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HUMBOLDT'S PERSONAL NARRATIVE. VOL.

II.

PERSONAL

NARRATIVE| OF

TRAVELS TO

THE

EQUINOCTIAL

REGIONS

OF AMERICA, D U R I N G

BY A L E X A N D E R

THE

VON

HUMBOLDT AND

WRITTEN

ALEXANDER TRANSLATED

IN

AND

1 799—1 804.

YEARS

IN

FRENCH

VON

EDITED

BONPLAND.

BY

HUMBOLDT: BY

THREE

VOL.

AIMÉ

THOMASINA

ROSS.

VOLUMES II.

L O N D O N BELL & DALDY, YORK

STREET, COVENT 1869.

GARDEN.

LONDON.

PRINTED

BY

WILLIAM AND

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AND SONS, STAMFORD STREEТ CROSS.

C O N T E N T S OF

V O L U M E

TH

E

CHAPTER

S E C O N D .

XVI.

Lake of Tacarigua.—Hot Springs of Mariara.—Town of Nuera Valencia del Rey—Descent towards the Coasts of Porto Cabello . . . . . .

CHAPTER

Page 1

XVII.

Mountains which separate the Valleys of Aragua from the Llanos of Caracas.—Villa de Cura.—Parapara.—Llanos or Steppes, —Calabozo . . . . . . . 6 8 CHAPTER San

XVIII.

Fernando de Apure.—Intertwinings and Bifurcations of the Rivers Apure and Arauca.—Navigation on the Rio Apure .

137

CHAPTER X I X .

Junction of the Apure and the Orinoco.—Mountains of Encaramada. — Uruana.—Baraguan.—Carichana. — Mouth of the Meta.—Island of Panumana . . .

174 t

CHAPTER

XX.

The Mouth of the Rio Anaveni.—Peak of Uniana. —Mission of Atures. —Cataract, or Raudal of Mapara.—Islets of Surupamana and Uirapuri .

CHAPTER

234

XXI

Raudal of Garcita.—Maypures.—Cataracts of Quituna.—Mouth of the Vichada and the Zama.—Rock of Aricagua.—Siquita

289

a 2

vi

CONTESTS.

CHAPTER

XXII. Page

San Fernando de Atabapo.—San Balthasar.—The rivers Temi and Tuamini.—Javita.—Portage from the Tuamini to the Rio Negro . .

•.

• . . .

CHAPTER

329

XXIII.

The Rio Negro.— Boundaries of Brazil.—The Cassiquiare.— Bifur. . . . .372 cation of the Orinoco CHAPTER

XXIV.

The Upper Orinoco, from the Esmeralda to the confluence of the Guaviare.— Second passage across the Cataracts of Atures and Maypures.—The Lower Orinoco, between the mouth of the Rio Apure, and Angostura the capital of Spanish Guiana .

432

PERSONAL

NARRATIVE OF

A

J O U R N E Y TO

THE

EQUINOCTIAL

REGIONS

OF

THE N E W

CONTINENT.

CHAPTER

XVI.

Lake o f Tacarigua.—Hot Springs of Mariara.—Town of Nueva Valencia del Rey.—Descent towards the Coasts of Porto Cabello.

T H E valleys o f A r a g u a f o r m a n a r r o w basin b e t w e e n granitic and calcareous m o u n t a i n s o f unequal height.

O n the north, t h e y are separated b y the Sierra M a r i a r a f r o m t h e s e a - c o a s t ; and towards t h e south, t h e chain o f G u a c i m o and Y u s m a serves t h e m as a rampart against t h e heated air o f the steppes.

G r o u p s o f hills, high e n o u g h t o determine the course o f t h e waters, close this basin o n t h e east and west like transverse d y k e s . W e find these hills b e t w e e n t h e T u y and L a V i c t o r i a , as well as o n t h e road from V a l e n c i a t o N i r g u a , and at the mountains o f T o r i t o . * F r o m * The lofty mountains of Los Teques, where the Tuy takes its source, may be looked upon as the eastern boundary of the valleys of Aragua The level of the ground continues, in fact, to rise from La Victoria to the Hacienda de Tuy ; but the river Tuy, turning southward in the direction o f the sierras o f Guairaima and Tiara, has found an issue on the east; VOL. II. B

2

LAKE OF VALENCIA.

this extraordinary configuration o f the land, the little rivers o f the valleys o f A r a g u a form a peculiar system, and direct their course towards a basin closed o n all sides.

These rivers d o n o t bear their waters t o t h e ocean ; t h e y are c o l l e c t e d in a lake ; and subject to the peculiar influence o f evaporation, t h e y lose themselves, i f w e may use the expression, in t h e atmosphere.

O n the existence o f rivers and lakes, the fertility o f the soil and the p r o d u c e o f cultivation in these valleys depend. T h e aspect o f the spot, and the experience o f half a century, have p r o v e d that t h e level o f the waters is n o t invariable; the waste b y evaporat i o n , and t h e increase from t h e waters r u n n i n g into t h e lake, d o n o t uninterruptedly balance each other. T h e lake b e i n g elevated o n e thousand feet above the n e i g h b o u r i n g steppes o f Calabozo, and one thousand three hundred and t h i r t y - t w o feet above the level o f the ocean, it has been suspected that there are subterranean c o m m u n i c a t i o n s and filtrations. T h e appearance o f n e w islands, and the gradual retreat o f t h e waters, have led t o t h e belief that the lake may perhaps, in t i m e , b e c o m e entirely dry. A n assemblage o f physical circumstances so remarkable was well fitted t o fix m y attention on those valleys w h e r e t h e wild beauty o f nature is embellished by agricultural industry, and the arts o f rising civilization.

T h e lake o f Valencia, called Tacarigua b y t h e I n d i a n s , exceeds in magnitude t h e lake o f N e u f c h a t e l in S w i t z e r l a n d ; b u t its general form has m o r e resemblance t o the lake o f G e n e v a , which is nearly at the same height above the level o f the sea. A s the slope o f the g r o u n d in t h e valleys o f A r a g u a tends towards the south and t h e west, that part o f the basin still c o v e r e d with water is the nearest t o the southern chain o f the mountains o f G u i g u e , o f Yusma, and o f G u a c i m o , which stretch towards t h e high savannahs of Ocumare.

T h e o p p o s i t e banks o f the lake o f V a l e n c i a display a singular c o n t r a s t ; those o n the south are desert, and almost uninhabited, and a screen o f high mountains and it is more natural to consider as the limits of the basin of Aragua a line drawn through the sources of the streams flowing into the lake of Valencia. The charts and sections I have traced of the road from Caracas to Nueva Valencia, and from Porto Cabello to Villa de Cura, exhibit the whole of these geological relations.

3

SCENERY OF THE L A K E .

gives them a g l o o m y and m o n o t o n o u s aspect. T h e n o r t h e r n shore o n the contrary, is cheerful, pastoral, and decked with t h e rich cultivation o f t h e sugar-cane, coffee-tree, and c o t t o n . Paths b o r d e r e d w i t h cestrums, azedaracs, and other shrubs always in flower, cross the plain, and j o i n the scattered farms. E v e r y h o u s e is surrounded b y c l u m p s o f trees.

T h e ceiba with its large yellow flowers* gives a peculiar character to the landscape, mingling its branches with those o f the purple erythrina. T h i s m i x t u r e o f vivid vegetable colours contrasts finely with t h e u n i f o r m tint o f an u n c l o u d e d sky. I n the season o f d r o u g h t , where t h e b u r n i n g soil is c o v e r e d with an undulating vapour, artificial irrigations preserve verdure and p r o m o t e fertility.

H e r e and there the granite r o c k pierces t h r o u g h the cultivated g r o u n d .

E n o r m o u s stony masses rise abruptly in the midst o f t h e valley.

B a r e and forked, t h e y nourish a few succulent plants, which prepare m o u l d for future ages. O f t e n on t h e summit o f these lonely hills may b e seen a fig-tree o r a clusia with fleshy leaves, which has fixed its roots in t h e r o c k , and t o w e r s over the landscape. W i t h their dead and withered branches, these trees l o o k like signals erected o n a steep cliff. T h e form o f these m o u n t s unfolds the secret o f their ancient origin ; for w h e n the w h o l e o f this valley was filled with water, and the waves beat at the foot o f the peaks o f Mariara (the D e v i l ' s N o o k ) †and t h e chain o f t h e coast, these r o c k y hills w e r e shoals o r islets.

T h e s e features o f a rich landscape, these contrasts b e t w e e n the t w o banks o f the lake o f Valencia, often r e m i n d e d m e o f the P a y s de V a u d , where t h e soil, everywhere c u l tivated, and everywhere fertile, offers the husbandman, the shepherd, and the vine-dresser, t h e secure fruit o f their labours, while, on the opposite side, Chablais presents o n l y a m o u n t a i n o u s and halt-desert c o u n t r y .

I n these distant climes surrounded b y e x o t i c p r o d u c t i o n s , I l o v e d t o recall t o mind the enchanting descriptions with which the aspect o f the L e m a n lake and t h e r o c k s o f L a Meillerie inspired a great writer. N o w , while in t h e centre o f civilized E u r o p e , I endeavour in m y t u r n t o paint t h e scenes o f t h e NewW o r l d , I do n o t imagine I present the reader with clearer * Carnes tollendas (Bombax hibiscifolius). †El Rincon del Diablo.

B

2

4

ANCIENT

EXTENT.

images, o r more precise ideas, b y c o m p a r i n g o u r landscapes with those o f the equinoctial regions.

I t cannot be too often repeated that nature, in every z o n e , w h e t h e r wild o r cultivated, smiling o r majestic, has an individual character.

T h e impressions which she excites are infinitely varied, like the emotions p r o d u c e d b y w o r k s o f g e n i u s , according to the age in which they w e r e conceived, and the diversity o f language from which they in part derive their charm. W e m u s t limit o u r comparisons merely t o d i m e n sions and external form.

W e may institute a parallel b e t w e e n the colossal s u m m i t o f M o n t B l a n c and the H i m a l a y a M o u n t a i n s ; t h e cascades o f the Pyrenees and those o f the Cordilleras : b u t these comparisons, useful with respect t o science, fail t o c o n v e y an idea o f the characteristics o f nature in the temperate and torrid zones. O n t h e banks o f a lake, in a vast forest, at t h e f o o t o f summits covered with eternal s n o w , it is n o t the mere magnitude o f the objects which excites o u r admiration.

T h a t which speaks t o the soul, which causes such p r o f o u n d and varied e m o t i o n s , escapes o u r measurements as it does the forms o f language.

T h o s e w h o feel powerfully t h e charms o f nature cannot venture o n c o m p a r i n g one with another, scenes totally different in character.

B u t it is n o t alone the picturesque beauties o f the lake o f V a l e n c i a that have given celebrity t o its banks.

This basin presents several other p h e n o m e n a , and suggests quest i o n s , the solution o f which is interesting alike t o physical science and to the well-being o f the inhabitants. W h a t are t h e causes o f the diminution o f the waters o f the lake ?

I s this diminution m o r e rapid n o w than in former ages ?

Can w e p r e s u m e that an equilibrium b e t w e e n the waters flowing in and the waters lost will b e shortly re-established, o r may we apprehend that t h e lake will entirely disappear?

A c c o r d i n g to astronomical observations made at L a V i c toria, H a c i e n d a de Cura, N u e v a Valencia, and G u i g u e , t h e length o f the lake in its present state from C a g u a t o G u a y o s , is t e n leagues, o r t w e n t y - e i g h t thousand eight hundred toises. I t s breadth is very unequal.

If we j u d g e from the latitudes o f the m o u t h o f the R i o Cura and the village o f G u i g u e , it n o w h e r e surpasses 23 leagues, or six thousand five hundred toises ; m o s t c o m m o n l y it is b u t four

DIMINUTION

OF THE L A K E .

5

o r five miles. T h e dimensions, as d e d u c e d from m y observations are m u c h less than those hitherto adopted b y the natives. I t m i g h t b e t h o u g h t that, t o form a precise idea o f t h e progressive diminution o f the waters, it w o u l d b e sufficient t o c o m p a r e the present dimensions o f the lake with those attributed t o it b y ancient c h r o n i c l e r s ; b y O v i e d o for instance, in his H i s t o r y o f t h e P r o v i n c e o f V e n e zuela, published a b o u t the year 1723.

This writer in his emphatic style, assigns to “ this inland sea. this monstruoso cuerpo de la laguna de Valencia”* fourteen leagues in l e n g t h and six in breadth. H e affirms that at a small distance from the shore t h e lead finds n o b o t t o m ; and that large floating islands c o v e r the surface o f t h e waters, which are constantly agitated b y the winds. N o importance can b e attached t o estimates which, w i t h o u t b e i n g f o u n d e d o n any measurement, are expressed in leagues ( l e g u a s ) r e c k o n e d in the colonies at three thousand, five thousand, and six t h o u sand six h u n d r e d and fifty varas.† O v i e d o , w h o must so often have passed over the valleys o f A r a g u a , asserts that t h e t o w n o f N u e v a V a l e n c i a del Rey was built in 1555, at t h e distance o f half a league from t h e lake ; and that t h e p r o p o r t i o n b e t w e e n the length o f the lake and its breadth, is as seven t o three.

A t present, t h e t o w n o f V a l e n c i a is separated from the lake b y level g r o u n d o f m o r e than t w o thousand seven h u n d r e d toises ( w h i c h O v i e d o w o u l d n o d o u b t have estimated as a space o f a league and a half) ; and t h e l e n g t h o f t h e basin o f the lake is t o its b r e a d t h as 10 t o 2 3 , or as 7 t o 1-6.

T h e appearance o f t h e * “ Enormous body of the lake of Valencia.” † Seamen being the first, and for a long time the only, persons who introduced into the Spanish colonies any precise ideas on the astronomical position and distances of places, the legua nautica of 6650 v a r a s , or of 2854 toises (20 in a degree), was originally used in Mexico and throughout South America; but this legua nautica has been gradually reduced to one-half or one-third, on account of the slowness of travelling across steep mountains, or dry and burning plains. The common people measure only time directly; and then, by arbitrary hypotheses, infer from the time the space of ground travelled over. In the course of my geographical researches, I have had frequent opportunities of examining the real value of these leagues, by comparing the itinerary distances between points lying under the same meridian with the difference of latitudes.

6

CHANGES OF LEVEL.

soil b e t w e e n V a l e n c i a a n d G u i g u e , t h e little hills rising abruptly in the plain east o f the Ca単o de C a m b u r y , some o f which (el I s l o t e and la Isla de la N e g r a o r Caratapona) have even preserved the n a m e o f islands, sufficiently p r o v e that the waters have retired considerably since the time o f O v i e d o . W i t h respect t o t h e c h a n g e in t h e general form o f the lake, it appears t o m e improbable that in the seventeenth c e n t u r y its breadth was nearly the half o f its l e n g t h .

T h e situation o f the granite mountains o f Mariara and o f G u i g u e , the slope o f the g r o u n d which rises m o r e rapidly towards the north and south than towards t h e east a n d west, are alike r e p u g n a n t t o this supposition.

I n treating the long-discussed question o f the diminution o f the waters, I conceive w e m u s t distinguish b e t w e e n t h e different periods at which the sinking o f their level has taken place. W h e r e v e r w e examine the valleys o f rivers, o r the basins o f lakes, w e see the ancient shore at great d i s tances. N o d o u b t seems n o w t o b o entertained, that o u r rivers and lakes have u n d e r g o n e i m m e n s e d i m i n u t i o n s ; b u t many geological facts remind u s also, that these great changes in the distribution o f the waters have preceded all historical t i m e s ; and that for many thousand years m o s t lakes have attained a permanent equilibrium b e t w e e n t h e p r o d u c e o f the water flowing in, and that o f evaporation and filtration. W h e n e v e r w e find this equilibrium b r o k e n , it will b e well rather to examine w h e t h e r t h e rupture b e n o t o w i n g t o causes merely local, and o f very r e c e n t date, than t o admit an uninterrupted diminution o f t h e water.

This reasoning is conformable t o the m o r e c i r c u m s p e c t m e t h o d o f m o d e r n science. A t a t i m e w h e n t h e physical history o f the world, traced b y t h e genius o f s o m e e l o q u e n t writers, b o r r o w e d all its charms from t h e fictions o f imagination, the p h e n o m e n o n o f which we are treating w o u l d have b e e n adduced as a n e w p r o o f o f t h e contrast these writers sought t o establish b e t w e e n t h e t w o c o n t i n e n t s .

T o demonstrate that A m e r i c a rose later than A s i a and E u r o p e from the b o s o m o f the waters, the lake o f Tacarigua would have b e e n described as o n e o f those interior basins which have n o t v e t b e c o m e dry by the effects o f slow and gradual evaporation.

I have n o d o u b t that, in very r e m o t e times, the whole valley, from the foot o f the mountains o f

RETREAT

OF

THE

WATER.

7

C o c u y z a t o those o f T o r i t o and N i r g u a , and from L a Sierra de Mariara t o the chain o f G u i g u e , o f G u a c i m o , and L a Palma, was tilled with water. E v e r y w h e r e t h e form o f t h e promontories, and their steep declivities, seem t o indicate t h e shore o f an alpine lake, similar t o those o f Styria and T y r o l . T h e same little helicites, the same valvatĂŚ, which n o w live in the lake o f Valencia, are f o u n d in layers o f three o r four feet thick as far inland as T u r m e r o a n d L a C o n c e s i o n near L a Victoria. T h e s e facts u n d o u b t e d l y p r o v e a retreat o f the w a t e r s ; b u t n o t h i n g indicates that this retreat has c o n t i n u e d from a very r e m o t e p e r i o d to o u r days.

The valleys o f A r a g u a are a m o n g the portions o f V e n e z u e l a m o s t anciently p e o p l e d ; and y e t there is n o m e n t i o n in O v i e d o , o r any other old chronicler, o f a sensible diminution o f t h e lake. M u s t we s u p p o s e , that this p h e n o m e n o n escaped their observation, at a time w h e n the Indians far exceeded t h e white population, and w h e n the banks o f t h e lake w e r e less i n h a b i t e d ?

W i t h i n half a c e n t u r y , and particularly within these thirty years, the natural desiccation o f this great basin has excited general attention. W e find vast tracts o f land which were formerly inundated, n o w dry, and already cultivated with plantains, sugar-canes, o r c o t t o n .

W h e r e v e r a h u t is erected o n the bank o f the lake, w e see t h e shore receding f r o m year t o year. W e discover islands, which, in c o n s e q u e n c e o f the retreat o f the waters, are j u s t b e g i n n i n g t o b e j o i n e d t o t h e c o n t i n e n t , as for instance the r o c k y island o f Culebra, in the direction o f G u i g u e ; other islands already form p r o m o n t o r i e s , as t h e M o r r o , b e t w e e n G u i g u e and N u e v a V a l e n c i a , and L a Cabrera, south-east o f M a r i a r a ; others again are n o w rising, in the islands t h e m selves like scattered hills.

A m o n g these last, so easily r e c o g n i z e d at a distance, s o m e are o n l y a quarter o f a mile, others a league from the present shore. I m a y cite as t h e m o s t remarkable three granite islands, thirty o r forty toises h i g h , on the road f r o m the H a c i e n d a de C u r a t o A g u a s C a l i e n t e s ; and at the western e x t r e m i t y o f the lake, t h e Serrito de D o n P e d r o , I s l o t e , and Caratapona.

O n visiting t w o islands* entirely s u r r o u n d e d b y water, w e f o u n d in t h e * Isla de Cura and Cabo Blanco. The promontory of Cabrera has been connected with the shore ever since the year 1750 or 1760 by a little valley, which bears the name of Portachuelo.

8

SUPPOSED

OUTLET.

midst o f b r u s h w o o d , o n small flats (four, six, and even eight toises height above the surface o f the lake,) fine sand mixed with helicites, anciently deposited b y t h e waters.

I n each o f these islands may b e perceived the m o s t certain traces o f t h e gradual sinking o f the waters.

B u t still farther (and this accident is regarded b y the inhabitants as a marvellous phen o m e n o n ) in 1796 three n e w islands appeared t o the east o f the island Caiguira, in the same direction as the islands B u r r o , Otama, and Z o r r o . T h e s e n e w islands, called b y t h e form a kind p e o p l e Los nuevos Peñones, o r Los Aparecidos* o f banks with surfaces quite flat. T h e y rose, in 1 8 0 0 , m o r e than a foot above the mean level o f the water.

I t has already b e e n observed that the lake o f Valencia, like the lakes o f t h e valley o f M e x i c o , forms t h e centre o f a little system o f rivers, n o n e o f which have any c o m munication with the ocean.

T h e s e rivers, m o s t o f which deserve o n l y the name o f torrents, o r brooks,† are twelve o r fourteen in number. T h e inhabitants, little acquainted with the effects o f evaporation, have l o n g imagined that the lake has a subterranean outlet, b y which a quantity o f water runs o u t equal t o that which flows in b y the rivers.

S o m e suppose that this outlet communicates with g r o t t o s , s u p p o s e d t o b e at great d e p t h ; others believe that the water flows t h r o u g h an oblique channel i n t o the basin o f the ocean.

T h e s e b o l d hypotheses o n the c o m m u n i cation b e t w e e n t w o n e i g h b o u r i n g basins have presented themselves in every z o n e t o the imagination o f the i g n o rant, as well as to that o f t h e l e a r n e d ; for the latter, w i t h o u t confessing it, sometimes repeat popular o p i n i o n s in scientific language.

W e hear o f subterranean gulfs and outlets in the N e w W o r l d , as on t h e shores o f the Caspian s e a , t h o u g h the lake o f Tacarigua is t w o h u n d r e d and t w e n t y - t w o toises higher, and the Caspian sea fifty-four toises lower, than t h e s e a ; and t h o u g h it is well k n o w n , that fluids find the same level, w h e n t h e y c o m m u n i c a t e b y a lateral channel. * Lot Nuevos Peñones (the New Rocks). Los Aparecidos (the U n expectedly-appeared). † The following are their names : Rios de Aragua, Turmero, Maracay, Tapatapa, Aguas Calientes, Mariara, Cura, Guacara, Guataparo, Valencia, Caño Grande de Cambury, &c.

DIMINUTION

OF FORESTS.

9

T h e changes which the destruction o f forests, the clearing o f plains, and the cultivation o f i n d i g o , have p r o d u c e d within half a century in the quantity o f water flowing in o n t h e one hand, and o n the other the evaporation o f the soil, and the dryness o f the atmosphere, present causes sufficiently powerful t o explain the progressive diminution o f the lake o f Valencia. I cannot c o n c u r in the o p i n i o n o f M . D e p o n s * ( w h o visited these countries since I was t h e r e ) “that t o set the m i n d at rest, and for the h o n o u r o f science,” a s u b terranean issue m u s t b e admitted. B y felling t h e trees which cover the t o p s and the sides o f mountains, m e n in every climate prepare at o n c e t w o calamities for future g e n e rations ; want o f fuel and scarcity o f water. Trees, b y t h e nature o f their perspiration, and the radiation from their leaves in a sky without clouds, surround themselves with an atmosphere constantly c o l d and misty.

T h e y affect t h e copiousness o f springs, n o t , as was l o n g believed, b y a p e c u liar attraction for the vapours diffused t h r o u g h the air, b u t because, b y sheltering the soil from the direct action o f t h e sun, they diminish the evaporation o f water p r o d u c e d b y rain. W h e n forests are destroyed, as they are everywhere in A m e r i c a b y the E u r o p e a n planters, with i m p r u d e n t p r e cipitancy, the springs are entirely dried u p , o r b e c o m e less abundant.

T h e beds o f the rivers, remaining dry during a part o f t h e year, are converted into torrents w h e n e v e r great rains fall o n the heights.

A s the sward and m o s s disappear with the b r u s h w o o d from t h e sides o f the m o u n tains, the waters falling in rain are n o l o n g e r i m p e d e d in their c o u r s e ; and instead o f slowly augmenting the level o f the rivers b y progressive filtrations, they furrow, d u r i n g heavy showers, the sides o f the hills, bearing d o w n t h e loosened soil, and f o r m i n g sudden and destructive i n u n d a tions.

H e n c e it results, that the clearing o f forests, t h e want o f permanent springs, and the existence o f t o r r e n t s , are three p h e n o m e n a closely c o n n e c t e d t o g e t h e r .

Countries * In his ‘Voyage a la Terre Ferme,’ M . Depons says, “The small extent of the surface of the lake renders impossible the supposition that evaporation alone, however considerable within the tropics, could remove as much water as the rivers furnish.” In the sequel, the author himself seems to abandon what he terms “ this occult case, the hypothesis of an aperture.”

10

RATE OF EVAPORATION.

situated in o p p o s i t e hemispheres, as, f o r example, L o m b a r d y bordered b y the A l p s , and L o w e r P e r u inclosed b e t w e e n t h e Pacific and the Cordillera o f the A n d e s , afford striking proofs o f t h e j u s t n e s s o f this assertion.

Till the middle o f the last c e n t u r y , the mountains r o u n d t h e valleys o f A r a g u a w e r e c o v e r e d with forests.

Great trees o f t h e families o f mimosa, ceiba, a n d t h e fig-tree, shaded a n d spread coolness along t h e banks o f t h e lake.

T h e plain, then thinly inhabited, was filled with b r u s h w o o d , interspersed with trunks o f scattered trees a n d parasite plants, enveloped with a thick sward, less capable o f emitting radiant caloric than t h e soil that is cultivated a n d c o n s e quently n o t sheltered from t h e rays o f t h e s u n . W i t h t h e destruction o f t h e trees, and t h e increase o f t h e cultivation o f sugar, i n d i g o , and c o t t o n , t h e springs, and all t h e natural supplies o f t h e lake o f Valencia, have diminished from year t o year. I t is difficult t o form a j u s t idea o f t h e e n o r m o u s quantity o f evaporation which takes place u n d e r t h e torrid z o n e , i n a valley s u r r o u n d e d with steep declivities, w h e r e a regular breeze and d e s c e n d i n g currents o f air are felt towards evening, and the b o t t o m o f which is flat, and l o o k s as if levelled b y t h e waters.

I t has b e e n remarked, that t h e heat which prevails t h r o u g h o u t t h e year at Cura, G u a c a r a , N u e v a Valencia, and o n the borders o f t h e lake, is t h e same as that felt at m i d s u m m e r in N a p l e s a n d Sicily. T h e m e a n annual temperature o f t h e valleys o f A r a g u a is nearly 2 5 - 5 째 ; m y hygrometrical observations o f t h e m o n t h o f F e b r u a r y , taking t h e mean o f day and n i g h t , gave 7 1 ' 4 째 o f t h e hair h y g r o m e t e r .

A s t h e w o r d s great d r o u g h t and great humidity have n o determinate significat i o n , and air that w o u l d b e called very d r y in t h e l o w e r regions o f t h e tropics w o u l d b e regarded as h u m i d in E u r o p e , w e can j u d g e o f these relations b e t w e e n climates o n l y b y c o m p a r i n g spots situated in t h e same z o n e . N o w at Cumana, where it sometimes does n o t rain during a w h o l e year, a n d w h e r e I had t h e means o f c o l l e c t i n g a great number o f hygrometric observations made at different hours o f the day and n i g h t , the mean humidity o f the air is 8 6 째 ; c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o the mean temperature o f 2 7 7 째 .

T a k i n g into a c c o u n t the influence o f t h e rainy m o n t h s , that is t o say, estimating t h e difference observed in other parts ,

RATE OF EVAPORATION.

o f South A m e r i c a b e t w e e n t h e mean humidity o f the d r y m o n t h s and that o f the whole y e a r ; an annual mean h u m i dity is obtained, for the valleys o f A r a g u a , at farthes of 7 4 ° , the temperature b e i n g 25-5°. I n this air, so hot, and at t h e same time so little humid, the quantity o f water evaporated is e n o r m o u s . T h e t h e o r y o f Dalton estimates, u n d e r t h e conditions j u s t stated, for t h e thickness o f t h e sheet o f water evaporated in an h o u r ' s t i m e , 0 3 6 mill., o r 3 8 lines in t w e n t y - f o u r hours. A s s u m i n g for t h e temperate z o n e , for instance at Paris, the mean temperature to b e 10 6°, and the mean humidity 8 2 ° , w e find, according to t h e same formulae, 0 1 0 mill, an h o u r , a n d 1 line for t w e n t y - f o u r hours. I f w e prefer substituting for the uncertainty o f these theoretical deductions t h e direct results o f observat i o n , w e may recollect that in Paris, and at M o n t m o r e n c y , the mean annual evaporation was f o u n d b y Sedileau a n d C o t t e , to b e from 3 2 in. 1 line t o 3 8 in. 4 lines. T w o able engineers in t h e south o f F r a n c e , M e s s r s . Clausade and P i n , found, that in subtracting t h e effects o f filtrations, t h e waters o f the canal o f L a n g u e d o c , and the basin o f Saint F e r r é o l lose every year from 0 7 5 8 m e t . t o 0-812 m e t . , o r from 336 t o 3 6 0 lines. M . de P r o n y f o u n d nearly simdar results in the P o n t i n e marshes. T h e w h o l e o f these e x p e r i m e n t s , made in t h e latitudes o f 4 1 ° and 4 9 ° , and at 10-5° and 16° o f mean temperature, indicate a m e a n evaporation o f one line, o r one and three-tenths a day.

I n the torrid zone, in the W e s t I n d i a Islands for instance, t h e effect o f evaporation is three times as m u c h , according t o L e G a u x , and double according t o Cassan. A t C u m a n a , i n a place where the atmosphere is far m o r e loaded with h u m i dity than in the valley o f A r a g u a , I have often seen e v a p o rate during twelve hours, in t h e sun, 8 8 mill., in the shade 3-4 mill.; and I believe, that the annual p r o d u c e o f e v a p o ration in t h e rivers near C u m a n a is n o t less than o n e hundred and thirty inches. E x p e r i m e n t s o f this k i n d are extremely delicate, b u t what I nave stated will suffice t o demonstrate h o w great m u s t b e t h e quantity o f vapour that rises' from the lake o f V a l e n c i a , and from the s u r r o u n d i n g c o u n t r y , the waters o f which flow into t h e lake. I shall have occasion elsewhere t o resume this s u b j e c t ; for, in a w o r k which displays t h e great laws o f nature in different

12

ATMOSPHERIC

MOISTURE.

zones, w e m u s t endeavour t o solve t h e p r o b l e m o f t h e mean tension o f t h e vapours contained in t h e atmosphere in different latitudes, a n d at different heights above t h e surface o f the ocean.

A great n u m b e r o f local circumstances cause t h e p r o d u c e o f evaporation t o vary; it changes in p r o p o r t i o n as m o r e o r less shade covers t h e basin o f t h e waters, with their state of m o t i o n o r repose, with their d e p t h , a n d t h e nature a n d c o l o u r o f their b o t t o m ; b u t in general evaporation depends o n l y o n three circumstances, the temperature, t h e tension o f t h e vapours contained in the atmosphere, and t h e resistance which t h e air, m o r e o r less dense, m o r e o r less agitated, o p p o s e s t o t h e diffusion o f vapour. T h e quantity o f water that evaporates in a given spot, everything else b e i n g equal, is proportionate t o t h e difference b e t w e e n t h e quantity o f vapour which t h e ambient air can c o n t a i n w h e n saturated, and t h e quantity which it actually contains.

H e n c e it follows that t h e evaporation is n o t s o great in t h e torrid z o n e as m i g h t b e e x p e c t e d from t h e e n o r m o u s augmentation o f t e m p e r a t u r e ; because, i n those ardent climates, t h e air is habitually very humid.

Since the increase o f agricultural industry in t h e valleys o f A r a g u a , t h e little rivers which run into t h e lake o f Valencia can n o l o n g e r b e regarded as positive supplies during t h e six m o n t h s s u c c e e d i n g D e c e m b e r . T h e y remain dried u p in t h e l o w e r part o f their course, because t h e planters o f i n d i g o , coffee, and sugar-canes, have made frequent drainings ( a z e q u i a s ) , i n order t o water t h e g r o u n d b y trenches.

We may observe also, that a pretty considerable river, t h e R i o P a o , which rises at the entrance o f t h e L l a n o s , at t h e f o o t o f the range o f hills called L a Galera, heretofore m i n g l e d its waters with those o f t h e lake, b y uniting with t h e C a 単 o d e C a m b u r y , o n t h e road f r o m t h e t o w n o f N u e v a Valencia t o G u i g u e . T h e course o f this river was f r o m south t o n o r t h .

A t the e n d o f t h e seventeenth c e n t u r y , t h e p r o p r i e t o r o f a n e i g h b o u r i n g plantation d u g at t h e back o f t h e hill a n e w b e d f o r t h e R i o P a o . H e t u r n e d t h e r i v e r ; a n d , after having e m p l o y e d part o f t h e water f o r t h e irrigation o f his fields, he caused t h e rest t o flow at a venture southward, following t h e declivity o f t h e L l a n o s . I n this new southern direction t h e R i o P a o , mingled with three o t h e r rivers, t h e

CHANGE OF RIVER-COURSES.

13

T i n a c o , t h e G u a n a r i t o , and t h e Chilua, falls into t h e P o r t u guesa, which is a branch o f t h e A p u r e . I t is a remarkable p h e n o m e n o n , that b y a particular p o s i t i o n o f the g r o u n d , and t h e l o w e r i n g o f t h e ridge o f division t o south-west, t h e R i o P a o separates itself f r o m t h e little system o f interior rivers t o which it originally b e l o n g e d , a n d f o r a c e n t u r y past has c o m m u n i c a t e d , t h r o u g h t h e channel o f t h e A p u r e and t h e O r i n o c o , with t h e ocean.

W h a t has b e e n here effected o n a small scale b y t h e hand o f man, nature often performs, either b y progressively elevating t h e level o f t h e soil, o r b y those falls o f the g r o u n d occasioned b y violent earthquakes. I t is probable, that in t h e lapse o f ages, several rivers o f Soudan, a n d o f N e w H o l l a n d , which are n o w lost i n t h e sands, o r i n inland basins, will o p e n f o r themselves a course t o t h e shores o f t h e o c e a n . W e c a n n o t at least d o u b t , that i n b o t h continents there are systems o f interior rivers, which m a y b e considered as n o t entirely d e v e l o p e d ; and which c o m m u n i c a t e with each other, either in t h e time o f great risings, o r b y p e r m a n e n t bifurcations.

T h e R i o P a o has s c o o p e d itself o u t a b e d so deep and b r o a d , that i n t h e season o f rains, w h e n t h e C a 単 o G r a n d e d e C a m b u r y inundates all the land t o t h e north-west o f G u i g u e , the waters o f this C a 単 o , and those o f t h e lake o f Valencia, flow back into t h e R i o P a o i t s e l f ; so that this river, instead o f adding water t o t h e lake, t e n d s rather t o carry it away.

W e see something similar in N o r t h A m e r i c a , where g e o graphers have represented o n their maps an imaginary chain o f mountains, b e t w e e n t h e great lakes o f Canada and t h e c o u n t r y o f the M i a m i s . A t t h e t i m e o f floods, t h e waters flowing into t h e lakes c o m m u n i c a t e with those which r u n into t h e M i s s i s s i p p i ; a n d it is practicable t o p r o c e e d b y boats f r o m t h e sources o f the river S t . M a r y t o the Wabash, as well as f r o m t h e C h i c a g o t o t h e Illinois. T h e s e analog o u s facts appear t o m e well w o r t h y o f t h e attention o f hydrographers.

T h e land that surrounds t h e lake o f V a l e n c i a b e i n g e n tirely flat and even, a diminution o f a f e w inches i n the level o f the water exposes t o v i e w a vast e x t e n t o f g r o u n d c o v e r e d with fertile m u d a n d organic r e m a i n s . * I n p r o p o r t i o n as the lake retires, cultivation advances towards t h e new shore. * This I observed daily in the Lake of Mexico.

14

MEAN

WATER-LEVEL.

T h e s e natural desiccations, so important t o agriculture, have b e e n considerable during t h e Last ten years, in which A m e r i c a has suffered from great droughts. Instead o f marking the sinuosities o f t h e present b a n k s o f t h e lake, I have advised t h e rich landholders in these countries t o fix c o l u m n s o f granite i n t h e basin itself, in order t o observe from year t o year t h e mean height o f t h e waters. T h e M a r q u i s del T o r o has undertaken t o p u t this design into execution, e m p l o y i n g t h e fine granite o f t h e Sierra d e Mariara, and establishing linnometers, o n a b o t t o m o f gneiss r o c k , s o c o m m o n in the lake o f Valencia.

I t is impossible t o anticipate t h e limits, m o r e o r less narrow, t o which this basin o f water will o n e day b e c o n fined, w h e n an equilibrium b e t w e e n t h e streams flowing i n and the p r o d u c e o f evaporation and filtration, shall b e c o m pletely established. T h e idea very generally spread, that t h e lake will soon entirely disappear, seems t o m e chimerical.

I f in consequence o f great earthquakes, o r other causes equally m y s t e r i o u s , t e n very humid years should succeed t o l o n g d r o u g h t s ; i f t h e mountains should again b e c o m e c l o t h e d with forests, and great trees overshadow the shore and the plains o f A r a g u a , w e should more probably see t h e volume o f t h e waters a u g m e n t , and m e n a c e that beautiful cultivation which n o w trenches o n the basin o f the lake.

W h i l e s o m e o f t h e cultivators o f t h e valleys o f A r a g u a fear the total disappearance o f t h e lake, a n d others i t s r e t u r n t o t h e banks it has deserted, w e hear t h e question gravely discussed a t Caracas, whether it w o u l d n o t b e advisable, in o r d e r t o give greater extent t o agriculture, t o c o n d u c t the waters o f the lake into the Llanos, by d i g g i n g a canal towards the Rio P a o . T h e p o s s i b i l i t y * o f this enter* The dividing ridge, namely, that which divides the waters between the valleys of Aragua and the Llanos, lowers so much towards the west of Guigue, as we have already observed, that there are ravines which conduct the waters of the Ca単o de Cambury, the Rio Valencia, and the Guataparo, in the time of floods, to the Rio Pao; but it would be easier to open a navigable canal from the lake of Valencia to the Orinoco, by the Pao, the Portuguesa, and the Apure, than to dig a draining canal level with the bottom of the lake. This bottom, according to the sounding, and my barometric measurements, is 4 0 toises less than 2 2 2 , or 182 above the surface of the ocean. On the road from Guigue to the Llanos, by the table-land of La Villa de Cura, I found, to the south of the dividing

AVERAGE

OF

DEPTH.

15

prise cannot b e denied, particularly b y having recourse t o tunnels, or subterranean canals. T h e progressive retreat o f the waters has given birth t o the beautiful and luxuriant plains o f M a r a c a y , Cura, M o c u n d o , G u i g u e , and Santa Cruz del Escoval, planted with t o b a c c o , sugar-canes, coffee, indigo, and c a c a o ; b u t h o w can it b e d o u b t e d for a m o m e n t that the lake alone spreads fertility over this country ? I f d e prived o f the e n o r m o u s mass o f vapour which the surface o f the waters sends forth daily into the atmosphere, the valleys o f A r a g u a w o u l d b e c o m e as dry and barren as t h e surrounding mountains.

T h e mean depth o f the lake is from twelve t o fifteen f a t h o m s ; the deepest parts are n o t , as is generally admitted, eighty, b u t thirty-five or forty deep. Such is the result o f soundings made with the greatest care b y D o n A n t o n i o M a n z a n o . W h e n w e reflect o n the vast depths o f all the lakes of Switzerland, which, notwithstanding their position in high valleys, almost reach the level o f the Mediterranean, it appears surprising that greater cavities are not found at the b o t t o m o f the lake o f Valencia, which is also an A l p i n e lake. T h e deepest places are b e t w e e n the r o c k y island o f B u r r o and the point o f Caña Fistula, and opposite the high mountains o f Mariara. B u t in general the southern part o f the lake is deeper than the northern : n o r must we forget that, if all the shores b e n o w l o w , the southern part o f the basin is the nearest t o a chain o f mountains with abrupt declivities ; and w e k n o w that even the sea is generally deepest where the coast is elevated, r o c k y , or perpendicular.

T h e temperature o f the lake at the surface during m y abode in the valleys o f A r a g u a , in the month o f F e b r u a r y , was constantly from 23° t o 23 7°, consequently a little b e l o w the mean temperature o f the air. This may b e from the effect o f evaporation, which carries off caloric from the air and the w a t e r ; o r because a great mass o f water does n o t follow with an equal rapidity the changes in the tempera-

ridge, and on its southern declivity, no point of level corresponding the 182 toises, except near San Juan. is 194 toises.

But.

to

The absolute height of this village

I repeat that, farther towards the west, in the country

between the Caño de Cambury and the sources of the Rio Pao, which I was not able to visit, the point of level of the bottom of the lake is much further north.

16

MEAN

TEMPERATURE.

ture o f the atmosphere, and the lake receives streams which rise from several c o l d springs in the neighbouring mountains.

I have to regret that, notwithstanding its small depth, I could n o t determine the temperature o f the water at thirty o r forty fathoms. I was n o t provided with the thermometrical s o u n d i n g apparatus which I had used in the A l p i n e lakes o f Salzburg, and in t h e Caribbean Sea. T h e experiments o f Saussure prove that, o n b o t h sides o f the A l p s , the lakes which are from one hundred and ninety t o t w o hundred and seventy-four toises o f absolute elevation* have, in the middle o f winter, at nine hundred, at six hundred, and sometimes even at o n e hundred and fifty feet o f depth, a uniform temperature from 4 3 t o 6 d e g r e e s : b u t these experiments have n o t y e t b e e n repeated in lakes situated u n d e r the torrid z o n e . T h e strata o f cold water in Switzerland are o f an e n o r m o u s thickness. T h e y have been f o u n d so near t h e surface in t h e lakes o f G e n e v a and B i e n n e , that the decrement o f heat in the water was one centesimal degree for ten o r fifteen f e e t ; that is t o say, eight times m o r e rapid than in the ocean, and forty-eight times m o r e rapid than in t h e atmosphere. I n the temperate zone, where the heat o f t h e atmosphere sinks t o the freezing p o i n t , and far lower, the b o t t o m o f a lake, even w e r e it n o t surrounded b y glaciers and mountains c o v e r e d with eternal s n o w , must contain particles o f water which, having during winter acquired at t h e surface t h e m a x i m u m o f their density, b e t w e e n 3'4° and 4 ' 4 ° , have consequently fallen t o the greatest depth.

Other particles, the temperature o f which is + 0"5°, far f r o m placing themselves b e l o w t h e stratum at 4 ° , can only find their hydrostatic equilibrium above that stratum.

They will descend l o w e r o n l y w h e n their temperature is a u g m e n t e d 3 ° o r 4° b y t h e c o n t a c t o f strata less c o l d .

If water in c o o l i n g c o n t i n u e d t o c o n d e n s e uniformly t o the freezing p o i n t , there w o u l d b e found, in v e r y deep lakes and basins having n o c o m m u n i c a t i o n with each other ( w h a t ever the latitude o f the p l a c e ) , a stratum o f water, the temperature o f which w o u l d b e nearly equal t o the maxim u m o f refrigeration above the freezing point, which the l o w e r regions o f the ambient atmosphere annually attain. * This is the difference between the absolute elevatious of the lakes of Geneva and T h u n .

MEAN

TEMPERATURE.

17

H e n c e it is probable, that, in the plains o f the torrid z o n e , Of in the valleys b u t little elevated, the mean heat o f which is from 25 5° to 2 7 ° , the temperature o f the b o t t o m o f t h e lakes can never b e b e l o w 21° o r 2 2 ° .

I f in t h e same z o n e the ocean contain at depths o f seven o r eight hundred lathoms, water t h e temperature o f which is at 7°, that is t o say, twelve o r thirteen degrees c o l d e r than the m a x i m u m of the h e a t * o f the equinoctial atmosphere over the sea, I think it must b e considered as a direct p r o o f o f a s u b marine current, carrying the waters o f the p o l e towards t h e equator. W e will n o t here solve the delicate p r o b l e m , as to the manner in w h i c h , within the tropics and in the t e m perate zone, ( f o r example, in the Caribbean Sea and in the takes o f Switzerland,) these inferior strata o f water, cooled to 4° o r 7°, act u p o n the temperature o f the stony strata o f the globe which they c o v e r ; and how these same strata, t h e primitive temperature o f which is, within the t r o p i c s , 2 7 ° , and at the lake o f G e n e v a 10°, react u p o n the half-frozen waters at the b o t t o m o f the lakes, and o f t h e equinoctial ocean. T h e s e questions are o f the highest importance, both with regard t o the e c o n o m y o f animals that live habitually at the b o t t o m o f fresh and salt waters, and t o the theory of the distribution o f heat in lands surrounded b y vast and deep seas.

The lake o f V a l e n c i a is full o f islands, which embellish the scenery b y t h e picturesque form o f their r o c k s , and the beauty o f the vegetation with which t h e y are c o v e r e d : an advantage which this tropical lake possesses over those of the A l p s . T h e islands are fifteen in n u m b e r , distributed in three g r o u p s ;† without r e c k o n i n g M o r r o and Cabrera, which are already j o i n e d t o the shore.

T h e y are partly It is almost superfluous to observe that 1 am considering here only ** part of the atmosphere lying on the ocean between 10° north and 10° south latitude. Towards the northern limits of the torrid zone, in latitude 23° , whither the north winds bring with an extreme rapidity the cold air of Canada the thermometer falls at sea as low as 16°, and even lower. † the position of these islands is as follows: northward, near the shore, the Isla de Cura; on the south-east, Burro, Horno, Otama, Sorro, Caigura,Nuevos Peñones, or the Aparecidos; on the north-west, Cabo Blanco, or Isla de Aves, and Chamberg; on the south-west, Brucha and Culebra. In the centre of the lake rise, like shoals or small detached rocks, Vagre, Fraile, Peñasco, and Pan de Azucar.

VOL.

II.

C

18

INHABITANTS

OF T H E

ISLANDS.

cultivated, and extremely fertile o n a c c o u n t o f the vapours that rise from the lake. B u r r o , the largest o f these islands, is t w o miles in length, a n d is inhabited b y s o m e families o f mestizos, w h o rear g o a t s . T h e s e simple p e o p l e seldom T o t h e m the lake appears o f visit t h e shore o f M o c u n d o . i m m e n s e e x t e n t ; they have plantains, cassava, milk, a n d a little fish. A hut c o n s t r u c t e d o f reeds ; h a m m o c k s w o v e n from t h e c o t t o n which the n e i g h b o u r i n g fields p r o d u c e ; a large stone o n which t h e fire is m a d e ; t h e ligneous fruit o f t h e t u t u m a ( t h e calabash) in which they draw water, c o n A n o l d mestizo w h o stitute their domestic establishment. offered us some g o a t ' s milk had a beautiful daughter.

We learned from o u r g u i d e , that solitude had rendered him as mistrustful as he might perhaps have b e e n made b y t h e society o f m e n . T h e day before o u r arrival, some hunters had visited the island. T h e y were overtaken b y the shades o f n i g h t ; and preferred sleeping in t h e open air t o returnThis n e w s spread alarm t h r o u g h o u t t h e ing t o M o c u n d o . island. T h e father o b l i g e d t h e y o u n g girl t o climb u p a very lofty zamang o r acacia, which g r e w in t h e plain at some distance from the h u t , while h e stretched himself at t h e foot o f t h e tree, and d i d n o t permit his d a u g h t e r t o descend till the hunters had departed.

T h e lake is in general well s t o c k e d with fish; t h o u g h it furnishes o n l y three kinds, the flesh o f which is soft and insipid, the guavina, t h e vagre, and the sardina.

The two last descend into t h e lake with t h e streams that flow into it. T h e guavina, o f which I made a drawing o n the spot, is 2 0 inches l o n g and 3 5 broad.

I t is perhaps a n e w species o f the g e n u s erythrina o f G r o n o v i u s .

I t has large silvery scales e d g e d with green.

This fish is extremely voracious, and destroys o t h e r kinds.

T h e fishermen a s sured us that a small crocodile, t h e b a v a * which often approached us when w e w e r e bathing, c o n t r i b u t e s also t o the destruction o f the fish. We never c o u l d succeed in p r o c u r i n g this reptile so as t o examine it closely : it generally • * The bava, or bavilla, is very common at Bordones, near Cumana.

See vol. i, p. 160. The name of bava (baveuse) has misled M . Depons; he takes this reptile for a fish of our seas, the Blennius pholis. (Voyage a la Terre Ferine.) The Blennius pholis (smooth blenny), is called by the French baveuse (slaverer), in Spanish, baba.

19

CROCODILES.

attains only three o r four feet in l e n g t h .

I t is said t o b e very harmless ; its habits however, as well as its form, m u c h resemble those o f t h e alligator ( C r o c o d i l u s a c u t u s ) .

It swims in such a manner as t o show only the point o f its snout, and the e x t r e m i t y o f its t a i l ; a n d places itself at mid-day o n the bare beach.

I t is certainly neither a monitor (the real monitors living only in the o l d c o n t i n e n t , ) nor the sauvegarde o f Seba ( L a c e r t a t e g u i x i n , ) which dives and does n o t swim. I t is somewhat remarkable that the lake o f V a l e n c i a , and t h e w h o l e system o f small rivers flowing into it, have n o large alligators, t h o u g h this dangerous animal abounds a few leagues off in t h e streams that flow either into the A p u r e o r the O r i n o c o , o r i m m e diately into the Caribbean Sea b e t w e e n P o r t o Cabello a n d La Guayra.

I n the islands that rise like bastions in the midst o f t h e waters, and wherever t h e r o c k y b o t t o m o f t h e lake is visible, I recognised a uniform direction in the strata o f gneiss.

This direction is nearly that o f t h e chains o f mountains o n the north and south o f t h e lake.

I n the hills o f C a b o Blanco there are f o u n d a m o n g t h e gneiss, angular masses o f opaque quartz, slightly translucid o n t h e e d g e s , and varying from g r e y t o deep black. This quartz passes sometimes i n t o hornstein, and sometimes into kieselschiefer (schistose j a s p e r ) . I do n o t think it constitutes a vein. T h e waters o f the l a k e * d e c o m p o s e t h e gneiss b y erosion in a very extraordinary manner.

I have f o u n d parts o f it p o r o u s , almost cellular, and split in t h e f o r m o f cauliflowers, fixed on gneiss perfectly c o m p a c t .

Perhaps t h e . action ceases with the m o v e m e n t o f the waves, and t h e alternate contact of air and water.

T h e island o f C h a m b e r g is remarkable for its height.

I t is a r o c k o f gneiss, with t w o summits in t h e f o r m o f a saddle, and raised t w o h u n d r e d feet above t h e surface o f the water. T h e slope o f this r o c k is barren, and affords only nourishment for a f e w plants o f clusia with large white * T h e water o f the lake is not salt, as is asserted at Caracas. It may be drunk without being filtered.

O n evaporation it leaves a very small residuum o f carbonate o f lime, and perhaps a little nitrate of potash.

It is surprising that an inland lake should not be richer in alkaline and earthy salts, acquired from the neighbouring soils.

c 2

20

PLANTS

AND TREES.

flowers.

B u t the view o f the lake and o f the richly cultivated n e i g h b o u r i n g valleys is beautiful, and their aspect is wonderful aFter sunset, when thousands o f aquatic birds, herons, flamingoes, and wild ducks cross the lake to roost in the islands, and the broad z o n e o f mountains which surrounds the horizon is c o v e r e d with fire. T h e inhabitants, as w e have already m e n t i o n e d , b u r n the m e a d o w s in o r d e r t o p r o d u c e fresher and finer grass.

G r a m i n e o u s plants a b o u n d , especially at t h e s u m m i t o f the c h a i n ; and t h o s e vast conflagrations e x t e n d sometimes the length o f a t h o u sand toises, and appear like streams o f lava overflowing the ridge o f t h e m o u n t a i n s . W h e n r e p o s i n g o n the banks o f the lake to e n j o y t h e soft freshness o f the air in o n e o f those beautiful evenings peculiar t o the tropics, it is delightful to c o n t e m p l a t e in the waves as they beat the shore, the reflection o f the red fires that illumine the horizon.

A m o n g the plants which g r o w o n the r o c k y islands o f t h e lake o f Valencia, m a n y have b e e n believed t o be peculiar t o those spots, because till n o w t h e y have n o t b e e n disc o v e r e d elsewhere. Such are t h e papaw-trees of the lake; and the t o m a t o * o f the island o f Cura. T h e latter differs from o u r Solanum lycopersieum ; the fruit is r o u n d and small, b u t has a fine f l a v o u r ; it is n o w cultivated at L a V i c t o r i a , at N u e v a Valencia, and everywhere in the valleys of Aragua.

T h e papaw-tree o f the lake (papaya de la l a g u n a ) abounds also in the island o f C u r a and at C a b o B l a n c o ; its trunk shoots higher than that o f the c o m m o n papaw (Carica p a p a y a ) , b u t its fruit is o n l y half as large, perfectly spherical, without projecting ribs, and four o r five inches in diameter.

W h e n c u t o p e n it is f o u n d quite filled with seeds, and w i t h o u t those hollow places which o c c u r constantly in the c o m m o n papaw. T h e taste o f this fruit, o f which I have often eaten, is extremely sweet.†I k n o w n o t whether it b e a variety o f the Carica microcarpa, d e scribed b y J a c q u i n .

T h e environs o f the lake are insalubrious only in times o f great d r o u g h t , w h e n the waters in their retreat leave a * The tomatos are cultivated, as well as the papaw-tree of the lake, in the Botanical Garden of Berlin, to which I had sent some seeds. f The people of the country attribute to it an astringent quality, and call it tapaculo.

HOT

SPRINGS

OF T H E LAKE.

21

muddy sediment e x p o s e d t o t h e rays o f t h e s u n . T h e banks, shaded b y tufts o f C o c c o l o b a barbadensis, a n d decorated with fine liliaceous plants,* r e m i n d u s , b y t h e appearance o f t h e aquatic vegetation, o f t h e marshy shores o f o u r lakes in E u r o p e . W e find there, p o n d w e e d ( p o t a m o g e t o n ) , chara, a n d cats’-tail three feet high, which i t is difficult n o t t o c o n f o u n d with t h e T y p h a angustifolia o f our marshes. I t is only after a careful examination, that we recognise each o f these plants f o r distinct species,† peculiar t o t h e n e w continent. H o w many plants o f t h e Straits o f Magellan, o f Chile, and t h e Cordilleras o f Q u i t o have formerly been c o n f o u n d e d with t h e p r o d u c t i o n s o f t h e northern temperate zone, o w i n g t o their analogy i n f o r m

and appearance.

T h e inhabitants o f t h e valleys o f A r a g u a often inquire w h y the southern shore o f the lake, particularly t h e southwest part towards l o s A g u a c o t i s , is generally m o r e shaded, and exhibits fresher verdure than t h e n o r t h e r n side. W e saw, in the m o n t h o f February, m a n y trees stripped o f their foliage, near t h e H a c i e n d a d e Cura, at M o c u n d o , a n d at G u a c a r a ; while t o t h e south-east o f V a l e n c i a everything presaged t h e approach o f t h e rains. I believe that i n t h e early part o f the year, w h e n t h e sun has southern declination, t h e hills a r o u n d V a l e n c i a , G u a c a r a , a n d C u r a a r e scorched b y t h e heat o f t h e solar rays, while t h e southern shore receives, a l o n g w i t h t h e breeze w h e n i t enters t h e valley b y the A b r a de P o r t o Cabello, an atmosphere which has crossed t h e lake, a n d i s loaded w i t h aqueous vapour.

O n this southern shore, near G u a r u t o , are situated t h e finest plantations o f t o b a c c o i n t h e w h o l e p r o v i n c e .

A m o n g the rivers flowing into t h e lake o f V a l e n c i a s o m e o w e their o r i g i n t o thermal springs, a n d deserve particular attention. T h e s e springs gush o u t at three points o f t h e granitic Cordillera o f t h e c o a s t ; near O n o t o , b e t w e e n T u r mero and M a r a c a y ; near Mariara, north-east o f the H a c i e n d a de C u r a ; and near L a s Trincheras, o n t h e road from N u e v a Valencia t o P o r t o Cabello. I c o u l d examine with care only the physical and geological relations o f the thermal waters o f Mariara and L a s Trincheras. I n g o i n g u p t h e small river • Pancratium undulatum, Amaryllis nervosa, † Potamogeton tenuifolium, Chara compressa, Typha tenuifolia.

22

RIO

D E AGUAS

CALIENTES.

Cura towards its source, the mountains o f Mariara are seen advancing into the plain in the form o f a vast amphitheatre, c o m p o s e d o f perpendicular r o c k s , c r o w n e d b y peaks with r u g g e d summits. T h e central p o i n t o f the amphitheatre bears the strange name o f the D e v i l ' s N o o k ( R i n c o n del D i a b l o ) . T h e range stretching t o the east is called El C h a p a r r o ; that t o the west, L a s Viruelas. These ruin-like rocks c o m m a n d the p l a i n ; they are c o m p o s e d o f a coarsegrained granite, nearly p o r p h y n t i c , the yellowish white feldspar crystals o f which are m o r e than an inch and a half long.

M i c a is rare in t h e m , and is o f a fine silvery lustre. N o t h i n g can be m o r e picturesque and solemn than the aspect o f this g r o u p o f mountains, half c o v e r e d with vegetation.

The Peak o f Calavera, which unites the Rincon del D i a b l o t o the Chaparro, is visible from afar. I n it the granite is separated by perpendicular fissures info prismatic masses. I t w o u l d seem as if the primitive rock were c r o w n e d with c o l u m n s o f basalt. I n the rainy season, a considerable sheet o f water rushes d o w n like a cascade from these cliffs. T h e m o u n tains c o n n e c t e d o n the east with the R i n c o n del D i a b l o , are much less lofty, and contain, like the p r o m o n t o r y o f L a Cabrera, and the little detached hills in the plain, gneiss and mica-slate, including garnets.

I n these l o w e r mountains, t w o o r three miles north-east o f Mariara, w e find the ravine o f h o t waters called Q u e brada de A g u a s Calientes. This ravine, r u n n i n g N . W . 75째, contains several small basins. O f these the t w o u p p e r m o s t , which have n o c o m m u n i c a t i o n with each other, are o n l y eight inches in d i a m e t e r ; the three lower, from two t o three feet. T h e i r depth varies from three t o fifteen inches.

The temperature o f these different funnels ( p o z o s ) is from 56째 t o 5 9 째 ; and what is remarkable, t h e l o w e r funnels are hotter than t h e u p p e r , t h o u g h the difference o f the level is only seven o r eight inches. T h e hot waters, collected together, form a little rivulet, called the Rio de A g u a s Calientes, which, thirty feet lower, has a temperature o f only 4 8 째 . I n seasons o f great d r o u g h t , the time at which w e visited the ravine, the w h o l e b o d y o f the thermal waters forms a section o f only twenty-six square inches. This is considerably a u g m e n t e d in the rainy s e a s o n ; the rivulet is then transformed into a torrent, and its heat d i m i n i s h e s ;

SULPHUREOUS

SPRINGS.

23

for it appears that t h e h o t springs themselves are s u b j e c t only t o imperceptible variations. A l l these springs are slightly i m p r e g n a t e d with sulphuretted h y d r o g e n gas.

The fetid smell, peculiar t o this gas, c a n b e perceived only b y approaching very near the springs. I n o n e o f these wells only, the t e m p e r a t u r e o f which is 5 6 2 ° , b u b b l e s o f air are evolved at nearly regular intervals o f t w o o r three m i n u t e s .

I observed that these b u b b l e s constantly r o s e from t h e same points, which are four in n u m b e r ; and that it was n o t p o s sible to change the places from w h i c h t h e gas is emitted, b y stirring the b o t t o m o f t h e basin w i t h a stick. T h e s e places correspond n o d o u b t to holes o r fissures o n t h e g n e i s s ; and indeed when the b u b b l e s rise from o n e o f t h e apertures, t h e emission o f gas follows instantly f r o m t h e o t h e r three.

I could n o t succeed in inflaming the small quantities o f gas that rise above t h e thermal waters, o r those I collected in a glass phial held over t h e springs, an operation that e x cited in m e a nausea, caused less by the smell o f the gas, than b y the excessive heat prevailing in this ravine. I s this sulphuretted h y d r o g e n m i x e d with a great p r o p o r t i o n o f carb o n i c acid o r atmospheric air? I am doubtful o f t h e first o f these mixtures, t h o u g h so c o m m o n in thermal w a t e r s ; for example at A i x la Chapelle, E n g h i e n , and B a r è g e s .

The gas collected in the t u b e o f Fontana’s e u d i o m e t e r had b e e n shaken for a l o n g time with water. T h e small basins are covered with a light film o f sulphur, deposited b y the sulphuretted h y d r o g e n in its slow c o m b u s t i o n in c o n t a c t with the atmospheric o x y g e n . A few plants near the springs were incrusted with sulphur. This deposit is scarcely visible w h e n t h e water o f M a r i a r a is suffered t o c o o l in an o p e n v e s s e l ; n o d o u b t because t h e quantity o f disengaged gas is very small, and is n o t renewed. T h e water, w h e n cold, gives n o precipitate with a solution o f nitrate o f c o p p e r ; it is destitute o f flavour, and very drinkable. I f it c o n t a i n any saline substances, for example, t h e sulphates o f soda o r magnesia, their quantities m u s t b e very insignificant.

Being almost destitute o f chemical t e s t s , * w e c o n t e n t e d ourselves A small case, containing acetate o f lead, nitrate of silver, alcohol, prussiate of potash, & c . , had been left by mistake at Cumana. I evaporated some o f the water o f Mariara, and it yielded only a very small residuum, which, digested with nitric acid, appeared to contain only a little silica and extractive vegetable matter.

24

NATURAL

HOT BATH.

with filling at the spring t w o b o t t l e s , which w e r e sent, along with the nourishing milk o f the tree called palo de vaca, t o M M . F o u r c r o y and V a u q u e l i n , b y t h e w a y o f Porto Cabello and the Havannah.

This purity in hot waters issuing immediately from granite mountains is in E u r o p e , as well as in the N e w C o n t i n e n t , a m o s t curious phenomenon.* H o w can w e explain the origin o f t h e sulphuretted h y d r o g e n ? I t c a n n o t p r o c e e d from the d e c o m p o s i t i o n o f sulphurets o f iron, o r pyritic strata. Is it o w i n g t o sulphurets o f calcium, o f m a g n e s i u m , o r other earthy metalloids, c o n t a i n e d in the interior o f o u r planet, under its r o c k y and oxidated crust ?

I n the ravine o f the hot waters o f Mariara, amidst little funnels, the temperature o f which rises from 56° t o 5 9 ° , t w o species o f aquatic plants v e g e t a t e ; the o n e is membranac e o u s , and contains bubbles o f a i r ; the other has parallel fibres.

T h e first much resembles the Ulva labyrinthiformis o f Vandelli, which the thermal waters o f E u r o p e furnish.

A t the island o f A m s t e r d a m , tufts o f l y c o p o d i u m and marchantia have b e e n seen in places where the heat o f the soil was far g r e a t e r : such is the effect o f an habitual stimulus o n the organs o f plants. T h e waters o f Mariara contain n o aquatic insects. F r o g s are found in t h e m , which, b e i n g probably chased b y serpents, have leaped into the funnels, and there perished.

South o f the ravine, in the plain e x t e n d i n g towards the shore o f the lake, another sulphureous spring gushes o u t , less hot and less impregnated with gas. T h e crevice w h e n c e this water issues is six toises higher than the funnel j u s t described. T h e t h e r m o m e t e r did n o t rise in the crevice above 4 2 ° . T h e water is collected in a basin surrounded b y large trees ; it is nearly circular, from fifteen t o eighteen feet diameter, and three feet deep. T h e slaves throw themselves into this bath at the e n d o f the day, w h e n c o v e r e d with dust, after having w o r k e d in the n e i g h b o u r i n g fields o f i n digo and sugar-cane. T h o u g h the water o f this bath ( b a ñ o ) is habitually from 12° to 14° hotter than the air, the n e g r o e s call it r e f r e s h i n g ; because in the torrid zone this term is * Warm springs equally, pure are found issuing from the granites of Portugal, and those of Cantal.

In Italy, the Pisciarelli of the lake Agnano have a temperature equal to 93°. Are these pure, waters produced by condensed vapours ?

THE

VOLADOR.

23

used for whatever restores strength, calms t h e irritation o f the nerves, or causes a feeling o f c o m f o r t . W e ourselves e x perienced the salutary effects o f the bath. H a v i n g slung o u r hammocks o n t h e trees r o u n d the basin, w e passed a w h o l e day in this charming spot, which abounds in plants.

We found near the baño o f Mariara the volador, o r g y r o c a r p u s .

T h e w i n g e d fruits o f this large tree t u r n like a fly-wheel, when they fall from the stalk. O n shaking the branches o f the volador, w e saw t h e air filled with its fruits, the s i m u l taneous fall o f which presents the m o s t singular spectacle.

T h e t w o membranaceous and striated w i n g s are t u r n e d so as to m e e t the air, in falling, at an angle o f 45°.

Fortunately the fruits w e gathered w e r e at their maturity.

We sent some to E u r o p e , and t h e y have germinated in t h e gardens o f Berlin, Paris, and M a l m a i s o n . T h e n u m e r o u s plants o f the volador, n o w seen in hot-houses, o w e their origin t o the only tree o f the k i n d f o u n d near Mariara.

T h e geographical distribution o f the different species o f g y r o carpus, which M r . B r o w n considers as o n e o f the laurineæ, is very singular. Jacquin saw o n e species near Carthagena in A m e r i c a . * This is the same which w e m e t with again in M e x i c o , near Z u m p a n g o , on the r o a d from A c a p u l c o t o the capital.† A n o t h e r species, which g r o w s o n the m o u n tains o f Coromandel,† has been described b y R o x b u r g h ; the third and fourth § g r o w in the southern hemisphere, o n the coasts o f Australia.

A f t e r getting out o f t h e bath, while, half-wrapped in a sheet, w e were drying ourselves in the sun, a c c o r d i n g t o the custom o f the c o u n t r y , a little man o f the mulatto race approached us. A f t e r b o w i n g gravely, h e made us a l o n g speech on the virtues o f the waters o f Mariara, adverting t o the numbers o f invalids b y w h o m they have b e e n visited for some years past, and t o the favourable situation o f t h e springs, b e t w e e n the t w o t o w n s Valencia and Caracas.

He * The Gyrocarpus Jacquini of Gärtner, or Gyrocarpus americanus o f Willdenow. † The natives of Mexico called it quitlacoctli.

I saw some of its young leaves with three and five lobes; the full-grown leaves are in the form of a heart, and always with three lobes. W e never met with the volador in flower. † This is the Gyrocarpus asiaticus of Willdenow. § Gyrocarpus •sphenopterus, and G. rugosus.

26

PUNTA

ZAMURO.

s h o w e d us his house, a little hut covered with palm-leaves, situated in an enclosure at a small distance, o n the bank o f a rivulet, c o m m u n i c a t i n g with the bath. H e assured us that w e should there find all the c o n v e n i e n c e s o f l i f e ; nails t o suspend o u r h a m m o c k s , ox-leather t o stretch over benches made o f reeds, earthern vases always filled with c o o l water, and what, after the bath, w o u l d be m o s t salutary o f all, those great lizards ( i g u a n a s ) , the flesh o f which is k n o w n t o b e a refreshing aliment. W e j u d g e d from his harangue, that this g o o d man t o o k u s for invalids, w h o had c o m e to stay near the spring. H i s counsels and oilers o f hospitality were n o t altogether disinterested. H e styled h i m s e l f ‘ t h e inspector o f the waters, and the pulpero* o f the place.’

A c c o r d i n g l y all his obliging attentions to us ceased as soon as he heard that w e had c o m e merely t o satisfy o u r curio s i t y ; o r as t h e y express it in the Spanish colonies, those lands o f idleness, para ver, no mas, ‘ t o see, and n o t h i n g more.’

T h e waters o f Mariara are used with success in rheumatic swellings, and affections o f the skin. A s the waters are b u t very feebly impregnated with sulphuretted h y d r o g e n , it is necessary t o bathe at the spot where the springs issue. F a r t h e r o n , these same waters are e m p l o y e d for the irrigation o f fields o f i n d i g o . A wealthy landed proprietor o f Mariara, H o n H o m i n g o T o v a r , had formed the project o f erecting a bathing-house, and an establishm e n t which w o u l d furnish visitors with better resources than lizard's flesh for f o o d , and leather stretched o n a bench for their repose.

O n the 21st o f F e b r u a r y , in the evening, w e set o u t from the beautiful H a c i e n d a de Cura for Guacara and N u e v a Valencia.

W e preferred travelling b y n i g h t , o n a c c o u n t o f the excessive heat o f the day. W e passed by the hamlet o f P u n t a Z a m u r o , at the foot o f the high mountains o f L a s Viruelas. T h e road is b o r d e r e d with large zamang-trees, o r mimosas, the t r u n k s o f which rise to sixty feet high.

Their branches, nearly horizontal, m e e t at m o r e than o n e hundred and fifty feet distance.

I have n o w h e r e seen a vault o f verdure m o r e beautiful and luxuriant. T h e night was g l o o m y : the Rincon del D i a b l o with its denticulated r o c k s appeared from time t o time at a distance, illumined •

P r o p r i e t o r o f a pulperia, or little s h o p where r e f r e s h m e n t s are s o l d .

SUGAR-CANE

PLANTATION.

27

b y the b u r n i n g o f t b e savannahs, o r wrapped in r u d d y smoke. A t the spot where the bushes w e r e thickest, o u r horses were frightened b y the yell o f an animal that seemed to follow us closely. I t was a large j a g u a r , which had roamed for three years a m o n g these m o u n t a i n s . H e had constantly escaped the pursuits o f the b o l d e s t hunters, and had carried off horses and mules from t h e midst o f e n c l o sures ; b u t , having n o want o f food, had n o t v e t attacked men.

T h e n e g r o w h o c o n d u c t e d u s uttered wild cries, expecting b y these means t o frighten t h e t i g e r ; b u t his efforts were ineffectual. T h e jaguar, like the w o l f o f E u r o p e , follows travellers even w h e n he will n o t attack t h e m ; t h e w o l f in the open fields and in unsheltered places, the j a g u a r skirting the road and appearing only at intervals b e t w e e n the bushes.

W e passed the day o n the 2 3 r d i n t h e h o u s e o f the Marquis do T o r o , at the village o f Guacara, a very c o n siderable Indian c o m m u n i t y . A n avenue o f carolineas leads from Guacara t o M o c u n d o .

I t was the first t i m e I had seen in the o p e n air this majestic plant, which forms o n e of the principal ornaments o f the extensive conservatories M o c u n d o is a rich plantation o f sugarof Schönbrunn.* canes, b e l o n g i n g t o t h e family o f T o r o . W e there find, what is so rare in that c o u n t r y , a garden, artificial c l u m p s o f trees, and o n the b o r d e r of t h e water, u p o n a rock o f gneiss, a pavilion with a mirador, o r belvidere. T h e view is delightful over the western part o f the lake, t h e s u r r o u n d ing mountains, and a forest o f palm-trees that separates Guacara from the city o f N u e v a Valencia. T h e fields o f sugar-cane, from the soft verdure o f t h e y o u n g reeds, r e semble a vast m e a d o w . E v e r y t h i n g denotes a b u n d a n c e ; but it is at the price o f the liberty o f t h e cultivators.

At M o c u n d o , with t w o hundred and thirty n e g r o e s , seventyseven tablones, o r cane-fields, are cultivated, each o f w h i c h , ten thousand varas square,† yields a net profit o f t w o * Every tree of the Carolinea princeps at Schönbrunn lias seeds collected from one single tree of enormous size, near of Caracas. † A tablon, equal to 1849 square toises, contains nearly one-fifth : a legal acre has 1314 square toises, and 1 95 legal to one hectare.

sprung from Chacao, east an acre and acre is equal

28

CULTIVATION

OF THE CANE.

hundred o r t w o hundred and forty piastres a-year. T h e creole cane and the cane o f O t a h e i t e * are planted in the m o n t h o f A p r i l , t h e first at four, t h e second at five feet distance. T h e cane ripens in fourteen m o n t h s . I t flowers in t h e m o n t h o f O c t o b e r , if t h e plant h e sufficiently v i g o rous ; b u t t h e t o p is c u t off before t h e panicle unfolds.

I n all the m o n o c o t y l e d o n o u s plants ( f o r example, t h e m a g u e y cultivated at M e x i c o f o r extracting pulque, the w i n e yielding palm-tree, and the s u g a r - c a n e ) , t h e flowering alters the quality o f the j u i c e s .

T h e preparation o f sugar, t h e boiling, and the claying, are very imperfect in Terra Firma, because it is m a d e only f o r home c o n s u m p t i o n ; and f o r wholesale, papelon is preferred t o sugar, either refined o r raw. This papelon is an impure sugar, in t h e form o f little loaves, o f a y e l l o w - b r o w n colour. I t contains a mixture o f molasses and mucilaginous matter. T h e poorest m a n eats papelon, as in E u r o p e he eats cheese. I t is believed t o have nutritive qualities.

F e r m e n t e d with water it yields t h e guarapo, t h e favourite beverage o f the people. I n t h e p r o vince o f Caracas subcarbonate o f potash is used, instead o f lime, t o purify t h e j u i c e o f the sugar-cane. T h e ashes o f the bucare, which is the Erytlirina corallodendrum, arc p r e ferred.

T h e sugar-cane was introduced very late, probably towards the e n d o f t h e sixteenth century, from the W e s t I n d i a Islands, into the valleys o f A ragua. I t was k n o w n in India, in China, and in all t h e islands o f t h e Pacific, from t h e m o s t remote antiquity; and it was planted at Khorassan, in Persia, aS early as the fifth century o f o u r era, in order t o obtain from it solid sugar.†T h e Arabs carried this reed, so useful to the inhabitants o f hot and temperate countries, t o t h e shores o f the Mediterranean.

I n 1 3 0 6 , its cultivation was y e t u n k n o w n in Sicily; but was already c o m m o n in t h e island o f C y p r u s , at Rhodes, and in t h e M o r e a .

A hundred years after it enriched Calabria, Sicily, and t h e coasts o f Spain. F r o m Sicily t h e Infante D o n Henry trans* In the island of Palma, where in the latitude of 29° the sugar-cane is said to be cultivated as high as 140 toises above the level of the Atlantic, the Otaheite cane requires more heat than the Creole cane. †The Indian name for the sugar-cane is s h a r k a r a . Thence the word sugar.

MANUFACTURE OF SUGAR.

29

planted the cane t o M a d e i r a : from M a d e i r a it passed t o the Canary Islands, where it was entirely u n k n o w n ; for the ‘ ferulaæ o f J u b a , ‘ quæ expressæ liquorem fundunt p o t u i u c u n d u m , ’ are euphorbias ( t h e Tabayba d u l c e ) , and n o t , as has been recently asserted,* sugar-canes. T w e l v e sugarmanufactories ( i n g e n i o s de azucar) w e r e s o o n established in the island o f G r e a t Canary, in that o f Talma, and b e t w e e n A d e x e , I c o d , and Guarachico, in the island o f Teneriffe.

N e g r o e s were e m p l o y e d in this cultivation, and their d e scendants still inhabit the g r o t t o s o f Tiraxana, in t h e G r e a t Canary.

Since the sugar-cane has been transplanted t o t h e W e s t I n d i e s , and the N e w World has given maize to the Canaries, the cultivation o f the latter has taken t h e place o f the cane at Teneriffe and the G r e a t Canary.

The cane is n o w found only in the island o f Talma, near Argual and T a z a c o r t e , t where it yields scarcely o n e thousand q u i n tals o f sugar a year. T h e sugar-cane o f t h e Canaries, which A i g u i l o n transported t o St. D o m i n g o , was there cultivated extensively as early as 1 5 1 3 , o r d u r i n g the six o r seven following years, u n d e r the auspices o f the m o n k s o f St. J e r o m e . N e g r o e s w e r e e m p l o y e d in this cultivation from its c o m m e n c e m e n t ; and in 1 5 1 9 representations w e r e made t o g o v e r n m e n t , as in o u r o w n time, that the W e s t I n d i a Islands w o u l d b e ruined and made desert, if slaves w e r e n o t c o n v e y e d thither annually from the coast o f Guinea.

F o r some years past the culture and preparation o f sugar has b e e n m u c h improved in Terra F i r m a ; and, as the p r o cess o f refining is prohibited b y the laws at Jamaica, they reckon on the fraudulent exportation o f refined sugar t o the English colonies. B u t the c o n s u m p t i o n o f the p r o vinces o f Venezuela, in papelon, and in raw sugar e m p l o y e d in making chocolate and sweetmeats ( d u l c e s ) is so e n o r m o u s , that the exportation has been hitherto entirely null.

T h e finest plantations o f sugar are in the valleys o f A r a g u a and o f the T u y , near Pao de Zarate, b e t w e e n L a V i c t o r i a On the origin of cane-sugar, in the Journal de Pharmacie, 1816, p. 387. The Tabayba dulce is, according to Von Buch, the Euphorbia balsamifera, the juice of which is neither corrosive nor bitter like that of the cardon, or Euphorbia canariensis. † “ Notice sur la Culture du Sucre dans les Isles Canariennes,” by Leopold von Buch.

30

EMPLOYMENT OF CAMELS.

and San Sebastian, near Guatire, Guarenas, and Caurimare.

T h e first canes arrived in the N e w W o r l d from the Canary I s l a n d s ; and even n o w Canarians, o r Isle単os, are placed at the head o f m o s t o f the great plantations, and superintend the labours o f cultivation and refining.

I t is this c o n n e x i o n b e t w e e n the Canarians and t h e inhabitants o f V e n e z u e l a , that has given rise t o the int r o d u c t i o n o f camels into those provinces. T h e M a r q u i s del T o r o caused three t o be b r o u g h t from L a n c e r o t e .

The expense o f c o n v e y a n c e was very considerable, o w i n g t o t h e space which these animals o c c u p y o n board merchant-vessels, and the great quantity o f water t h e y require d u r i n g a l o n g sea-voyage.

A camel, b o u g h t for thirty piastres, costs b e t w e e n eight and nine h u n d r e d before it reaches the coast o f Caracas. W e saw f o u r o f these animals at M o c u n d o ; three o f which had b e e n b r e d in A m e r i c a . T w o others had died o f the bite o f the coral, a v e n o m o u s serpent v e r y c o m m o n o n t h e banks o f t h e lake. T h e s e camels have hitherto been e m p l o y e d only in the c o n v e y a n c e o f the sugarcanes t o the mill.

The males, s t r o n g e r than the females, carry from forty t o fifty arrobas. A wealthy landholder in the province o f Varinas, e n c o u r a g e d by the example o f the M a r q u i s del T o r o , has allotted a sum o f 15,000 piastres for the p u r p o s e o f b r i n g i n g fourteen o r fifteen camels at o n c e from the Canary I s l a n d s . I t is presumed these beasts o f b u r d e n may b e e m p l o y e d in the c o n v e y a n c e o f merchandise across the b u r n i n g plains o f Casanare, from t h e A pure and Calabozo, which in the season o f d r o u g h t resemble t h e deserts o f A f r i c a .

H o w advantageous it w o u l d have b e e n had the Conquistadores, from the beginning o f the sixteenth c e n t u r y , p e o p l e d A m e r i c a with camels, as they have peopled it with h o r n e d cattle, horses, and mules. W h e r e v e r there are immense distances to cross in uninhabited l a n d s ; w h e r e ever the c o n s t r u c t i o n o f canals b e c o m e s difficult (as in the isthmus o f Panama, on the table-land o f M e x i c o , and in the deserts that separate the kingdom o f Q u i t o from P e r u , and P e r u from C h i l e ) , camels w o u l d b e o f t h e highest i m p o r t ance, t o facilitate inland c o m m e r c e .

I t seems the m o r e surprising, that their introduction was n o t e n c o u r a g e d b y the g o v e r n m e n t at the b e g i n n i n g o f the conquest, as, l o n g after the taking o f Grenada, camels, for which the M o o r s

OPPOSITION TO THEIR USE.

31

had a great predilection, w e r e still very c o m m o n in t h e south o f Spain. A Biscayan, J u a n de Reinaga, carried s o m e o f these animals at his own expense t o P e r u .

Father A costa saw t h e m at the f o o t o f t h e A n d e s , about the e n d o f the sixteenth c e n t u r y ; b u t little care b e i n g taken o f t h e m , t h e y scarcely ever bred, and the race soon b e c a m e extinct. I n those times o f oppression and cruelty, w h i c h have been described as the era o f Spanish g l o r y , the c o m mendataries ( e n c o m e n d e r o s ) let o u t the Indians to travellers like beasts o f burden.

T h e y were assembled b y h u n dreds, either t o carry merchandise across the Cordilleras, o r to follow t h e armies in their expeditions o f discovery and pillage. T h e Indians endured this service m o r e patiently, because, o w i n g t o the almost total want o f domestic animals, they had l o n g been constrained t o perform it, t h o u g h in a less inhuman manner, under the g o v e r n m e n t o f their o w n chiefs.

T h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f camels a t t e m p t e d b y J u a n de K e i n a g a spread an alarm a m o n g t h e encomenderos, w h o were, not by law, b u t in fact, lords o f t h e I n d i a n villages. T h e c o u r t listened t o the complaints o f the e n c o m e n d e r o s ; a n d in c o n s e q u e n c e A m e r i c a was deprived o f o n e o f the means which would have m o s t facilitated inland c o m m u n i c a t i o n , and t h e e x c h a n g e o f p r o d u c t i o n s .

Now, however, there is n o reason w h y the i n t r o d u c t i o n o f camels should n o t b e a t t e m p t e d as a general measure.

Some hundreds o f these useful animals, spread o v e r the vast surface o f A m e r i c a , in h o t a n d barren places, w o u l d in a few years have a powerful influence on the public prosperity.

Provinces separated b y steppes w o u l d t h e n appear t o b e b r o u g h t nearer t o each o t h e r ; several kinds o f inland m e r chandize w o u l d diminish in price o n the c o a s t ; a n d b y i n creasing the n u m b e r o f camels, above all t h e species called hedjin, o r ' t h e ship o f t h e desert,' a n e w life w o u l d b e given to the industry and c o m m e r c e o f the N e w W o r l d .

O n the evening o f the 2 2 n d w e c o n t i n u e d o u r j o u r n e y from M o c u n d o b y L o s G u a y o s t o the city o f N u e v a V a l e n c i a .

W e passed a little forest o f palm-trees, which resembled, b y their appearance, and their leaves spread like a fan, t h e ChamĂŚrops humilis o f the coast o f B a r b a r y . T h e t r u n k , h o w e v e r , rises t o t w e n t y - f o u r and sometimes thirty feet

32

THE SOMBRERO

PALM.

high.

I t is p r o b a b l y a n e w species o f t h e g e n u s c o r y p h a ; and is called in t h e c o u n t r y palma de sombrero, the footstalks o f t h e leaves b e i n g employed in weaving hats r e s e m b l i n g o u r straw hats.

This grove o f palm-trees, t h e withered foliage o f which rustles at t h e least breath o f a i r — t h e camels feeding in t h e p l a i n — t h e undulating m o t i o n o f t h e vapours o n a soil scorched b y t h e ardour o f the sun, give t h e landscape an A f r i c a n aspect. T h e aridity o f the land augm e n t s as the traveller approaches t h e t o w n , after passing the western extremity o f the lake. I t is a clayey soil, which has been levelled a n d a b a n d o n e d b y t h e waters. T h e n e i g h b o u r i n g hills, called L o s M o r r o s de V a l e n c i a , are c o m p o s e d o f white tufa, a very r e c e n t limestone formation, i m m e diately covering t h e gneiss. I t is again f o u n d at Victoria, and o n several o t h e r points along t h e chain o f t h e coast.

T h e whiteness o f this tufa, which reflects t h e rays o f t h e sun, c o n t r i b u t e s greatly t o t h e excessive heat felt in this place.

E v e r y t h i n g seems smitten with sterility; scarcely are a few plants o f cacao f o u n d o n the banks o f t h e Rio de V a l e n c i a ; t h e rest o f t h e plain is bare, a n d destitute o f vegetation.

This appearance o f sterility is here attributed, as it is everywhere in the valleys o f A r a g u a , to t h e cultivation o f i n d i g o ; which, according to the planters, is, o f all plants, that which most exhausts (cansa) t h e g r o u n d .

T h e real physical causes o f this p h e n o m e n o n would he an interesting inquiry, since, like the effects o f fallowing land, and o f a rotation o f c r o p s , it is far from b e i n g sufficiently understood.

I shall o n l y observe in general, that t h e complaints o f t h e increasing sterility o f cultivated land b e c o m e m o r e frequent b e t w e e n t h e tropics, in p r o p o r t i o n as t h e y are near the period o f their first b r e a k i n g - u p .

I n a r e g i o n almost destitute o f herbs, where every plant has a ligneous stem, and tends t o raise itself as a shrub, the virgin soil remains shaded either by great trees, o r b y b u s h e s ; a n d u n d e r this tufted shade it preserves everywhere coolness a n d humidity.

However active the vegetation o f the tropics may appear, t h e n u m b e r o f roots that penetrate into t h e earth, is n o t so great in an uncultivated soil ; while the plants are nearer t o each other in lands subjected t o cultivation, and c o v e r e d with indigo, sugar-canes, o r cassava. T h e trees and shrubs, loaded with

NUEVA

33

VALENCIA.

branches and leaves, draw a great part o f their n o u r i s h m e n t from the ambient a i r ; and the virgin soil a u g m e n t s its fertility b y the d e c o m p o s i t i o n o f the vegetable substances which progressively accumulate. I t is n o t so in the fields covered with indigo, o r other herbaceous p l a n t s ; where the rays o f the sun penetrate freely into the earth, and b y the accelerated c o m b u s t i o n o f the hydrurets o f carbon and other acidifiable principles, destroy the germs o f fecundity. T h e s e effects strike the imagination o f the planters the more forcibly, as in lands newly inhabited t h e y compare the fertility o f a soil which has b e e n abandoned t o itself during t h o u sands o f years, with the p r o d u c e o f p l o u g h e d fields. T h e Spanish colonies o n the continent, and the great islands o f P o r t o - R i c o and C u b a , possess remarkable advantages with respect t o the p r o d u c e o f agriculture over the lesser W e s t I n d i a Islands. T h e former, from their extent, the variety o f their scenery, and their small relative population, still bear all the characters o f a n e w s o d ; while at B a r b a d o e s , T o b a g o , St. Lucia, t h e V i r g i n Islands, and the F r e n c h part o f St. D o m i n g o , it may be perceived that l o n g cultivation has b e g u n t o exhaust the soil. I f in the valleys o f A r a g u a , instead o f abandoning the indigo g r o u n d s , and leaving t h e m fallow, they w e r e covered during several years, n o t w i t h c o r n , b u t with other alimentary plants and f o r a g e ; if a m o n g these plants such as b e l o n g t o different families w e r e p r e ferred, and which shade the soil b y their large leaves, t h e amelioration o f the fields would b e gradually accomplished, and they would be restored t o a part o f their former fertdity.

T h e city o f N u e v a V a l e n c i a occupies a considerable extent o f g r o u n d , b u t its population scarcely amounts t o six o r seven thousand souls.

T h e streets are very broad, the market place, (plaza mayor,) is o f vast dimensions; and, the houses being low, the disproportion b e t w e e n the p o p u l a t i o n o f the t o w n , and the space that it o c c u p i e s , is still greater than at Caracas.

