep and wakefulness cycle; endocrine functions, as energy metabolism, glycemic control, blood lipid profile and reproduction, gestation and fetal development and programming; cardiovascular system; immune system; neural development, neural protection and neuroplasticity, etc. A detailed discussion of this subject can be seen in Cipolla-Neto and Amaral, 2018 (8). As any other hormone, from the clinical point of view, melatonin hormonal dysfunction can be classified as hypo (hypomelatoninemia) or hyper (hypermelatoninemia) production by the pineal gland. Hypomelatoninemia is defined by decreased melatonin nocturnal peak value or total production when compared to what is expected for the age- and sex-paired population. This syndrome can be classified as primary, dependent on factors that directly affect the pineal gland and/or its innervation, and secondary, developed as a consequence of a primary event, such as a systemic disease (e.g. hyperglycemia) or environmental factor (e.g light at night) (44-50). Hypermelatoninemia is defined as hyperproduction of pineal melatonin, usually associated to other diseases like hypogonadotrophic hypogonadism, anorexia nervosa, polycystic ovarian syndrome, RabsonMendenhall syndrome and spontaneous hypothermia hyperhidrosis (51-54). A third syndrome associated to pineal melatonin dysfunction is due to what can be called inappropriate melatonin receptor-mediated response. This melatoninreceptor dysfunction is usually a consequence of 476

melatonin receptors genetic variations (e.g. single nucleotide polymorphisms) and affect either MT1 or MT2 receptors (55,56). Finally, in addition to these classical hormonal dysfunctions and due to melatonin specific characteristics of production and ways of action, it is possible to define another syndrome associated to the time displacement of the nocturnal melatonin production causing a phase-displacement of its plasma profile that is called melatonin circadian displacement syndrome. The result is a misalignment of the organism to the circadian timing domain, causing sleep/wake, metabolic and cardiovascular disturbances, among other symptoms. This syndrome is usually associated to the Smith-Magenis disease, the phase-delayed sleep-wake disorder, and as a consequence of indoors illumination during the evening/night, among others (57,58). Melatonin pharmacokinetics will depend on the way of administration (oral, fast and/or slow-release, intravenous, nasal spray, anal suppository, skin patches or cream, etc.) and on the individual absorption and hepatic metabolization rates (dependent on the activity of cytochrome P450 complex, mainly CYP1A2). Each of these aspects might vary depending on age and sex. Usually, in a young/middle-aged human patient, pharmacokinetic studies show that plasma concentration reaches the peak at approximately 45 minutes after orally administered melatonin, resulting in a low bioavailability due to the first pass liver metabolism (59). Melatonin administration should always be done during the evening/night, mimicking the physiological production. The moment of administration during the evening/night will depend on the desired effect that will be determined by the well-known melatonin phaseresponse curve. That is to say that depending on the moment of administration, melatonin is able to act on the circadian clock resulting in phase-advance, phasedelay or even no phase-displacement of the circadian rhythms. If administered in the late afternoon/ beginning of the evening, melatonin phase-advances the circadian rhythms (as is the case for the treatment of the sleep-wake phase-delay disorder); if administered in the end of the night/early morning, melatonin would phase-delay the circadian clock; if administered during the evening, beginning around 1 hour before the usual bedtime and extending to 2 to 4 hours afterwards, melatonin does not phase displace the circadian Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2018;62/4

Melatonin hormonal ways of action

CONCLUSIONS Nowadays, any quick search in PubMed/NCBI shows that there are about 33,000 papers about melatonin or pineal and about 1,200 new articles per year, in addition to a dedicated journal (Journal of Pineal Research) showing the 2017 impact factor of 11.613 (6th out of 143 journals in the area of Endocrinology & Metabolism). In spite of this, melatonin hormonal action is scarcely targeted in the classical Physiology or Endocrinology books. In Williams’ textbook of Endocrinology, for example, the pineal gland was included for a long time in the circumventricular organs section and is, nowadays, located in a separate scanty part just after it. Jameson & De Groot devoted, for a long time, a full chapter to the pineal gland that is mostly dedicated to pineal tumors. Melatonin in all its complexity is barely reported. In addition, in several medical schools all over the world, pineal gland and/or melatonin is never systematically taught. So, it is about time to change this picture, considering melatonin as a hormone decisively important to the mammalian and human physiology and pathophysiology. Concerning the clinical aspects of melatonin dysfunction some observations should be additionally done. The most common mistake that we find in clinical endocrinology when dealing with melatonin is to expect, as far as hypo or hyper production is Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2018;62/4

concerned, exactly the same that we would be expected to occur with the classical glands syndromes: immediate effects and immediate health repercussions. It is not the case with pineal and melatonin as it is a timedomain acting hormone that organizes physiology and behavior in the circadian and seasonal time. Its absence induces an unhealthy state whose clinical pictures is not so tinted as is expressed in other glands but is still there and will be reflected in the long-term health status rather then immediately. For example, a subtle alteration in the sleep organization as little as shorter 30 minutes sleep episode every day will not be even perceived by the patient and the physician. However, it will determine, in the medium/long term, several critical alterations in metabolism (insulin resistance, overweight, etc.), cardiovascular system (hypertension), loss of performance, GIT events, reproduction/sexual repercussions, etc. (60). It should be considered, still, that the sleep/wake cycle is only one among several others affected systems in melatonin-deficient adults and children. Extend this to several of the circadian aspects of physiology and the clinical picture becomes much more serious, resulting in systemic repercussion reaching every other aspect of human physiology and behavior, jeopardizing its health and quality of life and even longevity. Funding statement: the present work was funded by São Paulo Research Foundation – Fapesp (2014/50457-0). Disclosure: no potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.

REFERENCES 1. Vollrath L. The Pineal Organ. Mollendorff WaB, W., editor. Heildberg, Germany: Springer-Verlag; 1981. p. 659 2. Kappers JA. The development, topographical relations and innervation of the epiphysis cerebri in the albino rat. Z Zellforsch Mikrosk Anat. 1960;52:163-215. 3. Afeche SC, do Amaral FG, Villela DCM, Abrahão MV, Peres R, Cipolla-Neto J. Melatonin and the Pineal Gland. In: Romano E, De Luca S, editors. New Research on Neurosecretory Systems. New York: Nova Biomedical Books; 2008. p. 151-77. 4. Reiter RJ. Pineal melatonin: cell biology of its synthesis and of its physiological interactions. Endocr Rev. 1991;12(2):151-80. 5. Hardeland R. Taxon- and Site-Specific Melatonin Catabolism. Molecules. 2017; 22(11):pii: E2015. 6. Hardeland R, Balzer I, Poeggeler B, Fuhrberg B, Uria H, Behrmann G, et al. On the primary functions of melatonin in evolution: mediation of photoperiodic signals in a unicell, photooxidation, and scavenging of free radicals. J Pineal Res. 1995;18(2):104-11.