M a n y o f t h e whites, (especially the p o o r e s t , ) forsake their houses, and live the greater part o f the year in their little plantations o f indigo and c o t t o n , where they can venture t o w o r k with their o w n h a n d s ; which, according t o the inveterate prejudices of that c o u n t r y , would be a disgrace t o them in the t o w n .

VOL.

II.

D

34

RAVAGES OF THE TERMITES.

N u e v a Valencia, founded in 1555 u n d e r the g o v e r n m e n t of Villacinda, b y A l o n z o Diaz M o r e n o , is twelve years older than Caracas. V a l e n c i a was at first only a d e p e n d e n c y of B u r b u r a t a ; b u t this latter t o w n is n o t h i n g n o w b u t a place of embarkation for mules.

I t is regretted, and perhaps j u s t l y , that V a l e n c i a has n o t b e c o m e the capital o f the country.

I t s situation in a plain, o n the banks o f a lake, recalls t o m i n d the position of M e x i c o . W h e n w e reflect o n t h e easy c o m m u n i c a t i o n afforded b y t h e valleys o f A r a g u a with the L l a n o s and the rivers that flow into the O r i n o c o ; w h e n w e recognize the possibility o f o p e n i n g an inland navigation, b y the Rio P a o and the Portuguesa, as far as the m o u t h s o f the O r i n o c o , the Cassiquiare, and the A m a z o n , it may b e conceived that the capital o f the vast provinces of V e n e z u e l a w o u l d have b e e n b e t t e r placed near the fine harbour o f P o r t o Cabello, beneath a pure and serene sky, than near the unsheltered road o f L a Guayra, in a t e m perate b u t constantly f o g g y valley. N e a r the k i n g d o m of N e w Grenada, and situate b e t w e e n the fertile corn-lands of L a V i c t o r i a and Barquesimeto, t h e city o f Valencia o u g h t t o have p r o s p e r e d ; b u t , notwithstanding these advantages, it has b e e n unable to maintain tho contest with Caracas.

O n l y those w h o have seen the myriads o f ants, that infest t h e countries within the torrid zone, can form an idea o f t h e destruction and the sinking o f the g r o u n d occasioned b y these insects. T h e y a b o u n d t o such a degree on the site o f Valencia, that their excavations resemble subterranean canals, which are filled with water in the time o f the rains, a n d b e c o m e very dangerous t o the buildings. H e r e recourse has n o t b e e n had t o tho extraordinary means e m p l o y e d at t h e b e g i n n i n g o f the sixteenth century in the island o f St. D o m i n g o , when troops o f ants ravaged the fine plains o f L a V e g a , and the rich possessions o f the order o f St. Francis.

T h e m o n k s , after having in vain b u r n t the larvĂŚ o f the ants, and had recouse t o fumigations, advised the inhabitants t o c h o o s e by lot a saint, w h o would act as a mediator against tho plague o f tho a n t s . * T h e h o n o u r o f the choice fell o n St. Saturnin; and tho ants disappeared as soon as the first festival o f this saint was celebrated.

I n c r e d u l i t y has made great progress since the time o f the c o n q u e s t ; and it was * Un abogado contra los harmigos.

35

LOPEZ DE AGUIRRE.

only on the b a c k o f the Cordilleras that I f o u n d a small chapel, destined, according t o its inscription, for prayers t o be addressed t o H e a v e n for the destruction o f the termites.

V a l e n c i a affords s o m e historical r e m e m b r a n c e s ; b u t these, like everything c o n n e c t e d with the colonies, have n o r e m o t e date, and recall t o m i n d either civil discords o r sanguinary conflicts with the savages. L o p e z de A g u i r r e , whose crimes and adventures form some o f the m o s t dramatic episodes o f t h e history o f the conquest, p r o c e e d e d in 1 5 6 1 , from P e r u , b y the river A m a z o n t o the island o f M a r g a r e t a ; and t h e n c e , b y the p o r t o f Burburata, into the valleys o f A r a g u a .

O n his entrance into V a l e n c i a , which p r o u d l y entitles itself the C i t y o f the K i n g , ' he proclaimed the independance o f t h e c o u n t r y , and the deposition o f Philip I I .

T h e inhabitants withdrew t o the islands o f the lake o f Tacarigua, taking with them all the boats from the shore, t o be m o r e secure in their retreat. I n c o n s e q u e n c e o f this stratagem, A g u i r r e c o u l d exercise his cruelties o n l y on his o w n p e o p l e .

P r o m V a l e n c i a he addressed to the k i n g o f Spain, a remarkable letter, in which he boasts alternately o f his crimes and his p i e t y ; at the same t i m e giving advice t o t h e k i n g on the g o v e r n m e n t o f the colonies, and the system o f missions.

S u r r o u n d e d b y savage Indians, navigating on a great sea o f fresh water, as he calls the A m a z o n , he is alarmed at t h e heresies o f M a r t i n L u t h e r , and the increasing influence o f schismatics in E u r o p e . * L o p e z de A g u i r r e , o r as he is still •

The

following

are

some

remarkable

passages

in

the

letter

from

A g u i r r e to the k i n g o f S p a i n . "

King

Philip,

native o f

Spain,

son

of Charles

the

Invincible!

I,

L o p e z d e A g u i r r e , thy vassal, an o l d C h r i s t i a n , o f p o o r b u t n o b l e p a r e n t s , a n d a native of the t o w n o f O n a t e in B i s c a y , p a s s e d over y o u n g to P e r u , t o l a b o u r l a n c e in h a n d .

India.

I f o u g h t for

I rendered thee great services in the c o n q u e s t o f t h y g l o r y , w i t h o u t d e m a n d i n g p a y o f t h y officers, as

is p r o v e d b y the b o o k s o f t h y treasury.

I firmly believe, C h r i s t i a n K i n g

a n d L o r d , that, v e r y ungrateful t o m e a n d m y c o m p a n i o n s , all t h o s e w h o w r i t e to thee from this land [ A m e r i c a ] , deceive t h e e m u c h , seest things from t o o far off. the

good

weary

vassals

o f the

whom

because

thou

hast

in

this

country:

for

I

and

mine,

cruelties and injustice w h i c h t h y v i c e r o y s , t h y g o v e r n o r s ,

a n d t h y j u d g e s , exercise in t h y n a m e , are resolved t o o b e y thee n o W e regard ourselves no longer as S p a n i a r d s . give places to

more.

W e w a g e a cruel war against

t h e e , b e c a u s e w e w i l l n o t endure the o p p r e s s i o n to

thou

I r e c o m m e n d t o thee t o b e m o r e j u s t t o w a r d

o f thy m i n i s t e r s ;

who,

their n e p h e w s and their children, dispose o f o u r l i v e s ,

D

2

36

LOPEZ

DE

AGUIRRE.

called b y the c o m m o n p e o p l e , ' t h e T y r a n t , ' was killed at Barquesimeto, after having been abandoned b y his o w n m e n .

A t the m o m e n t w h e n he fell, he p l u n g e d a dagger into the b o s o m o f his o n l y daughter, " t h a t she might n o t have to our reputation, and our fortune.

I am lame in the left foot from two shots of an arquebuss, which I received in the valley of Coquimbo, fighting under the orders of thy marshal, Alonzo de Alvarado, against Francis Hernandez Giron, then a rebel, as I am at present, and shall be always; for since thy viceroy, the Marquis de Ca単ete, a cowardly, a m bitious, and effeminate man, has hanged our most valiant warriors, 1 care no more for thy pardon than for the books of Martin Luther.

It is not well in thee, King of Spain, to be ungrateful toward thy vassals; for it, was whilst thy father, the emperor Charles, remained quietly in Castile, that they procured for thee so many kingdoms and vast countries.

Remember, King Philip, that thou hast no right to draw revenues from these provinces, the conquest of which has been without danger to thee, but inasmuch as thou recompensest those who have rendered thee such great services. I am certain that few kings go to heaven. Therefore we regard ourselves as very happy to be here in the Indies, preserving in all their purity the commandments of God, and of the Roman Church; and we intend, though sinners during life, to become one day martyrs to the glory of God. On going out of the river Amazon, we landed in an island called La Margareta.

We there received news from Spain of the great faction and machination (maquina) of the Lutherans. This news alarmed us extremely ; we found among us one of that faction ; his name was Monteverde. I had him cut to pieces, as was just: for, believe me, Se単ior, wherever I am, people live according to the law. But the corruption of morals among the monks is so great in this land that it is necessary to chastise it severely. There is not an ecclesiastic here who does not think himself higher than the governor of a province. I beg of thee, great King, not to believe what the monks tell thee down yonder in Spain. They are always talking of the sacrifices they make, as well as of the hard and bitter life they arc forced to lead in America: while they occupy the richest lands, and the Indians hunt and fish for them every day. If they shed tears before thy throne, it is that thou mayest send them hither to govern provinces. Dost thou know what sort of life they lead here ? Given up to luxury, acquiring possessions, selling the sacraments, being at once ambitious, violent, and gluttonous ; such is the life they lead in America. The faith of the Indians suffer by such bad examples. If thou dost not change all this, O King of Spain, thy government will not be stable. " What a misfortune that the Emperor, thy father, should have conquered Germany at such a price, and spent, on that conquest, the money we procured for him in these very Indies!

In the year 1559 the Marquis de Ca単ete sent to the Amazon, Pedro de Ursua, a Navarrese, or rather a Frenchman : we sailed on the largest rivers of Peru till we came to a gulf of fresh water. W e had already gone three hundred leagues

INCURSION

OF THE

CARIBS.

37

blush before the Spaniards at the n a m e o f the daughter o f a traitor."

The soul of the tyrant ( s u c h is the belief o f the natives) wanders in the savannahs, like a flame that flies the approach o f m e n . * T h e second historical event c o n n e c t e d with the name o f V a l e n c i a is the great incursion made b y the Caribs o f t h e O r i n o c o in 1578 and 1 5 8 0 . T h a t cannibal h o r d e w e n t up the banks o f the G u a r i c o , crossing the plains o r llanos.

T h e y were happily repulsed b y the valour o f G a r c i a G o n zales, one o f the captains whose names are still most revered in those provinces. I t is gratifying t o recollect, that t h e descendants o f those very Caribs n o w live in the missions as peaceable husbandmen, and that n o savage nation o f G u i a n a dares t o cross the plains which separate t h e region o f the forests from that o f cultivated land. T h e Cordillera o f the coast is intersected b y several ravines, very uniformly directed from south-east t o north-west. This p h e n o m e n o n is general from the Quebrada o f T o c u m e , b e t w e e n Petares a n d Caracas, as far as P o r t o Cabello. I t w o u l d seem as if t h e impulsion had everywhere c o m e from t h e south-east; and this fact is t h e m o r e striking, as the strata o f gneiss and when we killed that bad and ambitious captain. W e chose a caballero of Seville, Fernando de Guzman, for king : and we swore fealty to him, as is done to thyself. I was named quarter-master-general: and because I did not consent to all he willed, he wanted to kill me. But I killed this new king, the captain of his guards, his lieutenant-general, his chaplain, a woman, a knight of the order of Rhodes, two ensigns, and five or six domestics of the pretended king.

I then resolved to punish thy ministers and thy auditors (counsellors of the audiencia). I named captains and sergeants : these again wanted to kill me, but I had them all hanged.

In the midst of these adventures we navigated for eleven months, till w e reached the mouth of the river. W e sailed more than fifteen hundred leagues. God knows how we got through that great mass of water. I advise thee, O great King, never to send Spanish fleets into that accursed river.

God preserve thee in his holy keeping."

This letter was given by Aguirre to the vicar of the island of Margareta, Pedro de Contreras, in order to be transmitted to King Philip I I .

Fray Pedro Simon, Provincial of the Franciscans in New Grenada, saw several manuscript copies of it both in America and in Spain. It was printed, for the first time, in 1723, in the History of the Province of Venezuela, by Oviedo, vol. i, p. 206. Complaints no less violent, o n the conduct of the monks of the 16th century, were addressed directly to the pope by the Milanese traveller, Girolamo Benzoni. * S e e vol. i, p. 164.

38

HOT

SPRINGS

OF LA

TRINCHERA.

mica-slate in the Cordillera o f the coast are generally didirected from t h e south-west t o t h e north-east. M o s t o f these ravines penetrate into the mountains at their southern declivity, w i t h o u t crossing t h e m entirely.

B u t there is an o p e n i n g (abra) o n the meridian o f N u e v a Valencia, which leads towards the coast, and b y which a c o o l i n g sea-breeze penetrates every evening into the valleys o f A r a g u a .

This breeze rises regularly t w o o r three hours after sunset.

B y this abra, the farm o f Barbula, and an eastern branch o f tho ravine, a n e w road is b e i n g c o n s t r u c t e d from V a lencia t o P o r t o Cabello. I t will be so short, that it will require only four hours t o reach t h e p o r t ; and the traveller will be able t o g o and return in the same day from the coast t o t h e valleys o f A r a g u a . I n o r d e r t o examine this road, w e set o u t o n the 2Gth o f F e b r u a r y in the evening for the farm o f Barbula.

O n the m o r n i n g o f the 2 7 t h w e visited the hot springs o f L a Trinchera, three leagues from Valencia. T h e ravine is very large, and the descent almost continual from the banks o f the lake t o the sea-coast. L a Trinchera takes its n a m e from some fortifications o f earth, t h r o w n u p in 1677 b y the F r e n c h buccaneers, w h o sacked the t o w n o f Valencia.

The hot springs (and this is a remarkable geological fact,) do n o t issue on the south side o f the mountains, like those o f M a riara, O n o t o , and the B r i g a n t i n e ; but they issue f r o m the chain itself, almost at its northern declivity. T h e y are m u c h m o r e abundant than any we had till then seen, forming a rivulet which, in times o f tho greatest d r o u g h t , is t w o feet deep and eighteen w i d e . T h e temperature o f t h e water, measured with great care, was 9 0 ' 3 째 o f t h e centigrade therm o m e t e r . N e x t to the springs o f U r i j i n o , in Japan, which are asserted t o b e p u r e water at 100째 o f temperature, t h e waters o f the Trinchera o f P o r t o Cabello appear t o be the hottest in the w o r l d .

W e breakfasted near the s p r i n g ; e g g s p l u n g e d into the water were boiled in less than four m i n u t e s . T h e s e waters, strongly charged with sulphuretted hydrogen, gush o u t from the back o f a hill rising o n e h u n dred and fifty feet above the b o t t o m o f tho ravine, and t e n d ing from south-south-east t o north-north-west.

The rock from which the springs g u s h , is a real coarse-grained granite, resembling that o f the Rincon del D i a b l o , in the mountains

VEGETATION OF THE BASIN.

39

o f Mariara. W h e r e v e r the waters evaporate in t h e air, t h e y form sediments and incrustations o f carbonate o f lime; p o s sibly they traverse strata o f primitive limestone, so c o m m o n in the mica-slate and gneiss o f the coasts o f Caracas.

We were surprised at the luxuriant vegetation that surrounds the basin; mimosas with slender pinnate leaves, clusias, and fig-trees, have pushed their roots into the b o t t o m o f a p o o l , the temperature o f which is 85째 ; and the branches o f these trees extended over the surface o f the water, at t w o o r three inches distance. T h e foliage o f the mimosas, though c o n stantly enveloped in the hot vapours, displayed the m o s t beautiful verdure. A n arum, with a w o o d y stem, and with largo sagittate leaves, rose in the very middle o f a p o o l the temperature o f which was 70째.

Plants o f the same species vegetate in other parts o f those mountains at the brink o f torrents, the temperature o f which is n o t 18째. W h a t is still more singular, forty feet distant from the point w h e n c e the springs gush out at a temperature o f 9 0 째 , other springs are f o u n d perfectly cold. T h e y all follow for s o m e time a parallel direction; and the natives showed us that, b y d i g g i n g a hole b e t w e e n the t w o rivulets, t h e y could p r o c u r e a bath o f any given temperature they pleased. I t seems remarkable, that in the hottest as well as the coldest climates, people display t h e same predilection for heat. O n the introduction o f Christianity into Iceland, the inhabitants would be baptized o n l y in the hot springs o f H e c l a : and in the torrid z o n e , in the plains, as well as on the Cordilleras, the natives flock from all parts to the thermal waters. T h e sick, w h o c o m e t o L a Trinchera t o use vapour-baths, form a sort o f framew o r k over the spring with branches o f trees and very slender reeds. T h e y stretch themselves naked o n this frame, which appeared to me to possess little strength, and to b e dangerous o f access. T h e Rio de A g u a s Calientes runs towards t h e north-east, and becomes, near the coast, a considerable river, swarming with great crocodiles, and c o n t r i b u t i n g , b y its inundations, t o the insalubrity o f the shore.

W e descended towards P o r t o Cabello, having constantly the river o f hot water o n o u r right. T h e road is e x t r e m e l y picturesque, and the waters roll d o w n o n the shelves o f r o c k . W e might have fancied we were gazing o n the cascades o f t h e Reuss, that flows d o w n M o u n t St. G o t h a r d ;

40

GEOLOGICAL

PHENOMENON.

but what a contrast in the vigour and richness o f the v e g e tation ! T h e white trunks o f the cecropia rise majestically amid bignonias and melastomas. T h e y do n o t disappear till w e are within a hundred toises above the level o f the ocean.

A small t h o r n y palm-tree extends also to this l i m i t ; the slender pinnate leaves of which look as if they had b e e n curled t o w a r d the e d g e s . This tree is yery c o m m o n in these m o u n t a i n s ; but n o t having seen either its fruit o r its llowers, we are ignorant whether it b e the piritu palm-tree o f t h e Caribbees, or t h e C o c o s aculeata o f Jacquin.

T h e r o c k o n this road presents a geological p h e n o m e n o n , the more remarkable as the existence o f real stratified granite has long b e e n disputed.

Between La Trinchera and t h e H a t o de C a m b u r y a coarse-grained granite appears, which, from the disposition o f the spangles o f mica, collected in small g r o u p s , scarcely admits o f c o n f o u n d i n g with gneiss, o r with rocks o f a schistose texture. This granite, divided into ledges o f t w o o r three feet thick, is directed 52째 n o r t h east, and slopes t o the north-west regularly at an angle of from 30째 or 40째. T h e feldspar, crystallized in prisms with four unequal sides, about an inch long, passes through every variety o f tint from a flesh-red t o yellowish white.

The mica, united in hexagonal plates, is black, and sometimes g r e e n . T h e quartz predominates in the m a s s ; and is g e nerally o f a milky white. 1 observed neither hornblende, black schorl, n o r rutile titanite, in this granite.

In s o m e ledges w e recognised r o u n d masses, o f a blackish gray, very quartzose, and almost destitute o f mica.

They are from one to t w o inches d i a m e t e r ; and are found in every zone, in all granite mountains. T h e s e are n o t i m bedded fragments, as at Greiffenstein in Saxony, but a g g r e gations o f particles which seem to have been subjected t o partial attractions. I could not follow the line o f j u n c t i o n o f the gneiss and granitic formations. According t o angles taken in the valleys o f Aragua, the gneiss appears t o descend below the granite, which must consequently be o f a more recent formation.

T h e appearance o f a stratified granite excited my attention the more, because, having had the direction o f the mines o f Fichtelberg in F r a n c o n i a for several years. I was accustomed to see granites divided into ledges o f three o r four feet thick, but little inclined, and

FORDS

OF THE GUAYGUAZA.

41

forming masses like towers, o r o l d ruins, at the summit o f the highest m o u n t a i n s . * T h e heat became stifling as w e approached the coast.

A reddish vapour veiled t h e horizon. I t was near sunset, a n d the breeze was n o t y e t stirring.

W e rested in t h e lonely farms k n o w n under the names o f the H a t o de C a m b u r y and ' t h e H o u s e o f the Canarian' (Casa del I s l e ñ o ) . T h e river o f hot water, along the banks o f which we passed, became deeper.

A crocodile, more than nine feet l o n g , lay dead o n t h e strand. W e wished t o examine its teeth, and the inside o f its m o u t h ; b u t having been e x p o s e d t o t h e s u n f o r several weeks, it exhaled a smell s o fetid that w e were obliged t o relinquish o u r design a n d r e m o u n t o u r horses. W h e n w e arrived at the level o f the sea, the road turned eastward, and crossed a barren shore a league and a half broad, resembling that o f Cumana. W e there found some scattered cactuses, a sesuvium, a f e w plants o f C o c c o l o b a uvifera, and along the coast some avicennias and mangroves. W e forded the G u a y guaza and t h e Rio Estevan, which, b y their frequent overflowing, form great pools o f stagnant water. Small rocks o f meandrites, madrepores, and other corals, either ramilied o r with a rounded surface, rise in this vast p l a i n ; and seem t o attest t h e recent retreat o f t h e sea. B u t these masses, which are t h e habitations o f p o l y p i , are o n l yfragmentai m b e d d e d in a breccia with a calcareous c e m e n t . I say a breccia, because w e must n o t c o n f o u n d the fresh and white corallites o f this very r e c e n t littoral formation, with t h e corallites blended in t h e mass o f transition-rocks, g r a u w a c k e , a n d black limestone. W e were astonished t o find in this uninhabited spot a large Parkinsonia aculeata loaded with flowers. O u r botanical works indicate this t r e e as peculiar t o the N e w W o r l d ; but during five years w e saw i t o n l y twice in a wild state, o n c e i n t h e plains o f t h e B i o Guayguaza, and o n c e i n the llanos o f Cumana, thirty leagues * At Ochsenkopf, at Rudolphstein. at Epprechtstein, at Luxburg, and at Schneeberg. The dip of the strata of these granites of Fichtelberg is generally only from 6° to 10°, rarely (at Scheeberg) 18°. According to the dips I observed in the neighbouring strata of gneiss and mica-slate, I should think that the granite of Fiehtelberg is very ancient, and serves as a basis for other formations ; but the strata of grünstein, and the disseminated tin-ore which it contains, may lead us to doubt its great a n tiquity, from the analogy of the granites of Saxony containing tin.

42

ARRIVAL AT PORTO CABELLO.

from the coast, near la Villa del P a o , b u t there was reason t o believe that this latter place had o n c e b e e n a conuco, o r cultivated enclosure. Everywhere else o n the c o n t i n e n t o f A m e r i c a w e saw the Parkinsonia, like the Plumeria, only in the gardens o f the Indians.

A t P o r t o Cabello, as at L a G u a y r a , it is disputed whether t h e p o r t lies east or west o f the t o w n , with which the c o m munications are the most frequent. T h e inhabitants believe that P o r t o Cabello is north-north-west o f N u e v a V a l e n c i a ; and m y observations give a longitude o f three o r four minutes m o r e towards the west.

W e were received with the utmost kindness in the house o f a French physician, M . Juliac, w h o had studied medicine at M o n t p e l i e r . His small house contained a collection o f t h i n g s the m o s t various, b u t which w e r e all calculated t o interest travellers.

W e found works o f literature and natural h i s t o r y ; n o t e s o n m e t e o r o l o g y ; skins o f the jaguar and o f large aquatic s e r p e n t s ; live animals, m o n k e y s , armadilloes, and birds. O u r host was principal surgeon to t h e royal hospital o f P o r t o Cabello, and was celebrated in t h e c o u n t r y for his skilful treatment o f t h e y e l l o w fever.

D u r i n g a period o f seven years he had seen six o r eight thousand persons enter the hospitals, attacked b y this cruel malady. H e had observed the ravages that the e p i d e m i c caused in Admiral Ariztizabal's fleet, in 1793.

That fleet lost nearly a third o f its m e n ; for the sailors w e r e almost all unseasoned E u r o p e a n s , and held unrestrained intercourse with the shore. M . Juliac had heretofore treated t h e sick as was c o m m o n l y practised in Terra Firma, and in t h e island, by bleeding, aperient medicines, and acid drinks.

I n this treatment n o a t t e m p t was made t o raise the vital p o w e r s b y the action o f stimulants, so that, in attempting t o allay t h e fever, the l a n g u o r and debility were a u g m e n t e d .

I n the hospitals, where t h e sick were c r o w d e d , the mortality was often thirty-three per cent, a m o n g the white C r e o l e s ; and sixty-five in a hundred a m o n g the Europeans recently disembarked. Since a stimulant treatment, the use o f o p i u m , o f benzoin, and o f alcoholic draughts, has been substituted for the o l d debilitating m e t h o d , t h e mortality has c o n siderably diminished.

I t was believed t o bo r e d u c e d t o t w e n t y in a hundred a m o n g E u r o p e a n s , and ten a m o n g

43

RAVAGES OF EPIDEMICS.

Creoles ;* even when black vomiting, and hĂŚmorrhage from the nose, ears, and gums, indicated a high degree of exacerbation in the malady. I relate faithfully what was then given as the general result of observation: but I think, in these numerical comparisons, it must not be forgotten, that, notwithstanding appearances, the epidemics of several successive years do not resemble each other; and that, in order to decide on the use of fortifying or debilitating remedies, (if indeed this difference exist in an absolute sense,) we must distinguish between the various periods ofthemalady.

The climate of Porto Cabello is less ardent than that of La Guayra. The breeze there is stronger, more frequent, and more regular. The houses do not lean against rocks that absorb the rays of the sun during the day, and emit caloric at night, and. the air can circulate more freely between the coast and the mountains of llaria. The causes of the insalubrity of the atmospere must be sought in the shores that extend to the east, as far as the eye can reach, towards the Punta de Tucasos, near the fine port of Chichiribiche.

There are situated the salt-works; and there, at the beginning of the rainy season, tertian fevers prevail, and easily degenerate into asthenic fevers. It is affirmed that the mestizoes who are employed in the salt-works are more tawny, and have a yellower skin, when they have suffered several successive years from those fevers, which are called 'the malady of the coast.' The poor fishermen, who dwell on this shore, are of opinion that it is not the inundations of the sea, and the retreat of the salt-water, which render the lands covered with mangroves so unhealthful ;f they •

I have treated in another w o r k o f the proportions o f mortality in t h e

y e l l o w fever.

( N o u v e l l e E s p a g n e , v o l . ii, p .

777,

785,

and

C a d i z the average mortality w a s , in 1 8 0 0 , twenty per c e n t ; 1801, not

it a m o u n t e d

exceed

attended.

twelve

t o sixty or

per c e n t .

At

A t V e r a C r u z the m o r t a l i t y d o e s be

properly

In the civil hospitals of Paris the n u m b e r o f d e a t h s ,

o n e year

with a n o t h e r , is f r o m that a great n u m b e r

fifteen

867.)

at Seville, in

per cent,

when

t h e sick

can

fourteen t o eighteen p e r c e n t . ; b u t it is asserted o f patients enter the hospitals a l m o s t d y i n g , or at a

very advanced t i m e of life. â€

I n the W e s t

d u r i n g the wintry Bouth w i n d s .

India I s l a n d s season,

all t h e

have been

dreadful

maladies

which

prevail

for a l o n g t i m e attributed

to

the

T h e s e winds c o n v e y t h e e m a n a t i o n s o f t h e m o u t h s

of

the

O r i n o c o and o f the small rivers of T e r r a F i r m a toward the h i g h latitudes.

44

THE

SALT-WORKS.

believe that the insalubrity o f the air is o w i n g t o the fresh water, that is, to the overflowings o f the G u a y g u a z a and E s t e van, the swell o f which is so great and sudden in the m o n t h s o f O c t o b e r and N o v e m b e r .

T h e banks o f the R i o Estevan have b e e n less insalubrious since little plantations o f maize and plantains have been established; and, b y raising and hardening the g r o u n d , the river has been confined within narrower limits. A plan is formed o f giving another issue t o the R i o San Estevan, and thus t o render the environs o f P o r t o Cabello m o r e w h o l e s o m e .

A canal is t o lead t h e waters toward that part o f the coast which is opposite the island o f Guayguaza.

T h e salt-works o f P o r t o Cabello somewhat resemble those o f the peninsula o f Araya, near Cumana.

T h e earth, h o w ever, which they lixivate b y collecting the rain-water into small basins, contains less salt. I t is questioned here, as at Cumana, whether the g r o u n d b e impregnated with saline particles because it has b e e n for ages covered at intervals with sea-water evaporated b y t h e heat o f the sun, o r w h e t h e r the soil be muriatiferous, as in a mine very p o o r in native salt. I had not leisure t o examine this plain with t h e same attention as the peninsula o f A r a y a .

Besides, d o e s n o t this p r o b l e m reduce itself t o the simple question, w h e t h e r the salt be o w i n g t o n e w o r very ancient inundat i o n s ? T h e labouring at the salt-works o f P o r t o Cabello b e i n g extremely unhealthy, the poorest m e n alone e n g a g e in it. T h e y collect the salt in little stores, and afterwards sell it t o the shopkeepers in the t o w n .

D u r i n g o u r a b o d e at P o r t o Cabello, the current o n tho coast, generally directed towards the west,* ran from west t o east.

This upward c u r r e n t (corriente p o r arriba), is very frequent during t w o o r three m o n t h s o f the year, from September to November.

I t is believed t o b e o w i n g t o s o m e n o r t h - w e s t winds that have blown b e t w e e n Jamaica and Cape St. A n t o n y in the island o f C u b a . * The wrecks of the Spanish ships, burnt at the island of Trinidad, at the time of its occupation by the English in 1797, were carried by the general or rotary current to Punta Brava, near Porto Cabello. This general current toward the east, from the coasts of Paria to the isthmus o f Panama and the western extremity of the island of Cuba, was the subject of a violent dispute between Don Diego Columbus, Oviedo, and the pilot Andres, in the sixteenth century.

COAST-DEFERENCES.

45

T h e military defence o f t h e coasts o f Terra Firma rests o n six p o i n t s : the castle o f San A n t o n i o at C u m a n a ; the M o r r o o f N u e v a B a r c e l o n a ; the fortifications o f L a Guayra, ( m o u n t i n g o n e h u n d r e d and thirty-four g u n s ) ; P o r t o C a b e l l o ; fort San Carlos, (at the m o u t h o f the lake o f M a r a c a y b o ) ; and Carchagena.

P o r t o Cabello is, n e x t to Carthagena, the m o s t important fortified place. T h e t o w n o f P o r t o Cabello is quite modern, and the p o r t is one o f t h e finest in the world.

A r t has had scarcely a n y thing to add t o the advantages which the nature o f the spot presents. A n e c k o f land stretches first towards the north, and then towards the west. I t s western e x t r e m i t y is opposite to a range o f islands c o n n e c t e d b y bridges, and so close together that they m i g h t b e taken for another n e c k o f land.

These islands are all c o m p o s e d o f a calcareous breccia o f extremely r e c e n t formation, and analagous t o that o n the coast o f Cumana, and near the castle o f A r a y a .

I t is a c o n g l o m e r a t e , containing fragments o f madrepores and other corals c e m e n t e d b y a limestone basis and grains o f sand. W e had already seen this c o n g l o m e r a t e near the R i o Guayguaza.

B y a singular disposition o f the g r o u n d t h e p o r t resembles a basin or a little inland lake, the southern extremity o f which is filled with little islands c o v e r e d with mangroves. T h e o p e n i n g o f the p o r t towards the w e s t contributes much t o the smoothness o f the water.* One vessel only can enter at a time ; b u t the largest ships o f the line can anchor very near land t o take in water.

T h e r e is n o other danger in entering the harbour than the reefs o f P u n t a Brava, opposite which a battery o f eight g u n s has b e e n erected. T o w a r d s the west and south-west w e see t h e fort, which is a regular p e n t a g o n with five bastions, t h e battery o f the reef, and the fortifications that surround the ancient t o w n , founded o n an island o f a trapezoidal form.

A bridge and the fortified gate o f t h e Staccado j o i n the old t o the n e w t o w n ; t h e latter is already larger than the * It is disputed at Porto Cabello whether the port takes its name from the tranquillity of its waters, " which would not move a hair (cabello)," or (which is more probable) derived from Antonio Cabello, one of the fishermen with whom the smugglers of Curaรงoa had formed a connexion at the period when the first hamlet was constructed on this half desert coast

46

POPULATION OF PORTO CABELLO.

former, t h o u g h considered only as its suburb. T h e b o t t o m o f the basin o r lake which forms the harbour o f P o r t o Cabello, turns behind this suburb t o the south-west. I t is a marshy g r o u n d filled with noisome and stagnant water.

T h e t o w n , which has at present nearly nine thousand inhabitants, o w e s its origin to an illicit c o m m e r c e , attracted t o these shores b y the proximity o f t h e t o w n o f Burburata, which was founded in 1549. I t is only since the administration o f the Biscayans, and o f the c o m p a n y o f G u i p u z c o a , that P o r t o Cabello, which was b u t a hamlet, has been c o n v e r t e d into a well-fortified t o w n .

T h e vessels o f L a G u a y r a , which is less a p o r t than a bad o p e n roadstead, c o m e to P o r t o Cabello to be caulked and repaired.

T h e real defence o f the harbour consists in the l o w batteries o n the n e c k o f land at P u n t a Brava, and on the r e e f ; b u t from ignorance o f this principle, a n e w fort, the M i r a dor o f S o l a n o * has been constructed at a great expense, o n t h e mountains c o m m a n d i n g the suburb towards the south.

M o r e than ten thousand mules are annually exported from P o r t o Cabello. I t is curious e n o u g h to see these animals e m b a r k e d ; they are t h r o w n d o w n with ropes, and then hoisted on board the vessels by means o f a machine r e s e m bling a crane. Ranged in t w o files, the mules with difficulty keep their footing during the rolling and pitching o f the ship; and in order t o frighten and render t h e m m o r e docile, a drum is beaten during a great part o f the day and night.

W e may guess what quiet a passenger enjoys, w h o has the c o u r a g e to embark for Jamaica in a schooner laden with mules.

W e left P o r t o Cabello o n t h e first o f M a r c h , at sunrise.

W o saw with surprise the great n u m b e r o f boats that were laden with fruit t o b e sold at the market. I t reminded m e o f a fine m o r n i n g at V e n i c e . T h e t o w n presents in general, o n the side towards the sea, a cheerful and agreeable aspect.

M o u n t a i n s c o v e r e d with vegetation, and c r o w n e d with peaks called L a s Tetas de Ilaria, which, from their outline w o u l d be taken for rocks o f a trap-formation, form the b a c k g r o u n d o f the landscape.

N e a r the coast all is bare, white, and strongly illumined, while the screen o f mountains * The Mirador is situate eastward of the Vigia Alts, and south-east of the battery of the salt-works and the powder-mill.

THE PALO BE VACA, OR COW-TREE.

47

is clothed with trees of thick foliage that project their vast shadows upon the brown and rocky ground. On going out of the town we visited an aqueduct that had been just finished. It is five thousand varas long, and conveys the waters of the Rio Estevan by a trench to the town. This work has cost more than thirty thousand piastres; but its waters gush out in every street.

W e returned from Porto Cabello to the valleys of Aragua, and stopped at the Farm of Barbula, near which, a new road to Valencia is in the course of construction. AVe had heard, several weeks before, of a tree, the sap of which is a nourishing milk. It is called 'the cow-tree' ; and we were assured that the negroes of the farm, who drink plentifully of this vegetable milk, consider it a wholesome aliment.

All the milky juices of plants being acrid, bitter, and more or less poisonous, this account appeared to us very extraordinary ; but we found by experience during our stay at Barbula, that the virtues of this tree had not been exaggerated. This fine tree rises like the broad-leaved starapple.* Its oblong and pointed leaves, rough and alternate, are marked by lateral ribs, prominent at the lower surface, and parallel. Some of them are ten inches long. W e did not see the flower: the fruit is somewhat fleshy, and contains one and sometimes two nuts. When incisions are made in the trunk of this tree, it yields abundance of a glutinous milk, tolerably thick, devoid of all acridity, and of an agreeable and balmy smell. It was offered to us in the shell of a calabash. W e drank considerable quantities of it in the evening before we went to bed, and very early in the morning, without feeling the least injurious effect.

The viscosity of this milk alone renders it a little disagreeable. The negroes and the free people who work in the plantations drink it, dipping into it their bread of maize or cassava. The overseer of the farm told us that the negroes grow sensibly fatter during the season when the palo de vaca furnishes them with most milk. This juice, exposed to the air, presents at its surface (perhaps in consequence of the absorption of the atmospheric oxygen) membranes of a strongly annualized substance, yellowish, stringy, and resembling cheese. These membranes, separated from the rest of * Chrysophyllum ca誰nito.

48

MILK OF THE COW-TREE.

the m o r e aqueous liquid, are elastic, almost like caoutchouc; b u t t h e y undergo, in time, t h e same p h e n o m e n a o f p u t r e T h e people call the c o a g u l u m that faction as gelatine. separates b y the contact o f t h e air, cheese. This c o a g u l u m g r o w s sour in the space o f five o r six days, as I observed in t h e small portions which I carried t o N u e v a Valencia. The milk contained in a s t o p p e d phial, had deposited a little c o a g u l u m ; and, far from b e c o m i n g fetid, it exhaled c o n stantly a balsamic o d o u r .

T h e fresh j u i c e m i x e d with c o l d water was scarcely coagulated at a l l ; b u t o n t h e contact o f nitric acid the separation o f t h e viscous membranes t o o k place. W e sent t w o bottles o f this milk t o M . F o u r c r o y at P a r i s : in o n e it was in its natural state, and in the other, m i x e d with a certain quantity o f carbonate o f soda. The F r e n c h consul residing in t h e island o f St. T h o m a s , undertook t o convey them t o him.

T h e extraordinary tree o f which w e have b e e n speaking appears t o be peculiar t o t h e Cordillera o f the coast, particularly from Barbula t o the lake o f M a r a c a y b o .

Some s t o c k s o f it exist near t h e village o f San M a t e o ; and, a c c o r d i n g t o M . B r e d e m e y e r , whose travels have so m u c h enriched the fine conservatories o f S c h ö n b r u n n and V i e n n a , in the valley o f Caucagua, three days j o u r n e y east o f Caracas.

T h i s naturalist found, like u s , that the vegetable milk o f the palo de vaca had an agreeable taste and an aromatic smell.

A t Caucagua, t h e natives call t h e tree that furnishes this nourishing j u i c e , ' t h e m i l k - t r e e ' (arbol del l e c h e ) .

They profess t o recognize, from t h e thickness and c o l o u r o f t h e foliage, the t r u n k s that yield the m o s t j u i c e ; as the herdsman distinguishes, from external signs, a good milch-cow.

N o botanist has hitherto k n o w n t h e existence o f this plant.

I t seems, according t o M . K u n t h , t o b e l o n g t o t h e sapota family. L o n g after m y return t o E u r o p e , I f o u n d in t h e D e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e East Indies b y L a e t , a D u t c h traveller, a passage that seems t o have s o m e relation t o t h e c o w - t r e e . " T h e r e exist t r e e s . " says Laet,* "in the province o f C u " Inter arbores quæ sponte hic passim nascuntur, memorantur a scriptoribus Hispanis quædam quæ lacteum quemdam liquorem fundunt, qui durus admodum evadit instar gummi, et suavem odorem de se fundit; aliæquaæliquorem quemdam edunt, instar lactis coagulati, qui in cibis ab ipsis usurpatur sine noxa."

(Among the trees growing here, it is re-

49

BENEFICENCE OF NATURE.

m a t a , t h e sap o f which m u c h resembles curdled milk, and affords a salubrious n o u r i s h m e n t . " A m i d s t the great n u m b e r o f curious p h e n o m e n a which I have observed i n t h e course o f m y travels, I confess there are few that have made so powerful an impression o n m e as t h e aspect o f t h e c o w - t r e e . W h a t e v e r relates t o milk o r t o c o r n , inspires an interest w h i c h is n o t merely that o f the physical k n o w l e d g e o f things, b u t is c o n n e c t e d with another order o f ideas a n d sentiments. W e can scarcely c o n c e i v e h o w t h e h u m a n race c o u l d exist w i t h o u t farinac e o u s substances, and without that nourishing j u i c e which t h e breast o f t h e m o t h e r contains, a n d which is a p p r o priated t o t h e l o n g feebleness o f t h e infant.

T h e amylaceous matter o f corn, t h e object o f religious veneration a m o n g so m a n y nations, ancient and m o d e r n , is diffused i n t h e seeds, and deposited i n t h e r o o t s o f v e g e t a b l e s ; milk, which serves as a n aliment, appears t o u s exclusively t h e p r o d u c e o f animal organization.

Such are the impressions w e have received in o u r earliest i n f a n c y : such is also t h e source o f that astonishment created b y the aspect o f t h e tree j u s t described. I t is n o t here t h e solemn shades o f forests, t h e majestic course o f rivers, t h e mountains w r a p p e d in eternal s n o w , that excite o u r e m o t i o n . A f e w drops o f vegetable j u i c e recall t o o u r minds all the p o w e r fulness a n d t h e fecundity o f nature.

O n the barren flank o f a r o c k g r o w s a tree with coriaceous and dry leaves. I t s large w o o d y r o o t s c a n scarcely penetrate into t h e stone.

F o r several m o n t h s o f the year n o t a single shower moistens its foliage. I t s branches appear dead a n d d r i e d ; b u t w h e n the trunk is pierced there flows from it a sweet and nourishi n g milk. I t is at the rising o f t h e s u n that this vegetable fountain is m o s t abundant. T h e n e g r o e s a n d natives are then seen hastening from all quarters, furnished with large b o w l s t o receive the milk, which g r o w s yellow, and thickens at i t s surface. Some e m p t y their b o w l s u n d e r t h e t r e e itself, others carry the juice h o m e t o their children. marked by Spanish writers that there are some which pour out a milky juice which soon grows solid, like gum, affording a pleasant odour ; and also others that give out a liquid which coagulates like cheese, and which they eat at meals without any ill effects). Descriptio lndiarum Occidentalium, lib. 18.

VOL. I I .

E

50

ALIMENTARY

PROPERTIES OF TREES.

I n examining t h e physical properties o f animal and v e g e table p r o d u c t s , science displays t h e m as closely linked t o g e t h e r ; b u t it strips t h e m o f w h a t is marvellous, and perhaps, therefore, o f a part o f their charms.

Nothing appears i s o l a t e d ; the chemical principles that w e r e believed t o be peculiar t o animals are f o u n d in p l a n t s ; a c o m m o n chain links together all organic nature.

L o n g before chemists had r e c o g n i z e d small portions o f wax in the pollen o f flowers, the varnish o f leaves, and t h e whitish dust o f o u r p l u m s and grapes, t h e inhabitants o f tho A n d e s o f Q u i n d i u made tapers with the thick layer o f wax that covers the trunk o f a p a l m - t r e e . * I t is b u t a f e w years since w e discovered, in E u r o p e , caseum, the basis o f cheese, in t h e emulsion o f a l m o n d s ; y e t for ages past, in the mountains o f the c o a s t of V e n e z u e l a , the milk of a free, and the cheese separated from that vegetable milk, have b e e n considered as a salutary aliment. H o w are w e t o a c c o u n t for this singular courso in the d e v e l o p m e n t o f k n o w l e d g e ? H o w have the unlearned inhabitants o f o n e hemisphere b e c o m e cognizant of a fact, w h i c h , in the other, so l o n g escaped t h e sagacity o f the scientific ? I t is because a s m a l l n u m b e r o f elements a n d principles differently c o m bined are spread t h r o u g h several families o f p l a n t s ; it is because t h e g e n e r a and species o f these natural families are n o t equally distributed i n the torrid, the frigid, and t h o temperate z o n e s ; it is that tribes, e x c i t e d b y w a n t , and deriving almost all their subsistence f r o m the vegetable k i n g d o m , discover nutritive principles, farinaceous and alimentary substances, w h e r e v e r nature has deposited t h e m in the s a p , the bark, tho r o o t s , o r t h o fruits o f vegetables.

T h a t amylaceous fecula which the seeds o f t h e cereal plants furnish in all its purity, is f o u n d united with an acrid and sometimes even p o i s o n o u s juice, in t h e r o o t s o f t h e arums, the T a c c a pinnatifida, and the Jatropha manihot.

The savage o f A m e r i c a , like tho savage o f t h e S o u t h Sea i s l a n d s , has learned t o dulcify the fecula, b y pressing and s e p a r a t i n g it from its j u i c e . I n t h e milk o f plants, and in the m i l k y emulsions, m a t t e r extremely nourishing, albumen, caseum, and sugar, are f o u n d m i x e d with c a o u t c h o u c and with d e l e t e r i o u s and c a u s t i c p r i n c i p l e s . such as morphine * Coroxylon andicola.

MILK-PRODUCING

51

PLANTS.

and h y d r o c y a n i c acid.* T h e s e mixtures vary n o t o n l y in t h e different families, b u t also in the species which b e l o n g t o the same g e n u s . Sometimes it is morphine or the narc o t i c principle, that characterises t h e vegetable milk, as in s o m e papaverous p l a n t s ; sometimes it is c a o u t c h o u c , as in t h e hevea and the castilloa; sometimes albumen and caseum, as in the c o w - t r e e .

T h e lactescent plants b e l o n g chiefly t o t h e three families o f the euphorbiaceæ, the urticeae, and the apocineæ †. Since, o n examining the distribution o f vegetable forms over t h e g l o b e , w e find that those three families are m o r e n u m e rous in species in the l o w r e g i o n s o f t h e t r o p i c s , w e m u s t t h e n c e c o n c l u d e , that a very elevated temperature c o n t r i b u t e s t o the elaboration o f the milky juices, t o the formation o f c a o u t c h o u c , albumen, and caseous matter. T h e sap of the palo Je vaca furnishes unquestionably the m o s t striking example o f a vegetable milk in which the acrid and d e leterious principle is n o t united with albumen, caseum, a n d c a o u t c h o u c : t h e genera euphorbia and asclepias, h o w ever, t h o u g h generally k n o w n for their caustic properties, already present u s with a f e w species, t h e j u i c e o f which is sweet and harmless. Such are the T a b a y b a dulce o f t h e Canary Islands, which we have already m e n t i o n e d , and t h e A s c l e p i a s lactifera o f C e y l o n . B u r m a n relates that, in t h e latter c o u n t r y , w h e n c o w ' s milk is wanting, the milk o f this asclepias is u s e d ; and that the aliments c o m m o n l y p r e pared with animal milk are boiled with its leaves. I t may b e possible, as D e c a n d o l l e has well observed, that t h e natives e m p l o y o n l y the j u i c o that flows from t h e y o u n g

l

plant, at a p e r i o d w h e n t h e acrid principle is n o t y e t d e v e oped. I n fact, t h e first shoots o f the a p o c y n e o u s plants are eaten in several countries. * Opium contains morphine, caoutchouc, &c. † After these three great families follow the papaveraceæ, the chicoraceæ, the lobeliaceæ, the campanulaceæ, the sapoteæ, and the cucurbitacere. The hydrocyanic acid is peculiar to the group of rosaceo-amygdalaceæ. In the monocotyledonous plants there is no milky juice ; but the perisperm of the palms, which yields such sweet and agreeable milky emulsions, contains, no doubt, caseum. Of what nature is the milk of mushrooms ? ‡ Euphorbia balsamifera. The milky juice of the Cactus mamillaris is equally sweet.

E

2

52

ANALYSIS OF VEGETABLE I

MILK.

have endeavoured b y these comparisons

to

bring

into

consideration, u n d e r a m o r e general point of view, the milky juices that circulate in vegetables ; and the milky emulsions that t h e fruits of the amygdalaceous plants and p a l m s yield.

I m a y be permitted to add the result which

I

attempted

papaya during I

was then

h a s been

my

to

make

stay in

almost

on

of some

the juice

the valleys of

destitute

of

experiments

of

the

Carica

Aragua,

chemical tests.

though

T h e juice

since e x a m i n e d b y V a u q u e l i n , a n d this c e l e b r a t e d

c h e m i s t has very clearly recognized the a l b u m e n a n d c a s e o u s matter;

h e c o m p a r e s t h e m i l k y sap t o a s u b s t a n c e s t r o n g l y

annualized, were

to

confined

the

blood

fœtid smell, formed to

France.

of

animals;

to a fermented

He

juice

during the

has

but

and

passage

expressed

a wish

his

researches

a coagulum

of

a

from t h e M a u r i t i u s that

some

traveller

w o u l d e x a m i n e t h e m i l k o f t h e p a p a w - t r e e j u s t as it f l o w s from t h e s t e m or t h e fruit.

T h e y o u n g e r t h e fruit o f t h e carica, yields: In

it

the

more

milk

it

in t h e g e r m e n scarcely f e c u n d a t e d .

i s even f o u n d

proportion a s t h e fruit r i p e n s , t h e milk b e c o m e s less a b u n -

d a n t , and m o r e a q u e o u s .

Less of that animal matter which

is c o a g u l a b l e b y acids a n d b y t h e oxygen, is found might matter

As

in it.

be s u p p o s e d

absorption

of

atmospheric

t h e w h o l e fruit is v i s c o u s , *

t h a t , as it g r o w s larger, t h e

is d e p o s e d i n t h e o r g a n s , a n d f o r m s

p u l p , or t h e fleshy

substance.

When

a part of

nitric

it

coagulable

acid,

the

diluted

w i t h four parts o f w a t e r , is a d d e d d r o p b y d r o p t o t h e

milk

e x p r e s s e d from a very y o u n g fruit, a very extraordinary

phe-

n o m e n o n appears.

A t t h e c e n t r e o f each drop a

pellicle is formed, divided by greyish s t r e a k s . are s i m p l y

the

juice r e n d e r e d

gelatinous

These streaks

more aqueous, owing to

the

contact of t h e acid h a v i n g d e p r i v e d it o f t h e a l b u m e n . t h e s a m e l i m e , t h e c e n t r e o f t h e pellicles a n d of t h e c o l o u r o f t h e yolk by the prolongation The palo not

de yet

caseum,

same vaca.

separated, and as

the

euphorbiaceous is

so

is

glutinous

butter

no

is

also

doubt

which and

the

it is u s e d

remarked

occasioned

forms

plant (Sapium that

they

o f d i v e r g e n t fibres.

viscosity It

o f an e g g ;

one

in by

mass

caseum

in

the the

with

amimal

catch

parrots.

whole

fresh

milk

caoutchouc, the

albumen

milk. also

At

opaque,

e n l a r g e as if

The

aucuparium), which to

becomes

liquid of

and

T h e juice

yields

the

which

is the

of

a

caoutchouc,

A N A L Y S I S

O F

V E G E T A B L E

53

M I L K .

assumes at first t h e appearance o f an agate with milkyclouds ; and it seems as if organic membranes were forming under t h e e v e o f the observer. When the coagulum extends t o t h e w h o l e mass, t h e y e l l o w spots again disappear. B y agitation it b e c o m e s granulous like soft c h e e s e . * The y e l l o w c o l o u r reappears o n adding a f e w more drops of nitric acid. T h e acid acts in this instance as t h e o x y g e n of t h e atmosphere at a temperature from 27째 t o 35째 ; for t h e white c o a g u l u m g r o w s yellow in t w o or three minutes, w h e n e x p o s e d t o the s u n . A f t e r a f e w hours t h e yellow c o l o u r turns t o b r o w n , n o d o u b t because t h e c a r b o n is set m o r e free progressively as t h e h y d r o g e n , with which it w a s c o m b i n e d , is b u r n t . T h e c o a g u l u m formed b y t h e acid b e c o m e s viscous, and acquires that smell o f wax which I have observed i n treating muscular flesh a n d m u s h r o o m s ( m o r e l s ) with nitric acid. A c c o r d i n g t o t h e fine experiments o f M r .

H a t c h e t t , t h e albumen may b e supposed t o pass partly t o t h e state of gelatine. T h e c o a g u l u m o f t h e papaw-tree, w h e n n e w l y prepared, b e i n g t h r o w n into water, softens, dissolves in part, and gives a yellowish tint t o t h e fluid. T h e milk, placed i n c o n t a c t with water o n l y , forms also m e m b r a n e s . I n an instant a tremulous jelly is precipitated, resembling starch. This p h e n o m e n o n is particularly striking if t h e w a t e r e m p l o y e d b e heated t o 4 0 째 o r 60째. T h e j e l l y c o n d e n s e s in p r o p o r t i o n as m o r e water is p o u r e d u p o n i t .

I t preserves a l o n g t i m e its whiteness, only g r o w i n g y e l l o w b y the c o n t a c t of a f e w drops o f nitric acid. G u i d e d by t h e e x p e r i m e n t s of F o u r c r o y a n d V a u q u e l i n o n t h e juice o f t h o *

T h e s u b s t a n c e w h i c h falls d o w n in g r u m o u s

and

filamentous

clots is

n o t pure c a o u t c h o u c , b u t perhaps a m i x t u r e o f this substance with c a s e u m and a l b u m e n .

A c i d s precipitate t h e c a o u t c h o u c from t h e m i l k y j u i c e o f

the euphorbiums, the

milk

fig-trees,

of animals.

A

and h e v e a ;

t h e y precipitate t h e caseum f r o m

white c o a g u l u m

was formed

in phials

closely

s t o p p e d , c o n t a i n i n g t h e m i l k o f t h e h e v e a , a n d preserved a m o n g o u r c o l lections, during our journey to the O r i n o c o .

I t is p e r h a p s

m e n t o f a vegetable acid w h i c h then furnishes T h e formation

of the coagulum of the hevea,

n e v e r t h e l e s s m u c h m o r e rapid in c o n t a c t with t h e air. atmospheric butter

oxygen

the develop-

oxygen to the albumen. o r o f real c a o u t c h o u c , is

is n o t in t h e least necessary

T h e absorption of

to the production

w h i c h exists already f o r m e d in t h e m i l k of a n i m a l s ;

of

b u t I believe

it c a n n o t b e d o u b t e d t h a t , in t h e m i l k of p l a n t s , this absorption p r o d u c e s the pellicles of c a o u t c h o u c , o f c o a g u l a t e d a l b u m e n , a n d o f c a s e u m , w h i c h are successively f o r m e d in vessels e x p o s e d t o t h e o p e n air.

54

ANIMAL

AND VEGETABLE

MILK.

hevea, I m i x e d a solution o f carbonate o f soda with the milk o f the papaw. N o c l o t is formed, even w h e n p u r e water is p o u r e d o n a mixture o f the milk with the alkaline solution. T h e membranes appear o n l y w h e n , b y adding an acid, t h e soda is neutralized, and the acid is in excess.

I made the c o a g u l u m formed b y nitric acid, t h e j u i c e o f l e m o n s , o r hot water, likewise disappear by mixing it with carbonate o f soda. T h e sap again b e c o m e s milky and liquid, as in its primitive s t a t e ; but this experiment succeeds o n l y w h e n the coagulum has been recently formed.

O n comparing the milky juices of the papaw, the c o w - t r e e , and the hevea, there appears a striking analogy between the juices which a b o u n d in caseous matter, and those in which c a o u t c h o u c prevails.

All the white and newly prepared c a o u t c h o u c , as well as the waterproof cloaks, manufactured in Spanish A m e r i c a b y placing a layer o f milk o f hevea b e t w e e n t w o pieces o f cloth, exhale an animal and nauseati n g smell. This seems to indicate that the c a o u t c h o u c , in coagulating, carries with it the caseum, which is perhaps o n l y an altered albumen.

T h e p r o d u c e o f the bread-fruit tree can n o m o r e b e considered as bread than plantains before t h e state o f maturity, o r t h e t u b e r o u s and amylaceous r o o t s o f the c a s sava, the dioscorea, the Convolvulus batatas, and the p o t a t o .

T h e milk o f the c o w - t r e e contains, o n the contrary, a caseous matter, like the milk o f mammiferous animals.

A d v a n c i n g t o m o r e general considerations, we may regard, with M . G a y - L u s s a c , the c a o u t c h o u c as the oily p a r t , — t h e b u t t e r o f vegetable milk.

W e find in the milk o f plants c a s e u m and c a o u t c h o u c ; in the milk o f animals, caseum and b u t t e r . T h e p r o p o r t i o n s o f the t w o albuminous and oily principles differ in the various species o f animals and o f lactescent plants. I n these last they are m o s t freq u e n t l y mixed with other substances hurtful as f o o d ; b u t o f which the separation might perhaps be obtained b y chemical

p

rocesses. A vegetable milk b e c o m e s nourishing when it is destitute o f acrid and narcotic p r i n c i p l e s ; and a b o u n d s less in c a o u t c h o u c than in caseous m a t t e r . * * The milk of the lactescent agarics has not been separately analysed ; it contains an acrid principle in the Agaricus piperatus ; and in other species it is sweet and harmless. The experiments of M M . Braconnot.

55

THE BUTTER TREE. Whilst and

the

t h e palo de vaca manifests t h e i m m e n s e f e c u n d i t y bounty

of

nature

r e m i n d s us o f the n u m e r o u s

in

the

torrid

zone,

it

causes w h i c h favour in

fine climates t h e careless i n d o l e n c e o f m a n .

Mungo

also those Park

has made k n o w n the b u t t e r - t r e e o f B a m b a r r a , w h i c h M . D e Candolle

s u s p e c t s t o b e o f t h e family o f sapotas, as well as

our milk-tree.

T h e plantain, the s a g o - t r e e , and t h e mauritia

o f the O r i n o c o , are as m u c h b r e a d - t r e e s as t h e rema South

Sea.

The

fruits o f t h e c r e s c e n t i a a n d t h e

o f the lecythis

serve as vessels for c o n t a i n i n g f o o d , while t h e spathes o f the p a l m s , a n d t h e bark without a scam.

of

trees, furnish

caps

and

garments

T h e k n o t s , o r rather t h e i n t e r i o r cells o f

Bouillon-Lagrange, and Vauquelin (Annales de Chimie, vol. xlvi, vol. li, vol. lxxix, vol. lxxx, vol. lxxxv, have pointed out a great quantity of albumen in the substance of the Agaricus deliciosus, an edible mushroom.

It is this albumen contained in their juice which renders them so hard when boiled. It has been proved that morels (Morchella esculenta) can be converted into sebaceous and adipocerous matter, capable of being used in the fabrication of soap. (De Candolle, sur les Propriétés médicinales des Plantes.) Saccharine matter has also been found in mushrooms by Gunther. It is in the family of the fungi, more especially in the clavariæ, phalli, helvetiæ, the merulii, and the small gymnopæ which display themselves in a few hours after a storm of rain, that organic nature produces with most rapidity the greatest variety of chemical principles — sugar, albumen, adipocire, acetate of potash, fat, ozmazome, the aromatic principles, &c.

It would be interesting to examine, besides the milk of the lactescent fungi, those species which, when cut in pieces, change their colour on the contact of atmospheric air.

Though we have referred the palo de vaca to the family of the sapotas, we have nevertheless found in it a great resemblance to some plants of the Urticeous kind, especially to the fig-tree, because of its terminal stipula; in the shape of a horn ; and to the brosimum, on account of the structure of its fruit. M . Kunth would even have preferred this last classification ; if the description of the fruit, made on the spot, and the nature of the milk, which is acrid in the urticeæ, and sweet in the sapotas, did not seem to confirm our conjecture.

Bredemeyer saw, like us, the fruit, and not the flower of the cow-tree. He asserts that he observed [some, times?] two seeds, lying one against the other, as in the alligator peartree (Laurus persea).

Perhaps this botanist had the intention of expressing tho same conformation of the nucleus that Swartz indicates in the description of the brosimum : — "nucleus bilobus aut bipartibilis." W e have mentioned the places where this remarkable tree grows : it will be easy for botanical travellers to procure the flower of the palo de vaca, and to remove the doubts which still remain, of the family to which it belongs.

56

CULTIVATION

the trunks of bamboos,

OF

COTTON.

supply ladders,

a n d facilitate

in

a

t h o u s a n d w a y s t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a h u t , a n d t h e fabrication o f chairs, b e d s , a n d o t h e r articles o f f u r n i t u r e t h a t the

wealth

of

a savage

lavish vegetation,

household.

so varied in

its

In

the

compose

midst

of

p r o d u c t i o n s , it

this

requires

v e r y p o w e r f u l m o t i v e s t o e x c i t e m a n t o l a b o u r , t o r o u s e him from his l e t h a r g y , and t o unfold his i n t e l l e c t u a l faculties.

W e

there

f o u n d , w h a t is v e r y rare i n t h a t c o u n t r y , t w o l a r g e

Cacao

and cotton

cylin-

drical

seed;

machines

a r e cultivated

for

separating

at

the

Barbula.

cotton

from

its

o n e p u t in m o t i o n by an hydraulic wheel, and t h e other a

wheel turned by mules.

had c o n s t r u c t e d He

these

w a s acquainted

machines,

with

V a l e n c i a , by t h e w a y of a n d t h e n c e by t h e

T h e overseer of the farm, the

was

road

Guanare

a native

that

and

of

leads

Merida.

from

Misagual, to

ravine of C o l l o j o n e s ,

to the

by who

Nueva

Varinas;

Paramo

do

M u c u c h i e s and t h e m o u n t a i n s of M e r i d a c o v e r e d with e t e r n a l snows.

The

going f r o m

notions

he gave us of the time requisite

V a l e n c i a by V a r i n a s

t o t h e Sierra

for

Nevada,

and

t h e n c e b y t h e port o f T o r u n o s , a n d t h e B i o S a n t o D o m i n g o , t o San can

F e r n a n d o de A pure, w e r e o f infinite v a l u e t o u s .

scarcely be i m a g i n e d

obtain

accurate

in

information

E u r o p e , how

difficult

It

it is

to

in a c o u n t r y w h e r e t h e c o m m u -

n i c a t i o n s are so r a r e ; and w h e r e d i s t a n c e s are d i m i n i s h e d o r e x a g g e r a t e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e desire t h a t m a y b e felt t o e n c o u r a g e t h e traveller,

or t o d e t e r him f r o m

r e s o l v e d t o visit t h e e a s t e r n Xew

Grenada,

where

o f T i m o t e s and

his

purpose.

t h e y lose t h e m s e l v e s

Niquitao.

I

had

extremity of t h e Cordilleras I

learned at

in t h e

Barbula,

of

paramos that this

e x c u r s i o n w o u l d r e t a r d o u r arrival at t h e O r i n o c o t h i r t y - f i v e days.

T h i s delay a p p e a r e d t o us so m u c h t h e l o n g e r , as t h o

rains w e r e e x p e c t e d t o b e g i n s o o n e r t h a n u s u a l .

W e

t h e hope o f e x a m i n i n g afterwards a great n u m b e r of tains

covered

Mexico;

with

perpetual

and it appeared to

snow,

at

Quito,

m e still m o r e

Peru,

that of ascertaining of

communication

miss the

und t h e river A m a z o n .

Barbula

to

real o b j e c t o f o u r

by a s t r o n o m i c a l between

Guacara,

the

the

Rio

take

leave

of

the

family

point

Negro,

W e r e t u r n e d in c o n s e q u e n c e to

since

journey,

observations the

Orinoco,

and

prudent t o relin-

quish o u r project of visiting t h e m o u n t a i n s o f M e r i d a , b y so d o i n g w e m i g h t

had

moun-

of

from the

CARNIVAL

SPORTS.

57

M a r q u i s del T o r o , and pass three days m o r e o n the borders of the lake.

I t was the carnival season, a n d all was gaiety.

The sports in which the p e o p l e indulge, and which are called carnes tollendas,* assume occasionally somewhat o f a savage character.

S o m e led an ass loaded with water, and, w h e r e ever t h e y f o u n d a w i n d o w o p e n , inundated the apartment within by means o f a p u m p . Others carried bags filled with hairs o f picapica ; † and blew the hair, which causes a great irritation o f the skin, i n t o the faces o f those who passed b y .

From Guacara w e returned t o N u e v a V a l e n c i a .

We found there a few F r e n c h emigrants, the o n l y o n e s w e saw during five years passed in the Spanish colonies.

Notwithstanding the ties o f b l o o d which unite the royal families of France and Spain, even F r e n c h priests w e r e n o t permitted to take refuge in that part o f t h e N e w W o r l d , where man with such facility finds food and shelter. B e y o n d the A t lantic, the U n i t e d States o f A m e r i c a afford the o n l y asylum t o misfortune. A g o v e r n m e n t , strong because it is free, c o n fiding because it is j u s t , has n o t h i n g t o fear in giving refuge to the proscribed.

W e have endeavoured above t o give s o m e n o t i o n s o f t h e state of the cultivation o f indigo, c o t t o n , and sugar, in the province of Caracas. B e f o r e w e quit the valley o f A r a g u a and its n e i g h b o u r i n g coast, it remains for us t o speak o f the cacao-plantations, which have at all times been considered as the principal source o f the prosperity o f those countries.

T h e province o f Caracas, ‡ at t h e e n d o f t h e eighteenth century, p r o d u c e d annually a hundred and fifty thousand fanegas, of which a hundred thousand were c o n s u m e d in Spain, and thirty thousand in the province. Estimating a fanega o f cacao at only twenty-five piastres for the price given at Cadiz, w e find that the total value o f the e x p o r t a tion of cacao, by the six ports o f the Capitania General of * Or "farewell to

flesh."

The word carnival has the same meaning,

these sports being always held just before the commencement of Lent. † Dolichos pruriens (cowage). † The province, not the capitania-general, consequently not including the cacao plantations of Cumana, the province of Barcelona, of Maracaybo, of Varinas, and of Spanish Guiana.

58

PREPARATION

OF CHOCOLATE.

Caracas, amounts t o f o u r million eight hundred thousand piastres. So important an o b j e c t o f c o m m e r c e merits a careful discussion ; and I flatter myself, that, from the great n u m b e r o f materials 1 have collected o n all the branches o f colonial agriculture, I shall be able to add something to the information published b y M . D e p o n s , in his valuable work o n the provinces o f V e n e z u e l a .

T h e tree which p r o d u c e s the cacao is n o t at present f o u n d w i l d in the forests o f Terra F i r m a t o the north o f the O r i n o c o ; w e b e g a n to find it only b e y o n d the cataracts o f A t u r o and M a y p u r e .

I t a b o u n d s particularly near the banks o f the V e n t u a r i , and o n the U p p e r O r i n o c o , b e t w e e n the Fadamo and the G e h e t t e .

This scarcity o f wild cacaotrees in South A m e r i c a , north o f the latitude o f 6째, is a very curious p h e n o m e n o n o f botanical g e o g r a p h y , and y e t little k n o w n . This p h e n o m e n o n appears the more surprising, as, according to the annual p r o d u c e o f the harvest, the n u m b e r o f trees in full bearing in the cacao-plantations o f Caracas, N u e v a Barcelona, Venezuela, Varinas, and M a r a c a y b o , is estimated at more than sixteen millions. T h o wild c a c a o tree has many branches, and is c o v e r e d with a tufted and dark foliage.

I t bears a very small fruit, like that variety which the ancient M e x i c a n s called tlalcacahuatl.

Transplanted into the c o n u c o s o f the Indians o f Cassiquiare and the Rio N e g r o , the wild tree preserves for several generations that force o f vegetable life, which makes it bear fruit in the fourth y e a r ; while, in the province o f Caracas, tho harvest begins only the sixth, seventh, o r eighth year.

It is later in the inland parts than on the coasts and in tho valley o f G u a p o . W e m e t with n o tribe o n the O r i n o c o that prepared a beverage with the seeds o f the cacao-tree.

T h e savages suck the pulp o f the p o d , and t h r o w away the seeds, which are often f o u n d in heaps where t h e y have passed the night. T h o u g h chorote, which is a very weak infusion o f cacao, is considered o n the coast t o b e a very ancient beverage, n o historical fact proves that chocolate, o r any preparation whatever o f c a c a o , was k n o w n t o t h o natives o f Venezuela before the arrival o f the Spaniards.

I t appears to me more probable that the cacao-plantations of Caracas were suggested by those o f M e x i c o and G u a t i m a l a ; and that the Spaniards inhabiting Terra F i r m a learned the

EARLY USE OF CHOCOLATE.

59

cultivation o f the cacao-tree, sheltered in its y o u t h b y t h e foliage o f t h e erythrina and plantain ;* the fabrication o f cakes o f chocolatl, and t h e use o f the liquid o f the same name, in course o f their c o m m u n i c a t i o n s with M e x i c o , Gruatimala, and Nicaragua.

D o w n t o t h e sixteenth c e n t u r y travellers differed i n ' o p i n i o n respecting t h e chocolatl.

B e n z o n i plainly says that it is a drink fitter for h o g s than m e n . " † T h e J e s u i t A c o s t a asserts, that " the Spaniards w h o inhabit A m e r i c a are f o n d o f chocolate t o e x c e s s ; b u t that it requires t o b e a c c u s t o m e d t o that black beverage n o t t o b e disgusted at the mere sight o f its froth, w h i c h swims o n it like yeast o n a f e r m e n t e d l i q u o r . " He adds, " the cacao is a prejudice ( u n a supersticion) o f the M e x i c a n s , as t h e c o c a is a p r e j u d i c e o f the P e r u v i a n s . " T h e s e opinions r e m i n d us o f M a d a m e de Sevigné's prediction respecting the use o f coffee.

T e m a n d o Cortez and his page, the gentilhombre del gran Conquistador, whose memoirs were published b y B a m u s i o , o n the contrary, highly praise chocolate, n o t only as an agreeable drink, t h o u g h prepared cold,‡ b u t in particular as a nutritious substance. " H e w h o has drunk o n e c u p , " says the page o f Fernando C o r t e z , " can travel a w h o l e day w i t h o u t any other f o o d , especially in very h o t c l i m a t e s ; for chocolate is b y its nature cold and r e f r e s h i n g . " W e shall n o t subscribe t o t h e latter part o f this a s s e r t i o n ; b u t w e shall s o o n have occasion, in o u r v o y a g e o n t h e O r i n o c o , and o u r excursions towards t h e summit o f the Cordilleras, t o celebrate t h e salutary properties o f c h o c o l a t e . I t is easily c o n v e y e d and readily e m p l o y e d : as an aliment it contains a large quantity o f nutritive and stimulating particles in a small compass. I t has b e e n said with truth, that in t h e East, rice, g u m , and g h e e (clarified b u t t e r ) , assist m a n in crossing the d e s e r t s ; a n d so, in t h e N e w World, c h o * This process of the Mexican cultivators, practised on the coast of Caracas, is described in the memoirs known under the title of " Relazione di certo Gentiluomo del Signor Cortez, Conquistadore del Messico."

(Ramusio, tom. ii, p. 134). † Benzoni, Istoria del Mondo Nuovo, 1572, p. 104. ‡ Father Gili has very clearly shown, from two passages in Torquemada (Monarquia Indiana, lib. xiv.) that the Mexicans prepared the infusion cold, and that the Spaniards introduced the custom of preparing chocolate by boiling water with the paste of cacao.

60

THE CACAO

HARVEST.

colate and t h e flour o f maize, have rendered accessible t o t h e traveller the table-lands o f the A n d e s , and vast u n i n habited forests.

T h e cacao harvest is e x t r e m e l y variable. T h e tree v e g e tates with such vigour that flowers spring o u t even from t h e r o o t s , wherever the earth leaves them u n c o v e r e d . I t suffers from t h e north-east winds, even when they lower the t e m perature o n l y a few degrees. T h e heavy showers that fall irregularly after the rainy season, during the winter m o n t h s , from D e c e m b e r t o M a r c h , are also very hurtful t o t h e cacao-tree. T h e proprietor o f a plantation o f fifty thousand trees often loses the value o f more than four or five t h o u sand piastres in cacao in o n e hour.

G r e a t humidity is favourable to the tree o n l y w h e n it a u g m e n t s progressively, and is for a l o n g time uninterrupted.

If, in the season o f d r o u g h t , the leaves and the y o u n g fruit be wetted b y a violent shower, the fruit falls from the s t e m ; for it appears that the vessels which absorb water break from being r e n d e r e d turgid. Besides, the cacao-harvest is o n e o f the m o s t uncertain, on account o f the fatal effects of inclement seasons, and the great n u m b e r o f w o r m s , insects, birds, and quadrupeds,* which d e v o u r the p o d o f the c a c a o - t r e e ; and this branch o f agriculture has the disadvantage o f o b l i g i n g t h e n e w planter to wait eight o r t e n years for the fruit o f his labours, and o f yielding after all an article o f v e r y difficult preservation.

T h e finest plantations o f cacao are f o u n d in the p r o v i n c e o f Caracas, along the coast, b e t w e e n Caravalleda and t h e m o u t h o f the Rio T o c u v o , in the valleys o f Caucagua, Capaya, Curiepe, and G u a p o ; and in those of Cupira, b e t w e e n cape Conare and cape U n a r e , near A r o a , B a r quesimeto, G u i g u e , and U r i t u c u .

T h e cacao that g r o w s o n the banks o f the U r i t u c u , at the entrance o f the llanos, in the jurisdiction o f San Sebastian de las Reyes, is considered t o b e o f t h e finest quality. N e x t t o the cacao o f U r i t u c u c o m e s that o f G u i g u e , o f Caucagua, o f Capaya, and o f Cupira. T h e merchants o f Cadiz assign the first rank t o the cacao o f Caracas, immediately after that of S o c o m u s c o ; and its price is generally from thirty t o forty per c e n t , higher than that o f G u a y a q u i l . * Parrots, monkeys, agoutis, squirrels, and stags.

EXPORT OF CACAO.

61

I t is o n l y since the middle o f the seventeenth c e n t u r y , w h e n the D u t c h , tranquil possessors o f the island o f Curaรงoa, awakened, b y their smuggling, the agricultural industry o f the inhabitants o f the n e i g h b o u r i n g coasts, that cacao has b e c o m e an o b j e c t o f exportation in t h e p r o v i n c e o f Caracas. W e are ignorant o f everything that passed in those countries before the establishment o f the B i s c a y C o m p a n y o f G u i p u z c o a , in 1 7 2 8 . N o precise statistical data have reached u s : w e only k n o w that t h e exportation o f cacao from Caracas scarcely a m o u n t e d , at the b e g i n n i n g o f the eighteenth century, t o thirty thousand fanegas a-year.

From 1 7 3 0 t o 1748, the c o m p a n y sent t o Spain eight h u n dred and fifty-eight thousand nine hundred and seventyeight fanegas, which make, o n an average, forty-seven t h o u sand seven hundred fanegas a-year; the price o f the fanega fell, in 1 7 3 2 , t o forty-five piastres, w h e n it had before k e p t at eighty piastres. I n 17G3 the cultivation had so m u c h a u g m e n t e d , that the exportation rose t o e i g h t y t h o u s a n d six hundred and fifty-nine fanegas.

I n an official d o c u m e n t , taken from t h e papers o f the minister o f finance, the annual p r o d u c e (la c o s e c h a ) o f the province o f Caracas is estimated at a h u n d r e d and thirtyfive thousand fanegas o f c a c a o ; thirty-three thousand o f which are for h o m e c o n s u m p t i o n , t e n thousand for other Spanish c o l o n i c s , seventy-seven thousand for t h e m o t h e r c o u n t r y , fifteen thousand for the illicit c o m m e r c e with the F r e n c h , English, D u t c h , and D a n i s h colonies. F r o m 1 7 8 9 t o 1 7 9 3 , the importation o f cacao from Caracas into Spain was, o n an average, seventy-seven thousand seven hundred and nineteen fanegas a-year, o f which sixty-five thousand seven hundred and sixty-six w e r e c o n s u m e d in t h e c o u n t r y , and eleven thousand nine hundred and fifty-three e x p o r t e d t o F r a n c e , Italy, and G e r m a n y .

T h e late wars have had m u c h m o r e fatal effects o n t h e cacao trade o f Caracas than o n that o f Guayaquil.

On a c c o u n t o f the increase o f price, less cacao o f the first quality has b e e n c o n s u m e d in E u r o p e .

I n s t e a d o f m i x i n g , as was d o n e formerly for c o m m o n chocolate, o n e quarter o f t h e cacao o f Caracas, with three-quarters o f that o f Guayaquil, t h e latter has b e e n e m p l o y e d pure in Spain. W e must here

62

EXHAUSTION OF THE SOIL.

remark, that a great deal o f cacao o f a n inferior quality, such as that o f M a r a n o n , t h e Rio N e g r o , H o n d u r a s , and the island o f St. L u c i a , bears t h e name, i n c o m m e r c e , o f Guayaquil cacao. T h e exportation from that p o r t amounts only t o sixty thousand f a n e g a s ; c o n s e q u e n t l y it is t w o thirds less than that o f t h e ports o f t h e Capitania-General o f Caracas.

T h o u g h the plantations o f cacao have a u g m e n t e d in the provinces o f Cumana, Barcelona, a n d M a r a c a y b o , i n p r o portion as they have diminished in t h e province o f Caracas, it is still believed that, in general, this ancient branch o f agricultural industry gradually declines.

I n many parts coffee and cotton-trees progressively take place o f the cacao, o f which t h e lingering harvests w e a r y the patience o f t h e cultivator.

I t is also asserted, that t h e n e w plantations o f c a c a o arc less productive than t h e o l d ; t h e trees d o n o t acquire the same vigour, and yield later and less abundant fruit. T h e soil is still said t o b e - e x h a u s t e d ; b u t probably it is rather the atmosphere that is c h a n g e d b y the progress o f clearing and cultivation. T h e air that reposes o n a virgin soil covered with forests is l o a d e d with humidity and those gaseous mixtures that serve f o r the nutriment o f plants, and arise from t h e d e c o m p o s i t i o n o f organic substances.

W h e n a c o u n t r y has been l o n g subjected t o cultivation, i t is n o t t h e p r o p o r t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e azote and o x y g e n that vary.

T h e c o n s t i t u e n t bases o f t h e atmosphere remain u n a l t e r e d ; b u t i t n o l o n g e r contains, i n a state o f suspension, those binary and ternary mixtures o f carbon, h y d r o g e n , and n i t r o g e n , which a virgin soil exhales, a n d which a r o regarded a s a source o f fecundity. The air, p u r e r and less charged with miasmata and heterogeneous emanations, b e c o m e s at the same time drier. T h e elasticity o f the vapours u n d e r g o e s a sensible diminution.

O n land l o n g cleared, and consequently little favourable t o t h e cultivation o f t h e cacao-tree (as, f o r instance, i n t h o W e s t I n d i a I s l a n d s ) , t h e fruit is almost as small as that o f t h e wild cacao-tree. I t is o n the banks o f the U p p e r O r i n o c o , after having crossed t h e Llanos, that w e find t h e true c o u n t r y o f t h e c a c a o - t r e e ; thick forests, in which, o n a virgin soil, and s u r r o u n d e d b y an atmosphere continually h u m i d , t h e trees furnish, from

A D U L T E R A T I O N

O F

C A C A O .

63

the fourth year, abundant c r o p s . W h e r e v e r t h e soil is n o t exhausted, t h e fruit has b e c o m e b y cultivation larger a n d bitter, b u t also later.

O n seeing t h e p r o d u c e o f cacao gradually diminish i n Terra F i r m a , it m a y b e inquired, whether t h e c o n s u m p t i o n will diminish in t h e same p r o p o r t i o n in Spain, Italy, a n d the rest o f E u r o p e ; o r w h e t h e r it b e n o t probable, that b y the destruction o f t h e cacao plantations, t h e price will a u g m e n t sufficiently t o rouse anew t h e industry o f t h e cultivator. This latter o p i n i o n is generally admitted b y those w h o deplore, at Caracas, the diminution o f so ancient and profitable a branch o f c o m m e r c e . I n p r o p o r t i o n as civilization extends towards t h e h u m i d forests of the i n t e rior, the banks o f t h e O r i n o c o and t h e A m a z o n , o r towards the valleys that furrow t h e eastern declivity o f t h e A n d e s , the n e w planters will find lands and an atmosphere equally favourable t o the culture o f the cacao-tree.

T h e Spaniards, in general, dislike a mixture o f vanilla with the cacao, as irritating t h e nervous s y s t e m ; t h e fruit, therefore, o f that orchideous plant is entirely n e g l e c t e d in t h e province o f Caracas, t h o u g h abundant crops o f it m i g h t b e gathered o n t h e moist and feverish coast b e t w e e n P o r t o Cabello and O c u m a r e ; especially at T u r i a m o , w h e r e t h e fruits o f t h e E p i d e n d r u m vanilla attain t h e l e n g t h o f eleven o r twelve inches. T h e English and t h e A n g l o - A m e r i c a n s often seek t o make purchases o f vanilla at t h e p o r t o f L a G u a y r a , b u t t h e merchants p r o c u r e with difficulty a very small quantity. I n t h e valleys that descend f r o m t h e chain o f the coast towards t h e Caribbean Sea, in t h e p r o v i n c e o f Truxillo, as well as in t h e M i s s i o n s o f G u i a n a , near t h e cataracts o f t h e O r i n o c o , a great quantity o f vanilla m i g h t b e c o l l e c t e d ; t h e p r o d u c e o f which w o u l d b e still m o r e abundant, if, according t o t h e practice o f t h e M e x i c a n s t h e plant w e r e disengaged, f r o m time t o time, f r o m t h e creeping plants b y which it is entwined and stifled.

T h e h o t a n d fertile valleys o f t h e Cordillera o f t h e coast o f V e n e z u e l a o c c u p y a tract o f land which, o n t h e west towards t h e lake o f M a r a c a y b o , displays a remarkable variety o f scenery. I shall exhibit in o n e view, t o close this chapter, t h e facts I have b e e n able t o c o l l e c t respecting

64

CORDILLERA OF THE

COAST.

the quality o f the soil and the metallic riches o f the districts o f A r o a , o f Barquesimeto, and o f Carora.

F r o m the Sierra N e v a d a o f M e r i d a , and the paramos o f N i q u i t a o , B o c o n o , and Las Rosas,* which contain the valuable bark-tree, t h e eastern Cordillera o f N e w Granada †decreases in height so rapidly, that, b e t w e e n the ninth and tenth degrees o f latitude, it forms only a chain o f little mountains, which, stretching t o the north-east b y the A l t a r and T o r i t o , separates the rivers that j o i n the A pure and the O r i n o c o from those numerous rivers that flow either into the Caribbean Sea o r the lake o f M a r a c a y b o .

O n this dividing ridge are built the t o w n s o f N i r g u a , San F e l i p e el F u e r t e , Barquesimeto, and T o c u y o . T h e first three an in a very hot c l i m a t e ; b u t T o c u y o enjoys great coolness, and we heard with surprise, that, beneath so fine a sky, the inhabitants have a s t r o n g p r o p e n s i t y t o suicide.

The g r o u n d rises towards t h e s o u t h ; for T r u x i l l o , t h e lake o f U r a o , from which carbonate o f soda is extracted, and L a Grita, all to the east o f the Cordillera, t h o u g h n o farther distant, are four o r five h u n d r e d toises high.

O n examining the law which the primitive strata o f the Cordillera o f the coast follow in their d i p , we believe w e recognize o n e o f the causes o f the e x t r e m e humidity o f the land b o u n d e d b y this Cordillera and t h e ocean. T h e dip o f t h e strata is m o s t frequently t o t h e n o r t h - w e s t ; so that the waters flow in that direction o n t h e ledges o f rock ; and form, as we have stated above, that multitude o f torrents and rivers, the inundations o f which b e c o m e so fatal to t h e *

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65

COPPER-MINES OF AROA.

health o f t h e inhabitants, f r o m cape C o d e r a as far as t h e lake o f M a r a c a y b o .

A m o n g t h e rivers which descend north-east t o w a r d t h e coast o f P o r t o Cabello, and L a Punta d e l l i c a c o s , the m o s t remarkable are those o f T o c u y o , A r o a , and Y a r a c u y .

Were it not for the miasmata which infect the atmosphere, the valleys o f A r o a and o f Y a r a c u y would perhaps b e m o r e p o p u lous than those o f A r a g u a .

Navigable rivers w o u l d even give the former the advantage o f facilitating the exportation o f their o w n crops o f sugar and cacao, and that o f t h e p r o ductions o f the n e i g h b o u r i n g l a n d s ; as the wheat o f Q u i b o r , the cattle o f M o n a i , and t h e c o p p e r o f A r o a . T h e mines from which this c o p p e r is extracted, are i n a lateral valley, o p e n i n g into that o f A r o a ; and which is less hot, and less unhealthy, than t h e ravines nearer the sea. I n t h e latter t h e Indians have their gold-washings, and t h e soil conceals rich copper-ores, which n o o n e has y e t attempted t o extract.

T h e ancient mines o f A r o a , after having b e e n l o n g neglected, have been w r o u g h t anew b y t h e care o f D o n A n t o n i o H e n riquez, w h o m w e m e t at San F e r n a n d o o n the borders o f the A p u r e . T h e total p r o d u c e o f metallic c o p p e r is twelve o r fifteen hundred quintals a year. This c o p p e r , k n o w n a t Cadiz b y the name o f Caracas c o p p e r , is o f excellent quality.

I t is even preferred t o that o f Sweden, and o f C o q u i m b o in Chile. Part o f the c o p p e r o f A r o a is e m p l o y e d for making bells, which are cast o n the spot. S o m e ores o f silver have b e e n recently discovered b e t w e e n A r o a a n d N i r g u a , near Guanita, i n t h e mountain o f San P a b l o .

Grains o f gold are found i n all t h e mountainous lands b e t w e e n t h e K i o Y a r a c u y , t h e t o w n o f San F e l i p e , N i r g u a , and B a r q u e s i m e t o ; particularly in the K i o d e Santa Cruz, in which the Indian gold-gatherers have sometimes f o u n d l u m p s o f t h e value o f four o r five piastres. D o t h e n e i g h b o u r i n g rocks o f mica-slate and gneiss contain veins ? o r is t h e gold disseminated here, as i n t h e granites o f Guadarama in Spain, and o f t h e F i c h t e l b e r g in Franconia, t h r o u g h o u t the w h o l e mass o f the r o c k ?

Possibly the waters, in filtering through i t , b r i n g t o g e t h e r t h e disseminated grains o f g o l d ; in which case every attempt t o w o r k the r o c k w o u l d b e useless.

I n the Savana de la M i e l , near the t o w n o f B a r q u e s i m e t o , a shaft has b e e n sunk i n a black shining slate resembling VOL.

II.

f

66

MUNICIPALITY OF NEGROES.

ampelite. T h e minerals extracted f r o m this shaft, w h i c h were sent t o m e at Caracas, were quartz, non-auriferous pyrites, a n d c a r b o n a t e d lead, crystallized in needles o f a silky lustre.

I n t h e early times o f t h e c o n q u e s t t h e w o r k i n g o f t h e mines o f N i r g u a and o f B u r i a * was b e g u n , n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g In the incursions o f t h e warlike nation o f t h e Giraharas. this very district t h e a c c u m u l a t i o n o f n e g r o slaves i n 1 5 5 3 gave riso t o an event bearing s o m e analogy t o t h e insurr e c t i o n i n St. D o m i n g o .

A n e g r o slave excited an insurrection a m o n g t h e miners o f t h e Real de San Felipe d e Buria.

H e retired into t h e w o o d s , a n d f o u n d e d , with t w o hundred o f his c o m p a n i o n s , a t o w n , where he was proclaimed king.

M i g u e l , this n e w king, w a s a friend t o p o m p a n d parade. H e caused his wife G u i o m a r , t o assume the the o f q u e e n ; a n d , a c c o r d i n g t o O v i e d o , he appointed ministers and counsellors o f state, officers o f t h e royal household, and even a n e g r o b i s h o p . He soon after v e n t u r e d t o attack t h o n e i g h b o u r i n g t o w n o f N u e v a Segovia de B a r q u e s i m e t o ; b u t , being repulsed by D i e g o de Losada, he perished in the conflict.

This A f r i c a n m o n a r c h y was s u c c e e d e d at N i r g u a b y a republic o f Z a m b o e s , the descendants o f n e g r o e s and I n d i a n s . T h e w h o l e municipality ( c a b i l d o ) is c o m p o s e d o f m e n o f c o l o u r t o w h o m t h o k i n g o f Spain has g i v e n t h o title o f " h i s faithful and loyal subjects, t h e Z a m b o e s o f N i r g u a . " T e w families o f W h i t e s will inhabit a c o u n t r y w h e r e t h e system o f g o v e r n m e n t is s o adverse t o their p r e t e n s i o n s ; and t h e little t o w n is called i n derision La repĂşblica de Zambos y Mulatos.

I f the h o t vallies o f A r o a , o f Y a r a c u y , and o f t h o B i o T o c u v o , celebrated for their excellent t i m b e r , b e rendered feverish b y luxuriance o f vegetation, a n d e x t r e m e a t m o spheric humidity, it is different i n t h e savannahs o f M o n a i and Carora.

T h e s e L l a n o s aro separated b y t h e m o u n tainous tract o f T o c u y o and Nirgua from the great plains o f L a P o r t u g u e s a a n d Calabozo.

I t is very extraordinary t o see barren savannahs loaded with miasmata.

N o marshy g r o u n d is f o u n d thero, b u t several p h e n o m e n a indicate a * The valley of Buria, and the little river of the same name, communicate with the valley of the Rio Coxede, or the Rio de Barquesimeto.

INFLAMMABLE

67

EXHALATIONS.

disengagement o f h y d r o g e n . * W h e n travellers, w h o are n o t acquainted with natural inflammable gases, are shown t h e Cueva del Serrito de Monai, t h e p e o p l e o f t h e c o u n t r y love t o frighten them b y setting fire t o t h e gaseous c o m b i n a t i o n which is constantly accumulated in t h e u p p e r part o f t h e cavern. M a y w e attribute the insalubrity o f the atmosphere t o the same causes as those which operate in t h e plains b e t w e e n Tivoli and R o m e , viz., disengagements o f sulphuretted h y d r o g e n ? †Possibly, also, t h e mountainous lands, near the llanos o f M o n a i , m a y have a baneful influence o n t h e surrounding plains. T h e south-easterly winds m a y c o n v e y t o t h e m the putrid exhalations that rise from t h e ravine o f Villegas, and from L a Sienega de Cabra, b e t w e e n Carora a n d Carache. I a m desirous o f c o l l e c t i n g every c i r c u m stance having a relation t o t h e salubrity o f the a i r ; for, i n a matter so obscure, it is only b y the comparison o f a great n u m ber o f phenomena, that w e c a n hope t o discover t h e truth.

T h e barren y e t feverish savannahs, extending from B a r quesimeto t o the eastern shore o f the lake o f M a r a c a y b o , are partly covered with c a c t u s ; b u t t h e g o o d silvester-cochineal, k n o w n b y the vague name o f grana de Carora, c o m e s from a m o r e temperate region, b e t w e e n Carora a n d Truxillo. and * What is that luminous phenomenon known under the name of the Lantern (farol) of Maracaybo, which is perceived every night toward the seaside as well as in the inland parts, at Merida for example, where M .

Palacios observed it during two years ? The distance, greater than 40 leagues, at which the light is observed, has led to the supposition that it might be owing to the effects of a thunderstorm, or of electrical explosions which might daily take place in a pass in the mountains. It is asserted that, on approaching the farol, the rolling of thunder is heard.

Others vaguely allege that it is an air-volcano, and that asphaltic soils, like those of Mena, cause these inflammable exhalations which are so constant in their appearance. The phenomenon is observed on a mountainous and uninhabited spot, on the borders of the Rio Catatumbo, near its junction with the Rio Sulia. The situation of the farol is such that, being nearly in the meridian of the opening (boca) of the lake of Maracaybo, navigators are guided by it as by a lighthouse. †Don Carlos del Pozo has discovered in this district, at the bottom of the Quebrada de Moroturo, a stratum of clayey earth, black, strongly soiling the fingers, emitting a powerful smell of sulphur, and inflaming spontaneously when slightly moistened and exposed for a long time to the rays of the tropical sun. The detonation of this muddy substance is very violent.

F

2

68

MOUNTAINS OF TACARIGUA.

particularly from the valley o f the Rio M u c u j u , * t o the east of Merida.

T h e inhabitants altogether n e g l e c t this p r o d u c tion, so much s o u g h t for in c o m m e r c e .

CHAPTER

XVII.

Mountains which separate the Valleys of Aragua from the Llanos of Caracas. — Villa de Cura. — Parapara. — Llanos or Steppes. — Calabozo.

T H E chain o f mountains, b o r d e r i n g the lake o f Tacarigua towards the south, forms in s o m e sort the n o r t h e r n shore o f the great basin o f the L l a n o s o r savannahs o f Caracas.

To descend from the valleys o f A r a g u a into these savannahs, it is necessary to cross the mountains of G u i g u e and of T u c u tunemo.

F r o m a p e o p l e d c o u n t r y embellished b y cultivation, we p l u n g e into a vast solitude.

A c c u s t o m e d t o the aspect o f rocks, and t o the shade o f valleys, the traveller beholds with astonishment these savannahs w i t h o u t trees, these immense plains, which seem to ascend to the horizon.

Before I trace the scenery o f the Llanos, o r o f the region o f pasturage, I will briefly describe the road we t o o k from Nueva Valencia, b y V i l l a de C u r a and San J u a n , t o the little village o f O r t i z , at t h e entrance o f the steppes.

We left the valleys o f A r a g u a o n the 6th o f M a r c h before sunrise.

W e passed over a plain richly cultivated, k e e p i n g along the south-west side of the lake o f Valencia, and crossi n g the g r o u n d left uncovered b y the waters o f the lake.

W e were never weary of admiring the fertility o f the soil, oovered with calabashes, water-melons, and plantains.

The rising o f the sun was a n n o u n c e d by the distant noise o f tho howling m o n k e y s .

A p p r o a c h i n g a g r o u p o f trees, which rise in the; midst o f the plain, between those parts which were anciently the islets o f D o n P e d r o and L a Negra, w e saw n u m e r o u s bands o f araguatos m o v i n g as in procession and very slowly, from o n e tree to another.

A male was followed by a great n u m b e r o f females; several o f the hitter carrying * This little river descends from the Paramo de los Conejos, and flows

into the Rio Albarregas.

EXAGGERATED

TALES.

69

their y o u n g o n their shoulders. T h e h o w l i n g m o n k e y s , which live in society i n different parts o f A m e r i c a , everywhere resemble each other in their manners, t h o u g h t h e species are n o t always t h e same.

T h e uniformity with which the araguatos* perform their m o v e m e n t s is extremely striking.

Whenever the branches o f n e i g h b o u r i n g trees d o n o t t o u c h each other, t h e male w h o leads the party susp e n d s himself b y t h e callous a n d prehensile part o f his t a i l ; and, letting fall t h e rest o f his b o d y , swings himself till in o n e o f his oscillations h e reaches t h e neighbouring branch. T h e whole file performs t h e same m o v e m e n t s o n the same spot. I t is almost superfluous t o add h o w dubious is t h e assertion o f U l l o a , a n d so m a n y otherwise wellinformed travellers, according t o w h o m , t h e marimondos, † the araguatos, and other m o n k e y s with a prehensile tail, form a sort o f chain, i n order t o reach t h e o p p o s i t e side o f a river. ‡ W e had opportunities, during five years, o f observing thousands o f these a n i m a l s ; a n d f o r this v e r y reason w e place n o confidence i n statements possibly invented b y the Europeans themselves, t h o u g h repeated b y the Indians o f the M i s s i o n s , as if they had been transmitted t o them by their fathers.

M a n , t h e m o s t r e m o t e from civilization, enjoys t h e astonishment h e excites i n r e c o u n t i n g the marvels o f his c o u n t r y .

H e says h e has seen what h e imagines may have b e e n seen b y others.

E v e r y savage is a hunter, and t h e stories o f hunters b o r r o w from t h e imagination in proportion as t h e animals, o f which they boast t h e artifices, are e n d o w e d with a high degree o f intelligence.

Hence arise t h e fictions o f which foxes, m o n k e y s , c r o w s , and the c o n d o r o f t h e A n d e s , have b e e n the subjects in b o t h hemispheres.

T h e araguatos are accused o f sometimes abandoning their y o u n g , that they may b e lighter for flight when pursued b y the Indian hunters. I t is said that mothers have been seen r e m o v i n g their y o u n g from their shoulders, a n d t h r o w i n g t h e m d o w n t o the foot o f t h e tree. I am inclined t o believe that a m o v e m e n t merely accidental has been mistaken f o r • Simia ursina. † Simia belzebuth. ‡ Ulloa has not hesitated to represent in an engraving this extraordinary feat of the monkeys with a prehensile tail.—See Viage a la America Meridional (Madrid, 1748).

70

HOWLING OF THE APES.

o n e premeditated.

T h e Indiana have a dislike and a p r e dilection for certain races o f m o n k e y s ; they love the viuditas, the titis, and generally all the little s a g o i n s ; while the araguatos, o n a c c o u n t o f their mournful aspect, and their uniform howling, are at o n c e detested and abused.

I n reflecting o n the causes that may facilitate the p r o pagation o f sound in the air during the night, I t h o u g h t it important t o determine with precision the distance at which, especially in damp and stormy weather, the h o w l i n g o f a band o f araguatos is heard. I believe I obtained p r o o f o f its being distinguished at eight hundred toises distance.

T h e m o n k e y s which are furnished with four hands cannot make excursions in the L l a n o s ; and it is easy, amidst vast plains covered with grass, to recognize a solitary g r o u p o f trees, w h e n c e the noise p r o c e e d s , and which is inhabited b y howling m o n k e y s . N o w , b y approaching o r withdrawing from this g r o u p o f trees, the maximum o f the distance may b e measured, at which the howling is heard. T h e s e distances appeared t o m e sometimes one-third greater during the night, especially w h e n the weather was c l o u d y , very h o t , and humid.

T h e Indians pretend that when the araguatos fill the forests with their howling, there is always one that chaunts as leader o f the chorus. T h e observation is pretty accurate.

D u r i n g a long interval one solitary and strong voice is g e n e rally distinguished, till its place is taken b y another voice o f a different pitch. W o may observe from time t o time tho same instinct o f imitation a m o n g frogs, and almost all animals which live t o g e t h e r and exert their voices in u n i o n .

T h e Missionaries further assert, that, w h e n a female a m o n g the araguatos is o n the p o i n t o f b r i n g i n g forth, the choir suspends its howlings till the m o m e n t o f the birth o f t h o y o u n g . I could n o t myself j u d g e o f the accuracy o f this assertion ; but I do not believe it to be entirely unfounded.

I have observed that, when an extraordinary incident, the moans for instance o f a w o u n d e d araguato, fixed the attention o f the hand, the howlings were for some minutes suspended. Our guides assured us gravely, that, " t o cure an asthma, it is sufficient to drink o u t o f the b o n y drum o f the hyo誰dal b o n e o f the a r a g u a t o . " This animal having so extraordinary a v o l u m e o f voice, it is s u p p o s e d that its

VILLAGE OF GUIGUE.

71

larynx must necessarily impart t o t h e water p o u r e d into it the virtue o f c u r i n g affections o f t h e lungs. Such is t h e science o f the vulgar, which sometimes resembles that o f t h e ancients.

W e passed t h e night at t h e village o f G u i g u e , t h e latitude o f which I found b y observations o f C a n o p u s t o b e 10째 4' 11".

T h e village, surrounded with t h e richest cultivation, is only a thousand toises distant from t h e lake o f Tacarigua.

W e l o d g e d with an o l d sergeant, a native o f M u r c i a , a m a n o f a very original character. T o prove t o us that he had studied a m o n g t h e Jesuits, h o recited t h e history o f t h e creation o f t h e world in L a t i n . H e k n e w t h e names o f A u g u s t u s , Tiberius, and D i o c l e t i a n ; a n d while e n j o y i n g t h e agreeable coolness o f the nights in an enclosure planted with bananas, he e m p l o y e d himself in reading all that related t o t h e c o u r t s o f the Roman emperors. H e inquired o f us with earnestness f o r a remedy f o r t h e g o u t , from which he suffered severely. " I k n o w , " said h e , " a Z a m b o o f Valencia, a famous curioso, w h o could cure m e ; b u t t h e Z a m b o w o u l d e x p e c t t o b e treated with attentions which I c a n n o t pay t o a m a n o f his c o l o u r , a n d I prefer remaining as I a m . " O n leaving G u i g u e w e b e g a n t o ascend t h e chain o f mountains, e x t e n d i n g o n t h e south o f t h e lake t o w a r d s G u a c i m o a n d L a Talma. P r o m t h e t o p o f a table-land, at three hundred and t w e n t y toises o f elevation, w o saw for t h e last time t h e valleys o f A r a g u a . T h e gneiss appeared u n c o vered, presenting the same direction o f strata, and the same dip towards the north-west. V e i n s o f quartz, that traverse t h e gneiss, are a u r i f e r o u s ; and hence t h e n e i g h b o u r i n g ravine bears t h e name o f Quebrada del O r o . W e heard with surprise at every step t h e name o f " r a v i n e o f g o l d , " in a c o u n t r y where only o n e single mine o f c o p p e r is w r o u g h t .

W e travelled five leagues t o the village o f M a r i a M a g d a l e n a and t w o leagues more to the Villa de Cura. I t was Sunday and at the village o f Maria M a g d a l e n a the inhabitants w e r e assembled before t h e c h u r c h . They wanted t o force o u r muleteers t o stop and hear mass.

W e resolved t o remain ; b u t , after a l o n g altercation, the muleteers pursued their way. I m a y observe, that this is the only dispute i n which w e became e n g a g e d from such a cause. V e r y e r r o n e o u s ideas

72

SAN

LUIS

DE

CURA.

are formed in E u r o p e o f the intolerance, and even o f t h e religious fervour o f the Spanish colonists.

San L u i s d e Cura, or, as it is c o m m o n l y called, the V i l l a d e Cura, lies in a very barren valley, running north-west and south-east, and elevated, according t o m y barometrical o b s e r vations, t w o hundred and sixty-six toises above the level o f t h e ocean.

T h e c o u n t r y , with the exception o f some fruittrees, i s almost destitute o f vegetation.

T h e dryness o f the plateau is the greater, because (and this circumstance is rather extraordinary in a c o u n t r y o f primitive rocks) several rivers lose themselves in crevices in the g r o u n d .

The Rio de Las M i n a s , north o f t h e Villa de Cura, is lost in a rock, again appears, and t h e n is ingulphed anew w i t h o u t reaching the lake o f Valencia, towards which it flows. C u r a resembles a village m o r e than a t o w n .

W e lodged with a family w h o had excited the resentment o f g o v e r n m e n t during the O n e o f the sons, after revolution at Caracas in 1797. having languished in a d u n g e o n , had b e e n sent t o the Havannah, to be imprisoned in a strong fortress.

With what j o y his mother heard that after o u r return from the O r i n o c o , w e should visit the Havannah ! She entrusted m e with live piastres, " t h e whole fruit o f her s a v i n g s . " I earnestly wished to return them t o h e r ; b u t I feared to w o u n d her d e l i c a c y , and give pain t o a mother, w h o felt a pleasure in the privations she imposed o n herself.

A l l the society o f the t o w n w a s assembled in the evening, t o admire in a magic lantern views o f the great capitals o f E u r o p e .

W e w e r e shown t h e p a l a c e of the Tuileries, and the statue o f the E l e c t o r at Berlin.

A n apothecary w h o had b e e n ruined b y an unhappy p r o pensity f o r w o r k i n g mines, accompanied us in o u r excursion t o the Serro de Chacao, very rich in auriferous pyrites.

"We c o n t i n u e d t o descend the southern declivity o f the Cordillera o f the coast, in which the plains o f Aragtia form a longitudinal valley.

W e passed a part of the night o f the 11th o f March at the village o f San J u a n , remarkable for its thermal waters, and t h e singular form o f t w o neighbourThey form i n g mountains, called the Morros o f San Juan. slender peaks, which rise from a wall o f rocks with a very extensive base. T h e wall is perpendicular, and resembles

OUR LADY

OF THE VALENCIANS.

73

the Devil's Wall, which surrounds a part o f the g r o u p o f mountains in the H a r t z . * T h e s e peaks, w h e n seen from afar in the L l a n o s , strike t h e imagination o f the inhabitants o f t h e plain, w h o are n o t a c c u s t o m e d t o the least unequal g r o u n d , and the height o f the peaks is singularly e x a g gerated b y t h e m . T h e y w e r e described t o us as b e i n g in the middle o f t h e steppes (which they in reality b o u n d o n the n o r t h ) far b e y o n d a range o f hills called L a Galera.

J u d g i n g from angles taken at the distance o f t w o miles, these hills are scarcely m o r e than a h u n d r e d and fifty-six toises higher than the village o f San J u a n , and three hundred and fifty toises above t h e level o f t h e L l a n o s , T h e thermal waters glide o u t at the foot o f these hills, which are f o r m e d o f transition-limestone.

T h e waters are impregnated with sulphuretted h y d r o g e n , like those o f Mariara, and form a little p o o l o r l a g o o n , in which t h e t h e r m o m e t e r rose only t o 31 3 ° . I found, o n the night o f the 9th o f M a r c h , b y very satisfactory observations o f the stars, the latitude o f Villa de Cura t o b e 10° 2 ' 4 7 " .

T h e Villa de Cura is celebrated in the c o u n t r y for t h e miracles o f an image o f the V i r g i n , k n o w n b y t h e n a m e o f Nuestra Señora de los Valencianos.

This image was f o u n d in a ravine b y an Indian, about the middle o f the eighteenth Century, w h e n it became t h e o b j e c t o f a c o n t e s t b e t w e e n the t o w n s o f C u r a and San Sebastian de los B e y e s .

The vicars o f the latter t o w n asserting that the V i r g i n had made her first appearance o n t h e territory o f their parish, t h e B i s h o p o f Caracas, in order t o p u t an end to the scandal o f this l o n g dispute, caused the image t o b e placed in t h e archives o f his bishopric, and k e p t it thirty years u n d e r seal. I t was n o t restored to the inhabitants o f Cura till 1802.

A f t e r having bathed in the c o o l and limpid water o f the little river o f San J u a n , t h e b o t t o m o f which is o f basaltic grünstein, we c o n t i n u e d o u r j o u r n e y at t w o in the m o r n i n g , b y Ortiz and Parapara, t o the M e s a de Paja. T h e road t o the L l a n o s being at that t i m e infested with r o b b e r s , several travellers j o i n e d us so as t o form a sort o f caravan.

We p r o c e e d e d d o w n hill during six o r seven h o u r s ; and w e skirted the C e r r o de F l o r e s , near which the r o a d turns off, * " Die Teufels M a u e r , " near Wernigerode in Germany.

74

ANCIENT

SEA-SHORE.

leading t o t h e great village o f San J o s e de Tisnao. W e passed t h e farms o f L u q u e a n d J u n c a l i t o , t o enter t h e valleys which, o n a c c o u n t o f t h e b a d road, a n d t h e blue c o l o u r o f the slates, bear t h e names o f Malpaso and Piedras Azules.

This g r o u n d is t h e ancient shore o f the great basin o f t h e steppes, and i t furnishes an interesting subject o f r e search t o the geologist. W o there find trap-formations, p r o bably m o r e r e c e n t than t h e veins o f diabasis near the t o w n o f Caracas, which seem t o b e l o n g t o t h e rocks o f i g n e o u s formation.

T h e y are n o t l o n g a n d narrow streams as i n A u v e r g n e , b u t large sheets, streams that appear like real strata. T h e lithoid masses hero cover, i f w e may use t h e expression, the shore o f the ancient interior s e a ; everything subject t o destruction, such as the liquid dejections, and the These scoriĂŚ filled with hubbies, has been carried away. p h e n o m e n a are particularly worthy o f attention o n a c c o u n t o f the close affinities observed between the phonolites and the amygdaloids, w h i c h , containing p y r o x e n e s and hornblende-grunsteins, f o r m strata i n a transition-slate. T h e b e t t e r t o c o n v e y an idea o f t h e w h o l e situation and superposition o f these rocks, w o will name the formations as they o c c u r in a profile drawn from north t o south.

W o find at first, in the Sierra de Mariara, which b e l o n g s t o t h e northern branch o f t h e Cordillera o f t h e coast, a coarse-grained g r a n i t e ; then, in t h e valleys o f Aragua, o n the borders o f the lake, and in the islands, it contains, as in t h e southern branch o f the chain o f t h e coast, gneiss and mica-slate. T h e s e last-named rocks arc auriferous in t h e Q u e b r a d a del O r o , near G u i g u e ; a n d b e t w e e n Villa de Cura and the M o r r o s de San J u a n , in t h e mountain o f Chacao.

T h e g o l d is c o n t a i n e d in pyrites, which are f o u n d sometimes disseminated almost imperceptibly in t h e whole mass o f the g n e i s s , * and sometimes united in small veins o f quartz. M o s t o f t h e torrents that traverse t h e m o u n tains bear along with them grains o f g o l d . T h e p o o r i n habitants o f Villa d e C u r a and San J u a n have sometimes gained thirty piastres a-day b y washing the s a n d ; b u t m o s t * The four metals, which arc found disseminated in the granite rocks, as if they were of contemporaneous formation, are gold, tin, titanium, and cobalt.

DESERTED

MINES.

75

c o m m o n l y , in spite o f their industry, they do n o t in a w e e k find particles o f g o l d o f the value o f t w o piastres.

Here, however, as in every place where native g o l d and auriferous pyrites are disseminated in the r o c k , or b y the destruction o f the r o c k s , are deposited in alluvial lands, the p e o p l e c o n ceive the m o s t exaggerated ideas o f the metallic riches o f the soil. B u t the success o f the w o r k i n g s , which depends less o n the abundance o f t h e ore in a vast space o f land than o n its accumulation in o n e p o i n t , has n o t justified these favourable prepossessions. T h e mountain o f Chacao, b o r d e r e d b y the ravine o f T u c u t u n e m o , rises seven h u n d r e d feet above the village o f San Juan. I t is f o r m e d o f gneiss, which, especially in the superior strata, passes into m i c a slate. We saw the remains o f an ancient mine, k n o w n b y the name o f Real de Santa Barbara.

The works were directed t o a stratum o f cellular quartz,* full o f p o l y h e d r i c cavities, mixed with iron-ore, containing auriferous pyrites and small grains o f g o l d , sometimes, it is said, visible t o the naked eye. i t appears that the gneiss o f the C e r r o d e Chacao also furnishes another metallic deposit, a m i x t u r e o f c o p p e r and silver-ores. This deposit has been t h e o b j e c t o f works attempted with great ignorance b y s o m e M e x i c a n miners under the superintendance o f M . A v a l o . T h e gallery† directed t o t h e north-east, is only twenty-five toises long.

W e there f o u n d some fine specimens o f blue c a r b o nated c o p p e r mingled with sulphate o f barytes and quartz ; b u t we could n o t ourselves j u d g e whether the ore c o n t a i n e d any argentiferous fahlerz, and w h e t h e r it o c c u r r e d in a stratum, or, as the apothecary w h o was o u r guide asserted, in real veins. This m u c h is certain, that the a t t e m p t at w o r k i n g the mine cost more than twelve thousand piastres in t w o years. I t w o u l d n o d o u b t have b e e n m o r e p r u d e n t to have resumed the works o n the auriferous stratum o f t h e Real de Santa Barbara. * This stratum of quartz, and the gneiss in which it is contained, lie hor. 8 of the Freyberg compass, and dip 70° to the south-west. At a hundred toises distance from the auriferous quartz, the gneiss resumes its ordinary situation, hor. 3-4, with 60° dip to the north-west. A few strata of gneiss abound in silvery mica, and contain, instead of garnets, an immense quantity of small octohedrons of pyrites. This silvery gneiss resembles that of the famous mine of Himmelsfürst, in Saxony. † La Cueva de los Mexicanos.

76

STRATA

OF

GNEISS.

T h e z o n e of gneiss j u s t m e n t i o n e d is, in the coast-chain from the sea t o the Villa de Cura, ten leagues broad.

In this great e x t e n t o f land, gneiss and mica-slate are f o u n d exclusively, and they constitute o n e formation.* Beyond t h e t o w n o f Villa de Cura and the C e r r o de Chacao the aspect o f t h e c o u n t r y presents greater g e o g n o s t i c variety.

There are still eight leagues of declivity from the table-land of Cura t o the entry o f the L l a n o s ; and o n the southern slope of the mountains of the coast, four different formations o f rock cover the gneiss.

W e shall first give the description o f the different strata, w i t h o u t g r o u p i n g t h e m systematically.

O n the south o f the C e r r o de Chacao, b e t w e e n the ravine of T u c u t u n e m o and Piedras Negras, the gneiss is concealed beneath a formation o f serpentine, o f which the c o m p o s i t i o n varies in the different superimposed strata. Sometimes it is very pure, very h o m o g e n e o u s , o f a dusky olive-green, and of a conchoidal f r a c t u r e : sometimes it is veined, mixed with bluish steatite, o f an unequal fracture, and containing spangles o f mica.

In both these states I could not discover in it either garnets, hornblende, or diallage.

Advancing farther to the south (and we always passed over this g r o u n d in that direction) the green o f the serpentine g r o w s deeper, and feldspar and hornblende are recognised in i t : it is difficult to determine whether it passes into diabasis o r alternates with it. T h e r e is, however, no d o u b t o f its c o n * This formation, which we shall call gneiss-mica-slate, is peculiar to the chain of the coast of Caracas. Five formations must be distinguished, as M M . von Buch and Raumer have so ably demonstrated in their excellent papers on Landeck and the Riesengebirge, namely, granite, granite-gneiss, gneiss, gneiss mica-slate, and mica-slate. Geologists whose researches have been confined to a small tract of land, having confounded these formations which nature has separated in several countries in the most distinct manner, have admitted that the gneiss and mica-slate alternate everywhere in superimposed beds, or furnish insensible transitions from one rock to the other. These transitions and alternating superpositions take place no doubt in formations of granitegneiss mid gneiss-mica-slate ; but because these phenomena are observed in one region, it does not follow that in other regions we may not find very distinct circumscribed formations of granite, gneiss, and mica-slate.

The same considerations may be applied to the formations of serpentine, which are sometimes isolated, and sometimes belong to the eurite, micaslate, and gr端nstein.

THE

MORROS

OF

SAN

JUAN.

77

taining veins o f c o p p e r - o r e . * A t the foot o f this m o u n t a i n t w o fine springs gush o u t from t h e serpentine. Near the village o f San J u a n , the granular diabasis appears alone u n c o v e r e d , and takes a greenish black hue. T h e feldspar intimately m i x e d with t h e mass, may b e separated into distinct crystals.

T h e mica is very rare, and there is n o quartz. T h e mass assumes at the surface a yellowish crust like dolerite and basalt.

I n the midst o f this tract o f trap-formation, the M o r r o s o f San J u a n rise like t w o castles in ruins. T h e y appear linked t o the mornes o f St Sebastian, and to L a Galera which b o u n d s the L l a n o s like a rocky wall. T h e M o r r o s o f San J u a n are formed o f limestone o f a crystalline t e x t u r e ; sometimes very c o m p a c t , sometimes s p o n g y , o f a greenishg r e y , shining, c o m p o s e d o f small grains, and mixed with scattered spangles o f mica. This limestone yields a s t r o n g effervescence with acids. I c o u l d n o t find in it any vestige o f organized bodies.

I t contains in subordinate strata, masses o f hardened clay o f a blackish blue, and carburetted.

T h e s e masses are fissile, very heavy, and loaded with iron ; their streak is whitish, and they p r o d u c e n o effervesc e n c e with acids. T h e y assume at their surface, b y their d e c o m p o s i t i o n in the air, a yellow c o l o u r .

W e seem to r e c o g n i z e in these argillaceous strata a t e n d e n c y either t o the transition-slates, o r t o the kieselschiefer (schistose j a s p e r ) , which everywhere characterise the black transitionlimestones. W h e n in fragments, they m i g h t b e taken at first sight for basalt o r hornblende.† A n o t h e r white l i m e stone, c o m p a c t , and containing s o m e fragments o f shells, backs the M o r r o s de San J u a n . I could not see the line o f j u n c t i o n o f these t w o limestones, or that o f the calcareous formation and the diabasis. * One of these veins, on which, two shafts have been sunk, was directed hor. 2 1, and dipped 80° east. The strata of the serpentine, where it is stratified with some regularity, run hor. 8, and dip almost perpendicularly.

I found malachite disseminated in this serpentine, where it passes into grünstein. † I had an opportunity of examining again, with the greatest care, the rocks of San Juan, of Chacao, of Parapara, and of Calabozo, during my stay at Mexico, where, conjointly with M. del Rio, one of the most distinguished pupils of the school of Freyberg, I formed a geognostical collection for the Colegio de Mineria of New Spain.

78

SLATE FORMATIONS.

T h e transverse valley which descends from Piedras N e g r a s and the village o f San J u a n , towards Parapara and the L l a n o s , is filled with trap-rocks, displaying close affinity with the formation o f g r e e n slates, which they cover. S o m e times w e seem t o see serpentine, sometimes grünstein, and sometimes dolerite and basalt. T h e arrangement o f these problematical masses is not less extraordinary.

Between San Juan, M a l p a s o , and Piedras A z u l e s , they f o r m strata parallel t o each o t h e r ; and dipping regularly northward at an angle o f 4 0 ° o r 50°, they c o v e r even the green slates in c o n c o r d a n t stratification.

L o w e r d o w n , towards Parapara a n d Ortiz, where the amygdaloids and phonolites are c o n n e c t e d with the grünstein, everything assumes a basaltic aspect.

Palls o f grünstein heaped o n e upon another, form those rounded c o n e s , which are found so frequently in the M i t t e l g e b i r g e in Bohemia, near Bilin, t h e c o u n t r y o f p h o nolites. T h e following is the result o f m y partial observations.

T h e grünstein, which at first alternated with strata o f serpentine, o r was c o n n e c t e d with that r o c k b y insensible transitions, is seen alone, sometimes in strata considerably inclined, and sometimes in balls with c o n c e n t r i c strata, i m bedded in strata o f the same substance. I t lies, near M a l paso, o n green slates, steatitic, m i n g l e d with hornblende, destitute of mica and g r a i n s o f quartz, dipping, like the grünsteins, 45° t o w a r d the north, and directed, like t h e m , 75° north-west.

A great sterility prevails where these g r e e n slates p r e d o minate, n o d o u b t o n a c c o u n t o f the magnesia they contain, which (as is proved b y the magnesian-limestone o f E n g l a n d * ) is very hurtful t o vegetation. T h e dip o f the green slates c o n t i n u e s the s a m e ; b u t b y degrees the direction o f their strata b e c o m e s parallel t o t h e general direction o f the primitive rocks o f the chain o f the coast. A t Piedras A z u l e s these slates, mingled with h o r n b l e n d e , cover in c o n c o r d a n t stratification a blackish-blue slate, very fissile, and traversed b y small veins o f quartz. T h e g r e e n slates include some strata o f grünstein, a n d even contain balls o f that s u b stance. I n o w h e r e saw the g r e e n slates alternate with • Magnesian limestone is of a straw-yellow colour, and contains madrepores: it lies beneath red marl, or muriatiferous red sandstone.

СERRO

DE FLORES.

79

the black slates o f the ravine o f Piedras A z u l e s : at the line o f j u n c t i o n these t w o slates appear rather t o pass o n e into the other, the green slates b e c o m i n g o f a pearl­grey in p r o ­ portion as they lose their h o r n b l e n d e .

Farther south, towards Parapara and Ortiz, the slates dis­ appear. T h e y are concealed u n d e r a trap­formation m o r e varied in its aspect.

T h e soil b e c o m e s m o r e f e r t i l e ; t h e r o c k y masses alternate with strata o f clay, which appear t o b e p r o d u c e d b y the d e c o m p o s i t i o n o f the grünsteins, the amygdaloids, and the phonolites.

T h e grünstein, which farther north was loss granulous, and passed into serpentine, here assumes a very different character. I t contains balls o f mandelstein, o r amygdaloid, eight o r t e n inches in diameter. T h e s e balls, sometimes a little flattened, are divided into c o n c e n t r i c l a y e r s : this is the effect o f d e c o m p o s i t i o n . Their nucleus is almost as hard as basalt, and they are intermingled with little cavities, o w i n g t o bubbles o f gas, filled with green earth, and crystals o f pyroxene and m e s o t y p e . Their basis is greyish b l u e , rather soft, and showing small white spots which, b y the regular form they present, I should conceive t o b e d e c o m p o s e d feld­ spar. M . von B u c h examined with a p o w e r f u l lens t h e species w e b r o u g h t .

H e discovered that each crystal o f p y r o x e n e , enveloped in the earthy mass, is separated f r o m it b y fissures parallel t o the sides o f the crystal.

These fissures seem t o b e the effect o f a contraction w h i c h t h e mass or basis o f t h e mandelstein has u n d e r g o n e . I s o m e ­ times saw these balls o f mandelstein arranged in strata, and separated from each other b y b e d s o f grünstein o f t e n o r fourteen inches thick ; sometimes ( a n d this situation is m o s t c o m m o n ) t h e balls o f mandelstein, t w o o r three feet i n diameter, arc found in heaps, and form little m o u n t s with r o u n d e d summits, lik e spheroidal basalt. T h e clay which separates these amygdaloid concretions arises from t h e d e ­ composition o f their crust. T h e y acquire b y t h e c o n t a c t o f t h e air a very thin coating o f yellow ochre.

South­west o f the village o f Parapara rises the little C e r r o de Flores, which is discerned from afar in t h e steppes.

A l m o s t at its foot, and in the midst o f the mandelstein tract w e have j u s t been describing, a porphyritic p h o n o l i t e , a mass o f c o m p a c t feldspar o f a greenish g r e y , o r m o u n t a i n ­

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green, containing l o n g crystals o f vitreous feldspar, appears exposed.

I t is the real porphyrschiefer o f W e r n e r ; and it w o u l d be difficult to distinguish, in a collection o f stones, the phonolite o f Parapara from that o f Bilin, in Bohemia.

I t does n o t , however, here form rocks in grotesque shapes, b u t little hills covered with tabular blocks, large plates extremely sonorous, translucid on the edges, and w o u n d i n g the hands when broken.

Such are the successions o f rocks, which I described o n the spot as I progressively f o u n d t h e m , from the lake o f Tacarigua t o the entrance o f the steppes. F e w places in E u r o p e display a geological arrangement so well worthy o f being studied.

W e saw there in succession six f o r m a t i o n s : viz., mica-slate-gneiss, green transition-slate, black transition-limestone, serpentine and grünstein, amygdaloid (with p y r o x e n e ) , and phonolite.

I must observe, in the first place, that the substance j u s t described u n d e r the name o f grünstein, in every respect resembles that which forms layers in the mica-slate o f C a b o Blanco, and veins near Caracas. It differs only b y containing neither quartz, garnets, n o r pyrites.

The close relations we observed near the C e r r o de Chacao, b e t w e e n the grünstein and the serpentine, c a n n o t surprise these g e o l o g i s t s who have studied the mountains o f Franconia and Silesia.

Near Z o b t e n b e r g * a serpentine rock alternates also will: gabbro. In the district of Glatz the fissures of the- gabbro are filled with a steatite of a greenish white c o l o u r , and the r o c k which was l o n g t h o u g h t t o b e l o n g t o the grünsteins† is a close mixture o f feldspar and diallage.

• Between Tampadel and Silsterwiz. † In the mountains of Bareuth, in Franconia, so abundant in grunstein and serpentine, these formations are not connected together. The serpentine there belongs rather to the schistose hornblende (hornblendschiefer), as in the island of Cuba.

Near Guanaxuato, in Mexico, I saw it alternating with syenite. These phenomena of serpentine rocks forming layers in eurite (weisstein), in schistose hornblende, in gabbro, and in syenite, are so much the more remarkable, as the great mass o f garnetiferous serpentines, which are found in the mountains o f gneiss and mica-slate, form little distinct mounts, masses not covered by other formations.

It is not the same in the mixtures of serpentine and granul limestone.

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81

T h e grünsteins o f T u c u t u n e m o , which w e consider as constituting the same formation as t h e serpentine r o c k , contain veins o f malachite and copper-pyrites. T h e s e same metalliferous combinations are f o u n d also in Franconia, in the grünsteins o f the mountains o f Steben and L i c h t e n b e r g .

W i t h respect t o t h e g r e e n slates o f M a l p a s o , which have all the characters o f transition-slates, t h e y are identical with those which M . v o n Buch has so well described, near Schönau, in Silesia. T h e y contain beds o f grünstein, like the slates o f t h e mountains o f S t e b e n j u s t m e n t i o n e d . * T h e black limestone o f the M o r r o s de San Juan is also a transition-limestone.

I t forms perhaps a subordinate stratum in the slates o f M a l p a s o . This situation w o u l d b e analogous t o what is observed in several parts o f Switzerland.† T h e slaty zone, t h e centre o f which is the ravine o f Piedras A z u l e s , appears divided into t w o formations.

On some points w e think w e observe o n e passing i n t o the other.

T h e grünsteins, which b e g i n again t o the south o f these slates, appear t o m e t o differ little from those f o u n d n o r t h o f the ravine o f Piedras A z u l e s . I did n o t see there any p y r o x e n e ; b u t o n the very spot I r e c o g n i z e d a n u m b e r o f crystals in the amygdaloid, which appears so strongly linked to the grünstein that they alternate several times.

T h e geologist may consider his task as fulfilled w h e n h e has traced with accuracy t h e positions o f the diverse strata; and haS pointed o u t t h e analogies traceable b e t w e e n these positions and what has b e e n observed in other countries.

But h o w can he avoid b e i n g t e m p t e d t o g o back t o the origin of so many different substances, and t o inquire h o w far t h e dominion o f fire has e x t e n d e d in the mountains that b o u n d the great basin o f t h e steppes ? I n researches o n t h e p o s i tion o f rocks w e have generally t o complain o f n o t sufficiently perceiving the c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e masses, which We believe t o be superimposed o n o n e another. H e r e t h e * On advancing into the adit for draining the Friedrich-Wilhelmstollen mine, which I caused to be begun in 1794, near Steben, and which is yet only 340 toises long, there have successively been found, in the transitionslate subordinate strata of pure and porphyritic grünstein, strata, of Lydian stone and ampelite (alaunschiefer), and strata of fine-grained grünstein. All these strata characterise the transition-slates. † For instance, at the Glyshorn, at the Col de Balme, &c.

VOL.

II

G

82

PHONOLITIC

ROCKS.

difficulty seems t o arise from the t o o intimate and t o o n u m e r o u s relations observed in rocks that are t h o u g h t n o t t o b e l o n g t o the same family.

T h e phonolite ( o r leucostine compacte o f C o r d i e r ) is pretty generally regarded b y all w h o have at o n c e examined b u r n ing and extinguished volcanos, as a flow o f lithoid lava.

I found n o real basalt o r d o l e r i t e ; b u t the presence o f p y r o x e n e in the amygdaloid o f Parapara leaves little d o u b t o f the igneous origin o f those spheroidal masses, fissured, and full o f cavities. Balls o f this amygdaloid are enclosed in the g r ü n s t e i n ; and this grünstein alternates on o n e side with a green slate, o n the other with the serpentine of Tucutunemo.

H e r e , then, is a c o n n e x i o n sufficiently close established b e t w e e n the phonolites and the g r e e n slates, b e t w e e n the pyroxenic amygdaloids and the serpentines containing copper-ores, b e t w e e n volcanic substances and others that are included under the vague n a m e o f transition-traps. All these masses are destitute o f quartz like the real trap-porphyries, o r volcanic trachytes.

This p h e n o m e n o n is the more remarkable, as the grünsteins which are called primitive almost always contain quartz in E u r o p e . T h e m o s t general dip o f the slates o f Piedras A z u l e s , o f the grünsteins o f Parapara, and o f the pyroxenic amygdaloids e m b e d d e d in strata o f grünstein, does not follow the slope o f the g r o u n d from north to south, b u t is pretty regular towards the north. T h e strata incline towards the chain o f the coast, as substances which had n o t been in fusion might b e supposed to d o . Can we admit that so many alternating rocks, imbedded one in the other, have a c o m m o n origin?

T h e nature o f the phonolites, which are lithoid lavas with a feldspar basis, and the nature o f the green slates intermixed with h o r n b l e n d e , o p p o s e this opinion. I n this state o f things we may choose between t w o solutions o f the problem in question. I n one o f these solutions the p h o n o lite o f the Cerro do Flores is t o b e regarded as the sole volcanic production o f the t r a c t ; and we are forced t o unite the pyroxenic amygdaloids with the rest o f the grünsteins, in one single formation, that which is so c o m m o n in the transition-mountains o f E u r o p e , considered hitherto as n o t volcanic. I n the other solution o f the problem, the masses o f phonolite, amygdaloid, and grünstein, w h i c h are found

INCLINATION OF STRATA.

83

in the south of the ravine of Piedras Azules, are separated from the grünsteins and serpentine rocks that cover t h e declivity of the mountains north of the ravine. In the present state of knowledge I find difficulties almost equallygreat in adopting either of these suppositions; but I have no doubt that, when the real grünsteins (not the hornblendegrünsteins) contained in the gneiss and mica-slates, shall have been more attentively examined in other places; when the basalts (with pyroxene) forming strata in primitive rocks* and the diabases and amygdaloids in the transition mountains, shall have been carefully studied; when the texture of the masses shall have been subjected to a kind of mechanical analysis, and the hornblendes better distinguished from the pyroxenes, †and the grünsteins from the dolerites; a great number of phenomena which now appear isolated and obscure, will be ranged under general laws.

The phonolite and other rocks of igneous origin at Parapara are so much the more interesting, as they indicate ancient eruptions in a granite zone; as they belong to the shore of the basin of the steppes, as the basalts of Harutsh belong to the shore of the desert of Sahara; and lastly, as they are the only rocks of the kind we observed in the mountains of the Capitania-General of Caracas, which are also destitute of trachytes or trap-porphyry, basalts, and volcanic productions.+ The southern declivity of the western chain is tolerably steep the steppes, according to my barometrical measurements, being a thousand feet lower than the bottom of the basin of Aragua.

From the extensive table-land of the Villa de Cura we descended towards the banks of the Rio Tucutunemo, which has hollowed for itself, in a serpentine rock, a longitudinal valley running from east to west, at nearly the same level as La Victoria. A transverse valley, lying generally north and south, led us into the Llanos, by ;

* For instance, at Krobsdorf, in Silesia, a stratum of basalt has been recognized in the mica-slate by two celebrated geologists, M M . von Buch and Raumer. ( V o m Granite des Riesengehirges, 1 8 1 3 . ) † The grünsteins or diabases of the Fichtelgebirge, in Franconia, which belong to the transition-slate, sometimes conain pyroxenes. + From the Rio Negro to the coasts of Cumana and Caracas, to the of the mountains of Mericia, which we did not visit.

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BASIN OF THE LLANOS.

the villages o f Parapara and O r t i z .

I t g r o w s very narrow in several parts. Basins, t h e b o t t o m s o f which are perfectly horizontal, c o m m u n i c a t e t o g e t h e r b y narrow passes with steep declivities. T h e y were, n o d o u b t , formerly small lakes, w h i c h , o w i n g t o t h e accumulation o f the waters, o r some more violent catastrophe, have b r o k e n d o w n t h e dykes b y which they w e r e separated.

This p h e n o m e n o n is found in b o t h c o n t i n e n t s , wherever w e examine t h e longitudinal valleys forming the passages o f the A n d e s , the A l p s , * o r the P y r e n e e s . I t is probable, that the irruption o f t h e waters towards the L l a n o s have given, b y extraordinary rents, t h e form o f ruins t o t h e M o r r o s o f San Juan and o f San Sebastian.

T h e volcanic tract o f Parapara a n d Ortis is n o w o n l y 3 0 o r 4 0 toises above t h e L l a n o s . T h e eruptions consequently t o o k place at t h e lowest point o f the granitic chain.

I n t h e M e s a d e Paja, i n t h e ninth degree o f latitude, w e entered the basin of the Llanos. T h e sun was almost at its z e n i t h ; t h e earth, wherever it appeared sterile and destitute o f vegetation, was at t h e temperature o f 4 8 ° o r 50°.† N o t a breath o f air was felt at the height at which w e w e r e o n o u r m u l e s ; y e t , i n the midst o f this apparent calm, whirls o f dust incessantly arose, driven o n b y those small currents o f air which glide o n l y over t h e surface o f t h e g r o u n d , and are occasioned by t h e difference o f temperature between the naked sand and the spots covered with grass.

These sand-winds a u g m e n t the suffocating beat o f the air.

E v e r y grain o f quartz, hotter than the surrounding air, radiates heat in every d i r e c t i o n ; and it is difficult t o o b serve the temperature o f the atmosphere, o w i n g t o these particles o f sand striking against t h e b u l b o f the t h e r m o meter.

A l l around us the plains seemed t o ascend t o t h e sky, and the vast and p r o f o u n d solitude appeared like an o c e a n covered with sea-weed.

A c c o r d i n g t o t h e unequal mass o f vapours diffused t h r o u g h t h e atmosphere, and t h e variable d e c r e m e n t in the temperature o f the different strata o f air, the horizon in s o m e parts was clear and d i s t i n c t ; in other parts it appeared undulating, sinuous, and as if striped. * For example, the road from the valley of Ursern to the Hospice o f St. Gothard, and thence to Airolo. † A thermometer, placed in the sand, rose to 38-4° and 40° Reaumur.

DREARY ASPECT OF PLAINS.

85

T h e earth there was c o n f o u n d e d with the sky. T h r o u g h t h e dry mist and strata o f vapour the trunks o f palm-trees were seen from afar, stripped of their foliage and their verdant summits, and l o o k i n g like the masts o f a ship descried u p o n the horizon.

T h e r e is s o m e t h i n g awful, as well as sad and g l o o m y , in the uniform aspect o f these steppes.

E v e r y t h i n g seems m o t i o n l e s s ; scarcely does a small cloud, passing across the zenith, and d e n o t i n g the approach o f t h e rainy season, cast its shadow on the earth.

I k n o w n o t w h e t h e r the first aspect o f the L l a n o s excite less astonishment than that o f t h e chain o f the A n d e s .

M o u n t a i n o u s countries, wnatever m a y b e the absolute elevation o f t h e highest s u m m i t s , have an anologous p h y s i o g n o m y ; but we accustom ourselves with difficulty t o the view o f the L l a n o s o f V e n e z u e l a and Casanare, t o that o f the Pampas o f B u e n o s A y r e s and o f C h a c o , which recal t o m i n d incessantly, and d u r i n g j o u r n e y s o f twenty or thirty days, the smooth surface o f the o c e a n .

I had seen the plains o r llanos o f L a M a n c h a in Spain, a n d the heaths (ericeta) that extend from t h e e x t r e m i t y o f J u t land, through L u n e b u r g and Westphalia, t o Belgium. T h e s e last are really steppes, and, during several ages, o n l y small portions o f t h e m have y i e l d e d t o c u l t i v a t i o n ; b u t the plains of the west and north o f E u r o p e present o n l y a feeble image o f the i m m e n s e llanos o f South A m e r i c a . I t is in the s o u t h east o f our c o n t i n e n t , in H u n g a r y , b e t w e e n the D a n u b e and the T h e i s s ; in Russia, b e t w e e n t h e B o r y s t h e n e s , the D o n , and the V o l g a , that w e find those vast pastures, which s e e m t o have b e e n levelled b y a l o n g a b o d e o f the waters, and Which m e e t the horizon o n every side. T h e plains o f H u n g r y , w h e r e I traversed t h e m o n the frontiers o f G e r m a n y , between P r e s b u r g and Ĺ’ d e n b u r g , strike the imagination o f the traveller b y t h e constant m i r a g e ; b u t their greatest extent is m o r e t o the east, b e t w e e n Czegled, D e b r e c z i n , and Tittel.

T h e r e t h e y present the appearance o f a vast o c e a n of verdure, having only t w o outlets, o n e near G r a n and W a i t z e n , the other b e t w e e n B e l g r a d e and W i d d i n .

T h e different quarters o f the w o r l d have b e e n s u p p o s e d t o be characterized by the remark, that E u r o p e has its heaths, Asia its steppes, A f r i c a its deserts, and A m e r i c a its savannahs ; but by this distinction, contrasts are established that

86

HEATHS AND DESERTS.

are n o t founded either o n the nature o f things, o r the genius o f languages. T h e existence o f a heath always s u p poses an association o f plants o f the family o f ericĂŚ; the steppes o f A s i a are n o t everywhere covered with saline p l a n t s ; the savannahs o f V e n e z u e l a furnish n o t only the gramina, b u t with them small herbaceous mimosas, l e g u mina, and other dicotyledonous plants. T h e plains o f S o n garia, those which extend between the D o n and the V o l g a , and the puszta o f H u n g a r y , are real savannahs, pasturages a b o u n d i n g in g r a s s e s ; * while the savannahs to the east and west o f the R o c k y M o u n t a i n s and o f N e w M e x i c o p r o d u c e c h e n o p o d i u m s containing carbonate and muriate o f soda.

A s i a has real deserts destitute o f vegetation, in Arabia, in G o b i , and in Persia. Since w e have b e c o m e b e t t e r a c quainted with the deserts in the interior o f Africa, so l o n g and so vaguely c o n f o u n d e d t o g e t h e r u n d e r the name o f desert o f Sahara ( Z a h r a ) ; it has been observed, that in this continent, towards the east, savannahs and pastures are found, as in A r a b i a , situated in the midst o f naked and barren tracts.

I t is these deserts, covered with gravel and destitute o f plants, which are almost entirely wanting in the N e w W o r l d .

I saw t h e m o n l y in that part o f Peru, between A m o t a p o and C o q u i m b o , on the shores o f the Pacific. T h e s e are called by the Spaniards, n o t llanos, * These vast steppes of Hungary are elevated only thirty or forty toises above the level of the sea, which is more than eighty leagues distant from them. (See Wahlenberg's Flora Carpathianica.)

Baron Podmanitzky, an Hungarian nobleman, highly distinguished for his knowledge of the physical sciences, caused the level of these plains to be taken, to facilitate the formation of a canal then projected between the Danube and the Theiss.

He found the line of division, or the convexity of the ground, which slopes on each side towards the beds of the two rivers, to be only thirteen toises above the height of the Danube.

The widely extended pastures, which reach in every direction to the horizon, are called in the country, Puszta, and, over a distance of many leagues, are without any human habitation.

Plains of this kind, intermingled with marshes and sandy tracts, are found on the western side of the Theiss, between Czegled, Csaba, Komloss, and Szarwass; and on the eastern side, between Debreczin, Karczag, and Szoboszlo. The area of these plains of the interior basin of Hungary has been estimated, by a pretty accurate calculation, to be between two thousand five hundred and three thousand square leagues (twenty to a degree). Between Czegled, Szolnok, and Ketskemet, the plain resembles a sea of sand.

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87

but the desiertos o f Sechura and A t a c a m e z . This solitary tract is n o t broad, b u t it is four h u n d r e d and forty leagues long. T h e rock pierces everywhere t h o u g h the quicksands.

N o drop o f rain ever falls o n i t ; and, like t h e desert o f Sahara, north o f T i m b u c t o o , the Peruvian desert affords, near H u a u r a , a rich mine o f native salt. E v e r y w h e r e else, in the N e w W o r l d , there are plains desert because n o t inhabited, b u t n o real deserts.* T h e same p h e n o m e n a are repeated in t h e m o s t distant r e g i o n s ; and, instead o f designating those vast treeless plains in accordance with t h e nature o f the plants t h e y produce, it seems natural t o class them into deserts, steppes, o r savannahs; i n t o bare lands without any appearance o f vegetation, and lands covered with gramina o r small plants o f the dicotyledonous tribe. T h e savannahs o f A m e r i c a , especially those o f the temperate zone, have in m a n y w o r k s been designated b y the French t e r m p r a i r i e s ; b u t this appears t o m e little applicable t o pastures which are often very dry, though c o v e r e d with grass o f four o r five feet in height. T h e Llanos and the Pampas o f South A m e r i c a are really steppes. T h e y are covered with beautiful verdure in the rainy season, b u t in t h e time o f great d r o u g h t they assume the aspect o f a desert. T h e grass is then r e d u c e d t o p o w d e r ; the earth c r a c k s ; the alligators and the great serpents remain buried in t h e dried m u d , till awakened from their l o n g lethargy b y the first showers o f spring.

These phenomena are observed on barren tracts o f fifty o r sixty leagues in length, wherever the savannahs are n o t traversed by r i v e r s ; for o n the borders o f rivulets, and around little pools o f stagnant water, t h e traveller finds at certain distances, even during the period o f the great d r o u g h t s , thickets o f mauritia, a palm, the leaves o f which spread o u t like a fan, and preserve a brilliant verdure.

T h e steppes o f A s i a are all b e y o n d the tropics, and form very elevated table-lands. A m e r i c a also has savannahs o f * W e are almost tempted, however, to give the name of desert to that vast and sandy table-land of Brazil, the Campos dos Parecis, which gives birth to the rivers Tapajos, Pariguay, and Madeira, and which reaches the summit of the highest mountains. Almost destitute of vegetation, it reminds us of Gobi, in Mongolia.

88

LEVEL

ASPECT OF THE STEPPES.

considerable extent o n the backs o f the mountains o f M e x i c o , P e r u , and Q u i t o ; b u t its most extensive steppes, the L l a n o s o f Cumana, Caracas, and M e t a , are little raised above the level o f the ocean, and all b e l o n g to the equinoctial z o n e .

These circumstances give them a peculiar character.

They have not, like the steppes o f southern Asia, and the deserts o f Persia, those lakes without issue, those small systems o f rivers which lose themselves either in the sands, o r b y s u b terranean filtrations. T h e L l a n o s o f A m e r i c a incline to t h e east and s o u t h ; and their r u n n i n g waters are branches o f the O r i n o c o .

T h e course o f these rivers o n c e led m e t o believe, that the plains formed table-lands, raised at least from one hundred to o n e hundred and fifty toises above the level o f the ocean.

I supposed that the deserts o f interior Africa were also at a considerable h e i g h t ; and that they rose o n e above another as in tiers, from the coast to the interior o f the c o n t i n e n t .

N o barometer has yet been carried into the Sahara.

With respect t o the L l a n o s o f A m e r i c a , I found b y barometric heights observed at Calabozo, at the Villa del P a o , and at the mouth o f the M e t a , that their height is only forty o r fifty toises above t h e level o f the sea. T h e fall o f the rivers is extremely gentle, often nearly i m p e r c e p t i b l e ; and therefore the least wind, or the swelling o f the O r i n o c o , causes a reflux in those rivers that flow into it. T h e Indians believe themselves t o b e descending - during a w h o l e day, w h e n navigating from the m o u t h s o f these rivers to their sources.

T h e descending waters are separated from those that flow back b y a great b o d y o f stagnant water, in which, the equilibrium being disturbed, whirlpools are formed very dangerous for boats.

T h e chief characteristic of the savannahs or steppes o f South A m e r i c a is the absolute want o f hills and inequalities, — t h e perfect level o f every part o f the soil.

Accordingly the Spanish conquerors, w h o first penetrated from C o r o t o the banks o f the A pure, did n o t call them deserts o r savannahs, o r meadows, but plains ( l l a n o s ) .

Often within a distance o f thirty square leagues there is n o t an e m i n e n c e o f a foot high. This resemblance to the surface o f the sea strikes the imagination most powerfully where the plains are

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LLANOS.

89

altogether destitute o f p a l m - t r e e s ; and where the mountains o f the shore and o f the O r i n o c o are so distant that they cannot b e seen, as in the M e s a de Pavones. A person would be tempted there to take the altitude o f the sun with a quadrant, if the horizon o f the land were n o t constantly misty o n account o f the variable effects o f refraction.

This equality of surface is still m o r e perfect in the meridian o f Calabozo, than towards the east, b e t w e e n Cari, L a Villa del P a o , and N u e v a B a r c e l o n a ; b u t it extends without interruption from the mouths o f the O r i n o c o t o L a Villa de A r a u r e and t o OspiĂąos, o n a parallel o f a hundred and eighty leagues in length ; and from San Carlos t o the savannahs o f Caqueat, on a meridian o f t w o hundred leagues. I t particularly characterises t h e N e w C o n t i n e n t , as it does the l o w steppes o f Asia, b e t w e e n the B o r y s t h e n e s and the V o l g a , b e t w e e n t h e Irtish and the O b i . T h e deserts o f central Africa, o f A r a b i a , Syria, and Persia, G o b i , and Casna, present, on the contrary, many inequalities, ranges o f hills, ravines without water, and rocks which pierce the sands.

The Llanos, however, notwithstanding the apparent u n i formity o f their surface, present t w o kinds o f inequalities, which c a n n o t escape the observation o f the traveller.

The first is k n o w n b y the name o f banks ( b a n c o s ) ; they are in reality shoals in the basin o f the steppes, fractured strata o f sandstone, o r c o m p a c t limestone, standing four o r five feet higher than t h e rest o f the plain. T h e s e banks are s o m e tunes three o r four leagues in length ; they are entirely smooth, with a horizontal s u r f a c e ; their existence is p e r ceived only by examining their margins. T h e second species of inequality can b e recognised only b y geodesical o r barometric levellings, o r b y the course o f rivers. I t is called a mesa o r table, and is c o m p o s e d o f small flats, o r rather convex eminences, that rise insensibly t o the height o f a few toises. Such are, towards the east, in the province o f Cumana, o n the north o f t h e Villa de la M e r c e d and C a n delaria, the M e s a s o f A m a n a , o f G u a n i p a , and o f J o n o r o , t h e direction o f which is south-west and n o r t h - e a s t ; and w h i c h , in spite o f their inconsiderable elevation, divide the waters between the O r i n o c o and the northern coast o f Terra F i r m a .

The convexity o f the savannah alone occasions this partition : we there find the ‘dividing o f the waters’ (divortia aqua-

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MOUNTAIN

CHAINS.

r u m * ) , as in Poland, w h e r e , far from the Carpathian m o u n tains, the plain itself divides the waters b e t w e e n the Baltic and the Black Sea. G e o g r a p h e r s , w h o suppose the existence o f a chain o f mountains wherever there is a line o f division, have n o t failed to mark o n e in the maps, at the sources o f t h e B i o N e v e r i , the U n a r e , the Guarapiche, and the P a o . T h u s the priests o f M o n g o l race, according t o ancient and superstitious c u s t o m , erect oboes, o r little m o u n d s o f stone, o n every p o i n t where the rivers flow in an opposite direct ion.

T h e uniform landscapo o f the L l a n o s ; the extremely small number o f their inhabitants; the fatigue o f travelling beneath a burning sky, and an atmosphere darkened by d u s t ; the view o f that horizon, which seems for ever t o fly before us ; those lonely trunks o f palm-trees, which have ail the same aspect, and which we despair o f reaching, because they are c o n f o u n d e d with other trunks that rise by degrees o n the visual h o r i z o n ; all these causes c o m b i n e to make the steppes appear far m o r e extensive than they are in reality.

T h e planters who inhabit the southern declivity o f the chain o f the coast see the steppes e x t e n d towards the south, as far as the eye can reach, like an ocean o f verdure. T h e y k n o w that from the D e l t a o f the O r i n o c o t o the province o f Varinas, and thence, by traversing the banks o f the M e t a , the Guaviare, and t h e C a g u a n , they can advance three hundred and eighty leagues†into the plains, first from east t o west, and then from north-east t o south-east b e y o n d t h e E q u a t o r , to the foot o f the A n d e s o f P a s t o . T h e y k n o w b y t h e accounts o f travellers the Pampas o f B u e n o s A y r e s , which are also L l a n o s c o v e r e d with line grass, destitute o f trees, and filled with o x e n and horses b e c o m e wild.

T h e y suppose that, a c c o r d i n g t o the greater part o f o u r maps o f A m e r i c a , this c o n t i n e n t has only o n e chain o f m o u n tains, that o f the A n d e s , which stretches from south t o n o r t h ; and t h e y form a vague idea o f the contiguity o f all the plains from the O r i n o c o and the A p u r e t o the Rio de la Plata and the Straits o f M a g e l l a n .

W i t h o u t s t o p p i n g here to give a mineralogical description * “ C. MMANLIUMprope jugis [Tauri] ad divortia aquarum castra posuisse." Livy, lib. 38, c. 75. †This is the distance from Timbuctoo to the northern coast of Africa.

POINTS OF RESEMBLANCE.

91

of the transverse chains which divide A m e r i c a from east t o west, it will be sufficient t o notice the general structure o f a continent, the extremities o f which, t h o u g h situated in climates little analogous, nevertheless present several features of resemblance. I n order to have an exact idea o f the plains, their configuration, and their limits, w e must k n o w the chains o f mountains that form their houndaries. We have already described t h e Cordillera o f the coast, o f which the highest summit is t h e Silla de Caraccas, and which is linked b y t h e Paramo de las Rosas to the Nevada de M e r i d a , and t h e A n d e s o f N e w Grenada. W e have seen that, in the tenth degree o f north latitude, it stretches from Q u i b o r and B a r quesimeto as far as t h e point of Paria. A second chain of mountains, o r rather a less elevated b u t much larger g r o u p , extends between the parallels o f 3° and 7° from the m o u t h s of the Guaviare and the Meta to the sources o f the O r i n o c o , the M a r o n y , and the Essequibo, towards French and D u t c h Guiana, I call this chain t h e Cordillera o f Parime, o r of the great cataracts of the O r i n o c o .

I t m a y be followed f o r a length o f two hundred and fifty leagues ; b u t it is less a chain, than a collection o f granitic mountains, separated b y small plains, without b e i n g everywhere disposed in lines.

The g r o u p o f the mountains of Parime narrows considerably between the sources of t h e O r i n o c o a n d t h e mountains of Demerara, in the Sierras o f Quimiropaca and Pacaraimo, which divide t h e waters b e t w e e n t h e Carony and t h e Rio Parime, o r Rio de A g u a s Blancas. This is the scene of t h e expeditions which were undertaken in search o f El D o r a d o , and the great city of Manoa, t h e T i m b u c t o o o f the N e w C o n s e n t . T h e Cordillera o f Parime does n o t j o i n the A n d e s of New Grenada, b u t is separated from t h e m b y a space e i g h t y leagues broad.

I f w e suppose it t o have been destroyed in this space by s o m e great revolution o f t h e g l o b e ( w h i c h is scarcely probable) we must admit that it anciently branched on from the A n d e s b e t w e e n Santa Fé d o Bogotáand P a m plona. This remark serves t o fix more easily in the m e m o r y of the reader t h e geographical position o f a Cordillera till now very imperfectly k n o w n .

A third chain o f mountains unites in 16° a n d 18° south latitude ( b y Santa Cruz de la Sierra, the Serranias of A g u a p e h y , a n d t h e famous

92

THREE DESCRITPTIONS OF PLAINS.

C a m p o s d o s Parocis) t h e A n d e s o f P e r u , t o the mountains o f Brazil.

I t is the Cordillera o f Chiquitos which widens i n the Capitania de M i n a s G e r ã e s , and divides the rivers flowing i n t o t h e A m a z o n from those o f the Rio de la Plata,* not only in t h e interior o f t h e c o u n t r y , i n the meridian o f Villa B o a , b u t also at a f e w leagues from t h e coast, b e t w e e n Rio J a n e i r o and Bahia.† T h e s e three transverse chains, o r rather these three g r o u p s o f mountains stretching from west t o cast, within t h e limits o f the torrid zone, are separated by tracts entirely level, the plains o f Caracas, o r o f t h e L o w e r O r i n o c o ; t h e plains o f t h e A m a z o n and t h e Rio N e g r o ; and the plains o f B u e n o s A y r e s , o r o f L a Plata. I use t h e term plains, because t h e L o w e r O r i n o c o and t h e A m a z o n , far from flowing in a valley, form b u t a little furrow in t h e midst T h e t w o basins, placed at the extremio f a vast level. ties o f South America, are savannahs o r steppes, pasturage w i t h o u t t r e e s ; t h e intermediate basin, which receives t h e equatorial rains during the whole year, is almost entirely o n e vast forest, t h r o u g h which n o other roads are k n o w n save the rivers.

T h e strong vegetation which conceals t h e soil, renders also t h e uniformity o f its level less p e r c e p t i b l e ; and the plains o f Caracas and La Plata hear n o other name.

T h e three basins we have j u s t described are called, in the language o f the colonists, the L l a n o s o f Varinas and o f Caracas, the bosques o r selvas (forests) o f the A m a z o n , and the Pampas o f Buenos A y r e s .

T h e trees n o t only for t h e m o s t part c o v e r t h e plains o f the A m a z o n , from t h e C o r dillera de Chiquitos, as far as that o f P a r i m e ; they also c r o w n these t w o chains o f mountains, which rarely attain the height o f the Pyrenees.+ O n this account, the vast plains o f the A m a z o n , the .Madeira, and the Rio N e g r o , are n o t so distinctly bounded as the Llanos o f Caracas, and the * There is only a portage or carrying-place of 5,322 braças between the Guapore (a branch of the Marmore and of the Madeira), and the Rio Aguapehy (a branch of the Jaura and of the Paraguay). † The Cordillera of Chiquitos and of Brazil stretches toward the southeast, in the government of the Rio Grande, beyond the latitude of 30° south. + W e must except the most western part of the Cordillera of Chiquitos, between Cochabamba and Santa Cruz de la Sierra, where the summits

GEOLOGICAL

PHENOMENA.

93

Pampas o f B u e n o s A y r e s . A s the region o f forests c o m prises at o n c e the plains and the mountains, it extends from 18° south t o 7° and 8° n o r t h , * and o c c u p i e s an extent o f near a hundred and t w e n t y thousand square leagues.

This forest o f South A m e r i c a , for in fact there is only o n e , is six times larger than F r a n c e .

I t is k n o w n t o E u r o p e a n s o n l y o n the shores o f a few rivers, b y which it is traversed ; and has its o p e n i n g s , the extent o f which is in p r o p o r t i o n t o that o f the forests. W e shall s o o n skirt the marshy savannahs, b e t w e e n the U p p e r O r i n o c o , the Conorichite, and the Cassiquiare, in the latitude o f 3° and 4 ° . T h e r e are other o p e n i n g s , o r as they are called, ‘ clear savannahs,’† in the same parallel, b e t w e e n the sources o f the M a o and the B i o de A g u a s Blancas, south o f the Sierra de Pacaraima. T h e s e last savannahs, which are inhabited b y Caribs, and n o m a d Macusis, lie near t h e frontiers o f D u t c h and F r e n c h Guiana.

H a v i n g noticed the geological constitution o f South A m e rica, w e shall n o w mark its principal features. T h e western coasts are bordered b y an e n o r m o u s wall o f mountains, rich in precious metals wherever volcanic fire has not pierced through the eternal snow.

This i s the Cordillera o f the Andes.

Summits o f trap-porphyry rise b e y o n d three t h o u sand three hundred toises, and the mean height o f the chain + is o n e thousand eight hundred and fifty toises.

It stretches in the direction o f a meridian, and sends into each hemisphere a lateral branch, in the latitudes o f 10° n o r t h , and 16° and 18° south. T h e first o f these t w o branches, that o f the coast o f Caracas, is o f considerable length, and forms in fact a chain. T h e second branch, the Cordillera o f are covered with snow; but this colossal group almost belongs to the Andes de la Paz, of which it forms a promontory or spur, directed toward the east. * To the west, in consequence of the Llanos of Manso, and the Pampas de Huanacos, the forests do not extend generally beyond the parallels of 18° or 19° south latitude; but to the east, in Brazil (in the capitanias of San Pablo and Rio Grande), as well as in Paraguay, on the borders of the Parana, they advance as far as 25° south. † Savannas limpias, that is to say, clear of trees. + In New Grenada, Quito, and Peru, according to measurements

taken by Bouguer, La Condamine, and myself.

94

SMALL ELEVATION

OF THE LLANOS.

Chiquitos and o f t h e sources o f the G u a p o r e , is very rich in g o l d , and widens toward the east, in Brazil, into vast tablelands, having a mild and temperate climate. B e t w e e n these t w o transverse chains, c o n t i g u o u s t o the A n d e s , an isolated g r o u p o f granitic mountains is situated, from 3째 t o 7째 north l a t i t u d e ; which also runs parallel t o t h e Equator, b u t , n o t passing the meridian o f 71째, terminates abruptly towards the w e s t , and is not united to the A n d e s o f .New Grenada.

These three transverse chains have no active v o l c a n o s ; we k n o w n o t whether the most southern, like the t w o others, b e destitute o f trachytes or trap-porphyry. N o n e o f their summits enter the limit o f perpetual s n o w ; and the mean height o f the Cordillera o f L a Parime, and o f the littoral chain o f Caracas, does n o t reach six hundred toises, t h o u g h some o f its summits rise fourteen hundred toises above the level o f the sea.* T h e three transverse chains are separated b y plains entirely closed towards the west, and o p e n towards the east and south-east.

W h e n we reflect o n their small elevation above the surface o f the ocean, we are t e m p t e d to consider them as gulfs stretching in the direction o f the c u r rent o f rotation.

If, from the effect of some peculiar attraction, the waters o f the Atlantic w e r e to rise fifty toises at the m o u t h o f the O r i n o c o , and t w o hundred toises at the mouth o f t h e A m a z o n , t h e flood would submerge more than the half o f South A m e r i c a . T h e eastern declivity, o r t h e foot o f the A n d e s , n o w six hundred leagues distant from t h e coast o f Brazil, would b e c o m e a shore beaten by t h e waves.

This consideration is the result o f a barometric measurement, taken in t h e p r o v i n c e o f Jaen d o Bracamoros, where t h e river Amazon issues from the Cordilleras. I found the mean height o f this immense river only one hundred and ninetyfour toises above t h e present level o f the Atlantic. T h e intermediate plains, however, covered with forests, are still five times higher than the Pampas o f Buenos A y r e s , and the grass-covered Llanos o f Caracas and the M e l a .

T h o s e Llanos which form the basin o f the O r i n o c o , a n d which w e crossed twice in o n e year, in the m o n t h s o f M a r c h * W e do not reckon here, as belonging to the chain of the coast, the Nevados and Paramos of Merida and of Truxillo, which are a prolongs tion of the Andes of New Grenada.

CONNEXION

OF

THE

PLAINS.

95

and J u l y , c o m m u n i c a t e with the basin o f the A m a z o n and the Rio N e g r o , b o u n d e d o n o n e side b y t h e Cordillera o f Chiquitos, and o n the other b y the mountains o f Parime.

T h e o p e n i n g w h i c h is left b e t w e e n the latter and t h e Andes o f N e w Grenada, occasions this c o m m u n i c a t i o n . T h e aspect o f the c o u n t r y here reminds u s , b u t o n a m u c h larger scale, o f the plains o f L o m b a r d y , which also are o n l y fifty or sixty toises above the level o f the o c e a n ; and are directed first from L a P r e n t a t o T u r i n , east and w e s t ; a n d then from T u r i n to Coni, north and south. I f w e w e r e authorized, from other geological facts, t o regard the three great plains o f t h e L o w e r O r i n o c o , the A m a z o n , and t h e Rio de la Plata as basins o f ancient lakes,* w e should imagine w e perceived in the plains o f the Rio V i c h a d a and the M e t a , a channel b y which the waters o f the u p p e r lake (those o f the plains o f t h e A m a z o n ) forced their w a y towards the lower basin, (that o f the L l a n o s o f Caracas,) separating the Cordillera o f L a Parime from that o f t h e A n d e s . This channel is a kind o f land-strait. T h e g r o u n d , which is perfectly level b e t w e e n the Guaviare, the M e t a , and the A p u r e , displays n o vestige o f a violent irruption o f the w a t e r s ; b u t o n the e d g e o f the Cordillera o f Parime, between the latitudes o f 4째 and 7째, the O r i n o c o , flowing in a westerly direction from its source t o the mouth o f the Guaviare, has f o r c e d its way through the r o c k s , directing its course from south t o north. A l l the great cataracts, as we shall soon see, are within the latitudes j u s t named.

W h e n t h e river has reached the m o u t h o f the A p u r e in that very low g r o u n d whore t h e slope towards the north is m e t b y the counter-slope towards the south-east, that is t o say, b y the inclination o f t h e plains which rise imperceptibly towards the mountains o f Caracas, the river turns anew and flows eastward. I t appeared t o m e , that it was p r o p e r t o fix the attention o f the reader o n these singular inflexions of the O r i n o c o because, b e l o n g i n g at o n c e t o t w o basins, its course marks, in s o m e sort, even o n the m o s t imperfect maps, the direction o f that part o f the plains intervening * In Siberia, the great steppes between the Irtish and the Obi, especially that of Baraba, full of salt lakes (Tchabakly, Tchany, Karasouk, and Topolony), appear to have been, according to the Chinese traditions, even within historical times, an inland sea.

96

ANCIENT NATIVE

REMAINS.

b e t w e e n N e w G r e n a d a and t h e western b o r d e r o f t h e mountains o f L a Parime.

T h e L l a n o s o r steppes o f t h e L o w e r O r i n o c o and o f t h e M e t a , like t h e deserts o f Africa, bear different names i n different parts. F r o m t h e mouths o f the Dragon the L l a n o s o f Cumana, o f Barcelona, and o f Caracas o r Venezuela,* follow, running f r o m east t o west. W h e r e the steppes t u r n towards t h e s o u t h a n d s o u t h - s o u t h - w e s t , from the l a t i t u d e o f 8 ° , b e t w e e n t h e meridians o f 7 0 ° a n d 7 3 ° , w e find from north t o south, t h e L l a n o s o f Varinas, Casanare, the M e t a , Guaviare, Caguau, and Caqueta.† T h e plains o f Varinas contain some f e w m o n u m e n t s o f t h e industry o f a n a t i o n t h a t h a s diappeared.

B e t w e e n Mijagual and the Caño d e la Hacha, w e f i n d s o m e r e a l tumuli, c a l l e d in the country the Serillos de loS Indios.

T h e y a r e h i l l o c k s in t h e s h a p e o f

cones,

artificially formed o f earth, and probably contain hones, l i k e t h e tumuli in t h e steppes o f A s i a . A fine road is also discovered near Hato d e la Calzada, b e t w e e n Varinas a n d Canagua, five leagues l o n g , made before t h e c o n q u e s t , in the m o s t r e m o t e times, by the natives.

It is a causeway o f earth fifteen feet high, crossing a plain often overflowed.

D i d nations farther advanced in civilization descend from t h e mountains o f Truxillo a n d M e r i d o t o t h e plains o f t h e Rio A p u r e ? The Indians w h o m w e n o w find between this river a n d t h e M e t a , are in t o o rude a state t o think o f making roads o r raising tumuli.

I calculated t h e area o f these L l a n o s from t h e Caqueta t o t h e A p u r e , and from t h e A p u r e t o t h e D e l t a o f the O r i n o c o , and found t o b o i t seventeen thousand square * The following are subdivisions of these three great Llanos, as I marked them down on the spot.

The Llanos of Cumana and New Andalusia include those of Maturin and Terecen, of Amana, Guanipa, Jonoro, and Cari.

The Llanos of Nueva Barcelona comprise those of Aragua, Pariaguan, and Villa del Pao. W e distinguish in the Llanos of Caracas those of Chaguaramas, Uritucu, Calabozo or Guarico, La Portuguesa, San Carlos, and Araure. † The inhabitants of these plains distinguish as subdivisions, from the Rio Portuguesa to Caqueta, the Llanos of Guanare, Bocono, Nutrius or the Apure, Palmerito near Quintero, Guardalito and Arauca, the Meta, Apiay near the port of Pachaquiaro, Vichada, Guaviare, Arriari, Inirida, the Rio Hacha, and Caguan.

The limits between the savannahs and the forests, in the plains that extend from the sources of the Rio Negro to Putumayo, are not sufficiently known.

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IMMENSE EXTENT OF THE PAMPAS.

leagues t w e n t y t o a degree. T h e part r u n n i n g from north to south is almost d o u b l e that which stretches from east t o west, b e t w e e n t h e L o w e r O r i n o c o and the littoral chain o f Caracas.

T h e Pampas on the north and north-west o f Buenos A y r e s , b e t w e e n this city and Cordova, J u j u y , and the T u c u m a n , are o f nearly t h e same e x t e n t as the L l a n o s ; but t h e Pampas stretch still farther o n t o t h e l e n g t h o f 18° s o u t h w a r d ; and t h e land they o c c u p y is so vast, that they p r o d u c e palm-trees at o n e of their extremities, while the other, equally l o w and level, is c o v e r e d with eternal frost.

T h e L l a n o s o f A m e r i c a , w h e r e they e x t e n d in the d i r e c tion o f a parallel o f the equator, are three-fourths narrower than the great desert o f Africa. This circumstance is very important in a r e g i o n where the w i n d s constantly b l o w from east t o west. T h e farther the plains stretch in this direction, the m o r e ardent is their climate. T h e great ocean o f wind in A f r i c a c o m m u n i c a t e s b y Y e m e n * with Gedrosia and Beloochistan, as far as the right bank o f the I n d u s . I t is from the effect o f winds that have passed over the deserts situated t o t h e east, that t h e little basin o f the B e d Sea, surrounded b y plains w h i c h send forth from all sides radiant caloric, is o n e o f the hottest r e g i o n s o f the g l o b e .

The unfortunate captain T u c k e y relates,† that t h e c e n t i grade t h e r m o m e t e r keeps there generally i n t h e n i g h t at and b y day from 4 0 ° t o 4 4 ° . W e shall soon see that, even in the w e s t e r n m o s t part o f the steppes o f Caracas, w e seldom f o u n d t h e temperature o f t h e air, i n the shade, above 3 7 ° . * W e cannot be surprised that the Arabic should be richer than any other language of the East in words expressing the ideas of desert, uninhabited plains, and plains covered with gramina. I could give a list of thirty-five of these words, which the Arabian authors employ without always distinguishing them by the shades of meaning which each separate word expresses.

Makadh and kaâh indicate, in preference, plains; bakaâh, a table-land; kafr, mikfar, smlis, mahk, and habaucer, a naked desert, covered with sand and gravel; tanufah, a steppe. Zahra means at once a naked desert and a savannah. The word steppe, or step, is Russian, and not Tartarian.

In the Turco-Tartar dialect a heath is called tala or tschol.

The word gobi, which Europeans have corrupted into cobi, signifies in the Mongol tongue a naked desert. It is equivalent to the scha-mo or khan-hai of the Chinese. A steppe, or plain covered with herbs, is in Mongol, kudah ; in Chinese, kouang. † Expedition to explore the river Zahir, 1818.

VOL. I I .

H

98

INFLUENCE ON THE

INHABITANTS.

T h e s e physical considerations o n t h e steppes o f the N e w W o r l d are linked with others m o r e interesting, inasmuch as t h e y are c o n n e c t e d with the history o f o u r speeies.

The great sea o f sand in Africa, the deserts w i t h o u t water, are frequented only b y caravans, that take fifty days t o traverse t h e m . * Separating t h e N e g r o race f r o m t h e M o o r s , a n d the Berber and Kahyle tribes, the Sahara is inhabited only in the oases. I t affords pasturage o n l y in the eastern part, where, from the effect o f the trade-winds, the layer o f sand being less thick, t h e springs appear at the surface o f the earth. I n A m e r i c a , t h e steppes, less vast, less scorching, fertilized by fine rivers, present fewer obstacles t o the interc o u r s e o f nations. T h e L l a n o s separate the chain o f the coast o f Caracas and the A n d e s o f N e w G r e n a d a from t h e region o f f o r e s t s ; from that w o o d y r e g i o n o f the O r i n o c o which, from the first discovery o f America, has been inhabited b y nations m o r e r u d e , and farther r e m o v e d from civilization, than the inhabitants o f t h e coast, and still m o r e than the mountaineers o f t h e Cordilleras.

T h e steppes, however, were no m o r e heretofore the rampart o f civilization than t h e y are n o w t h e rampart o f t h e liberty o f t h e hordes that live in the forests.

They have not hindered the nations o f the L o w e r O r i n o c o from g o i n g u p the little rivers and making incursions to the north and the west.

If. according to the various distribution o f animals on the g l o b e , the pastoral life c o u l d have existed in the N e w W o r l d , — i f , before the arrival o f the Spaniards, the L l a n o s and the Pampas had b e e n filled with those n u m e r o u s herds o f c o w s and horses that graze there, C o l u m b u s w o u l d have found the human nice in a state quite different.

Pastoral nations living on milk and cheese, real n o m a d races, w o u l d have spread themselves over those vast plains which c o m municate with each other. T h e y w o u l d have been seen at the period o f great d r o u g h t s , and even at that o f inundations, fighting for the possession o f p a s t u r e s ; subjugating o n e another mutually ; and, united b y the c o m m o n tie o f manners, language, and worship, they would have risen t o that state o f demi-civilization which w e observe with surprise in the nations o f the M o n g o l and Tartar race. * This is the maximum of the time, according to Major (Travels of Mungo Park, vol. ii.)

Rennell.

JOURNEY

99

ACROSS THE LLANOS.

A m e r i c a w o u l d then, like t h e c e n t r e o f Asia, have had its conquerors, w h o , ascending from t h e plains t o the t a b l e lands o f the Cordilleras, and a b a n d o n i n g a w a n d e r i n g life, would have subdued the civilized nations o f P e r u and N e w Grenada, overturned the t h r o n e o f the I n c a s and o f t h e Zaque,* and substituted for t h e despotism which is t h e fruit o f t h e o c r a c y , that despotism which arises from the patriarchal g o v e r n m e n t o f a pastoral p e o p l e . I n t h e N e w W o r l d t h e human race has n o t experienced these great moral and political c h a n g e s , because t h e s t e p p e s , t h o u g h more fertile than those o f A s i a , have remained w i t h o u t h e r d s ; because n o n e o f the animals that furnish milk in abundance are natives o f the plains o f South A m e r i c a ; and because, in t h e progressive unfolding o f A m e r i c a n civilization, the intermediate link is w a n t i n g that c o n n e c t s t h e hunting with the agricultural nations.

W e have t h o u g h t p r o p e r t o b r i n g t o g e t h e r these general notions o n t h e plains o f t h e N e w C o n t i n e n t , and the c o n trast they exhibit t o t h e deserts o f A f r i c a and t h e fertile steppes o f A s i a , in order t o give s o m e interest t o the n a r rative o f a j o u r n e y across lands o f so m o n o t o n o u s an aspect.

H a v i n g n o w accomplished this task, I shall trace t h e r o u t e b y which w e p r o c e e d e d from the volcanic mountains o f Parapara and the n o r t h e r n side o f the L l a n o s , to the banks o f the A pure, in the province o f V a r i n a s .

A f t e r having passed t w o nights o n horseback, and s o u g h t in vain, b y day, for s o m e shelter from the heat o f t h e sun beneath the tufts o f the moriche palm-trees, w e arrived before n i g h t at the little Hato del C a y m a n , t called also La Guadaloupe.

I t was a solitary house in the steppes, surr o u n d e d b y a f e w small huts, c o v e r e d with reeds and skins.

T h e cattle, o x e n , horses, and mules are n o t p e n n e d , b u t wander freely over an e x t e n t o f several square leagues.

T h e r e is n o w h e r e any e n c l o s u r e ; m e n , naked to the waist and armed with a lance, ride over the savannahs t o i n s p e c t t h e a n i m a l s ; b r i n g i n g back those that wander t o o far from t h e pastures o f the farm, and b r a n d i n g all that do n o t already bear the mark o f their proprietor. T h e s e mulattos, w h o are k n o w n * The Zaque was the secular chief of Cundinamarca. shared with the high priest (lama) of Iraca. †The Farm of the Alligator.

His power was

H

2

100

HALT AT THE HATO.

b y the n a m e o f peones llaneros, are partly freed-men and partly slaves. T h e y are constantly e x p o s e d t o the b u r n i n g heat o f the tropical sun.

T h e i r f o o d is meat, dried in the air, and a little s a l t e d ; and o f this even their horses s o m e t i m e s partake. B e i n g always in the saddle, they fancy t h e y c a n n o t m a k e the slightest excursion o n f o o t .

We f o u n d an old n e g r o slave, w h o managed the farm in the absence o f his master. H e t o l d us o f herds c o m p o s e d o f several thousand c o w s , that were grazing in the s t e p p e s ; y e t w e a s k e d in vain for a bowl o f milk.

W e were offered, in a calabash, some y e l l o w , m u d d y , and fetid water, drawn from a n e i g h b o u r i n g p o o l . T h e indolence o f the inhabitants o f the L l a n o s is such that they do not dig wells, t h o u g h they know that almost everywhere, at t e n feet d e e p , fine springs are f o u n d in a stratum o f c o n g l o m e r a t e , o r r e d sandstone.

A f t e r suffering during o n e half o f the year from the effect o f inundations, they quietly resign themselves, during the o t h e r half, t o t h e m o s t distressing deprivation o f water.

T h e o l d n e g r o advised us t o c o v e r the c u p with a linen c l o t h , and drink as t h r o u g h a filter, that w e m i g h t n o t b e i n c o m m o d e d b y the smell, and m i g h t swallow less o f the yellowish m u d suspended in t h e water.

W e did not t h e n think that w e should afterwards b e forced, d u r i n g w h o l e m o n t h s , t o have recourse t o this expedient. T h e waters o f the O r i n o c o are always loaded with earthy p a r t i c l e s ; they are even putrid, w h e r e dead bodies o f alligators are f o u n d in the creeks, l y i n g o n banks o f sand, o r half-buried in the mud.

N o s o o n e r w e r e o u r instruments unloaded and safelyplaced, than o u r mules w e r e set at liberty t o g o , as they say

here, para

buscar

agua,

that

is,

“to

search

for

water.�

T h e r e are little pools r o u n d the farm, which the animals find, g u i d e d by their instinct, b y the view o f s o m e scattered tufts o f mauritia, and b y the sensation o f humid c o o l n e s s , caused b y little currents o f air amid an atmosphere which t o us appears calm and tranquil.

W h e n the pools o f water are far distant, and the p e o p l e o f the farm are t o o lazy t o lead the cattle t o these; natural watering-places, they confine t h e m d u r i n g five o r six hours in a very hot stable b e f o r e they let them loose. E x c e s s o f thirst then a u g m e n t s their sagacity, sharpening as it were their senses and their

SEARCH

FOR

WATER.

101

instinct. N o sooner is t h e stable o p e n e d , than t h e horses and mules, especially t h e latter ( f o r the penetration o f these animals e x c e e d s t h e intelligence o f t h e h o r s e s ) , rush i n t o the savannahs. W i t h upraised tails and heads t h r o w n back they run against t h e w i n d , s t o p p i n g from t i m e t o time a s if exploring s p a c e ; they follow less the impressions o f sight than o f s m e l l ; and at l e n g t h a n n o u n c e , b y p r o l o n g e d n e i g h ings, that there is w a t e r in the direction o f their c o u r s e .

A l l these m o v e m e n t s are e x e c u t e d m o r e p r o m p t l y , and with readier success, b y horses b o r n in t h e L l a n o s , and which have l o n g e n j o y e d their liberty, than b y those that c o m e from t h e coast, and descend from d o m e s t i c horses.

In animals, for the m o s t part, as in man, t h e quickness o f t h e senses is diminished by l o n g subjection, and by the habits that arise from a fixed a b o d e and t h e p r o g r e s s o f c u l t i vation.

W e followed o u r mules in search o f o n e o f t h o s e p o o l s , w h e n c e t h e m u d d y water had b e e n drawn, that so ill quenched o u r thirst.

W e w e r e c o v e r e d with dust, and tanned b y the sandy w i n d , which burns t h e skin even m o r e than the rays o f the sun. W e l o n g e d impatiently t o take a bath, b u t we found o n l y a great p o o l o f feculent water, surrounded with palm-trees. T h e water was turbid, t h o u g h , to o u r great astonishment, a little cooler than the air.