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rhythms, regulating the circadian clock pace (this is the time of choice if melatonin is being replaced, as in the pinealectomized or elder patients). It should be said that, considering the above discussed melatonin ways of action, one should always avoid its chronic administration during the day. The dosage is always a concern and will depend on the desired effect. If replacement therapy is the goal, oral melatonin in the range of 0.1 to 0.5 mg usually generates a plasma concentration varying from 100 to 500 pg/mL, that is 1 to 5 times the expected physiological concentration at the nocturnal peak in young people. In addition, 0.5 to 1.0 mg is usually used for proper circadian timing, as in jetlag for example. Melatonin-responsive sleep disorders are usually treated with 1.0 to 5.0 mg oral melatonin. However, one should always keep in mind that the dosage must be individually adjusted by the evaluation of the evolution of the symptoms and the occurrence of adverse effects as diurnal somnolence or nocturnal nightmares.

Melatonin hormonal ways of action

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brief report

The low-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein 5 (LRP5) 4037C>T polymorphism: candidate for susceptibility to type 1 diabetes mellitus

Departamento de Análises Clínicas e Toxicológicas, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte (UFRN), Natal, RN, Brasil 2 Centro de Educação e Saúde, Universidade Federal de Campina Grande (UFCG), Cuité, PB, Brasil 3 Departamento de Pediatria, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte (UFRN), Natal, RN, Brasil 4 Departamento de Análises Clínicas e Toxicológicas, Universidade de São Paulo (USP), São Paulo, SP, Brasil 1

Correspondence to: Adriana Augusto de Rezende Av. General Gustavo Cordeiro de Farias, s/n, Faculdade de Farmácia, 59012-570 – Natal, RN, Brasil adrirezende@yahoo.com Received on Aug/9/2017 Accepted on May/9/2018 DOI: 10.20945/2359-3997000000057

Karla Simone Costa de Souza1, Marcela Abbott Galvão Ururahy1, Yonara Monique da Costa Oliveira1,2, Melina Bezerra Loureiro1, Heglayne Pereira Vital da Silva1, Raul Hernandes Bortolin1, André Ducati Luchessi1, Ricardo Fernando Arrais3, Rosário Dominguez Crespo Hirata4, Maria das Graças Almeida1, Mário Hiroyuki Hirata4, Adriana Augusto de Rezende1

ABSTRACT Objective: The present study has investigated the association between low-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein 5 (LRP5) 4037C>T polymorphism and type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) susceptibility in a Brazilian population. Subjects and methods: A total number of 134 T1DM patients and 180 normoglycemic individuals (NG) aged 6-20 years were studied. Glycated hemoglobin and glucose levels were determined. Genotyping of LRP5 4037C>T (rs3736228) was performed. Results: T1DM patients showed poor glycemic control. Genotypes in the codominant (CT: OR = 2.99 [CI 95%: 1.71-5.24], p < 0.001; TT: OR = 5.34 [CI 95%: 1.05-27.02], p < 0.001), dominant (CT + TT: OR = 3.16 [CI 95%: 1.84-5.43], p < 0.001) and log-additive (OR = 2.78 [CI 95%: 1.70-4.52], p < 0.001) models, and LRP5 4037 T allele (OR = 2.88, [CI 95%: 1.78-4.77], p < 0.001) were associated with an increased risk of developing T1DM. LRP5 4037CT and CT+ TT carriers in T1DM group showed higher concentrations of serum glucose and glycated hemoglobin when compared with CC carriers. Conclusion: The LRP5 4037C>T may represent a candidate for T1DM susceptibility, as well as poor glycemic control. Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2018;62(4):480-4 Keywords Type 1 diabetes mellitus; LRP5; 4037C>T; rs3736228

INTRODUCTION

ype 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) is a chronic autoimmune disorder that develops in susceptible individuals by environmental and genetic factors (1-3). Among the genetic factors, besides the HLA region on chromosome 6q21, which contributes to approximately 40% of T1DM development, more than 50 non-HLA genes significantly increase the risk of T1DM (1,2,4). Throughout nearly four decades since this discovery, researchers have investigated other genetic loci, in addition to HLA, that could contribute to the risk of T1DM (5,6). Among several other mapped loci are those on chromosome 11q13.4 (7,8). Within the chromosome 480

region linked to and associated with T1DM, the member of the LDL receptor family, low-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein 5 (LRP5) has been identified (5,7,8). LRP5 is composed of a rapidly expanding number of structurally related proteins which serve a variety of functions in lipid metabolism and signal transduction to participate in cell proliferation (7-9). In addition, LRP5 is a membrane protein found in many tissues and cells, such as pancreatic beta cells, being essential for the insulin hormone production signaling pathway (10). Fujino and cols. (10) studied the role of LRP5 in pancreatic beta cells through animal model and found that the lack of the gene encoding LRP5 disrupts Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2018;62/4

LRP5 4037C>T polymorphism and T1DM susceptibility

SUBJECTS AND METHODS Study population We recruited 134 T1DM patients between 6 and 20 years old from the Hospital Onofre Lopes (HUOL) of the Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte (UFRN), Natal, RN, Brazil from January 2010 to June 2011. T1DM diagnoses were in accordance to the American Diabetes Association (ADA) criteria (3). All patients had a typical history of hyperglycemia and required insulin treatment continuously upon diagnosis. The study was conducted in accordance with the guidelines set by the Ethics in Research Committee of HUOL/UFRN, which complies with the Declaration of Helsinki (protocol number 704 310). One hundred eighty unrelated subjects with no previous diagnosis of T1DM, with fasting serum glucose ≤ 99 mg/dL (Normoglycemic Group – NG) and the same age range were recruited in local public schools of Natal, RN, Brazil. Informed consent was obtained from all T1DM and NG subjects or their parents. After taking a medical history and performing a physical examination, blood samples were collected for biochemical analysis and DNA extraction. Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2018;62/4

Laboratory procedures Glycemic control was assessed by the determination of glycated hemoglobin in total blood and serum glucose concentration. Both tests were performed using LABTEST kits (Lagoa Santa, Brazil) and LABMAX PLENNO equipment (LABTEST) for glucose and RA 50 spectrophotometer (Bayer Diagnostics, Dublin, Ireland) for glycated hemoglobin.

LRP5 genotyping DNA was obtained from peripheral blood mononuclear cell (PBMC), previously isolated by density gradient centrifugation, using Ficoll-Hypaque (Sigma-Aldrich, MO, USA; density 1.077 g/mL). DNA was extracted using the commercial kit Illustra Triple Prep® (GE Healthcare, Little Chalfont, Buckinghamshire, UK), according to the manufacturer’s protocol. DNA integrity was evaluated by electrophoretic separation on a 0.8% agarose gel in TBE buffer (pH = 8.0) and stained with GelRedTM (Uniscience, São Paulo, SP, Brazil). DNA was quantified (A260nm) and had its purity (A260/A280) assessed by ultraviolet spectrophotometry, through the ND-1000 spectrophotometer (NanoDrop Technologies Inc., Wilmington, DE, USA). LRP5 4037C>T (rs3736228) polymorphism was performed by TaqMan® allelic discrimination on a 7500 Fast Real-Time PCR System (Applied Biosystems, Foster City, CA, USA). LRP5 4037C>T was detected using the Applied Biosystems TaqMan® pre-designed assay C_25752205_10.

Statistical analysis Distribution of variables was analyzed by the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test. Variables with normal distributions were subjected to a t-test, and those skew-distributed were analyzed by Mann-Whitney’s test. Differences between the sex, Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, and allele/genotype frequencies were tested by a χ2 analysis test. Those tests were performed with SPSS version 15.0 (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA). The logistic regression model was applied to analyze the genotypes according to the genetic models: codominant, dominant, overdominant, recessive, and log-additive (13). These analyses were assessed according to the goodness of fit evaluated by Akaike information criterion (AIC) value and Bayesian information criterion (BIC) (14,15). Odds ratio (OR), confidence interval (CI) 481

β-catenin activity by deleting the LRP5, a co-receptor involved in β-catenin-dependent wingless-ints (Wnt) signaling, greatly impairing beta cell proliferation, as well as glucose-stimulated insulin secretion, which coincides with reduced levels of intracellular ATP and calcium in response to glucose. Moreover, polymorphisms and mutations in the LRP5 are associated with osteoporosis, impaired glucose, increased risk for obesity, type 2 diabetes mellitus, and other metabolic diseases (7-9,11,12). Studies performed in diabetic families for scan of candidate genes of the T1DM, have indicated that LRP5 missense mutations can trigger a non-coding LRP5, which could be associated with dysfunction in activity beta cells, lack of insulin production, and consequently T1DM development (7-9). However, to the best our knowledge, there are only a few studies associating the LRP5 polymorphism and T1DM susceptibility (9). Therefore, considering missense polymorphism LRP5 4037C>T, characterized by a substitution of alaninevaline amino acids in position 1330 (Ala1330Val), this study aimed to investigate the association between LRP5 4037C>T and T1DM susceptibility in children and adolescents in a Brazilian population.

LRP5 4037C>T polymorphism and T1DM susceptibility

of 95%, and their corresponding p-values were calculated to evaluate the study variables and their influence on T1DM onset. For LRP5 4037C>T polymorphism, p-value was computed using the likelihood ratio test. For this analysis, the R program library SNPassoc version 2.12.2 (R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria) (16) was used and the reference genotype was homozygous for the wild allele among controls. Tests with p-values < 0.05 were considered statistically significant.

RESULTS Table 1 shows characteristics of NG and T1DM patients. As expected, serum glucose and glycated hemoglobin values were significantly higher in the T1DM group

compared to NG individuals (p < 0.001). Furthermore, glucose and glycated hemoglobin values in the T1DM group were higher than those recommended by the ADA for good glycemic control in the same age range of the studied individuals (glycated hemoglobin: ≥ 7.5%). The Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium was verified. Ten percent of the samples were re-genotyped at random to assure scoring quality, and all results were consistent. Allele frequency for LRP5 4037C>T is demonstrated in Table 2. A significant increase in the frequency of the LRP5 4037T allele was found in T1DM compared to the NG group (p < 0.001). Considering the genotype distribution of LRP5 4037C>T in the NG and T1DM groups according to the genetic model, a significant association with T1DM susceptibility was found for codominant (p < 0.001),

Table 1. Characteristics of normoglycemic and diabetic patients Variables

NG n = 180

T1DM n = 134

p-value

57.8

58.2

0.939

Biodemographic characteristics Sex, Female, % Age, years

11.0 (9.0–15.0)

12.0 (9.0–15.0)

0.876

Age at diagnosis, years

6.5 ± 3.5

Time since diagnosis, years

4.0 (2.0–7.0)

79.0 (73.3–85.8)

208.0 (130.0–316.0)

< 0.001

5.6 (4.8–6.4)

9.6 (7.9–12.3)

< 0.001

Glycemic control Glucose, mg/dL Glycated hemoglobin, %

Results are expressed as mean ± standard deviation or median (interquartile range). n: number of individuals; NG: normoglycemic group; T1DM: type 1 diabetes mellitus group. Significant p-values are shown in bold.

Table 2. Allele frequencies and genotype distribution of LRP5 4037C>T polymorphism in the studied groups according to the genetic model Polymorphism

NG n (%)

T1DM n (%)

OR (95% CI)

p-value

AIC

331 (91.9)

214 (79.9)

1.00

29 (8.1)

54 (20.1)

2.88 (1.78–4.77)

< 0.001

–

153 (85.0)

86 (64.2)

1.00

25 (13.9)

42 (31.3)

2.99 (1.71–5.24)

2 (1.1)

6 (4.5)

5.34 (1.05–27.02)

< 0.001

415.8

153 (85.0)

86 (64.2)

1.00

CT+TT

27 (15.0)

48 (35.8)

3.16 (1.84–5.43

< 0.001

414.3

178 (98.9)

128 (95.5)

1.00

2 (1.1)

6 (4.5)

4.17 (0.83–21.00)

0.060

429.0

180 (57.3)

134 (42.7)

2.78 (1.70–4.52)

< 0.001

414.1

Allele

Genetic Model Codominant

LRP5 4037C>T

Dominant

Recessive CC+CT TT Log-additive

NG: normoglycemic group; T1DM: type 1 diabetes mellitus group; n: number of individuals; OR: odds ratio; CI: confidence interval; AIC: Akaike’s Information Criterion. Significant p-values are shown in bold.

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LRP5 4037C>T polymorphism and T1DM susceptibility

DISCUSSION T1DM is characterized by autoimmune destruction of pancreatic beta cells with multiple genes involved, and among them is LRP5 (3,7-9). The relationship of this gene with T1DM was found in 1998 by Nakagawa and cols., that described only 10 polymorphisms of LRP5 associated with susceptibility to T1DM, after to perform a genomic scanning in 707 diabetic families from the UK, USA, Italy, and Norway. However, data in the literature on this association remains scarce and for our knowledge the present study is the first to find the association between LRP5 4037C>T, T1DM susceptibility, and poor glycemic control. On the other hand, the LRP5 4037C>T is recognized as one of the key polymorphism in associated with increase the risk of bone fracture and osteoporosis, as well as in the cardiovascular diseases (12,17-20). In addition, it has been reported that the LRP5 4037C>T is associated with susceptibility to type 2 diabetes mellitus and osteoporosis in postmenopausal women. In this diseases, the genotype CT/TT increases the risk of the developing them (12,21). LRP5 is a member of the LDL receptor superfamily, which was originally cloned on the basis of its genetic association with T1DM in humans, and is found in the 5′ region of the chromosome 11q13 (9). The binding of Wnt with LRP5-frizzled receptor triggers LRP5 signaling. This link leads to inactivation of the “complex of destruction” of β-catenin, formed by proteins of adenomatous polyposis coli (APC), axis inhibition protein (Axin), and glycogen synthase kinase 3 (GSK-3β). Since GSK-3β is degraded by the dishevelled protein, it inhibits the proteasomal degradation of β-catenin, which accumulates in the Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2018;62/4