A c c u s t o m e d during o u r l o n g j o u r n e y t o bathe whenever w e had an o p p o r t u n i t y , o f t e n several times in o n e day, w e hastened t o plunge* into the p o o l . W e had scarcely b e g u n t o enjoy t h e coolness o f the bath, w h e n a noise which w e heard o n the opposite b a n k , made us leave t h e water p r e c i pitately.

I t was an alligator p l u n g i n g into the mud.

W e w e r e o n l y at the distance o f a quarter o f a l e a g u e from the farm, y e t w e c o n t i n u e d walking m o r e than an h o u r without reaching it. W e perceived t o o late that w e had taken a w r o n g direction. H a v i n g left it at t h e decline o f day, before the stars w e r e visible, w e had g o n e forward into the plain at hazard. W e w e r e , as usual, provided w i t h a c o m p a s s , and it m i g h t have been easy for us to steer o u r course f r o m t h e position o f C a n o p u s and t h e S o u t h e r n C r o s s ; b u t unfortunately w e w e r e uncertain whether, o n leaving the farm, w e had g o n e towards the east o r the south.

We a t t e m p t e d t o return t o t h e spot where w e had bathed,

102

DANGEROUS

SITUATION.

and we again walked three quarters o f an h o u r w i t h o u t finding the p o o l .

W e sometimes t h o u g h t w e saw fire o n t h e h o r i z o n ; b u t it was the light o f the rising stars enlarged b y the vapours. A f t e r having wandered a l o n g time in t h e savannah, w e resolved t o seat ourselves beneath the t r u n k o f a palm-tree, in a spot perfectly dry, s u r r o u n d e d b y short g r a s s ; for the fear o f water-snakes is always greater than that o f jaguars a m o n g E u r o p e a n s recently disembarked.

W e could not flatter ourselves that o u r guides, o f w h o m w e knew the insuperable indolence, would c o m e in search o f us in the savannah before t h e y had prepared their food and finished their repast.

W h i l s t somewhat perplexed b y t h e uncertainty o f o u r situation, we were agreeably affected b y hearing from afar the sound o f a horse advancing towards u s .

T h e rider was an Indian, armed with a lance, w h o had j u s t m a d e the rodeo, o r r o u n d , in order t o collect t h e cattle within a determinate space o f g r o u n d .

T h e sight o f t w o white men, w h o said they had lost their way, led him at first to suspect some trick.

W e found it difficult t o inspire him with c o n f i d e n c e ; he at last consented to g u i d e us t o t h e farm o f the C a y m a n , b u t w i t h o u t slackening the g e n t l e t r o t o f his horse. O u r guides assured u s that “they had already begun to be uneasy a b o u t u s ; ” and, t o justify this inquietude, they gave a long enumeration o f persons w h o , having lost themselves in the L l a n o s , had been found nearly exhausted.

It may be supposed that the danger is immin e n t only to those w h o lose themselves far from any habitation, or who, having been stripped b y r o b b e r s , as has h a p p e n e d o f late years, have been fastened by the body and hands t o the trunk o f a palm-tree.

I n order t o escape as m u c h as possible from the heat o f t h e day, w o set off at t w o in the m o r n i n g , with the h o p e o f reaching Calabozo b e f o r e n o o n , a small b u t busy t r a d i n g t o w n , situated in the midst o f the L l a n o s . T h e aspect o f t h e c o u n t r y was still the same. T h e r e was n o m o o n l i g h t ; b u t the great masses o f nebulæ that spot the southern sky e n lighten, as they set, a part o f the terrestrial horizon.

The solemn spectacle o f the starry vault, seen in its i m m e n s e e x p a n s e ; the cool breeze which blows over the plain d u r i n g t h e n i g h t : — t h e waving motion o f the grass, wherever it has attained any h e i g h t ; everything recalled to o u r minds t h e

EFFECTS OF THE MIRAGE.

103

surface o f t h e o c e a n . T h e illusion w a s augmented w h e n the disk o f t h e s u n appearing o n t h e horizon, repeated i t s image b y t h e effects o f refraction, a n d , s o o n losing i t s flattened f o r m , ascended rapidly a n d straight towards t h e zenith.

Sunrise in t h e plains is t h e coolest m o m e n t o f the d a y ; b u t this c h a n g e o f temperature does n o t make a very lively impression o n t h e organs. W e d i d n o t find t h e t h e r m o m e t e r in general sink below 2 7 5 ; while near A c a p u l c o , at M e x i c o , and in places equally low, the temperature at n o o n is often 3 2 ° , and at sunrise only 17° o r 18°. T h e level surface o f the g r o u n d in the L l a n o s , w h i c h , during t h e day, is n e v e r in t h e shade, absorbs so m u c h heat that, n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g the n o c t u r n a l radiation t o w a r d a s k y w i t h o u t c l o u d s , t h e earth a n d air have n o t time t o c o o l very sensibly from m i d night t o sunrise.

I n proportion as t h e sun rose towards t h e zenith, and t h e earth a n d t h e strata o f s u p e r i n c u m b e n t air t o o k different temperatures, t h e p h e n o m e n o n o f t h e mirage displayed itself i n its n u m e r o u s modifications.

This p h e n o m e n o n is s o c o m m o n i n every z o n e , that I m e n t i o n it only because w e s t o p p e d t o measure with s o m e precision t h e breadth o f t h e aërial distance b e t w e e n the horizon and the suspended o b j e c t . T h e r e was a constant suspension, witho u t inversion. T h e little currents o f air that s w e p t t h e surface o f t h e soil had so variable a temperature that, in a drove o f wild o x e n , o n e part appeared with t h e legs raised above t h e surface o f t h e g r o u n d , while the other rested o n it. T h e aërial distance was, a c c o r d i n g t o t h e distance o f the animal, from 3' t o 4'. W h e r e tufts o f the moriche palm were found g r o w i n g in l o n g ranges, the extremities o f these g r e e n r o w s w e r e suspended like t h e capes which w e r e , f o r so l o n g a time, the subject o f m y observations at C u m a n a .

A well-informed person assured u s , that h e had seen, b e tween Calabozo and U r i t u c u , t h e image o f a n animal i n verted, w i t h o u t there b e i n g a n y direct i m a g e .

Niebuhr made a similar observation i n A r a b i a . W e several times t h o u g h t w e saw on t h e horizon t h e figures o f tumuli a n d t o w e r s , which disappeared at intervals, w i t h o u t o u r b e i n g able t o discern t h e real shape o f t h e o b j e c t s . T h e y w e r e perhaps hillocks, o r small eminences, situated b e y o n d t h e

104

HERDS

OF WILD

ANIMALS.

ordinary visual horizon.

I need n o t m e n t i o n those tracts destitute o f vegetation, which appear like large lakes with an undulating surface. T h i s p h e n o m e n o n , observed in v e r y r e m o t e t i m e s , has occasioned the mirage t o receive in Sanscrit the expressive n a m e o f desire of the antelope.

We admire t h e frequent allusions in t h e I n d i a n , Persian, and A r a b i c p o e t s , t o t h e magical effects o f terrestrial refraction.

I t was scarcely k n o w n to the G r e e k s and Romans.

Proud o f the riches o f their soil, and t h e mild temperature o f t h e air, t h e y w o u l d have felt n o e n v y o f this p o e t r y o f t h e desert.

I t had its birth in A s i a ; and the oriental p o e t s f o u n d its source in t h e nature o f the c o u n t r y t h e y i n habited. T h e y w e r e inspired with the aspect o f those vast solitudes, interposed like arms o f the sea or gulfs, between lands which nature had adorned with her m o s t luxuriant fertility.

T h e plain assumes at sunrise a m o r e animated aspect.

T h e cattle, w h i c h had r e p o s e d d u r i n g t h e n i g h t along t h e p o o l s , o r beneath c l u m p s o f mauritias and rhopalas, w e r e n o w c o l l e c t e d in h e r d s ; and these solitudes b e c a m e p e o p l e d with horses, mules, a n d o x e n , that live here free, rather than wild, without settled habitat ions, and disdaining the care and p r o t e c t i o n o f man. I n these h o t climates, the o x e n , t h o u g h o f Spanish breed, like those o f the c o l d table-lands o f Q u i t o , are o f a g e n t l e disposition.

A traveller runs n o risk o f being attacked or pursued, as we often were in o u r excursions o n the back o f the Cordilleras, where the climate is rude, the aspect o f the country m o r e wild, and food less abundant. A s w e approached Calabozo, w e saw herds o f r o e b u c k s b r o w s i n g peacefully in the midst o f horses and o x e n . T h e y are called matacani; their flesh is g o o d ; they are a little larger than our rocs, and resemble deer with a very sleek skin, o f a fawn-colour, spotted with w h i l e . Their horns appear t o me to have single p o i n t s .

T h e y had little fear o f the presence o f m a n : and in herds o f thirty o r forty w o observed several that w e r e entirely white. This variety, c o m m o n e n o u g h a m o n g the large stags o f the cold climates o f the A n d e s , surprised us in these l o w and burning plains. I have; since learned, that even the j a g u a r , in the hot r e g i o n s o f Paraguay, sometimes affords albino varieties, the skin o f which is o f such uniform w h i t e -

VEGETATION

OF THE PLAINS.

105

ness that the spots or rings can be distinguished only in the sunshine. The number of matacani, or little deer,* is so considerable in the Llanos, that a trade might be carried on with their skins.† A skilful hunter could easily kill more than twenty in a day; but such is the indolence of the inhabitants, that often they will not give themselves the trouble of taking the skin. The same indifference is evinced in the chase of the jaguar, a skin of which fetches only one piastre in the steppes of Varinas, while at Cadiz it costs four or five.

The steppes that we traversed are principally covered with grasses of the genera Killingia, Cenchrus, and Paspalum.† At this season, near Calabozo and San Jerome del Pirital, these grasses scarcely attain the height of nine or ten inches. Near the banks of the Apure and the Portuguesa they rise to four feet in height, so that the jaguar can conceal himself among them, to spring upon the mules and horses that cross the plain. Mingled with these gramina some plants of the dicotyledonous class are found; as turnoras, malvaceæ, and, what is very remarkable, little mimosas with irritable leaves,|| called by the Spaniards dormideras.

The same breed of cows, which fatten in Europe on sainfoin and clover, find excellent nourishment in the herbaceous sensitive plants. The pastures where these shrubs particularly abound are sold at a higher price than others. To the east, in the llanos of Cari and Barcelona, the cypura and the craniolaria,§ the beautiful white flower of which is from six to eight inches long, rise solitarily amid the gramina. The pastures are richest not only around the rivers subject to inundations, but also wherever the trunks of palm-trees are near each other. The least fertile spots are those destitute of trees; and attempts to cultivate them would be nearly fruitless. We cannot attri* They are called in the country ‘ Venados de tierras calientes’ (deer of the warm lands.) † This trade is carried on, but on a very limited scale, at Carora and at Barquesimeto. † Killingia monocephala, K . odorata, Cenchrus pilosus, Vilfa tenacissima, Andropogon plumosum, Panicum micranthum, Poa repens, Paspalum leptostachyum, P. conjugatum, Aristida recurvata. (Nova Genera et Species Plantarum, vol. i, pp. 8 4 - 2 1 3 . ) || The sensitive-plant (Mimosa dormiens). § Cypura graminea, Craniolaria annua (the scorzonera of the natives).

106

PALMS OF THE LLANOS.

bute this difference t o the shelter afforded b y the palm-trees, in preventing the solar rays from drying and burning u p the soil. I have seen, it is true, trees o f this family, in the forests o f the O r i n o c o , spreading a tufted f o l i a g e ; b u t w e c a n n o t say much for the shade o f the palm-tree o f the llanos, the palma de cobija* which has b u t a tew folded and palmate leaves, like those o f the chamærops, and o f which the l o w e r m o s t are constantly withered.

W e were surprised t o see that almost all these trunks o f the c o r y p h a were nearly o f t h e same size, viz., from twenty to t w e n t y - f o u r feet, high, and from eight t o ten inches diameter at the foot.

Nature has p r o d u c e d few species o f palm-trees in such p r o d i g i o u s n u m b e r s . A m i d s t thousands o f trunks loaded with oliveshaped fruits w o f o u n d a b o u t o n e h u n d r e d w i t h o u t fruit.

M a y w e suppose that there are s o m e trees with flowers purely m o n œ c i o u s , m i n g l e d with others furnished with hermaphrodite flowers?

T h e L l a n e r o s , o r inhabitants o f the plains, believe that all these trees, t h o u g h so l o w , are m a n y centuries old.

T h e i r g r o w t h is almost imperceptible, b e i n g scarcely t o b e n o t i c e d in t h e lapse o f t w e n t y o r thirty years. T h e w o o d o f the palma de cobija is excellent for building.

I t is so hard, that it is difficult t o drive a nail into it. T h e leaves, folded like a fan, are employed to cover the roofs o f the huts scattered through the L l a n o s ; a n d these r o o f s l a s t more than t w e n t y years. T h e leaves are fixed b y b e n d i n g t h e extremity o f the footstalks, which have been beaten beforehand b e t w e e n t w o stones, so that they may b e n d w i t h o u t breaking.

B e s i d e the solitary t r u n k s o f this palm-tree, w e find dispersed here and there in the steppes a few c l u m p s , real groves ( p a l m a r e s ) , in which the corypha is intermingled with a tree o f the proteaceous family, called chaparro by the natives.

I t is a new species o f rhopala,† with hard and resonant leaves. T h e little groves o f rhopala are called chaparales; and it may be supposed that, in a vast plain, where o n l y t w o o r three species o f trees are t o b e f o u n d , * The roofing palm-tree (Corypha tectorum). † Resembling the Embothrium, of which we found no species in South America. The embothriums are represented in American vegetation by the genera Lomatia and Oreocallis.

UTILITY

OF THE

PALM-TREE.

107

the chaparro, which affords shade, is considered a highlyvaluable plant. T h e c o r y p h a spreads t h r o u g h the L l a n o s o f Caracas from M e s a de Peja as far as G u a y a v a l ; farther north and n o r t h - w e s t , near G u a n a r e and San Carlos, its place is taken b y another species o f the same g e n u s , with leaves alike palmate b u t larger. I t is called the ‘royal Other palm o f the plains’ (palma real do los L l a n o s ) . * palm-trees rise south o f Guayaval, especially the piritu with pinnate leaves,† and the moriche ( M a u r i t i a f l e x u o s a ) , c e l e brated by Father Gumilla under the name o f arbol de la vida, o r tree o f life. It is the sago-tree o f A m e r i c a , furnishing flour, wine, thread for weaving hammocks, baskets, n e t s , and clothing, i t s fruit, o f the form o f the c o n e s o f the pine, and covered with scales, perfectly resembles that o f the Calamus r o t a n g . I t has somewhat the taste o f t h e apple. W h e n arrived at its maturity it is y e l l o w within and red w i t h o u t . T h e araguato m o n k e y s eat it with a v i d i t y ; and the nation o f the G u a r a o u n o s , whose w h o l e existence, it may b e said, is closely linked with that o f the moriche p a l m tree, p r o d u c e from it a fermented liquor, slightly acid, a n d extremely refreshing.

This palm-tree, with its large shining leaves, folded like a fan, preserves a beautiful verdure at the period o f the greatest d r o u g h t . T h e mere sight o f it p r o duces an agreeable sensation o f coolness, and when loaded With scaly fruit, it contrasts singularly with the mournful aspect o f the palma de cobija, the foliage o f which is always g r e y and covered with dust. T h e L l a n e r o s believe that t h e former attracts the vapours in the air ;† and that for this reason, water is constantly f o u n d at its foot, when d u g for t o a certain depth. T h e effect is c o n f o u n d e d with the cause.

The moriche g r o w s best in moist p l a c e s ; and it may rather b e said that the water attracts t h e tree. T h e natives o f t h e O r i n o c o , b y analogous reasoning, admit, that t h e great serpents c o n t r i b u t e t o preserve humidity in a p r o v i n c e .

“You would look in vain for water-serpents,” said an old * This palm-tree of the plains must not be confounded with the palma real of Caracas and of Curiepe, with pinnate leaves, †Perhaps an Aiphanes. † If the head of the moriche were better furnished with leaves than it generally is, we might perhaps admit that the soil round the tree p r e serves its humidity through the influence of the shade.

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ORIGIN OF THE LLANOS.

I n d i a n o f Javita t o us gravely, “ where there are n o m a r s h e s ; because t h e w a t e r ceases t o collect w h e n y o u i m p r u d e n t l y kill the serpents that attract it.”

W e suffered greatly from the heat in crossing the Mesa de C a l a b o z o . The temperature o f the air augmented sensibly every t i m e that the wind began to b l o w . T h e air was loaded with d u s t ; and d u r i n g these g u s t s t h e t h e r m o m e t e r rose t o 40° o r 4 1 ° . W e w e n t slowly forward, for it w o u l d have been dangerous t o leave the mules that carried o u r instruments.

O u r guides advised us t o fill o u r hats with the leaves o f the rhopala, t o diminish the action o f the solar rays o n the hair and t h e c r o w n of the head. W e f o u n d relief from this expedient, which was particularly agreeable, w h e n we could p r o c u r e the thick leaves o f the pothos o r s o m e ot h e r similar plant.

I t is impossible t o cross these b u r n i n g plains, without inquiring whether they have always been in the same s t a t e ; o r whether they have b e e n stripped o f their vegetation b y s o m e revolution o f nature. T h e stratum o f m o u l d n o w f o u n d o n t h e m is in fact very thin. T h e natives believe t h a t t h e palmares and t h e chaparales ( t h e little groves o f p a l m - t r e e s and rhopala) were m o r e frequent and more extensive before the arrival o f the Spaniards. S i n c e the Llanos have b e e n inhabited and p e o p l e d with cattle b e c o m e wild, t h e savannah is often set o n fire, in order t o ameliorate t h e pasturage.

G r o u p s o f scattered trees are accidently destroyed w i t h the grasses. T h e plains were n o d o u b t less bare i n the fifteenth c e n t u r y , than they n o w a r e ; y e t t h e first Conquistadores, w h o c a m e from C o r o , described them then a s savannahs, where nothing could he perceived b u t t h e sky and the turf, generally destitute o f trees, and difficult t o traverse on a c c o u n t o f the reverberation o f heat from the s o i l .

W h y does not the great f o r e s t o f t h e O r i n o c o extend t o the north, on the left bank o f that r i v e r ?

Why d o e s it not till that vast space that reaches as far as the Cordillera o f the coast, and which i s fertilized by n u m e r o u s rivers?

T h e s e questions are connected w i t h all t h a t relates t o the history o f o u r planet. If, indulging in geological r e v e r i e s , w e suppose that the s t e p p e s o f America, and the d e s e r t o f Sahara, have been stripped o f their v e g e t a t i o n b y an irruption o f the ocean, o r that they formed originally the

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CATTLE.

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b o t t o m of an inland sea, w e may c o n c e i v e that thousands of years have n o t sufficed for the trees and shrubs t o advance from the borders o f the forests, f r o m the skirts o f the plains either naked o r c o v e r e d with turf, t o w a r d the c e n t r e , a n d darken so vast a space with their shade. I t is m o r e difficult to explain the origin o f bare savannahs, encircled b y forests, than to r e c o g n i z e t h e causes that maintain forests and savannahs within their ancient limits, like c o n t i n e n t s and seas.

W e found the m o s t cordial hospitality at C a l a b o z o , in t h e house o f the superintendent o f t h e royal plantations, D o n Miguel Cousin.

T h e t o w n , situated b e t w e e n t h e banks of the Guarico and the U r i t u c u , c o n t a i n e d at this p e r i o d o n l y five thousand inhabitants; b u t everything d e n o t e d increasing prosperity.

T h e wealth o f m o s t o f t h e inhabitants consists in herds, u n d e r the m a n a g e m e n t o f farmers, w h o are called hateros, from t h e w o r d hato, which signifies in Spanish a house or farm placed in the midst o f pastures. T h e s c a t tered population o f the Llanos b e i n g accumulated o n certain points, principally around t o w n s , Calabozo r e c k o n s already five villages o r missions in its environs.

I t is c o m p u t e d , that 98,000 head o f cattle wander in the pastures nearest to t h e t o w n .

I t is v e r y difficult t o f o r m an exact idea of the herds contained in t h e L l a n o s o f Caracas, B a r c e lona, Cumana, and Spanish Guiana. M. D e p o n s , w h o lived in the t o w n o f Caracas l o n g e r than I , and whose statistical statements are generally accurate, r e c k o n s in t h o s e vast plains, from the m o u t h s o f t h e O r i n o c o to the lake o f Maracaybo, 1,200,000 o x e n , 180,000 horses, a n d 90,000 mules. He estimates the p r o d u c e o f these herds at 5,000,000 f r a n c s ; adding t o t h e value o f t h e exportation the price of the hides c o n s u m e d in the c o u n t r y .

T h e r e exist, it is believed, in the Pampas o f B u e n o s A y r e s , 12,000,000 c o w s , and 3,000,000 horses, w i t h o u t c o m p r i s i n g in this e n u m e meration the cattle that have n o a c k n o w l e d g e d p r o p r i e t o r .

I shall n o t hazard any general estimates, which from t h e i r nature are t o o u n c e r t a i n ; b u t shall only observe that, i n the L l a n o s of Caracas, t h e proprietors o f the great hatos are entirely ignorant o f the n u m b e r o f t h e cattle t h e y possess.

They only k n o w that o f the y o u n g cattle, which are b r a n d e d every year with a letter o r mark peculiar to each h e r d . T h e richest proprietors mark as m a n y as 11,000 head every

110

EXPORTATION OF HIDES.

y e a r ; and sell t o the n u m b e r o f five o r six t h o u s a n d .

A c c o r d i n g t o official d o c u m e n t s , t h e e x p o r t a t i o n o f hides from t h e w h o l e capitania-general o f Caracas a m o u n t e d annually t o 1 7 4 , 0 0 0 skins o f o x e n , and 1 1 , 5 0 0 o f g o a t s .

W h e n w e reflect, that these d o c u m e n t s are taken f r o m t h e b o o k s o f the c u s t o m - h o u s e s , w h e r e n o m e n t i o n is m a d e o f the fraudulent dealings in hides, w e are t e m p t e d t o believe that the estimate o f 1,200,000 oxen wandering in t h e L l a n o s , from the R i o C a r o n y and the G u a r a p i c h e t o t h e lake o f M a r a c a y b o , is m u c h underrated.

The port of L a G u a y r a alone e x p o r t e d annually from 1789 t o 1 7 9 2 , 7 0 , 0 0 0 o r 8 0 , 0 0 0 hides, e n t e r e d in the c u s t o m - h o u s e b o o k s , scarcely one-fifth o f which was sent t o Spain.

The exportation from B u e n o s A y r e s , at t h e e n d o f the eighteenth c e n t u r y , w a s , a c c o r d i n g t o D o n F e l i x de A z a r a , 8 0 0 , 0 0 0 skins. T h e hides o f Caracas are preferred in the Peninsula t o those o f B u e n o s A y r e s ; because the latter, o n a c c o u n t o f a l o n g e r passage, u n d e r g o a loss o f t w e l v e p e r c e n t , in t h e tanning.

The southern part o f the savannahs, c o m m o n l y called the U p p e r Plains ( L l a n o s de a r r i b a ) , is very p r o d u c t i v e in m u l e s and o x e n ; b u t the pasturage b e i n g in general less g o o d , these animals are o b l i g e d t o b e sent t o o t h e r plains t o be fattened before they are sold. T h e L l a n o de M o n a i , and all the L o w e r Plains ( L l a n o s de a b a x o ) , a b o u n d less in herds, b u t the pastures are so fertile, that they furnish meat o f an excellent quality for the supply o f the c o a s t . T h e m u l e s , w h i c h are n o t fit for labour before the fifth year, are p u r chased on the spot at the price o f fourteen o r e i g h t e e n piast r e s . T h e horses o f t h e L l a n o s , d e s c e n d i n g from the fine Spanish breed, are n o t very l a r g e ; t h e y are generally o f a uniform c o l o u r , b r o w n b a y , like m o s t o f the wild animals.

Suffering alternately from d r o u g h t and floods, t o r m e n t e d b y t h e stings o f insects and the bites o f the large bats, they lead a sorry life. A f t e r having e n j o y e d for some m o n t h s t h e care o f man, their g o o d qualities are developed.

Here t h e r e are n o s h e e p : w e saw flocks only o n the table-land o f Quito.

The hatos o f o x e n have suffered considerably o f late from t r o o p s o f marauders, w h o roam over the steppes killing the a n i m a l s merely to lake their hides.

This robbery has increased since the trade o f the L o w e r O r i n o c o has b e c o m e

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CATTLE.

111

more flourishing.

F o r half a c e n t u r y , t h e banks o f that great river, from the m o u t h o f t h e A p u r e as far as A n g o s t u r a , wero known only to the missionary-monks.

T h e exportatat i o n o f cattle t o o k place from the p o r t s of the northern coast o n l y , viz. f r o m C u m a n a , B a r c e l o n a , B u r b u r a t a , and P o r t o Cabello.

T h i s d e p e n d e n c e o n the coast is n o w m u c h d i m i nished.

T h e southern part o f t h e plains has established an internal c o m m u n i c a t i o n with t h e L o w e r O r i n o c o ; and this trade is t h e m o r e brisk, as t h o s e w h o d e v o t e themselves t o it easily escape the trammels o f the p r o h i b i t o r y laws.

T h e greatest herds o f cattle in t h e L l a n o s o f Caracas are those o f the hatos o f M e r e c u r e , L a C r u z , B e l e n , A l t a Gracia, and P a v o n . T h e Spanish cattle c a m e from C o r o and T o c u y o into the plains. H i s t o r y has preserved the n a m e o f t h e colonist w h o first c o n c e i v e d t h e idea o f p e o p l i n g these p a s turages, inhabited o n l y b y deer, and a largo species o f cavy.

Christoval R o d r i g u e z sent t h e first h o r n e d cattle i n t o t h e L l a n o s , a b o u t the year 1 5 4 8 .

H e was an inhabitant o f the t o w n o f T o c u y o , and had l o n g resided in N e w G r e n a d a .

W h e n w e hear o f the ‘ i n n u m e r a b l e quantity ’ o f o x e n , horses, and m u l e s , that are spread over the plains o f A m e rica, w e seem generally t o f o r g e t that in civilized E u r o p e , o n lands o f m u c h less e x t e n t , there exist, in agricultural countries, quantities n o less p r o d i g i o u s .

Prance, accordi n g t o M . P e u c h e t , feeds 6,000,000 large h o r n e d cattle, o f which 3,500,000 are o x e n e m p l o y e d in drawing the p l o u g h .

I n the A u s t r i a n m o n a r c h y , t h e n u m b e r o f o x e n , c o w s , and calves, has b e e n estimated at 1 3 , 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 head.

Paris alone c o n s u m e s annually 1 5 5 , 0 0 0 h o r n e d cattle.

Germany receives 1 5 0 , 0 0 0 o x e n yearly f r o m H u n g a r y .

Domestic animals, c o l l e c t e d i n small herds, are c o n s i d e r e d by a g r i c u l tural nations as a secondary o b j e c t in t h e riches o f the state.

A c c o r d i n g l y t h e y strike the imagination m u c h less t h a n those w a n d e r i n g droves o f o x e n and horses w h i c h alone fill the uncultivated tracts o f the N e w W o r l d .

Civilization and social o r d e r favour alike the p r o g r e s s o f p o p u l a t i o n , and t h e multiplication o f animals useful t o m a n .

W e f o u n d at C a l a b o z o , i n t h e midst o f t h e L l a n o s , an electrical machine with largo plates, e l e c t r o p h o r i , batteries, * T h e thick-nosed tapir, or c h i g u i r e in those countries.

river cavy

(Cavia capybara),

called

112

A

SCIENTIFIC

NATIVE.

e l e c t r o m e t e r s ; an apparatus nearly as c o m p l e t e as our first scientific m e n in E u r o p e possess. A l l these articles had n o t b e e n purchased in the U n i t e d States; t h e y w e r e t h e w o r k o f a man w h o had never seen any instrument, w h o had n o person t o consult, and w h o was acquainted with t h e p h e n o m e n a o f electricity only b y reading the treatise o f D e L a f o n d , and F r a n k l i n ' s M e m o i r s .

Se単or Carlos del P o z o , the name o f this e n l i g h t e n e d and ingenious man, had b e g u n to malve cylindrical electrical machines, by e m p l o y i n g large glass j a r s , after having cut off the n e c k s . It was only within a few years he had been able t o p r o c u r e , b y way o f Philadelphia, t w o plates, to c o n s t r u c t a plate machine, and to obtain more considerable effects.

It is easy to j u d g e what difficulties Se単or Pozo had t o e n c o u n t e r , since the first works, u p o n electricity had fallen into his hands, and that he had the courage to resolve to procure himself, by his own industry, all that he had seen described in his b o o k s .

Till n o w he had e n j o y e d o n l y t h e astonishment and admiration p r o d u c e d b y his experiments o n persons destitute o f all information, and who had n e v e r quitted t h e solitude o f the Llanos; o u r abode at Calabozo gave him a satisfaction altogether n e w . I t may b o supposed that he set s o m e value on the o p i n i o n s o f t w o travellers w h o c o u l d c o m p a r e his apparatus with those c o n s t r u c t e d in E u r o p e . I had b r o u g h t with me electrometers m o u n t e d with straw, pith-balls, and gold-leaf; also a small Leyden jar which could be charged b y friction a c c o r d i n g t o the m e t h o d o f Ingenhousz, and which served for my physiological e x p e r i m e n t s .

Se単or del P o z o c o u l d not contain his j o y o n seeing for the first t i m e instruments which he had n o t made, y e t which appeared t o be c o p i e d from his o w n .

W o also showed him the effect o f the contact o f heterogeneous metals on the nerves o f frogs.

T h e name o f Galvani and V o l t a had n o t previously b e e n heard in those vast solitudes.

N e x t t o his electrical apparatus, the w o r k o f the industry and intelligence o f an inhabitant o f the L l a n o s , n o t h i n g at Calabozo excited in us so great an interest as the g y m n o t i , which are animated electrical apparatuses. I was impatient, from the time o f my arrival at C u m a n a , to procure electrical eels.

W e had been promised them often, b u t o u r hopes had always b e e n disappointed.

M o n e y loses its value as

ELECTRICAL

113

FISHES.

y o u withdraw from t h e c o a s t ; and h o w is the imperturbable apathy o f the i g n o r a n t people t o b e vanquished, when t h e y arc n o t excited b y t h e desire o f g a i n ?

T h e Spaniards c o n f o u n d all electric fishes u n d e r t h e n a m e T h e r e are s o m e o f these in the Caribbean o f tembladores* Sea, on the coast o f Cumana, T h e G u a y q u e r i e I n d i a n s , w h o are t h e m o s t skilful and active fishermen in t h o s e parts, b r o u g h t us a fish, w h i c h , t h e y said, b e n u m b e d their hands. This fish ascends the little river Manzanares.

It is a n e w species o f ray, the lateral spots o f which are scarcely visible, and which m u c h resembles the t o r p e d o .

T h e t o r p e d o s , which are furnished with an electric o r g a n e x ternally visible, o n a c c o u n t o f the transparency o f t h e skin, form a g e n u s o r s u b g e n u s different from t h e rays properly so called.† T h e t o r p e d o o f C u m a n a was very lively, very energetic in its muscular m o v e m e n t s , and y e t t h e electric shocks it gave us were extremely feeble. T h e y b e c a m e stronger on galvanizing the animal b y the contact o f zinc and g o l d .

O t h e r tembladores, real g y m n o t i o r electric eels, inhabit the Rio C o l o r a d o , the G u a r a p i c h e , and several little streams which traverse t h e M i s s i o n s o f the Chayma Indians.

T h e y a b o u n d also in the large rivers o f A m e r i c a , the O r i n o c o , the A m a z o n , and the M e t a ; b u t the force o f the currents and the depth o f the water, prevent t h e m from being caught b y the Indians. T h e y see these fish less frequently than they feel shocks from them when s w i m m i n g o r bathing in the river. I n the L l a n o s , particularly in t h e environs o f Calabozo, between the farms o f Morichal and the U p p e r and L o w e r M i s s i o n s , the basins o f stagnant water and the confluents o f the O r i n o c o (the R i o G u a r i c o and the caños R a s t r o , B e r i t o , and Paloma) are filled with electric eels. W e at first wished t o make o u r experiments in the house we inhabited at C a l a b o z o ; b u t the dread o f t h e shocks caused b y the g y m n o t i is so great, and so e x a g * Literally " tremblers," or "producers of trembling." † Cuvier, Règne Animal, vol. ii. The Mediterranean contains, according to M . Risso, four species of electrical torpedos, all formerly confounded under the name of Raia torpedo; these are Torpedo narke, T. unimaculata, T. galvanii, and T. marmorata.

The torpedo of the Cape of Good Hope, the subject of the recent experiments of M r . Todd, is, no doubt, a nondescript species.

VOL. I I .

I

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SHOCK.

gerated a m o n g the c o m m o n p e o p l e , that during three days w e c o u l d n o t obtain o n e , t h o u g h they are easily c a u g h t , and w e had promised the Indians t w o piastres for every s t r o n g and v i g o r o u s fish. This fear o f the Indians is the m o r e extrordinary, as t h e y do n o t a t t e m p t t o adopt precautions i n which t h e y profess t o have great confidence.

When interrogated on t h e effect o f t h e tembladores, they n e v e r fail to tell the W h i t e s , that t h e y may b e t o u c h e d with i m p u n i t y while y o u are c h e w i n g t o b a c c o . This s u p p o s e d influence of t o b a c c o o n animal electricity is as general o n the c o n t i n e n t o f South A m e r i c a , as the belief a m o n g mariners o f the effect o f garlic and tallow o n the m a g n e t i c needle.

I m p a t i e n t o f waiting, and having obtained very uncertain results from an electric eel w h i c h h a d b e e n b r o u g h t t o u s alive, b u t m u c h enfeebled, we repaired t o t h e Caño de B e r a , t o make o u r experiments in t h e o p e n air, and at t h e e d g e o f the water. W e set off o n t h e 1 9 t h o f M a r c h , at a very early hour, for t h e village o f R a s t r o ; t h e n c e w e w e r e c o n d u c t e d b y the Indians t o a stream, w h i c h , in t h e time o f d r o u g h t , forms a basin o f m u d d y water, s u r r o u n d e d b y fine t r e e s , * the clusia, t h e amyris, and the m i m o s a with fragrant flowers. T o catch the g y m n o t i with nets is very difficult, o n a c c o u n t o f the e x t r e m e agility o f the fish, which b u r y themselves in the m u d .

W e would not employ the barbasco, that is t o say, the r o o t s o f the Piscidea erithyrna, t h e Jacquinia armillaris, and s o m e species o f phyllanthus, which t h r o w n into t h e p o o l , intoxicate o r b e n u m b the eels.

T h e s e m e t h o d s have the effect o f enfeebling t h e g y m n o t i .

T h e Indians therefore t o l d us that t h e y w o u l d “fish with horses,” (embarbascar c o n caballos.†) W e found it difficult t o form an idea o f this extraordinary manner o f fishing; b u t w e s o o n saw o u r guides return from the savannah, w h i c h they had b e e n scouring for wild horses and mules.

They b r o u g h t about thirty with t h e m , w h i c h they forced to enter the pool.

T h e extraordinary noise caused b y t h e horses’ h o o f s , makes the fish issue from the m u d , and excites t h e m t o t h e attack.

T h e s e yellowish a n d livid eels, r e s e m b l i n g large * Amyris lateriflora, A. coriacea, Laurus pichurin, Myroxylon secundum, Malpighia reticulata. † Meaning to excite the fish by horses.

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SINGULAR METHOD OF FISHING.

aquatic serpents, swim on the surface o f the water, and c r o w d u n d e r the bellies o f the horses and mules. A c o n t e s t b e t w e e n animals o f so different an organization presents a v e r y striking spectacle.

T h e Indians, provided with harpoons and l o n g slender reeds, surround the p o o l closely ; and some climb u p the trees, t h e branches o f which e x t e n d horizontally over the surface o f the water. B y their wild cries, and the length o f their reeds, t h e y prevent the horses from r u n n i n g away and reaching the bank o f the p o o l .

T h e eels, stunned b y the noise, defend themselves b y the repeated discharge o f their electric batteries. T o r a l o n g interval they seem likely t o prove victorious. Several horses sink beneath the violence o f the invisible strokes which t h e y receive from all sides, in organs the m o s t essential to life ; and stunned b y the force and frequency o f the shocks, t h e y disappear under the water.

Others, panting, with m a n e erect, and haggard eyes expressing anguish and dismay, raise themselves, and endeavour t o flee from the storm b y which they are overtaken. T h e y are driven back b y the Indians into t h e middle o f the w a t e r ; b u t a small n u m b e r succeed in eluding t h e active vigilence o f t h e fishermen.

T h e s e regain t h e shore, stumbling at every step, and stretch themselves o n the sand, exhausted with fatigue, and with limbs b e n u m b e d b y the electric shocks o f the g y m n o t i .

I n less than five minutes t w o o f o u r horses were drowned.

T h e eel b e i n g five feet l o n g , and pressing itself against the belly o f the horses, makes a discharge along the whole extent o f its electric organ. I t attacks at o n c e the heart, the intestines, and the cĂŚliac fold o f the abdominal nerves. I t is natural that the effect felt b y the horses should b e m o r e powerful than that p r o d u c e d u p o n man b y the t o u c h o f the same fish at only o n e o f his extremities. T h e horses are p r o b a b l y n o t killed, b u t o n l y stunned. T h e y are d r o w n e d from the impossibility o f rising amid the p r o l o n g e d struggle b e t w e e n the other horses and the eels.

W e had little d o u b t that the fishing w o u l d terminate by killing successively all the animals e n g a g e d ; b u t b y d e g r e e s the impetuosity o f this unequal c o m b a t diminished, and the wearied g y m n o t i dispersed.

T h e y require a l o n g rest, and abundant nourishment, to repair the galvanic force which

I 2

116

SIZE

OF

T H E

G Y M N O T U S .

they have l o s t . * The mules and horses appear less frighte n e d ; their manes are n o l o n g e r bristled, and their eyes express less dread. T h e g y m n o t i approach timidly the e d g e o f the marsh, w h e r e t h e y are taken b y means o f small harpoons fastened t o l o n g c o r d s . W h e n the cords are v e r y dry the Indians feel n o shock in raising the fish into t h e air. I n a few minutes w e had five large eels, most o f which w e r e b u t slightly w o u n d e d .

S o m e others w e r e taken, by the same means, towards evening.

T h e temperature o f the waters in which the g y m n o t i habitually five, is from 2 6 ° t o 2 7 ° .

Their electric force diminishes it is said, in colder waters ; and it is remarkable that, in general, animals e n d o w e d with electromotive organs, the effects o f winch are sensible t o man, are n o t f o u n d in the air, b u t in a fluid that is a c o n d u c t o r o f electricity. T h e g y m n o t u s is the largest o f electrical fishes. I measured s o m e that were from five feet to five feet three inches l o n g ; and the Indians assert that t h e y have seen them still larger.

W e found that a fish o f three feet ten inches l o n g w e i g h e d twelve p o u n d s . T h e transverse diameter o f the b o d y , w i t h o u t r e c k o n i n g the anal fin, which is elongated in the f o r m o f a keel, was three inches and a half. T h e g y m n o t i o f the Caño de B e r a are o f a fine olive-green. T h e u n d e r part o f the head is y e l l o w m i n g l e d with red. T w o rows o f small y e l l o w spots are placed symmetrically along the back, from the head t o the end o f the tail. E v e r y spot contains an e x c r e t o r y aperture. I n c o n s e q u e n c e , the skin o f the animal is constantly c o v e r e d with a m u c o u s matter, which, as V o l t a has proved, c o n d u c t s electricity t w e n t y o r thirty times better than pure water. I t is in general somewhat remarkable, that n o electric fish y e t discovered in the different parts o f the world, is c o v e r e d with scales.† * The Indians assured us that when the horses are made to run two days successively into the same pool, none are killed the secoud day.

See, on the fishing for gymnoti, " Views of Nature." (Holm's ed., p. 18.) † W e yet know with certainty only seven electric fishes ; Torpedo narke, Risso, T. unimaculata, T. marmorata, T. galvanii, Silurus electricus, Tetraodon electricus, Gymnotus electricus.

It appears uncertain whether the Trichiurus indicus has electrical properties or not.

(See Cuvier's Règne Animal, vol. ii.) But the genus Torpedo, very different from that of the rays properly so called, has numerous species in the equatorial seas; and it is probable that there exist several gymnoti

RESPIRATION

OF

FISHES.

117

T h e g y m n o t i , like o u r eels, are f o n d o f swallowing and breathing air o n the surface o f t h e w a t e r ; b u t w e must not thence c o n c l u d e that t h e fish w o u l d perish i f it could n o t c o m e u p to breathe t h e air. T h e E u r o p e a n eel will creep during t h e n i g h t u p o n the g r a s s ; b u t I have seen a very vigorous g y m n o t u s that had sprung o u t o f the water, die on the g r o u n d .

M . Provençal and m y s e l f have p r o v e d b y o u r researches o n the respiration o f fishes, that their humid bronchiæ perform the double f u n c t i o n o f d e c o m p o s i n g the atmospheric air, and o f appropriating the o x y g e n contained in water. T h e y d o n o t suspend their respiration in the a i r ; b u t they absorb the o x y g e n like a reptile furnished with l u n g s . I t is k n o w n that carp may be fattened b y b e i n g fed, o u t o f the water, if their gills are w e t from time t o time with humid moss, t o prevent t h e m from b e c o m i n g dry.

Fish separate their gill-covers wider in o x y g e n gas than in water. Their temperature however, does n o t rise ; and they live the same l e n g t h o f time in p u r e vital air, and in a mixture o f n i n e t y parts nitrogen and ten o x y g e n .

We f o u n d that tench placed u n d e r inverted jars filled with air, absorb half a c u b i c c e n t i m e t r e o f o x y g e n in an hour.

This action takes place in the gills o n l y ; for fishes on w h i c h a collar o f cork has b e e n fastened, and leaving their head out o f the j a r filled with air, do n o t act u p o n the o x y g e n b y t h e rest o f their b o d y .

T h e swimming-bladder o f the g y m n o t u s is t w o feet five inches l o n g in a fish o f three feet t e n inches.† I t is separated b y a mass o f fat from t h e external skin ; and rests u p o n the electric organs, which o c c u p y m o r e than two-thirds o f specifically different.

The Indians mentioned to us a black and very powerful species, inhabiting the marshes of the Apure, which never attains a length of more than two feet, but which we were not able to procure. The raton of the Rio de la Magdalena, which I have described under the name of Gymnotus æquilabiatus (Observations de Zoologie, vol. i.) forms a particular sub-genus. This is a Carapa, not scaly, and without an electric organ. This organ is also entirely wanting in the Brazilian Carapo, and in all the rays which were carefully examined by Cuvier. † Cuvier has shown that in the Gymnotus electricus there exists, besides the large swimming-bladder, another situated before it, and much smaller. It looks like the bifurcated swimming-bladder in the Gymnotus æquilabiatus.

118

DANGEROUS EFFECTS OF THE

SHOCK.

the animal's b o d y . T h e same vessels which penetrate b e t w e e n the plates o r leaves o f these organs, and which c o v e r them with blood when they are cut transversely, also send o u t n u m e r o u s branches t o the exterior surface o f the airbladder. I found in a hundred parts o f the air o f the s w i m ming-bladder four o f o x y g e n and ninety-six o f n i t r o g e n .

T h e medullary substance o f t h e brain displays b u t a feeble analogy with the albuninous and gelatinous matter o f t h e electric organs. B u t these t w o substances have in c o m m o n the great quantity o f arterial b l o o d which they receive, and which is deoxidated in t h e m . W e may again remark, o n this occasion, that an e x t r e m e activity in the functions o f the brain causes the b l o o d to flow more abundantly t o w a r d s the head, as the e n e r g y o f the m o v e m e n t o f the muscles accelerates the deoxidation o f the arterial b l o o d . W h a t a contrast b e t w e e n the multitude and the diameter o f the blood-vessels o f the g y m n o t u s , and the small space o c c u p i e d by its muscular s y s t e m ! This contrast reminds the observer, that three functions o f animal life, which appear in other r e spects sufficiently d i s t i n c t , — t h e functions o f the brain, those o f the electrical organ, and those o f the muscles, all require the afflux and c o n c o u r s e o f arterial o r o x y g e n a t e d b l o o d .

I t would be temerity t o e x p o s e ourselves t o the first shocks o f a very large and strongly irritated g y m n o t u s .

If b y chance a stroke be received before the fish is w o u n d e d o r wearied b y l o n g pursuit, the pain and n u m b n e s s are so violent that it is impossible t o describe the nature o f t h e feeling they excite. I do n o t r e m e m b e r having ever received from the discharge o f a large L e y d e n jar, a more dreadful shock than that which I experienced b y imprudently placing b o t h m y feet o n a g y m n o t u s j u s t taken out o f the water.

I was affected during the rest o f the day with a violent pain in the knees, and in almost every j o i n t . T o b e aware o f the difference that exists b e t w e e n the sensation p r o d u c e d b y the V o l t a i c battery and an electric fish, the latter should b e touched when they are in a state o f extreme weakness.

The g y m n o t i and the t o r p e d o s then cause a t w i t c h i n g o f the muscles, which is propagated from the part that rests on the electric organs, as far as the e l b o w . W e seem to feel, at every stroke, an internal vibration, which lasts t w o or three seconds, and is followed b y a painful n u m b n e s s .

Accord-

SUPPOSED REMEDIAL VIRTUES.

119

ingly, the Tamanac Indians call the g y m n o t u s , in their expressive language, arimna, which means ‘ something that deprives o f motion.’ T h e sensation caused b y the feeble shocks o f an electric eel appeared t o m e analogous t o that painful twitching with which I have b e e n seized at each contact o f t w o heterogeneous metals applied t o w o u n d s which I had made o n m y back b y means o f cantharides. This difference o f sensation b e t w e e n t h e effects o f electric fishes and those o f a V o l t a i c battery o r a L e y d e n j a r feebly charged has struck every o b s e r v e r ; there is, however, n o t h i n g in this contrary t o the supposition o f the identity o f electricity a n d t h e galvanic action o f fishes. T h e electricity may b e t h e s a m e ; b u t its effects will be variously modified by t h e disposition o f the electrical apparatus, b y the intensity o f t h e fluid, b y the rapidity o f the current, and b y the particular m o d e o f action.

I n D u t c h G u i a n a , at D e m e r a r a for instance, electric eels w e r e formerly e m p l o y e d t o cure paralytic affections.

A t a t i m e w h e n the physicians o f E u r o p e had great confid e n c e in t h e effects o f electricity, a surgeon o f Essequibo, n a m e d V a n der L o t t , published in H o l l a n d a treatise o n the medical properties o f the g y m n o t u s .

T h e s e electric remedies are practised a m o n g t h e savages o f A m e r i c a , as they were a m o n g t h e G r e e k s . W e are told b y Scribonius L a r g u s , G a l e n , and D i o s c o r i d e s , that torpedos cure the headache and the g o u t . I did n o t hear o f this m o d e o f treatm e n t in the Spanish colonies which I visited ; and I can assert that, after having made experiments during four hours successively with g y m n o t i , M . B o n p l a n d and myself felt, till the next day, a debility in the muscles, a pain in the j o i n t s , and a general uneasiness, the effect o f a strong irritation o f the nervous system.

T h e g y m n o t u s is neither a charged c o n d u c t o r , n o r a battery, nor an electromotive apparatus, the shock o f which is received every t i m e they are t o u c h e d with o n e hand, o r when both hands are applied to f o r m a c o n d u c t i n g circle b e t w e e n the opposite poles. T h e electric action o f the fish depends entirely on its w i l l ; because it does n o t k e e p its e l e c t r i c organs always charged, o r whether b y the secretion o f some fluid, o r by any other means alike mysterious t o us,

120

EXPERIMENTS

ON THE

GYMNOTUS.

it b e capable o f directing t h e action o f its organs t o an external object. W e often tried, b o t h insulated and otherwise, t o t o u c h the fish, w i t h o u t feeling the least shock.

W h e n M . B o n p l a n d held it b y the head, o r b y the middle o f t h e b o d y , while I held it b y t h e tail, and, standing o n t h e moist g r o u n d , did n o t take each o t h e r ' s hand, o n e o f us received shocks, which t h e other did n o t feel. I t d e p e n d s u p o n the g y m n o t u s t o direct its action towards the p o i n t where it finds itself m o s t strongly irritated. T h e discharge i s then made at o n e p o i n t only, and n o t at the n e i g h b o u r i n g points. I f t w o persons t o u c h the belly o f the fish with their fingers, at an inch distance, aud press it simultaneously, sometimes o n e , sometimes t h e other, will receive the shock.

I n the same manner, w h e n o n e insulated person holds the tail o f a v i g o r o u s g y m n o t u s , and another pinches the gills o r pectoral fin, it is often the first only by w h o m the shock is received. I t did n o t appear t o us that these differences c o u l d be attributed to the dryness o r moisture o f o u r hands, or t o their unequal c o n d u c t i n g p o w e r .

The gymnotus seemed t o direct its strokes sometimes from the whole surface o f its b o d y , sometimes from one p o i n t o n l y .

This effect indicates less a partial discharge o f the organ c o m posed o f an innumerable quantity o f layers, than the faculty which the animal possesses, (perhaps b y t h e instantaneous s e c r e t i o n of a fluid s p r e a d through the cellular membrane,) o f establishing the c o m m u n i c a t i o n b e t w e e n its organs and the skin only, in a very limited space.

N o t h i n g proves m o r e strongly the faculty, which the g y m n o t u s possesses, o f darting a n d directing its stroke at will, than the observations made at Philadelphia and S t o c k h o l m , * o n g y m n o t i rendered extremely tame.

When * By M M . Williamson and Fahlberg. The following account is given by the latter gentleman. " The gymnotus sent from Surinam to M .

Nรถrderling, at Stockholm, lived more than four months in a state of perfect health. It was twenty-seven inches long; and the shocks it gave were so violent, especially in the open air, that I found scarcely any means of protecting myself by non-conductors, in transporting the fish from one place to another. Its stomach being very small, it ate little at a time, but fed often.

It approached living fish, first sending them from afar a shock, the energy of which was proportionate to the size of the prey. The gymnotus seldom failed in its aim ; one single stroke was almost always sufficient to overcome the resistance which the strata

HABITS

OF

THE

ELECTRIC

EEL.

121

they had b e e n made t o fast a l o n g time, t h e y killed small fishes put into the t n b . T h e y acted from a d i s t a n c e ; that is t o say, their electrical shock passed t h r o u g h a very thick stratum o f water. W e n e e d n o t be surprised that what was observed in Sweden, o n a single g y m n o t u s only, w e c o u l d n o t perceive in a great n u m b e r o f individuals in their native c o u n t r y . T h e electric action o f animals b e i n g a vital action, and subject t o their will, it does n o t d e p e n d solely o n their state o f health and vigour. A g y m n o t u s that has been k e p t a l o n g t i m e in captivity, accustoms itself t o the i m prisonment t o which is is r e d u c e d ; it resumes b y degrees the same habits in the t u b , which it had in the rivers and marshes. A n electrical eel was b r o u g h t t o m e at C a l a b o z o : it had b e e n taken in a n e t , and consequently having n o wound. I t ate meat, and terribly frightened the little t o r toises and frogs w h i c h , n o t aware o f their danger, placed themselves o n its b a c k . T h e frogs did n o t receive the stroke till the m o m e n t w h e n t h e y t o u c h e d the b o d y o f the gymnotus.

W h e n they recovered, t h e y leaped o u t o f the t u b ; and when replaced near the fish, they were frightened at the mere sight o f it. W e then observed n o t h i n g that indicated an action at a distance ; b u t o u r g y m n o t u s , recently taken, was n o t y e t sufficiently tame t o attack and devour frogs.

O n approaching t h e finger, or t h e metallic points, very close t o the electric organs, n o shock was felt. Perhaps the animal did n o t perceive t h e proximity o f a foreign b o d y ; or, i f it did, w e m u s t suppose that in t h e c o m m e n c e m e n t o f its captivity, timidity p r e v e n t e d it from darting forth its energetic strokes e x c e p t w h e n strongly irritated b y an immediate c o n t a c t . T h e g y m n o t u s b e i n g immersed in water, I placed m y hand, b o t h armed and unarmed with metal, within a very small distance from t h e electric o r g a n s ; y e t the strata o f water transmitted n o shock, while M . Bonpland irritated the animal strongly b y an immediate c o n t a c t , a n d of water, more or less thick according to the distance, opposed to the electrical current. When very much pressed by hunger, it sometimes directed the shocks against the person who daily brought its food of boiled meat. Persons afflicted with rheumatism came to touch it in hopes of being cured. They took it at once by the neck and tail : the shocks were in this case stronger than when touched with one hand only.

It almost entirely lost its electrical power a short time before its death."

122

SIMILARITY

OF THE ELECTRIC

ACTION.

received some very violent shocks. H a d w e placed a very delicate electroscope in t h e c o n t i g u o u s strata o f water, i t might possibly have deen influenced at t h e m o m e n t w h e n Prethe g y m n o t u s seemed t o direct its stroke elsewhere, pared frogs, placed immediately o n t h e b o d y o f a t o r p e d o , experience, according t o Galvani, a strong contraction a t every discharge o f the fish.

T h e electrical organ o f the g y m n o t i acts o n l y u n d e r t h e immediate influence o f the brain and the heart.

O n cutting a very vigorous fish t h r o u g h t h e middle o f t h e b o d y , t h e fore part alone gave shocks. T h e s e are equally s t r o n g i n whatever part o f t h e b o d y t h e fish is t o u c h e d ; it is m o s t disposed, however, t o emit t h e m when the pectoral fin, t h e electrical organ, the lips, the eyes, o r the gills, are p i n c h e d .

Sometimes t h e animal struggles violently with a person holding it b y t h e tail, w i t h o u t c o m m u n i c a t i n g t h e least shock. N o r did I feel any w h e n I made a slight incision near the pectoral fin o f t h e fish, a n d galvanized t h e w o u n d b y the c o n t a c t o f t w o pieces o f zinc and silver. T h e g y m n o t u s b e n t itself convulsively, and raised its head out o f t h e water, as if terrified b y a sensation altogether n e w ; b u t I felt n o vibration in t h e hands which held t h e t w o metals.

T h e m o s t violent muscular m o v e m e n t s are n o t always a c c o m p a n i e d b y electric discharges.

T h e action o f the fish o n the human organs is transmitted and intercepted b y the same bodies that transmit and interc e p t t h e electrical current o f a c o n d u c t o r charged b y a L e y d e n j a r , o r V o l t a i c battery.

S o m e anomalies, which w e t h o u g h t w e observed, are easily explained, when w e recollect that even metals (as is p r o v e d from their ignition w h e n e x p o s e d t o t h e action of t h e b a t t e r y ) present a slight obstacle t o t h e passage o f e l e c t r i c i t y ; a n d that a bad c o n d u c t o r annihilates t h e effect, o n o u r organs, o f a feeble electric charge, whilst i t transmits t o u s t h e effect o f a very s t r o n g o n e . T h e repulsive force which zinc and silver exercise t o g e t h e r b e i n g far superior t o that o f g o l d a n d silver, I have found that w h e n a frog, prepared a n d armed with silver, is galvanized under water, t h e c o n d u c t i n g a r c o f zinc p r o d u c e s contraction as s o o n as o n e o f its e x t r e mities approaches t h e muscles within three lines d i s t a n c e ; while an a r c o f g o l d does n o t excite the organs, w h e n t h e

TRANSMISSION

OF THE

SHOCK.

123

stratum of water b e t w e e n the g o l d and the muscles is m o r e than half a line t h i c k . I n the same manner, by e m p l o y i n g a c o n d u c t i n g arc c o m p o s e d o f t w o pieces o f zinc and silver soldered t o g e t h e r e n d w a y s ; and resting, as before, o n e o f the extremities o f the metallic circuit o n the femoral nerve, it is necessary, in order t o p r o d u c e contractions, t o bring the other extremity o f the c o n d u c t o r nearer and nearer t o the muscles, in proportion as the irritability o f the organs diminishes. T o w a r d the e n d o f the experiment the slightest stratum o f water prevents the passage o f the electrical c u r rent, and it is only b y the immediate contact o f the arc with the muscles, that the contractions take place. These effects are, however, d e p e n d e n t o n three variable c i r c u m s t a n c e s ; the e n e r g y o f the electromotive apparatus, t h e c o n d u c t i bility o f the m e d i u m , and the irritability o f the organs which receive the i m p r e s s i o n s : it is because experiments have not been sufficiently multiplied with a view t o these three variable elements, that, in the action o f electric eels and t o r p e d o s , accidental circumstances have b e e n t a k e n for absolute conditions, w i t h o u t which the electric shocks are not felt.

I n w o u n d e d g y m n o t i , which give feeble b u t very equal shocks, these shocks appeared t o us constantly stronger on t o u c h i n g the b o d y o f the fish with a hand armed with metal, than with the naked hand. T h e y are stronger also, w h e n , instead o f t o u c h i n g the fish with one hand, naked, or armed with metal, we press it at o n c e with b o t h hands, either naked or armed. T h e s e differences b e c o m e sensible o n l y when one has g y m n o t i e n o u g h at disposal t o be able t o c h o o s e the w e a k e s t ; and w h e n the extreme equality o f t h e electric discharges admits o f distinguishing b e t w e e n the sensations felt alternately by the hand naked or armed with a metal, b y one or b o t h hands naked, and b y one o r b o t h hands armed with metal. I t is also in the case o n l y of small shocks, feeble and uniform, that t h e y are more sensible on t o u c h i n g the g y m n o t u s with o n e hand ( w i t h o u t f o r m i n g a chain) with zinc, than with c o p p e r o r iron.

R e s i n o u s substances, glass, very dry w o o d , horn, and even bones, which are generally believed to be g o o d c o n d u c t o r s , prevent the action o f the g y m n o t i from being transmitted to man. I was surprised at n o t feeling the least shock on

124

ABSENCE

OF

ATTRACTION.

pressing w e t sticks o f sealing-wax against t h e organs o f t h e fish, while t h e same animal gave m e t h e m o s t violent strokes, when excited b y means o f a metallic r o d . M . B o n pland received shocks, w h e n carrying a g y m n o t u s o n t w o cords o f the fibres o f t h e palm-tree, which appeared t o u s extremely dry. A s t r o n g discharge makes its way t h r o u g h very imperfect c o n d u c t o r s .

Perhaps also the obstacle which t h e c o n d u c t o r presents renders the discharge more painful.

I t o u c h e d t h e g y m n o t u s with a wet p o t o f b r o w n clay, without e f f e c t ; y e t I received violent shocks w h e n I carried t h e g y m n o t u s in t h e same p o t , because t h e c o n t a c t was greater.

W h e n t w o persons, insulated o r otherwise, hold each o t h e r ' s hands, and o n l y o n e o f these persons t o u c h e s t h e fish with the hand, either naked o r armed with metal, t h e shock is m o s t c o m m o n l y felt b y b o t h at o n c e . H o w e v e r , it sometimes happens that, in t h e m o s t severe shocks, t h e person w h o c o m e s into immediate c o n t a c t with t h e fish alone feels t h e m . W h e n t h e g y m n o t u s is exhausted, o r in a very r e d u c e d state o f excitability, and will n o l o n g e r emit strokes o n b e i n g irritated with o n e hand, the shocks are felt in a very vivid manner, o n f o r m i n g t h e chain, and e m p l o y i n g both hands. E v e n t h e n , h o w e v e r , t h e electric shock takes place only at the will o f the animal. T w o persons, o n e o f w h o m holds the tail, and the other the head, c a n n o t , by j o i n i n g hands and f o r m i n g a chain, force t h e g y m n o t u s t o dart his stroke.

T h o u g h e m p l o y i n g the m o s t delicate electrometers in various ways, insulating them on a plate o f glass, and receivi n g very s t r o n g shocks which passed t h r o u g h the e l e c t r o m e t e r , I c o u l d never discover any p h e n o m e n o n o f attraction o r repulsion. T h e same observation was made b y M . F a h l b e r g at S t o c k h o l m . T h a t philosopher, h o w e v e r , has seen an electric spark, as W a l s h and Ingenhousz had before him, in L o n d o n , b y placing the g y m n o t u s in t h e air, and interrupting the c o n d u c t i n g chain b y t w o g o l d leaves pasted u p o n glass, and a line distant from each other. N o p e r s o n , o n the contrary, has ever perceived a spark issue from t h e b o d y o f the fish itself. W e irritated it for a l o n g t i m e during the n i g h t , at Calabozo, in perfect darkness, w i t h o u t observing any l u m i n o u s appearance.

H a v i n g placed f o u r

EXPERIMENTS ON THE

TORPEDO.

125

g y m n o t i , o f unequal strength, in such a manner as to receive the shocks o f t h e m o s t v i g o r o u s fish b y c o n t a c t , that is t o say, b y t o u c h i n g only o n e o f the other fishes, I did n o t observe that these last were agitated at t h e m o m e n t w h e n the current passed their bodies.

Perhaps t h e current did n o t penetrate b e l o w the h u m i d surface o f the skin.

W e will n o t , however, c o n c l u d e from this, that the g y m n o t i are insensible t o e l e c t r i c i t y ; and that t h e y c a n n o t fight with each other at the b o t t o m o f t h e p o o l s .

T h e i r nervous system must b e subject to the same agents as the nerves o f other animals. I have indeed seen, that, o n laying o p e n their nerves, t h e y u n d e r g o muscular contractions at t h e mere contact o f t w o opposite m e t a l s ; and M . Fahlberg, of Stockholm, f o u n d that his g y m n o t u s was convulsively agitated w h e n placed in a c o p p e r vessel, and feeble discharges from a L e y d e n j a r passed t h r o u g h its skin.

A f t e r the experiments I had made o n g y m n o t i , it b e c a m e highly interesting to m e , o n m y return t o E u r o p e , t o ascertain with precision the various circumstances in which another electric fish, the t o r p e d o o f o u r seas, gives o r d o c s n o t give shocks. T h o u g h this fish had b e e n examined b y numerous m e n o f science, I f o u n d all that had b e e n p u b lished o n its electrical effects extremely vague. I t has b e e n very arbitrarily supposed, that this fish acts like a L e y d e n jar, which m a y b e discharged at will, b y t o u c h i n g it with both h a n d s ; and this supposition appears t o have led into error observers w h o have devoted themselves t o researches o f this kind. M . G a y - L u s s a c and myself, during o u r j o u r n e y t o Italy, m a d e a great n u m b e r o f experiments o n t o r p e d o s taken in the g u l f o f N a p l e s . T h e s e experiments furnish many results somewhat different from those I collected o n the g y m n o t i .

I t is probable that the cause o f these a n o m a lies is o w i n g rather t o the inequality o f electric p o w e r in the t w o fishes, than t o the different disposition o f their organs.

T h o u g h the p o w e r o f the t o r p e d o c a n n o t b e c o m p a r e d with that o f the g y m n o t u s , it is sufficient t o cause very painful sensations. A p e r s o n a c c u s t o m e d to electric shocks can with difficulty hold in his hands a t o r p e d o o f twelve o r fourteen inches, and in possession o f all its vigour.

When the t o r p e d o gives o n l y very feeble strokes u n d e r water,

126

THE SHOCK A VITAL

ACTION.

t h e y b e c o m e m o r e sensible if the animal b e raised above the surface. I have o f t e n observed the same p h e n o m e n o n in experimenting on frogs.

T h e t o r p e d o m o v e s the pectoral fins convulsively every t i m e it emits a s t r o k e ; and this stroke is m o r e o r less painful, according as t h e immediate c o n t a c t takes place b y a greater o r less surface.

W e observed that t h e g y m n o t u s gives the strongest shocks w i t h o u t m a k i n g any m o v e m e n t with the eyes, head, o r fins.* I s this difference caused b y t h e position o f the electric organ, which is n o t d o u b l e in t h e g y m n o t i ? o r does t h e m o v e m e n t o f t h e pectoral fins o f the t o r p e d o directly p r o v e that t h e fish restores t h e electrical equilibrium b y its o w n skin, discharges itself b y its o w n b o d y , and that we generally feel only the effect o f a lateral shock ?

W e c a n n o t discharge at will either a t o r p e d o o r a g y m n o t u s , as w e discharge at will a L e y d e n j a r o r a V o l t a i c battery.

A shock is n o t always felt, even o n t o u c h i n g t h e electric fish with b o t h hands. W e m u s t irritate it t o make it give the shock. This action in the t o r p e d o s , as well as in the g y m n o t i , is a vital a c t i o n ; it depends o n the will only o f the animal, which perhaps does n o t always k e e p its e l e c tric organs charged, o r does n o t always e m p l o y the action o f its nerves t o establish the chain b e t w e e n t h e positive and negative poles. I t is certain that the t o r p e d o gives a l o n g series o f shocks with astonishing c e l e r i t y ; w h e t h e r it is that t h e plates o r laminĂŚ o f its organs are n o t w h o l l y exhausted, o r that the fish recharges t h e m instantaneously.

T h e electric stroke is felt, w h e n t h e animal is disposed t o give it, w h e t h e r w e t o u c h with a single finger only o n e o f the surfaces o f the organs, o r apply b o t h hands t o the t w o surfaces, the superior and inferior, at o n c e . I n either case it is altogether indifferent w h e t h e r the person w h o t o u c h e s t h e fish with o n e finger o r b o t h hands b e insulated o r n o t .

A l l that has been said o n the necessity o f a c o m m u n i c a t i o n with the damp g r o u n d t o establish a circuit, is f o u n d e d o n inaccurate observations.

M . G a y - L u s s a c made the i m p o r t a n t observation that w h e n an insulated person t o u c h e s the t o r p e d o with o n e * The anal fin of the gymnoti only has a sensible motion when these fishes are excited under the belly, where the electric organ is placed.

127

EFFECTS OF INSULATORS.

finger, it is indispensible that t h e c o n t a c t b e direct.

The fish m a y with i m p u n i t y b e t o u c h e d with a k e y , o r a n y other metallic i n s t r u m e n t ; n o s h o c k is felt w h e n a c o n d u c t i n g o r n o n - c o n d u c t i n g b o d y is interposed b e t w e e n t h e finger and t h e electrical o r g a n o f t h e t o r p e d o . This c i r c u m s t a n c e p r o v e s a great difference b e t w e e n t h e t o r p e d o and the g y m n o t u s , t h e latter giving his strokes t h r o u g h an iron rod several feet l o n g .

W h e n the t o r p e d o is placed o n a metallic plate o f v e r y little thickness, so that the plate t o u c h e s the inferior surface o f the organs, t h e hand that supports the plate n e v e r feels any shock, t h o u g h another insulated p e r s o n m a y excite t h e animal, and the convulsive m o v e m e n t o f t h e pectoral fins may d e n o t e the strongest and m o s t reiterated discharges.

If, o n the contrary, a person s u p p o r t t h e t o r p e d o placed u p o n a metallic plate, with t h e left hand, as in the f o r e g o i n g e x p e r i m e n t , and the same person t o u c h the superior surface of the electrical o r g a n w i t h t h e right hand, a s t r o n g shock is then felt in b o t h arms. T h e sensation is the same w h e n the fish is placed b e t w e e n t w o metallic plates, the edges o f which d o n o t t o u c h , and t h e p e r s o n applies b o t h hands at o n c e t o these plates.

T h e interposition o f o n e metallic plate prevents the c o m m u n i c a t i o n i f that plate b e t o u c h e d with o n e hand o n l y , while t h e interposition o f t w o metallic plates does n o t p r e v e n t t h e shock w h e n b o t h hands are applied. I n t h e latter case it c a n n o t b o d o u b t e d that t h e circulation o f the fluid is established b y t h e t w o arms.

plates,

If, in this situation o f t h e fish b e t w e e n t w o there exist any immediate c o m m u n i c a t i o n b e t w e e n the edges o f these t w o plates, n o shock takes place. T h e chain b e t w e e n the t w o surfaces o f t h e electric o r g a n is then f o r m e d b y the plates, and t h e n e w c o m m u n i c a t i o n , established b y t h e contact o f the t w o hands with the t w o plates, remains w i t h o u t effect.

W e carried the t o r p e d o with i m p u n i t y b e t w e e n t w o plates o f metal, and felt the strokes it gave o n l y at t h e instant w h e n t h e y ceased t o t o u c h each o t h e r at t h e edges.

N o t h i n g in t h e t o r p e d o o r in t h e the animal modifies the electrical which it is surrounded.

The most n o way affected in whatever m a n n e r

g y m n o t u s indicates that state o f t h e b o d i e s b y delicate e l e c t r o m e t e r is it is e m p l o y e d , whether

128

ACTION OF THE BRAIN AND

NERVES.

b r i n g i n g it near t h e organs o r insulating the fish, covering it with a metallic plate, and causing the plate t o c o m m u n i . cate b y a c o n d u c t i n g wire with the c o n d e n s e r o f V o l t a .

W e were at great pains t o vary the experiments b y which w e s o u g h t t o render the electrical tension o f t h e torpedo sensible ; b u t they w e r e constantly w i t h o u t effect, and p e r fectly confirmed what M . B o n p l a n d and myself had observed respecting the g y m n o t i , during o u r abode in South A m e r i c a .

Electrical fishes, when very vigorous, act, with equal e n e r g y u n d e r water and in t h e air. This observation led us t o examine the c o n d u c t i n g p r o p e r t y o f water ; and we f o u n d that, w h e n several persons f o r m t h e chain b e t w e e n the superior and inferior surface o f the organs o f t h e t o r p e d o , the shock is felt o n l y w h e n these persons join hands.

The action is n o t i n t e r c e p t e d if t w o persons, w h o s u p p o r t t h e t o r p e d o with their right hands, instead o f taking o n e another b y the left hand, p l u n g e each a metallic p o i n t into a d r o p o f water placed o n an insulating substance.

On substituting flame for t h e drop o f water, the c o m m u n i c a t i o n is interrupted, and is o n l y re-established, as in t h e g y m n o t u s , w h e n the t w o p o i n t s immediately t o u c h each other in the interior o f the flame.

W e are, doubtless, very far from having discovered all the secrets o f the electrical action o f fishes which is modified b y the influence o f t h e brain and the nerves ; b u t t h e experiments w e have; j u s t described are sufficient t o p r o v e that these fishes act b y a c o n c e a l e d electricity, and b y e l e c t r o m o t i v e organs o f a peculiar c o n s t r u c t i o n , which are recharged with e x t r e m e rapidity. V o l t a admits that t h e discharges o f the o p p o s i t e electricities in the t o r p e d o s and t h e g y m n o t i are made b y their o w n skin, and that w h e n w e t o u c h t h e m with o n e hand o n l y , o r b y means o f a metallic point, w e feel the effect o f a lateral shock, the electrical c u r r e n t n o t b e i n g directed solely the shortest w a y .

When a L e y d e n j a r is placed o n a w e t w o o l l e n cloth ( w h i c h is a bad c o n d u c t o r ) , and t h e j a r is discharged in such a m a n n e r that the cloth makes part o f the chain, prepared frogs, placed at different distances, indicate b y their contractions that the c u r r e n t spreads itself o v e r t h e w h o l e cloth in a thousand different ways. A c c o r d i n g t o this analogy, the most violent shock given b y the g y m n o t u s at a distance

SUPPOSED MAGNETIC

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PHENOMENA.

would be b u t a feeble part o f t h e stroke which re-establishes the equilibrium in t h e interior o f t h e fish.* A s the g y m n o t u s directs its stroke wherever it pleases, it m u s t also b e admitted that the discharge is n o t made b y the whole skin at o n c e , b u t that the animal, e x c i t e d perhaps b y the m o t i o n o f a fluid p o u r e d into o n e part o f t h e cellular m e m b r a n e , establishes at will the c o m m u n i c a t i o n b e t w e e n its organs a n d some particular part o f t h e skin. I t may b e c o n c e i v e d that a lateral stroke, o u t o f the direct current, m u s t b e c o m e imperceptible u n d e r the t w o conditions o f a v e r y weak discharge, o r a very great obstacle p r e s e n t e d b y the nature and length o f t h e c o n d u c t o r .

N o t w i t h s t a n d i n g these c o n siderations, it appears t o m e very surprising that shocks o f the t o r p e d o , s t r o n g in appearance, are n o t propagated to t h e hand w h e n a very thin plate o f metal is interposed b e t w e e n it and the fish.

Schilling declared that t h e g y m n o t u s approached t h e m a g n e t involuntarily.

W e tried in a thousand ways this s u p p o s e d influence o f t h e m a g n e t o n t h e electrical organs, w i t h o u t having ever observed any sensible effect.

T h e fish n o m o r e approached the m a g n e t , than a bar o f iron n o t m a g n e t i c . Iron-filings, t h r o w n o n its back, remained m o t i o n less.

T h e g y m n o t i , which are objects o f curiosity and o f the the deepest interest t o t h e philosophers o f E u r o p e , are at o n c e dreaded and detested b y the natvies. T h e y furnish, indeed, in their muscular flesh, pretty g o o d a l i m e n t ; b u t the electric organ fills t h e greater part o f their b o d y , and this o r g a n is slimy, and disagreeable t o the t a s t e ; it is * The heterogeneous poles of the double electrical organs must exist in each organ. Mr. Todd has recently proved, by experiments made on torpedos at the Cape of Good Hope, that the animal continues to give violent shocks when one of these organs is extirpated. On the contrary, all electrical action is stopped (and this point, as elucidated by Galvani, is of the greatest importance) if injury be inflicted on the brain, or if the nerves which supply the plates of the electrical organs be divided. In the latter case, the nerves being cut, and the brain left untouched, the torpedo continues to live, and perform every muscular movement. A fish, exhausted by too numerous electrical discharges, suffered much more than another fish deprived, by dividing the nerves, of any communication between the brain and the electromotive apparatus.

(Philosophical Transactions, 1816).

VOL.

II.

K

130

SHOCKS OF THE GYMNOTUS.

accordingly separated with care from t h e rest o f t h e e e l .

T h e presence o f g y m n o t i is also considered as t h e principal cause o f t h e want o f fish i n t h e p o n d s a n d pools o f t h e L l a n o s . T h e y , however, kill many more than t h e y d e v o u r : and the Indians told u s , that when y o u n g alligators and g y m n o t i are caught at the same time in very s t r o n g nets, t h e latter never show t h e slightest trace o f a w o u n d , because they disable t h e y o u n g alligators before they are attacked b y t h e m . A l l the inhabitants o f the waters dread Lizards, tortoises, and frogs, t h e society o f the g y m n o t i . seek p o o l s where they are secure from t h e electric action.

It became necessary t o change the direction o f a road near U r i t u c u , because t h e electric eels were so n u m e r o u s in o n e river, that they every year killed a great n u m b e r o f mules, as they forded t h e water with their burdens.

T h o u g h in the present state o f o u r k n o w l e d g e w e m a y flatter ourselves with having t h r o w n s o m e light o n t h e extraordinary effects o f electric fishes, y e t a vast n u m b e r o f physical and physiological researches still remain t o b e m a d e .

T h e brilliant results which chemistry has obtained b y means o f the V o l t a i c battery, have o c c u p i e d all observers, and turned attention for s o m e time from the examinations o f t h e p h e n o m e n a o f vitality. L e t u s h o p e that these p h e n o m e n a , t h e m o s t awful and the m o s t mysterious o f all, will in their turn o c c u p y the earnest attention o f natural philosophers.

This h o p e will b e easily realized i f t h e y succeed i n p r o c u r i n g a n e w living g y m n o t i i n s o m e o n e o f the great capitals o f E u r o p e . T h e discoveries that will b e made o n the e l e c t r o motive apparatus o f these fish, m u c h m o r e energetic, and more easy o f preservation, than t h e t o r p e d o s , * will e x t e n d * In order to investigate the phenomena of the living electromotive apparatus in its greatest simplicity, and not to mistake for general conditions circumstances which depend on the degree of energy of the electric organs, it is necessary to perform the experiments on those electrical fishes most easily tamed. If the gymnoti were not known, we might suppose, from the observations made on torpedos, that fishes cannot give their shocks from a distance through very thick strata of water, or through a bar of iron, without forming a circuit. Mr. Williamson has felt strong shocks when he held only one hand in the water, and this hand, without touching the gymnotus, was placed between it and the small fish towards which the stroke was directed from ten or fifteen inches distance. (Philosophical Transactions, vol. lxv, pp. 99 and 1 0 8 ) .

DEPARTURE

FROM

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CALABOZO.

t o all the p h e n o m e n a o f muscular m o t i o n subject t o volition. I t will perhaps be found that, in m o s t animals, every contraction o f the muscular fibre is p r e c e d e d b y a discharge from the nerve into the m u s c l e ; and that the mere simple c o n t a c t o f heterogeneous substances is a source o f m o v e m e n t and o f life in all organized beings. D i d an ingenious and lively people, the Arabians, guess from remote antiquity, that the same force which inflames the vault o f H e a v e n in storms, is the living and invisible weapon o f inhabitants of the waters ? I t is said, that the electric fish o f t h e N i l e bears a name in E g y p t , that signifies thunder* W e left the t o w n o f Calabozo o n the 24th o f M a r c h , highly satisfied with o u r stay, and the experiments w e had made o n an object so w o r t h y o f the attention o f p h y s i o logists. I had besides obtained some g o o d observations o f the s t a r s ; and discovered with surprise, that the errors o f maps a m o u n t e d here also t o a quarter o f a degree o f latit u d e . N o person had taken an observation before m e o n this s p o t ; and geographers, magnifying as usual the distance from the coast t o the islands, have carried back b e y o n d measure all the localities towards the south.

A s we advanced i n t o the southern part o f the L l a n o s , w e found the g r o u n d m o r e dusty, m o r e destitute o f herbage, and more cracked b y the effect o f l o n g drought. T h e palmtrees disappeared b y degrees. T h e t h e r m o m e t e r k e p t , from eleven in the m o r n i n g till sunset, at 34° o r 35°. T h e calmer t h e air appeared at eight o r ten feet high, the m o r e w e were enveloped in those whirlwinds o f dust, caused b y the little currents o f air that sweep the g r o u n d . A b o u t four o'clock in the afternoon, w e found a y o u n g Indian girl stretched u p o n the savannah. She was almost in a state o f nudity, and appeared t o be about twelve o r thirteen years o f age.

Exhausted with fatigue and thirst, her eyes, nostrils, and m o u t h When the gymnotus was enfeebled by bad health, the lateral shock was imperceptible; and in order to feel the shock, it was necessary to form a chain, and touch the fish with both hands at once. Cavendish, in his ingenious experiments on an artificial torpedo, had well remarked these differences, depending on the greater or less energy of the charge.

(Philosophical Transactions, 1770, p. 2 1 2 ) . * It appears, however, that a distinction is to be made between rahd thunder, and rahadh, the electrical fish ; and that this latter word means simply ‘ that which causes trembling.’

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2

132

DANGERS OF TRAVELLING.

filled with dust, she breathed with a rattling in her throat, and was unable t o answer o u r questions. A pitcher, o v e r turned, and half filled w i t h sand, was l y i n g at her side.

H a p p i l y o n e o f o u r mules was laden with w a t e r ; and w e roused the girl from her lethargic state b y bathing her face, and f o r c i n g her t o drink a few drops o f w i n e .

She was at first alarmed o n seeing herself s u r r o u n d e d b y so m a n y p e r sons ; b u t b y degrees she t o o k c o u r a g e , and conversed with o u r guides. She j u d g e d , from the position o f the sun, t h a t she must have remained d u r i n g several hours in that state o f lethargy.

W e c o u l d n o t prevail o n her t o m o u n t o n e o f o u r beasts o f b u r d e n , and she w o u l d n o t return t o U r i t u c u .

She had b e e n in service at a n e i g h b o u r i n g farm ; and she had b e e n discharged, because at the e n d o f a l o n g sickness she was less able t o w o r k than before.

O u r menaces and prayers were alike fruitless ; insensible t o suffering, like the rest o f her race, she persisted in her resolution o f g o i n g t o o n e o f the I n d i a n M i s s i o n s near the city o f Calabozo.

We r e m o v e d the sand from her pitcher, and filled it with water.

She r e s u m e d her way a l o n g the steppe, before w e had r e m o u n t e d o u r horses, and was soon separated from us b y a c l o u d o f dust. D u r i n g the night w e forded the Rio U r i t u c u , which a b o u n d s with a breed o f c r o c o d i l e s remarkable for their ferocity.

W e were advised t o prevent our d o g s f r o m g o i n g t o drink in the rivers, for it often happens that t h e crocodiles o f U r i t u c u c o m e o u t o f the water, and pursue d o g s u p o n the shore. T h i s intrepidity is so m u c h the m o r e striking, as at eight leagues distance, the crocodiles o f t h e Rio T i s n a o are extremely timid, and little dangerous.

The manners o f animals vary in the same species a c c o r d i n g t o local circumstances dillicult t o b e determined.

W e were s h o w n a hut, o r rather a k i n d o f shed, in which o u r host o f Calabozo, D o n M i g u e l Cousin, had witnessed a very extraordinary scene. Sleeping with o n e o f his friends o n a b e n c h o r c o u c h covered with leather, D o n M i g u e l was awakened early in t h e m o r n i n g b y a violent shaking and a horrible noise.

C l o d s o f earth w e r e t h r o w n i n t o the middle o f the hut.

Presently a y o u n g crocodile t w o o r three feet l o n g issued from u n d e r the b e d , darted at a d o g which lay o n t h e threshold o f the d o o r , and, missing him in the impetuosity o f his spring, ran towards the beach t o gain the river.

On

SUMMER-SLEEP

OF

SNAKES.

133

examining the spot where t h e barbacoa, o r c o u c h , was placed, the cause o f this strange adventure was easily discovered.

T h e g r o u n d was disturbed t o a considerable depth. I t was dried m u d , which had c o v e r e d t h e crocodile in that state o f lethargy, o r summer-sleep, in which m a n y o f the species lie during the absence o f the rains in the L l a n o s . T h e noise o f m e n and horses, perhaps the smell o f t h e d o g , had aroused the crocodile.

T h e hut being built at t h e e d g e o f t h e p o o l , and inundated during part o f t h e year, the c r o c o d i l e had n o d o u b t entered, at the time o f t h e inundation o f t h e savannahs, by the same o p e n i n g at which it was seen t o g o o u t .

T h e Indians often find e n o r m o u s boas, which they call uji, o r water-serpents,* in the same lethargic state. T o reanimate t h e m , t h e y m u s t b e irritated, o r w e t t e d with water.

Boas are killed, and immersed in the streams, t o obtain, b y means o f putrefaction, t h e tendinous parts o f the dorsal muscles, o f which excellent guitar-strings are made at Calabozo, preferable to those furnished b y the intestines o f the alouate monkeys.

T h e d r o u g h t and heat o f the L l a n o s act like cold u p o n animals and plants. B e y o n d the tropics the trees lose their leaves in a very d r y air. Reptiles, particularly crocodiles and boas, having very indolent habits, leave with reluctance the basins in which t h e y have f o u n d water at t h e period o f great inundations.

I n p r o p o r t i o n as the pools b e c o m e dry, these animals penetrate into the m u d , t o seek that degree o f humidity which gives flexibility to their skin and integuments.

I n this state o f repose t h e y are seized with s t u p e f a c t i o n ; b u t possibly they preserve a c o m m u n i c a t i o n w i t h the external a i r ; and, however little that c o m m u n i c a tion may b e , it possibly suffices to k e e p u p the respiration o f an animal o f the saurian family, provided with e n o r m o u s p u l m o n a r y sacs, exerting n o muscular m o t i o n , and in w h i c h almost all the vital functions are suspended. I t is p r o b a b l e that t h e mean temperature o f the dried m u d , e x p o s e d t o the solar rays, is m o r e than 4 0 ° . W h e n the north o f E g y p t , where the coolest m o n t h does n o t fall b e l o w 1 3 4 ° , was inhabited b y crocodiles, they w e r e often f o u n d t o r p i d w i t h c o l d . T h e y were subject t o a winter-sleep, like the E u r o * Culebra de agua, named by the common people traga-venado, ‘the swallower of stags.’ The word uji belongs to the Tamanac language.

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pean frog, lizard, sand-martin, and marmot.

I f the hibernal lethargy b e observed, b o t h in c o l d - b l o o d e d a n d i n h o t b l o o d e d animals, w e shall b e less surprised t o learn, that these t w o classes furnish alike examples o f a summer-sleep.

In t h e same manner as t h e crocodiles o f South A m e r i c a , the tanrecs, o r Madagascar h e d g e h o g s , i n t h e midst o f t h e torrid zone, pass three m o n t h s o f the year in lethargy.

O n t h e 2 5 t h o f M a r c h w e traversed t h e smoothest part o f t h e steppes o f Caracas, t h e M e s a de Pavones. I t is entirely destitute o f t h e c o r y p h a and moriche palm-trees.

A s far as t h e e y e c a n reach, n o t a single o b j e c t fifteen inches high can b e discovered. T h e air was clear, and the sky of a very deep b l u e ; b u t t h e horizon reflected a livid and yellowish light, caused n o d o u b t b y t h e quantity o f sand suspended in t h e atmosphere. W e m e t some large herds o f cattle, and with them flocks o f birds o f a black c o l o u r with an olive shade. T h e y are o f t h e g e n u s C r o t o phaga,* and follow t h e cattle. W e had often seen t h e m p e r c h e d o n the backs o f c o w s , seeking f o r gadflies and other insects. L i k e many birds o f these desert places, they fear so little t h e approach o f man, that children often catch t h e m in their hands. I n t h e valleys o f A r a g u a , where they are very c o m m o n , w e have seen them perch upon the hammocks o n which w e were reposing, in o p e n day.

W e discover, b e t w e e n Calabozo, U r i t u c u , and t h e M e s a de Pavones, wherever there are excavations o f s o m e feet d e e p , the geological constitution o f the L l a n o s . A formation o f r e d sandstone (ancient c o n g l o m e r a t e ) covers an extent o f several thousand square leagues. W e shall find it again in t h e vast plains o f the A m a z o n , o n the eastern boundary o f t h e p r o v i n c e o f J a ë n d e Bracamoros. This p r o d i g i o u s extension o f r e d sandstone in the low grounds stretching along t h e east o f t h e A n d e s , is o n e of t h e m o s t striking p h e n o m e n a I observed during m y examination o f rocks in t h e equinoctial regions.

T h e r e d sandstone o f t h e L l a n o s o f Caracas lies i n a c o n c a v e position, b e t w e e n t h e primitive mountains o f t h e shore a n d of Parime.

O n t h e north it is backed b y t h e * The Spanish colonists call the Crotophaga ani, zamurito (little carrion vulture,—Vultur aura minuta), or garapatero, ‘ the eater of g a r a patas,’ insects of the Acarus family.

ROCKS OF THE PLAINS.

135

transition-slates,* and o n t h e south it rests immediately o n the granites o f the O r i n o c o .

W e observed i n it r o u n d e d fragments o f quartz (kieselschiefer), and L y d i a n s t o n e , c e m e n t e d b y an o l i v e - b r o w n ferruginous clay. T h e c e m e n t is sometimes o f so bright a r e d that t h e p e o p l e o f t h e c o u n t r y take it for cinnabar.