cytoplasm and then translocates to the nucleus where it associates with transcription factors such as transcription factor 7, which will control the transcription of target genes for beta cell proliferation (14,22,23). Though there were no mechanistic explanations as to how Wnt signaling was involved in the increased proliferation of beta cell mass and insulin production, studies suggest that LRP5 is essential for these cells (10,14,22). Several studies have speculated that hyperglycemia may be conferred by changes in LRP5 expression levels or tissue expression specificity, since LRP5 signaling contributes to the glucose-induced insulin secretion in the islets of Langerhans, however this mechanism is unclear (10,22). These studies raised the possibility that polymorphisms would favor the negative regulation of transcription or specificity of this gene on pancreatic beta-cells, hampering glucose-induced insulin secretion (10,22). A study using an animal model indicated that mice deficient of LRP5 had low levels of insulin-signaling proteins for mRNA expression, such as the insulin receptor. Impaired glucose tolerance, as well as high glucose concentrations were found, demonstrating the importance of LRP5 in this signaling (10). In addition, studies have associated LRP5 missense mutations with the T1DM onset, once these mutations could change the pancreatic beta cell signaling, impairing insulin secretion (7-9,22). Our results show an association between LRP5 4037C>T polymorphism and T1DM susceptibility. Furthermore, individuals who were carriers of CT and CT + TT genotypes had higher concentrations of serum glucose and glycated hemoglobin than individuals with the wild-type homozygous genotype. Thus, according Iniesta and cols. (13), the significant association found in codominant, dominant, and log-additive models demonstrate that each additional copy of the variant allele increases the T1DM susceptibility. Additionally, only one copy of the mutated T allele is sufficient to contribute to poor glycemic control. In conclusion, our results demonstrated an association of the T allele for the LRP5 4037C>T polymorphism with T1DM susceptibility in a Brazilian population, moreover the possible relation in the progressive failure of glycemic control. Acknowledgments: we are grateful for the technical support provided by students from Multidisciplinary laboratory (LABMULT)/Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte (UFRN)/ RN, Brazil. We also thank all the physicians, nurses, and hospital staff at Hospital Onofre Lopes of the UFRN who were involved in the study. The authors thank all children and adolescents with 483

dominant (p < 0.001) and log-additive (p < 0.001) models (Table 2). In this study, also was investigate the influence of LRP5 4037C>T in the parameters of glycemic control. Significantly increased values of serum glucose and glycated hemoglobin were observed in the LRP5 4037CT [glucose mean: 230.2 mg/dL (p < 0.001); glycated hemoglobin mean: 10.3% (p = 0.017)] and CT+ TT carriers [glucose mean: 227.8 mg/dL (p < 0.001); glycated hemoglobin mean: 10.5%, (p = 0.002)] when compared to the CC genotype carriers [glucose mean: 98.9 mg/dL; glycated hemoglobin mean: 7.3%].

LRP5 4037C>T polymorphism and T1DM susceptibility

T1DM and their parents who gave their consent to participate in the study. Funding: this study was supported by a grant from the National Counsel of Technological and Scientific Development (CNPq) (620099/2008-9). Disclosure: no potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.

REFERENCES 1. Silva HP V, Ururahy MAG, Souza KSC, Loureiro MB, Oliveira YMC, Oliveira GHM, et al. The association between the HLA-G 14-bp insertion/deletion polymorphism and type 1 diabetes. Genes Immun. Genes Immun. 2016;17(1):13-8. 2. van Belle TL, Coppieters KT, von Herrath MG. Type 1 diabetes: etiology, immunology, and therapeutic strategies. Physiol Rev. 2011;91(1):79-118. 3. American Diabetes Association. Standards of Medical Care in Diabetes – 2017. Diabetes Care. 2017;40(Suppl. 1):S1-35. 4. Zemunik T, Boraska V. Genetics of Type 1 Diabetes. World J Diabetes. Split, Croatia: InTech; 2013;4(4):114-23. 5. Ram R, Mehta M, Nguyen QT, Larma I, Boehm BO, Pociot F, et al. Systematic Evaluation of Genes and Genetic Variants Associated with Type 1 Diabetes Susceptibility. J Immunol. 2016 Apr 1;196(7):3043-53.

11. Saarinen A, Saukkonen T, Kivelä T, Lahtinen U, Laine C, Somer M, et al. Low density lipoprotein receptor-related protein 5 (LRP5) mutations and osteoporosis, impaired glucose metabolism and hypercholesterolaemia. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 2010;72(4):481-8. 12. Gay A, Towler DA. Wnt signaling in cardiovascular disease. Curr Opin Lipidol. 2017;28(5):387-96. 13. Iniesta R, Guinó E, Moreno V. Análisis estadístico de polimorfismos genéticos en estudios epidemiológicos. Gac Sanit. 2005;19(4):333-41. 14. Minelli C, Thompson JR, Abrams KR, Thakkinstian A, Attia J. The choice of a genetic model in the meta-analysis of molecular association studies. Int J Epidemiol. 2005;34(6):1319-28. 15. Zintzaras E, Lau J. Synthesis of genetic association studies for pertinent gene-disease associations requires appropriate methodological and statistical approaches. J Clin Epidemiol. 2008;61(7):634-45. 16. González JR, Armengol L, Solé X, Guinó E, Mercader JM, Estivill X, et al. SNPassoc: an R package to perform whole genome association studies. Bioinformatics. 2007;23(5):644-5. 17. Canto-Cetina T, Polanco Reyes L, González Herrera L, Rojano-Mejía D, Coral-Vázquez RM, Coronel A, et al. Polymorphism of LRP5, but not of TNFRSF11B, is associated with a decrease in bone mineral density in postmenopausal Maya-Mestizo women. Am J Hum Biol. 2013;25(6):713-8. 18. Kitjaroentham A, Hananantachai H, Phonrat B, Preutthipan S, Tungtrongchitr R. Low density lipoprotein receptor-related protein 5 gene polymorphisms and osteoporosis in Thai menopausal women. J Negat Results Biomed. 2016;15(1):16.

6. Noble JA, Erlich HA. Genetics of type 1 diabetes. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med. 2012;2(1):a007732.

19. Liu K, Tan L-J, Wang P, Chen X-D, Zhu L-H, Zeng Q, et al. Functional relevance for associations between osteoporosis and genetic variants. PLoS One. 2017;12(4):e0174808.

7. Twells RC, Mein CA, Payne F, Veijola R, Gilbey M, Bright M, et al. Linkage and association mapping of the LRP5 locus on chromosome 11q13 in type 1 diabetes. Hum Genet. 2003;113(2):99-105.

20. Xu G-Y, Qiu Y, Mao H-J. Common Polymorphism in the LRP5 Gene May Increase the Risk of Bone Fracture and Osteoporosis. Biomed Res Int. 2014;2014:290531.

8. Twells RCJ, Mein CA, Phillips MS, Hess JF, Veijola R, Gilbey M, et al. Haplotype structure, LD blocks, and uneven recombination within the LRP5 gene. Genome Res. 2003;13(5):845-55.

21. Xuan M, Wang Y, Wang W, Yang J, Li Y, Zhang X. Association of LRP5 gene polymorphism with type 2 diabetes mellitus and osteoporosis in postmenopausal women. Int J Clin Exp Med. 2014;7(1):247-54.

9. Nakagawa Y, Kawaguchi Y, Twells RC, Muxworthy C, Hunter KM, Wilson A, et al. Fine mapping of the diabetes-susceptibility locus, IDDM4, on chromosome 11q13. Am J Hum Genet. 1998;63(2): 547-56.

23. Wang Y, Chang H, Rattner A, Nathans J. Frizzled Receptors in Development and Disease. Curr Top Dev Biol. 2016;117:113-39.

10. Fujino T, Asaba H, Kang M, Ikeda Y, Sone H, Takada S, et al. Lowdensity lipoprotein receptor-related protein 5 (LRP5) is essential for normal cholesterol metabolism and glucose-induced insulin secretion. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2003;100(1):229-34.

22. Figueroa DJ, Hess JF, Ky B, Brown SD, Sandig V, Hermanowski-Vosatka A, et al. Expression of the type I diabetes-associated gene LRP5 in macrophages, vitamin A system cells, and the Islets of Langerhans suggests multiple potential roles in diabetes. J Histochem Cytochem. 2000;48(10):1357-68.

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brief report

Type 1 diabetes mellitus: can coaching improve health outcomes? Thais Pereira Costa Magalhães1, Rodrigo Bastos Fóscolo2, Aleida Nazareth Soares1, Janice Sepúlveda Reis1

ABSTRACT Objective: To evaluate the introduction of coaching in the interdisciplinary care of individuals with type 1 diabetes mellitus in the public health care system. Subjects and methods: Ten patients routinely attending a public health care service and with a glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c) level above 7.5% participated in eight coaching sessions. This study evaluated the patients’ self-management of the disease and personal behavior. The participants were assessed at the beginning of the program and on two occasions after the intervention, with evaluation of biochemical and anthropometric data, and frequency of self-monitoring of blood glucose (SMBG). Questionnaires were applied during these evaluations to analyze emotional burden (B-PAID), medication adherence (Morisky Adherence Scale), and self-efficacy (IMDSES). Results: HbA1c had a median level of 8.0% (range 7.6-10.3%) at the beginning of the study and reduced significantly 3 months after initiation of the intervention (7.78% [6.5-10%], p = 0.028), with no significant increase at 6 months (8.3% [7.13-9.27%], p = 0.386). SMBG improved significantly from the beginning to the end of the study, with the median number of glucose tests per week varying from 16.5 (range 0-42) at baseline to 29.0 (7-42) at 3 months and 27.5 (10-48) at 6 months (p = 0.047). No significant differences were observed in anthropometric parameters or in the scores of the instruments between the three measurements. Conclusion: A coaching intervention focused on patients’ values and sense of purpose may provide added benefit to traditional diabetes education programs and could be an auxiliary method to help individuals with type 1 diabetes achieve their treatment goals. Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2018;62(4):485-9

Instituto de Ensino e Pesquisa da Santa Casa de Belo Horizonte, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brasil 2 Departamento de Clínica Médica, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte, MG, Brasil 1

Correspondence to: Janice Reis Rua Domingos Vieira, 590 30150-240 – Belo Horizonte, MG, Brasil janicesepulveda@gmail.com Received on Aug/20/2017 Accepted on May/9/2018 DOI: 10.20945/2359-3997000000058

Keywords Type 1 diabetes mellitus; self-management; health coaching

reatment of type 1 diabetes (T1DM) requires several daily actions in pursuit of goals like the application of multiple daily doses of insulin, blood glucose monitoring, and regular physical activity. Despite many treatment advances, more than 70% of the individuals with T1DM maintain glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c) levels above 7% (1). Rates of treatment nonadherence for patients with diabetes often exceed 50%, emphasizing a need for interventions focused on behavioral change (2). Coaching is a method that has proven useful in enhancing personal insight, and has received special attention as a method to improve healthy lifestyle behaviors (3). Health coaching is “a practice of health education and health promotion within a coaching context to enhance the well-being of individuals, and facilitate the achievement of their health-related goals” (4). It is distinct from other diabetes education strategies in that the patient is encouraged to choose goals that are aligned with his or her values. Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2018;62/4

To the best of our knowledge, no information is available about coaching as a strategy for diabetes education in Brazil, or about the most appropriate tools of the coaching process in clinical practice. Based on that, the aim of this study was to evaluate the introduction of coaching to the interdisciplinary care of individuals with T1DM in the public health care system.

SUBJECTS AND METHODS This was a pilot, longitudinal study including 10 patients with T1DM on a basal-bolus (NPH or glargine and lispro) insulin regimen, with a minimum of 50% of the total bolus dose, and with inadequate glycemic control (HbA1c levels ≥ 7.5%). The patients received care from an interdisciplinary team comprising endocrinologists, nutritionists, nurses, physical educators, and psychologists for at least 1 year at the Santa Casa Hospital, a public health care center located in Belo 485

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Horizonte (Minas Gerais, Brazil). The study protocol was approved by the institution’s Ethics Committee and written informed consent for participation in the study was obtained from all volunteers. Exclusion criteria included cognitive impairment, pregnancy, and visual deficit.

Intervention The intervention was delivered by a single coach, an endocrinologist with substantial training in coaching methods. The participants were offered weekly 60-minute individual coaching sessions for a total of eight sessions, established according to standardized method interventions that varied from 5 to 14 (5,6). During this period, no additional intervention was performed by the interdisciplinary team. The patients were evaluated before the intervention and at 3 and 6 months thereafter. The main components of a method that has been previously published in studies about coaching and health were applied in this study (5,7) (Table 1).