W e m e t a C a p u c h i n m o n k at Calabozo, w h o was in vain a t t e m p t i n g t o extract m e r c u r y from this red sandstone. I n t h e M e s a de Paja this rock c o n tains strata o f another quartzose sandstone, very fine-grained ; m o r e t o t h e south it contains masses o f b r o w n iron, a n d fragments o f petrified trees o f t h e m o n o c o t y l e d o n o u s family, b u t w e did n o t see i n it a n y shells.

T h e r e d sandstone, called b y the L l a n e r o s , t h e stone of the reefs (piedra de arrecifes), is everywhere covered w i t h a stratum o f clay.

This clay, dried and hardened in t h e s u n , splits into separate prismatic pieces w i t h five o r six sides. D o e s it b e l o n g t o t h e trap-formation o f Parapara ? I t b e c o m e s thicker, and m i x e d with sand, as w e approach t h e Rio A p u r e ; f o r near Calabozo it is o n e toise thick, near the mission o f G u a y a v a l five toises, which m a y lead t o t h e belief that t h e strata o f red sandstone dips towards the south.

W e gathered i n t h e Mesa de Pavones little nodules o f blue iron-ore disseminated in t h e clay.

A dense whitish-gray l i m e s t o n e , with a smooth fracture, s o m e w h a t analogous t o that o f Caripe, and c o n s e q u e n t l y t o that o f .Jura, lies o n t h e r e d sandstone b e t w e e n Tisnao and Calabozo.† I n several other places, for instance in t h e M e s a de San D i e g o , and b e t w e e n Ortiz a n d t h e M e s a d e Paja,‡ we find above t h e limestone lamellar g y p s u m alternating with strata o f marl.

Considerable quantities o f this g y p s u m are sent t o t h e c i t y o f Caracas,§ which is situated amidst primitive m o u n t a i n s .

This g y p s u m generally forms o n l y small b e d s , a n d is m i x e d with a great deal o f fibrous g y p s u m .

I s it o f t h e * A t Malpaso and Piedra Azules. † Does this formation of secondary limestone of the Llanos contain galena ? It has been found in strata of black marl, at Barbacoa, between

Truxillo and Barquesimeto, north-west of the Llanos. ‡ Also near Cachipe and San Joacquim, in the Llanos of Barcelona. § This trade is carried on at Parapara. A load of eight arrobas sells at Caracas for twenty-four piastres.

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same formation as that o f G u i r e , o n t h e coast o f Paria, which contains s u l p h u r ? o r d o t h e masses o f this latter substance, f o u n d in the valley o f B u e n Pastor and o n t h e banks o f the O r i n o c o , b e l o n g , with t h e argillaceous g y p sum o f the L l a n o s , t o a secondary formation m u c h m o r e recent.

T h e s e questions are very interesting in t h e study o f t h e relative antiquity o f r o c k s , which is the principal basis o f geology.

I k n o w n o t o f any salt-deposits in the L l a n o s .

H o r n e d cattle p r o s p e r here without those famous bareros, o r muriatiferous lands, which a b o u n d in t h e Pampas o f Buenos Ayres.* A f t e r having wandered for a l o n g time, and without any traces o f a road, in t h e desert savannahs o f the M e s a de Pavones, w e w e r e agreeably surprised when w e came t o a solitary farm, the H a t o de A l t a Gracia, surrounded with gardens and basins o f limpid water. H e d g e s o f bead-trees encircled g r o u p s o f icacoes laden with fruit.

Farther on w e passed the night near the small village o f San G e r o n y m o del Guayaval, f o u n d e d b y Capuchin missionaries. I t is situated near the banks o f t h e Rio G u a r i c o , which falls into the A p u r e . I visited the missionary, w h o had n o other habitation than his c h u r c h , n o t having y e t built a h o u s e .

H e was a y o u n g man, and h e received u s in t h e m o s t o b l i g i n g manner, giving u s all t h e information w e desired.

H i s village, o r t o use t h e w o r d established a m o n g t h e m o n k s , his M i s s i o n , was n o t easy t o g o v e r n . T h e founder, w h o had n o t hesitated t o establish for his o w n profit a pulperia, in other w o r d s , t o sell bananas and guarapo in t h e church itself, had shown himself t o b e n o t very nice in the choice o f the n e w colonists. M a n y marauders o f t h e L l a n o s had settled at Guayaval, because t h e inhabitants o f a M i s sion are e x e m p t from t b e authority o f secular law.

Here, as in Australia, it c a n n o t b e e x p e c t e d that g o o d colonists will be formed before the s e c o n d or third generation.

W e passed the G u a r i c o , and e n c a m p e d in the savannahs south o f Guayaval.

E n o r m o u s bats, n o d o u b t o f the tribe o f Phyllostomas, hovered as usual over o u r h a m m o c k s during a great part o f the n i g h t .

Every moment they seemed t o b e a b o u t t o fasten o n o u r faces. Early in the * Known in North America under the name of ‘ salt-licks.’

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m o r n i n g w e p u r s u e d o u r w a y o v e r l o w g r o u n d s , often i n undated.

I n the season o f rains, a b o a t may b e navigated, as o n a lake, b e t w e e n t h e G u a r i c o a n d t h e A p u r e . W e arrived o n t h e 27th o f M a r c h at t h e V i l l a d e San F e r n a n d o , the capital o f t h e M i s s i o n o f t h e C a p u c h i n s i n t h e p r o v i n c e o f Varinas.

This was t h e termination o f o u r j o u r n e y o v e r t h e L l a n o s ; f o r w e passed t h e t h r e e m o n t h s o f A p r i l , M a y , and J u n e o n the rivers.

CHAPTER X V I I I .

San Fernando de Apure.—Intertwinings and Bifurcations of the Rivers Apure and Arauca.—Navigation on the Rio Apure.

T I L L the s e c o n d half o f the eighteenth c e n t u r y the n a m e s o f t h e great rivers A p u r e , A r a u c a , and M e t a w e r e scarcely k n o w n i n E u r o p e : certainly less than they had b e e n in t h e t w o p r e c e d i n g centuries, w h e n t h e valiant Felipe d e U r r e and the c o n q u e r o r s o f T o c u y o traversed the L l a n o s , t o seek, b e y o n d t h e A p u r e , t h e great legendary city o f E l D o r a d o , and the rich c o u n t r y o f t h e O m e g u a s , t h e T i m b u c t o o o f t h e N e w Continent.

Such daring expeditions c o u l d n o t b e c a r ried o u t w i t h o u t all the apparatus o f w a r ; and the w e a p o n s , w h i c h had been destined f o r t h e defence o f the n e w c o l o nists, w e r e employed w i t h o u t intermission against t h e u n h a p p y natives.

W h e n m o r e peaceful times s u c c e e d e d t o t h o s e o f violence a n d p u b l i c calamity, t w o p o w e r f u l I n d i a n tribes, t h e Cabres a n d t h e Caribs o f t h e O r i n o c o , m a d e themselves masters o f the c o u n t r y which t h e C o n quistadores h a d ceased t o ravage. N o n e b u t p o o r m o n k s w e r e t h e n p e r m i t t e d t o advance t o the south o f the s t e p p e s .

B e y o n d the Uritucu an unknown world opened t o the Spanish c o l o n i s t s ; a n d t h e d e s c e n d a n t s o f t h o s e intrepid warriors w h o had e x t e n d e d their c o n q u e s t s f r o m Peru t o t h e coasts o f N e w G r e n a d a and t h e m o u t h o f t h e A m a z o n , k n e w n o t t h e roads that lead f r o m C o r o t o t h e Rio M e t a .

T h e shore o f V e n e z u e l a r e m a i n e d a separate c o u n t r y ; a n d the slow c o n q u e s t s o f the J e s u i t missionaries w e r e s u c c e s s ful o n l y b y skirting t h e banks o f the O r i n o c o . T h e s e

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fathers had already penetrated b e y o n d the great cataracts o f A t u r e s a n d M a y p u r e s , when the Andalusian Capuchins had scarcely reached t h e plains o f Calabozo, from the coast a n d the valleys o f A r a g u a . I t w o u l d b e difficult to explain these contrasts b y t h e system according t o which, the different monastic orders are g o v e r n e d ; for the aspect o f the c o u n t r y c o n t r i b u t e s powerfully t o the more o r less rapid progress o f the M i s s i o n s . T h e y e x t e n d b u t slowly into the interior o f the land, o v e r m o u n t a i n s , o r in steppes, wherever they d o n o t follow the course o f a particular river. I t will scarcely be believed, that the Villa de F e r n a n d o de A p u r e , only fifty leagues distant in a direct line from that part o f the coast o f Caracas which has been longest inhabited, was f o u n d e d at n o earlier a date than 1789. W e were shown a parchm e n t , full o f fine paintings, containing the privileges o f this little t o w n . T h e p a r c h m e n t was sent from M a d r i d at t h e solicitation o f the m o n k s , whilst y e t only a few huts o f reeds were t o b e seen around a great cross raised in t h e c e n t r e o f t h e hamlet. T h e missionaries and the secular g o v e r n m e n t s b e i n g alike interested in exaggerating in E u r o p e what t h e y have d o n e t o a u g m e n t t h e culture a n d population o f the provinces b e y o n d sea, it often happens that names o f t o w n s a n d villages are placed o n the list o f n e w conquests, long before their foundation.

T h e situation o f San F e r n a n d o , o n a large navigable river, near t h e m o u t h o f another river which traverses the w h o l e province o f Varinas, is extremely advantageous f o r trade.

E v e r y p r o d u c t i o n o f that province, hides, cacao, c o t t o n , and t h e indigo o f Mijagual, which is o f the first quality, passes t h r o u g h this t o w n towards t h e m o u t h s o f t h e O r i n o c o .

D u r i n g the season o f rains large vessels g o from A n g o s t u r a as far as San F e r n a n d o de A p u r e , a n d by the Rio Santo D o m i n g o as far as T o r u 単 o s , the port o f the t o w n o f Varinas.

A t that period t h e inundations o f t h e rivers, which form a labyrinth o f branches b e t w e e n t h e A p u r e , t h e A r a u c a , the Capanaparo, a n d the Sinaruco, c o v e r a c o u n t r y o f nearly four hundred square leagues. A t this p o i n t , the O r i n o c o , turned aside from its course, n o t b y n e i g h b o u r i n g m o u n tains, b u t b y the rising o f counterslopes, runs eastward instead o f f o l l o w i n g its previous direction in the line o f the meridian.

C o n s i d e r i n g t h e surface o f the g l o b e as a

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p o l y h e d r o n , formed o f planes variously inclined, w e m a y conceive b y the mere inspection o f the maps, that the intersection o f these slopes, rising towards the north, the west, and south,* b e t w e e n San F e r n a n d o de A p u r e , Caycara, a n d the m o u t h o f the M e t a , m u s t cause a considerable depression. T h e savannahs in this basin are c o v e r e d with twelve o r fourteen feet o f water, and present, at the p e r i o d o f rains, the aspect o f a great lake. T h e farms and villages which seem as if situated o n shoals, scarcely rise t w o o r three feet above the surface o f the water.

Everything here calls to m i n d the inundations o f L o w e r E g y p t , and the lake o f X a r a y e s , heretofore so celebrated a m o n g g e o g r a phers, t h o u g h it exists only during some m o n t h s o f the year.

T h e swellings o f t h e rivers A p u r e , M e t a , and O r i n o c o , are also periodical. I n the rainy season, the horses that w a n d e r in the savannah, and have n o t t i m e t o reach t h e rising g r o u n d s o f the L l a n o s , perish b y hundreds. T h e mares are seen, followed b y their colts,†s w i m m i n g during a part o f the day t o feed u p o n the grass, the t o p s o f which alone wave above the waters. I n this state they are p u r s u e d b y the crocodiles, and it is b y n o means u n c o m m o n to find the prints o f the teeth o f these carnivorous reptiles o n their thighs. T h e carcases o f horses, mules, and c o w s , attract an innumerable quantity o f vultures. T h e zamuros are t h e ibisis o f this c o u n t r y , and t h e y render t h e same service t o the inhabitants o f the L l a n o s as t h e V u l t u r p e r c n o p t e r u s to t h e inhabitants o f E g y p t .

W e cannot reflect o n the effects o f these inundations w i t h o u t admiring the prodigious pliability o f the organization o f the animals which m a n has subjected to his sway.

I n G r e e n l a n d the d o g eats the refuse o f the fisheries ; a n d when fish are wanting, feeds o n seaweed. T h e ass and t h e * The risings towards the north and west are connected with two lines of ridges, the mountains of Villa de Cura and of Merida. The third slope, running from north to south, is that of the land-strait between the Andes and the chain of Parime. It determines the general inclination of the Orinoco, from the mouth of the Guaviare to that of the Apure. †The colts are drowned everywhere in large numbers, because they are sooner tired of swimming, and strive to follow the mares in places where the latter alone can touch the ground.

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INUNDATIONS.

horse, originally natives o f the c o l d and barren plains o f U p p e r A s i a , follow m a n t o the N e w W o r l d , return t o t h e wild state, and lead a restless and w e a r y life in t h e b u r n i n g climates o f the tropics.

Pressed alternately b y excess o f d r o u g h t and o f humidity, they sometimes seek a p o o l in the midst o f a bare and dusty plain, t o quench their t h i r s t ; and at other times flee from water, and the o v e r flowing rivers, as m e n a c e d b y an e n e m y that threatens t h e m o n all sides. T o r m e n t e d d u r i n g the day b y gadflies and mosquitos, the horses, mules, and c o w s find themselves attacked at n i g h t b y e n o r m o u s bats, which fasten o n their backs, and cause w o u n d s that b e c o m e dangerous, because they are filled with acaridĂŚ and other hurtful insects.

In the time o f great d r o u g h t the mules g n a w even the t h o r n y c a c t u s * in order to i m b i b e its c o o l i n g j u i c e , and draw it forth as from a vegetable fountain.

D u r i n g the great inundations these same animals lead an amphibious life, surrounded by crocodiles, water-serpents, and manatis. Y e t , such are the immutable laws o f nature, that their races are preserved in the struggle with the elements, and amid so many sufferings and dangers. W h e n the waters retire, and the rivers return again into their b e d s , t h e savannah is overspread with a beautiful scented grass ; and the animals o f E u r o p e a n d U p p e r A s i a seem t o enjoy, as in their native climes, the renewed vegetation o f spring.

D u r i n g the time o f great floods, t h e inhabitants o f these countries, t o avoid the force o f the currents, and the d a n g e r arising from the trunks o f trees which these currents b r i n g d o w n , instead o f ascending the beds o f rivers in their boats, cross the savannahs. T o g o from San F e r n a n d o t o t h e villages o f San J u a n de Payara, San Raphael de Atamaica, o r San F r a n c i s c o de Capanaparo, they direct their c o u r s e d u e south, as if they w e r e crossing a single river o f t w e n t y leagues broad. T h e j u n c t i o n s o f the G u a r i c o , the A p u r e , the Cabullare, and the A r a u c a with the O r i n o c o , form, at a h u n d r e d and sixty leagues from the coast o f G u i a n a , a k i n d o f interior D e l t a , o f which hydrography furnishes few e x amples in the O l d W o r l d .

A c c o r d i n g t o t h e height o f t h e * The asses are particularly adroit in extracting the moisture contained in the Cactus melocatus. They push aside the thorns with their hoofs ; but sometimes lame themselves in performing this feat.

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m e r c u r y in t h e barometer, t h e waters o f the A p u r e have o n l y a fall o f thirty-four toises from San F e r n a n d o t o the sea.

T h e fall from t h e m o u t h s o f t h e O s a g e and t h e M i s s o u r i t o t h e bar o f the Mississippi is n o t m o r e c o n siderable. T h e savannahs o f L o w e r Louisiana everywhere remind us o f the savannahs o f the L o w e r O r i n o c o .

D u r i n g o u r stay o f three days in t h e little t o w n o f San F e r n a n d o , w e l o d g e d with the C a p u c h i n missionary, w h o lived m u c h at his ease.

W e were r e c o m m e n d e d t o him b y the bishop o f Caracas, and he showed us the m o s t o b l i g i n g attention. H e consulted m e o n t h e w o r k s that had b e e n undertaken t o prevent t h e flood from u n d e r m i n i n g the shore on which the t o w n was built. T h e flowing o f the P o r t u g u e s a into the A p u r e gives the latter an impulse t o w a r d s s o u t h east ; and, instead o f p r o c u r i n g a freer course for t h e river, attempts w e r e made to confine it by dykes and piers.

It was easy t o predict that these w o u l d b e rapidly d e s t r o y e d b y the swell o f the waters, the shore having been w e a k e n e d b y taking away t h e earth from behind the d y k e t o e m p l o y it in these hydraulic constructions.

San Fernando is celebrated for t h e excessive heat which prevails there t h e greater part o f t h e y e a r ; and before I begin t h e recital o f o u r l o n g navigation o n the rivers, I shall relate some facts calculated t o t h r o w light o n t h e m e t e o r o l o g y o f the tropics. W e w e n t , provided with therm o m e t e r s , t o the flat shores covered with white sand which b o r d e r the river A p u r e . A t t w o in the afternoon I f o u n d the sand, wherever it was exposed t o t h e sun, at 5 2 5 ° .

T h e instrument, raised eighteen inches above t h e sand, marked 42·8°, and at six feet high 38·7°. T h e temperature o f the air u n d e r the shade o f a ceiba was 36·2°.

These observations were made during a dead calm. A s s o o n as the wind began t o b l o w , the temperature o f t h e air rose 3° higher, y e t w e w e r e n o t enveloped b y a wind of sand, b u t the strata o f air had b e e n in c o n t a c t with a soil m o r e strongly heated, or t h r o u g h which whirlwinds o f sand had passed. This western part o f the L l a n o s is the hottest, because it receives air that has already crossed the rest o f the barren steppe. T h e same difference has b e e n observed b e t w e e n t h e eastern and western parts o f the deserts o f Africa, where the trade-winds b l o w .

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PORPOISES.

T h e heat augments sensibly in the L l a n o s during the rainy season, particularly in the m o n t h o f J u l y , when the sky is c l o u d y , and reflects the radiant heat toward the earth.

D u r i n g this season the breeze entirely c e a s e s ; and, a c c o r d i n g to g o o d thermometrical observations made b y M . T o z o , the t h e r m o m e t e r rises in the shade t o 39° and 39¡5°, t h o u g h k e p t at the distance o f m o r e than fifteen feet from the g r o u n d . A s we approached the banks o f the Portuguesa, the A pure, and the A p u r i t o , the air became cooler from the evaporation o f so considerable a mass o f water. This effect is m o r e especially perceptible at sunset.

D u r i n g the day the shores o f the rivers, covered with white sand, reflect the heat in an insupportable degree, even m o r e than the yellowish b r o w n clayey grounds o f Calabozo and Tisnao.

O n the 28th o f M a r c h I was o n the shore at sunrise t o measure the breadth o f the A pure, which is t w o hundred and six toises. T h e thunder rolled in all directions around.

I t was the first storm and the first rain o f the season.

The river was swelled by the easterly w i n d ; b u t it soon b e c a m e calm, and then some great cetacea, m u c h resembling the porpoises o f o u r seas, b e g a n t o play in l o n g files o n the surface o f the water.

T h e slow and indolent crocodiles seem t o dread the n e i g h b o u r h o o d o f these animals, so noisy and impetuous in their evolutions, for w e saw t h e m dive whenever they approached. I t is a very extraordinary p h e n o m e n o n t o find cetacea at such a distance from the coast.

T h e Spaniards o f the M i s s i o n s designate t h e m , as t h ey do the porpoises o f the ocean, b y the name o f toninas.

The Tamanacs call t h e m orinucna.

T h e y are three or four feet long; and b e n d i n g their back, and pressing with their tail o n the inferior strata o f the water, they expose t o view a part o f the back and o f the dorsal fin. I did n o t succeed in obtaining any, t h o u g h I often engaged Indians t o shoot at them with their arrows. Father Gili asserts that the G u m a n o s eat their flesh.

A r e these cetacea peculiar t o the great rivers o f South A m e r i c a , like the manati, which, according t o Cuvier, is also a fresh water cetaceous animal ? or must we admit that they g o u p from the sea against the current, as the beluga sometimes does in the rivers o f A s i a ?

W h a t w o u l d lead m e to d o u b t this last supposition is, that we saw toninas above the great cataracts

ATMOSPHERIC

ELECTRICITY.

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o f t h e O r i n o c o , in the Rio A t a b a p o . D i d t h e y penetrate into the centre o f equinoctial A m e r i c a from the mouth o f the A m a z o n , b y the c o m m u n i c a t i o n o f that river with the Rio N e g r o , the Cassiquiare, and t h e O r i n o c o ? T h e y are f o u n d here at all seasons, and n o t h i n g seems t o d e n o t e that t h e y make periodical migrations like salmon.

W h i l e the t h u n d e r rolled around us, t h e sky displayed o n l y scattered c l o u d s , that advanced slowly t o w a r d the zenith, and in an opposite direction.

The hygrometer of D e l u c was at 5 3 ° , t h e centigrade t h e r m o m e t e r 23·7°, and Saussure's h y g r o m e t e r 87·5°. T h e electrometer gave n o sign o f electricity. A s t h e storm gathered, t h e blue o f the sky changed at first t o deep azure and then t o grey.

The vesicular vapour b e c a m e visible, and the t h e r m o m e t e r rose three degrees, as is almost always the case, within t h e tropics, from a c l o u d y sky which reflects the radiant heat o f the soil. A heavy rain fell. B e i n g sufficiently habituated t o the climate n o t t o fear t h e effect o f tropical rains, w e remained o n the shore t o observe the electrometer.

I held it more than t w e n t y minutes in m y hand, six feet above the g r o u n d , and observed that in general the pith-balls separated o n l y a few seconds before t h e lightning was seen.

The separation was four lines.

T h e electric charge remained the same during several m i n u t e s ; and having t i m e t o determine the nature o f the electricity, b y approaching a stick o f sealing-wax, I saw here what I had often observed on the ridge o f t h e A n d e s during a storm, that the electricity o f the atmosphere was first positive, then nil, and then n e gative. T h e s e oscillations from positive t o negative w e r e often repeated. Y e t t h e electrometer constantly denoted, a little before the lightning, o n l y E., o r + E., and never — E .

T o w a r d s the e n d o f the s t o r m t h e w e s t w i n d b l e w very strongly. T h e clouds dispersed, and the t h e r m o m e t e r sunk t o 22° o n a c c o u n t o f t h e evaporation from the soil, and the freer radiation towards the sky.

I have entered into these details o n the electric charge o f the atmosphere because travellers in general confine themselves t o t h e description o f t h e impressions p r o d u c e d o n a E u r o p e a n n e w l y arrived b y t h e solemn spectacle o f a tropical storm. I n a c o u n t r y where the year is divided into

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PHENOMENA.

great seasons o f d r o u g h t and w e t , or, as the I n d i a n s say in their expressive language, o f s u n * and rain,† it is highly interesting t o follow the progress o f meteorological p h e n o m e n a in the transition from o n e season t o another.

We had already observed, in the valleys o f A r a g u a f r o m t h e 18th and 19th o f F e b r u a r y , clouds f o r m i n g at the c o m mencement of the night.

I n t h e b e g i n n i n g o f the m o n t h o f M a r c h the accumulation o f the vesicular vapours, visible t o the e y e , and with t h e m signs o f atmospheric electricity, a u g m e n t e d daily.

W e saw flashes o f heat-lightning t o the south ; and the electrometer o f V o l t a constantly displayed, at sunset, positive electricity.

T h e pith balls, u n e x c i t e d d u r i n g the day, separated t o the width o f three o r four lines at the c o m m e n c e m e n t o f the n i g h t , which is triple what I generally observed in E u r o p e , with the same instrument, in calm weather.

U p o n the w h o l e , from the 26th o f M a y , the electrical equilibrium o f the atmosphere seemed disturbed.

D u r i n g w h o l e hours the electricity was nil, then it became very strong, and soon after was again imperceptible.

The h y g r o m e t e r o f D e l u c c o n t i n u e d t o indicate great dryness ( f r o m 33° t o 3 5 ° ) , and y e t the atmosphere appeared n o l o n g e r the same. A m i d s t these perpetual variations o f t h e electric state o f the air, the trees, divested o f their foliage, already b e g a n t o unfold n e w leaves, and seemed t o feel t h e approach o f spring.

T h e variations which we have j u s t described are n o t peculiar t o o n e year. E v e r y t h i n g in the equinoctial z o n e has a wonderful uniformity o f succession, because the active p o w e r s o f nature limit and balance each other, according t o laws that are easily r e c o g n i z e d .

I shall here n o t e t h e progress o f atmospherical p h e n o m e n a in the islands t o t h e east o f the Cordilleras o f M e r i d a and o f N e w Grenada, in the L l a n o s o f V e n e z u e l a and the Rio M e t a , from four t o ten degrees o f north latitude, wherever the rains are constant * In the Maypure dialect camoti, properly “the heat [of the sun].”

The Tamanacs call the season of drought uamu, “the time of grasshoppers.” † In the Tamanac language canepo. The year is designated, among several nations, by the name of one of the two seasons. The Maypures say, “so many suns,” (or rather “so many heats;”) the Tamanacs, “ so many rains.”

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from M a y t o O c t o b e r , and c o m p r e h e n d i n g consequently t h e periods o f the greatest heats, which o c c u r in J u l y and August.* N o t h i n g can equal the clearness o f t h e atmosphere f r o m the m o n t h o f D e c e m b e r t o that o f F e b r u a r y .

T h e sky is then constantly without c l o u d s ; and if one should appear, it is a p h e n o m e n o n that engages the whole attention o f the inhabitants. A breeze from the east, and from east-northeast, blows with violence. A s it brings with it air always o f the same temperature, the vapours cannot b e c o m e visible b y cooling.

A b o u t the e n d o f F e b r u a r y and the b e g i n n i n g o f M a r c h , the blue o f the sky is less intense, the h y g r o m e t e r indicates b y degrees greater humidity, the stars are sometimes veiled b y a slight stratum o f vapour, and their light is n o l o n g e r steady and planetary ; they are seen twinkling from t i m e t o time w h e n at 20째 above the h o r i z o n . T h e breeze at this period b e c o m e s less strong, less regular, and is often interr u p t e d b y dead calms.

T h e clouds accumulate towards south-south-east, appearing like distant mountains, with outlines strongly marked.

F r o m time t o time they detach themselves from the horizon, and traverse the vault o f the sky with a rapidity which little corresponds with the feeble wind prevailing in the l o w e r strata o f the air. A t the end o f M a r c h , the southern r e g i o n o f the atmosphere is illumined b y small electric explosions. T h e y are like phosphorescent gleams, circumscribed b y vapour. T h e breeze then shifts from t i m e t o time, and for several hours together, to the west and south-west. This is a certain sign o f the approach o f the rainy season, which begins at t h e O r i n o c o about t h e e n d o f A p r i l . T h e blue sky disappears, and a grey tint spreads uniformly over it. A t the same time the heat o f the atmosphere progressively i n c r e a s e s ; and soon the heavens are n o longer o b s c u r e d b y clouds, b u t b y c o n d e n s e d vapours.

T h e plaintive c r y o f the h o w l i n g apes b e g i n s t o be heard before sunrise. T h e atmospheric electricity, which, during * The maximum of the heat is not felt on the coast, at Cumana, at La Guayra, and in the neighbouring island of Margareta, before the month of September; and the rains, if the name can be given to a few drops that fall at intervals, are observed only in the months of October and November.

VOL.

II.

L

146

PROPAGATION OF AERIAL ACTION.

t h e season o f d r o u g h t , from D e c e m b e r t o M a r c h , had b e e n constantly, i n t h e day-time, from 1路7 t o 2 lines, b e c o m e s extremely variable from t h e m o n t h o f M a r c h . I t appears nil during w h o l e d a y s ; a n d then f o r some hours t h e pithballs diverge three o r four lines. T h e atmosphere, which is generally, i n t h e torrid as well as in t h e temperate z o n e , i n a state o f positive electricity, passes alternately, f o r eight o r t e n m i n u t e s , t o the negative state. T h e season o f rains is that o f s t o r m s ; a n d y e t a great n u m b e r o f experiments made during three years, p r o v e t o m e that i t is precisely in this season o f storms w e find t h e smallest degree o f electric tension in t h e l o w e r regions o f the a t m o sphere. A r e storms t h e effect o f this unequal charge o f t h e different superincumbent strata o f a i r ?

W h a t prevents the electricity from descending towards t h e earth, i n air which b e c o m e s m o r e humid after t h e month o f M a r c h ?

T h e electricity at this period, instead o f b e i n g diffused t h r o u g h o u t the whole atmosphere, appears accumulated o n the exterior envelope, at t h e surface o f the clouds.

Accord i n g t o M . G a y - L u s s a c it is the formation o f the cloud itself that carries the fluid toward its surface. T h e storm rises in t h e plains t w o hours after the sun has passed t h e m e r i d i a n ; consequently a short time after t h e m o m e n t o f the maxim u m o f diurnal heat within the tropics. I t is extremely rare in the islands t o hear thunder during t h e n i g h t , o r in t h e morning.

Storms at night are peculiar t o certain valleys o f rivers, having a peculiar climate.

W h a t then are t h e causes o f this rupture o f the equilib r i u m in t h e electric tension o f the air ? o f this continual condensation o f the vapours into w a t e r ? o f this interruption o f the breezes ? o f this c o m m e n c e m e n t and duration of t h e rainy s e a s o n s ?

I d o u b t whether electricity have a n y i n fluence o n t h e formation o f vapours. I t is rather the formation o f these vapours that augments and modifies t h e electrical tension. N o r t h and south o f the equator, storms o r great explosions take place at t h e same time in t h e temperate and in the equinoctial zone.

Is there an action propagated t h r o u g h t h e great aerial ocean from t h e t e m perate zone towards t h e tropics ? H o w c a n it b e c o n ceived, that in that zone where t h e s u n rises constantly t o s o great a height above t h e horizon, its passage through

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the zenith can have so powerful an influence on the m e t e o rological variations ? I am o f o p i n i o n that n o local cause determines the c o m m e n c e m e n t o f the rains within the t r o pics ; and that a m o r e intimate k n o w l e d g e o f the higher currents o f air will elucidate these p r o b l e m s , so complicated in appearance. W e can observe o n l y what passes in t h e lower strata o f the atmosphere. T h e A n d e s are scarcely inhabited b e y o n d the height o f t w o thousand toises ; and at that height the proximity o f the soil, and the masses o f m o u n tains, which form the shoals o f the aerial ocean, have a sensible influence o n the ambient air. W h a t w e observe o n the table-land o f Antisana is n o t what w e should find at t h e same height in a balloon, hovering over the L l a n o s o r t h e surface o f the ocean.

W e have j u s t seen that the season o f rains and storms in the northern equinoctial zone coincides with the passage o f the sun through the zenith o f the p l a c e , * with the c e s sation o f the north-east breezes, and with t h e frequency o f calms and bendavales, which are stormy winds from south-east and south-west, accompanied b y a c l o u d y sky.

I believe that, in reflecting o n the general laws o f t h e equilibrium o f the gaseous masses constituting o u r a t m o sphere, w e may find, in the interruption o f the current that blows from an h o m o n y m o u s pole, in the w a n t o f the renewal o f air in the torrid zone, and in the c o n t i n u e d action o f an ascending h u m i d current, a very simple cause o f the coincidence o f these p h e n o m e n a , W h i l e the north-easterly breeze blows with all its violence north o f t h e equator, it prevents the atmosphere which covers t h e equinoctial lands and seas from saturating itself with moisture. T h e hot and moist air o f the torrid zone rises aloft, and flows off again towards the p o l e s ; while inferior polar currents, b r i n g i n g drier and colder strata, are every instant taking the place o f the c o l u m n s o f ascending air. B y this constant action o f t w o opposite currents, the humidity, far from b e i n g a c c u m u lated in the equatorial region, is carried towards the c o l d and temperate regions. L u r i n g this season o f breezes, which is that w h e n the sun is in t h e southern signs, t h e * These passages take place, in the fifth and tenth degrees of north lat. between the 3rd and the 16th of April, and between the 27th of August and the 8th of September.

L 2

148

CHANGE OF THE SEASONS.

sky in the northern equinoctial zone is constantly serene.

T h e vesicular vapours are n o t condensed, because the air, unceasingly renewed, is far from the p o i n t o f saturation.

In p r o p o r t i o n as the sun, entering t h e northern signs, rises towards the zenith, the breeze from the north-cast moderates, and b y degrees entirely ceases. T h e difference o f temperature b e t w e e n the tropics and the temperate northern zone is then the least possible. I t is the summer o f the boreal p o l e ; and, if the mean temperature o f the winter, b e t w e e n 4 2 ° and 5 2 ° o f north latitude, b e from 20° to 26° o f the centigrade t h e r m o m e t e r less than the equatorial heat, the difference in s u m m e r is scarcely from 4° t o 6°. T h e sun b e i n g in the zenith, and the breeze having ceased, the causes which p r o d u c e humidity, and accumulate it in the northern e q u i n o c tial zone, b e c o m e at o n c e m o r e active. T h e c o l u m n o f air reposing o n this z o n e , is saturated with vapours, because it is n o l o n g e r renewed b y the polar current.

C l o u d s form in this air saturated and cooled b y the c o m bined effects o f radiation and the dilatation o f the ascending air. This air augments its capacity for heat in proportion as it rarefies. W i t h t h e formation and collection o f t h e vesicular vapours, electricity accumulates in the higher r e gions o f the atmosphere. T h e precipitation o f t h e vapours is continual during the d a y ; b u t it generally ceases at night, and frequently even before sunset. T h e showers are r e g u larly more violent, and accompanied with electric explosions, a short time after the maximum o f the diurnal heat.

This state of things remains unchanged, till the sun enters into the southern signs. This is the c o m m e n c e m e n t o f cold in the northern temperate zone. T h e current from the north-pole is then re-established, because the difference b e t w e e n the heat o f the equinoctial and temperate regions a u g m e n t s daily. T h e north-east breeze blows with violence, the air o f t h e tropics is renewed, and can n o l o n g e r attain the degree o f saturation. T h e rains consequently cease, the vesicular vapour is dissolved, and the sky resumes its clearness and its azure tint. Electrical explosions are n o l o n g e r heard, doubtless because electricity n o l o n g e r c o m e s in c o n t a c t with the g r o u p s o f vesicular vapours in the high regions o f the air, I had almost said the coating o f clouds, o n which the fluid can accumulate.

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W e have here considered the cessation o f the breezes as the principal cause o f the equatorial rains. T h e s e rains in each hemisphere last o n l y as l o n g as the sun has its declination in that hemisphere. I t is necessary t o observe, that the absence o f the breeze is n o t always succeeded b y a dead c a l m ; b u t that the calm is often interrupted, particularly along the western coast o f A m e r i c a , b y bendavales, o r s o u t h west and south-east winds.

This p h e n o m e n o n seems t o demonstrate that the c o l u m n s o f humid air which rise in t h e northern equatorial zone, sometimes flow off t o w a r d t h e south pole. I n fact, the countries situated in the torrid zone, b o t h north and south o f the equator, furnish, d u r i n g their summer, while t h e sun is passing through their zenith, the m a x i m u m o f difference o f temperature with the air o f the opposite p o l e . T h e southern temperate zone has its winter, while it rains o n the north o f the e q u a t o r ; and while a mean heat prevails from 5° t o 6° greater than in the t i m e o f drought, when the sun is l o w e r . * T h e continuation o f t h e rains, while t h e bendavales b l o w , proves that the c u r r e n t s from the remoter pole do n o t act in the n o r t h e r n e q u i noctial zone like the currents o f the nearer p o l e , o n a c c o u n t o f the greater humidity o f t h e southern polar current.

The air, wafted b y this current, c o m e s from a hemisphere consisting almost entirely o f water.

I t traverses all the southern equatorial zone to reach the parallel o f 8° north l a t i t u d e ; and is consequently less dry, less c o l d , less adapted to act as a c o u n t e r - c u r r e n t to r e n e w the equinoctial air and prevent its saturation, than t h e northern polar current, o r the breeze from the north-east.† W e may suppose that the bendavales are i m p e t u o u s w i n d s which, o n s o m e coasts, for instance o n that o f Guatimala, (because t h e y are n o t the effect o f a regular and progressive descent o f the air o f the t r o p i c s towards the south pole, b u t they alternate with c a l m s ) , are accompanied b y electrical explosions, and are in fact squalls, * From the equator to 1 0 ° of north lat. the mean temperatures of the summer and winter months scarcely differ 2° or 3 ° ; but at the limits of the torrid zone, toward the tropic of Cancer, the difference amounts to 8° or 9°. † In the two temperate zones the air loses its transparency every time that the wind blows from the opposite pole, that is to say, from the pole that has not the same denomination as the hemisphere in which the wind blows.

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VOYAGE.

that indicate a reflux, an abrupt and instantaneous rupture, o f equilibrium in the aĂŤrial ocean.

W e have here discussed one o f the m o s t important p h e n o m e n a o f the m e t e o r o l o g y o f the tropics, considered in its m o s t general view. I n the same manner as the limits o f the trade-winds d o n o t form circles parallel with the equator, the action o f the polar currents is variously felt in different meridians. T h e chains o f mountains and the coasts in the same hemisphere have often opposite seasons. There are several examples o f these a n o m a l i e s ; but, in order to disc o v e r the laws o f nature, we must k n o w , before w e examine into the causes o f local perturbations, t h e average state o f the atmosphere, and the constant t y p e o f its variations.

T h e aspect o f the sky, the progress o f the electricity, and t h e shower o f the 2 8 t h o f M a r c h , a n n o u n c e d the c o m m e n c e m e n t o f the rainy s e a s o n ; w e were still advised, however, t o g o from San F e r n a n d o de A p u r e by San Francisco de Capanaparo, the Rio Sinaruco, and the Hato de San A n t o n i o , t o the village o f t h e O t t o m a c s , recently founded near t h e banks o f the M e t a , and t o embark o n the O r i n o c o a little above Carichana. This way b y land lies across an unhealthy and feverish c o u n t r y . A n old farmer named Francisco Sanchez obligingly offered to c o n d u c t us. H i s dress denoted the great simplicity o f manners prevailing in those distant countries. He had acquired a fortune o f more than 100,000 piastres, and y e t he m o u n t e d o n horseback with his feet bare, and wearing large silver spurs. W e k n e w b y the experience o f several weeks the dull uniformity o f the vegetation o f t h e L l a n o s , and preferred t h e l o n g e r road, which leads b y the Rio A p u r e to the O r i n o c o . W e chose one o f those very large canoes called lanchas b y the Spaniards. A pilot and four Indians were sufficient t o manage it. T h e y constructed, near the stern, in the space o f a few hours, a cabin covered with palm-leaves, sufficiently spacious t o contain a table and b e n c h e s . T h e s e w e r e made o f ox-hides, strained tight, and nailed t o frames o f brazil-wood. I mention these m i n u t e circumstances, t o prove that o u r a c c o m m o d a t i o n s o n the Rio A p u r e were far different from those t o which w e were afterwards reduced in the narrow boats o f the O r i n o c o .

W e loaded the canoe with provision for a m o n t h .

Fowls, e g g s , plantains, cassava, and cacao, are f o u n d in abundance

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151

at San F e r n a n d o .

T h e g o o d Capuchin, F r a y J o s e M a r i a d e Malaga, gave u s sherry w i n e , oranges, a n d tamarinds, t o make c o o l i n g beverages. W e could easily foresee that a r o o f c o n s t r u c t e d o f palm-tree leaves w o u l d b e c o m e e x c e s sively h o t o n a large river, where w e were almost always e x p o s e d t o the perpendicular rays o f t h e sun. T h e Indians relied less o n t h e provision w e had purchased, than o n their hooks and nets. W e t o o k also some fire-arms, which w e found in general u s e as far as t h e c a t a r a c t s ; b u t farther south t h e great humidity o f t h e air prevents t h e missionaries from using t h e m . T h e Rio A p u r e abounds in fish, manatis, and turtles, t h e e g g s o f which afford an aliment m o r e nutritious than agreeable t o t h e taste. I t s banks are inhabited b y an innumerable quantity o f birds, a m o n g which the pauxi and t h e guacharaca, which may b e called t h e t u r keys and pheasants o f those countries, are f o u n d t o b e t h e m o s t useful.

Their flesh appeared t o b e harder and less white than that o f the gallinaceous tribe in E u r o p e , because t h e y use much m o r e muscular exercise. W e did n o t forget t o add t o o u r provision, fishing-tackle, fire-arms, and a f e w casks o f brandy, t o serve as a m e d i u m o f barter with t h e Indians o f the O r i n o c o .

W e departed from San F e r n a n d o o n t h e 3 0 t h o f M a r c h , at four in the afternoon.

T h e weather was extremely h o t ; t h e t h e r m o m e t e r rising i n t h e shade t o 3 4 째 , t h o u g h t h e breeze b l e w very strongly from t h e south-east. O w i n g t o this contrary w i n d w e c o u l d n o t s e t o u r sails. W e w e r e accompanied, in the w h o l e o f this v o y a g e o n t h e A p u r e , t h e O r i n o c o , and the Rio N e g r o , b y t h e brother-in-law o f t h e g o v e r n o r o f t h e p r o v i n c e o f Varinas, D o n N i c o l a s S o t o , w h o had recently arrived from Cadiz. D e s i r o u s o f visiting countries so calculated t o excite t h e curiosity o f a E u r o pean, h e did n o t hesitate t o confine himself with us during Plenty-four days in a narrow boat infested with mosquitos.

H i s amiable disposition a n d g a y t e m p e r often helped t o make us forget t h e sufferings o f a v o y a g e which was n o t wholly exempt from danger. W e passed t h e m o u t h o f t h e A p u r i t o , a n d coasted t h e island o f t h e same name, f o r m e d b y t h e A p u r e and t h e G u a r i c o . This island is in fact o n l y a very l o w spot o f g r o u n d , b o r d e r e d b y t w o great rivers, b o t h o f which, at a little distance from each other, fall into

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the O r i n o c o , after having formed a j u n c t i o n b e l o w San F e r nando b y t h e first bifurcation o f the A p u r e .

T h e Isla del A p u r i t o is t w e n t y - t w o leagues in length, and t w o o r three leagues in breadth. I t is divided b y the Ca単o de la T i g r e r a and the Ca単o del M a n a t i into three parts, t h e t w o extremes o f which bear the names o f Isla de B l a n c o and Isla de los Garzitas. T h e right bank o f the A p u r e , b e l o w t h e A p u r i t o , is somewhat better cultivated than the left bank, where t h e Y a r u r o s , o r Japuin Indians, have c o n s t r u c t e d a few huts with reeds and stalks o f palm-leaves. T h e s e p e o p l e , w h o live b y h u n t i n g and fishing, are very skilful in killing jaguars.

I t is they w h o principally carry the skins, k n o w n in E u r o p e b y the name o f tiger-skins, t o the Spanish villages. S o m e o f these I n d i a n s have b e e n baptized, b u t t h e y never visit the Christian churches. T h e y are considered as savages because they choose to remain independent.

Other tribes o f Y a r u r o s live u n d e r the rule o f the missionaries, in the village o f A c h a g u a s , situated south o f t h e Rio Payara.

T h e individuals o f this nation, w h o m I had an o p p o r t u n i t y o f seeing at t h e O r i n o c o , have a stern expression o f c o u n t e nance ; and s o m e features in their p h y s i o g n o m y , erroneously called Tartarian, b e l o n g to branches o f the M o n g o l race, the eye very l o n g , t h e c h e e k b o n e s high, b u t the nose p r o minent t h r o u g h o u t its w h o l e l e n g t h .

T h e y are taller, b r o w n e r , and less thick-set than the C h a y m a Indians.

The missionaries praise the intellectual character o f the Y a r u r o s , w h o were formerly a powerful and n u m e r o u s nation o n t h e banks o f the O r i n o c o , especially in the environs o f Cuycara, b e l o w the m o u t h o f the G u a r i c o .

W e passed the night at D i a m a n t e , a small sugar-plantation formed o p p o s i t e t h e island o f the same n a m e .

D u r i n g the whole o f m y v o y a g e from San F e r n a n d o t o San Carlos del Rio N e g r o , and t h e n c e t o the t o w n o f A n g o s t u r a , I n o t e d d o w n day b y day, either in the boat o r where we disembarked at night, all that appeared to me w o r t h y o f observation. V i o l e n t rains, and the p r o d i g i o u s quantity o f m o s q u i t o s with which t h e air is filled o n t h e banks o f the O r i n o c o and the Cassiquiare, necessarily o c c a sioned some i n t e r r u p t i o n s ; b u t I supplied the omission b y n o t e s taken a few days after. I here subjoin s o m e extracts from m y j o u r n a l .

W h a t e v e r is written while t h e o b j e c t s w e

RIVER SCENERY.

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describe are before o u r eyes bears a character o f truth and individuality which gives attraction t o things t h e least important.

O n the 31st M a r c h a contrary w i n d o b l i g e d us t o remain on shore till n o o n .

W e saw a part o f s o m e cane-fields laid waste b y t h e effect o f a conflagration which had spread from a n e i g h b o u r i n g forest.

T h e wandering Indians everywhere set fire to the forest where they have e n c a m p e d at n i g h t ; and during the season o f d r o u g h t , vast provinces w o u l d b e the prey o f these conflagrations if t h e extreme hardness o f the w o o d did n o t prevent t h e trees from b e i n g entirely consumed.

W e found trunks o f desmanthus and mahogany which were scarcely charred t w o inches deep.

H a v i n g passed the D i a m a n t e w e entered a land inhabited o n l y b y tigers, crocodiles, and c h i g u i r e s ; the latter are a large species o f the g e n u s Cavia o f L i n n ĂŚ u s . W e saw flocks o f birds, c r o w d e d so closely t o g e t h e r as to appear against the sky like a dark c l o u d which every instant changed its f o r m .

T h e river widens b y degrees.

O n e o f its banks is generally barren and sandy from the effect o f i n u n d a t i o n s ; the o t h e r is higher, and covered with lofty trees. I n some parts t h e river is bordered b y forests o n each side, and forms a straight canal a h u n d r e d and fifty toises broad.

The manner in which t h e trees are disposed is very remarkable.

W e first find bushes o f sauso* forming a kind of hedge four feet high, and appearing as if they had been clipped b y the hand o f man.

A c o p s e o f cedar, brazilletto, and Palm-trees are r a r e ; lignum-vitĂŚ, rises b e h i n d this h e d g e . w e saw o n l y a few scattered t r u n k s o f t h e t h o r n y piritu and c o r o z o .

T h e large quadrupeds o f those regions, t h e j a g u a r s , tapirs, and peccaries, have m a d e o p e n i n g s in t h e h e d g e o f sauso which w e have j u s t described.

Through these the wild animals pass when they c o m e t o drink at the river. A s they fear b u t little the approach o f a b o a t , w e had t h e pleasure o f viewing t h e m as they p a c e d slowly along the shore till they disappeared in t h e forest, w h i c h they entered b y o n e o f the n a r r o w passes left at intervals b e t w e e n t h e bushes. T h e s e scenes, which were often r e peated, had ever for me a peculiar attraction.

T h e pleasure * Hermesia castaneifolia. alchornea of Swartz.

This is a new genus, approaching the

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GROUPS OF CROCODILES.

they excite is n o t o w i n g solely t o the interest which the naturalist takes in t h e o b j e c t s o f his study, it is c o n n e c t e d with a feeling c o m m o n t o all m e n w h o have been b r o u g h t u p in the habits o f civilization.

Y o u find yourself in a n e w w o r l d , in the midst o f untamed and savage nature.

Now the j a g u a r , — t h e beautiful panther o f A m e r i c a , — a p p e a r s u p o n t h e s h o r e ; and n o w t h e h o c c o , * with its black plumage and tufted head, moves slowly along the sausos.

A n i m a l s o f the m o s t different classes succeed each other. “ E s s e como en el Paradiso,” “It is j u s t as it was in Paradise,” said o u r pilot, an old I n d i a n o f the M i s s i o n s .

E v e r y t h i n g , indeed, in these regions recalls to m i n d the state o f t h e primitive world with its i n n o c e n c e and felicity.

B u t in carefully observing the manners o f animals a m o n g themselves, w e see that they mutually avoid and fear each other. T h e g o l d e n age has c e a s e d ; and in this Paradise o f the American forests, as well as everywhere else, sad and l o n g experience has t a u g h t all b e i n g s that benignity is seldom f o u n d in alliance with strength.

W h e n the shore is o f considerable breadth, the h e d g e o f sauso remains at a distance from the river. I n the intermediate space w e see crocodiles, sometimes t o the n u m b e r o f eight o r ten, stretched o n the sand. M o t i o n l e s s , with their j a w s w i d e o p e n , t h e y repose b y each other, w i t h o u t displaying any o f those marks o f affection observed in other animals living in society. T h e t r o o p separates as soon as they quit the shore. I t is, however, probably c o m p o s e d o f o n e male only, and many f e m a l e s ; for as M . D e s c o u r t i l s , w h o has so m u c h studied the crocodiles o f St. D o m i n g o , observed t o m e , t h e males are rare, because they kill o n e another in fighting during t h e season o f their loves.

These m o n s t r o u s creatures are so n u m e r o u s , that t h r o u g h o u t the whole course o f the river w e had almost at every instant five o r six in view.

Vet at this period the swelling o f the Rio A p u r e was scarcely p e r c e i v e d ; and consequently hundreds o f crocodiles were still buried in the m u d o f the savannahs.

A b o u t four in the afternoon w o s t o p p e d t o measure a dead c r o c o d i l e which had been cast ashore. I t was o n l y sixteen feet eight inches l o n g ; some days after M . Bonpland f o u n d a n o t h e r , a male, t w e n t y - t w o feet three inches l o n g .

In • Ceyx alector, the peacock-pheasant; C. pauxi, the cashew-bird.

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every zone, in A m e r i c a as in E g y p t , this animal attains the same size. T h e species so abundant in t h e A p u r e , the O r i n o c o , * and the Rio d e la Magdalena, is n o t a cayman, b u t a real crocodile, analagous t o that o f the N i l e , having feet dentated at the external edges. W h e n it i s recollected that the male enters t h e a g e of p u b e r t y only at t e n years, and that its length is then eight feet, w e m a y presume that the crocodile measured b y M . B o n p l a n d was at least t w e n t y eight years old. T h e Indians told us, that at San F e r n a n d o scarcely a year passes, w i t h o u t t w o o r three grown-up persons, particularly w o m e n w h o fetch water from t h e river, being drowned b y these carnivorous reptiles. T h e y related to us the history o f a y o u n g girl o f U r i t u c u , w h o b y singular intrepidity and presence o f mind, saved herself from the j a w s of a crocodile.

W h e n she felt herself seized, she s o u g h t the eyes of the animal, and plunged h e r fingers i n t o t h e m w i t h such violence, that the pain forced t h e crocodile t o l e t h e r go, after having bitten off t h e lower part o f her left arm.

T h e girl, notwithstanding the e n o r m o u s quantity o f b l o o d she lost, reached t h e shore, swimming with t h e hand that still remained t o her. I n those desert countries, where man is ever wrestling with nature, discourse daily turns o n the best means that may b e e m p l o y e d t o escape from a tiger, a boa, or a c r o c o d i l e ; every o n e prepares himself in some sort for the dangers that m a y await him. “I knew,” said t h e y o u n g girl o f U r i t u c u coolly, “that the cayman lets g o his hold, if you push y o u r fingers into his eyes.” L o n g after my return t o E u r o p e , I learned that in the interior o f Africa the n e g r o e s k n o w and practise the same means o f defence. W h o does not recollect, with lively interest, Isaac, the guide of the unfortunate M u n g o Park, w h o w a s seized twice b y a crocodile, and twice escaped from the j a w s o f the m o n s t e r , having succeeded in thrusting his fingers into the creature's eyes while under water. T h e African Isaac, and the y o u n g A m e r i c a n girl, owed their safety t o t h e same presence of mind, and the same combination o f ideas.

T h e movements o f the crocodile o f the A p u r e are sudden and rapid when it attacks a n y object; b u t i t m o v e s with the slowness o f a salamander, w h e n n o t excited b y rage * It is the arua of the Tamanac Indians, the amana Indians, the Crocodilus acutus of Cuvier.

of the Maypure

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o r h u n g e r . T h e animal in r u n n i n g makes a rustling noise, which seems t o proceed from the r u b b i n g o f the scales o f its skin o n e against another.

I n this m o v e m e n t it b e n d s its back, and appears higher o n its legs than w h e n at rest.

We often heard this rattling o f the scales very near us on the s h o r e ; b u t it is n o t true, as the Indians pretend, that, like the armadillo, the old crocodiles " c a n erect their scales, and every part o f their a r m o u r . " T h e m o t i o n o f these animals is n o d o u b t generally in a straight line, o r rather like that o f an arrow, supposing it t o change its direction at certain distances.

H o w e v e r , notwithstanding the little apparatus o f false ribs, which c o n n e c t s t h e vertebrĂŚ o f the n e c k , and seems t o impede the lateral m o v e m e n t , crocodiles can turn easily w h e n they please. I often saw y o u n g ones biting their t a i l s ; and other observers have seen the same action in crocodiles at their full g r o w t h .

I f their m o v e m e n t s almost always appear to be straight forward, it is because, like o u r small lizards, they m o v e by starts. Crocodiles are excellent s w i m m e r s ; they g o with facility against the m o s t rapid current.

I t appeared t o m e , however, that in descending the river, they had s o m e difficulty in t u r n i n g quickly a b o u t .

A large d o g , which had a c c o m p a n i e d us in o u r j o u r n e y from Caracas t o the Rio N e g r o , was o n e day pursued m s w i m m i n g b y an e n o r m o u s crocodile. T h e latter had nearly reached its p r e y , w h e n the d o g escaped b y t u r n ing r o u n d suddenly and s w i m m i n g against the c u r r e n t .

T h e crocodile performed the same m o v e m e n t , b u t m u c h m o r e slowly than the d o g , w h i c h s u c c e e d e d in gaining the shore.

T h e crocodiles o f the A p u r e find abundant f o o d in the chiguires (thick-nosed t a p i r s ) , * which live fifty o r sixty t o g e t h e r in t r o o p s on the banks o f the river. These animals, as large as our pigs, have no weapons of defence ; they swim somewhat better than they r u n : y e t they b e c o m e the prey * Cavia capybara, Linn. The word chiguire belongs to the language of the Palenkas and the Cumanagotos. The Spaniards call this animal guardatinaja; the Caribs, capigua; the Tamanaes, cappiva; and the Maypures, chiato. According to Azara, it is known at Buenos Ayres by the Indian names of capiygua and capiguara. These various denominations show a striking analogy between the languages of the Orinoco and those of the Rio de la Plata.

CANO DE LA TIGRERA.

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o f the crocodiles in the water, and o f the tigers o n land.

I t is difficult t o conceive, h o w , b e i n g thus persecuted b y t w o powerful enemies, t h e y b e c o m e so n u m e r o u s ; b u t t h e y breed with the same rapidity as the little cavies o r guineapigs, which c o m e t o us from Brazil.

W e s t o p p e d b e l o w the m o u t h o f the CaĂąo de la Tigrera, in a sinuosity called la Vuelta del Joval, t o measure the velocity o f the water at its surface. I t was n o t m o r e than 3.2 f e e t * in a second, which gives 2.56 feet for the mean v e l o city. T h e height o f the barometer indicated barely a slope o f seventeen inches in a mile o f nine h u n d r e d and fifty toises.

T h e velocity is the simultaneous effect o f the slope o f t h e g r o u n d , and the accumulation o f the waters b y the swelling o f the upper parts o f the river. W e w e r e again surrounded b y chiguires, which swim like d o g s , raising their heads and n e c k s above the water. W e saw with surprise a large crocodile on the o p p o s i t e shore, motionless, and sleeping in the midst o f these nibbling animals. I t awoke at t h e a p proach o f o u r canoe, and w e n t into the w a t e r slowly, w i t h o u t frightening the chiguires.

O u r Indians a c c o u n t e d for this indifference b y the stupidity o f the animals, b u t it is m o r e probable that the chiguires k n o w b y l o n g experience, that the crocodile o f the A p u r e and the O r i n o c o does n o t attack Upon land, unless he finds the object he w o u l d seize i m m e diately in his w a y , at t h e instant w h e n he throws himself into the water.

N e a r the Joval nature assumes an awful and extremely wild aspect.

W e there saw the largest jaguar w e had ever m e t with. T h e natives themselves were astonished at its p r o digious l e n g t h , which surpassed that o f any B e n g a l tiger I had ever seen in the m u s e u m s o f E u r o p e . T h e animal lay Stretched beneath the shade o f a large z a m a n g * I t had j u s t killed a chiguire, b u t had n o t y e t t o u c h e d its p r e y , o n which it k e p t o n e o f its paws. T h e zamuro vultures w e r e assembled in great n u m b e r s t o devour the remains o f t h e j a g u a r ' s repast. T h e y presented the m o s t curious spectacle, * In order to measure the velocity of the surface of a river, I generally measured on the beach a base of 250 feet, and observed with the chronometer the time that a floating body, abandoned to the current, required to reach this distance. †A species of mimosa.

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ENORMOUS JAGUAR.

b y a singular mixture o f boldness and timidity. T h e y advanced within the distance o f t w o feet from the animal, b u t at t h e least m o v e m e n t h e m a d e t h e y drew b a c k . I n o r d e r t o observe m o r e nearly t h e manners o f these creatures, w e w e n t into the little skiff that accompanied o u r canoe. T i g e r s v e r y rarely attack boats b y s w i m m i n g t o t h e m ; and never b u t when their ferocity is heightened b y a l o n g privation o f f o o d . T h e noise o f o u r oars led t h e animal t o rise slowly, and hide itself b e h i n d the sauso bushes that b o r d e r e d t h e shore. T h e vultures tried t o profit b y this m o m e n t o f absence t o devour t h e c h i g u i r e ; b u t the tiger, n o t w i t h standing the p r o x i m i t y o f o u r boat, leaped into the midst o f t h e m , and in a fit o f rage, expressed b y his gait and t h e m o v e m e n t o f his tail, carried off his p r e y t o the forest.

T h e Indians regretted that t h e y were n o t provided with their lances, in order t o g o o n shore and attack the tiger.

T h e y are accustomed t o this w e a p o n , and were right in n o t trusting t o o u r fire-arms. I n so excessively damp an atmosphere muskets often miss fire.

C o n t i n u i n g t o descend the river, w e m e t with the great herd o f chiguires which the tiger had p u t t o flight, and from which he had selected his prey. T h e s e animals saw us land very u n c o n c e r n e d l y ; some o f t h e m w e r e seated, and gazed u p o n u s , m o v i n g the u p p e r lip like rabbits. T h e y seemed n o t t o b e afraid o f man, b u t the sight o f o u r d o g put them t o flight. T h e i r hind legs b e i n g l o n g e r than their fore legs, their pace is a slight gallop, but with so little swiftness that w e succeeded in catching t w o o f t h e m . T h e chiguire, which swims with the greatest agility, utters a short moan in r u n n i n g , as if its respiration were impeded. I t is the largest o f the family o f rodentia o r g n a w i n g animals. I t defends itself o n l y at the last extremity, w h e n it is surrounded and wounded.

H a v i n g great strength in its g r i n d i n g t e e t h , * particularly the hinder o n e s , which are pretty l o n g , it can tear the paw o f a tiger, o r the leg o f a horse, with its bite. * We counted eighteen on each side. On the hind feet, at the upper end of the metatarsus, there is a callosity three inches long and three quarters of an inch broad, destitute of hair. The animal, when seated, rests upon this part. No tail is visible externally; but on putting aside the hair we discover a tubercle, a mass of naked and wrinkled flesh, of a conical figure, and half an inch long.

A W H I T E CABALLERO.

159

I t s flesh has a m u s k y smell s o m e w h a t d i s a g r e e a b l e ; yet hams are made o f it in this c o u n t r y , a circumstance which almost justifies the n a m e o f ' w a t e r - h o g , ' given t o t h e chiguire b y some o f the older naturalists. T h e missionary m o n k s d o n o t hesitate t o eat these hams during L e n t .

A c c o r d i n g t o their zoological classification they place t h e armadillo, the t h i c k - n o s e d taper, and the manati, near t h e t o r t o i s e s ; the first, because it is c o v e r e d with a hard arm o u r like a sort o f s h e l l ; and the others because t h e y are amphibious. T h e chiguires are f o u n d in such n u m b e r s o n the banks o f the rivers Santo D o m i n g o , A p u r e , and A r a u c a , in t h e marshes a n d in the inundated savannahs * o f t h e L l a n o s , that the pasturages sutler from t h e m . T h e y b r o w z e t h e grass which fattens the horses best, and which bears the name o f chiguirero, o r chiguire-grass. T h e y feed also upon fish; and w e saw with surprise, that, w h e n scared b y the approach o f a boat, the animal in diving remains eight or ten minutes u n d e r water.

W e passed the n i g h t as usual, in t h e o p e n air, t h o u g h in a plantation, the proprietor o f w h i c h e m p l o y e d himself in hunting tigers. H e w o r e scarcely any clothing, and was of a dark brown c o m p l e x i o n like a Z a m b o . This did n o t p r e vent his classing himself a m o n g s t t h e W h i t e s .

H e called his wife and his daughter, w h o were as naked as himself, D o n a Isabella and D o n a M a n u e l a .

W i t h o u t having ever quitted the banks o f the A p u r e , he t o o k a lively interest in the n e w s o f M a d r i d , — e n q u i r i n g eagerly respecting " t h o s e never-ending wars, and everything d o w n y o n d e r (todas las cosas de a l l a ) . " H e k n e w , h e said, that the k i n g was soon t o c o m e and visit " the grandees o f the c o u n t r y o f C a r a c a s , " b u t he added with some pleasantry, " as the people o f the c o u r t can eat o n l y wheaten bread, t h e y will never pass b e y o n d t h e t o w n o f V i c t o r i a , and we shall n o t see them h e r e . " 1 had b r o u g h t with m e a chiguire, which I had intended t o have r o a s t e d ; b u t o u r host assured us, that such ' I n d i a n g a m e ' was n o t f o o d fit for "nos otros caballeros blancos" (white g e n t l e m e n like ourselves and h i m ) . A c c o r d i n g l y he offered us some venison, which he had killed the day b e f o r e with an arrow, for he had neither p o w d e r n o r fire-arms. * Near Uritucu, in the Caùo del Ravanal, we saw aflockof eighty or one hundred of these animals.

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LUDICROUS INCIDENT.

W e supposed that a small w o o d o f plantain-trees c o n cealed from us the hut o f the f a r m ; b u t this man, so p r o u d o f his nobility and the c o l o u r o f his skin, had n o t taken t h e trouble o f c o n s t r u c t i n g even an ajoupa, o r h u t o f p a l m leaves. H e invited us t o have o u r h a m m o c k s h u n g near his o w n , b e t w e e n t w o t r e e s ; and he assured us, with an air o f c o m p l a c e n c y , that, i f w e came u p t h e river in t h e rainy season, w e should find him beneath a r o o f ( b a x o t e c h o ) . W e s o o n had reason t o complain o f a system o f philosophy which is indulgent t o indolence, and renders a man indifferent to the conveniences o f life.

A furious w i n d arose after m i d n i g h t , lightnings flashed over t h e horizon, t h u n d e r rolled, and we w e r e w e t t o the skin. D u r i n g this storm a whimsical incident served t o amuse u s for a m o m e n t .

D o 単 a Isabella's cat had p e r c h e d u p o n the tamarind-tree, at the foot o f which w e lay. I t fell into the h a m m o c k o f o n e o f o u r c o m p a n i o n s , w h o , b e i n g hurt b y the claws o f the cat, and suddenly aroused from a p r o f o u n d sleep, imagined he was attacked by s o m e wild beast o f the forest.

W e ran t o him o n hearing his cries, and had some trouble t o c o n v i n c e him o f his error. W h i l e it rained in torrents o n o u r h a m m o c k s and o n o u r instruments which w e had b r o u g h t ashore, D o n I g n a c i o congratulated us o n o u r g o o d f o r t u n e in n o t sleeping o n the strand, b u t finding ourselves in his domain, a m o n g whites and persons o f respectability ( e n t r e g e n t e blanca y de t r a t o ) . W e t as w e were, we c o u l d n o t easily persuade ourselves o f the advantages o f o u r situation, and w e listened with some impatience t o t h e l o n g narrative o u r host gave us o f his p r e t e n d e d expedition t o t h e Rio M e t a , o f the valour he had displayed in a sanguinary c o m bat with the G u a h i b o Indians, and " t h e services that he had rendered to G o d and his king, in carrying away I n d i a n children (los I n d i e c i t o s ) from their parents, t o distribute them in the M i s s i o n s . " W e were struck with t h e singularity o f finding in that vast solitude a man believing himself to be o f E u r o p e a n race and k n o w i n g n o other shelter than the shade o f a tree, and y e t having all t h e vain p r e tensions, hereditary prejudices, and errors o f long-standing civilization!

O n the 1st o f A p r i l , at sunrise, w e quitted Se単or D o n I g n a c i o and Se単ora D o 単 a Isabella his wife. T h e weather

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was cooler, for t h e t h e r m o m e t e r ( w h i c h generally k e p t u p in the daytime t o 30° o r 3 5 ° ) had sunk t o 2 4 ° . T h e t e m p e r a ture o f t h e river was little c h a n g e d : it c o n t i n u e d constantly at 26° o r 27°. T h e c u r r e n t carried with it an e n o r m o u s n u m b e r o f t r u n k s o f trees. I t might b e imagined that o n g r o u n d entirely s m o o t h , and where the e y e cannot distinguish t h e least hill, t h e river w o u l d have formed b y t h e force o f its current a channel in a straight l i n e ; b u t a glance at the m a p , w h i c h I traced b y the compass, will prove t h e contrary. T h e t w o banks, w o r n b y the waters, do n o t furnish an equal r e s i s t a n c e ; and almost i m p e r c e p tible inequalities o f the level suffice t o p r o d u c e great s i n u o sities. Y e t b e l o w the Joval, where the b e d o f the river enlarges a little, it forms a channel that appears perfectly straight, and is shaded o n each side b y very tall trees.

This part o f t h e river is called C a h o R i c o . I f o u n d it t o b e o n e hundred and thirty-six toises broad. "We passed a l o w island, inhabited b y thousands o f flamingos, r o s e c o l o u r e d spoonbills, herons, and m o o r h e n s , which displayed plumage o f the m o s t various colours. T h e s e birds w e r e so close t o g e t h e r that they seemed t o b e unable t o stir.

T h e island t h e y frequent is called Isla de A v e s , o r B i r d Island. L o w e r d o w n w e passed the p o i n t w h e r e t h e Rio A r i c h u n a , an arm o f t h e A p u r e , branches off t o t h e C a b u lare, carrying away a considerable b o d y o f its waters.

We stopped, o n the right bank, at a little I n d i a n mission, inhab i t e d b y the tribe o f t h e G u a m o s , called the village o f Santa Barbara de A r i c h u n a .

T h e G u a m o s * are a race o f I n d i a n s very difficult t o fix on a settled spot. T h e y have great similaritv o f manners with t h e A c h a g u a s , the G u a j i b o s , t and the O t t o m a c s , partaking their disregard o f cleanliness, their spirit o f v e n geance, and their taste for w a n d e r i n g ; b u t their language differs essentially. T h e greater part o f these f o u r tribes live b y fishing and h u n t i n g , in plains o f t e n inundated, situated b e t w e e n the A p u r e , the M e t a , and t h e Guaviare.

T h e nature o f these regions seems t o invite t h e natives t o a wandering life. O n entering the mountains o f t h e Cata* Father Gili observes that their Indian name is Uamu and Pau, and that they originally dwelt on the Upper Apure. t Their Indian name is Guahiva.

VOL. I I .

M

162

THE WOODS AT NIGHT.

racts o f the O r i n o c o , w e shall soon find, a m o n g the Piraoas, the M a c o s , and the Maquiritaras, milder manners, a love o f agriculture, and great cleanliness in the interior o f their huts.

O n m o u n t a i n ridges, in t h e midst o f impenetrable forests, m a n is c o m p e l l e d t o fix himself, and cultivate a small spot o f land. This cultivation requires little c a r e ; while, in a c o u n t r y where there are n o other roads than rivers, the life o f the hunter is laborious and difficult.

The G u a m o s o f the mission o f Santa Barbara c o u l d n o t furnish u s with the provision w e wanted. T h e y cultivate o n l y a little cassava.

T h e y appeared h o s p i t a b l e ; and w h e n w e entered their huts, they offered us dried fish, and water c o o l e d in porous vessels.

B e y o n d the V u e l t a del C o c h i n o R o t o , in a spot where t h e river has s c o o p e d itself a n e w bed, w e passed the n i g h t o n a bare and very extensive strand. T h e forest b e i n g impenetrable, w e had t h e greatest difficulty t o find dry w o o d to light fires, near which the Indians believe t h e m selves in safety from the nocturnal attacks o f t h e tiger.

O u r o w n experience seems t o bear t e s t i m o n y in favour o f this o p i n i o n ; b u t A z a r a asserts that, in his time, a t i g e r in Paraguay carried off a m a n w h o was seated near a fire lighted in the savannah.

T h e night was calm and serene, and there was a beautiful moonlight.

T h e crocodiles, stretched along the shore, placed themselves in such a manner as t o b e able t o see t h e fire.

"We t h o u g h t w e observed that its blaze attracted t h e m , as it attracts fishes, crayfish, and other inhabitants of t h e water. T h e Indians showed us t h e tracks o f three tigers in the sand, t w o o f which were very y o u n g .

A female had n o d o u b t c o n d u c t e d her little ones t o drink at t h e river.

Kinding no tree on the strand, we stuck our oars in the g r o u n d , and to these w e fastened o u r h a m m o c k s .

Everything passed tranquilly till eleven at n i g h t ; and then a noise so terrific arose in t h e n e i g h b o u r i n g forest, that it was almost impossible t o close o u r e y e s . A m i d the cries o f so many wild beasts howling at o n c e , the Indians discriminated such o n l y as were at intervals heard separately.

These were the little soft cries o f the sapajous, the moans o f the alouate apes, the b o w l i n g s o f the j a g u a r and couguar, t h e peccary, and the sloth, and the cries o f the curassao, the

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parraka, and other gallinaceous birds. W h e n t h e jaguars approached the skirt o f the forest, o u r d o g , which till t h e n had never ceased barking, b e g a n t o h o w l and seek for shelter beneath o u r h a m m o c k s .

Sometimes, after a l o n g silence, the cry o f the t i g e r came from the t o p s o f the t r e e s ; and then it was followed b y the sharp and l o n g whistling o f t h e m o n k e y s , w h i c h appeared t o flee from the danger that threatened t h e m . W e heard t h e same noises repeated, during the course o f whole m o n t h s , whenever the forest approached t h e bed o f the river. T h e security evinced b y the Indians inspires confidence in the minds o f travellers, w h o readily persuade themselves that the tigers are afraid o f fire, and that t h e y d o n o t attack a m a n l y i n g in his h a m mock.

T h e s e attacks are in fact extremely r a r e ; and, during a l o n g abode in South A m e r i c a , 1 r e m e m b e r o n l y o n e example, o f a llanero, w h o was f o u n d mutilated in his h a m m o c k o p p o s i t e the island o f A c h a g u a s .

W h e n the natives are interrogated o n the causes o f the t r e m e n d o u s noise made b y the beasts o f the forest at certain hours o f t h e n i g h t , the answer i s , " T h e y are keeping the feast o f the full m o o n . " I believe this agitation is m o s t frequently the effect o f some conflict that has arisen in the depths o f the forest.

T h e j a g u a r s , for instance, pursue the peccaries and the tapirs, which, having n o defence b u t in their n u m b e r s , flee in close t r o o p s , and break d o w n the bushes t h e y find in their way. Terrified at this struggle, the timid and mistrustful monkies answer, from t h e t o p s o f the trees, the cries o f the large animals. T h e y awaken the birds that live in society, and b y degrees t h e whole assembly is in c o m m o t i o n .

I t is n o t always in a fine m o o n l i g h t , b u t m o r e particularly at t h e time o f a storm and violent showers, that this t u m u l t takes place a m o n g the wild beasts. " M a y H e a v e n grant them a quiet n i g h t and repose, and us a l s o ! " said the m o n k w h o accompanied u s t o the Rio N e g r o , w h e n , sinking with fatigue, he assisted in arranging o u r a c c o m m o d a t i o n s for t h e night.

I t was indeed strange, t o find n o silence in t h e solitude o f w o o d s . I n the inns o f Spain w e dread the s o u n d o f guitars from the n e x t a p a r t m e n t ; o n the O r i n o c o , where the traveller's resting-place is the o p e n beach, o r beneath M

2

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RIVER-SCENERY.

the shelter o f a solitary tree, his slumbers are disturbed b y a serenade from t h e forest.

W e set sad before sunrise, o n the 2 n d o f A p r i l .

The m o r n i n g was beautiful and c o o l , a c c o r d i n g t o the feelings o f those who are a c c u s t o m e d t o the heat o f these climates.

T h e t h e r m o m e t e r rose o n l y t o 28° in the air, b u t the d r y a n d white sand o f the beach, notwithstanding its radiation towards a cloudless sky, retained a temperature o f 3 6 ° . T h e porpoises ( t o n i n a s ) p l o u g h e d the river in l o n g files. T h e shore was c o v e r e d with fishing-birds. S o m e o f these p e r c h e d o n the floating w o o d as it passed d o w n t h e river, and surprised t h e fish that preferred the middle o f the stream.

O u r c a n o e was a g r o u n d several times during the m o r n i n g .

T h e s e shocks are sufficiently violent t o split a light bark.

W e struck o n the p o i n t s o f several largo trees, which remain for years in an oblique position, sunk in the m u d .

These trees d e s c e n d from Sarare, at the p e r i o d o f great i n u n dations, and they so fill the b e d o f t h e river, that canoes in g o i n g up find it difficult sometimes t o make their way over t h e shoals, o r wherever there are eddies. W e reached a s p o t near the island o f Carizales, w h e r e w e saw trunks o f the locust-tree, o f an e n o r m o u s size, above t h e surface o f the water. T h e y w e r e c o v e r e d with a species o f plotus, nearly r e s e m b l i n g the anhinga, o r white bellied darter.

These birds perch in files, like pheasants and parrakas, and t h e y remain for hours entirely motionless, with their beaks raised toward the sky.

B e l o w the island o f Carizales we observed a diminution o f t h e waters o f the river, at which w e w e r e the m o r e surprised, as, after the bifurcation at la Boca de Arichuna, there is n o branch, n o natural drain, which takes away water from t h e A p u r e . T h e loss is solely the effect o f evaporation, and o f filtration o n a sandy and w e t shore. S o m e idea o f the m a g n i t u d e o f these effects may b e f o r m e d , from the fact that we f o u n d the heat o f the dry sands, at different hours o f the day, from 3 6 ° t o 5 2 ° , and that o f sands c o v e r e d with three o r f o u r inches o f water 3 2 ° . T h e beds o f rivers are heated as far as the d e p t h t o which the solar rays can penetrate without u n d e r g o i n g t o o great an extinction in their passage t h r o u g h the s u p e r i n c u m b e n t strata o f water.

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Besides, filtration extends in a lateral direction far b e y o n d the b e d o f t h e river. T h e shore, which apears dry t o u s , imbibes water as far u p as t o the level .of the surface o f the river. "We saw water gush o u t at the distance o f fifty toises f r o m t h e shore, every t i m e that t h e I n d i a n s struck their oars into t h e g r o u n d . N o w these sands, w e t b e l o w , b u t dry above, and e x p o s e d t o t h e solar rays, a c t like s p o n g e s , and lose the infiltrated w a t e r every instant b y evaporation.

T h e v a p o u r that is emitted, traverses t h e upper stratum o f sand strongly heated, and b e c o m e s sensible to the eye w h e n the air cools towards evening. A s the beach dries, it draws from the river n e w p o r t i o n s o f w a t e r ; and it may b e easily c o n c e i v e d that this continual alternation o f vaporization and lateral absorption m u s t cause an i m m e n s e loss, difficult t o submit t o exact calculation.

T h e increase o f these losses w o u l d b e in p r o p o r t i o n t o t h e l e n g t h o f the course o f the rivers, if from their source t o their m o u t h they were equally surrounded b y a fiat s h o r e ; b u t these shores b e i n g f o r m e d b y deposits f r o m t h e water, and the water having less velocity in p r o p o r t i o n as it is m o r e r e m o t e from its source, t h r o w i n g d o w n m o r e sediment in the l o w e r than in the u p p e r part o f its c o u r s e , m a n y rivers in h o t climates u n d e r g o a diminution in t h e quantity o f their water, as t h e y approach their outlets. M r . B a r r o w observed these curious effects o f sands in the southern part o f Africa, o n the banks o f the O r a n g e River. T h e y have also b e c o m e t h e subject o f a very i m p o r t a n t discussion, in t h e various h y p o t h e s e s that have b e e n f o r m e d r e s p e c t i n g the course o f the N i g e r . * N e a r the V u e l t a de Basilio, w h e r e w e landed t o c o l l e c t plants, w e saw o n the t o p o f a tree t w o beautiful little m o n k e y s , black as j e t , o f the size o f the sai, with prehensile tails. T h e i r p h y s i o g n o m y and their m o v e m e n t s sufficiently showed that they were neither the quato (Simia b e e l z e b u b ) * Geographers supposed, for a long period, that the Niger was entirely absorbed by the sands, and evaporated by the heat of the tropical sun, as no embouchure could be found on the western coast of Africa to meet the requirements of so enormous a river. It was discovered, however, by the Landers, in 1830, that it does really flow into the Atlantic; yet the cause mentioned above is so powerful, that of all the numerous branches into which it separates at its mouth, only one (the Nun River) is navigable even for light ships, and for half the year even those are unable to enter.

166

THE IGUANA.

n o r the chamek, n o r any o f t h e A t e l e s .

Our Indians themselves had never seen any that resembled t h e m .

Monkeys, especially those living in t r o o p s , make l o n g emigrations at certain periods, and consequently it happens that at the b e g i n n i n g o f the rainy seasons the natives discover r o u n d their huts different kinds which they have n o t b e f o r e observed.

O n this same bank o u r guides s h o w e d u s a n e s t o f y o u n g iguanas only four inches l o n g .

I t was difficult to distinguish them from c o m m o n lizards.

There was n o distinguishing mark y e t f o r m e d b u t t h e dewlap b e l o w the throat. T h e dorsal spines, the large erect scales, all those appendages that render the iguana so remarkable when it attains its full g r o w t h , were scarcely traceable.

T h e flesh o f this animal o f the saurian family appeared t o u s t o have an agreeable taste in every c o u n t r y where t h e climate is very d r y ; we even found it so at periods w h e n w e were n o t in want o f other f o o d . I t is extremely white, a n d next to the flesh o f the armadillo, o n e o f the best kinds o f f o o d to be f o u n d in the huts o f the natives.

I t rained toward evening, and before t h e rain fell, swallows, exactly resembling o u r o w n , skimmed over the surface o f the water. We saw also a flock o f paroquets p u r s u e d b y little goshawks w i t h o u t crests. T h e piercing cries o f these paroquets contrasted singularly with t h e whistling o f t h e birds o f prey. W e passed the n i g h t in the o p e n air, u p o n t h e beach, near the island o f Carizales. There were several I n d i a n huts in the n e i g h b o u r h o o d , surrounded with plantations.

O u r pilot assured us beforehand that w e should n o t hear the cries o f the jaguar, which, w h e n n o t extremely pressed b y hunger, withdraws from places where he does n o t reign unmolested. " M e n put h i m out of h u m o u r " ( l o s hombres lo e n f a d a n ) , say the people in the M i s s i o n s .

A pleasant and simple expression, that marks a well-observed fact.

Since o u r departure from San F e r n a n d o w e had n o t m e t a single boat on this fine river. E v e r y t h i n g d e n o t e d the m o s t profound solitude.

O n t h e m o r n i n g o f the 3rd o f A p r i l o u r Indians caught with a hook the fish k n o w n in t h e c o u n t r y b y the name o f caribe* o r caribito, because n o other fish has such a thirst for b l o o d . I t attacks bathers and * Caribe ill the Spanish language signifies cannibal.

THE CARIBE FISH.

167

swimmers, from w h o m it often bites away considerable pieces o f flesh. T h e Indians dread extremely these c a r i b e s ; and several o f t h e m showed us t h e sears o f deep w o u n d s in the calf o f the leg and in the thigh, made b y these little animals. T h e y swim at the b o t t o m o f r i v e r s ; b u t i f a few drops o f b l o o d b e shed o n t h e water, t h e y rise b y t h o u sands t o the surface, so that if a person b e o n l y slightly bitten, it is difficult for him t o get o u t o f the water w i t h o u t receiving a severer w o u n d . W h e n w e reflect o n the n u m b e r s o f these fish, t h e largest and m o s t voracious o f which are only four o r five inches l o n g , o n the triangular form o f their sharp and c u t t i n g teeth, and o n the amplitude o f their r e tractile m o u t h s , w e n e e d n o t b e surprised at the fear which the caribe excites in the inhabitants o f the banks o f t h e A p u r e and the O r i n o c o . I n places where the river was very limpid, where n o t a fish appeared, w e t h r e w into t h e water little morsels o f raw flesh, and in a few minutes a perfect c l o u d o f caribes had c o m e t o dispute their p r e y .

T h e belly o f this fish has a c u t t i n g e d g e , indented like a saw, a characteristic which m a y b e also traced in the serra-salmes, the myletes, and t h e pristigastres.

The presence of a second adipous dorsal fin, and the f o r m o f the teeth, covered b y lips distant from each other, and largest in the l o w e r j a w , place t h e caribe a m o n g t h e serra-salmes.

I t s m o u t h is m u c h w i d e r than that o f the myletes o f Cuvier.

I t s b o d y , toward the back, is ash-coloured with a tint o f green, b u t the belly, t h e gill-covers, and the pectoral, anal, and ventral fins, are o f a fine orange h u e . T h r e e species are k n o w n in the O r i n o c o , and are distinguished b y their size.

T h e intermediate appears t o b e identical with t h e m e d i u m species o f the piraya, o r piranha, o f M a r c g r a v . * T h e caribito has a very agreeable flavour.

A s n o o n e dares t o bathe where it is found, it may b e considered as o n e o f t h e greatest scourges o f those climates, in which the sting o f t h e mosquitos and the general irritation o f the skin render the use o f baths so necessary.

W e s t o p p e d at n o o n in a desert spot called A l g o d o n a l .

I left m y c o m p a n i o n s while they drew the b o a t ashore and were o c c u p i e d in preparing o u r dinner. I w e n t along t h e beach t o g e t a near view o f a g r o u p o f crocodiles sleeping in * Salmo rhombeus, Linn.

168

ALARMING RENCONTRE.

the sun, and lying in such a manner as t o have their tails, which were furnished with broad plates, resting o n o n e another. S o m e little herons,* white as s n o w , walked along their backs, and even u p o n their heads, as if passing over t r u n k s o f trees.

T h e crocodiles w e r e o f a greenish g r e y , half c o v e r e d w i t h dried m u d ; from their colour and immobility they m i g h t have been taken for statues o f b r o n z e . This e x cursion had nearly p r o v e d fatal to m e . I had k e p t m y eyes constantly t u r n e d towards the r i v e r ; b u t , whilst picking u p some spangles o f mica agglomerated t o g e t h e r in the sand, I discovered the recent footsteps o f a tiger, easily distinguishable from their form and size. T h e animal had g o n e towards the forest, and t u r n i n g m y eyes o n that side, I found myself within eighty paces o f a j a g u a r that was lying u n d e r the thick foliage o f a ceiba. N o tiger had ever appeared t o m e so large.

T h e r e are accidents in life against which w e m a y seek in vain t o fortify o u r reason. I was extremely alarmed, y e t sufficiently master o f m y s e l f and o f m y m o t i o n s to enable m e t o follow the advice which the Indians had so often given us as to h o w w e o u g h t t o act in such cases. I c o n tinued t o walk on without running, avoided m o v i n g m y arms, and I t h o u g h t I observed that t h e j a g u a r ' s attention was fixed o n a herd o f capybaras which was crossing the river. I then b e g a n to return, m a k i n g a large circuit toward t h e e d g e o f the water. A s the distance increased, I t h o u g h t 1 m i g h t accelerate m y pace. H o w often was I t e m p t e d to look back in o r d e r t o assure myself that I was n o t p u r s u e d !

Happily I yielded very tardily to this desire. T h e jaguar had r e mained motionless. T h e s e e n o r m o u s cats with spotted r o b e s are so well fed in countries a b o u n d i n g in capybaras, pecaries, and deer, that they rarely attack m e n . I arrived at t h e boat o u t o f breath, and related m y adventure t o the I n d i a n s .

T h e y appeared very little interested b y m y s t o r y ; y e t , after having loaded our g u n s , they accompanied us t o the ceiba †Garzon chico. It is believed, in Upper Egypt, that herons have an affection for crocodiles, because they take advantage in fishing of the terror that monstrous animal causes among the fishes, which he drives from the bottom to the surface of the water; but on the banks of the Nile, the heron keeps prudently at some distance from the crocodile.

T H E MANATI.

169

beneath which t h e j a g u a r had lain. H e was there n o l o n g e r , and it w o u l d have b e e n i m p r u d e n t t o have pursued him i n t o the forest, where w e m u s t have dispersed, o r advanced in single file, amidst the intertwining lianas.

I n the evening w e passed t h e m o u t h o f t h e Ca単o del Manati, thus named o n a c c o u n t o f the immense quantity o f manatis caught there every year. This herbivorous animal of the cetaceous family, is called b y the I n d i a n s apcia and avia* and it attains here generally t e n o r twelve feet in length. I t usually weighs from five h u n d r e d t o eight h u n dred p o u n d s , b u t it is asserted that o n e has b e e n taken o f eight thousand p o u n d s w e i g h t . T h e manati abounds in t h e O r i n o c o b e l o w t h e cataracts, in t h e Rio M e t a , and in t h e A p u r e , b e t w e e n t h e t w o islands o f Carizales and Conserva.

W e f o u n d n o vestiges o f nails on the external surface o r the edges o f t h e fins, which are quite s m o o t h ; b u t little rudiments o f nails appear at the third phalanx, w h e n t h e skin o f the fins is t a k e n off.

W e dissected one o f these animals, which was nine feet l o n g , at Carichana, a M i s s i o n o f the O r i n o c o . T h e u p p e r lip was four inches l o n g e r than the lower o n e . I t was c o v e r e d with a very fine skin, and served as a proboscis. T h e inside o f the m o u t h , which has a sensible warmth in an animal n e w l y killed, presented a v e r y singular c o n f o r m a t i o n .

T h e t o n g u e was almost motionless ; b u t in front o f the t o n g u e there was a fleshy excrescence in each j a w , and a cavity lined with a very hard skin, into which the excrescence fitted. T h e manati eats such quantities o f grass, that w e have f o u n d its stomach, which is divided i n t o several cavities, and its intestines, ( o n e hundred and eight feet l o n g , ) filled with it. O n o p e n i n g the animal at t h e back, w e were struck with t h e m a g n i t u d e , f o r m , and situation o f its lungs. T h e y have very large cells, and resemble immense swimming-bladders.

T h e y are three feet l o n g .

Filled with air, they have a b u l k o f m o r e than a thousand c u b i c inches. I was surprised t o see that, possessing such * The first of these words belongs to the Tamanac language, and the second to the Ottomae. Father Gili proves, in opposition to Oviedo, that the manati (fish with hands) is not Spanish, but belongs to the languages of Hayti (St. Domingo) and the Maypures. I believe also that, according to the genius of the Spanish tongue, the animal would have been called manudo or manon, but not manati.

170

THE MANATI.

considerable receptacles for air, the manati c o m e s so o f t e n t o the surface o f the water t o breathe. I t s flesh is v e r y savoury, t h o u g h , from what prejudice I k n o w n o t , it is c o n sidered u n w h o l e s o m e and apt to p r o d u c e fever.

It appeared t o m e t o resemble pork rather than beef. I t is m o s t esteemed b y the G u a m o s and t h e O t t o m a c s ; and these t w o nations are particularly expert in catching the manati.

Its flesh, when salted and dried in the sun, can b e preserved a whole y e a r ; and, as the clergy regard this mammiferous animal as a fish, it is much sought during Lent.

The vital principal is singularly strong in the m a n a t i ; it is tied after b e i n g h a r p o o n e d , b u t is n o t killed till it has b e e n taken into the canoe. This is effected, w h e n the animal is very large, in the middle o f the river, b y filling the c a n o e two-thirds with water, sliding it under the animal, and t h e n baling out t h e water b y means o f a calabash. This fishery is m o s t easy after great inundations, w h e n the manati has passed from the great rivers into the lakes and surrounding marshes, and the waters diminish rapidly. A t the p e r i o d w h e n the Jesuits g o v e r n e d the M i s s i o n s o f the L o w e r O r i n o c o , they assembled every year at Cabruta, b e l o w t h e m o u t h o f the A p u r e , t o have a grand fishing for manatis, with the Indians o f their M i s s i o n s , at the foot o f the m o u n tain n o w called E l C a p u c h i n o .

T h e fat o f t h e animal, k n o w n b y the name o f manati-butter (manteca de manati,) is used for lamps in the churches ; and is also e m p l o y e d i n preparing f o o d .

I t has not the fetid smell o f whale-oil, o r that o f the other cetaceous animals which spout water.

T h e hide o f the manati, which is m o r e than an inch and half thick, is cut into slips, and serves, like t h o n g s o f ox-leather, t o supply the place o f cordage in the L l a n o s .

W h e n immersed in water, it has the defect o f u n d e r g o i n g a slight degree o f putrefaction. "Whips are made o f it in the Spanish colonies.

H e n c e the words latigo and manati are synonymous.

T h e s e whips o f manati-leather are a c r u e l instrument o f punishment for the unhappy slaves, and even for t h e Indians o f the M i s s i o n s , t h o u g h , according t o the laws, the latter o u g h t to be treated like freemen.

W e passed the night opposite the island o f Conserva.

In skirting the forest we were surprised by the sight o f an e n o r m o u s trunk o f a tree seventy feet high, and thickly set with

THE

VAMPIRE-BAT.

171

branching t h o r n s . I t is called hy the natives barba de tigre.

I t was perhaps a tree o f t h e berberideous family.* The Indians had kindled fires at t h e e d g e o f t h e water.

"We again perceived, that their light attracted the crocodiles, and even the porpoises ( t o n i n a s ) , the noise o f which interr u p t e d o u r sleep, till the fire was extinguished.

A female jaguar approached o u r station whilst taking her y o u n g o n e to drink at the river. T h e I n d i a n s s u c c e e d e d in chasing her away, but w e heard for a l o n g time t h e cries o f the little jaguar, which m e w e d like a y o u n g cat. S o o n after, o u r great dog was b i t t e n , or, as the Indians say, stung, at the p o i n t o f t h e n o s e , by s o m e e n o r m o u s bats that hovered around o u r hammocks*. T h e s e bats had l o n g tails, like the M o losses : I believe, however, that they w e r e T h y l l o s t o m e s , t h e t o n g u e o f which, furnished with p a p i l æ , is an o r g a n o f suction, and is capable o f b e i n g considerably elongated.

T h e d o g ' s w o u n d was very small and r o u n d ; and t h o u g h he uttered a plaintive c r y w h e n he felt himself bitten, it was n o t from pain, b u t because he was frightened at the sight o f the bats, w h i c h c a m e o u t f r o m beneath o u r h a m m o c k s .

These accidents are m u c h more rare than is believed even in the c o u n t r y itself. I n t h e course o f several years, n o t withstanding we slept so often in the o p e n air, in climates where vampire-bats,† a n d other analagous species are so c o m m o n , we were never w o u n d e d .

Besides, the puncture is no-way dangerous, and in general causes so little pain, that it o f t e n does n o t awaken the person till after the bat has withdrawn.

T h e 4th o f A p r i l was the last day w e passed o n the B i o A p u r e . T h e vegetation o f its banks became m o r e and m o r e uniform. D u r i n g several days, and particularly since w e bad left the M i s s i o n o f A r i c h u n a , w e had suffered cruelly from the stings o f insects, which c o v e r e d o u r faces and bands. T h e y were n o t m o s q u i t o s , which have t h e appear* We found, on the banks of the Apure, Ammania apurensis, Cordia cordifolia, C. grandiflora, Mollugo sperguloides, Myosotis lithospermoïdes, Spermacocce diffusa, Coronilla occidentalis, Bignonia apurensis, Pisonia pubescens, Ruellia viscosa, some new species of Jussieua, and a new genus of the composite family, approximating to Rolandra, the Trichospira menthoïdes of M. Kunth. † Veispertilio spectrum.

172

CLOUDS OF MOSQUITOS.

ance o f little flies, o r o f t h e g e n u s Simulium, b u t zancudos, which are really gnats, t h o u g h very different from o u r E u r o pean species.* T h e s e insects appear o n l y after sunset. T h e i r proboscis is so l o n g that, w h e n t h e y fix on the lower surface o f a h a m m o c k , t h e y pierce t h r o u g h it and the thickest g a r m e n t s with their sting.

"We had i n t e n d e d t o pass t h e night at the V u e l t a del P a l m i t o , b u t t h e n u m b e r o f jaguars at that part o f t h e A p u r e is so great, that o u r Indians f o u n d t w o hidden behind the t r u n k o f a locust-tree, at the m o m e n t w h e n t h e y w e r e g o i n g t o sling o u r h a m m o c k s .

W e w e r e advised t o re-embark, and take o u r station in the island o f A p u r i t o , near its j u n c t i o n with the O r i n o c o . T h a t p o r t i o n o f t h e island b e l o n g s t o t h e province o f Caracas, while the right banks o f the A p u r e and the O r i n o c o form a part, the o n e o f the province o f Varinas, the other o f Spanish Guiana.

We f o u n d n o trees t o w h i c h w e c o u l d suspend o u r h a m m o c k s , and were obliged t o sleep on ox-hides spread on the g r o u n d .

T h e boats were t o o narrow and t o o full o f zancudos to permit u s t o pass the night in t h e m .

I n the place where w e had landed o u r instruments, t h e banks b e i n g steep, w e saw n e w proofs o f the indolence o f t h e gallinaceous birds o f the tropics. T h e curassaos and c a s h e w - b i r d s f have the habit o f g o i n g d o w n several times a-day t o t h e river t o allay their thirst. T h e y drink a great deal, and at short intervals. A vast n u m b e r o f these birds had j o i n e d , near o u r station, a flock o f parraka pheasants.

T h e y had great difficulty in climbing u p the steep b a n k s ; t h e y a t t e m p t e d it several times w i t h o u t using their w i n g s .

W e drove them before u s , as if w e had b e e n driving sheep.

T h e zamuro vultures raise themselves from the g r o u n d w i t h great reluctance.

W e were singularly struck at t h e small quantity o f water which the R i o A p u r e furnishes at this season to the O r i noco.

T h e A p u r e , which, a c c o r d i n g t o m y m e a s u r e m e n t s , was still one hundred and thirty-six toises broad at the Caùo Rico, was o n l y sixty o r eighty at its m o u t h . * Its depth * M. Latreille has discovered that the mosquitos of South Carolina are of the genus Simuliuin (Atractocera meigen.) †The latter (Crax pauxi) is less common than the former. ++Not quite so broad as the Seine at the Pont Royal, opposite the

JUNCTION WITH THE ORINOCO.

173

here was only three o r four toises. I t loses, n o d o u b t , a part o f its waters b y the Rio A r i c h u n a a n d the Ca単o del Manati, t w o branches o f the A p u r e that flow into t h e Payara and the G u a r i c o ; b u t its greatest loss appears to b e caused b y filtrations o n t h e beach, o f which w e have before spoken. T h e velocity o f t h e A p u r e near its m o u t h was only 3 2 feet per s e c o n d ; so that I could easily have calculated the w h o l e quantity o f the water if I had taken, by a series o f p r o x i m a t e soundings, t h e whole dimensions o f the tranverse section.

W e t o u c h e d several times o n shoals before w e entered the O r i n o c o . T h e g r o u n d gained from the water is i m m e n s e towards the confluence o f the t w o rivers. W e w e r e obliged t o b e t o w e d along b y the bank. W h a t a contrast b e t w e e n this state o f t h e river immediately before t h e entrance o f the rainy season, w h e n all t h e effects o f dryness o f the air and o f evaporation have attained their m a x i m u m , and that autumnal state w h e n the A p u r e , like an arm o f t h e sea, covers the savannahs as far as the eye can r e a c h !

We discerned towards t h e south the lonely hills o f C o r u a t o ; while t o t h e east the granite r o c k s o f Curiquima, the Sugar L o a f o f Cay cara, and the m o u n t a i n s o f the T y r a n t * ( C e r r o s del T i r a n o ) b e g a n t o rise o n the horizon. I t was not without e m o t i o n that w e beheld for the first t i m e , after l o n g e x pectation, t h e waters o f t h e O r i n o c o , at a p o i n t so distant from the coast.

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palace of the Tuileries, and a little more than half the width of the Thames at Westminster Bridge. * This name alludes, no doubt, to the expedition of Antonio Sedeno.

The port of Caycara, opposite Cabruta, still bears the name of that Conquistador.

174

MOUTH OF THE APURE.

CHAPTER

XIX.

Junction of the Apure and the Orinoco.—Mountains of Encaramada.— Uruana. — Baraguan.— Carichana.—Mouth of the Meta.— Island of Panumana.

O N leaving the E i o A p u r e w e f o u n d ourselves in a c o u n t r y presenting a totally different aspect. A n immense plain of water stretched before us like a lake, as far as we c o u l d see. White-topped waves rose t o the h e i g h t o f several feet, from the conflict o f the breeze and the current.

The air r e s o u n d e d n o l o n g e r with the piercing cries o f herons, flamingos, and spoonbills, crossing in l o n g files from o n e shore to the other.

O u r eyes s o u g h t in vain those waterfowls, the habits o f which vary in each tribe. A l l nature appeared less animated. Scarcely could w e discover in t h e hollows o f the waves a few large crocodiles, c u t t i n g obliquely, b y the help o f their l o n g tails, the surface o f the agitated waters. T h e horizon was b o u n d e d b y a z o n e o f forests, w h i c h n o w h e r e reached so far as the b e d o f the river.

A vast beach, constantly parched b y the heat o f the sun, desert a n d bare as the shores o f the sea, resembled at a distance, from the effect o f the mirage, p o o l s o f stagnant water.

T h e s e sandy shores, far from fixing the limits o f the river, r e n d e r them uncertain, b y enlarging o r c o n t r a c t i n g t h e m alternately, a c c o r d i n g t o t h e variable action o f the solar rays.

I n these scattered features o f the landscape, in this character o f solitude and o f greatness, w e recognize t h e course o f t h e O r i n o c o , o n e o f t h e m o s t majestic rivers o f the N e w World.

T h e water, like t h e land, displays everywhere a characteristic and peculiar aspect. T h e bed o f the O r i n o c o resembles n o t the b e d o f the M e t a , t h e Guaviare, the R i o N e g r o , o r the A m a z o n .

These differences do not. d e p e n d altogether o n the breadth o r t h e velocity o f t h e c u r r e n t ; they are c o n n e c t e d with a multitude o f impressions which it is easier t o perceive u p o n the spot than t o define with precision. T h u s , the mere form o f the waves, the tint o f

GREAT BREADTH OF THE R I V E R .

175

the waters, the aspect o f the sky and the clouds, w o u l d lead an experienced navigator to guess whether h e were in t h e A t l a n t i c , in the M e d i t e r r a n e a n , or in the equinoctial part o f the Pacific.

T h e w i n d blew fresh from east-north-east. I t s direction was favourable for sailing u p t h e O r i n o c o , towards the M i s s i o n o f E n c a r a m a d a ; b u t o u r canoes were so ill calculated t o resist the shocks o f the waves, that, from t h e violence o f the m o t i o n , those w h o suffered habitually at sea Were equally i n c o m m o d e d o n the river. T h e short, b r o k e n waves are caused b y the conflict o f t h e waters at the j u n c tion o f t h e t w o rivers. This conflict is very violent, b u t far from b e i n g so dangerous as Father Gumilla describes.

We passed the T u n t a Curiquima, which is an isolated mass o f quartzose granite, a small p r o m o n t o r y c o m p o s e d o f r o u n d e d b l o c k s . T h e r e , o n t h e right bank o f the O r i n o c o , Father Rotella founded, in t h e t i m e o f the Jesuits, a M i s s i o n o f the Palenka and Viriviri o r G u i r e Indians. B u t during inundations, the rock Curiquima and the village at its foot were entirely surrounded by w a t e r ; and this serious i n c o n venience, t o g e t h e r the sufferings o f the missionaries and I n dians from the innumerable quantity o f mosquitos and niguas* led t h e m t o forsake this h u m i d spot. I t is n o w entirely deserted, while o p p o s i t e t o it, o n the right bank o f the river, the little mountains o f C o r u a t o are t h e retreat o f wandering Indians, expelled either from t h e M i s s i o n s , o r f r o m tribes that are n o t subject t o t h e g o v e r n m e n t o f t h e m o n k s .

Struck with the extreme breadth o f the O r i n o c o , b e t w e e n the m o u t h o f the A p u r e and t h e r o c k Curiquima, I ascertained it b y means of a base measured t w i c e o n the western beach. T h e b e d o f the O r i n o c o , at l o w water, was 1 9 0 6 toises b r o a d ; b u t this breadth increases t o 5 5 1 7 toises, when, in the rainy season, the r o c k Curiquima, and the farm o f Capuchino near the hill o f P o c o p o c o r i , b e c o m e islands.

T h e swelling o f the O r i n o c o is a u g m e n t e d b y the impulse o f the waters o f t h e A pure, which, far from forming, like other rivers, an acute angle with the u p p e r part o f that into which it flows, meets it at right angles.

W e first p r o c e e d e d south-west, as far as the shore inhabited * The chego (Pulex penetrans), which penetrates under the nails of the toes in men and monkeys, and there deposits its eggs.

176

SINGULAR MOUNTAIN.

b y the G u a r i c o t o Indians o n the left bank o f the O r i n o c o , and then we advanced straight t o w a r d the south. T h e river is so b r o a d that the mountains o f Encaramada appear t o rise from the water, as if seen above the horizon o f the sea. T h e y f o r m a c o n t i n u e d chain from east t o west. T h e s e mountains are c o m p o s e d o f e n o r m o u s blocks o f granite, cleft and piled o n e u p o n another. T h e i r division into b l o c k s is the effect o f d e c o m p o s i t i o n . W h a t contributes above all t o embellish t h e scene at Encaramada is the luxuriance o f vegetation that covers the sides o f t h e r o c k s , leaving bare o n l y their r o u n d e d summits. T h e y l o o k like ancient ruins rising in t h e midst o f a forest. T h e m o u n t a i n immediately at t h e back o f the M i s s i o n , the Tepupano* o f the Tamanac Indians, is terminated b y three e n o r m o u s granitic cylinders, t w o o f which are inclined, while the third, though w o r n at its base, and m o r e than eighty feet high, has preserved a vertical position. This r o c k , which calls t o m i n d the form o f t h e Schnarcher in the Hartz mountains, o r that o f the Organs o f A c t o p a n in M e x i c o , †c o m p o s e d formerly a part o f the r o u n d e d s u m m i t o f the mountain. I n every climate, u n stratified granite separates b y d e c o m p o s i t i o n into b l o c k s o f prismatic, cylindric, or c o l u m n a r figures.

O p p o s i t e the shore o f t h e G u a r i c o t o s , w e drew near another heap o f r o c k s , which is very l o w , and three o r f o u r toises l o n g . I t rises in the midst o f t h e plain, and has less resemblance t o a tumulus than t o those masses o f granitic stone, which in N o r t h H o l l a n d and G e r m a n y bear the n a m e o f hĂźnenbette, b e d s ( o r t o m b s ) o f heroes. T h e shore, at this part o f the O r i n o c o , is n o l o n g e r o f pure and quartzose s a n d ; b u t is c o m p o s e d o f clay and spangles o f mica, deposited in very thin strata, and generally at an inclination o f forty o r fifty degrees. I t l o o k s like d e c o m p o s e d mica-slate.

This c h a n g e in the geological configuration o f the shore e x t e n d s * Tepu-pano, 'place of stones,' in which we recognize tepu 'stone, rock,' as in tepu-uri 'mountain.' We here perceive that Lesgian OigourTartar root tep 'stone' (found in America among the Americans, in teptl; among the Caribs, in tebou; among the Tamanacs, in tepuiri) a striking analogy between the languages of Caucasus and Upper Asia and those of the banks of the Orinoco. t In Captain Tuckey's Voyage on the river Congo, we find represented a granitic rock, Taddi Enzazi, which bears a striking resemblance to the mountain of Encaramada.

SAN LUIS DEL ENCARAMADA.

177

far b e y o n d the m o u t h o f the A p u r e . W e had b e g u n to observe it in this latter river as far off as A l g o d o n a l and t h e Ca単o del M a n a t i . T h e spangles o f mica c o m e , n o d o u b t , from the granite mountains o f Curiquima and E n c a r a m a d a ; since further north-east w e find only quartzose sand, sandstone, c o m p a c t limestone, and g y p s u m .

Alluvial earth carried successively from south t o n o r t h , n e e d n o t surprise us in t h e O r i n o c o ; b u t t o what shall w e attribute the same p h e n o m e n o n in the b e d o f the A p u r e , seven leagues west o f its mouth ? I n the present state o f things, notwithstanding the swellings o f the O r i n o c o , the waters o f the A p u r e never retrograde so f a r ; and, t o explain this p h e n o m e n o n , w e are forced to admit that the micaceous strata were deposited at a time w h e n the w h o l e o f the very l o w c o u n t r y lying bet w e e n Caycara, A l g o d o n a l , and the mountains o f Encaramada, formed the basin o f an inland lake.

W e stopped some time at the p o r t o f Encaramada, which is a sort o f embarcadero, a place where boats assemble.

A rock o f forty o r fifty feet high forms the shore. I t is c o m p o s e d o f blocks o f granite, heaped one u p o n another, as at the S c h n e e b e r g in F r a n c o n i a , and in almost all t h e granitic mountains o f E u r o p e .

S o m e o f these detached masses have a spheroidal f o r m ; they are n o t balls with concentric layers, b u t merely rounded b l o c k s , nuclei separated from their envelopes b y the effect o f d e c o m p o sition. This granite is o f a greyish lead-colour, often black, as if covered with oxide o f m a n g a n e s e ; b u t this c o l o u r does not penetrate o n e fifth o f a line into the r o c k , which is o f a reddish white c o l o u r within, coarse-grained, and destitute o f hornblende.

T h e I n d i a n names o f the Mission o f San L u i s del Encaramada, are Guaja and Caramana* This small village was * All the Missions of South America have names composed of two words, the first of which is necessarily the name of a saint, the patron of the church, and the second an Indian name, that of the nation, or the Pot where the establishment is placed. Thus we say, San Jose de Maypures, Santa Cruz de Cachipo, San Juan Nepomuceno de los Atures, These compound names appear only in official documents; the inhabitants adopt but one of the two names, and generally, provided it be sonorous, the Indian. As the names of saints are several times repeated in neighbouring places, great confusion in geography arises from these repetitions. The names of San Juan, San Diego, and San Pedro, VOL. II. N 8

178

A CARIB CHIEF.

founded in 1 7 4 9 by Father Gili, the Jesuit, author of the Storia dell' Orinoco, published at R o m e . This missionary, learned in the Indian t o n g u e s , lived in these solitudes during eighteen years, till the expulsion o f the Jesuits. T o form a precise idea o f the savage state of these countries it must be recollected that Father Gili speaks o f Carichana,* which is forty leagues from Encaramada, as o f a spot far d i s t a n t ; and that he never advanced so far as the first cataract in the river o f which he ventured t o undertake the description.

I n the p o r t o f Encaramada w e m e t with some Caribs of Panapana. A cacique was going u p the O r i n o c o in his canoe, t o j o i n in the famous fishing o f turtles' e g g s .

His canoe was rounded toward the b o t t o m like a bongo, and followed b y a smaller boat called a curiam.

H e was seated beneath a sort o f t e n t , constructed, like the sail o f palmleaves.

H i s cold and silent gravity, the respect with which he was treated b y his attendants, everything denoted him t o b e a person of importance. H e was equipped, however, in the same manner as his Indians. T h e y were all equally naked, armed with b o w s and arrows, and painted with onoto, which is the colouring fecula o f the B i x a orellana.

T h e chief, the domestics, the furniture, the boat, and the Bail, w e r e all painted red. T h e s e Caribs are m e n o f an almost athletic s t a t u r e ; they appeared t o us m u c h taller than any Indians w e had hitherto seen. Their smooth and thick hair, cut short o n the forehead like that o f choristers, their eyebrows painted black, their look at o n c e g l o o m y and animated, gave a singular expression t o their countenances.

H a v i n g till then seen only the skulls o f some Caribs of t h e W e s t I n d i a Islands preserved in the collections o f E u r o p e , we were surprised t o find that these Indians, w h o w e r e of pure race, had foreheads m u c h m o r e rounded than they are described. T h e w o m e n , w h o were very tall, and disgusting are scattered in our maps as if by chance. It is pretended that the Mission of Guaja affords a very rare example of the composition of two Spanish words. The word Encaramada means things raised one upon another, from encaramar, 'to raise up.' It is derived from the figure of Tepupano and the neighbouring rocks: perhaps it is only an Indian word caramana, in which, as in manati, a Spanish signification was believed to be discovered, * Saggio di Storia Americana, vol. i. p. 1 2 2 .

179

CROCODILES.

from their w a n t o f cleanliness, carried their infants o n their backs. T h e thighs and legs o f the infants were b o u n d at certain distances b y broad strips o f c o t t o n cloth, and the flesh, strongly compressed beneath the ligatures, was swelled in the interstices. I t is generally t o be observed, that the Caribs are as attentive to their exterior and their ornaments, as it is possible for m e n t o b e , w h o are naked and painted red. T h e y attach great importance t o certain configurations o f t h e b o d y ; and a m o t h e r w o u l d b e accused o f culpable indifference toward her children, if she did n o t e m p l o y artificial means t o shape the calf o f the leg after the fashion o f the c o u n t r y . A s n o n e o f o u r Indians o f A p u r e u n d e r s t o o d the Caribbee l a n g u a g e , w e could obtain n o information from the cacique o f Tanama respecting the e n c a m p m e n t s that are made at this season in several islands o f t h e O r i n o c o for collecting turtles' e g g s .

N e a r Encaramada a very l o n g island divides t h e river into t w o branches. W e passed the night in a r o c k y creek, opposite the mouth o f the R i o Cabullare, which is formed b y the Payara and the Atamaica, and is sometimes considered as o n e o f the branches o f the A p u r e , because it c o m m u nicates with that river b y the Rio A r i c h u n a .

The evening was beautiful. T h e m o o n illumined the t o p s o f the granite rocks. T h e heat was so uniformly distributed, that, n o t Withstanding the humidity o f the air, n o twinkling o f t h e stars was observable, even at four o r five degrees above t h e horizon. T h e light o f the planets was singularly d i m m e d ; and if, o n a c c o u n t o f t h e smallness o f the apparent diameter o f Jupiter, I had n o t suspected some error in the observation, I should say, that here, for the first time, w e t h o u g h t w e distinguished the disk o f J u p i t e r with t h e naked e y e .

Towards midnight, the north-east w i n d b e c a m e extremely S o l e n t . I t b r o u g h t n o clouds, b u t the vault o f the sky was covered more and m o r e with vapours. S t r o n g gusts w e r e felt, and made us fear for the safety o f o u r canoe.

During this whole day we had seen very few crocodiles, b u t all o f an extraordinary size, from t w e n t y t o t w e n t y - f o u r feet. T h e Indians assured us that the y o u n g crocodiles prefer t h e marshes, and t h e rivers that are less broad, and less d e e p .

T h e y c r o w d t o g e t h e r particularly in t h e Ca単os, and w e m a y say o f t h e m , what Abdallatif says o f the crocodiles o f t h e N 2

180

MOUNTAINS OF ENCARAMADA.

N i l e , * " t h a t they swarm like w o r m s in the shallow waters of the river, and in the shelter o f uninhabited i s l a n d s . " O n t h e 6th o f A p r i l , whilst c o n t i n u i n g t o ascend the O r i n o c o , first southward and then t o south-west, w e perceived t h e southern side o f the Serrania, o r chain o f the mountains o f Encaramada. T h e part nearest the river is only o n e h u n d r e d and forty o r o n e hundred and sixty toises h i g h ; b u t from its abrupt declivities, its situation in the midst o f a savannah, and its r o c k y summits, cut into shapeless prisms, the Serrania appears singularly elevated.

I t s greatest breadth is only three leagues. A c c o r d i n g t o information given m e b y trie Indians o f the Pareka nation, it is c o n siderably wider toward the east. T h e summits o f E n c a r a mada form the northernmost link o f a g r o u p o f mountains which b o r d e r the right bank o f the O r i n o c o , b e t w e e n the latitudes o f 5째 and 7째 3 0 ' from the m o u t h o f the R i o Z a m a t o that o f the Cabullare. T h e different links into which this g r o u p is divided are separa ted b y little grassy plains.

They do n o t preserve a direction perfectly parallel to each o t h e r ; for the m o s t n o r t h e r n stretch from west to east, and the m o s t southern from north-west to south-east. This c h a n g e o f direction sufficiently explains the increase o f breadth o b s e r v e d in the Cordillera o f Parime towards the east, b e t w e e n the sources o f the O r i n o c o and o f the Rio Paruspa.

O n penetrating b e y o n d the great cataracts o f A t u r e s and o f M a y p u r e s , we shall see seven principal links, those o f Encaramada o r Sacuina, o f Chaviripa, o f Baraguan, o f Carichana, o f U n i a m a , o f Calitamini, and o f Sipapo, successively appear. This sketch m a y serve t o give a general idea o f t h e geological configuration o f the g r o u n d .

W e recognize everywhere o n the g l o b e a t e n d e n c y toward regular forms, in those mountains that appear the m o s t irregularly g r o u p e d .

E v e r y link appears, in a transverse section, like a distinct s u m m i t , t o those w h o navigate t h e O r i n o c o ; b u t this division is merely in appearance. T h e regularity in the direct i o n and separation o f t h e links seems to diminish in p r o portion as we advance towards the east. T h e mountains o f Encaramada j o i n those o f M a t o , which give birth t o the Rio A s i v e r u o r C u c h i v e r o ; those o f Chaviripe are p r o longed b y the granite chain o f the Corosal, o f A m o c o , and * Description de l'Egypte, translated by De Sacy.

THE FABLED EL DORADO.

181

o f M u r c i e l a g o , towards the sources o f the Erevato and the Ventuari.

I t was across these mountains, which are inhabited

by Indians o f gentle character, e m p l o y e d in agriculture,* that, at the time o f the expedition for settling boundaries, General Iturriaga t o o k some horned cattle for the supply o f the n e w t o w n o f San F e r n a n d o de A t a b a p o . T h e i n habitants o f Encaramada then showed the Spanish soldiers the way b y the Rio Manapiari,†which falls into the V e n tuari. B y descending these t w o rivers, the O r i n o c o and t h e A t a b a p o may be reached without passing the great cataracts, which present almost insurmountable obstacles t o the c o n veyance o f cattle.

T h e spirit o f enterprise which had so eminently distinguished the Castilians at the period o f t h e discovery o f A m e r i c a , was again roused for a time in the middle o f the eighteenth century, w h e n Ferdinand V I was desirous o f k n o w i n g the true limits o f his vast possessions ÂĄ and in t h e forests o f G u i a n a , that land o f fiction and fabulous tradition, the wily Indians revived the chimerical idea o f the wealth o f E l Dorado, which had so m u c h o c c u pied the imagination o f the first conquerors.

A m i d s t the mountains o f Encaramada, which, like m o s t coarse-grained granite r o c k s , are destitute o f metallic veins, we cannot help inquiring w h e n c e came those grains o f g o l d which J u a n M a r t i n e z ++ and Raleigh profess to have seen in such abundance in t h e hands o f the Indians o f the O r i n o c o .

F r o m what I observed in that part o f A m e r i c a , I am led t o think that g o l d , like tin,|| is sometimes disseminated in an * The Mapoyes, Parecas, Javaranas, and Curacicanas, who possess fine plantations (conucos) in the savannahs by which these forests are bounded. †Between Encarmada and the Rio Manapiare, Don Miguel Sanchez, chief of this little expedition, crossed the Rio Guainaima, which flows into the Cuchivero. Sanchez died, from the fatigue of this journey, on the borders of the Ventuari. ++ The companion of Diego Ordaz. || Thus tin is found in granite of recent formation, at Geyer ; in hyalomicte or graisen, at Zinnwald ; and in syenitic porphyry, at Altenberg, in Saxony, as well as near Naila, in the Fichtelgebirge. I have also seen, in the Upper Palatinate, micaceous iron, and black earthy cobalt, far from any kind of vein, disseminated in a granite destitute of mica, as magnetic iron-sand is in volcanic rocks.

182

TRADITIONS OF THE DELUGE.

almost imperceptible manner in t h e very mass o f granite r o c k s , w i t h o u t o u r b e i n g able t o perceive that there is a ramification and an intertwining o f small veins. N o t l o n g a g o the Indians o f Encaramada f o u n d in the Quebrada del T i g r e * a piece o f native g o l d t w o lines in diameter. I t was r o u n d e d , and appeared to have b e e n washed along b y the waters. This discovery excited the attention o f the m i s sionaries much m o r e than o f the n a t i v e s ; it was followed b y n o other o f the same k i n d .

I cannot quit this first link o f the mountains o f E n c a ramada without recalling t o m i n d a fact that was n o t u n k n o w n t o Father Gili, and which was often m e n t i o n e d t o m e during our abode in the Missions o f the O r i n o c o .

The natives o f those countries have retained the belief that, " a t t h e time o f the great waters, w h e n their fathers were f o r c e d t o have recourse to boats, t o escape the general inundation, t h e waves o f the sea beat against the rocks o f E n c a r a m a d a . " This belief is n o t confined t o one nation singly, the T a m a n a c s ; it makes part o f a system o f historical tradition, o f which w e find scattered n o t i o n s a m o n g the M a y p u r e s o f t h e great cataracts ; a m o n g the Indians o f the Rio Erevato, which runs into the C a u r a ; and a m o n g almost all the tribes o f the U p p e r O r i n o c o . W h e n the Tamanacs are asked h o w the human race survived this great deluge, t h e ' age o f water,' o f the M e x i c a n s , t h e y say, " a m a n and a w o m a n saved themselves o n a high mountain, called Tamanacu, situated on the banks o f t h e A s i v e r u ; and casting behind t h e m , over their heads, the fruits o f the mauritia palm-tree, they saw the seeds contained in those fruits p r o d u c e m e n and w o m e n , w h o repeopled the e a r t h . " T h u s w e find in all its simplicity, a m o n g nations n o w in a savage state, a tradition which t h e G r e e k s embellished with all the charms o f i m a g i n a t i o n !

A few leagues from Encaramada, a r o c k , called Tepu-mereme, o r ' the painted rock,' rises in the midst o f the savannah.

U p o n it are traced representations o f animals, and s y m b o l i c figures resembling those w e saw in g o i n g d o w n the O r i n o c o , at a small distance b e l o w Encaramada, near t h e t o w n C a y cara. Similar rocks in A f r i c a are called b y travellers fetish stones. I shall n o t make use o f this term, because fetishism does not prevail a m o n g the natives o f the O r i n o c o ; and the * The Tiger-ravine.

SIMILARITY OF THE LEGENDS.

183

figures of stars, of the sun, of tigers, and o f crocodiles, which we f o u n d traced u p o n the rocks in spots n o w uninhabited, appeared to m e in n o w a y t o denote the objects o f worship of those nations. B e t w e e n the banks o f the Cassiquiare and the O r i n o c o , b e t w e e n Encaramada, the C a p u c h i n o , and Caycara, these hieroglyphic figures are often seen at great heights, o n rocky cliffs which could be accessible only b y constructing very lofty scaffolds.

W h e n the natives are asked how those figures could have b e e n sculptured, they answer with a smile, as if relating a fact o f which o n l y a white man could b e ignorant, that " a t the period o f the great waters, their fathers w e n t to that height in b o a t s . " These ancient traditions o f the human race, which we find dispersed over the whole surface o f the g l o b e , like the relics of a vast shipwreck, are highly interesting in the philosophical study o f o u r o w n species. L i k e certain families o f the vegetable k i n g d o m , which, notwithstanding the diversity of climates and the influence o f heights, retain the impression o f a c o m m o n t y p e , the traditions o f nations respecting the origin o f the world, display everywhere the same p h y s i o g n o m y , and preserve features o f resemblance that fill us with astonishment. H o w many different t o n g u e s , b e l o n g i n g to branches that appear totally distinct, transmit t o us the same facts ! T h e traditions c o n c e r n i n g races that have been destroyed, and the renewal o f nature, scarcely vary in reality, t h o u g h every nation gives them a local colouring.

I n the great continents, as in the smallest islands o f the Pacific O c e a n , it is always o n the loftiest and nearest m o u n tain that the remains o f the human race have b e e n saved ; and this event appears the more recent, in proportion as the nations are uncultivated, and as the k n o w l e d g e they have of their o w n existence has n o very r e m o t e date.

After having studied with attention the M e x i c a n m o n u m e n t s , anterior t o the discovery o f the N e w W o r l d ; after having penetrated into the forests o f the O r i n o c o , and observed the diminutive size o f the E u r o p e a n establishments, their solitude, and the state o f the tribes that have remained i n d e p e n d e n t ; we c a n n o t allow ourselves t o attribute t h e analogies j u s t cited t o the influence exercised b y the m i s sionaries, and b y Christianity, o n the national traditions.

N o r is it more probable, that the discovery o f sea-shells on

184

INDIAN ENCAMPMENT.

the summit o f mountains gave birth, a m o n g the nations o f t h e O r i n o c o , t o the tradition o f some great inundation which extinguished for a time the germs o f organic life o n o u r g l o b e . T h e c o u n t r y that extends from the right bank o f t h e O r i n o c o t o the Cassiquiare and the R i o N e g r o , is a c o u n t r y o f primitive rocks. I saw there one small formation o f sandstone o r c o n g l o m e r a t e ; b u t n o secondary limestone, and n o trace o f petrifactions.

A fresh north-east breeze carried us full-sail towards t h e B o c a de la T o r t u g a . W e landed, at eleven in the m o r n ing, o n an island which the Indians o f the Missions o f U r u ana considered as their p r o p e r t y , and which lies in t h e middle o f the river. This island is celebrated for the turtle fishery, or, as they say here, t h e cosecha, ' the harvest [ o f e g g s , ] ' that takes place annually.

W e here f o u n d an assemblage o f I n d i a n s , e n c a m p e d u n d e r huts made o f palm-leaves. This e n c a m p m e n t contained m o r e than three h u n d r e d persons.

A c c u s t o m e d , since w e had left San F e r n a n d o de A p u r e , t o see o n l y desert shores, w e w e r e singularly struck b y t h e bustle that prevailed here.

We found, besides the G u a m o s and t h e O t t o m a c s o f U r u a n a , w h o are b o t h considered as savage races, Caribs and other Indians o f the L o w e r O r i n o c o . E v e r y tribe was separately encamped, and was distinguished b y the p i g m e n t s with which their skins were painted. Some white m e n were seen amidst this tumultuous assemblage, chiefly pulperos, o r little traders o f A n g o s t u r a , w h o had c o m e up the river t o purchase turtle oil from the natives. T h e missionary o f Uruana, a native o f Alcala, came to m e e t u s , and he was extremely astonished at seeing us. A f t e r having admired o u r instruments, he gave us an exaggerated picture o f the sufferings t o which w e should be necessarily exposed in ascending the O r i n o c o b e y o n d the cataracts. T h e object o f o u r j o u r n e y appeared t o him very mysterious. " H o w is it possible t o b e l i e v e , " said he, " that y o u have left y o u r c o u n t r y , t o c o m e and b e devoured b y mosquitos on this river, and to measure lands that are n o t y o u r o w n ? " W e w e r e happily furnished with recommendations from the Superior o f the Franciscan M i s sions, and the brother-in-law o f t h e g o v e r n o r o f Varinas, who accompanied us, soon dissipated the d o u b t s to which o u r dress, our accent, and our arrival in this sandy island,

HARVEST OF TURTLE-EGGS.

185

had given rise a m o n g the W h i t e s .

T h e missionary invited us t o partake a frugal repast o f fish and plantains.

H e told Us that he had c o m e t o e n c a m p with the Indians during the time o f the ' h a r v e s t o f e g g s , ' " t o celebrate mass every morning in the o p e n air, t o p r o c u r e the oil necessary for the church-lamps, and especially t o g o v e r n this m i x e d republic (repĂşblica de I n d i o s y Castellanos) in which every o n e wished t o profit singly b y what G o d had granted t o a l l . " W e made t h e t o u r o f the island, accompanied b y the missionary and b y a pulpero, w h o boasted o f having, for t e n successive years, visited the camp o f the I n d i a n s , and attended the turtle-fishery.

W e were o n a plain o f sand p e r fectly s m o o t h ; and were t o l d that, as far as w e c o u l d see along the beach, turtles' e g g s were concealed u n d e r a layer of earth. T h e missionary carried a l o n g pole in his hand.

H e showed us, that b y means o f this p o l e , the e x t e n t o f t h e stratum o f e g g s c o u l d be d e t e r m i n e d as accurately as the miner determines the limits o f a bed o f marl, o f b o g i r o n ore, o r o f coal.

O n thrusting the r o d perpendicularly into the g r o u n d , the sudden want o f resistance shows that the cavity or layer o f loose earth containing t h e e g g s , has b e e n reached. W e saw that the stratum is generally spread with so m u c h uniformity, that the pole finds it everywhere in a radius o f ten toises around any given spot.

H e r e they talk continually o f square perches o f e g g s ; it is like a m i n i n g c o u n t r y , divided into lots, and w o r k e d with the g r e a t est regularity.

T h e stratum o f e g g s , however, is far from covering the w h o l e i s l a n d : they are n o t f o u n d wherever t h e ground rises abruptly, because the turtle c a n n o t m o u n t heights. I related t o m y guides the emphatic description of F a t h e r Gumilla, w h o asserts, that the shores o f t h e O r i n o c o contain fewer grains o f sand than the river c o n tains turtles ; and that these animals w o u l d prevent vessels from advancing, if m e n and tigers did n o t annually destroy so great a n u m b e r . * "Son cuentos de frailes" " t h e y are * " I t would be as difficult to count the grains of sand on the shores of the Orinoco, as to count the immense number of tortoises which inhabit its margins and waters. Were it not for the vast consumption of tortoises and their eggs, the river Orinoco, despite its great magnitude, would be unnavigable, for vessels would he impeded by the enormous Multitude of the tortoises." — Gumilla, Orinoco Ulustrata, vol. i. pp.

331-336.

18G

DIFFERENT

SPECIES OF

TORTOISES.

monkish legends," said the pulpero of Angostura, in a low voice; for the only travellers in this country being the missionaries, they here call' monks' stories,' what we call 'travellers' tales,' in Europe.

The Indians assured us that, in going up the Orinoco from its mouth to its junction with the Apure, not one island or one beach is to be found, where eggs can be collected in abundance. The great turtle (arrau)* dreads places inhabited bv men, or much frequented by boats. It is a timid and mistrustful animal, raising only its head above the water, and hiding itself at the least noise. The shores where almost all the turtles of the Orinoco appear to assemble annually, are situated between the junction of the Orinoco with the Apure, and the great cataracts; that is to say, between Cabruta and the Mission of Atures. There are found the three famous fisheries; those of Encaramada, or Boca del Cabullare; of Cucuruparu, or Boca de la Tortuga; and of Pararuma, a little below Carichana. It seems that the arrau does not pass beyond the cataracts; and we were assured, that only the turtles called terekay, (in Spanish terecayas,) are found above Atures and Maypures.

The arrau, called by the Spaniards of the Missions simply tortuga, is an animal whose existence is of great importance to the nations on the Lower Orinoco. It is a large freshwater tortoise, with palmate and membraneous feet; the head very flat, with two fleshy and acutely-pointed appendages under the chin; five claws to the fore feet, and four to the hind feet, which are furrowed underneath. The upper shell has five central, eight lateral, and twenty-four marginal plates.

The colour is darkish grey above, and orange beneath. The feet are yellow, and very long. There is a deep furrow between the eyes. The claws are very strong and crooked. The anus is placed at the distance of one-fifth from the extremity of the tail. The full-grown animal weighs from forty to fifty pounds. Its eggs are much larger than those of pigeons, and less elongated than the eggs of the terekay.

They are covered with a calcareous crust, and, it is * This word belongs to the Maypure language, and must not be confounded with arua, which means a crocodile, among the Tamanacs, neighbours of the Maypures.

The Ottomacs call the turtle of Uruana, achea; the Tamanacs, peje.

SEASON OF LAYING.

187

said, t h e y have sufficient firmness for the children o f t h e O t t o m a c Indians, w h o are great players at ball, to throw t h e m into the air from o n e t o another. I f the arrau inhabited the b e d o f the river above the cataracts, the Indians o f t h e Upper O r i n o c o w o u l d n o t travel so far to p r o c u r e the flesh and the eggs o f this tortoise. Y e t , formerly, whole tribes from the A t a b a p o and the Cassiquiare have b e e n k n o w n t o pass the cataracts, in order to take part in the fishery at Uruana.

T h e terekay is less than the arrau.

I t is in general only fourteen inches in diameter. T h e n u m b e r o f plates in t h e upper shell is t h e same, b u t they are somewhat differently arranged. I c o u n t e d three in the centre o f the disk, and five hexagonal o n each side. T h e margins contain t w e n t y four, all quadrangular, and m u c h curved. T h e upper shell is o f a black c o l o u r inclining t o g r e e n ; the feet and claws are like those o f the arrau.

T h e whole animal is o f an olive-green, b u t it has t w o spots o f red mixed with yellow o n the t o p o f the head. T h e throat is also yellow, and furnished with a prickly appendage. T h e terekays do n o t assemble in n u m e r o u s societies like t h e arraus, to lay their e g g s in c o m m o n , and deposit t h e m u p o n the same shore.

The e g g s o f the terekay have an agreeable taste, and are m u c h sought after b y the inhabitants o f Spanish Guiana.

T h e y are found in the U p p e r O r i n o c o , as well as b e l o w t h e cataracts, and even in the A pure, the U r i t u c u , the G u a r i c o , and t h e small rivers that traverse t h e L l a n o s o f Caracas.

T h e form o f the feet and head, the appendages o f the chin and throat, and the position o f t h e anus, seem to indicate that the arrau, and probably the terekay also, b e l o n g t o a n e w subdivision o f the tortoises, that may be separated from the e m y d e s . T h e period at which the large arrau tortoise lays its e g g s coincides with the period o f the lowest waters.

T h e O r i n o c o b e g i n n i n g to increase from the vernal e q u i n o x , the lowest flats are found uncovered from the e n d o f J a T h e arrau t o r nuary till t h e 20th o r 25th o f March. toise's collect in t r o o p s in the m o n t h o f January, then issue from the water, and warm themselves in the sun, r e p o s i n g on the sands. T h e Indians believe that great heat is i n dispensable to the health o f the animal, and that its e x p o -

188

METHOD OF DEPOSITING

THE EGGS.

sure to the sun favours the laying o f the e g g s . T h e arraus are found o n the beach a great part o f the day during the whole m o n t h o f February. A t the b e g i n n i n g o f M a r c h t h e straggling troops assemble, and swim towards the small n u m b e r o f islands o n which they habitually deposit their e g g s .

I t is probable that the same tortoise returns every year t o the same locality. A t this period, a few days before they lay their e g g s , thousands o f these animals may be seen ranged in l o n g files, o n the borders o f the islands o f C u c u ruparu, Uruana, and Pararuma, stretching o u t their n e c k s and holding their heads above water, to see whether they have anything to dread. T h e Indians, w h o are anxious that the bands w h e n assembled should n o t separate, that t h e tortoises should n o t disperse, and that the laving o f t h e e g g s should be performed tranquilly, place sentinels at c e r tain distances along the shore. T h e people w h o pass in boats are told t o keep in the middle o f the river, and n o t frighten the tortoises b y cries. T h e laying o f the e g g s takes place always during the night, and it begins soon after sunset. "With its hind feet, which are very long, and furnished with crooked claws, the animal digs a hole o f three feet in diameter and t w o in depth. T h e s e tortoises feel so pressing a desire to lay their eggs, that s o m e o f t h e m d e s c e n d into boles that have been dug b y others, b u t which are n o t y e t covered with earth. There t h e y deposit a n e w layer o f eggs on that which has been recently laid. I n this t u m u l t u o u s m o v e m e n t an immense n u m b e r o f e g g s are broken.

T h e missionary showed us, b y removing the sand in several places, that this loss probably amounts t o a fifth o f the whole quantity. T h e y o l k o f the b r o k e n e g g s c o n tributes, in drying, t o c e m e n t the s a n d ; and w e f o u n d very large c o n c r e t i o n s o f grains o f quartz and b r o k e n shells.

T h e n u m b e r o f animals w o r k i n g o n the beach during t h e n i g h t is so considerable, that day surprises many o f t h e m before the laying o f their e g g s is terminated.

T h e y are then u r g e d on by the double necessity o f depositing their e g g s , and closing the holes they have dug, that they m a y n o t be perceived by the jaguars. T h e tortoises that thus remain t o o late are insensible t o their o w n danger.

They work in the presence o f the Indians, w h o visit the beach

THEIR ENORMOUS

ABUNDANCE.

189

at a very early hour, and w h o call t h e m 'mad tortoises.'

Notwithstanding the rapidity o f their movements, they are then easily caught with the hand.

T h e three e n c a m p m e n t s formed b y t h e Indians, in t h e places indicated above, b e g i n about the end o f M a r c h o r c o m m e n c e m e n t o f A p r i l . T h e gathering o f the e g g s is c o n ducted in a uniform manner, and with that regularity which characterises all monastic institutions. Before the arrival o f the missionaries o n the banks o f the river, the Indians p r o fited m u c h less from a p r o d u c t i o n which nature has s u p plied in such abundance. E v e r y tribe searched the beach in its o w n w a y ; and an immense n u m b e r o f eggs were u s e lessly b r o k e n , because they were n o t d u g up with precaution, and m o r e e g g s were u n c o v e r e d than could b e carried away. I t was like a mine w o r k e d b y unskilful hands.

The Jesuits have the merit o f having reduced this operation t o regularity; and t h o u g h the Franciscan m o n k s , w h o succeeded the Jesuits in the Missions o f the O r i n o c o , boast o f having followed the example o f their predecessors, t h e y unhappily do n o t effect all that p r u d e n c e requires.

The Jesuits did n o t suffer the whole beach t o be s e a r c h e d ; t h e y left a part u n t o u c h e d , from the fear o f seeing the breed o f arrau tortoises, if n o t destroyed, at least considerably diminished. T h e whole beach is n o w d u g u p without r e s e r v e ; and accordingly it seems to b e perceived that the gathering is less productive from year to year.

W h e n the c a m p is formed, the missionary o f U r u a n a names his lieutenant, o r commissary, w h o divides the g r o u n d where the e g g s are found into different portions, according to the n u m b e r o f the Indian tribes w h o take part in the gathering. T h e y are all ' I n d i a n s o f M i s s i o n s , ' as naked and rude as the ' Indians o f the w o o d s ; ' t h o u g h they are called reducidos and neofitos, because t h e y g o t o church at the s o u n d o f t h e bell, and have learned t o kneel d o w n during the consecration o f the host.

T h e lieutenant (commissionado del Padre) b e g i n s his operations b y sounding. H e examines b y means o f a l o n g w o o d e n pole o r a cane o f b a m b o o , how far the stratum o f eggs extends. This stratum, according to our measurements, extended to the distance o f o n e h u n d r e d and t w e n t y feet from the shore. I t s average depth is three feet.

The commis-

190

PRODUCE OF THE ISLAND.

sionado places m a r k s t o indicate the point where each tribe s h o u l d stop in its labours.

W e were surprised to h e a r t h i s ' h a r v e s t o f e g g s ' estimated like t h e p r o d u c e o f a wellcultivated field. A n area accurately measured o f one h u n dred and t w e n t y feet long, and thirty feet wide, has been k n o w n t o yield o n e hundred jars of oil, valued at about forty p o u n d s sterling.

T h e Indians remove the e a r t h with their h a n d s ; they place the e g g s they have collected i n small baskets, carry t h e m t o their e n c a m p m e n t , and t h r o w t h e m into l o n g troughs o f w o o d filled with water.

I n these troughs the e g g s , b r o k e n and stirred with shovels, remain e x p o s e d to the sun till the oily part, which swims o n the surface, has time t o inspissate. A s fast as this collects o n the surface o f the water, it is taken off and boiled over a quick lire. This animal oil, called tortoise butter (manteca de t o r t u g a s ) * keeps the better, it is said, in proportion as it has u n d e r g o n e a strong ebullition. W h e n well prepared, it is limpid, inodorous, and scarcely yellow. T h e missionaries compare it t o the best olive oil, and it is used n o t merely for burning in lamps, b u t for c o o k i n g .

I t is n o t e a s y , however, t o procure oil o f turtles' e g g s quite pure.

It has generally a putrid smell, o w i n g t o the mixture o f e g g s in which the y o u n g are already formed.

I acquired some general statistical notions o n the spot, b y consulting the missionary o f Uruana, his lieutenant, a n d the traders o f A n g o s t u r a .

The shore o f Uruana furnishes one thousand botijas, o r jars o f oil, annually. T h e price o f each j a r at A n g o s t u r a varies from t w o piastres t o t w o and a half.

W e may admit that the total p r o d u c e o f the three shores, where the cosecha, or gathering o f e g g s , is annually m a d e , is five thousand botijas. N o w as t w o hundred e g g s y i e l d oil e n o u g h t o fill a bottle ( l i m e t a ) , it requires five thousand e g g s for a j a r o r botija o f oil. Estimating at o n e hundred, o r one hundred and sixteen, the n u m b e r o f e g g s that o n e tortoise produces, and reckoning that o n e third o f these is b r o k e n at the time o f laying, particularly b y the ' m a d tortoises,' w o m a y presume that, t o obtain annually five thousand jars o f oil, three hundred and thirty thousand arrau tortoises, the w e i g h t o f which amounts to one hundred * The Tamanac Indians give it the name of carapa; call it timi.

the Maypures

CONGREGATION OF THE NATIVES.

191

and sixty-five t h o u s a n d quintals, m u s t lay thirty-three millions o f e g g s o n the three shores w h e r e this harvest is gathered.

T h e results o f these calculations are m u c h b e l o w the t r u t h .

M a n y tortoises lay only sixty o r seventy e g g s ; and a great n u m b e r o f these animals are devoured b y jaguars at the m o m e n t t h e y e m e r g e from the water.

The Indians bring away a great n u m b e r o f e g g s t o eat t h e m dried in the s u n ; and they break a considerable n u m b e r through carelessness during the gathering.

The number of e g g s that are hatched before the people can dig them u p is so prodigious, that near the e n c a m p m e n t o f U r u a n a I saw the w h o l e shore o f the O r i n o c o swarming with little t o r toises an inch in diameter, escaping with difficulty from t h e pursuit o f the I n d i a n children.

I f t o these considerations be added, that all the arraus do n o t assemble o n the three shores o f the e n c a m p m e n t s ; and that there are many which lay their e g g s in solitude, and some w e e k s later,* b e t w e e n the m o u t h o f the O r i n o c o and the confluence o f the A p u r e ; We must admit that the n u m b e r o f turtles which annually deposit their e g g s o n the banks o f the L o w e r O r i n o c o , is near a million.

This n u m b e r is very great for so large an animal.

I n general large animals multiply less considerably than the smaller ones.

T h e labour o f collecting the e g g s , and preparing the oil, occupies three w e e k s .

I t is at this period only that the m i s sionaries have any c o m m u n i c a t i o n with the coast and t h e civilized n e i g h b o u r i n g c o u n t r i e s .

T h e Franciscan m o n k s who live south o f the cataracts, c o m e t o the ' h a r v e s t o f e g g s ' less t o p r o c u r e oil, than t o see, as t h e y say, ' w h i t e f a c e s ; ' and t o learn w h e t h e r the k i n g inhabits the Escurial or San I l d e f o n s o , w h e t h e r c o n v e n t s are still suppressed In F r a n c e , and above all, w h e t h e r the T u r k s c o n t i n u e t o keep quiet.

O n these subjects, (the o n l y o n e s interesting * The arraus, which lay their eggs before the beginning of March, (for in the same species the more or less frequent basking in the sun, the food, and the peculiar organization of each individual, occasion differences,) come out of the water with the terekays, which lay in January and February. Father Gumilla believes them to be arraus that were not able to lay their eggs the preceding year. It is difficult to find the eggs of the terekays, because these animals, far from collecting in thousands on the same beach, deposit their eggs as they are scattered about.

192

ENEMIES OF THE TORTOISE.

t o a m o n k o f the O r i n o c o ) , the small traders o f A n g o s t u r a , w h o visit the e n c a m p m e n t s , can give, unfortunately, n o very exact information.

B u t in these distant countries n o d o u b t is ever entertained o f the news b r o u g h t b y a white m a n from the capital. T h e profit o f the traders in oil amounts t o seventy o r eighty p e r c e n t . ; for the Indians sell it t h e m at the price o f a piastre a j a r o r botija, and the expense o f carriage is n o t m o r e than two-fifths o f a piastre p e r jar.

T h e Indians bring away also a considerable quantity o f e g g s dried in the sun, o r slightly boiled. O u r rowers had baskets o r little bags o f c o t t o n - c l o t h filled with these e g g s .

Their taste is n o t disagreeable, w h e n well preserved.

W e were shown large shells o f turtles, which had b e e n d e s t r o y e d b y the jaguars. T h e s e animals follow the arraus towards those places o n the beach where t h e e g g s are laid. T h e y surprise t h e arraus o n t h e s a n d ; and, in order t o devour t h e m at their ease, turn them in such a manner that the u n d e r shell is u p p e r m o s t . I n this situation the turtles cannot r i s e ; and as the j a g u a r turns many more than he can eat in o n e n i g h t , t h e Indians often avail themselves o f his c u n n i n g and avidity.

W h e n w e reflect o n t h e difficulty experienced b y the naturalist in g e t t i n g o u t the b o d y o f t h e turtle w i t h o u t separating the u p p e r and u n d e r shells, we c a n n o t sufficiently w o n d e r at the suppleness o f the tiger's paw, which is able t o r e m o v e the double armour o f the arrau, as if the adhering parts o f t h e muscles had b e e n c u t b y a surgical instrument.

T h e j a g u a r pursues the turtle into the water when it is n o t very deep. I t even digs u p the e g g s ; and t o g e t h e r with t h e crocodile, the heron, and the galinazo vulture, is t h e m o s t cruel e n e m y o f the little turtles recently hatched. T h e island o f Pararuma had been so m u c h infested with c r o c o diles the preceding year, during the egg-harvest, that the Indians in one night caught eighteen, of twelve or fifteen feet l o n g , b y means o f curved pieces o f iron, baited with the flesh o f the manati. B e s i d e s the beasts o f the forests w e have j u s t named, the wild Indians also very m u c h diminish the quantity o f the oil. W a r n e d b y the first slight rains, which they call ' t u r t i e - r a i n s ' (peje c a n e p o r i ) , * they hasten t o the banks o f the O r i n o c o , and kill the turtles with p o i * In the Tamanac language, from peje, a tortoise, and canepo, rain.

THE YOUNG TORTOISES.

193

soned arrows, whilst, with upraised heads and paws e x tended, the animals are w a n n i n g themselves in the sun.

T h o u g h the little turtles ( t o r t u g u i l l o s ) may have hurst the shells o f their e g g s during the day, they are never seen t o c o m e o u t o f the g r o u n d b u t at night. T h e Indians assert that the y o u n g animal fears the heat o f t h e sun.

They tried also to show us, that when the tortuguillo is carried in a bag t o a distance from the shore, and placed in such a manner that its tail is t u r n e d to the river, it takes w i t h o u t hesitation the shortest way t o the water. I confess, that this experiment, o f which Father G u m i l l a speaks, does n o t always succeed equally w e l l : y e t in general it does appear that at great distances from t h e shore, and even in an island, these little animals feel with extreme delicacy in what direction the most h u m i d air prevails.

Reflecting on the almost uninterrupted layer o f e g g s that extends along the beach, and o n the thousands o f little turtles that seek the water as soon as they are hatched, it IS difficult t o admit that t h e many turtles which have made their nests in the same s p o t , can distinguish their o w n y o u n g , and lead t h e m , like the crocodiles, t o the lakes in the vicinity o f the O r i n o c o . I t is certain, however, that the animal passes the first years o f its life in pools where the water is shallow, and does n o t return t o t h e b e d o f t h e great river till it is full-grown. H o w then d o the tortuguillos mid these pools ? A r e they led thither b y female turtles, which adopt the y o u n g as b y chance ? T h e crocodiles, less numerous, deposit their e g g s in separate h o l e s ; and, in this family o f saurians, t h e female returns a b o u t the time w h e n the incubation is terminated, calls her y o u n g , which answer t o her voice, and often assists t h e m t o g e t out o f the g r o u n d .

The arrau tortoise, n o d o u b t , like t h e crocodile, k n o w s the s p o t where she has made her n e s t ; b u t , n o t daring t o return t o t h e beach o n which t h e I n d i a n s have f o r m e d their encampment, h o w can she distinguish her o w n y o u n g f r o m those which do n o t b e l o n g t o h e r ?

O n the other hand, O t t o m a c Indians declare that, at t h e p e r i o d o f i n u n dation, they have m e t with female turtles followed b y a great n u m b e r o f y o u n g o n e s . T h e s e w e r e perhaps arraus whose e g g s had been deposited o n a desert beach t o which they could r e t u r n . M a l e s are extremely rare a m o n g these VOL. II. o

194

DANGEROUS

ACCIDENT.

animals. Scarcely is o n e male f o u n d a m o n g several h u n dred females. T h e cause o f this disparity cannot he t h e same as with t h e crocodiles, which fight in t h e c o u p l i n g season.

O u r pilot had anchored at t h e Playa de huevos, t o p u r chase some provisions, o u r store having began t o r u n short.

W e found there fresh meat, A n g o s t u r a rice, and even biscuit made o f wheat-flour.

O u r Indians filled the b o a t with little live turtles, and e g g s dried in the sun, for their o w n use. H a v i n g taken leave o f the missionary o f U r u a n a , w h o had treated us with great kindness, we set sail a b o u t four in the afternoon.

T h e w i n d was fresh, and b l e w in squalls.

Since w e had entered the mountainous part o f the c o u n t r y , w e had discovered that o u r canoe carried sail very badly ; but the master was desirous o f showing the I n d i a n s w h o were assembled o n the beach, that, b y g o i n g close t o t h e wind, he could reach, at o n e single tack, the middle o f t h e river. A t the very m o m e n t w h e n he was boasting o f his dexterity, and the boldness o f his manœuvre, the force o f the w i n d u p o n the sail b e c a m e so great that w e w e r e o n the p o i n t o f g o i n g d o w n .

O n e side o f the boat was u n d e r water, which rushed in with such violence that it was s o o n u p t o our knees. I t washed over a little table at which I was writing at the stern o f the b o a t . I had some difficulty to save m y journal, and in an instant w e saw o u r b o o k s , papers, and dried plants, all afloat. M . B o n p l a n d was l y i n g asleep in the middle o f the canoe. A w a k e n e d b y the entrance o f the water and the cries o f the Indians, he u n d e r s t o o d the danger o f o u r situation, whilst he maintained that coolness which he always displayed in the m o s t difficult circumstances.

T h e lee-side righting itself from t i m e t o time during t h e squall, he did n o t consider t h e boat as lost. H e t h o u g h t that, were w e even forced to abandon it, w e might save o u r selves b y swimming, since there was n o crocodile in sight A m i d s t this uncertainty t h e cordage o f the sad suddenly gave way. The same g u s t o f wind, that had t h r o w n us o n o u r b e a m , served also to right us.

W e laboured to bale the water o u t o f the boat with calabashes, t h e sail was again set, and in less than half an h o u r w o were in a state to p r o c e e d .

The w i n d n o w abated a little. Squalls alternating with dead calms are c o m m o n in that part o f the O r i n o c o which

195

BOLDNESS OF JAGUARS.

is b o r d e r e d b y mountains. T h e y are very dangerous for boats deeply laden, and without decks. W e had escaped as if b y miracle. T o t h e reproaches that were heaped o n our pilot for having k e p t t o o near the wind, he replied with the phlegmatic coolness peculiar t o the I n d i a n s , observing that the whites would find sun e n o u g h o n those banks to dry their p a p e r s . " W e lost only o n e b o o k — t h e first v o l u m e o f the ' G e n e r a P l a n t a r u m ' o f S c h r e b e r — w h i c h had fallen overboard. A t nightfall w e landed o n a barren island Mi t h e middle o f the river, near the M i s s i o n o f TJruana.

W e supped in a clear m o o n l i g h t , seating ourselves o n s o m e large turtle-shells that were f o u n d scattered a b o u t the beach. W h a t satisfaction w e felt o n finding ourselves t h u s comfortably l a n d e d ! W e figured t o ourselves t h e situation o f a m a n who had b e e n saved alone from shipwreck, wandering o n these desert shores, m e e t i n g at every step with other rivers which fall into t h e O r i n o c o , and which it is dangerous to pass b y swimming, o n a c c o u n t o f t h e m u l t i t u d e o f crocodiles and caribe fishes. W e pictured t o ourselves such a man, alive t o the m o s t tender affections of t h e soul, ignorant o f the fate o f his c o m p a n i o n s , and t h i n k i n g more o f them than o f himself.

I f w e love t o indulge such melancholy meditations, it is because, when just escaped from danger, w e seem t o feel as i t were the necessity o f strong e m o t i o n s .

O u r m i n d s were full o f w h a t we had j u s t witnessed. T h e r e are periods i n life w h e n , w i t h o u t b e i n g discouraged, t h e future appears m o r e uncertain.

It w a s o n l y three days since w e had e n t e r e d t h e O r i n o c o , and t h e r e y e t remained three m o n t h s for u s t o navigate fivers e n c u m b e r e d with r o c k s , and i n boats smaller than that in which we had so nearly perished.

T h e n i g h t was intensely hot. W e l a y u p o n skins spread in t h e g r o u n d , there b e i n g n o trees t o w h i c h w e c o u l d fasten o u r h a m m o c k s .

T h e t o r m e n t s o f t h e mosquitos increased every d a y ; and w e were surprised t o find that on this spot o u r fires did n o t prevent the approach o f t h e jaguars. T h e y swam across the arm o f the river that separated us from t h e mainland. T o w a r d s m o r n i n g w e heard their cries very near. T h e y had c o m e t o the island w h e n we passed the night. T h e Indians told us that, during the collecting o f the turtles' e g g s , tigers are always m o r e fre-

o 2

196

CONCEPCION DE

URBANA.

quent in those regions, and display at that period the greatest intrepidity.

O n the following day, the 7th, w e passed, o n o u r right„the m o u t h o f the great Rio A u r a c a , celebrated for the immense n u m b e r o f birds that frequent i t ; and, on o u r left, the M i s s i o n o f U r u a n a , c o m m o n l y called La Concepcion de Urbana.

This small village, which contains five hundred souls, was f o u n d e d b y the Jesuits, a b o u t the year 1 7 4 8 , b y the union o f the O t t o m a c and Cavere Indians. I t lies at the foot o f a mountain c o m p o s e d o f detached b l o c k s o f granite, which, I believe, bears the name o f Saraguaca.

Masses of r o c k , separated one from the other b y the effect o f d e c o m position, form caverns, in which we find indubitable proofs o f the ancient civilization o f the natives.

Hieroglyphic figures, and even characters in regular lines, arc seen sculpt u r e d o n their s i d e s ; t h o u g h I d o u b t whether they bear any analogy t o alphabetic writing.

W e visited the M i s s i o n o f Uruana on o u r return from the R i o N e g r o , and saw with o u r o w n eyes those heaps o f earth which the O t t o m a c s eat, and which have b e c o m e the subject o f such lively discussion in E u r o p e . * O n measuring the breadth o f the O r i n o c o b e t w e e n the islands called Isla de Uruana and Isla de la M a n t e c a , w e found it, during the high waters, 2674 toises, which make nearly four nautical miles. This is eight times the breadth o f t h e N i l e at M a n f a l o u t and S y o u t , y e t w e were at the distance o f a hundred and ninety-four leagues from the m o u t h o f the O r i n o c o .

T h e temperature o f the water at its surface was 2 7 8° o f the centigrade t h e r m o m e t e r , near U r u a n a .

That o f the river Zaire, o r C o n g o , in Africa, at an equal distance from the equator, was found b y Captain T u c k e y , in the m o n t h s o f J u l y and A u g u s t , t o b e only from 23 9° t o 25 6°.

T h e western bank of the O r i n o c o remains low farther * This earth is a greasy kind of clay, which, in seasons of scarcity, the natives use to assuage the cravings of hunger ; it having been proved by their experience as well as by physiological researches, that want of food can be more easily borne by filling the cavity of the stomach with s o m e substance, even although it may be in itself very nearly or totally i n n u tritious. The Indian hunters of North America, for the same purpose, tie boards tightly across the abdomen ; and most savage races are found to have recourse to expedients that answer the same end.

SUMMER-SLEEP OF CROCODILES.

197

than t h e m o u t h o f t h e M e t a ; while from the M i s s i o n o f T r u a n a the mountains approach the eastern bank m o r e and more. A s the strength o f the current increases in p r o p o r tion as the river g r o w s narrower, the progress o f our boat became m u c h slower. W e c o n t i n u e d t o ascend the O r i n o c o under sail, but the high and w o o d y g r o u n d s deprived us o f the wind. A t other times the narrow passes between the mountains b y which w e sailed, sent u s violent gusts, but o f short duration. T h e n u m b e r o f crocodiles increased b e l o w the j u n c t i o n o f t h e R i o A r a u c a , particularly opposite t h e great lake o f Capanaparo, which communicates with t h e Orinoco, as the L a g u n a de Cabullarito c o m m u n i c a t e s at t h e same time with the O r i n o c o and the R i o A r a u c a .

The Indians told us that t h e crocodiles came from the inlands, Where they had b e e n buried in the dried m u d o f the savannahs. A s soon as the first showers arouse them from their lethargy, t h e y c r o w d t o g e t h e r in t r o o p s , and hasten toward the river, there t o disperse again. H e r e , in the equinoctial zone, it is t h e increase o f humidity that recalls t h e m t o l i f e ; while in G e o r g i a and Florida, in the temperate zone, it is t h e augmentation o f heat that rouses these animals from a state o f nervous and muscular debility, during which the active powers o f respiration are suspended or singularly diminished. T h e season o f great drought, i m properly called the s u m m e r o f the torrid zone, corresponds with the winter o f the temperate z o n e ; and it is a curious physiological p h e n o m e n o n t o observe the alligators o f N o r t h A m e r i c a p l u n g e d into a winter-sleep b y excess o f cold, a t t h e same period w h e n the crocodiles o f the L l a n o s b e g i n their siesta o r summer-sleep.

I f it were probable that these animals o f the same family had heretofore inhabited the same northern c o u n t r y , w e might suppose that, in advancing towards the equator, they feel the want o f repose after having exercised their muscles for seven or eight m o n t h s , and that they retain u n d e r a new sky the habits which appear to be essentially linked with their organization.

H a v i n g passed the m o u t h s o f the channels c o m m u n i c a t ing with the lake o f Capanaparo, w e entered a part o f t h e O r i n o c o , where the b e d o f the river is narrowed b y t h e mountains of Baraguan. I t is a kind o f strait, reaching

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nearly to the confluence o f the R i o Suapure. F r o m these granite mountains the natives heretofore gave the n a m e o f Baraguan t o that part o f the O r i n o c o c o m p r i s e d b e t w e e n the m o u t h s o f t h e A r a u c a and the A t a b a p o .

Among savage nations great rivers bear different denominations in the different portions o f their course. T h e Passage o f Baraguan presents a picturesque scene. T h e granite rocks are perpendicular. T h e y form a range o f mountains l y i n g north-west and s o u t h - e a s t ; and the river c u t t i n g this d y k e nearly at a right angle, the summits o f the mountains appear like separate peaks. T h e i r elevation in general does n o t surpass one hundred and t w e n t y t o i s e s ; b u t their situation in the midst o f a small plain, their steep declivities, and their flanks destitute o f vegetation, give t h e m a majestic character.

T h e y are c o m p o s e d o f e n o r m o u s masses o f granite o f a parallelopipedal figure, b u t r o u n d e d at t h e edges, and heaped one u p o n another. T h e blocks are often eighty feet l o n g , and t w e n t y o r thirty broad. T h e y w o u l d seem t o have been piled u p b y some external force, if the p r o x i m i t y o f a rock identical in its composition, n o t separated into blocks b u t filled with veins, did n o t prove that the parallelopipedal form is o w i n g solely t o the action o f t h e atmosphere. T h e s e veins, t w o o r three inches t h i c k , are distinguished b y a fine-grained quartz-granite crossing a coarse-grained granite almost porphyritic, and abounding in fine crystals o f red feldspar.

I sought in vain, in t h e Cordillera o f Baraguan, for hornblende, and those steatitic masses that characterise several granites o f the H i g l i e r A l p s in Switzerland.

W e landed in the middle o f the strait o f Baraguan t o measure its breadth. T h e r o c k s project so much towards t h e river that I measured with difficulty a base o f eighty toises. I found the river eight hundred and eighty-nine toises broad. I n order to conceive h o w this passage bears the name o f a strait, w e must recollect that the breadth o f the river from U r u a n a t o t h e j u n c t i o n o f the M e t a is in general from 1 5 0 0 t o 2 5 0 0 toises. I n this place, which is extremely hot and barren, I measured t w o granite summits, m u c h r o u n d e d : o n e was only a hundred and ten, and t h e other eighty-five, toises. T h e r e are higher summits in the

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interior o f the g r o u p , b u t in general these mountains, o f so wild an aspect, have n o t the elevation that is assigned t o them b y the missionaries.

W e looked in vain for plants in the clefts o f the rocks, which are as steep as walls, and furnish some traces o f stratification.

W e f o u n d o n l y an old t r u n k o f aubletia,* with largo apple-shaped fruit, and a n e w species o f the family o f the a p o c y n e æ . † A l l the stones w e r e covered with an innumerable quantity o f iguanas and g e c k o s with spreading and m e m b r a n o u s fingers.

These lizards, motionless, with heads raised, and m o u t h s o p e n , seemed t o suck in the heated air. T h e t h e r m o m e t e r placed against the rock rose to 5 0 2 ° . T h e soil appeared to undulate, from the effect o f mirage, without a breath o f w i n d b e i n g felt. T h e sun was near the zenith, and its dazzling light, reflected from the surface o f the river, contrasted with the reddish vapours that enveloped every surrounding o b j e c t . H o w vivid is he i m pression p r o d u c e d b y the calm o f nature, at n o o n , in these burning climates ! T h e beasts o f the forests retire t o the t h i c k e t s ; the birds hide themselves beneath the foliage o f the trees, or in the crevices o f the rocks. Y e t , amidst this apparent silence, when w e lend an attentive ear to the m o s t feeble sounds transmitted t h r o u g h t h e air, w e hear a dull Vibration, a continual m u r m u r , a h u m o f insects, filling, if We may use the expression, all the l o w e r strata o f the air.

N o t h i n g is b e t t e r fitted t o make m a n feel the extent and p o w e r o f organic life. M y r i a d s o f insects creep u p o n the sod, and flutter r o u n d the plants parched b y the heat o f the sun. A confused noise issues from every bush, from t h e decayed trunks o f trees, from the clefts o f the rocks, and from the g r o u n d undermined b y lizards, millepedes, and cecilias.

T h e s e are so many voices proclaiming t o us that all nature b r e a t h e s ; and that, under a thousand different forms, life is diffused t h r o u g h o u t the cracked and dusty s o d , as well as in the b o s o m o f the waters, and in the air that circulates around us.

T h e sensations which I hero recall t o m i n d are n o t unknown t o those w h o , without having advanced t o t h e equator, have visited Italy, Spain, or E g y p t . That contrast ° f m o t i o n and silence, that aspect o f nature at once calm and * Aubletia tiburba.

†

Allamanda salicifolia.

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animated, strikes the imagination o f the traveller when h e enters the basin o f t h e Mediterranean, within t h e zone o f olives, dwarf palms, and date-trees.

W e passed the night on the eastern bank o f the O r i n o c o , at t h e foot o f a granitic hill. N e a r this desert spot was formerly seated the M i s s i o n o f San R e g i s . W e could have wished t o find a spring i n t h e Baraguan, f o r t h e water o f t h e river had a smell o f m u s k , a n d a sweetish taste e x tremely disagreeable. I n t h e O r i n o c o , as well as in t h e A pure, w e are struck with t h e difference observable i n t h e various parts o f t h e river near the m o s t barren shore. T h e water is sometimes very drinkable, a n d sometimes seems t o b e loaded with a slimy matter. " I t is t h e bark ( m e a n i n g t h e coriaceous c o v e r i n g ) o f t h e putrified cayman that is t h e c a u s e , " say the natives. " T h e more aged the cayman, t h e m o r e bitter is his bark." I have n o d o u b t that the carcasses o f these large reptiles, those o f the manatis, which weigh five hundred pounds, and the presence o f the porpoises (toninas) with their mucilaginous skin, may contaminate t h e water, especially in the creeks, where the river has little velocity, Y e t t h e spots where w e f o u n d t h e m o s t fetid water, were n o t always those where dead animals were accumulated o n t h e beach. W h e n , in such b u r n i n g climates, where w e are constantly t o r m e n t e d b y thirst, w e are reduced t o drink t h e water o f a river at the temperature o f 27째 o r 28째, w e cannot help wishing at least that water so hot, and so loaded with sand, should be free from smell.

O n the 8th o f A p r i l w e passed the m o u t h s o f the Suapure o r Sivapuri, and t h e Caripo, o n t h e east, and the outlet o f the Sinaruco o n t h e w e s t . This last river i s , next t o t h e R i o A r a u c a , the most considerable between the A p u r e and t h e M e t a . T h e Suapure, full o f little cascades, is celebrated a m o n g the Indians for the quantity o f wild honey obtained from the forests in its n e i g h b o u r h o o d .

T h e melipones there suspend their enormous hives to the branches o f trees.

Father Gili, in 1766, made an excursion on the Suapure, and o n the Turiva, which falls into it. He there found tribes o f the nation o f Areverians. W e passed t h e night a little b e l o w the island Macapina.

Early on the following m o r n i n g w e arrived at the beach o f Pararuma, where we found an encampment o f Indians,

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similar to that we had seen at the Boca de la Tortuga.

They had assembled to search the sands, for collecting the turtles' eggs, and extracting the oil ; but they had unfortunately made a mistake of several days. The young turtles had come out of their shells before the Indians had formed their camp ; and consequently the crocodiles and the garzes, a species of large white herons, availed themselves of the delay. These animals, alike fond of the flesh of the young turtles, devour an innumerable quantity. They fish during the night, for thetortuguillosdo not come out of the earth to gain the neighbouring river till after the evening twilight.

The zamuro vultures are too indolent to hunt after sunset.

They stalk along the shores in the daytime, and alight in the midst of the Indian encampment to steal provisions; but they often find no other means of satisfying their voracity than by attacking young crocodiles of seven or eight inches long, either on land or in water of little depth. It is curious to see the address with which these little animals defend themselves for a time against the vultures. As soon as they perceive the enemy, they raise themselves on their fore paws, bend their backs, and lift up their heads, opening their wide jaws. They turn continually, though slowly, toward their assailant to show him their teeth, which, even when the animal has but recently issued from the egg, are very long and sharp. Often while the attention of a young crocodile is wholly engaged by one of the zamuros, another seizes the favourable opportunity for an unforeseen attack.

He pounces on the crocodile, grasps him by the neck, and bears him off to the higher regions of the air. W e had an opportunity of observing this manœuvre during several mornings, at Mompex, on the banks of the Magdalena, where we had collected more than forty very young crocodiles, in a spacious court surrounded by a wall.

W e found among the Indians assembled at Pararuma Some white men, who had come from Angostura to purchaso the tortoise-butter. After having wearied us for a long time with their complaints of the 'bad harvest,' and the mischief done by the tigers among the turtles, at the time of laying their eggs, they conducted us beneath an ajoupa, that rose in the centre of the Indian camp. We there found the missionary-monks of Carichana and the

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HUMIDITY OF THE CLIMATE.

Cataracts seated o n t h e g r o u n d , playing at cards, and s m o k i n g t o b a c c o in l o n g pipes. Their ample blue garments, their shaven heads, and their l o n g beards, might have led u s t o mistake them for natives o f the East. T h e s e p o o r priests received us in the kindest manner, giving us every informat i o n necessary for the continuation o f o u r v o y a g e .

They had suffered from tertian fever for some m o n t h s ; and their pale and emaciated aspect easily convinced us that the countries w e were a b o u t t o visit were n o t without danger t o t h e health o f travellers.

T h e Indian pilot, w h o bad b r o u g h t us from San F e r n a n d o de A p u r e as far as the shore o f Pararuma, was unacquainted with the passage o f the r a p i d s * o f the O r i n o c o , and w o u l d n o t undertake to c o n d u c t o u r bark any farther. W e w e r e obliged to c o n f o r m t o his will. H a p p i l y for u s , the m i s sionary o f Carichana c o n s e n t e d t o sell us a fine canoe at a very moderate price: and F a t h e r Bernardo Zea, missionary o f the A t u r e s and M a y p u r e s near the great cataracts, offered, t h o u g h still unwell, t o a c c o m p a n y us as far as tho frontiers o f Brazil. T h e n u m b e r o f natives w h o can assist in g u i d i n g boats through the Raudales is so inconsiderable that, b u t for the presence o f t h e m o n k , w o should have risked spending whole w e e k s in these h u m i d and unhealthy regions.

O n the banks o f the O r i n o c o , the forests o f the R i o N e g r o are considered as delicious spots. The air is indeed cooler and m o r e healthful. The river is free from c r o c o d i l e s ; o n e m a y bathe without apprehension, and b y night as well as b y day there is less t o r m e n t from the sting o f insects than o n the O r i n o c o . F a t h e r Z e a h o p e d t o r e establish his health b y visiting the M i s s i o n s o f R i o N e g r o .

H e talked o f those places with that enthusiasm which is felt in all the colonies of South A m e r i c a for everything far off.

T h e assemblage o f Indians at Pararuma again excited in us that interest, which everywhere attaches m a n in a cultivated state t o the study o f m a n in a savage c o n d i t i o n , and tho successive development o f his intellectual faculties.

H o w difficult t o recognize in this infancy o f society, in this assemblage o f dull, silent, inanimate Indians, the primitive character o f o u r s p e c i e s ! H u m a n naturo does n o t hero manifest those features o f artless simplicity, o f which * Little cascades (chorros raudalitos).

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poets in every language have drawn such enchanting pictures. T h e savage o f the O r i n o c o appeared t o us t o h e as hideous as the savage o f the Mississippi, described b y that philosophical traveller V o l n e y , w h o so well k n e w h o w t o paint man in different climates. W e are eager t o persuade ourselves that these natives, c r o u c h i n g before the fire, o r seated on large turtle-shells, their bodies covered with earth and grease, their eyes stupidly fixed for whole hours o n t h e b e v e r a g e t h e y are preparing, far from b e i n g the primitive t y p e of o u r species, are a degenerate race, the feeble remains o f nations w h o , after having b e e n l o n g dispersed in t h e forests, are r e p l u n g e d into barbarism.

Bed paint being in s o m e sort the only clothing o f t h e I n d i a n s , t w o kinds may b e distinguished a m o n g t h e m , a c c o r d i n g as they are m o r e o r less affluent. T h e c o m m o n decoration o f the Caribs, the O t t o m a c s , and the Jaruros, is onoto* called b y t h e Spaniards achote, and b y the planters o f C a y e n n e , rocou.

I t is the c o l o u r i n g matter extracted from the pulp o f the B i x a orellana. †T h e I n d i a n w o m e n prepare the anato b y t h r o w i n g the seeds o f the plant into a t u b filled with water. T h e y beat this water for an hour, and then leave it t o deposit the c o l o u r i n g fecula, which is o f an intense brick-red. A f t e r having separated the water, they take out the fecula, d r y it b e t w e e n their hands, knead it with oil o f turtles' e g g s , and form it into r o u n d cakes o f three o r four o u n c e s w e i g h t . W h e n turtle oil is wanting, s o m e tribes mix with the anato the fat o f the crocodile.

Another p i g m e n t , m u c h m o r e valuable, is extracted from a plant o f the family o f the bignoniĂŚ, which M . B o n p l a n d has made k n o w n b y the name o f B i g n o n i a chica. I t climbs u p and clings t o tho tallest trees b y the aid o f tendrils.

Its bilabiate flowers are an inch long, o f a fine violet c o l o u r , and disposed b y t w o s o r threes.

T h e bipinnate leaves b e c o m e reddish in drying. T h e fruit is a p o d , filled with w i n g e d seeds, and is t w o feet l o n g .

This plant g r o w s * Properly anoto. This word belongs to the Tamanac Indians. The Maypures call it majepa. The Spanish missionaries say onotarse, 'to rub the skin with anato.' †The word bixa, adopted by botanists, is derived from the ancient language of Hayti (the island of St. Domingo). Rocou, the term c o m m o n l y used by the French, is derived from the Brazilian word, urucu.

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INDIAN

MOMENTS.

spontaneously, and in great abundance, near M a y p u r e s ; and in g o i n g up the O r i n o c o , b e y o n d the mouth o f the G u a viare, from Santa Barbara t o the lofty m o u n t a i n o f Duida, particularly near Esmeralda. W e also found it o n the banks o f the Cassiquiare. T h e red p i g m e n t o f chica is n o t o b tained from the fruit, like the onoto, b u t from the leaves macerated in water. The colouring matter separates in the form o f a light p o w d e r . I t is collected, w i t h o u t b e i n g m i x e d with turtle-oil, into little lumps eight o r nine inches l o n g , and from t w o t o three high, r o u n d e d at the edges.

These lumps, w h e n heated, emit an agreeable smell o f b e n z o i n .

W h e n the chica is subjected t o distillation, it yields n o sensible traces o f ammonia. I t is n o t , like indigo, a s u b stance c o m b i n e d with azote. I t dissolves slightly in sulphuric and muriatic acids, and even in alkalis.

Ground with oil, the chica furnishes a red colour that has a tint o f lake. A p p l i e d to wool, it might be confounded with madder-red.

There is n o d o u b t b u t that the chica, u n k n o w n in E u r o p e before o u r travels, may b e e m p l o y e d usefully in t h e arts. T h e nations o n the O r i n o c o , by w h o m this p i g m e n t is best prepared, are t h e Salivas, t h e G u i p u ñ a v e s , * the Caveres, and the Piraoas. T h e processes of infusion and maceration are in general very c o m m o n a m o n g all the nations on the O r i n o c o . T h u s the M a y p u r e s carry o n a trade o f barter with the little loaves o f puruma, which is a vegetable fecula, dried in the manner of indigo, and yieldi n g a very permanent yellow colour. T h e chemistry o f the savage is reduced to the preparation o f p i g m e n t s , that o f poisons, and the dulcification of the amylaceous roots, which the aroïdes and the euphorbiaceous plants afford.

M o s t o f the missionaries o f the Upper and L o w e r O r i n o c o permit the Indians o f their Missions to paint their skins.

It is painful to add, that s o m e o f them speculate o n this barbarous practice o f the natives. I n their huts, p o m p o u s l y called conventos. † I have often seen stores o f chica, which they sold as high as four francs the cake.

To form a j u s t idea o f the extravagance o f the decoration o f these naked Indians, I must observe, that a man o f large * Or Guaypuñaves ; they call themselves Uipuñavi. † In the Missions, the priest's house bears the name of 'the convent.'

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stature gains with difficulty e n o u g h b y the labour o f a f o r t night, t o p r o c u r e i n exchange the chica necessary t o paint himself red. T h u s as w e say, i n temperate climates, o f a p o o r man, " h e has n o t e n o u g h t o clothe himself," y o u hear the Indians o f t h e O r i n o c o say, " that m a n is so poor, that T h e little trade he has n o t e n o u g h t o paint half his b o d y . " in chica is carried o n chiefly with the tribes o f t h e L o w e r O r i n o c o , w h o s e c o u n t r y d o c s n o t p r o d u c e t h e plant which furnishes this much-valued substance. T h e Caribs and t h e O t t o m a c s paint only the head and the hair with chica, b u t t h e Salives possess this p i g m e n t in sufficient abundance to c o v e r their whole bodies. "When t h e missionaries send o n their o w n a c c o u n t small cargoes o f cacao, t o b a c c o , a n d chiquichiqui* from t h e Rio N e g r o t o A n g o s t u r a , they always add some cakes o f chica, as b e i n g articles o f merchandise in great request.

T h e custom o f painting is not equally ancient among all the tribes o f t h e O r i n o c o . I t has increased since t h e time w h e n t h e powerful nation o f t h e Caribs made frequent i n cursions into those countries.

T h e victors a n d t h e vanquished were alike naked ; a n d t o please t h e c o n q u e r o r it was necessary t o paint like h i m , and t o assume his colour.

T h e influence o f t h e Caribs h a s n o w ceased, a n d they remain circumscribed b e t w e e n t h e rivers C a r o n y , C u y u n i , and Paraguamuzi; b u t t h e Caribbean fashion o f painting the w h o l e b o d y is still preserved.

T h e c u s t o m has survived t h e conquest.

D o e s t h e use o f the anato a n d chica derive i t s origin from the desire o f pleasing, and the taste f o r ornament, s o c o m m o n a m o n g t h e m o s t savage nations ? o r must w e s u p p o s e it t o b e founded o n t h e observation, that these c o l o u r ing a n d oily matters with which t h e skin is plastered, preserve it from t h e sting o f t h e mosquitos ? I have often

heard this question discussed i n E u r o p e ; b u t in the Missions o f t h e O r i n o c o , a n d wherever, within t h e tropics, t h e air is filled with v e n o m o u s insects, t h e inquiry w o u l d appear absurd.

T h e Carib and t h e Salive, w h o are painted red, are n o t less cruelly t o r m e n t e d b y the m o s q u i t o s and t h e zancudos, than t h e Indians whose bodies are plastered with n o colour. T h e sting o f t h e insect causes * Ropes made with the petioles of a palm-tree with pinnate leaves.