In an analogy to the Wheel of Health (8), a new tool was developed, named the Wheel of Self-Care in Diabetes (Figure 1), which is divided into eight dimensions of diabetes treatment. The participant scored each area on a scale of 0-10 points, with 0 meaning “no attention given to the dimension” and 10 meaning “total attention given to the dimension”. The eight sessions delivered followed the format: Session 1 – understanding the behavioral profile and defining the participant’s current state using the Wheel of Life and Wheel of Self-Care in Diabetes; Sessions 2 and 3 – definition of the desired status, choice and detail of the objectives, and desired results with the intervention. In order to reach the goal, small steps were defined towards the desired result at the end of all sessions, and participants demonstrated their accomplishment through photos, text messages, e-mails, and letters. The tasks were chosen by the participants themselves, who determined how and when to execute them. For example, if the goal was to achieve better glycemic control, the participant could

Table 1. Principles and tools of coaching Principles of coaching Focus on the future It focuses on the solution to problems rather than their source. A short, medium or long-term goal is defined. Action It is performed by weekly tasks, which are defined at the end of each session and must have deadlines to start and finish. Autonomy The goals to be achieved at the end of the process, as well as the weekly tasks and deadlines, are defined by the individuals in coaching, who have full autonomy in their choices. Active listening without judgment Building a relationship of trust in which the client can express himself freely. Effective questions These are open-ended questions that stimulate reflection and the elaboration of responses directed to new possibilities in the face of obstacles and difficulties. In addition, it generates the person’s commitment to his own speech and decisions. Focus on the positive It seeks the optimistic look on adversity, seeking to resignify bad events and bringing to light more positive alternatives for confronting problems.

Coaching tools S.M.A.R.T. Once the goal is set, this tool is applied to format it, making the goal more realistic and achievable: S – specific; M – mensurable; A – attainable; R – relevant; T – time. Behavioral profile Questionnaire whose result indicates to the clients which behavior prevails in their day-to-day attitudes (analyst, communicative, executive, idealizer) and discusses how the predominant behavior helps or hinders the achievement of their goals. Wheel of life This tool was administered during the initial assessment to help guide the conversation, with participants reporting how successful or satisfied they were (0-10) in each life domain (career, family, financial, spiritual, health, intellectual, among others). This is a clinical tool to explore values, establish priorities, and set goals. Identifying areas in which the participants felt less successful or satisfied, they then chose areas on which to focus for coaching. Action plan It involves defining the first steps towards the goal, the goals to be achieved and contributing to the ultimate goal, predicting obstacles and how to circumvent them, and recruiting the skills and competencies needed to reach the desired state.

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define as a task an adjustment in diet or accomplishment of an increased number of capillary glucose testing per day; Sessions 4 to 8 – planning and execution of these actions, and choosing new goals for the future.

Data analysis Statistical analyses were performed using SPSS, v.20.0 (Chicago, Illinois, USA). Continuous variables are described with measures of central tendency (mean and median), standard deviation, and range (minimum and maximum values). Wilcoxon signed-rank tests were used for nonnormally distributed data. Statistical significance was set at 0.05 for each test.

Figure 1. Wheel of self-care in diabetes filled out by one of the participants. Note that physical activity was the area that received the lowest score, followed by self-monitoring of blood glucose, glycemic control, and nutrition. The areas received different scores, resulting in a rather irregular wheel due to treatment imbalance.

Outcome variables Values of HbA1c, body mass index (BMI), total daily insulin dose (TDD), lipid profile, blood pressure, and frequency of self-monitoring of blood glucose (SMBG) were evaluated during the three measurement sessions. The following validated surveys, which have demonstrated adequate psychometric properties, were applied to the participants: Problem Areas in Diabetes, Brazilian version (B-PAID) (9), which assesses the emotional overload related to diabetes (the results range from 0-100 points, with scores equal to or above 40 points indicating a high level of emotional distress); Insulin Management Diabetes Self-Efficacy Scale (IMDSES) (10), which evaluates self-efficacy (the results range from 28-112 points, with a lower score reflecting increased self-effectiveness); and the Morisky Adherence Scale (11), which evaluates the patient’s adherence to medication use (based on the results, the adhesion is considered to be high [8 points], medium [6 to 8 points], or low [< 6 points]). Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2018;62/4

The subjects comprised mostly women (60%), had a mean age of 30 ± 8 years, diabetes duration of 13.0 ± 6.4 years, education level of high school or more (90%), and a family income of 3-4 monthly minimum wages (60%). The participants presented a mean BMI of 25.3 ± 5.5 kg/m2, mean systolic (SBP) and diastolic (DBP) blood pressure levels of 122.0 ± 10.3 and 81.0 ± 9.9 mmHg, respectively, and serum levels of total cholesterol of 168.3 ± 44.5 mg/dL, LDL-cholesterol 91.1 ± 41.2, HDL-cholesterol 58.7 ± 18.6 mg/dL, triglycerides 71.3 ± 21.0 mg/dL, and TDD 0.92 ± 0.53 UI/kg/day. No significant differences were observed between the values of BMI, SBP, DBP, lipids, and TDD across the three measurement sessions (0, 3, and 6 months). HbA1c had a median level of 8.0% (7.6 - 10.3%) at the beginning of the study, which reduced significantly 3 months after the beginning of the intervention (7.78% [6.5-10%], p = 0.028), with no significant increase at 6 months (8.3% [7.13-9.27%], p = 0.386). There was a significant improvement in SMBG from the beginning to the end of the study, with the number of glucose measurements per week ranging from a median of 16.5 (0-42) at baseline, to 29.0 (7-42) at 3 months and 27.5 (10-48) at 6 months (p = 0.047). Regarding the instruments, the median scores of the B-PAID showed a low emotional overload at the beginning of the study (21 [6-54]) and no significant difference at 3 months (17 [10-56]) and 6 months (13 [4-49]), p > 0.05). The IMDSES, which evaluates self-efficacy, demonstrated increased self-efficacy at the beginning of the study (median scores 41 [26-52]) and no significant difference at 3 months (35 [25-51]) and 6 months (36 [22-52], p > 0.05). The Morisky Scale scores showed an average adherence rate at the beginning of the study (median score 6 [5-7]), without significant changes at 3 (7 [4-7]) and 6 months (7 [37], p > 0.05). 487