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PLAGUE OF THЕ MOSQUITOS.

n o swelling in e i t h e r ; and scarcely ever p r o d u c e s those little pustules which occasion such smarting and itching t o E u r o p e a n s recently arrived. B u t the native and t h e W h i t e sutler equally from the sting, till the insect has w i t h ­ drawn its sucker from the skin. A f t e r a thousand useless essays, M . B o n p l a n d and myself tried the expedient o f r u b b i n g o u r hands and arms with the fat o f the c r o c o d i l e , and the oil o f turtle-eggs, b u t w e never felt the least relief, and were stung as before. I k n o w that the L a p ­ landers boast o f oil and fat as the most useful preservatives; b u t the insects o f Scandinavia are n o t o f the same species as those o f the O r i n o c o .

T h e smoke o f t o b a c c o drives away o u r gnats, while it is e m p l o y e d in vain against t h e zancudos.

I f the application o f fat and astringent* s u b ­ stances preserved the inhabitants o f these countries from t h e torment of insects, as F a t h e r G u m i l l a alleges, w h y has n o t the c u s t o m o f painting the skin b e c o m e general on these shores?

W h y do so many naked natives paint only t h e face, t h o u g h living in the n e i g h b o u r h o o d o f those w h o paint the whole b o d y ? † W e are struck with the observation, that the Indians o f the O r i n o c o , like the natives o f N o r t h A m e r i c a , prefer the substances that yield a red c o l o u r t o every other. I s this predilection founded on the facility with which the savage p r o c u r e s ochreous earths, o r the c o l o u r i n g fecula o f anato and o f chica ? I d o u b t this m u c h .

I n d i g o g r o w s wild in a great part o f equinoctial A m e r i c a . This plant, like so m a n y o t h e r l e g u m i n o u s plants, would have; furnished the natives abundantly with p i g m e n t s t o colour themselves blue like t h o ancient Britons. ‡ Y e t w o see n o A m e r i c a n tribe painted with indigo. I t appears t o m e probable, as I have already hinted above, that the preference given b y the A m e r i c a n s t o tho red c o l o u r is generally founded on the t e n d e n c y w h i c h nations feel t o attribute the idea o f b e a u t y t o what­ ever characterises their national p h y s i o g n o m y .

M e n whoso skin is naturally o f a brownish red, love a red c o l o u r .

If * The pulp of the unato, and even the chica, are astringent and slightly purgative. † The Caribs, the Salives, the Tamanacs, and the Maypures. ‡ The half-clad nations of the temperate zone often paint their skin of the same colour as that with which their clothes are dyed.

GENERAL USE OF PIGMENTS.

207

t h e y b e b o r n with a forehead little raised, and the head flat, t h e y endeavour t o depress the foreheads o f their children.

I f they he distinguished from other nations b y a thin beard, t h e y try to eradicate the few hairs that nature has given t h e m . T h e y think themselves embellished in p r o p o r t i o n as t h e y heighten the characteristic marks o f their race, o r o f their national conformation.

W e were surprised t o see, that, in the camp o f Tararuma, the w o m e n far advanced in years w e r e m o r e o c c u p i e d with their ornaments than the y o u n g e s t w o m e n .

W e saw an I n d i a n female o f the nation o f t h e O t t o m a c s e m p l o y i n g t w o o f her daughters in the operation o f r u b b i n g her hair with the oil o f turtles' e g g s , and painting her back with anato and caruto.

T h e o r n a m e n t consisted o f a sort o f latticew o r k formed o f black lines crossing each other o n a r e d g r o u n d . Each little square had a black d o t in the c e n t r e .

I t was a w o r k o f incredible patience. W e returned f r o m a very l o n g herborization, and the painting was n o t half finished.

This research o f o r n a m e n t seems the m o r e s i n g u lar w h e n w e reflect that the figures and marks are n o t p r o d u c e d b y the process o f tattooing, b u t that paintings e x e c u t e d with so m u c h care are effaced,* i f the I n d i a n e x poses himself imprudently t o a heavy shower. T h e r e are s o m e nations w h o paint only t o celebrate festivals; others are covered with colour during the whole y e a r : and the latter consider the use o f anato as so indispensable, that b o t h m e n and w o m e n w o u l d perhaps b e less ashamed t o present themselves without a guayuc †than destitute o f paint.

T h e s e guayucos o f the O r i n o c o are partly bark o f trees, and partly c o t t o n - c l o t h .

T h o s e o f the m e n are broader than those w o r n b y the w o m e n , w h o , the missionaries say, have in general a less lively feeling o f m o d e s t y .

A similar o b servation was made b y Christopher C o l u m b u s . M a y w e n o t attribute this indifference, this want o f delicacy i n * The black and caustic pigment o f the caruto (Genipa americana) however, resists a long time the action of water, as we found with regret, having one day, in sport with the Indians, caused our faces to be marked with spots and strokes of caruto. When we returned to Angostura, in the midst of Europeans, these marks were still visible. †A word of the Caribbean language. The perizoma o f the Indiana of the Orinoco is rather a band than an apron.

208

SINGULAR

METHODS

OF BODY-PAINTING.

w o m e n b e l o n g i n g t o nations o f which t h e manners are n o t much depraved, t o that rude state o f slavery t o winch the sex is r e d u c e d in South A m e r i c a b y male injustice a n d tyranny ?

"When w e speak in E u r o p e o f a native o f Guiana, w e figure t o ourselves a m a n whose head a n d waist are d e c o rated with the fine feathers o f the macaw, the toucan, and t h e humming-bird. O u r painters a n d sculptors have l o n g since regarded these ornaments as t h e characteristic marks o f an A m e r i c a n .

W e w e r e surprised at n o t finding in t h e C h a y m a M i s s i o n s , in t h e e n c a m p m e n t s o f Uruana and o f Pararuma ( 1 m i g h t almost say o n all t h e shores o f t h e O r i n o c o and t h e Cassiquiare) those fine p l u m e s , those feathered aprons, which are so often b r o u g h t by travellers from C a y e n n e and D e m e r a r a .

T h e s e tribes f o r t h e most part, even those whose intellectual faculties are most e x panded, w h o cultivate alimentary plants, and k n o w h o w t o weave c o t t o n , are altogether as naked,* as poor, a n d as destitute o f ornaments as the natives o f New Holland. T h e excessive heat o f the air, the profuse perspiration in w h i c h the body is bathed at every hour o f the day and a great part o f the night, render t h e use o f clothes insupportable. T h e i r o b j e c t s o f ornament, a n d particularly their plumes o f feathers, are reserved f o r dances a n d solemn festivals. T h e plumes worn by the GuipuĂąavest are t h e most c e l e b r a t e d ; b e i n g c o m p o s e d o f t h e fine feathers o f manakins and parrots.

T h e Indians are n o t always satisfied with o n e c o l o u r uniformly s p r e a d ; they sometimes imitate, in the m o s t whimsical manner, in painting their skin, t h e form o f E u r o pean garments.

W e saw some at Pararuma, w h o were painted with blue j a c k e t s and black buttons. T h e missionaries related t o us that the Guaynaves o f the Kio Caura are accustomed to stain themselves red with anato, and t o make broad transverse stripes o n t h e b o d y , o n which they stick spangles o f silvery mica. Seen at a distance, these * For instance, the Macos and the Piraoas. The Caribs must be excepted, whose perizoma is a cotton cloth, so broad that it might cover the shoulders. †These came originally from the banks of the Inirida, one of the rivers that fall into the Guaviare.

PAINTED BODIES OF THE

209

INDIANS.

naked men appear to b e dressed in laced clothes. If painted nations had b e e n examined with t h e same attention as those w h o are clothed, it w o u l d have b e e n perceived that t h e m o s t fertile imagination, and the m o s t mutable caprice, have created the fashions o f painting, as well as those o f garments.

Painting and t a t t o o i n g are n o t restrained, in either t h e N e w o r the O l d W o r l d , t o o n e race o r o n e z o n e only. T h e s e ornaments are m o s t c o m m o n a m o n g the Malays and A m e rican r a c e s ; but in the time o f the R o m a n s they were also e m p l o y e d b y the white race in the north o f E u r o p e . A s t h e m o s t picturesque garments and m o d e s o f dress are f o u n d in the G r e c i a n A r c h i p e l a g o and western A s i a , so t h e t y p e o f beauty in painting and t a t t o o i n g is displayed by the islanders o f the Pacific.

S o m e clothed nations still paint their hands, their nails, and their faces. It w o u l d seem that painting is then confined t o those parts o f the b o d y that remain uncovered ; and while r o u g e , which recalls t o m i n d the savage state o f man, is disappearing b y degrees in E u r o p e , in s o m e t o w n s o f the p r o v i n c e o f P e r u t h e ladies think they embellish their delicate skins b y c o v e r i n g t h e m with c o l o u r i n g vegetable matter, starch, white-of-egg, and flour.

A f t e r having lived a l o n g t i m e a m o n g m e n painted with anato and chica, w e are singularly struck with these r e mains o f ancient barbarism retained amidst all the usages o f civilization.

T h e e n c a m p m e n t at Pararuma afforded u s an o p p o r t u n i t y o f examining several animals in their natural state, w h i c h , till then, we had seen o n l y in the collections o f E u r o p e .

T h e s e little animals f o r m a branch o f c o m m e r c e for t h e missionaries. T h e y e x c h a n g e t o b a c c o , the resin called mani, the p i g m e n t o f chica, gallitos ( r o c k - m a n a k i n s ) , orange m o n keys, capuchin m o n k e y s , and other species o f m o n k e y s in great request on the coast, for cloth, nails, hatchets, fishh o o k s , and pins. T h e p r o d u c t i o n s o f t h e O r i n o c o are b o u g h t at a low price from the Indians, w h o live in d e p e n d e n c e o n the m o n k s ; and these same I n d i a n s purchase fishing and gardening implements from the m o n k s at a very high price, with the m o n e y they have gained at the egg-harvest.

W e ourselves b o u g h t several animals, which w e k e p t with VOL. I I .

P

210

THE

ROCK-MANAKIN.

as t h r o u g h o u t the rest o f o u r passage on the river, and studied their m a n n e r s .

T h e gallitos, o r r o c k - m a n a k i n s , are sold at Pararuma in pretty little cages made o f t h e footstalks o f palm-leaves.

T h e s e birds are infinitely m o r e rare o n the banks o f the O r i n o c o , and in the n o r t h and w e s t o f equinoctial America, than in F r e n c h G u i a n a . T h e y have hitherto been found only near t h e M i s s i o n o f Encaramada, and in the Raudales or cataracts o f M a y p u r e s . I say expressly in the cataracts, because the gallitos c h o o s e for their habitual dwelling the hollows o f the little granitic r o c k s that cross t h e O r i n o c o and f o r m such n u m e r o u s cascades. We sometimes saw them appear in the m o r n i n g in the midst o f the foam o f the river, calling their females, and fighting in t h e m a n n e r o f o u r c o c k s , folding the double moveable crest that decorates the c r o w n o f the head. A s the Indians very rarely take the full-grown gallitos, and those males o n l y are valued in E u r o p e , which from the third year have beautiful saffron-coloured plumage, purchasers should be o n their g u a r d n o t to c o n f o u n d y o u n g females with y o u n g males.

B o t h t h e male and female gallitos are o f an o l i v e - b r o w n ; b u t the polio, or y o u n g male, is distinguishable at t h e earliest age, b y its size and its y e l l o w feet.

After the third year the plumage o f the males assumes a beautiful saffron t i n t ; b u t t h e female remains always o f a dull dusky b r o w n c o l o u r , with y e l l o w only o n t h e wing-coverts and tips of the w i n g s . * T o preserve in o u r collections the fine tint o f t h e plumage o f a male and full-grown rock-manakin, it m u s t n o t b o e x p o s e d t o the light. This tint g r o w s pale m o r e easy than in the other genera o f the passerine order. T h e y o u n g males, as in m o s t other birds, have the p l u m a g e o r livery o f their m o t h e r .

I am surprised to see that so skilful a naturalist as Le Vaillant † can d o u b t whether the females always remain o f a dusky olive tint. The I n d i a n s o f the Raudales all assured me that they had never seen a saffron-coloured female.

A m o n g the m o n k e y s , b r o u g h t b y the I n d i a n s t o t h e fair of Pararuma, w o distinguished several varieties o f the sai, ‡ * Especially the part which ornithologists call the carpus. † Oiseaux de Paradis, vol. ii, p. 6 1 . ‡ Simia capucinu, (the capuchin monkey).

RARE

211

SPECIES OF MONKEYS.

b e l o n g i n g t o the little g r o u p s o f c r e e p i n g m o n k e y s called matchi in the Spanish colonies ; m a r i m o n d e s , * o r ateles with T h e last t w o species partia red belly ; titis, and viuditas. cularly attracted o u r attention, and w e purchased t h e m t o send to E u r o p e .

T h e titi o f the O r i n o c o (Simia s c i u r e a ) , w e l l - k n o w n in o u r collections, is called bititeni b y the M a y p u r e I n d i a n s .

I t is v e r y c o m m o n o n t h e south o f t h e cataracts. I t s face is w h i t e ; and a little spot o f bluish-black covers the m o u t h and tho p o i n t o f the nose. T h e titis o f the m o s t elegant f o r m , and the m o s t beautiful c o l o u r (with hair o f a g o l d e n y e l l o w ) , c o m e from the banks o f the Cassiquiare.

Those that are taken o n the shores o f t h e Guaviare are large and difficult t o tame. No other m o n k e y has so m u c h the p h y s i o g n o m y o f a child as t h e titi; there is the same expression o f i n n o c e n c e , the same playful smile, the same rapidity in the transition from j o y t o sorrow. I t s large eyes are instantly filled with tears, w h e n it is seized with fear. I t is e x tremely f o n d o f insects, particularly o f spiders. T h e sagacity o f this little animal is so great, that o n e o f those w e b r o u g h t in o u r b o a t t o A n g o s t u r a distinguished perfectly the different plates annexed to C u v i e r ' s ' T a b l e a u élémentaire d ' H i s t o i r e naturelle.'

T h e engravings o f this w o r k are n o t c o l o u r e d ; y e t the titi advanced rapidly its little hand in the h o p e o f catching a grasshopper o r a w a s p , every time that W E showed it the eleventh plate, o n which these insects are represented.

I t remained perfectly indifferent w h e n it was shown engravings o f skeletons o r heads o f m a m m i f e r o u s animals. † W h e n several o f these little m o n k e y s , shut u p in t h e same cage, are e x p o s e d to the rain, and the habitual temperature o f the air sinks suddenly t w o o r t h r e e degrees, t h e y twist their tail ( w h i c h , however, is n o t p r e hensile) r o u n d their n e c k , and intertwine their arms and legs t o warm o n e another. T h e I n d i a n hunters t o l d us, that * †

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212

THE VIUDITA MONKEY.

in the forests they often m e t g r o u p s o f ten or twelve o f these animals, whilst others sent forth lamentable cries, because t h e y wished t o enter amid the g r o u p t o find warmth and shelter.

By shooting arrows dipped in weak poison at o n e o f these g r o u p s , a great n u m b e r o f y o u n g m o n k e y s are taken alive at o n c e . T h e titi in falling remains c l i n g i n g t o its mother, and if it be not wounded by the fall, it does n o t quit the shoulder or the neck o f the dead animal.

Most of those that are found alive in the huts o f the Indians have b e e n thus taken from the dead bodies o f their mothers.

T h o s e that are full g r o w n , w h e n cured o f a slight w o u n d , c o m m o n l y die before they can accustom themselves t o a domestic state. T h e titis are in general delicate and timid little animals.

It is very difficult to c o n v e y them from the Missions o f the O r i n o c o to the coast o f Caracas, o r o f C u mana. T h e y b e c o m e melancholy and dejected in p r o p o r t i o n as they quit the region o f the forests, and enter the Llanos.

This change cannot be attributed to the slight elevation o f the t e m p e r a t u r e ; it seems rather t o d e p e n d on a greater intensity o f light, a less degree o f humidity, and some chemical property o f the air o f the coast.

T h e saimiri, o r titi o f the O r i n o c o , t h e atele, t h e sajou, and other quadrumanous animals l o n g k n o w n in E u r o p e , form a striking contrast, both in their gait and habits, with the macavahu, called by the missionaries viudita, o r ' w i d o w in m o u r n i n g . ' T h e hair o f this little animal is soft, glossy, and o f a line black.

Its face is covered with a mask o f a square form and a whitish c o l o u r tinged with blue.

This mask contains the eyes, nose, and m o u t h .

T h e ears have a r i m : t h e y are small, very p r e t t y , a n d almost bare.

The n e c k of t h e widow presents in front a white band, an inch broad, and forming a semicircle. T h e feet, or rather t h e hinder hands, are black like the rest o f the b o d y ; b u t the fore paws are white without, and o f a glossy black within.

I n these marks, o r white spots, the missionaries think t h e y recognize the veil, the neckerchief, and t h e gloves o f a widow in mourning. The character o f this little m o n k e y , which sits up on its hinder extremities only when eating, is b u t little; indicated in its appearance.

It has a wild and timid a i r ; it often refuses the food offered to it, even when t o r m e n t e d by a ravenous appetite.

I t has little inclination

FURTHER PREPARATIONS.

213

for the society o f other m o n k e y s . T h e sight o f the smallest saimiri puts it t o flight, i t s eye denotes great vivacity.

W e have seen it remain w h o l e hours motionless w i t h o u t sleeping, and attentive t o everything that was passing around. B u t this wildness and timidity are merely apparent.

T h e viudifa, w h e n alone, and left to itself, b e c o m e s furious at the sight o f a bird. I t then climbs and runs with a s t o nishing r a p i d i t y ; darts u p o n its p r e y like a c a t ; and kills whatever it can seize. This rare and delicate m o n k e y is f o u n d o n the right bank o f the O r i n o c o , in the granite m o u n tains which rise behind the M i s s i o n o f Santa Barbara.

It inhabits also the banks o f the Guaviare, near San Fernando de A t a b a p o .

T h e viudita accompanied us on o u r w h o l e v o y a g e on the Cassiquiare and the B i o N e g r o , passing the cataracts t w i c e .

I n studying the manners o f animals, it is a great advantage t o observe them during several m o n t h s in the open air, and n o t in houses, where they lose all their natural vivacity.

T h e n e w c a n o e intended for us was, like all Indian boats, a t r u n k o f a tree h o l l o w e d o u t partly b y t h e hatchet and partly b y fire. I t was forty feet l o n g , and three broad.

T h r e e persons could n o t sit in it side b y side. T h e s e canoes are so crank, and they require, from their instability, a cargo so equally distributed, that when y o u want to rise for an instant, y o u must warn the rowers t o lean t o the opposite side.

W i t h o u t this precaution the water w o u l d necessarily enter the side pressed d o w n .

I t is difficult t o form an idea o f the inconveniences that are suffered in such w r e t c h e d vessels.

T h e missionary from the cataracts made the preparations for o u r v o y a g e with greater e n e r g y than w e wished.

Lest there might not bo a sufficient n u m b e r o f the M a c o and G u a hibe Indians, who are acquainted with the labyrinth o f small channels and cascades o f which the Baudales o r cataracts are c o m p o s e d , t w o I n d i a n s were, d u r i n g the night, placed in the cepo—a sort o f stocks in which they were made t o lie with their legs between t w o pieces o f w o o d , n o t c h e d and fastened together by a chain with a padlock. Early in t h e m o r n i n g we were awakened by the cries o f a y o u n g man, mercilessly beaten with a whip o f manati skin.

His n a m e was Z e r e p e , a very intelligent y o u n g I n d i a n , w h o p r o v e d

214

SEVERE RULE OF THE MISSIONARIES.

highly useful t o us in the sequel, b u t w h o n o w refused t o a c c o m p a n y u s . H e was born in the M i s s i o n o f A t u r e s ; b u t his father was a M a c o , and his m o t h e r a native o f the nation o f the M a y p u r e s .

H e had returned t o the w o o d s (al m o n t e ) , and having lived s o m e years with the u n s u b d u e d I n d i a n s , ho had thus acquired the k n o w l e d g e o f several languages, and the missionary e m p l o y e d him as an interpreter.

W e obtained with difficulty the pardon o f this y o u n g man. " W i t h o u t these acts o f s e v e r i t y , " we were told, " y o u w o u l d want for everything.

T h e Indians o f the Raudales and the U p p e r O r i n o c o are a s t r o n g e r and m o r e laborious race than the inhabitants o f the L o w e r O r i n o c o .

T h e y k n o w that they are m u c h s o u g h t after at A n g o s t u r a .

I f left to their o w n will, they w o u l d all g o d o w n the river t o sell their p r o d u c t i o n s , and live in full liberty a m o n g t h e whites. T h e M i s s i o n s w o u l d b e totally d e s e r t e d . " T h e s e reasons, I confess, appeared t o m e m o r e specious than s o u n d . M a n , in o r d e r t o e n j o y the advantages o f a social state, m u s t n o d o u b t sacrifice a part o f his natural rights, and his original independence; but, if the sacrifice i m p o s e d o n him be not c o m p e n s a t e d b y the benefits o f civilization, the savage, wise in his simplicity, retains the wish o f returning to the forests that gave him birth. I t is because the Indian o f the w o o d s is treated like a person in a state o f villanage in the greater part o f the M i s s i o n s , because he enjoys n o t the fruit o f his labours, that the Christian establishments o n the O r i n o c o remain deserts. A g o v e r n m e n t f o u n d e d o n the ruins o f the liberty o f the natives extinguishes the intellectual faculties, o r stops their p r o g r e s s .

T o say that the savage, like the child, can b e g o v e r n e d o n l y by force, is merely to establish false analogies.

The Indians o f the O r i n o c o have s o m e t h i n g infantine in t h e expression o f their j o y , and the quick succession o f their e m o t i o n s , b u t they are n o t great children ; they are as little so as the p o o r labourers in the east o f E u r o p e , w h o m tho barbarism o f our feudal institutions has held in the rudest state. T o consider the e m p l o y m e n t o f force as the first and sole means o f the civilization o f the savage, is a principle as far from being true in the education o f nations as in t h o education o f y o u t h .

W h a t e v e r may b e the state o f w e a k ness o r degradation in o u r species, n o faculty is entirely

ACCOMMODATION ON BOARD.

215

annihilated. T h e human understanding exhibits o n l y different degrees of strength and d e v e l o p m e n t . T h e savage, like the child, c o m p a r e s t h e p r e s e n t with t h e p a s t ; he directs his actions, n o t a c c o r d i n g t o blind instinct, b u t motives o f interest, R e a s o n can everywhere enlighten r e a s o n ; and its progress will b e retarded in p r o p o r t i o n as the m e n w h o arc called u p o n t o bring u p y o u t h , o r govern nations, substitute constraint and force for that moral influence which can alone unfold the rising faculties, calm the irritated passions, and give stability t o social order.

W e c o u l d n o t set sail before t e n o n t h e m o r n i n g of the 10th. T o gain something in breadth in o u r n e w c a n o e , a sort o f lattice-work had b e e n c o n s t r u c t e d on the stern with branches o f trees, that e x t e n d e d o n each side b e y o n d the g u n w a l e . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h e toldo o r r o o f o f leaves, that c o v e r e d this lattice-work, was so l o w that w e w e r e o b l i g e d to lie d o w n , w i t h o u t seeing anything, or, if seated, t o sit nearly d o u b l e . T h e necessity o f carrying t h e c a n o e across t h e rapids, and even from o n e river t o a n o t h e r ; and the fear of giving t o o m u c h hold t o t h e w i n d , b y making t h e toldo higher, render this c o n s t r u c t i o n necessary for vessels that go up towards the B i o N e g r o .

T h e toldo was intended t o cover four persons, l y i n g o n t h e d e c k o r lattice-work of b r u s h - w o o d ; b u t o u r legs reached far b e y o n d it, and w h e n it rained half o u r bodies w e r e w e t .

O u r c o u c h e s consisted of ox-hides o r tiger-skins, spread u p o n branches o f trees, which Were painfully felt through so thin a covering. T h e fore part o f the b o a t was filled with I n d i a n r o w e r s , furnished with paddles, three feet l o n g , in t h e form o f spoons.

They were all n a k e d , seated t w o by t w o , and they k e p t time in r o w i n g with a surprising uniformity, singing s o n g s of a sad and m o n o t o n o u s character. T h e small cages c o n t a i n ing o u r birds and o u r m o n k e y s , the n u m b e r o f which a u g m e n t e d as w e advanced, w e r e h u n g some t o the toldo and others t o the b o w o f t h e b o a t . This was o u r travelling menagerie. N o t w i t h s t a n d i n g the frequent losses occasioned b y accidents, and above all by the fatal effects o f e x p o s u r e to the sun, w e had fourteen o f these little animals alive at our return from the Cassiquiare. Naturalists, w h o wish to collect and bring living animals t o E u r o p e , m i g h t cause boats to be c o n s t r u c t e d expressly for this p u r p o s e at A n g o s -

216

UNCOMFORTABLE ARRANGEMENTS.

tura, o r at G r a n d Para, t h e t w o capitals situated o n t h e banks o f t h e O r i n o c o a n d t h e A m a z o n , t h e fore-deck o f which boats might b e fitted u p with t w o r o w s o f cages sheltered from the rays o f the sun.

Every night, when we established o u r watch, our-collection o f animals and o u r instrum e n t s o c c u p i e d the c e n t r e ; around these were placed first o u r h a m m o c k s , then the hammocks o f t h e I n d i a n s ; and o n the outside were t h e fires which are t h o u g h t indispensable against the attacks o f the jaguar.

A b o u t sunrise t h e m o n k e y s in our cages answered the cries o f t h e m o n k e y s o f t h e forest.

T h e s e c o m m u n i c a t i o n s b e t w e e n animals o f the same species sympathizing with o n e another, t h o u g h unseen, o n e party e n j o y i n g that liberty which t h e other regrets, have something melancholy and affecting.

In a canoe not three feet wide, and so i n c u m b e r e d , there remained n o o t h e r place f o r t h e dried plants, trunks, a sextant, a dipping-needle, a n d t h e meteorological instruments, than the space below the lattice-work o f branches, o n which we w e r e c o m p e l l e d t o remain stretched t h e greater part o f the day. I f w e wished t o take the least o b j e c t o u t o f a trunk, o r t o use an instrument, it was necessary t o r o w ashore and land.

T o these inconveniences were joined the t o r m e n t o f t h e m o s q u i t o s which swarmed u n d e r t h e toldo, and the heat radiated from the leaves o f the palmtrees, the upper surface o f which was continually e x p o s e d t o the solar rays.

W e attempted every instant, b u t always without success, t o amend o u r situation.

W h i l e o n e o f us hid himself under a sheet to ward off the insects, the other insisted o n having green wood lighted beneath the toldo, in t h e h o p e o f driving away the m o s q u i t o s b y the s m o k e . T h e painful sensations o f the eyes, and t h e increase o f heat, already stilling, rendered both these contrivances alike i m practucable.

W i t h some gaiety o f t e m p e r , with feelings o f mutual g o o d - w i l l , a n d with a vivid taste for t h e majestic grandeur o f these vast valleys o f rivers, travellers easily s u p p o r t evils that b e c o m e habitual.

O u r Indians showed us, on the right bank o f t h e river, the place which was formerly t h e site o f the Mission o f Pararuma, founded by the Jesuits a b o u t t h e year 1 7 3 3 .

The mortality occasioned by t h e small-pox a m o n g the Salive I n d i a n s was t h e principal cause o f t h e dissolution o f t h e

PHENOMENA OF HAILSTORMS.

217

mission. T h e few inhabitants w h o survived this cruel e p i d e m i c , r e m o v e d t o the village o f Carichana. I t was at Pararuma, that, a c c o r d i n g t o t h e testimony o f Father T o m a n , hail was seen to fall during a great storm, about the middle o f the last c e n t u r y .

This is almost the only instance o f it I k n o w in a plain that is nearly on a level with the s e a ; for hail falls generally, between the tropics, only at three h u n d r e d toises o f elevation. I f it f o r m at an equal height over plains and table-lands, w e m u s t suppose that it melts as it falls, in passing t h r o u g h the lowest strata o f the a t m o sphere, the mean temperature o f which is from 27 5° t o 24° o f the centigrade t h e r m o m e t e r .

I a c k n o w l e d g e it is very difficult to explain, in the present state o f m e t e o r o l o g y , why it hails at Philadelphia, at R o m e , and at M o n t p e l i e r , during the hottest m o n t h s , the mean temperature o f which attains 25° o r 2 0 ° ; while the same p h e n o m e n o n is n o t observed at Cumana, at L a G u a y r a , and in general, in the equatorial plains. I n the U n i t e d States, and in the south o f E u r o p e , the heat o f the plains (from 40° t o 43° latitude) is nearly the same as within the t r o p i c s ; and according t o m y r e searches the decrement o f caloric equally varies but little.

I f then the absence o f hail within the torrid zone, at t h e level o f the sea, be p r o d u c e d b y the m e l t i n g o f the hailstones in crossing the l o w e r strata o f the air, w e m u s t suppose that these hail-stones, at t h e m o m e n t o f their f o r mation, are larger in the temperate than in the torrid z o n e .

W e y e t k n o w so little o f the conditions u n d e r which water congeals in a stormy cloud in o u r climates, that we cann o t j u d g e w h e t h e r the same conditions b e fulfilled on t h e equator above the plains. T h e clouds in which we hear the rattling o f the hailstones against o n e another before t h e y fid I, and which m o v e horizontally, have always appeared to m e o f little e l e v a t i o n ; and at these small heights we may conceive that extraordinary refrigerations are caused by the dilatation o f the ascending air, o f which the capacity for caloric a u g m e n t s ; b y currents o f c o l d air c o m i n g from a higher latitude, and above all, according t o M . G a y L u s s a c , by the radiation from t h e u p p e r surface o f the c l o u d s .

I shall have occasion to return to this subject when speaking o f the different forms u n d e r which hail and hoar-frost appear o n the Andes, at t w o thousand and t w o thousand six h u n -

218

PEAK OF COCUYZA.

tired toises o f h e i g h t ; and w h e n examining the question whether w e may consider the stratum o f clouds that e n v e lops the mountains as a horizontal continuation o f t h e stratum which we see immediately above us in the plains.

T h e O r i n o c o , full o f islands, b e g i n s t o divide itself into several branches, o f which the m o s t western remain d r y during the m o n t h s o f J a n u a r y and F e b r u a r y .

T h e total breadth o f the river exceeds t w o thousand five h u n d r e d o r three thousand toises. W e perceived t o t h e East, opposite the island o f Javanavo, the m o u t h o f the Ca単o A u j a c o a .

B e t w e e n this Ca単o and the Rio Paruasi o r Paruati, the c o u n t r y b e c o m e s m o r e and m o r e w o o d y .

A solitary r o c k , o f extremely picturesque aspect, rises in the midst o f a forest o f palm-trees, n o t far from the O r i n o c o . I t is a pillar o f granite, a prismatic mass, the bare and steep sides o f which attain nearly t w o hundred feet in height.

Its p o i n t , which o v e r t o p s the highest trees o f t h e forest, is terminated by a shelf o f r o c k with a horizontal and s m o o t h surface.

O t h e r trees c r o w n this summit, which tho m i s sionaries call the peak, o r Mogote de Cocuyza.

This m o n u m e n t o f nature, in its simple grandeur recalls t o m i n d t h e C y c l o p e a n remains o f antiquity.

I t s strongly-marked o u t lines, and the g r o u p o f trees and shrubs b y which it is c r o w n e d , stand o u t from the azure o f the sky. I t seems a forest rising above a forest.

F u r t h e r o n , near the m o u t h o f the Paruasi, the O r i n o c o narrows.

O n the east is perceived a m o u n t a i n with a bare t o p , projecting like a p r o m o n t o r y .

It is nearly three h u n dred feet high, and served as a fortress for the Jesuits.

They had constructed there a small fort, with three batteries o f c a n n o n , and it was constantly o c c u p i e d b y a military detachment.

W e saw the cannon dismounted, and halfburied in the sand, at Carichana and at A t u r e s . T h i s fort o f the Jesuits has been destroyed since the dissolution o f their society; b u t the place is still called El Castillo.

I find it set d o w n , in a manuscript map, lately c o m p l e t e d at Caracas by a m e m b e r o f the secular clergy, under the d e n o m i n a t i o n o f Trinchera del despotismo m o n a c a l . " * T h e garrison which the Jesuits maintained on this r o c k , was n o t intended merely to protect the Missions against * Intrenchment of monachal despotism.

RELIGIOUS

WARS.

219

the incursions o f the C a r i b s : it was e m p l o y e d also in an offensive war, or, as they say here, in the c o n q u e s t o f souls ( c o n q u i s t a do a l m a s ) . T h e soldiers, excited b y the allurem e n t o f gain, made military incursions (entradas) into t h e lands o f the i n d e p e n d e n t Indians. T h e y killed all those w h o dared to make any resistance, b u r n t their huts, d e s t r o y e d their plantations, and carried away the w o m e n , children, and old m e n , as prisoners. T h e s e prisoners w e r e divided a m o n g the Missions o f the M e t a , the Rio N e g r o , and the U p p e r O r i n o c o . T h e m o s t distant places w e r e chosen, that they m i g h t n o t b e t e m p t e d t o return t o their native c o u n t r y . This violent manner o f conquering souls, t h o u g h prohibited b y the Spanish laws, was tolerated b y t h e civil governors, and vaunted b y the superiors o f the society, as beneficial to religion, and the aggrandizement o f t h e M i s s i o n s . " T h e voice o f the G o s p e l is heard o n l y , " said a J e s u i t o f the O r i n o c o , very candidly, in the ' C a r t a s Edifiantes,' " where the Indians have heard also t h e s o u n d of'lirc-arms ( e l e c o de la p o l v o r a ) .

M i l d n e s s is a very slow measure. B y chastising the natives, we facilitate their c o n version."

T h e s e principles, which degrade humanity, w e r e certainly n o t c o m m o n t o all the m e m b e r s o f a society which, in the N e w W o r l d , and wherever education has remained exclusively in t h e hands o f m o n k s , has rendered service t o letters and civilization.

B u t the entradas, the spiritual c o n quests with the assistance o f b a y o n e t s , was an inherent vice in a s y s t e m , that t e n d e d t o the rapid aggrandizement o f t h e M i s s i o n s . I t is pleasing t o find that the same system is n o t followed b y the Franciscan, D o m i n i c a n , and A u g u s t i n i a n m o n k s w h o n o w g o v e r n a vast portion o f South A m e r i c a ; and w h o , b y the mildness o r harshness o f their manners, exert a powerful influence over the fate o f so many thousands o f natives. Military incursions are almost entirely a b o l i s h e d ; and w h e n t h e y do take place, they are disavowed b y t h e superiors o f the orders. W e will n o t decide at present, whether this amelioration o f the monachal system b e o w i n g t o want o f activity and cold i n d o l e n c e ; o r w h e t h e r it must b e attributed, as we would wish to believe, to the progress o f k n o w l e d g e , and to feelings more elevated, and m o r e c o n f o r m a b l e to the true spirit o f Christianity.

B e y o n d the m o u t h of the Rio Paruasi, the O r i n o c o again

220

MISSION OF CARICHANA.

narrows. F u l l o f little islands and masses o f granite r o c k , it presents rapids, o r small cascades ( r e m o l i n o s ) , which at first sight may alarm the traveller b y t h e continual eddies o f the water, but which at n o season o f the y e a r are dang e r o u s for boats. A range o f shoals, that crosses almost the whole river, bears the name o f the Raudal de Marimara.

W e passed it without difficulty b y a narrow channel, in which the water seems to boil u p as it issues o u t i m p e t u o u s l y * below the Piedra de Mariniara, a c o m p a c t mass o f granite eighty feet high, and three hundred feet in c i r cumference, without fissures, or any trace o f stratification.

T h e river penetrates far into the land, and forms spacious bays in the rocks.

O n e o f these b a y s , inclosed b e t w e e n t w o promontories destitute o f vegetation, is called the Port o f Carichana. †T h e s p o t has a very wild aspect.

In the evening the rocky coasts project their vast shadows over the surface o f the river. T h e waters appear black from reflecting the image of these granitic masses, which, in the c o l o u r o f their external surface, sometimes resemble coal, and sometimes lead-ore.

W e passed the night in the small village of Carichana, where we were received at the priest's house, o r convento.

I t was nearly a fortnight since w e had slept under a roof.

T o avoid the effects o f the inundations, often so fatal t o health, the Mission o f Carichana has been established at three quarters o f a league from the river. T h e Indians in this Mission are o f the nation o f the Salives, and they have a disagreeable and nasal pronunciation.

Their language, o f which the Jesuit Anisson has c o m p o s e d a grammar still in manuscript, is, with the Caribbean, the Tamanac, t h e M a y pure, the O t t o m a c , the Guahive, and the Jaruro, one o f the mother-tongues most general on the O r i n o c o .

Father Gili thinks that the A t u r e , t h e Piraoa, and the Q u a q u a o r M a p o y e , are o n l y dialects o f the Salive. M y j o u r n e y was m u c h t o o rapid t o enable m e t o j u d g e o f the accuracy o f this opinion ; but we shall soon see that, in the village o f A t u r e , celebrated on a c c o u n t o f its situation near the great cataracts, neither the Salive nor the A t u r e is n o w s p o k e n , but the language o f the Maypures.

In the Salive of Cari* These places are called chorreras in the Spanish colonies, †Piedra y puerto de Carichana.

MUSICAL TASTE OF TUE INDIANS.

221

chana, man is called cocco; w o m a n , gnacu; water, cagua; fire, eyussa; the earth, seke; the sky, mumeseke (earth o n h i g h ) ; t h e j a g u a r , impii; the crocodile, cuipoo; maize, giomu; the plaintain, paratuna ; cassava, peibe.

I may here m e n t i o n one o f those descriptive c o m p o u n d s that seem t o characterise t h e infancy o f language, t h o u g h they are r e tained in some very perfect i d i o m s . * T h u s , as in the B i s cayan, thunder is called ' t h e noise o f the c l o u d (odotsa); the sun bears the name, in the Salive dialect, o f mume-sekecocco, ' t h e man (cocco) o f the earth (seke) above (mume).'

T h e m o s t ancient abode o f the Salive nation appears t o have been o n the western banks o f the O r i n o c o , between the Rio Vichada †and the Guaviare, and also b e t w e e n the M e t a and the Rio Paute. Salives are now found not o n l y at Carichana, but in the M i s s i o n s o f the p r o v i n c e o f Casanre, at Cabapuna, Guanapalo, Cabiuna, and M a c u c o . T h e y are a social, mild, almost timid p e o p l e ; and m o r e easy, I will n o t say to civilize, b u t t o subdue, than the other tribes o n the O r i n o c o .

T o escape from the dominion o f the Caribs, t h e Salives willingly j o i n e d the first M i s s i o n s o f the Jesuits.

A c c o r d i n g l y these fathers everywhere in their writings praise the docility and intelligence o f that p e o p l e .

The Salives have a great taste for m u s i c : in the m o s t r e m o t e times they had t r u m p e t s o f b a k e d earth, four o r five feet l o n g , with several large globular cavities c o m m u n i c a t i n g with one another by narrow pipes. These trumpets send forth most dismal sounds. T h e Jesuits have cultivated with success the natural taste o f the Salives for instrumental m u s i c ; and even since t h e destruction o f the society, t h e missionaries o f Rio Meta have continued at San M i g u e l de M a c u c o a fine church choir, and musical instruction for t h e Indian youth.

V e r y lately a traveller was surprised t o see the natives playing on the violin, the violoncello, the triangle, the guitar, and the flute.

We f o u n d a m o n g these Salive I n d i a n s , at Carichana, a white woman, the sister o f a J e s u i t o f New Grenada.

It is difficult t o define t h e satisfaction that is felt w h e n , in the midst o f nations o f w h o s e language w e are ignorant, w e meet with a b e i n g with w h o m w e can converse w i t h o u t an * See vol. i, p. 326. †The Salive mission, on the Rio Vichada, was destroyed by the Caribs.

222

DIFFICULTY OF CONVERSATION.

interpreter. E v e r y mission has at least t w o interpreters (lenguarazes). They arc Indians, a little less stupid than the rest, t h r o u g h whose medium the missionaries o f the O r i n o c o , w h o n o w very rarely give themselves the trouble o f s t u d y i n g the idioms of the c o u n t r y , c o m m u n i c a t e with the n e o p h y t e s .

T h e s e interpreters attended us in all o u r h e r b o r i z a t i o n s ; b u t they rather understand than speak Castilian.

With their indolent indifference, they answer u s b y chance, b u t always with an officious smile, " Y e s , F a t h e r ; n o , F a t h e r , " to every question addressed to t h e m .

T h e vexation that arises from such a style o f conversation c o n t i n u e d for m o n t h s may easily b e c o n c e i v e d , w h e n y o u wish t o b e enlightened upon objects in which y o u take the m o s t lively interest. W e w e r e often f o r c e d t o e m p l o y several interpreters at a time, and several successive translators, in o r d e r to c o m m u n i c a t e with the natives.* " A f t e r leaving m y Mission," said the g o o d m o n k o f U r u a n a , " y o u will travel like mutes."

This prediction was nearly accomplished ; and, not to lose the advantage w e m i g h t derive from intercourse even with the rudest I n d i a n s , we sometimes preferred the language of signs.

When a a native perceives that y o u will n o t e m p l o y an i n t e r p r e t e r ; w h e n y o u interrogate him directly, s h o w i n g him the o b j e c t s ; he rouses himself from his habitual apathy, and manifests an extraordinary capacity to make himself c o m p r e h e n d e d .

He varies his signs, p r o n o u n c e s his w o r d s slowly, and repeats them without being desired.

The c o n s e q u e n c e conferred u p o n him, in Buffering y o u r s e l f t o be instructed b y him, flatters his self-love. This facility in making himself c o m prehended is particularly remarkable in the i n d e p e n d e n t I n d i a n . I t c a n n o t b e d o u b t e d that direct intercourse with t h e natives is m o r e instructive and m o r e certain than the c o m m u n i c a t i o n b y interpreters, provided the questions b e * To form a just idea of the perplexity of these communications by interpreters, we may recollect that, in the expedition of Lewis and Clarke to the river Columbia, in order to converse with the Chopunnish Indians, Captain Lewis addressed one of his men in English ; that man translated the question into French to Chaboneau ; Chaboneau translated it to bis Indian wife in Minnetaree; the woman translated it into Shoshonee to a prisoner; and the prisoner translated it into Chopunnish.

It may be feared that the sense of the question was a little altered by these successive translations.

DIVERSITY OF DIALECTS.

223

simplified, and repeated t o several individuals u n d e r different forms. T h e variety o f idioms spoken o n the banks o f t h e M e t a , t h e O r i n o c o , the Cassiquiare, and the Rio N e g r o , is so prodigious, that a traveller, h o w e v e r great may b e his talent for languages, can n e v e r h o p e t o learn e n o u g h t o make himself u n d e r s t o o d along t h e navigable rivers, f r o m A n g o s t u r a t o the small fort o f San Carlos del R i o N e g r o .

I n P e r u and Q u i t o it is sufficient t o k n o w the Q u i c h u a , o r t h e I n c a l a n g u a g e ; in Chile, the A r a u c a n ; and in Paraguay, t h e G u a r a n y ; in order t o b e u n d e r s t o o d b y m o s t o f t h e population. P u t it is different in t h e M i s s i o n s o f Spanish Guiana, where nations o f various races are m i n g l e d in the same village. I t is n o t even sufficient t o have learned t h e Caribee o r Carina, the G u a m o , the G u a h i v e , the J a r u r o , the O t t o m a c , the M a y p u r e , the Salive, the Marivitan, the Maquiritare, and the G u a i c a , ten dialects, o f which there exist only imperfect grammars, and which have less affinity with each other than the G r e e k , G e r m a n , and Persian languages.

T h e environs o f the M i s s i o n o f Carichana appeared t o u s t o b e delightful.

T h e little village is situated in o n e o f those plains c o v e r e d with grass that separate all the links o f the granitic mountains, from Encaramada t o b e y o n d the Cataracts o f M a y p u r e s . T h e line o f t h e forests is seen only in the distance. T h e horizon is everywhere b o u n d e d b y mountains, partly w o o d e d and o f a dark tint, partly bare, with r o c k y summits gilded b y the b e a m s o f the setting sun.

W h a t gives a peculiar character to the scenery o f this c o u n t r y are banks o f rock (laxas) nearly destitute o f v e g e tation, and often m o r e than eight hundred feet in c i r c u m ference, y e t scarcely rising a few inches above the s u r o u n d i n g savannahs. They now make a part o f the plain.

W e ask Ourselves with surprise, whether s o m e extraordinary revolutions m a y have carried away the earth and plants ; o r w h e t h e r the granite nucleus o f o u r planet shows itself bare, because the germs o f life are n o t y e t developed o n all its p o i n t s .

T h e same p h e n o m e n o n seems t o b e f o u n d also in the desert o f Shamo, which separates M o n g o l i a from China.

Those banks o f solitary rock in the desert are called tsy.

I think they w o u l d b e real table-lands, if the s u r r o u n d i n g plains were stripped o f the sand and m o u l d that cover t h e m , and which the waters have accumulated in the l o w e s t places.

224

CURIOUS PLANTS.

O n these stony flats o f Carichana w e observed with interest the rising vegetation in t h e different degrees o f its development.

W e there found lichens cleaving the r o c k , and collected in crusts m o r e o r less thick ; little portions of sand nourishing succulent p l a n t s ; and lastly layers o f blackm o u l d deposited in the hollows, formed f r o m t h e decay of roots and leaves, and shaded by tufts o f evergreen shrubs.

A t the distance o f t w o o r three leagues from the M i s s i o n , w e find, in these plains intersected by granitic hills, a v e g e tation no less rich than varied.

On comparing the site of Carichana with that of all the villages above the G r e a t C a taracts, w e are surprised at the facility with which w e traverse the country, without following the banks o f the rivers, o r being s t o p p e d b y the thickness o f the forests.

M. Bonpland made several excursions on horseback, which furnished him with a rich harvest o f plants. I shall m e n t i o n only the paraguatan, a magnificent species o f the m a c r o c n e m u m , t h e bark o f which yields a red d y e ;* the guaricamo, with a poisonous r o o t ; † the Jacaranda o b t u s i f o l i a ; and the serrape, or jape ‡ of the Salive Indians, which is the C o u m a r o u n a o f A u b l e t , so celebrated t h r o u g h o u t T e r r a F i r m a for its aromatic fruit. This fruit, which at Caracas is placed a m o n g linen, as in E u r o p e it is in snuff, under the n a m e of tonca, or Tonquin bean, is regarded as poisonous.

It is a false notion, very genera] in the province o f Cumana, that the excellent liqueur fabricated at Martinique owes its peculiar flavour to the jape.

In the Missions it is called simaruba ; a name that may occasion serious mistakes, the true simaruba being a febrifuge species of the Quassia genus, found in Spanish Guiana only in the valley of Rio Caura, where the Paudacot Indians give; it the name o f achecchari.

I found the dip o f the magnetic needle, in the great square at Carichana, 33.7° ( n e w d i v i s i o n ) . T h e intensity o f t h e magnetic action was expressed by two hundred and t w e n t y seven oscillations in ten minutes o f t i m e ; an increase of force that w o u l d seem t o indicate s o m e local attraction.

Yet the blocks o f the granite, blackened by the waters o f the O r i n o c o , have no perceptible action upon the needle.

T h e river had risen several inches during the day on the * Mucrocnemum tinctorium. † Ityania coccidea. ‡ Dopterix odorata, Willd. or Baryosmo tongo of Gaertner. The jape frnishes Carichana with excellent timber.

ANCIENT

225

WATER-LEVEL.

10th o f A p r i l ; this p h e n o m e n o n surprised the natives so m u c h t h e m o r e , as the first swellings are almost imperceptible, and are usually followed in the m o n t h o f A p r i l by a fall for s o m e days. T h e O r i n o c o was already three feet higher than the level o f the lowest waters. T h e natives showed us on a granite wall the traces o f the great rise o f the waters o f late years. W e f o u n d t h e m t o b e f o r t y - t w o feet high, which is d o u b l e t h e mean rise o f the N i l e . B u t this measure was taken in a place where the b e d o f t h e O r i n o c o is singularly hemmed in b y r o c k s , and I c o u l d only n o t i c e the marks s h o w n m e by the natives. I t may easily b e c o n c e i v e d that the effect and the height o f the increase differs according t o the profile o f the river, the nature o f the banks more o r less elevated, the n u m b e r o f rivers flowing in that collect t h e pluvial waters, and the length o f g r o u n d passed over. I t is an unquestionable fact that at Carichana, at San Borja, at A t u r e s , and at M a y p u r e s , wherever the river has f o r c e d its w a y t h r o u g h the mountains, y o u see at a hundred, s o m e times at a hundred and thirty feet, above the highest present swell o f the river, black bands and erosions, that indicate the ancient levels o f the waters. I s then this river, which appears t o us so g r a n d and so majestic, o n l y the feeble remains o f those i m m e n s e c u r r e n t s o f fresh water which heretofore traversed the c o u n t r y at the east o f the A n d e s , like arms o f inland s e a s ?

W h a t must have been the state o f those l o w countries o f G u i a n a that now u n d e r g o the effects o f annual inundations ? W h a t immense n u m b e r s o f crocodiles, manatis, and boas must have inhabited these vast spaces o f land, c o n v e r t e d alternately into marshes o f stagnant water, and into barren and fissured p l a i n s !

The m o r e peaceful w o r l d which w e inhabit has then s u c c e e d e d to a world o f tumult.

T h e b o n e s o f mastodons and A m e r i c a n elephants are found dispersed o n the table-lands o f t h e A n d e s . T h e megatherium inhabited the plains o f Uruguay.

O n d i g g i n g d e e p into the g r o u n d , in high valleys, where neither palm-trees n o r arborescent ferns can g r o w , strata o f coal are discovered, that still show vestiges o f gigantic m o n o c o t y l e d o n o u s plants.

T h e r e was a remote period then, in which the classes o f plants were otherwise distributed, when the animals were larger, and the rivers broader and o f greater depth.

There VOL.

II.

Q

226

MYSTERIOUS SOUNDS.

end those records o f nature, that it is in o u r p o w e r t o c o n sult.

W e are ignorant whether the human race, which at the time o f the discovery o f A m e r i c a scarcely formed a few feeble tribes o n the cast o f the Cordilleras, had already descended into the plains ; o r whether the ancient tradition o f the great waters,' which is f o u n d a m o n g the nations o f t h e O r i n o c o , t h e E r e v a t o , and t h e Caura, b e l o n g t o other climates, whence it has been propagated to this part o f t h e N e w Continent.

O n the 11th o f A p r i l , w e left Carichana at t w o in t h e afternoon, and f o u n d the course o f the river m o r e and m o r e e n c u m b e r e d b y b l o c k s o f granite r o c k s . W e passed o n t h e w e s t the Ca単o O r u p e , and then t h e great rock k n o w n by the name o f Piedra del Tigre.

T h e river is there so d e e p , that n o b o t t o m can b e f o u n d with a line o f t w e n t y - t w o fathoms.

T o w a r d s evening t h e weather b e c a m e cloudy and g l o o m y . The proximity o f the s t o r m was marked by squalls alternating with dead calms. T h e rain was violent, and the roof o f foliage, under which we lay, afforded but little shelter.

H a p p i l y these showers drove away the m o s quitos, at least for some time. W e found ourselves before the cataract o f Cariven, and the impulse o f the waters was so strong, that we had great difficulty in gaining the land.

W e w e r e continually driven back t o the middle o f the c u r rent.

A t length two Salive Indians, excellent swimmers, leaped into the water, and having drawn the boat to shore b y means o f a rope, made it fast to the Piedra de Carichana V i e j a ,a shelf o f hare rock, on which we passed the night.

T h e t h u n d e r c o n t i n u e d t o roll during a part o f the n i g h t ; the swell o f the river b e c a m e c o n s i d e r a b l e ; and w e were several times afraid that our frail bark would be driven from t h e shore by the impetuosity o f the waves.

T h e granitic rock o n which w e lay is o n e o f those, where travellers on t h e O r i n o c o have heard from time t o time, towards sunrise, subterraneous sounds, resembling those o f the organ. T h e missionaries call these stones laxas de musica. ' I t is witchcraft (cosa de b r u x a s ) , ' said o u r y o u n g Indian pilot, who could speak Spanish.

W e never ourselves heard these mysterious s o u n d s , either at Carichana Vieja, or in the Upper O r i n o c o ; but from information given us by witnesses worthy o f belief, the existence o f a p h e n o -

THE STATUE OF

227

MEMNON.

menon that seems t o d e p e n d o n a certain state o f t h e a t m o s p h e r e , c a n n o t be denied. T h e shelves o f rock are full o f very narrow and d e e p crevices. T h e y are heated during the day t o 4 8 째 o r 5 0 째 . I several times f o u n d their t e m p e rature at the surface, during the n i g h t , at 3 0 째 , the s u r r o u n d i n g atmosphere b e i n g at 2 8 째 . I t may easily b e c o n c e i v e d , that the difference o f temperature b e t w e e n the subterranean and the external air attains its m a x i m u m a b o u t sunrise, o r at that m o m e n t which is at t h e same t i m e farthest from t h o period o f the m a x i m u m o f t h e heat o f t h e p r e c e d i n g day. M a y n o t these organ-like s o u n d s , which are heard w h e n a person lays his ear in c o n t a c t with the stone, b e the effect o f a current o f air that issues o u t t h r o u g h the crevices ?

D o e s n o t the impulse o f t h e air against the elastic spangles o f m i c a that intercept t h e crevices, c o n t r i b u t e t o m o d i f y t h e sounds ?

May we not abmit that the ancient inhabitants o f E g y p t , in passing incessantly u p and d o w n t h e N i l e , had made t h e same observation o n s o m e r o c k o f t h e T h e b a i d ; and that the ' m u s i c o f the r o c k s ' there led t o the j u g g l e r y o f the priests in the statue o f M e m n o n ?

Perhaps, w h e n ' t h e r o s y fingered A u r o r a r e n d e r e d her son, the glorious M e m n o n , v o c a l , ' * the voice was that o f a man hidden beneath the pedestal o f the s t a t u e ; b u t t h e observation o f t h e natives o f the O r i n o c o , which w e relate, seems t o explain in a natural manner what gave rise t o t h e E g y p t i a n belief o f a s t o n e that p o u r e d forth Bounds at sunrise.

A l m o s t at the same period at which 1 c o m m u n i c a t e d these c o n j e c t u r e s t o s o m e o f the learned o f E u r o p e , three F r e n c h travellers, M M . J o m a r d , Jollois, and Devilliers, w e r e led to analogous ideas. T h e y beard, at sunrise, in a m o n u m e n t o f granite, at t h e c e n t r e o f the s p o t o n which stands t h e palace o f K a r n a k , a noise resembling that o f a string b r e a k ing.

N o w this c o m p a r i s o n is precisely that w h i c h t h e ancients e m p l o y e d in speaking o f the voice o f M e m n o n .

T h e F r e n c h travellers t h o u g h t , like m e , that the passage o f * These are the words of an inscription, which attests that sounds were heard on the 13th of the month Pachon, in the tenth year of the reign of Antoninus. See Monuments de 1'Egypte Ancienne.

Q 2

228

RAUDAL DE CARIVEN.

rarefied air through the fissures o f a s o n o r o u s stone m i g h t have s u g g e s t e d t o the E g y p t i a n priests the invention o f the juggleries o f the M e m n o n i u m .

W e left the r o c k at f o u r in the m o r n i n g .

T h e missionary had told us that w e should have; great difficulty in passing the rapids and the m o u t h o f the M e t a . T h e I n d i a n s r o w e d twelve hours and a half w i t h o u t intermission, and d u r i n g all that time, t h e y t o o k n o other n o u r i s h m e n t than cassava and plantains.

W h e n we consider the difficulty o f o v e r c o m i n g the f o r c e o f the c u r r e n t , and o f passing t h e c a t a r a c t s ; when we reflect on the constant e m p l o y m e n t o f the muscular powers during a navigation o f t w o m o n t h s ; w e are equally surprised at the constitutional v i g o u r and the abstinence o f the I n d i a n s o f t h e O r i n o c o and t h e Amazon.

A m y l a c e o u s and saccharine substances, s o m e times fish and the fat o f turtles' e g g s , supply the place o f food drawn from the first two classes o f the animal k i n g d o m , those o f quadrupeds and birds.

W e found the bed o f the river, to the length o f six h u n dred toises, full o f granite rocks.

Here is what is called the R a u d a l de Cariven. W e passed through channels that w e r e not five feet broad.

O u r c a n o e was s o m e t i m e s j a m m e d b e t w e e n t w o b l o c k s o f granite. W e s o u g h t t o avoid these passages, into which the waters rushed with a fearful n o i s e ; nut there is really little danger, in a c a n o e steered b y a g o o d Indian pilot.

W h e n the current is too violent to be resisted the rowers leap into the water, and fasten a rope to the point o f a r o c k , to warp the b o a t along.

This manœuvre is very t e d i o u s ; and we sometimes availed ourselves o f it, t o c l i m b the rocks a m o n g which we were entangled.

T h e y are of all dimensions, r o u n d e d , very black, glossy like lead, and destitute o f vegetation.

It is an extraordinary p h e n o m e n o n to see the waters o f one o f the largest rivers on the g l o b e in some sort disappear.

W e perceived, even far from the shore, those immense blocks o f granite, rising from the g r o u n d , and leaning one against another.

T h e intervening channels in the rapids are more than twenty-live fathoms d e e p ; and are the more difficult to be observed, as the rocks are often narrow toward their bases, and form vaults suspended over the surface o f the river.

W e perceived no crocodiles in the r a u d a l ; these animals seem to shun the noise o f cataracts.

THE RIO META.

229

F r o m Cabruta t o the m o u t h o f the R i o Sinaruco, a distance o f nearly t w o degrees o f latitude, the left bank o f the O r i n o c o is entirely u n i n h a b i t e d ; b u t t o the west o f the Raudal de Cariven an enterprising man, D o n Felix Relinchon, had assembled s o m e Jaruro and O t t o m a c Indians in a small village. I t is an a t t e m p t at civilization, on which the m o n k s have had n o direct influence. I t is superfluous to add, that D o n Felix lives at o p e n war w i t h the missionaries on the right bank o f the O r i n o c o .

P r o c e e d i n g up the river we arrived, at nine in the m o r n i n g , before the mouth o f the M e t a , opposite the spot where the Mission o f Santa Teresa, founded b y the Jesuits, was heretofore situated.

N e x t to the Guaviare, the M e t a is the m o s t considerable river that flows into the O r i n o c o .

I t may b e compared to the D a n u b e , not for the length o f its course, b u t for the v o l u m e o f its waters.

I t s mean depth is thirty-six feet, and it sometimes reaches eighty-four.

T h e union o f these t w o rivers presents a very impressive spectacle.

Lonely rocks rise o n the eastern bank.

B l o c k s o f granite, piled u p o n o n e another, appear from afar like castles in ruins.

Vast sandy shores keep the skirting o f the forest at a distance from the r i v e r ; but we discover amid t h e m , in the horizon, solitary palm-trees, backed by the sky, and c r o w n i n g the tops o f the mountains.

W e passed t w o hours on a large rock, standing in the middle o f the O r i n o c o , and called the Piedra de la Paciencia, o r the S t o n e o f Patience, because the canoes, in g o i n g u p , are sometimes detained there t w o days, t o extricate themselves from the whirlpool caused by this rock.

T h e R i o M e t a , which traverses the vast plains o f Casanare, and which is navigable as far as the foot o f the A n d e s o f N e w Grenada, will o n e day b e o f great political i m p o r t ance to the inhabitants o f G u i a n a and Venezuela.

From the G o l f o Triste and the B o c a del D r a g o a small fleet may g o up the O r i n o c o and the M e t a t o within fifteen o r twenty leagues o f Santa FĂŠ de B o g o t ĂĄ . T h e flour o f N e w G r e n a d a may be conveyed the same way. T h e Meta is like a canal o f communication between countries placed in the same latitude, but differing in their productions as much as F r a n c e and Senegal. T h e M e t a has its source in the union

230

NAVIGATION OF THE RIVER.

o f t w o rivers which descend from the paramos o f Chingasa and S u m a P a z . T h e first is the Rio N e g r o , w h i c h , l o w e r d o w n , receives the P a c h a q u i a r o ; the s e c o n d is t h e Rio de A g u a s Blancas, o r Umadea. T h e j u n c t i o n takes place near the p o r t o f M a r a y a l .

I t is only eight o r ten leagues from t h e Passo de la Cabulla, w h e r e y o u quit the Kio N e g r o , t o the capital o f Santa Fé. P r o m the villages o f X i r a m e n a and Cabullaro t o those o f G u a n a p a l o and Santa Rosalia de Cabapuna, a distance o f sixty leagues, t h e hanks o f the M e t a are m o r e inhabited than those o f t h e Orinoco.

W e find in this space fourteen Christian settlements, in part very p o p u l o u s ; but from the m o u t h s o f t h e rivers Pauto and Casanare, for a space o f m o r e than fifty leagues, t h e M e t a is infested b y t h e G u a h i b o s , a race o f savages.* T h e navigation o f this river was m u c h m o r e active in the t i m e o f the Jesuits, and particularly d u r i n g the e x p e d i t i o n o f Iturriaga, in 1 7 5 6 , than it is at present.

Missionaries o f t h e same o r d e r then g o v e r n e d the banks o f the M e t a and o f the O r i n o c o .

T h e villages o f M a c u c o , Z u r i m e n a , and Casim e n a , w e r e f o u n d e d b y the J e s u i t s , as well as those o f Uruana, Encaramada, and Carichana.

T h e s e Fathers had c o n c e i v e d the project o f f o r m i n g a series o f M i s s i o n s from the j u n c t i o n o f the Casanare with the M e t a to that o f the M e t a with the O r i n o c o . A narrow z o n e o f cultivated land w o u l d have crossed the vast steppes that separate the forests o f G u i a n a from the A n d e s o f N e w Grenada.

A t the period o f the " h a r v e s t o f turtles' e g g s , " n o t o n l y the flour o f Santa Fé descended the river, b u t t h e salt o f Chita, † the c o t t o n cloth o f San G i l , and the p r i n t e d c o u n terpanes o f S o c o r r o .

T o g i v e some security to the little traders w h o d e v o t e d themselves t o this inland c o m m e r c e , attacks w e r e made from time to time from the c a s t i l l o o r fort o f Carichana, on the G u a h i b o s .

T o keep these G u a h i b o s in awe, the Capuchin missionaries, who succeeded the Jesuits in the g o v e r n m e n t o f the * I find the word written Guajibos, Guahivos, and Guagivos. They call themselves G u a - i v a . † East of Labranza Grande, and the north-west of Pore, now the capital of the province of Casanare.

RAFTS OF THE NATIVES.

231

Missions o f the O r i n o c o , formed the project o f f o u n d i n g a city at the mouth o f the M e t a , u n d e r the n a m e o f the V i l l a de San Carlos. I n d o l e n c e , and t h e dread o f tertian fevers, have prevented the e x e c u t i o n o f this p r o j e c t ; and all that has ever existed o f the city o f San Carlos, is a coat o f arms painted on fine p a r c h m e n t , with an e n o r m o u s cross e r e c t e d o n the bank o f the M e t a . T h e G u a h i b o s , w h o , it is said, are some thousands in n u m b e r , have b e c o m e so insolent, that, at the time o f o u r passage b y Carichana, they sent w o r d to the missionary that they w o u l d c o m e o n rafts, and b u m his village. T h e s e rafts ( v a l z a s ) , which w e had an o p p o r t u n i t y o f seeing, are scarcely three feet broad, a n d twelve feet l o n g . T h e y carry o n l y t w o o r three I n d i a n s ; b u t fifteen o r sixteen o f these rafts are fastened to each other with the stems o f the paullinia, t h e dolichos, and other c r e e p i n g plants. I t is difficult to conceive how these small craft remain tied t o g e t h e r in passing the rapids.

Many fugitives from the villages o f the Casanare and the A p u r e have j o i n e d the G u a h i b o s , and taught t h e m the practice o f eating beef, and preparing hides. T h e farms o f San V i c e n t e , B u b i o , and San A n t o n i o , have lost great n u m b e r s o f their h o r n e d cattle b y the incursions o f t h e I n d i a n s , w h o also prevent travellers, as far as the j u n c t i o n o f t h e Casanare, from sleeping on the shore in g o i n g up the M e t a . I t often happens, while the waters are low, that the traders o f N e w G r e n a d a , s o m e o f w h o m still visit t h e e n c a m p m e n t o f Tararuma, are killed b y the p o i s o n e d arrows o f the G u a h i b o s .

From t h e mouth o f the M e t a , t h e O r i n o c o appeared t o u s to b e freer o f shoals and rocks.

W e navigated in a channel five hundred toises broad. T h e Indians remained rowing in t h e boat, w i t h o u t t o w i n g or p u s h i n g it forward with their arms, and w e a r y i n g us with their wild cries. W e passed the Ca単os o f U i t a and Endava on the west. I t was n i g h t when we reached the Raudal de Tabaje.

T h e Indians would n o t hazard passing the c a t a r a c t ; and w e slept o n a v e r y i n c o m m o d i o u s spot, o n the shelf o f a r o c k , with a slope o f m o r e than eighteen degrees, and o f which the crevices sheltered a swarm o f bats. W e heard the cries o f t h e j a g u a r very near us during the w h o l e night. T h e y w e r e answered b y o u r great d o g in lengthened howlings.

I waited the appearance o f the stars in v a i n : the sky was

232

ASPECT OF THE INDIANS.

e x c e e d i n g l y b l a c k ; and the hoarse sounds o f t h e cascades of the O r i n o c o mingled with the rolling o f t h e distant t h u n d e r .

Early i n t h e m o r n i n g o f t h e 13th A p r i l w e passed t h e rapids o f Tabaje, and again disembarked.

Father Zea, w h o a c c o m p a n i e d us, desired t o perform mass in t h e n e w M i s s i o n o f San Borja, established t w o years b e f o r e .

W e there f o u n d T h e y differ six houses inhabited b y uncatechised G u a h i b o s .

T h e i r e y e s , which a r e in n o t h i n g from t h e wild I n d i a n s . large and black, have m o r e vivacity than t h o s e o f the Indians who inhabit the ancient missions. We in vain offered them brandy ; they w o u l d n o t even taste it. T h e faces o f all t h e y o u n g girls were marked with round black s p o t s ; like t h e patches b y which t h e ladies o f E u r o p e formerly imagined they set off t h e w h i t e n e s s o f their s k i n s .

T h e bodies o f the

G u a h i b o s were n o t painted.

Several o f them had beards, o f which they seemed p r o u d ; a n d , taking u s b y t h e chin, s h o w e d u s b y signs, that t h e y w e r e made like u s . T h e i r shape was in general slender. I was again struck, a s I had b e e n a m o n g t h e Salives a n d t h e M a c o s , with t h e little uniformity o f features t o b e found a m o n g the Indians o f t h e Orinoco.

T h e i r look is sad a n d gloomy; b u t neither stern nor ferocious.

W i t h o u t having any notion o f t h e practices o f t h e Christian religion, t h e y behaved with t h e u t m o s t decency at church.

T h e Indians love t o exhibit t h e m s e l v e s ; and will submit temporarily t o any restraint o r s u b j e c t i o n , provided they are sure o f drawing attention. A t the m o m e n t o f t h e c o n s e c r a t i o n , t h e y m a d e signs t o o n e a n o t h e r , t o indicate beforehand that the priest was g o i n g to raise t h e chalice t o his lips.

W i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f this g e s t u r e , they remained motionless and in imperturbable apathy.

T h e interest with which we examined these p o o r savages became perhaps t h e cause o f the destruction o f t h e m i s s i o n .

S o m e a m o n g t h e m , w h o preferred a w a n d e r i n g life t o t h e labours o f agriculture, persuaded t h e rest t o return t o t h e plains o f t h e M e t a .

They told them, that the white m e n w o u l d c o m e back t o San Borja, t o t a k e t h e m away in t h e boats, and sell them as poitos, o r slaves, at Angostura.�

The G u a h i b o s awaited the news o f o u r return from the Rio N e g r o by t h e C a s s i q u i a r e ; and when they heard that we were arrived at t h e first great, cataract, that o f A t u r e s , they all deserted, a n d fled t o t h e savannahs that border t h e

THEIR

DISGUSTING

VORACITY.

233

O r i n o c o on t h e west.

T h e J e s u i t Fathers had already formed a mission o n this spot, and bearing t h e same name.

N o tribe is m o r e difficult t o fix t o t h e soil than t h e G u a hibos. T h e y w o u l d rather feed o n stale fish, scolopendras, and w o r m s , than cultivate a little spot o f g r o u n d . T h e other Indians say, that “a G u a h i b o eats everything that exists, both o n and under the ground.”

I n ascending the O r i n o c o m o r e t o the south, the heat, far from increasing, became m o r e bearable. T h e air in the day was at 20° o r 2 7 . 5 ° ; and at night, at 23.7°. T h e water o f t h e O r i n o c o retained its habitual temperature of 27.7°. T h e t o r m e n t o f the mosquitos a u g m e n t e d severely, n o t w i t h s t a n d ing the decrease o f heat. W e never suffered so m u c h f r o m them as at San Borja. W e could neither speak n o r u n c o v e r o u r faces without having o u r m o u t h s a n d noses filled with insects. We were surprised n o t t o find t h e t h e r m o m e t e r at 35° o r 3 6 ° ; t h e extreme irritation o f t h e skin m a d e u s believe that the air was scorching.

W e passed the n i g h t on the beach o f G u a r i p o .

T h e fear o f t h e little caribe fish prevented u s from bathing. T h e crocodiles w e had m e t with this day were all of an extraordinary size, from t w e n t y t w o t o t w e n t y - f o u r feet.

O u r sufferings from the zancudos made u s depart at five o ' c l o c k on the m o r n i n g o f the 14th. There are fewer insects in t h e strata o f air l y i n g immediately o n t h e river, than near t h e e d g e o f t h e forests.

W e s t o p p e d t o breakfast at the island o f G u a c h a c o , o r V a c h a c o , where t h e granite is immediately c o v e r e d b y a formation o f sandstone, o r c o n glomerate.

This sandstone contains fragments o f quartz, and even o f feldspar, c e m e n t e d b y indurated clay. i t exhibits little veins o f b r o w n iron-ore, which separate in laminæ, o r plates, of one line i n thickness. We had already f o u n d these plains o n the shores between Encaramada a n d Barag u a n , where the missionaries had sometimes taken them f o r an ore o f gold, and sometimes f o r tin. I t is probable, that this secondary formation o c c u p i e d formerly a larger space.

Having passed the m o u t h o f the R i o Parueni, b e y o n d which t h e M a c o Indians dwell, w e spent the n i g h t o n t h e island of Panumana.

I could with difficulty take t h e altitudes o f C a n o p u s , in order t o fix t h e l o n g i t u d e o f t h e point, near which the river suddenly turns towards t h e w e s t . T h e

234

RAPIDS OF THE ATURES.

island of Panumana is rich in plants. We there a g a i n found those shelves o f bare r o c k , those tufts o f melastomas, those thickets o f small shrubs, the b l e n d e d scenery o f w h i c h had c h a r m e d us in the plains o f Carichana.

The mountains o f the G r e a t Cataracts b o u n d e d the horizon towards t h e south-east. I n p r o p o r t i o n as we advanced, the shores o f t h e O r i n o c o e x h i b i t e d a m o r e i m p o s i n g and picturesque aspect.

CHAPTER X X .

The

M o u t h o f the R i o A n a v e n i . — P e a k o f U n i a n a . — M i s s i o n o f —Cataract,

or

Raudal

of

Mapara.—Islets

of

Atures.

Surupamana

and

Uirapuri.

T H E river o f the O r i n o c o , in r u n n i n g from south t o n o r t h , is crossed by a chain of granitic mountains.

T w i c e confined in its c o u r s e , it turbulently breaks on the r o c k s , that f o r m steps and transverse d y k e s .

N o t h i n g can be grander than the aspect o f this s p o t . Neither the fall o f the T e q u e n d a m a , near Santa Fé de B o g o t á , n o r the magnificent scenes o f the Cordilleras, could w e a k e n the impression p r o d u c e d u p o n m y m i n d by the first view o f the rapids o f A t u r e s a n d o f Maypures.

W h e n t h e s p e c t a t o r is so stationed that the e y e can at o n c e take in the long succession o f cataracts, the immense sheet o f foam and vapours illumined by the rays o f the setting sun, the w h o l e river seems as it w e r e s u s p e n d e d over its b e d .

Scenes so astonishing must for ages have fixed the attention o f the inhabitants o f the N e w W o r l d .

W h e n Diego de T o d a z . A l f o n z o de Herrera, and the intrepid Raleigh, a n c h o r e d at the m o u t h o f the O r i n o c o , t h e y w e r e i n f o r m e d b y the Indians o f the G r e a t Cataracts, which they t h e m selves had never visited, and which they even c o n f o u n d e d with cascades farther to the east.

W h a t e v e r obstacles the force o f vegetation u n d e r the torrid zone may t h r o w in t h e way o f intercourse a m o n g nations, all that relates t o t h e course o f great, rivers acquires a celebrity which e x t e n d s t o vast distances. T h e O r i n o c o , the A m a z o n , and the U r u g u a y , traverse, like inland arms o f seas, in different d i r e c tions, a land c o v e r e d with forests, and inhabited by tribes,

DISSEMINATION

OF IDEAS.

235

part o f w h o m are cannibals. I t is n o t y e t t w o h u n d r e d years since civilization a n d t h e light o f a m o r e h u m a n e religion have pursued their way a l o n g t h e banks o f these ancient canals traced b y the hand o f n a t u r e ; l o n g , h o w e v e r , before t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f agriculture, before c o m m u n i c a tions f o r t h e purposes o f b a r t e r w e r e established a m o n g these scattered a n d often hostile tribes, t h e k n o w l e d g e o f extraordinary p h e n o m e n a , o f falls o f water, o f volcanic fires, and o f s n o w s resisting all t h e ardent heat o f s u m m e r , was propagated by a thousand fortuitous circumstances.

Three hundred leagues from t h e coast, i n t h e c e n t r e o f South A m e r i c a , a m o n g nations w h o s e excursions d o n o t e x t e n d t o three days' j o u r n e y , w e find an idea o f t h e o c e a n , and w o r d s that d e n o t e a mass o f salt water e x t e n d i n g as far as the e y e can discern. V a r i o u s events, which repeatedly o c c u r i n savage life, c o n t r i b u t e t o enlarge these c o n c e p t i o n s .

In c o n s e q u e n c e of the p e t t y wars b e t w e e n n e i g h b o u r i n g tribes, a prisoner is b r o u g h t into a strange c o u n t r y , and treated as a poito o r mero, that is t o say, as a slave. A f t e r b e i n g often sold, he is d r a g g e d t o n e w wars, escapes, and returns h o m e ; he relates what h e has seen, and w h a t h e has heard from those whose t o n g u e h e has b e e n c o m p e l l e d t o learn. A s on discovering a coast, w e hear o f great inland animals, so, on entering the valley o f a vast river, w e are surprised t o find that savages, w h o are strangers t o navigation, have acquired a k n o w l e d g e o f distant t h i n g s .

I n t h e infant state o f society, the e x c h a n g e o f ideas p r e c e d e s , t o a certain p o i n t , the exchange o f productions.

T h e t w o great cataracts o f t h e O r i n o c o , t h e celebrity o f which is so far-spread a n d so ancient, are f o r m e d b y t h e passage o f the river across the mountains o f Parima.

They are called b y t h e natives Mapara a n d Quittuna; but the missionaries have substituted f o r these names those o f A hires and M a y p u r e s , after t h e names o f t h e tribes which were first assembled t o g e t h e r in t h e nearest villages. O n t h e coast o f Caracas, the t w o G r e a t Cataracts are d e n o t e d by t h e simple appellation o f t h e t w o Raudales, o r r a p i d s ; a denomination which implies that t h e o t h e r falls o f water, even the rapids o f Camiseta and o f Carichana, are n o t c o n sidered as w o r t h y o f attention w h e n c o m p a r e d with t h e cataracts o f A t u r e s and M a y p u r e s .

236

FABULOUS

LEGENDS.

T h e s e l a s t , s i t u a t e d b e t w e e n five a n d six d e g r e e s o f latitude, and a hundred New

G r e n a d a , in t h e

twelve that his

leagues

leagues west meridian

distant

from

fine

map

of South

Porto

each

other.

known

America,

Marimara

and

Christian

unequal

establishments

parts.

Atures

and

the

Those mouth

to

Borja,

of

and

the

mountains

of

d i s t a n c e in a direct leagues:

the

of

the

the

inconsiderable

Guiana

the

into

two

Raudal

the

of the U p p e r

t h e Raudal

The

of

of

Orinoco

Maypures the

Lower

at o n e - t h i r d o f

hundred

Upper

of

course

sinuosities

l i n e , is t w o

course

surprising

by the n a m e s o f

between

between the

is

river are called the M i s s i o n s

Duida.

O r i n o c o , if we e s t i m a t e

It

Spanish

situated of the

t h e villages

of

C a b e l l o , are o n l y

T h e G r e a t C a t a r a c t s divide

of the L o w e r O r i n o c o ; the Missions Comprehend

north

Cordilleras

D ' A n v i l l e , who, in

marks

San

rapids o f C a r i c h a n a and T a b a j e . the

the

of

their existence was not

cascades of

of

and

sixty

Orinoco,

the

nautical

supposing

its

sources to be three degrees east of D u i d a , includes one hundred and s i x t y - s e v e n Beyond

the

leagues.

Great

Cataracts

an

unknown

land

begins.

T h e c o u n t r y is partly m o u n t a i n o u s and partly flat, receiving at

once

the

confluents

of

the

Amazon

and

the

F r o m t h e facility of its c o m m u n i c a t i o n s with the and Grand than

to

who

Para. it. a p p e a r s

the

Spanish

have d e s c r i b e d

to

belong

colonies.

None

the

Orinoco

G u m i l l a , G i l i , n o r C a u l i n , had pures.

We

still of

of

Negro

more to

Brazil

the

missionaries

before m e , neither

passed

the

Raudal

father

of

May-

found but three Christian establishments above

the G r e a t Cataracts, along the shores of the extent

Orinoco.

Rio

more

than

a hundred

O r i n o c o , in an

l e a g u e s ; and

these

three

e s t a b l i s h m e n t s c o n t a i n e d scarcely six o r e i g h t white p e r s o n s , that

is t o s a y , p e r s o n s

surprised

that

such

of

European

a desert

race.

region

all t i m e s t h e land o f fable and fairy visions. ing

to

races the

statements

men, some

their

that

the

m a s p e s , and

others

stomachs. ancients of

the

of

certain

of whom

forehead, whilst

below all

the

of

an

dogs’

eye

cannot

have

been

at

are

found

in t h e c e n t r e o f

heads, and

There they pretend

be

There, accord-

missionaries,

have

have

We

should

to

mouths

have

found

relate o f t h e G a r a m a n t e s , of t h e A r i Hyperboreans.

to suppose that these

simple and

It

would

be

often

rustic

missionaries

an

error

ISLAND OF

PANUMANA.

237

had themselves invented all these exaggerated fictions; they derived them in great part from the recitals o f the I n d i a n s .

A fondness for narration prevails in the M i s s i o n s , as it does at sea, in t h e East, and in every place w h e r e t h e m i n d seeks amusement.

A missionary, from his vocation, is n o t inclined t o s c e p t i c i s m ; he imprints o n his m e m o r y what the natives have so often repeated t o h i m ; and, w h e n returned t o E u r o p e , and restored t o t h e civilized world, he finds a pleasure in creating astonishment b y a recital o f facts which he thinks he has collected, and b y an animated description o f r e m o t e things.

T h e s e stories, which t h e Spanish colonists call ‘tales o f travellers and o f m o n k s ’ ( c u e n t o s de viageros y frailes), increase in improbability in proportion as y o u increase y o u r distance from the forests o f the O r i n o c o , and approach the coasts inhabited b y the whites.

W h e n , at C u m a n a , N u e v a Barcelona, and other seaports which have frequent c o m m u n i c a t i o n with t h e M i s sions, y o u betray any sign o f incredulity, y o u are r e d u c e d t o silence b y these few w o r d s : “ T h e fathers have seen it, b u t far above t h e Great Cataracts (mas arriba de los Raudales).”

O n the 15th o f A p r i l , w e left t h e island o f Panumana at four in the m o r n i n g , t w o hours before sunrise. T h e sky was in great part obscured, and lightnings flashed over dense c l o u d s at m o r e than forty degrees o f elevation.

W e were surprised at n o t hearing t h u n d e r ; b u t possibly this was o w i n g to the prodigious height o f the s t o r m ?

I t appears t o us, that in E u r o p e t h e electric flashes w i t h o u t t h u n d e r , vaguely called heat-lightning, are seen generally nearer the horizon.

U n d e r a c l o u d y sky, that sent back the radiant caloric o f the soil, t h e heat was stifling; n o t a breath o f wind agitated the foliage o f the trees. T h e j a g u a r s , as usual, had crossed the arm o f the O r i n o c o b y which w e w e r e separated from the shore, and we heard their cries extremely near.

D u r i n g the night the Indians had advised us t o quit o u r station in the o p e n air, and retire t o a deserted hut b e l o n g i n g to the conucos o f the inhabitants o f A t u r e s . T h e y had taken care to barricade the o p e n i n g with planks, a precaution which seemed t o us s u p e r f l u o u s ; b u t near t h e Cataracts tigers are very n u m e r o u s , and t w o years before, in these very conucos o f P a n u m a n a , an I n d i a n r e t u r n i n g to

238

SAN

JUAN

DE

LOS

ATURES.

his h u t , towards the close o f the rainy season, f o u n d a tigress settled in it with her t w o y o u n g .

These animals had inhab i t e d t h e dwelling f o r several m o n t h s ; they were dislodged f r o m it with difficulty, and it was only after an obstinate c o m b a t that t h e former master regained possession o f his dwelling.

T h e j a g u a r s are f o n d o f retiring t o deserted r u i n s , a n d I believe it is m o r e p r u d e n t in general f o r a solitary traveller t o e n c a m p i n t h e o p e n air, b e t w e e n t w o fires, than t o seek shelter in uninhabited huts.

O n q u i t t i n g the island o f P a n u m a n a , w e p e r c e i v e d o n the western bank o f the river t h e fires of an e n c a m p m e n t o f G u a h i b o savages.

T h e missionary w h o a c c o m p a n i e d u s caused a f e w musket-shots t o b e fired in t h e air, which h e said would intimidate t h e m , and shew that w e were in a state t o defend ourselves.

T h e savages most likely had n o canoes, and were n o t desirous o f t r o u b l i n g us in t h e middle o f t h e river.

W e passed at sunrise the m o u t h o f t h e Rio A n a v e n i , which descends from the eastern m o u n t a i n s .

On

its banks, n o w deserted, Father O l m o s had established, in the time o f the Jesuits, a small village o f Japuins o r J a r u ros.

T h e heat was s o excessive that w e rested a l o n g time in a w o o d y s p o t , t o fish with a hook and line, and it was n o t w i t h o u t some trouble that we carried away all t h e fish w e had caught.

W e did not arrive till very late at t h e f o o t o f the G r e a t Cataract, in a bay called the lower harbour ( p u e r t o de a b a x o ) ; a n d w e followed, n o t w i t h o u t difficulty, in a dark n i g h t , t h e narrow path that leads t o the M i s s i o n o f A t u r e s , a league distant from the river.

W e crossed a plain c o v e r e d with large blocks o f granite.

T h e little village o f San J u a n N e p o m u c e n o d e los A t u r e s was f o u n d e d by the J e s u i t Francisco G o n z a l e s , in 1 7 4 8 . I n g o i n g u p the river this is the last of the Christian m i s sions that o w e their origin t o t h e o r d e r o f S t . I g n a t i u s .

T h e m o r e s o u t h e r n establishments, those o f A t a b a p o , o f Cassiquiare, and o f Rio Negro, were formed by the fathers o f the O b s e r v a n c e o f S t . F r a n c i s . T h e O r i n o c o appears t o have flowed heretofore w h e r e t h e village o f A t u r e s n o w stands, and the flat savannah that surrounds the village no d o u b t formed part o f t h e river.

I saw t o t h e east o f t h e mission a succession o f r o c k s , which seemed to have; been I n the lapse o f ages the the ancient shore o f the O r i n o c o .

STATE

OF

THE

MISSION.

239

river has b e e n impelled westward, in c o n s e q u e n c e o f the accumulations o f earth, which o c c u r m o r e frequently on the side o f the eastern mountains, that are f u r r o w e d b y torrents.

T h e cataract bears the n a m e o f M a p a r a , * as w e have m e n tioned a b o v e ; while the name o f the village is derived from that o f the nation o f A t u r e s , n o w believed to b e extinct.

I find o n the maps o f the seventeenth c e n t u r y , Island and Cataract of Athule; w h i c h is the w o r d Atures written a c cording t o the pronunciation o f the Tamanacs, w h o c o n found, like so m a n y o t h e r people, the consonants l and r.

This m o u n t a i n o u s r e g i o n was so little k n o w n in E u r o p e , even in the middle o f the eighteenth century, that D ' A n v i l l e , in the first edition o f his South A m e r i c a , makes a branch issue from the O r i n o c o , near Salto de los Atures, and fall into the A m a z o n , to which branch he gives the name o f Rio Negro.

Early maps, as well as F a t h e r G u m i l l a ' s w o r k , place the M i s s i o n in latitude 1° 3 0 ' . A b b e Gili gives it 3 ° 5 0 ' .

I found, b y meridian altitudes o f C a n o p u s and a o f the S o u t h e r n Cross, 5° 3 8 ' 4" for the l a t i t u d e ; and b y the c h r o n o m e t e r 4 4 1 ' 1 7 " o f l o n g i t u d e west o f t h e meridian o f Paris.

W e found this small M i s s i o n in the m o s t deplorable state.

It contained, even at the time o f the expedition o f Solano, c o m m o n l y called the ‘expedition o f the boundaries,’ three hundred and t w e n t y I n d i a n s . T h i s n u m b e r had diminished, at the time o f o u r passage b y the Cataracts, t o f o r t y - s e v e n ; and the missionary assured us that this diminution b e c a m e from y e a r t o y e a r m o r e sensible. H e s h o w e d us, that in the h

* I am ignorant of the etymology of this world, which I believe means only a fall of water. Gili translates into Maypure a small cascade (raudalito) by uccamatisi mapara canacapatirri.

Should we not spell this word matpara ? mat being a radical of the Maypure tongue, and meaning bad (Hervas, Saggio, N . 29). The radical par (para) is found among American tribes more than five hundred leagues distant from each other, the Caribs, Maypures, Brazilians, and Peruvians, in the words sea, rain, water, lake. W e must not confound mapara with mapaja; this last word signifies, in Maypure and Tamanac, the papaw or melontree, no doubt on account of the sweetness of its fruit, for mapa means in the Maypure, as well as in the Peruvian and Omagua tongues, ‘ the honey of bees.’ The Tamanacs call a cascade, or raudal, in general uatapurutpe; the Maypures, uca.

240

ANALOGY OF LANGUAGES.

space o f thirty-two m o n t h s o n l y o n e marriage had b e e n entered in the registers o f the parish c h u r c h .