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DISCUSSION To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study conducted in the public health care system in Brazil to analyze the effectiveness of an individualized diabetes coaching intervention in addition to providing education to T1DM patients. The results of the study demonstrated that coaching is a method that can contribute to the achievement of glycemic control in these patients. The participants in this study had already received guidance on aspects related to the disease and its treatment. It is in this scenario that coaching favors the patients, who by becoming informed, are able to define their goals, encouraged to choose the deadlines to initiate the changes, and become more participative and autonomous in their decisions by putting their knowledge into practice (12,13). Patients are generally used to following prescriptions and recommendations by health care professionals. In coaching, patients are provided with new insights into how they can approach treatment, with independence and self-responsibility, establishing how and when changes are made (14), with greater dedication to performing daily activities related to diabetes care. The ten participants appreciated the method, were encouraged by the proposal of autonomy in relation to treatment decisions, and concluded the tasks they set out to carry out, as demonstrated in the statements: “Coaching brought several changes to my treatment, such as dose adjustment and time of insulin application. Looking at the Wheel of Self-Care in Diabetes, I realized the attention that I was giving to each aspect of my treatment and it was a surprise to me” (ECGP, 29); “Choosing the time, date, and place to accomplish the tasks (goals) and still have to prove that I performed them helped me a lot. Before, everything was only planned. I wanted to do it, but I could not” (FAVS, 43). This study demonstrated a decrease in HbA1c levels and an increase in the frequency of SMBG, with no changes in TDD, which can be explained by greater commitment and motivation to perform the various actions necessary to improve metabolic control, such as corrections of hyperglycemia and appropriate treatment of hypoglycemia. Studies in the literature have also found favorable results for coaching in the approach of individuals with diabetes, such as the improvement of HbA1c levels and quality of life (6-8). Other studies have shown that the results are time-dependent, or, the 488

longer the coaching process, the better the responses to quality of life, drug compliance, and self-efficacy (8,12,15). In this study, we observed no significant improvement in these three aspects. The fact that the participants had already a good score on the instruments at baseline can be justified by interdisciplinary care and long-term diabetes education programs, and explains little changes during the study. Although coaching is a heterogeneous intervention, it may be applied to T1DM patients in the context of the public health care service, as long as its fundamental characteristics are present: establishing goals and objectives, and ensuring patient autonomy in the process and action through tasks. Thus, in the dayto-day care of individuals with T1DM, coaching can be inserted formally by a qualified professional using the method integrally with its tools and techniques, or informally by other team members during routine appointments or as part of education programs. The various tools of coaching, especially the Wheel of SelfCare in Diabetes, developed for the purpose of this study, can be inserted routinely in education programs, serving as a starting point for reflection and setting goals/objectives. The formal approach should consist of programmed sessions, and the informal approach can occur whenever necessary or ongoing throughout the patient follow-up. In conclusion, a coaching intervention focused on the patient’s values and sense of purpose may provide added benefit to traditional diabetes education programs. Fundamentals of coaching may be applied by diabetes educators to improve patient self-efficacy, accountability, and clinical outcomes. New studies are needed, with a larger number of participants, in order to expand the use of the coaching methodology within the interdisciplinary treatment of diabetes. Disclosure: no potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.

REFERENCES 1. Gomes MB, Coral M, Cobas RA, Dib SA, Canani LH, Nery M, et al Prevalence of adults with type 1 diabetes who meet the goals of care in daily clinical practice: a nationwide multicenter study in Brazil. Diabetes Res Clin Pract. 2012;97(1):63-70. 2. Dean AJ, Walters J, Hall A. A systematic review of interventions to enhance medication adherence in children and adolescents with chronic illness. Arch Dis Child. 2010;95(9):717-23. 3. Olsen JM, Nesbitt BJ. Health coaching to improve healthy lifestyle behaviors: an integrative review. Am J Health Promot. 2010;25(1):e1-e12. Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2018;62/4

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4. Palmer S, Tubbs I, Whybrow A. Health coaching to facilitate the promotion of healthy behaviour and achievement of health-related goals. Int J Heal Promot Educ. 2003;41(3):91-3.

10. Gastal DA, Pinheiro RT, Vazquez DP. Self-efficacy scale for Brazilians with type 1 diabetes. Sao Paulo Med J. 2007;125(2):96-101. 11. Ben AJ, Neumann CR, Mengue SS. The Brief Medication Questionnaire and Morisky-Green test to evaluate medication adherence. Rev Saude Publica. 2012;46(2):279-89.

6. Ammentorp J, Uhrenfeldt L, Angel F, Ehrensvärd M, Carlsen EB, Kofoed P-E. Can life coaching improve health outcomes? – A systematic review of intervention studies. BMC Health Serv Res. 2013;13(1):428.

12. Nishita C, Cardazone G, Uehara DL, Tom T. Empowered diabetes management: life coaching and pharmacist counseling for employed adults with diabetes. Health Educ Behav. 2013;40(5):58191.

7. Ammentorp J, Thomsen J, Kofoed P-E. Adolescents with Poorly Controlled Type 1 Diabetes can Benefit from Coaching: A Case Report and Discussion. J Clin Psychol Med Settings. 2013;20(3):343-50.

13. Raddock M, Martukovich R, Berko E, Reyes CD, Werner JJ. 7 tools to help patients adopt healthier behaviors. J Fam Pract. 2015;64(2):97-103.

8. Wolever RQ, Dreusicke M, Fikkan J, Hawkins TV, Yeung S, Wakefield J, et al. Integrative health coaching for patients with type 2 diabetes: a randomized clinical trial. Diabetes Educ. 2010;36(4):629-39.

14. Koenigsberg MR, Bartlett D, Cramer JS. Facilitating treatment adherence with lifestyle changes in diabetes. Am Fam Physician. 2004;69(2):309-16.

9. Gross CC, Scain SF, Scheffel R, Gross JL, Hutz CS. Brazilian version of the Problem Areas in Diabetes Scale (B-PAID): Validation and identification of individuals at high risk for emotional distress. Diabetes Res Clin Pract. 2007;76(3):455-59.

15. Glasgow RE, La Chance PA, Toobert DJ, Brown J, Hampson SE, Riddle MC. Long-term effects and costs of brief behavioural dietary intervention for patients with diabetes delivered from the medical office. Patient Educ Couns. 1997;32(3):175-84.

5. Wong-Rieger D, Rieger FP. Health coaching in diabetes: empowering patients to self-manage. Can J diabetes. 2013;37(1):41-4.

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OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF THE BRAZILIAN SOCIETY OF ENDOCRINOLOGY AND METABOLISM

AE&M AWARDS 2017

Archives of Endocrinology

OFFICIAL JOURNAL Since 2001, the Archives of Endocrinology and Metabolism (AE&M) and the Brazilian Society of Endocrinology and Metabology award the “AE&M award Professor Thales Martins” and “AE&M award Professor OF THE BRAZILIAN Waldemar Berardinelli” to the young researcher with the best original reports published in the AE&M in the areas of basic, SOCIETY OF translational science and clinical practice. The commission was made up by members of the Editorial Board: Marcello ENDOCRINOLOGY D. Bronstein, Bruno Ferraz de Souza, Erika Parente, Francisco Bandeira, Fernanda Vaisman, Fernando M. A. AND Giuffrida, João Roberto Maciel METABOLISM Martins, Melanie Rodacki, Monica R. Gadelha, Nina Rosa C. Musolino, Poli Mara Spritzer, Ricardo Meirelles, Rogerio Friedman, Rui M. B. Maciel, Tânia S. Bachega, who analyzed the reports published in the AE&M, volume 61, 2017. The award ceremony is going to take place during the 33nd Brazilian Congress of Endocrinology and Metabology (CBAEM) on August 7th, 2018, in Belo Horizonte, MG.

and Metabolism

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Endocrinology

“Liver metabolic changes induced by conjugated linoleic acid in calorie-restricted rats”, Authored by Camila de Moraes, Camila Andrea de Oliveira, Maria Esméria Corezola do Amaral, Gabriela Arcurio Landini, Rosana Catisti. Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2017;61(1):45-53

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AE&M AWARD PROF. WALDEMAR BERARDINELLI

“Clinical impact of thyroglobulin (Tg) and Tg autoantibody (TgAb) measurements in needle washouts OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF THE BRAZILIAN of neck lymph node biopsies in the management of patients with thyroid carcinoma”, SOCIETY OF ENDOCRINOLOGYpapillary AND METABOLISM Authored by Maria Cecilia Martins-Costa, Rui M. B. Maciel, Teresa S. Kasamatsu, Claudia C. D. Nakabashi, Cleber P. Camacho, Felipe Crispim, Elza S. Ikejiri, M Conceição O. Mamone, Danielle M. Andreoni, Rosa Paula M. Biscolla.

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Introduction

Photographs

The article should begin with a brief introductory statement that places the study in historical perspective, and explains its objective and significance.

The AE&M strongly prefers to publish unmasked patient photos. We encourage all prospective authors to work with families prior to submission and address the issue of permission for review and possible publication of patient images. If your submission contains ANY identifiable patient images or other protected health information, you MUST provide documented permission from the patient (or the patient’s parent, guardian, or legal representative) before the specific material circulates among editors, reviewers and staff for the purpose of possible publication in AE&M. If it is necessary to identify an individual, use a numerical designation (e.g. Patient 1) rather than using any other identifying notations, such as initials.

Materials and Methods These should be described and referenced in sufficient detail for other investigators to be able to repeat the study. The source of hormones, unusual chemicals and reagents, and special pieces of apparatus should be stated. For modified methods, only the modifications need be described.

Results and Discussion The Results section should briefly present the experimental data in text, tables, and/ or figures. For details on preparation of tables and figures, see below. The Discussion should focus on the interpretation and significance of the findings, with concise objective comments that describe their relation to other studies in that area. The Discussion should not reiterate the Results.

Units of Measure Results should be expressed in metric units. Temperature should be expressed in degrees Celsius and time of day using the 24-hour clock (e.g., 0800 h, 1500 h).

Standard Abbreviations All abbreviations must be immediately defined after it is first used in the text.

Authorship The AE&M ascribes to the authorship and contributorship guidelines defined by the International Committee of Medical Journal Editors (www.ICMJE.org). Unrestricted joint authorship is allowed. A maximum of two corresponding authors is allowed. The uniform requirements for manuscripts submitted to medical journals state that authorship credit should be based only on substantial contribution to: 1. The conception and design, or analysis and interpretation of data. 2. The drafting of the article or its critical review for important intellectual content. 3. The final approval of the version to be published. All these conditions must be met. The corresponding author is responsible for ensuring that all appropriate contributors are listed as authors, and that all authors have agreed with the content of the manuscript and its submission to the AE&M.

Experimental Subjects To be considered for publication, all clinical investigations described in submitted manuscripts must have been conducted in accordance with the guidelines of The Declaration of Helsinki, and must have been formally approved by the appropriate institutional review committees or their equivalent. The study populations should be described in detail. Subjects must be identified only by number or letter, not by initials or names. Photographs of patients’ faces should be included only if scientifically relevant. The authors must obtain written consent from the patient for the use of such photographs. For further details, see the Ethical Guidelines. Investigators must disclose potential conflict of interest to study participants and should indicate in the manuscript that they have done so.

Conflict of interest A conflict of interest statement for all authors must be included in the main document, following the text, in the Acknowledgments section. If authors have no relevant conflict of interest to disclose, this should be indicated in the Acknowledgments section.

Acknowledgments The Acknowledgments section should include the names of those people who contributed to a study but did not meet the requirements for authorship. The corresponding author is responsible for informing each person listed in the acknowledgment section that they have been included and providing them with a description of their contribution so they know the activity for which they are considered responsible. Each person listed in the acknowledgments must give permission – in writing, if possible – for the use of his or her name. It is the responsibility of the corresponding author to provide this information.

References References to the literature should be cited in numerical order (in parentheses) in the text and listed in the same numerical order at the end of the manuscript on a separate page or pages. The author is responsible for the accuracy of references. The number of references cited is limited for each category of submission, as indicated above.

Tables

Tables should be submitted in the same format as the article (Word), and not in another format. Please note: we cannot accept tables as Excel files within the manuscript. Tables should be self-explanatory and the data they contain must not be duplicated in the text or figures. Tables must be constructed as simply as possible and be intelligible without reference to the text. Each table must have a concise heading. A description of experimental conditions may appear together with footnotes at the foot of the table. Tables must not simply duplicate the text or figures.

Figures and Legends All figures must display the figure number. Sizing the figure: the author is responsible for providing digital art that has been properly sized, cropped, and has adequate space between images. All color figures will be reproduced in full color in the online edition of the journal at no cost to the authors. Authors are requested to pay the cost of reproducing color figures in print (the publisher will provide price quotes upon acceptance of the manuscript).

Experimental Animals A statement confirming that all animal experimentation described in the manuscript was conducted in accordance with accepted standards of humane animal care, as outlined in the Ethical Guidelines, should be included in the manuscript.

Molecular Genetic Description • Use standard terminology for variants, providing rs numbers for all variants reported. These can be easily derived for novel variants uncovered by the study. Where rs numbers are provided, the details of the assay (primer sequences, PCR conditions, etc.) should be described very concisely. • Pedigrees should be drawn according to published standards (See Bennett et al. J Genet Counsel (2008) 17:424-433 - DOI 10.1007/s10897-008-9169-9).

Nomenclatures • For genes, use genetic notation and symbols approved by the HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee (HGNC) – (http://www.genenames.org/). • For mutation nomenclature, please use the nomenclature guidelines suggested by the Human Genome Variation Society (http://www.hgvs.org/mutnomen/) • Provide information and a discussion of departures from Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium (HWE). The calculation of HWE may help uncover genotyping errors and impact on downstream analytical methods that assume HWE. • Provide raw genotype frequencies in addition to allele frequencies. It is also desirable to provide haplotype frequencies. • Whenever possible, drugs should be given their approved generic name. Where a proprietary (brand) name is used, it should begin with a capital letter. • Acronyms should be used sparingly and fully explained when first used.

Papers must be written in clear, concise English. Avoid jargon and neologisms. The journal is not prepared to undertake major correction of language, which is the responsibility of the author. Where English is not the first language of the authors, the paper must be checked by a native English speaker. For non-native English speakers and international authors who would like assistance with their writing before submission, we suggest Voxmed Medical Communications, American Journal Experts or PaperCheck. ISSN 2359-3997 © A&EM – Rua Botucatu, 572 – conjunto 83 – 04023-062 – São Paulo, SP, Brazil