T w o others had been contracted b y uncatechised natives, and celebrated before the Indian Gobernador. At the first foundation o f the M i s s i o n , the A t u r e s , M a y p u r e s , M e y e p u r e s , A b a n i s , and Q u i r u p a s , had b e e n assembled t o g e t h e . Instead o f these tribes w e f o u n d only G u a h i b o s , and a few families o f the nation o f M a c o s . T h e A t u r e s have almost entirely disappeared; they are n o l o n g e r k n o w n , e x c e p t b y the t o m b s in the cavern o f A t a r u i p e , which recall t o m i n d the sepulchres o f the G u a n c h e s at Teneriffe.

W e learned on the spot, that the A t u r e s , as well as the Q u a q u a s , and the Macos o r Piaroas, belong t o the great stock o f the Salive n a t i o n s ; while the M a y p u r e s , the A b a n i s , t h e Parenis, and the G u a y puĂąaves, are o f the same race as t h e Cabres o r Caveres, celebrated for their l o n g wars with the Caribs.

In this labyrinth o f p e t t y nations, divided from o n e another as the nations o f Latium, Asia M i n o r , and Sogdiana, formerly were, w e can trace n o general relations b u t b y f o l l o w i n g t h e analogy o f t o n g u e s .

These are the only m o n u m e n t s that have reached us from the early ages o f the w o r l d ; the only m o n u m e n t s , which, n o t being fixed to the soil, are at o n c e moveable and lasting, and have as it w e r e traversed t i m e and space. They o w e their duration, and the e x t e n t they o c c u p y , much less to c o n q u e r i n g and polished nations, than t o those wandering and half-savage tribes, w h o , fleeing before a powerful e n e m y , carried along with them in their e x t r e m e wretchedness only their wives, their children, and the languages o f their fathers.

Between the latitudes o f 4 ° and 8°; the O r i n o c o n o t o n l y separates the great forest of the Parime from the bare savannahs o f the A pure, Meta, and Guaviare, but also forms the boundary between tribes o f very different manners.

T o the westward, over treeless plains, wander the G u a h i b o s , the Chiricoas, and the G u a m o s ; nations, p r o u d o f their savage independence, w h o m it is difficult to fix t o the soil, or habituate to regular labour.

T h e Spanish missionaries characterise them well b y the name o f Indios andantes (errant or vagabond Indians), because they are perpetually m o v i n g from place to place. T o t h e east o f the O r i n o c o , between the n e i g h b o u r i n g sources o f the Caura, Cataniapo,

241

CLASSES OF INDIANS.

a n d Ventuari, live the M a c o s , t h e Salives, the Curacicanas, Parecas, and Maquiritares, mild, tranquil tribes, addicted t o agriculture, and easily s u b j e c t e d t o the discipline o f t h e M i s s i o n s . T h e Indian o f the plains differs from the I n d i a n o f the forests in language as well as manners and mental d i s p o s i t i o n ; b o t h have an idiom a b o u n d i n g in spirited and b o l d t e r m s ; b u t the language o f the former is harsher, m o r e concise, and m o r e i m p a s s i o n e d ; that o f t h e latter, softer, more diffuse, and fuller o f a m b i g u o u s expressions.

T h e M i s s i o n o f A t u r e s , like m o s t o f the M i s s i o n s o f the O r i n o c o , situated b e t w e e n the m o u t h s of the A p u r e and the A t a b a p o , is c o m p o s e d o f b o t h the classes o f tribes w e have j u s t described.

W e there find the Indians o f t h e forests, and the Indians heretofore n o m a d i c * (Indios monteros and Indios llaneros, o r andantes).

W e visited with the m i s ­ sionary the huts o f M a c o s , w h o m the Spaniards call Piraoas, and those o f the G u a h i b o s . T h e first indicated m o r e love o f order, cleanliness, and ease. T h e i n d e p e n d e n t M a c o s ( I do n o t designate them b y the n a m e o f savages) have their rochelas, o r fixed dwellings, t w o o r three days' j o u r n e y east o f A t u r e s , t o w a r d the sources o f the little river Cataniapo.

T h e y are very n u m e r o u s .

L i k e m o s t o f the natives o f the w o o d s , they cultivate, not maize, b u t c a s s a v a ; and they live in great harmony with the Christian Indians o f the mission.

T h e harmony was established and wisely cultivated b y t h e Franciscan m o n k , Bernardo Z e a . This alcalde o f the re­ duced M a c o s quitted the village o f A t u r e s for a few m o n t h s every year, t o live in the plantations which he possessed in the midst o f the forests near the hamlet o f the independent M a c o s . I n c o n s e q u e n c e o f this peaceful intercourse, m a n y o f the Indios monteros c a m e and established themselves some t i m e ago in the mission. T h e y asked eagerly for knives, fishing b o o k s , and those c o l o u r e d glass-beads, w h i c h , n o t ­ withstanding the positive prohibition o f the priests, w e r e e m p l o y e d n o t as necklaces, b u t as ornaments o f the guayuco (perizoma).

H a v i n g obtained what they s o u g h t , t h e y r e * I employ the word nomadic as synonymous with wandering, and not in its primitive signification. The wandering nations of America (those of the indigenous tribes, it is to be understood) are never shepherds; they live by fishing and hunting, on the fruit of a few trees, the farinaceous pith of palm-trees, &c.

VOL. II.

В

242

PREVALENCE OF FEVERS.

t u r n e d t o the w o o d s , weary o f the regulations o f the mission.

Epidemic- fevers, which prevailed with violence at the e n trance o f the rainy season, c o n t r i b u t e d greatly t o this u n e x p e c t e d f l i g h t . I n 1799 the mortality was very considerable at Carichana, o n t h e banks o f the M e t a , and at the Raudal of Atures.

T h e I n d i a n o f the forest conceives a horror o f t h e life o f the civilized m a n , w h e n , I will n o t say any m i s fortune befalls his family settled in the mission, b u t merely any disagreeable or unforeseen accident.

Natives, who were n e o p h y t e s , have b e e n k n o w n t o desert for ever the Christian establishments, o n a c c o u n t o f a great d r o u g h t ; as if this calamity w o u l d n o t have reached t h e m equally in their plantations, had they remained in their primitive i n d e p e n d e n c e .

T h e fevers winch prevail d u r i n g a great part o f t h e year in the villages o f A t u r e s and M a y p u r e s , around t h e t w o Great Cataracts o f the O r i n o c o , render these spots highly dangerous to European travellers.

T h e y are caused b y violent heats, in c o m b i n a t i o n with the excessive humidity o f t h e air, bad n u t r i m e n t , and, if w e may believe t h e natives, t h e pestilent exhalations rising from t h e b a r e r o c k s o f the Raudales. These fevers o f the O r i n o c o appeared t o us t o resemble those; which prevail every year between New Barcelona. La G u a y r a , and P o r t o Cabello, in the vicinity o f the s e a ; and which often degenerate into a d y n a m i c fevers.

"I have had my little fever (mi calenturita) only eight m o n t h s , " said the g o o d missionary o f the A t u r e s , w h o a c c o m p a n i e d us t o the Rio N e g r o ; speaking of it as o f an habitual evil, easy to be b o r n e .

The fits were violent, but o f short duration.

H e was s o m e t i m e s seized with them w h e n l y i n g a l o n g in t h e b o a t u n d e r a shelter o f branches o f t r e e s , sometimes when exposed to the b u r n i n g rays of the sun o n an o p e n beach.

These tertian agues are attended with great debility o f the muscular s y s t e m ; y e t w e find p o o r ecclesiastics o n the O r i n o c o , who endure for several years these calenturitas, o r tercianas : their effects are not, so fatal as those which are experienced from fevers o f m u c h shorter duration in t e m perate climates.

I have just alluded to the noxious influence on the salubrity o f the a t m o s p h e r e , which is attributed by the natives, and even the missionaries, to the bare rocks.

This opinion is the m o r e w o r t h y o f a t t e n t i o n , as it is c o n n e c t e d with

243

ROCK-INCRUSTATIONS.

a physical p h e n o m e n o n lately observed in different parts Among o f the g l o b e , and n o t y e t sufficiently explained. t h e cataracts, a n d w h e r e v e r t h e O r i n o c o , between t h e M i s sions o f Carichana and of Santa Barbara, periodically washes t h e granitic r o c k s , t h e y b e c o m e s m o o t h , black, and as i f c o a t e d with p l u m b a g o .

T h e c o l o u r i n g matter does n o t penetrate t h e s t o n e , which is c o a r s e - g r a i n e d granite, c o n taining a f e w solitary crystals o f h o r n b l e n d e . T a k i n g a general view o f the primitive formation o f A t u r e s , w e p e r ceive, that, like t h e granite o f S y e n e in E g y p t , it is a granite Many with h o r n b l e n d e , and n o t a real syenite formation. o f the layers are entirely destitute o f h o r n b l e n d e . T h e black crust is 0.3 of a line in thickness; it is f o u n d chiefly o n t h e quartzose parts.

T h e crystals o f feldspar s o m e t i m e s p r e serve externally their reddish-white c o l o u r , a n d rise above O n breaking the stone with a hammer, t h e black crust. the inside is f o u n d t o b e w h i t e , and w i t h o u t any trace o f d e composition.

T h e s e e n o r m o u s stony masses appear s o m e times in r h o m b s , sometimes under those hemispheric forms, peculiar t o granitic r o c k s w h e n t h e y separate in b l o c k s .

T h e y give t h e landscape a singularly g l o o m y a s p e c t ; their c o l o u r being in s t r o n g contrast with that o f t h e foam o f t h e river which covers t h e m , a n d o f t h e v e g e t a t i o n b y which they are surrounded.

T h e Indians say, that the rocks are ' b u r n t ' ( o r c a r b o n i z e d ) ' b y t h e rays o f t h e s u n . ' W e saw them n o t only in t h e b e d of t h e O r i n o c o , b u t in s o m e s p o t s as far as five hundred toises from its present shore, on heights which the waters n o w never reach even in their greatest swellings.

W h a t is this brownish black crust, w h i c h gives these r o c k s , w h e n they have a globular f o r m , t h e appearance o f meteoric stones?

W h a t idea can w e f o r m o f t h e action o f t h e water, which p r o d u c e s a deposit, o r a c h a n g e o f c o l o u r , so extraordinary ? W e m u s t o b s e r v e , in t h e first place, that this p h e n o m e n o n does n o t b e l o n g t o t h e cataracts o f t h e O r i n o c o alone, b u t is f o u n d in b o t h hemispheres.

A t my return from M e x i c o in 1 8 0 7 , w h e n I s h o w e d t h e granites o f A t u r e s and M a y p u r e s t o M . Rozière, w h o had travelled over the valley o f E g y p t , t h e coasts o f t h e Red Sea, and M o u n t Sinai, this learned geologist p o i n t e d o u t t o m e that the primitive r o c k s o f the little cataracts o f S y e n e display, R 2

244

ROCK-INCRUSTATIONS.

like the rocks o f the O r i n o c o , a glossy surface, o f a blackishg r e y , or almost leaden c o l o u r , and o f which s o m e o f the fragments seem coated with tar. R e c e n t l y , in t h e unfortunate expedition o f Captain T u c k e y , t h e English n a t u ralists were struck with the same appearance in the yellalas (rapids and shoals) that obstruct the river C o n g o o r Zaire.

D r . K Ĺ“ n i g has placed in the British M u s e u m , beside the syenites o f the C o n g o , the granites o f A t u r e s , taken from a series of rocks which were presented by M . Bonpland and myself to the illustrious president o f the Royal Society o f London. " T h e s e f r a g m e n t s , " says M r . K Ĺ“ n i g , " a l i k e r e semble meteoric s t o n e s ; in b o t h rocks, those o f the O r i n o c o and of Africa, the black crust is c o m p o s e d , according t o the analysis o f Mr. Children, o f the oxide o f iron and m a n ganese."

Some experiments made at M e x i c o , conjointly with S e Ăą o r del Rio, led me t o think that the rocks o f A t u r e s , which blacken t h e paper in which they are wrapped,* contain, besides o x i d e o f manganese, carbon, and supercarburetted iron.

A t the O r i n o c o , granitic masses o f forty or fifty feet thick are uniformly coated with these o x i d e s ; and, h o w e v e r thin these crusts may appear, they must nevertheless contain pretty considerable quantities o f iron and manganese, since they o c c u p y a space o f above a league square.

It must be observed that all these phenomena o f coloration have hitherto appeared in the torrid zone only, in rivers that have periodical overflowings, o f which the habitual temperature is from t w e n t y - f o u r to twenty-eight centesimal d e g r e e s , and which flow, not over gritstone or calcareous rocks, but over granite, gneiss, and hornblende rocks.

Quartz and feldspar scarcely contain five or six thousandths o f oxide o f iron and o f m a n g a n e s e ; b u t in mica and hornblende these oxides, and particularly that o f iron, a m o u n t , according to Klaproth and Herrmann, to fifteen or t w e n t y parts in a hundred.

T h e hornblende contains also s o m e carbon, like the Lydian stone and kieselschiefer.

N o w , if these black crusts were formed by a slow d e c o m p o s i t i o n o f * I remarked the name phenomenon from spongy grains of platina one or two lines in length, collected at the stream-works of Taddo, in the province of Choco. Having been wrapped up in white paper during a journey of several months, they left a black stain, like that of plumbago or supercarburetted iron.

THEIR

ORIGIN.

245

the granitic r o c k , u n d e r the double influcnce o f humidity and the tropical sun, h o w is it t o b e conceived that these oxides are spread so uniformly over t h e w h o l e surface o f the stony masses, a n d are n o t m o r e abundant r o u n d a crystal o f mica o r h o r n b l e n d e than o n t h e feldspar and milky quartz ? T h e ferruginous sandstones, granites, and marbles, that b e c o m e cinereous a n d sometimes b r o w n in damp air, have an aspect altogether different. I n reflecting upon the lustre and equal thickness o f the crusts, we are rather inclined t o think that this matter is deposited b y t h e O r i n o c o , and that t h e water has penetrated even into t h e clefts o f t h e rocks. A d o p t i n g this hypothesis, it may be asked whether t h e river holds t h e oxides suspended like sand and o t h e r earthy substances, o r whether they are f o u n d in a state o f chemical solution. T h e first supposition is less admissible, o n a c c o u n t o f the h o m o g e n e i t y o f t h e crusts, which contain neither grains o f sand, n o r spangles o f mica, mixed with t h e oxides. W e must then recur t o the idea o f a chemical s o l u t i o n ; and this idea is n o way at variance with the p h e n o m e n a daily observable in o u r laboratories. T h e waters o f great rivers contain carbonic a c i d ; and, were t h e y even entirely p u r e , they w o u l d still b e capable, in very great volumes, o f dissolving some portions o f oxide, o r those metallic hydrates which are regarded as the least soluble.

T h e m u d o f the N i l e , which is the sediment o f the matters which the river holds suspended, is destitute o f m a n g a n e s e ; b u t it contains, according to the analysis o f M . Regnault, six parts in a hundred o f o x i d e o f i r o n ; and its c o l o u r , at first black, changes t o yellowish b r o w n b y desiccation and the contact o f air. T h e m u d consequently is not the cause o f the black crusts on the rocks o f Syene. Berzelius, w h o , at m y request, examined these crusts, recognized in them, as in those o f the granites o f the O r i n o c o and River C o n g o , t h e union o f iron a n d manganese. That celebrated chemist was o f o p i n i o n that t h e rivers d o n o t take u p these oxides from t h e soil over which they flow, b u t that they derive them from their s u b terranean sources, and deposit t h e m o n t h e r o c k s in t h e m a n n e r o f c e m e n t a t i o n , b y the action o f particular affinities, perhaps b y that of t h e potash o f the feldspar.

A long residence at the cataracts o f the O r i n o c o , t h e N i l e , and t h e

246

POPULAR PREJUDICE.

Rio C o n g o , and an examination o f the circumstances attendant on this p h e n o m e n o n o f coloration, could alone lead t o the c o m p l e t e solution o f t h e problem w e have discussed.

I s this p h e n o m e n o n independent o f the nature o f the rocks ?

I shall c o n t e n t myself with observing, in general, that neither the granitic masses remote from the ancient b e d o f t h e O r i n o c o , b u t e x p o s e d during the rainy season t o t h e alternations o f heat and moisture, n o r the granitic r o c k s bathed b y the b r o w n i s h waters o f t h e Rio N e g r o , assume the appearance o f meteoric stones. T h e Indians say, " that the rocks are black only where the waters are w h i t e . " T h e y o u g h t , perhaps, t o add, " where t h e waters acquire great swiftness, and strike with force against the rocks o f the b a n k s . " Cementation seems to explain why the crusts augment so little in thickness.

I know n o t whether it b e an error, b u t in t h e M i s s i o n s o f the O r i n o c o , t h e n e i g h b o u r h o o d o f bare rocks, and e s p e cially o f the masses that have crusts o f c a r b o n , oxide o f iron, and manganese, are considered injurious to health.

I n t h e torrid zone, still m o r e than in others, t h e p e o p l e multiply pathogenic causes at will. T h e y are afraid t o sleep in the open air, if forced t o e x p o s e t h e face t o t h e rays o f t h e full m o o n . T h e y also think it dangerous t o sleep on granite near t h e r i v e r ; and many examples are cited o f persons, w h o , after having passed the night o n these black and naked rocks, have awakened in the m o r n i n g with a strong paroxysm o f fever.

W i t h o u t entirely lending faith t o t h e assertions o f t h e missionaries and natives, w e generally avoided the laxas negras, and stretched ourselves on the beach c o v e r e d with white sand, when w e found no tree from which to suspend o u r hammocks.

At Carichana, the village is intended to be destroyed, and its place changed, merely t o r e m o v e it from t h e ' b l a c k r o c k s , ' o r from a site where, f o r a space o f more than ten thousand square toises, b a n k s o f bare granite form t h e surface.

F r o m similar motives, which must appear very chimerical t o t h e n a t u ralists o f Europe, the Jesuits O l m o , Forneri, a n d M e l l i s , removed a village o f Jaruros to three different spots, b e tween the Raudal o f Tabaje and the Rio Anaveni.

I merely state these facts as they were related to me, because we are almost wholly ignorant o f the nature o f the gaseous mixtures

HEAT

OF THE

ROCKS.

247

which cause t h e insalubrity o f t h e atmosphere.

Can it b e admitted that, under the influence o f excessive heat a n d o f c o n s t a n t humidity, the black crusts o f the granitic rocks are capable o f acting u p o n t h e ambient air, a n d p r o d u c i n g miasmata with a triple basis o f c a r b o n , azote, and h y d r o g e n ?

This I d o u b t . T h e granites o f t h e O r i n o c o , it is t r u e , often c o n t a i n h o r n b l e n d e ; a n d those w h o are a c c u s t o m e d t o practical labour i n mines are n o t ignorant that t h e m o s t n o x i o u s exhalations rise from galleries w r o u g h t in syenitic and hornblende r o c k s : b u t in an atmosphere renewed every instant b y the action o f little currents o f air, the effect cann o t b e the same as in a mine.

It is probably dangerous t o sleep o n t h e laxas negras, o n l y because these rocks retain a very elevated temperature d u r i n g the n i g h t .

I have found their temperature in t h e day at 4 8 째 , the air in t h e shade b e i n g at 2 9 - 7 째 ; during the night t h e t h e r m o m e t e r o n t h e r o c k indicated 36째, the air b e i n g at 26째. W h e n the accumulation o f heat in the s t o n y masses has reached a stationary d e g r e e , these masses b e c o m e at t h e same hours nearly o f t h e same temperature.

W h a t they have acquired m o r e in the day they lose at night b y radiation, the force o f which depends o n the state o f t h e surface o f t h e radiating b o d y , the interior arrangement of its particles, and, above all, o n the clearness o f the sky, that is, o n t h e transparency o f t h e atmosphere a n d the absence o f clouds.

W h e n the declination o f t h e s u n varies v e r y little, this luminary adds daily nearly t h e same quantities o f heat, and the rocks are n o t hotter at t h e e n d than in the middle o f summer.

T h e r e is a certain maximum which they cannot pass, because they d o n o t c h a n g e t h e state o f their surface, their density, o r their capacity f o r caloric.

O n the shores o f the O r i n o c o , o n g e t t i n g o u t o f o n e ' s hamm o c k during t h e n i g h t , and t o u c h i n g with the bare feet t h e rocky surface o f t h e g r o u n d , t h e sensation o f heat e x p e rienced is very remarkable. I observed pretty constantly, in p u t t i n g the bulb o f t h e t h e r m o m e t e r i n c o n t a c t with t h e ledges o f bare rocks, that the laxas negras are hotter during the day than t h e reddish-white granites at a distance from the r i v e r ; b u t t h e latter cool during t h e night less rapidly than t h e former.

I t m a y be easily c o n c e i v e d that the emission a n d loss o f caloric is more rapid in masses with

248

THINNESS

OF T H E P O P U L A T I O N .

black crusts than in those which a b o u n d in lamina? o f silvery mica.

W h e n walking b e t w e e n the hours o f o n e and three in the afternoon, at Carichana, A t u r e s , o r M a y p u r e s , a m o n g those b l o c k s o f stone destitute o f vegetable m o u l d , and piled up t o great heights, o n e feels a sensation o f suffocation, as if standing before the o p e n i n g o f a furnace.

T h e winds, if ever felt in those w o o d y regions, far from b r i n g i n g c o o l n e s s , appear m o r e heated when they have passed o v e r beds o f stone, and heaps o f rounded b l o c k s o f granite.

This augmentation of heat adds to the insalubrity of the climate.

A m o n g the causes o f the d e p o p u l a t i o n o f the Raudales, I have n o t r e c k o n e d t h e small-pox, that malady which in o t h e r parts o f A m e r i c a makes such cruel ravages that t h e natives, seized with dismay, b u r n their h u t s , kill their children, and r e n o u n c e every kind o f society.

This scourge is almost unknown on the banks o f the O r i n o c o , and should it penetrate thither, it is t o b e h o p e d that its effects may b e immediately c o u n t e r a c t e d by vaccination, the blessings o f which are daily felt along the coasts o f T e r r a F i r m a .

T h e causes which d e p o p u l a t e the Christian settlements are, t h e r e p u g n a n c e o f t h e I n d i a n s for t h e regulations o f the missions, insalubrity o f climate, bad n o u r i s h m e n t , want o f care in the diseases o f children, and the guilty practice of preventing pregnancy by the use o f deleterious herbs.

A m o n g the barbarous people; o f Guiana, as well as those o f the half-civilized islands o f the South Sea, y o u n g wives are fearful o f b e c o m i n g mothers.

If they have children, their offspring are e x p o s e d not only t o the dangers o f savage life, but also to o t h e r dangers arising from t h e strangest popular prejudices.

W h e n twins are b o r n , false n o t i o n s o f propriety and family h o n o u r require that o n e o f t h e m should b e d e s t r o y e d . " T o bring twins into the w o r l d , " say the Indians, " is to be exposed t o public s c o r n ; it is t o resemble rats, o p o s s u m s , and the vilest animals, w h i c h bring forth a great, n u m b e r o f y o u n g at a t i m e . " Nay, more, they affirm that " t w o children born at the same time c a n n o t b e l o n g t o t h e same f a t h e r . " T h i s is an axiom o f physiology a m o n g the S a l i v e s ; and in every zone, and in different states o f society, when the vulgar seize upon an a x i o m , they adhere to it with m o r e stedfastness than the better-informed m e n b y w h o m it was first hazarded.

To

ITS PROBABLE CAUSES.

249

avoid the disturbance o f conjugal tranquillity, the old female relations o f the m o t h e r take care, that w h e n twins are b o r n o n e o f them shall disappear.

I f a n e w - b o r n infant, though n o t a twin, have any physical d e f o r m i t y , the father instantly puts it t o death. T h e y will have n o n e b u t r o b u s t and wellmade children, for deformities indicate some influence o f the evil spirit I o l o q u i a m o , o r t h e bird Tikitiki, the e n e m y o f the human race. S o m e t i m e s children o f a feeble c o n stitution u n d e r g o the same fate.

W h e n the father is asked what is b e c o m e o f o n e o f his sons, be will p r e t e n d that he has lost him by a natural death.

H e will disavow an action that appears t o him blameable, b u t n o t criminal.

"The p o o r b o y , " he will tell y o u , " c o u l d n o t follow u s ; w e m u s t have waited for him every m o m e n t ; he has n o t been seen a g a i n ; he did n o t c o m e t o sleep where w e passed the n i g h t . " Such is the c a n d o u r and simplicity o f m a n n e r s — s u c h the boasted h a p p i n e s s — o f man in the state o f n a t u r e !

H e kills his son t o escape t h e ridicule o f having t w i n s , o r t o avoid j o u r n e y i n g m o r e s l o w l y ; in fact, t o avoid a little i n c o n venience.

These acts o f c r u e l t y , I c o n f e s s , are less frequent than they are believed t o b e ; y e t they o c c u r even in the M i s s i o n s , during the time when the Indians leave the village, t o retire t o the conucos o f t h e n e i g h b o u r i n g forests. I t w o u l d b e e r r o n e o u s to attribute these actions t o the state o f p o l y g a m y in which the uncatechized Indians live.

P o l y g a m y no d o u b t diminishes the domestic happiness and internal union o f f a m i l i e s ; but this practice, sanctioned by Ismaelism, d o e s n o t prevent the p e o p l e o f the east from loving their children with tenderness. A m o n g the I n d i a n s o f the O r i n o c o , t h e father returns h o m e only t o eat, o r t o sleep in his h a m m o c k ; he lavishes n o caresses on his infants, o r o n his wives, w h o s e office it is t o serve him.

Parental affection b e g i n s t o display itself only w h e n the s o n has b e c o m e s t r o n g e n o u g h t o take a part in hunting, fishing, and the agricultural labours o f the plantations.

W h i l e o u r b o a t was unloading, we examined closely, wherever the shore c o u l d be approached, the terrific s p e c tacle of a great river narrowed and r e d u c e d as it w e r e t o foam. I shall endeavour t o paint, n o t the sensations we felt, b u t the aspect o f a s p o t so celebrated a m o n g the scenes of

250

NATURAL RAFTS.

the N e w W o r l d . T h e m o r e i m p o s i n g and majestic the o b j e c t s w e describe, the m o r e essential it b e c o m e s to seize them in their smallest details, t o fix the outline o f the picture w e w o u l d p r e s e n t t o the imagination o f the reader, and t o describe with simplicity what characterises the great and imperishable m o n u m e n t s o f nature.

T h e navigation of the O r i n o c o from its m o u t h as far a s the confluence o f the A n a v e n i , an e x t e n t o f 2 6 0 leagues, i s not impeded.

T h e r e are shoals and eddies near M u i t a c o , in a c o v e that bears the name o f the M o u t h o f Hell ( B o c a del I n f i e r n o ) ; and t h e r e are rapids (raudalitos) near Carichana and San B o r j a ; but in all these places the river i s never entirely barred, as a c h a n n e l is left b y which boats can pass up and d o w n .

I n all this navigation o f the L o w e r O r i n o c o travellers e x p e r i e n c e n o o t h e r d a n g e r than that o f the natural rafts formed by trees, which are u p r o o t e d by the river, and swept along in its great f l o o d s . W o e t o the canoes that d u r i n g the night strike against these rafts o f w o o d interwoven with lianas!

Covered with aquatic plants, they resemble here, as in the Mississippi, floating m e a d o w s , the chinampas o r floating gardens of the M e x i c a n lakes.

T h e Indians, w h e n they wish to surprise a tribe o f their e n e m i e s , b r i n g t o g e t h e r several c a n o e s , fasten t h e m t o each o t h e r with c o r d s , and c o v e r t h e m with grass and branches, to imitate this assemblage of trunks o f trees, which the O r i n o c o sweeps along in its middle c u r r e n t .

T h e Caribs are a c cused o f having heretofore excelled in the use o f this artifice; at present the Spanish s m u g g l e r s in the n e i g h b o u r h o o d of A n g o s t u r a have recourse to the same e x p e d i e n t to escape the vigilance o f the c u s t o m - h o u s e officers.

After p r o c e e d i n g up the O r i n o c o b e y o n d the; Rio A n a veni, we find, between the mountains of Uniana and S i p a p u , the Great Cataracts o f Mapara and Q u i t t u n a , or, as t h e y are more c o m m o n l y called by the missionaries, the Raudales o f A t u r e S and M a y p u r e s .

T h e s e bars, which e x t e n d f r o m o n e bank to the o t h e r , present in general a similar a s p e c t : they are c o m p o s e d o f innumerable islands, dikes o f r o c k , and blocks of granite- piled on o n e another and covered with palm-trees.

But, n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g a uniformity o f aspect, each o f these cataracts preserves an individual character.

ORIGIN OF THE AMAZON.

251

T h e first, the A t u r e s , is m o s t easily passable w h e n t h e waters are l o w . T h e Indians prefer crossing t h e s e c o n d , t h e M a y p u r e s , at t h e t i m e o f great f l o o d s . B e y o n d t h e M a y p u r e s and the m o u t h o f the Ca単o Cameji, t h e O r i n o c o is again u n o b s t r u c t e d for t h e l e n g t h o f m o r e than o n e hundred and sixty-seven leagues, o r nearly t o its s o u r c e ; that is to say. as far as the Raudalito o f G u a h a r i b o s , east o f the Ca単o Chiguire and the lofty mountains o f Y u m a r i q u i n .

H a v i n g visited the basins o f the t w o rivers O r i n o c o and A m a z o n , I was singularly struck b y the differences they display in their course o f unequal extent.

T h e falls o f t h e A m a z o n , which is nearly nine hundred and eighty nautical leagues (twenty to a degree) in length, are pretty near its s o u r c e in the first sixth o f its total l e n g t h , and five-sixths o f its course are entirely free. W e find the great falls o f t h e O r i n o c o o n a p o i n t far m o r e unfavourable to n a v i g a t i o n ; if not at the half, at least much b e y o n d the first third o f its length.

In both rivers it is neither the mountains, n o r the different stages o f flat lands lying over o n e another, w h e n c e they take their origin, that cause t h e c a t a r a c t s ; t h e y are p r o d u c e d by other mountains, o t h e r ledges w h i c h , after a l o n g and tranquil course, the rivers have t o pass over, precipitating themselves from step t o step.

T h e A m a z o n does not pierce its way t h r o u g h the p r i n cipal chain o f the A n d e s , as was affirmed at a period w h e n it was gratuitously supposed that, wherever mountains are divided i n t o parallel chains, the intermedial o r central ridge m u s t b e m o r e elevated than the others.

T h i s great river rises ( a n d this is a point o f s o m e i m p o r t a n c e to g e o l o g y ) eastward o f the western chain, which alone in this latitude merits the d e n o m i n a t i o n o f the high chain o f t h e A n d e s .

It is formed by the j u n c t i o n o f the river A g u a m i r o s with the Rio Chavinillo, which issues from the lake L l a u r i c o c h a in a longitudinal valley b o u n d e d b y the western and t h e intermedial chain o f the A n d e s .

T o form an accurate idea o f these; hydrographical relations, it m u s t b e b o r n e in m i n d that a division into three chains takes place in t h e colossal g r o u p o r k n o t o f the mountains o f P a s c o and H u a n u c o .

T h e western chain, which is the loftiest, and takes the name o f the Cordillera Real de Nieve, directs its c o u r s e ( b e t w e e n Huary and Caxatamba, Guamachuco and L u e m a , M i c u i -

252 p a m p a and gatos,

GENERAL COURSE OF

THE

Guangamarca) by the

Nevados

Moyopata,

and

Huaylillas,

G u a m a n i and G u a r i n g a ,

AMAZON.

and

towards

the

from

those

reaches only enters

the

Huanuco

the

in

the

lowers

the

toward The

bank of the degree; south

of to

and

snow

Copallin,

and

extremity of the G u a l l a g a , and

latitude. north

So

in

as

(that

Guancaybamba,

it

south

of

the

Moyobamba,

it

progressively Santiago,

chain, s k i r t s t h e itself in t h e

the

is,

Amazon valley,

from

where

w o o d e n b r i d g e s , as far as t h e

space

toises;

the M i s s i o n o f

longitudinal

height

Mara-

long

It s t r e t c h e s at

then

loses

long

the

Upper

p r o v i n c e o f Jaen de Braca-

third, or easternmost Rio

to

of

The

a

Chachapoyas,

Piscoguannuna ;

Peca,

Loxa.

of a thousand

of S a s a g u a n c a .

Huacrachuco, of

over

Pela-

Paramos

of

of the

and

perpetual

Cordillera

c h a i n s o f unequal villa

of

by

a t t h e eastern

Guallaga,

small elevation

Paramo

moros.

the

region

first n o r t h w a r d and

of

the

town

i n t e r m e d i a l chain s e p a r a t e s t h e waters 単on

of V i u d a ,

by

the

flows

from

between

the

farms

river

confluence

right

seventh

is

two

of

Qui

crossed

of the

Rio

on

Chin-

c h i p e ) , t h e r e are n e i t h e r b a r s , n o r a n y o b s t a c l e w h a t e v e r t o the

navigation

where

the

of

boats.

Amazon

The

turns

i n t e r m e d i a l chain o f t h e A n d e s , toward

the

north.

If

s a n d s t o n e , or a n c i e n t the Pongo of of

red

meets

sandstone

of

water

the

east,

which

with

begin

only

crossing

widens

the

conglomerate,

Rentema

depth, and swiftness

falls

toward

first

rocks

between

the

considerably of

near which I m e a s u r e d t h e b r e a d t h ,

o f t h e w a t e r s ) , a n d it leaves t h e r o c k s

east

of the

near t h e P o n g o o f T a y u c h u c ,

famous

strait

of

Manseriche,

w h e r e t h e hills rise n o h i g h e r

t h a n forty or fifty t o i s e s a b o v e t h e level o f its w a t e r s . river d o e s n o t the

hundred obstacles.

and It

Sacramento.

Para, d u r i n g

fifty

r e s u l t s from

had

not

to

Santiago

and

Tomependa

chain o f t h e A n d e s ) Pumpo,

pass

the

this over

it w o u l d

near

From

the

a course

leagues,

Mat-anon

as far as

The

reach t h e m o s t e a s t e r l y c h a i n , w h i c h b o u n d s

P a m p a s del

as far as G r a n d

red

Tambillo and

hills o f more

navigation rapid the

which be

of

hilly

that,

to from

seven

free

country

belongs

navigable

Piscobamba

is

sketch,

Tayuchuc

than

from if

the

between

the its

central mouth

in the p r o v i n c e o f C o n -

c h u c o s , f o r t y - t h r e e l e a g u e s north o f its s o u r c e .

W e have j u s t s e e n t h a t , in t h e O r i n o c o , as in t h e A m a z o n ,

THE GREAT CATARACTS.

253

the great cataracts are n o t f o u n d near t h e sources o f t h e rivers. A f t e r a tranquil course o f m o r e than o n e h u n d r e d and sixty leagues from the little Raudal o f G u a h a r i b o s , east o f Esmeralda, as far as the mountains o f Sipapu, t h e river, a u g m e n t e d b y t h e waters o f t h e J a o , t h e V e n t u a r i , t h e A t a b a p o , and the Guaviare, suddenly changes its primitive direction from east t o west, and runs from south t o n o r t h : then, in crossing t h e land-strait* in t h e plains o f M e t a , meets the advanced buttresses o f t h e Cordillera o f Parima.

This obstacle causes cataracts far more considerable, a n d presents greater impediments t o navigation, than all t h e P o n g o s o f t h e U p p e r M a r a 単 o n , because t h e y are p r o p o r tionally nearer t o t h e m o u t h o f t h e river. T h e s e g e o g r a phical details serve t o p r o v e , in t h e instances o f t h e t w o greatest rivers o f t h e N e w W o r l d , 1st, that it c a n n o t b e ascertained in an absolute m a n n e r that, b e y o n d a certain n u m b e r o f toises, o r a certain height above the level o f t h e sea, rivers are n o t n a v i g a b l e ; 2ndly, that t h e rapids are n o t always occasioned, as several treatises o f general t o p o g r a p h y affirm, b y the height of t h e first obstacles, b y t h e first lines o f ridges which t h e waters have t o s u r m o u n t near their sources.

T h e m o s t northern o f the great cataracts o f t h e O r i n o c o is t h e only o n e b o u n d e d o n each side b y lofty m o u n t a i n s .

T h e left bank o f the river is generally lower, b u t it makes part o f a plane which rises again west o f A t u r e s , towards the Peak o f U n i a n a , a pyramid nearly three thousand feet high, and placed o n a wall o f rock with steep slopes. T h e situation o f this solitary peak in the plain c o n t r i b u t e s t o r e n d e r its aspect m o r e i m p o s i n g and majestic. N e a r t h e M i s s i o n , in t h e c o u n t r y which surrounds t h e cataract, the aspect of t h e landscape varies at every step. W i t h i n a small space we find all that is most rude and g l o o m y in nature, united with an o p e n c o u n t r y and lovely pastoral scenery.

In t h e physical, as in the moral world, t h e contrast o f effects, t h e comparison o f what is powerful and menacing with what is soft and peaceful, is a never-failing source o f o u r pleasures and o u r e m o t i o n s .

I shall here repeat s o m e scattered features o f a p i c t u r e * This strait, which I have several times mentioned, is formed by the Cordilleras of the Andes of New Granada, and the Cordillera of Parima.

254

SAVANNAHS

OF ATURES.

which I traced in another w o r k shortly after m y return to Europe.* T h e savannahs o f A t u r e s , c o v e r e d with slender plants and grasses, are really meadows resembling those o f Europe.

T h e y are n e v e r inundated b y the rivers, and seem Notwithas i f waiting t o b e p l o u g h e d b y t h e hand o f m a n . standing their e x t e n t , these savannahs d o n o t exhibit t h e m o n o t o n y o f o u r p l a i n s ; they surround g r o u p s o f rocks and b l o c k s o f granite piled o n o n e another.

O n the very b o r ders o f these plains and this o p e n c o u n t r y , glens are seen scarcely lighted b y the rays o f t h e setting sun, and hollows where t h e h u m i d soil, loaded with arums, heliconias, a n d lianas, manifests at every step the wild fecundity o f nature.

E v e r y w h e r e , j u s t rising above t h e earth, appear t h o s e shelves o f granite c o m p l e t e l y bare, which w e saw at Carichana, a n d which I have already described.

W h e r e springs gush from the b o s o m o f these rocks, verrucarias, psoras, and lichens are fixed o n the d e c o m p o s e d granite, and have there accumulated mould.

L i t t l e euphorbias, p e p e r o m i a s , a n d o t h e r succulent plants, have taken t h e place o f t h e c r y p t o gamous t r i b e s ; and evergreen shrubs, rhexias, and p u r p l e flowered melastomas, form verdant isles amid desert and r o c k y plains. T h e distribution o f these spots, t h e clusters o f small trees with coriaceous a n d shining leaves scattered in the savannahs, t h e limpid rills that d i g channels across t h e rocks, and wind alternately t h r o u g h fertile places a n d over bare shelves o f granite, all call t o mind the m o s t lovely and picturesque plantations and pleasure-grounds o f Europe.

W e seem t o recognise t h e industry o f man, and t h e traces o f cultivation, amid this wild scenery.

T h e lofty mountains that b o u n d t h e horizon o n every side, c o n t r i b u t e also, by their forms and t h e nature o f their vegetation, t o give an extraordinary character t o the landscape. T h e average h e i g h t o f these m o u n t a i n s is n o t m o r e than seven o r eight hundred feet above the surrounding plains. T h e i r summits are r o u n d e d , as f o r the m o s t part in granitic m o u n t a i n s , a n d c o v e r e d with thick forests o f t h e laurel-tribe.

Clusters o f palm-trees,†t h e leaves o f which, curled like feathers, rise majestically at an angle o f seventy degrees, are dispersed amid trees with horizontal b r a n c h e s ; • Views of Nature, p. 153 (Bohn's edition). †El cucurito.

TROPICAL SCENERY.

255

and their bare t r u n k s , like c o l u m n s o f a h u n d r e d o r a h u n d r e d and t w e n t y feet high, s h o o t u p i n t o t h e air, and when seen in distinct relief against the azure vault o f the sky, they resemble a forest planted u p o n a n o t h e r forest.

W h e n , as the m o o n was going down b e h i n d the m o u n t a i n s o f U n i a n a , her reddish disc was hidden b e h i n d t h e p i n n a t e d foliage o f t h e p a l m - t r e e s , and again appeared in t h e aerial z o n e that separates the t w o forests, I thought m y s e l f t r a n s p o r t e d for a few m o m e n t s t o t h e h e r m i t a g e which B e r n a r d i n de Saint-Pierre has described as o n e o f the m o s t delicious scenes o f t h e I s l e o f B o u r b o n , and I felt h o w m u c h t h e a s p e c t o f t h e plants and their g r o u p i n g s r e s e m b l e d each o t h e r in the t w o w o r l d s .

I n d e s c r i b i n g a small s p o t o f land in an island o f the I n d i a n O c e a n , the inimitable author o f Paul and V i r g i n i a has s k e t c h e d the vast p i c t u r e o f the landscape o f the t r o p i c s .

H e k n e w h o w t o paint n a t u r e , n o t b e c a u s e ho had studied it scientifically, b u t because he felt it in all its h a r m o n i o u s analogies o f f o r m s , c o l o u r s , a n d interior p o w e r s .

East o f the A t u r e s , near these r o u n d e d m o u n t a i n s c r o w n e d , as it w e r e , b y t w o s u p e r i m p o s e d forests o f laurels and palms, o t h e r m o u n t a i n s o f a very different aspect arise.

Their r i d g e is bristled with p o i n t e d r o c k s , t o w e r i n g like pillars a b o v e the s u m m i t s o f t h e trees and shrubs.

These effects are c o m m o n t o all granitic table-lands, at the H a r z , in the metalliferous m o u n t a i n s o f B o h e m i a , in Galicia, o n t h e limit o f the t w o Castiles, o r w h e r e v e r a g r a n i t e o f n e w formation appears a b o v e t h e g r o u n d .

T h e rocks, which are at distances f r o m each o t h e r , are c o m p o s e d o f b l o c k s p i l e d t o g e t h e r , o r divided i n t o regular and horizontal b e d s .

On the summits o f t h o s e situated near the O r i n o c o , flamingos, soldados * and o t h e r fishing-birds p e r c h , and look like m e n p o s t e d as sentinels.

T h i s r e s e m b l a n c e is so striking, that t h e inhabitants o f A n g o s t u r a , s o o n after t h e f o u n d a t i o n o f their c i t y , w e r e o n e day alarmed b y the s u d d e n appearance o f soldados and garzas, o n a m o u n t a i n t o w a r d s t h e s o u t h .

T h e y believed they were menaced with an attack o f Indios monteros (wild I n d i a n s called mountaineers) ; and the people were n o t perfectly tranquillized, till they saw t h e b i r d s soar* The soldado (soldier) is a large species of heron.

256

LUXURIANCE OF VEGETATION.

ing in the air, and c o n t i n u i n g their migration towards the mouths of the Orinoco.

T h e fine v e g e t a t i o n o f the mountains spreads over the plains, wherever t h e rock is c o v e r e d with m o u l d .

We generally find that this black mould, mixed with fibrous vegetable matter, is separated from the granitic rock b y a layer o f white sand. T h e missionary assured us that verdure o f perpetual freshness prevails in the vicinity o f the cataracts, produced by the quantity o f vapour which the river, broken into torrents and cascades for the length o f three o r four thousand toises, diffuses in the air.

W e had n o t heard t h u n d e r m o r e than o n c e o r t w i c e at A t u r e s , and the vegetation every where displayed that vigorous aspect, that, brilliancy o f colour, seen on the coast only at the end o f the rainy season. T h e old trees were decorated with beautiful orchideas,* yellow bannisterias, blue-flowered bignonias, peperomias, arums, and pothoses. A single t r u n k displays a greater variety o f vegetable forms than are c o n tained within an extensive space o f g r o u n d in o u r countries.

Close to the parasite plants peculiar to very hot climates we observed, not without surprise, in the centre o f the torrid z o n e , and near the level o f the sea, mosses resembling in every respect those of Europe. W e gathered, near the G r e a t Cataract of Atures, that line specimen of Grimmia † with fontinalis leaves, which has so much fixed the attention o f botanists.

It is suspended t o t h e branches o f the loftiest trees.

O f the p h a n e r o g a m o u s plants, those which prevail in the w o o d y spots are the mimosa, ficus, and laurinea.

This fact is the m o r e characteristic as, a c c o r d i n g t o t h e observations of Mr. B r o w , the laurineæ appear to be almost entirely wanting on the opposite c o n t i n e n t , in the equinoctial part o f Africa. Plants that love humidity adorn the scenery surrounding the cataracts. W e there find in the plains g r o u p s o f heliconias and other scitamineæ with large and glossy leaves, b a m b o o s , and the three palm-trees, the murichi, * Cymbidium violaceum, Habenaria angustifolia, &c. † Grimmia fontinaloïdes.

Sec Hooker's Musci Exotici, 1818, tab. ii.

The learned author of the Monography of the Jungermanniæ ( M r . Jackson Hooker), with noble disinterestedness, published at his own expense, in L o n d o n , the whole collection of cryptogamous plants, brought by Bonpland and Humboldt from the equinoctiai regions of America.

257

STATELY PALM-TREES.

jagua, and vadgiai, each o f which forms a separate g r o u p .

T h e murichi, or mauritia with scaly fruits, is the celebrated sago-tree o f the G u a r a o n Indians. I t has palmate leaves, and has n o relation t o t h e palm-trees with pinnate and curled leaves ; t o the jagua, which appears t o b e a species o f the cocoa-tree ; o r t o the vadgiai o r cucurito, which may b e assimilated t o t h e fine species O r e o d o x a . T h e c u c u r i t o , which is t h e palm m o s t prevalent around the cataracts o f the A t u r e s and M a y p u r e s , is remarkable for its stateliness.

I t s leaves, o r rather its palms, c r o w n a trunk o f eighty o r o n e hundred feet high ; their direction is almost perpendicular w h e n y o u n g , as well as at their full g r o w t h , the points only being incurvated. T h e y look like plumes o f the m o s t soft and verdant green. T h e cucurito, the pirijao, the fruit o f which resembles the apricot, t h e O r e o d o x a regia o r palma real o f the island o f C u b a , and the c e r o x y l o n o f t h e high A n d e s , are the m o s t majestic o f all the palm-trees w e saw in the N e w W o r l d .

A s w e advance t o w a r d t h e t e m perate zone, the plants o f this family decrease in size and b e a u t y . W h a t a difference b e t w e e n t h e species w e have j u s t m e n t i o n e d , and t h e date-tree o f t h e East, which u n f o r tunately has b e c o m e to the landscape painters o f Europe the t y p e o f a g r o u p o f palm-trees !

I t is n o t suprising that persons w h o have travelled only in the north o f Africa, in Sicily, o r in Spain, cannot conceive that, o f all large trees, the palm is the m o s t grand and beautiful in form. I n c o m p l e t e analogies prevent Europeans from having a j u s t idea o f the aspect o f the torrid z o n e . A l l the world k n o w s , for instance, that this zone is embellished b y the contrasts exhibited in the foliage o f the trees, and particularly b y the great n u m b e r o f those with pinnate leaves. T h e ash, the service-tree, the inga, the acacia o f t h e U n i t e d States, the gleditsia, the tamarind, the mimosa, the desmanthus, have all pinnate leaves, with foliolĂŚ m o r e o r less long, slender, t o u g h , and shining. B u t can a g r o u p o f ash-trees, o f service-trees, o r o f sumach, recall the picturesque effect o f tamarinds o r mimosas, w h e n t h e azure o f t h e sky appears through their small, slender, and delicately pinnated leaves? T h e s e considerations are m o r e important than t h e y may at first seem. T h e forms o f plants determine t h e p h y s i o g n o m y o f nature ; and this p h y s i o g n o m y influences the VOL. I I .

S

258

RAPIDS OF ATURES.

moral dispositions o f nations.

Every type comprehends species, which, while exhibiting t h e same general appearance, differ in the varied d e v e l o p m e n t o f the similar organs.

T h e palm-trees, the scitamineĂŚ, the malvaceĂŚ, the trees with pinnate leaves, d o n o t all display the same picturesque b e a u t i e s ; and generally the most beautiful species o f each t y p e , in plants as in animals, b e l o n g t o the equinoctial zone.

T h e proteaceaĂŚ, c r o t o n s , agaves, and the great tribe o f the cactuses, which inhabit exclusively the N e w W o r l d , disappear gradually, as w e ascend the O r i n o c o above the A pure and the M e t a . I t is, however, the shade and humidity, rather than the distance from the coast, which oppose t h e migration o f the cactuses southward. W e found forests o f them mingled with c r o t o n s , covering a great space o f arid land t o the east o f the A n d e s , in the province o f Bracamoros, t o w a r d s the U p p e r M a r a n o n . T h e arborescent ferns s e e m t o fail entirely near the cataracts o f the O r i n o c o ; we found n o species as far as San F e r n a n d o de A t a b a p o , that is, t o the confluence o f the O r i n o c o and the Guaviare.

Having n o w examined the vicinity o f the A t u r e s , it r e mains for m e to speak o f the rapids themselves, which o c c u r in a part o f t h e valley where the b e d o f the river, deeply ingulfed, has almost inaccessible b a n k s . I t was o n l y in a very few spots that w e could enter the O r i n o c o to bathe, b e t w e e n the t w o cataracts, in coves where the waters have eddies o f little velocity.

Persons w h o have dwelt in the A l p s , the P y r e n e e s , o r even the Cordilleras, so celebrated for the fractures and the vestiges o f destruction which t h e y display at every step, can scarcely picture to t h e m selves, from a m e r e narration, the state of the b e d o f the river. I t is traversed, in an extent o f more than live miles, b y innumerable dikes o f r o c k , f o r m i n g so many natural dams, so many barriers resembling those o f the D n i e p e r , winch the ancients designated by the n a m e o f phragmoi..

The space bet ween the rocky dikes o f the O r i n o c o is filled with islands o f different d i m e n s i o n s ; s o m e billy, divided into several peaks, and t w o o r three hundred toises in length, others small, low, and like mere shoals.

These islands divide the river into a number o f torrents, which boil up as * Ropalas, which characterise the vegetation of the Llanos.

259

RAUDAL OF CANUCARI.

they break against the r o c k s . T h e jaguas and cucuritos with plumy leaves, with which all the islands are covered, в е е т like groves o f palm-trees rising from the foamy surface o f the waters. T h e I n d i a n s , whose task it is t o pass the boats e m p t y over the raudales, distinguish every shelf, and every rock, b y a particular name. O n entering from the south y o u find first the L e a p o f the T o u c a n (Salto del P i a p o c o ) ; and between the islands o f A v a g u r i and Javariveni is the Raudal o f Javariveni, w h e r e , on o u r return from Rio N e g r o , w e passed some hours amid the rapids, waiting for o u r boat.

A great part o f the river appeared dry. B l o c k s o f granite are neaped t o g e t h e r , as in the moraines which the glaciers o f Switzerland drive before t h e m . T h e river is ingulfed in c a v e r n s ; and in one o f these caverns we heard the water roll at o n c e over o u r heads and beneath o u r feet. T h e O r i n o c o seems divided into a multitude o f arms o r torrents, each o f which seeks t o force a passage t h r o u g h the r o c k s .

We w e r e struck with the little water t o be seen in t h e bed o f t h e river, the frequency o f subterraneous falls, and the t u m u l t o f the waters breaking on the rocks in foam.

Cuncta fremunt undis ; ac multo murmure montis Spumeus invictis canescit fluctibus amnis.* H a v i n g passed the Raudal o f Javariveni ( I name here o n l y the principal falls) w e c o m e t o the liaudal o f Canucari, formed by a l e d g e o f rocks uniting the islands o f Surupamana and Uirapuri.

W h e n the dikes, o r natural dams, are o n l y t w o o r three feet high, the Indians venture t o descend them in boats. In g o i n g up the river, they swim o n before, and if, after many vain efforts, they succeed in fixing a r o p e t o o n e o f the points o f rock that c r o w n the dike, they then, b y means o f that r o p e , draw the bark t o the t o p o f the raudal. T h e bark, during this arduous task, often fills with w a t e r ; at other times it is stove against the r o c k s , and the I n d i a n s , their bodies bruised and bleeding, extricate t h e m ­ selves with difficulty from the whirlpools, and reach, b y swimming, the nearest island. W h e n the steps o r r o c k y barriers are very h i g h , and entirely b a r the river, light b o a t s are carried on shore, and with the help o f branches o f trees * Lucan, Pharsalia, lib. x, v. 132. s 2

260

NAVIGATION

OF

THE

RAPIDS.

placed under them to serve as rollers, they are drawn as far as the place where the river again becomes navigable.

This operation is seldom necessary when the water is high.

We c a n n o t speak o f the cataracts o f the O r i n o c o w i t h o u t recalling to mind the manner heretofore e m p l o y e d for descending the cataracts o f the Nile, o f which Seneca has left us a description probably m o r e poetical than accurate. I shall cite the passage, which traces with fidelity what may b e seen every day at A t u r e s , M a y p u r e s , and in some pongos o f t h e Amazon. " T w o men embark in a small b o a t ; o n e steers, and the other empties it as it fills with water. L o n g buffeted b y the rapids, the whirlpools, and t h e contrary currents, they pass through the narrowest channels, avoid the shoals, and rush down the whole river, guiding the course o f t h o boat in its accelerated f a l l . " * I n hydrographic descriptions o f countries, t h e v a g u e names o f cataracts, cascades, falls, and rapids. † d e n o t i n g those t u m u l t u o u s m o v e m e n t s o f water which arise from very different circumstances, are generally c o n f o u n d e d with one another.

Sometimes a whole river precipitating itself from a great height, and by one single fall, renders navigation impossible.

Such is the majestic fall o f the Rio Tequendama, which I have represented in m y " V i e w s o f the C o r d i l l e r a s ; ' such are t h e falls o f Niagara and o f the Rhine, much less remarkable for their elevation, than for the mass o f water they contain. Sometimes s t o n y dikes o f small height succeed each other at great distances, and form distinct falls; such are the cachoeiras o f the Rio N e g r o and the Rio Madeira, the saltos o f the Rio Cauca, and the greater part o f the pongos that are f o u n d in the Upper Marañon, from the confluence o f the Chinchipe t o the village o f San Borja. T h e highest and m o s t formidable o f these pongos, which are descended o n rafts, that o f Mayasi, is however only three feet in height.

Sometimes small rocky dikes are so near each other that they form for several miles an uninterrupted succession o f cascades and whirlpools (chorros and remolinos) ; these are properly * Nat. Quæst., lib. iv, cap. 2. (edit. Elzev., tom. ii, p. 609.) † The corresponding terms in use among the people of South America, re saltos, chorros, pongos , cachoeiras, and raudales.

IMPEDIMENTS TO NAVIGATION.

261

what are called rapids (raudales).

Such are yellalas, o r rapids o f the River Z a i r e , * o r C o n g o , which Captain T u c k e y has recently made k n o w n t o u s ; the rapids o f the O r a n g e River in Africa, above Pella; and the falls o f the M i s s o u r i , which are f o u r leagues in l e n g t h , where the river issues from t h e R o c k y M o u n t a i n s . S u c h also are t h e cataracts o f Atures and M a y p u r e s ; the o n l y cataracts which, situated in the equinoctial region o f t h e N e w W o r l d , are adorned with the n o b l e g r o w t h o f palm-trees. A t all seasons they exhibit the aspect o f cascades, and present the greatest obstacles to the navigation o f the O r i n o c o , while the rapids o f the O h i o and o f U p p e r E g y p t arc scarcely visible at the period o f floods. A solitary cataract, like Niagara, o r the cascade o f Terni, affords a grand but single picture, varying only as the observer changes his place. R a p i d s , o n t h e contrary, especially when adorned with large trees, e m b e l lish a landscape during a l e n g t h o f several leagues.

Sometimes the t u m u l t u o u s m o v e m e n t o f the waters is caused o n l y b y extraordinary contractions o f t h e b e d s o f the rivers.

Such is the angostura o f Carare, in t h e river M a g d a l e n a , a strait that impedes c o m m u n i c a t i o n b e t w e e n Santa FĂŠ de B o g o t a and the coast o f C a r t h a g e n a ; and such is the ponge o f M a n s e r i c h e , in the U p p e r M a r a n o n .

T h e O r i n o c o , the Rio N e g r o , and almost all the c o n fluents o f the A m a z o n and the M a r a n o n , have falls o r rapids, either because they cross the mountains where they take rise, o r because they m e e t o t h e r mountains in their c o u r s e .

I f the A m a z o n , from the pongo o f M a n s e r i c h e ( o r , to speak with m o r e precision, from the pongo o f T a y u c h u c ) as far as its m o u t h , a space o f more than seven hundred and fifty leagues, exhibit no t u m u l t u o u s movement o f the waters, the river o w e s this advantage t o t h e uniform direction o f its c o u r s e . I t flows from west t o east in a vast plain, forming * Voyage to explore the River Zaire, 1818, p p . 152, 3 2 7 , 340. W h a t the inhabitants of Upper Egypt and Nubia call chellal in the Nile, is called yellala in the River C o n g o . This analogy between words signifying rapids is remarkable, on account of the enormous distance of the yellalas of the Congo from the chellâl and djenadel of the Nile.

Did the word chellal penetrate with the M o o r s into the west of A f r i c a ?

If, with Burckhardt, we consider the origin of this word as Arabic (Travels in Nubia, 1819), it must be derived from the root challa, 'to disperse,' which forms chelil, ' water fulling through a narrow channel.'

262

ELEVATION O F

THE

RAUDALES.

a longitudinal valley b e t w e e n the mountains o f Parima and the great mass o f the mountains o f Brazil.

I was surprised to find by actual measurement that the rapids o f the O r i n o c o , the roar o f which is heard at the distance of more than a league, and winch are so eminently picturesque from the varied appearance o f the waters, t h e palm-trees and the r o c k s , have n o t probably, on their w h o l e length, a height o f m o r e than t w e n t y - e i g h t feet p e r p e n dicular. I n reflecting on this, w e find that it is a great deal for rapids, while it would b e very little for a single cataract. T h e Yellalas o f the K i o C o n g o , in the contracted part o f the river from Banza N o k i as far as B a n z a Inga, furnish, between the upper and lower levels, a m u c h m o r e considerable difference; b u t M r . B a r r o w observes, that a m o n g the great n u m b e r o f these rapids there is o n e fall, which alone is thirty feet high.

O n the other hand, t h e famous p o n g o s o f the river A m a z o n , so dangerous t o g o u p , the falls o f Rentema, o f Escurrebragas, and o f M a y a s i , are b u t a few feet in perpendicular height.

T h o s e w h o are engaged in hydraulic works k n o w the effect that a bar o f eighteen or t w e n t y inches' height produces in a great river.

The whirling and tumultuous m o v e m e n t o f the water d o e s n o t depend solely on the greatness o f partial f a l l s ; what determines the force and impetuosity is the nearness of these falls, the steepness of the rocky ledges, the returning sheets o f water which strike against and s u r m o u n t each other, the form o f the islands and shoals, the direction o f the c o u n t e r - c u r r e n t s , and the contraction and sinuosity o f the channels t h r o u g h which the waters force a passage b e t w e e n t w o adjacent levels. I n t w o rivers equally large, that o f which the falls have least height may s o m e t i m e s present the greatest dangers and the most i m p e t u o u s m o v e ments.

I t is probable that the river O r i n o c o loses part o f its waters in the cataracts, n o t only b y increased e v a p o ration, caused b y the dispersion o f m i n u t e d r o p s in the atmosphere, hut still more by filtrations into the subterraneous cavities. These losses, however, are n o t very p e r ceptible when w e c o m p a r e t h e mass o f waters entering into the raudal with that which issues out near the mouth o f the Rio Anaveni. It was b y a similar comparison that the

CAVITIES IN THE

ROCK.

263

e x i s t e n c e o f subterraneous cavities in the yellalas o r rapids o f the river C o n g o was discovered. The pongo of M a n s e riche, which o u g h t rather t o b e called a strait than a fall, ingulfs, in a manner n o t y e t sufficiently explored, a part o f the waters and all the floating w o o d o f the U p p e r M a r a n o n .

T h e spectator, seated o n the bank o f the O r i n o c o , with his eyes fixed o n those r o c k y dikes, is naturally led t o inquire whether, in the lapse o f ages, t h e falls change their form o r height.

I am n o t m u c h inclined t o believe in such effects o f the shock o f water against b l o c k s o f granite, and in the erosion o f siliceous matter.

T h e holes narrowed t o w a r d the b o t t o m , t h e funnels that are discovered in the muddles, as well as near so many other cascades in E u r o p e , are o w i n g only t o the friction o f t h e sand, and the m o v e m e n t o f quartz pebbles.

W e saw many such, whirled p e r petually by the c u r r e n t at the b o t t o m o f the funnels, and c o n t r i b u t i n g t o enlarge t h e m in every direction.

The pongos o f the river A m a z o n are easily destroyed, because the r o c k y dikes are n o t granite, b u t a c o n g l o m e r a t e , o r red sandstone with large fragments.

A part o f t h e pongo o f R e n t e m a was broken d o w n e i g h t y y e a r s a g o , and the course o f the waters b e i n g i n t e r r u p t e d b y a n e w bar, the bed o f the river remained dry for s o m e hours, t o t h e great astonishm e n t o f the inhabitants o f the village o f Payaya, seven leagues b e l o w the pongo.

T h e I n d i a n s o f A t u r e s assert (and in this their t e s t i m o n y is contrary to t h e o p i n i o n o f C a u l i n ) that the r o c k s o f the raudal preserve the same a s p e c t ; b u t that the partial torrents into which t h e great river divides itself as it passes t h r o u g h the heaped b l o c k s o f granite, change their direction, and carry s o m e t i m e s m o r e , sometimes less w a t e r towards o n e o r the other bank ; b u t the causes o f these c h a n g e s may be very r e m o t e from t h e cataracts, for in the rivers that spread life over t h e surface o f the g l o b e , as in t h e arteries b y w h i c h it is diffused through organized bodies, all the m o v e m e n t s are propagated to great distances.

Oscillations, that at first seem partial, react o n t h e w h o l e liquid mass c o n t a i n e d in the trunk as well as in its n u m e r o u s ramifications.

S o m e o f the Missionaries in their writings have alleged that the inhabitants o f A t u r e s a n d M a y p u r e s have b e e n struck with deafness by the noise o f the G r e a t C a t a r a c t s ;

264

NOCTURNAL

PROPAGATlON

OF SOUNDS.

but this is u n t r u e . W h e n t h e noise is heard in t h e plain that surrounds the mission, at t h e distance o f more than a l e a g u e , y o u seem t o b e near a coast skirted b y reefs a n d breakers. T h e noise is three times as loud b y night as b y day, a n d gives an inexpressible charm t o these solitary scenes.

W h a t can be the cause o f this increased intensity o f s o u n d , in a desert where n o t h i n g seems t o interrupt T h e velocity o f the propagation o f the silence o f n a t u r e ? sound, far from a u g m e n t i n g , decreases with the lowering o f the temperature.

T h e intensity diminishes in air agitated by a wind which is contrary t o t h e direction o f the s o u n d ; it diminishes also b y dilatation o f t h e air, a n d is weaker in the higher than in the lower regions o f t h e atmosphere, where the n u m b e r o f particles o f air in motion is greater in the saint; radius. T h e intensity is the same in dry air, and in air mingled with v a p o u r s ; b u t it is feebler in c a r b o n i c acid gas than in mixtures o f azote and o x y g e n . F r o m these facts, which are all w e know with any certainty, it is difficult t o explain a p h e n o m e n o n observed near every cascade in Europe, and which, long before o u r arrival in the village o f A t u r e s , had struck t h e missionary a n d t h e Indians.

It may be thought that, even in places n o t inhabited b y man, the hum o f insects, the s o n g o f birds, the rustling o f leaves agitated by the feeblest winds, occasion during the day a confused noise, which we perceive the less because it is uniform, and constantly strikes the ear. M o w this n o i s e , however slightly perceptible it may be. may diminish t h e intensity o f a louder noise ; a n d this diminution may cease if during the calm o f the night t h e song o f birds, the h u m o f insects, and the action o f the wind upon t h e leaves b o interrupted.

Hut this reasoning, even admitting its j u s t ness, can scarcely be applied t o the forests o f the O r i n o c o , where the air is constantly filled by an innumerable quantity o f mosquitos, where the hum o f insects is m u c h louder by night than by day, and where the breeze, if ever it be felt, b l o w s only after sunset.

I rather think that the presence o f t h e sun acts upon the propagation and intensity o f sound by the obstacles met in currents o f air o f different density, and by the partial u n dulations o f the atmosphere arising from the unequal heating

OBSTACLES TO THE SOUND-WAVES.

265

of different parts o f the soil. In calm air, whether dry o r mingled with vesicular vapours equally distributed, soundwaves are propagated w i t h o u t difficulty.

B u t w h e n the air is crossed in every direction b y small currents o f hotter air, the sonorous undulation is divided into t w o undulations where the density o f the m e d i u m changes a b r u p t l y ; partial echoes are formed that w e a k e n t h e sound, because o n e o f the streams c o m e s back u p o n itself; and those divisions o f undulations take place o f winch M . Poisson has developed the theory with great sagacity.* I t is n o t therefore the m o v e m e n t o f the particles o f air from b e l o w t o above in the ascending current, o r the small oblique currents that w e consider as o p p o s i n g b y a shock the propagation o f t h e sonorous undulations. A shock given t o the surface o f a . liquid will form circles around the centre o f percussion, even when the liquid is agitated.

Several kinds o f u n d u lations may cross each other in water, as in air, without b e i n g disturbed in their propagation : little movements may, as it were, ride over each other, and the real cause o f the less intensity o f sound during the day appears to be the interruption o f h o m o g e n e i t y in the elastic m e d i u m .

During the day there is a sudden interruption o f density wherever small streamlets o f air o f a high temperature rise over parts o f the soil unequally heated. T h e sonorous undulations are divided, as the rays o f light are refracted and form t h e mirage wherever strata o f air o f unequal density are c o n tiguous.

T h e propagation o f sound is altered w h e n a stratum o f hydrogen gas is made to rise in a t u b e closed at o n e end a b o v e a stratum o f atmospheric a i r ; and M .

B i o t has well explained, by the interposition o f bubbles o f carbonic acid gas, why a glass filled with champagne is n o t sonorous so l o n g as that gas is evolved, and passing through the st rata o f t he liquid.

I n support o f these ideas, I might almost rest o n t h e authority o f an ancient philosopher, w h o m the m o d e r n s d o n o t esteem in proportion to his merits, t h o u g h the m o s t distinguished zoologists have l o n g rendered ample justice to t h e sagacity o f his observations. " W h y , " says Aristotle in his curious b o o k o f Problems, " w h y is sound b e t t e r heard * Annales de Chimie, tom. vii, p. 293.

266

HOMES OF THE NATIVES.

during the n i g h t ?

B e c a u s e there is more calmness o n a c c o u n t o f the absence o f caloric (of the hottest).* This absence renders every thing calmer, for the sun is the p r i n ciple o f all m o v e m e n t . " A r i s t o t l e had n o d o u b t a vague presentiment o f the cause o f t h e p h e n o m e n o n ; b u t he attrib u t e s to the m o t i o n o f the atmosphere, and the shock o f t h e particles o f air, that which seems t o b e rather o w i n g t o abrupt changes o f density in t h e c o n t i g u o u s strata o f air.

On the 16th o f April, towards evening, we received tidings that in less than six hours o u r boat had passed the rapids, and had arrived in g o o d condition in a cove called el Puerto de arriba, o r the Fort of the Expedition.

W e were s h o w n in the little c h u r c h o f A t u r e s s o m e remains o f the ancient wealth o f the Jesuits. A silver lamp o f considerable w e i g h t lay on the g r o u n d half-buried in the sand.

Such an o b j e c t , it is true, w o u l d n o w h e r e t e m p t the cupidity o f a s a v a g e ; y e t I may here remark, t o the h o n o r of the natives o f the O r i n o c o , that they are not addicted to stealing, like the less savage tribes o f the islands in the Pacific. The former have a great respect for p r o p e r t y ; they do n o t even a t t e m p t t o steal provision, h o o k s , o r hatchets. A t M a y p u r e s and A t u r e s , locks o n doors are u n k n o w n : they will be i n t r o d u c e d only when whites and m e n o f mixed race establish themselves in the missions.

T h e Indians o f Atures are mild and moderate, and a c c u s t o m e d , from the effects o f their idleness, to the greatest p r i vations. F o r m e r l y , b e i n g excited t o labour by the J e s u i t s , they did n o t want for food.

T h e fathers cultivated maize, French beans ( f r i j o l e s ) , and other European v e g e t a b l e s ; they even planted sweet oranges and tamarinds r o u n d t h o villages; and they possessed twenty or thirty thousand head o f c o w s and horses, in the savannahs of A t u r e s a n d * I have placed in a parenthesis, a literal version of the term employed

by Aristotle, to express in reality what we now term the matter of heat.

Theodore of Gaza, in bis Latin translation, expresses in the shape o f a doubt what Aristotle positively asserts. I may here remark, that, notwithstanding the imperfect state of science among the ancients, the works of the Stagirite contain more ingenious observations than those of many later philosophers. It is in vain we look in Aristoxenes (De Musica), in Theophylactus Simocatta ( D e QuĂŚstionibus physicis), or in the .5th Book of the QuĂŚst. Nat. of Seneca, for un explanation of the nocturnal augmentation of sound

DESTRUCTION OF THE JESUIT MISSIONS.

267

Carichana. T h e y had at their sendee a great n u m b e r o f slaves and servants ( p e o n e s ) , t o tend their herds.

Nothing is n o w cultivated b u t a little cassava, and a few plantains.

Such however is the fertility o f the soil, that at A t u r e s I c o u n t e d on a single branch o f a musa o n e hundred and eight fruits, four o r live of which w o u l d almost have sufficed for a man's daily food. T h e culture o f maize is entirely n e g l e c t e d , and the horses and c o w s have entirely disappeared.

Near the raudal, a part o f the village still bears the name o f P a s s o del ganado (ford o f the c a t t l e ) , while the descendants o f those very Indians w h o m the Jesuits had assembled in a mission, speak o f horned cattle as o f animals o f a race n o w lost. I n g o i n g up the O r i n o c o , t o w a r d San Carlos del Bio N e g r o , we saw the last c o w at Carichana. T h e Fathers o f the O b s e r v a n c e , w h o n o w govern these vast countries, did n o t immediately succeed the Jesuits. D u r i n g an i n t e r r e g n u m o f eighteen years, the missions w e r e visited o n l y from time t o t i m e , and b y Capuchin m o n k s . T h e agents o f the secular g o v e r n m e n t , under the title o f R o y a l C o m m i s sioners, managed the hatos o r farms o f the Jesuits with culpable negligence.

T h e y killed the cattle for the sake o f selling the hides. M a n y heifers were devoured b y the jaguars, and a great n u m b e r perished in c o n s e q u e n c e o f w o u n d s made b y the bats o f the raudales, which, t h o u g h smaller, are far bolder than the bats o f the L l a n o s . A t tho time o f the expedition o f the boundaries, horses from E n c a ramada, Carichana, and A t u r e s , were c o n v e y e d as far as San J o s e de Maravitanos, where, on the banks o f the R i o N e g r o , t h e P o r t u g u e s e c o u l d only procure t h e m , after a l o n g passage, and o f a very inferior quality, b y the rivers A m a z o n and G r a n d Para. Since the year 1 7 9 5 , the cattle o f the Jesuits have entirely disappeared.

T h e r e n o w remain as m o n u m e n t s o f the ancient cultivation o f these c o u n t r i e s , and the active industry o f the first missionaries, only a few trunks o f t h o orange and tamarind, in the savannahs, s u r r o u n d e d b y wild trees.

T h e tigers, o r jaguars, which are less dangerous for t h e cattle than the bats, come into the village at A t u r e s , and d e v o u r the swine o f the p o o r I n d i a n s . T h e missionary related t o us a striking instance o f the familiarity o f these animals, usually so ferocious. Some m o n t h s before o u r

268

PLAYFULNESS OF A JAGUAR.

arrival, a j a g u a r , which was t h o u g h t t o b e y o u n g , t h o u g h o f a large size, had w o u n d e d a child in playing with him.

The facts o f this case, which were verified to us on the s p o t , are n o t w i t h o u t interest in the history o f the manners of animals. T w o I n d i a n children, a b o y and a girl, a b o u t eight and n i n e years o f age, were seated on the grass near the village o f A t u r e s , in the middle o f a savannah, which w e several times traversed.

A t t w o o ' c l o c k in the aftern o o n , a j a g u a r issued from the forest, and approached the children, b o u n d i n g around t h e m ; sometimes he hid himself in the high grass, sometimes he sprang forward, his back b e n t , his head hung d o w n , in the manner o f o u r cats.

The little b o y , ignorant o f bis danger, seemed t o b e sensible o f it only when the jaguar with o n e o f his paws gave him s o m e blows o n the head.

T h e s e b l o w s , at first slight, b e c a m e ruder and r u d e r ; the claws o f the j a g u a r w o u n d e d the child, and the blood flowed freely.

T h e little girl t h e n t o o k a branch o f a tree, struck the animal, and it fled from her.

T h e Indians r a n up at the cries o f the children, and saw the jaguar, which then b o u n d e d off w i t h o u t m a k i n g the least show o f resistance.

T h e little boy was b r o u g h t t o us, w h o appeared lively and intelligent.

T h e claw o f the jaguar had torn away the skin from the lower part o f the forehead, and there was a second s c a r at the top of the head.

This was a singular fit o f playfulness in an animal which, t h o u g h n o t difficult t o b e tamed in o u r menageries, nevertheless shows itself always wild and ferocious in its natural state.

If w e admit that, b e i n g sure o f its prey, it played with the little Indian a s o u r cats [day with birds whose wings have been c l i p p e d , how shall we explain the patience o f a j a g u a r o f large size, which finds itself attacked b y a girl ? If the jaguar were n o t pressed by hunger, why did it approach the children at all ? T h e r e is s o m e t h i n g mysterious in the affections and hatreds o f animals.

W e have known lions kill three o r four dogs that were put into their den, and instantly caress a fifth, which, less timid, t o o k the king o f animals b y the mane. T h e s e are instincts o f which we k n o w not the secret.

W e have mentioned that d o m e s t i c pigs are attacked by the j a g u a r s .

T h e r e are in these c o u n t r i e s , besides t h e

HERDS OF WILD SWINE.

269

c o m m o n swine o f European race, several species o f peccaries, o r pigs with lumbar glands, two o f which only are k n o w n t o the naturalists o f Europe. T h e Indians call the little peccary ( D i c o t i l e s torquatus, C u v . ) , in the M a y p u r e t o n g u e , chacharo; while they give the name o f apida to a species o f p i g which they say has no p o u c h , is larger, and o f a dark b r o w n colour, with the belly and l o w e r j a w white.

The chacharo, reared in the houses, b e c o m e s tame like o u r sheep and goats. I t reminds u s , b y the gentleness o f its manners, o f the curious analogies which anatomists have o b s e r v e d b e t w e e n the peccaries and the ruminating animals.

The apida, which is domesticated like o u r swine in E u r o p e , wanders in large herds c o m p o s e d o f several hundreds.

The presence o f these herds is a n n o u n c e d from afar, n o t o n l y b y their hoarse g r u n t i n g s , b u t above all b y the i m p e t u o s i t y with which they break down the shrubs in their w a y .

M. Bonpland, in an herborizing excursion, warned b y his Indian g u i d e t o hide himself behind the t r u n k o f a t r e e , saw a n u m b e r o f these peccaries (cochinos o r puercos del monte) pass close b y him. T h e herd marched in a close b o d y , the males p r o c e e d i n g first; and each sow was a c c o m panied b y her y o u n g .

T h e flesh o f the chacharo is flabby, and n o t very a g r e e a b l e ; it aflbrds, h o w e v e r , a plentiful n o u r i s h m e n t t o t h e natives, w h o kill these animals w i t h small lances tied t o c o r d s .

W e were assured at A t u r e s , that the tiger dreads b e i n g surrounded in the forests b y these herds o f wild p i g s ; and that, to avoid being stilled, he tries t o save himself b y climbing u p a t r e e . I s this a hunter's tale, o r a fact that has really been observed ?

In several parts o f A m e r i c a the hunters believe in the existence o f a javali, o r native boar with tusks curved outwardly.

I never saw o n e , b u t this animal is m e n t i o n e d in the w o r k s o f the Spanish missionaries, a source t o o m u c h n e g l e c t e d by z o o l o g i s t s ; for amidst much incorrectness and extravagance, they contain many curious local observations.

A m o n g the m o n k e y s which w e saw at the mission o f t h e A t u r e s , we f o u n d o n e n e w species, o f the tribe o f sais and sajous, which t h e Creoles vulgarly call machis. I t is t h e a v a v a p a v i with g r e y hair and a bluish face. I t has t h e orbits o f the eyes and the forehead as white as s n o w , a peculiarity which at first sight distinguishes it from the

270

THE

W I L D MAN OF T H E WOODS.

Simia capucina, the Simia apella, the Simia trepida, and the Other w e e p i n g m o n k e y s hitherto so confusedly described.

This little animal is as gentle as it is ugly. A monkey of this species, which was k e p t in the courtyard o f the missionary, would frequently m o u n t on the back of a pig, and in this manner traverse the savannahs. W e have also seen it upon the back of a large cat, which had b e e n b r o u g h t u p with it in Father Z e a ' s house.

I t was a m o n g the cataracts that w o b e g a n t o hear o f the hairy man of the w o o d s , called salvaje, that carries off w o m e n , c o n s t r u c t s huts, and sometimes eats h u m a n flesh.

T h o Tamanacs call it achi, and the M a y p u r e s vasitri, o r ' g r e a t devil.' T h e natives and the missionaries have n o d o u b t of the existence of this man-shaped m o n k e y , o f which t h e y entertain a singular dread. F a t h e r Gili gravely relates t h e history of a lady in the t o w n of San Carlos, in the L l a n o s of V e n e z u e l a , w h o much praised the gentle character and attentions of the man of the w o o d s .

She is stated t o have lived several years with one in great domestic harmony, and only requested s o m e hunters to take her back, " b e c a u s e she and her children (a little hairy also) w e r e weary o f living far from the church and the s a c r a m e n t s . " T h e same author, notwithstanding his credulity, acknowledges that he never knew an Indian who asserted positively that he had seen the salvaje with his own e y e s . This wild l e g e n d , which the missionaries, the European planters, and t h e n e g r o e s o f Africa, have no d o u b t embellished with many features taken from the description o f the manners o f tho o r a n g - o t a n g , * the g i b b o n , the j o c k o or chimpanzee, and the p o n g o , followed us, during five years, from the northern t o the southern hemisphere.

W e were everywhere blamed, in the m o s t cultivated class of society, for b e i n g the o n l y persons to d o u b t the existence of the great a n t h r o p o m o r p h o u s * Simia satyrus. We must not believe, notwithstanding the assertions o f almost all zoological writers, that the word orang-otang is applied exclusively in the Malay language to the Simia satyrus of Borneo.

This expression, on the contrary, means any very large monkey, that resembles man in figure. (Marsden's Hist. of Sumatra, 3rd edit., p. 117.) M o d e r n zoologists have arbitrarily appropriated provincial names to certain species; and by continuing to prefer these names, strangely disfigured in their orthography, to the Latin systematic names, the confusion of the nomenclature bus been increased.

SINGULAR LEGENDS.

271

m o n k e y o f A m e r i c a . T h e r e are certain regions where this belief i s particularly prevalent a m o n g the p e o p l e ; such are the banks of the U p p e r O r i n o c o , the valley o f U p a r near the lake o f M a r a c a y b o , the mountains o f Santa M a r t h a and o f M e r i d a , the provinces o f Q u i x o s , and the banks o f the A m a z o n near T o m e p e n d a . I n all these places, so distant o n o from the other, it is asserted that the salvaje is easily recognized by the traces o f its feet, the toes o f which are t u r n e d backward. B u t if there exist a m o n k e y o f a large size in the N e w C o n t i n e n t , h o w has it h a p p e n e d that for three centuries n o man w o r t h y o f belief has b e e n able t o p r o c u r e the skin o f o n e ? Several hypotheses present t h e m selves to the mind, in order t o explain the source o f so ancient an error or belief. Has the famous capuchin m o n k e y o f Esmeralda (Simia c h i r o p o t e s ) , with its l o n g canine teeth, and p h y s i o g n o m y m u c h m o r e like m a n ' s * than that o f the orang-otang, given rise t o the fable o f the salvaje ?

I t is n o t so large indeed as the coaĂŻta (Simia paniscus) ; b u t w h e n seen at the t o p o f a tree, and the h e a d only visible, it m i g h t easily be taken for a human b e i n g . I t may b e also (and this opinion appears to m e the m o s t p r o b a b l e ) that the ' man o f the w o o d s ' was o n e o f those large bears, the footsteps o f which resemble those o f a man, and which are believed in every c o u n t r y t o attack w o m e n . T h e animal killed in m y time at the f o o t o f the mountains o f M e r i d a , and sent, b y the name o f salvaje, t o Colonel U n g a r o , the g o v e r n o r o f the province o f Varinas, was in fact a bear with black and smooth fur. O u r fellow-traveller, D o n N i c o l a s S o t o , had examined it closely. D i d the strange idea o f a plantigrade animal, the toes o f which are placed as if it walked backward, take its origin from the habit o f the real savages o f the w o o d s , the Indians o f the weakest and m o s t timid tribes, o f deceiving their enemies, w h e n they e n t e r a forest, or cross a sandy shore, b y covering the traces o f their feet with sand, o r walking backward ?

T h o u g h I have expressed m y d o u b t s o f the existence o f an u n k n o w n species o f large m o n k e y in a c o n t i n e n t which appears entirely destitute o f quadrumanous animals o f the family o f the orangs, cynocephali, mandrils, and p o n g o s ; y e t * The whole of the feutures—the expression o f the physiognomy ; b u t not the forehead.

272

PLAGUE OF MOSQUITOS.

it should bo r e m e m b e r e d that almost all matters o f popular belief, even those most absurd in appearance, rest on real facts, but facts ill observed. I n treating them with disdain, the traces of a discovery may often b e lost, in natural p h i l o sophy as well as in zoology. W e will not then admit, with a Spanish author, that the fable of the ' m a n o f the w o o d s ' was invented by the artifice of Indian w o m e n , w h o p r e t e n d e d to have b e e n carried off, w h e n they had b e e n l o n g absent u n k n o w n to their husbands. Travellers w h o may hereafter visit the missions of the O r i n o c o will d o well t o follow up o u r researches on the salvaje or great devil o f the woods; and examine whether it be some u n k n o w n species o f bear, or s o m e very rare monkey analogous to the Simia chiropotes, or Simia satanas, which may have given rise t o such singular tales.

A f t e r having spent t w o days near the cataract o f A t u r e s , we w e r e n o t sorry when o u r boat was reladen, and we were enabled t o leave a spot where the temperature of the air is generally by day t w e n t y - n i n e d e g r e e s , and by night twenty-six degrees, o f the centigrade t h e r m o m e t e r .

This temperature seemed to us to be still much more elevated, from the feeling of heat which we experienced.

T h e want o f c o n c o r d a n c e between the instruments and the sensations must be attributed to the continual irritation o f the skin excited by the mosquitos.

An atmosphere filled with venom o u s insects always appears t o b e more heated than it is in reality.

W e were horribly t o r m e n t e d in the day by mosquitos and the jejen, a small v e n o m o u s fly ( s i m u l i u m ) , and at night by the zancudos, a large species o f gnat, dreaded even by the natives.

O u r hands began to swell considerably, and this swelling increased daily till o u r arrival on the banks o f the T e m i .

T h e means that are e m p l o y e d to escape from these little plagues are very extraordinary.

T h e good missionary Bernardo Zea, who passed his life tormented by mosquitos, had constructed near the church, on a scaffolding o f trunks o f palm-trees, a small apartment, in which we breathed m o r e freely.

T o this w e w e n t up in the evening, by means o f a ladder, to dry our plants and write our journal.

T h e missionary had justly observed, that the injects abounded more particularly in the lowest strata o f the atmosphere, that which reaches from t h e

PLAGA

D E LAS

273

MOSCAS.

g r o u n d to the height o f twelve o r fifteen feet. A t M a y pures the Indians quit the village at night, to g o and sleep on the little islets in the midst o f the cataracts.

There t h e y enjoy some r e s t ; the mosquitos appearing t o shun air loaded with vapours. W e found everywhere fewer in the middle o f the river than near its b a n k s ; and thus less is suffered in descending the O r i n o c o than in g o i n g u p in a boat.

T e r s o n s w h o have n o t navigated t h e great rivers of equinoctial A m e r i c a , for instance, the O r i n o c o and the M a g d a l e n a , can scarcely conceive how, at every instant, w i t h o u t intermission, y o u may be t o r m e n t e d b y insects flying in the a i r ; and h o w the multitude o f these little animals may render vast regions almost uninhabitable.

W h a t e v e r fortitude b e exercised t o endure pain without complaint, whatever interest may be felt in the objects o f scientific research, it is impossible n o t t o be constantly disturbed b y the mosquitos, zancudos, j e j e n s , and tempraneros, that cover the face and hands, pierce the clothes with their l o n g needle-formed suckers, and g e t t i n g into the m o u t h and nostrils, occasion c o u g h i n g and sneezing whenever any attempt is made t o speak in the o p e n air.

I n the missions o f the O r i n o c o , in the villages o n the banks o f the river, surrounded by immense forests, the plaga de las moscas, o r the plague oĂ­ t h e mosquitos, affords an inexhaustible subject o f conversation.

W h e n two persons meet in the morning, the first questions they address t o each other are : " How did y o u find the zancudos during t h e night ? H o w are w e to-day for the mosquitos ? " * These questions remind us o f a Chinese form o f politeness, which indicates the ancient state o f the c o u n t r y where it took birth. Salutations w e r e made heretofore in t h e Celestial empire in the following words, vou-to-hou, " H a v e y o u been i n c o m m o d e d in the night by the s e r p e n t s ? " T h e geographical distribution o f the i n s e c t s o f the family o f tipulĂŚ presents very remarkable phenomena.

It does n o t appear to depend solely on heat o f climate, excess o f humidity, o r the thickness o f forests, b u t o n local cir* Que le hanparecidolos zancudos de noche ? mosquitos ?

VoL. II.

Como stamos hoy de T

274

I N T E N S I T Y OF THE

cumstances

that

arc

difficult

observed that the plague

to

PLAGUE. characterise.

of mosquitos

s o g e n e r a l i n t h e t o r r i d z o n e as is c o m m o n l y the

table-lands

above

the

from the

elevated

level beds

populous

than

four

on

the

Between tho to

Rio

not

sensibly

of

Europe.

parts

the

little

Unare,

stretch

buried

in

head

that

more

believed.

gnats

They

extends

harbour

the

of

sand

on

or

ground, four

suffer

from in

more

to

to

Cape are

and

inches

the

sting

descending

Angostura, and

of

insects, but

the

in g o i n g

Orinoco

the

Codera.

of the

Rio

pass the

guan,

the

scene may

night out

the

città

of

passed

to

a manner

sem

Uruana, mouth

strait

From

this

spot

the

he

have

any

repose.

If

may

and

will

he

to

towards

the

of

Bara-

easily i m a g i n e

ho

seem

on

to

the granite rocks o f Baraguan these lines o f the Noi

easy

Cabruta

D a n t e , he

dolente,

You

B u t beyond the

changes.

farewell

remembrance

has e n t e r e d

having

suddenly

bid

in

u p from Cabruta towards

A r a u c a , after

of

accustomed

deep, leaving

from

b e t w e e n t h e l a t i t u d e s of 7° a n d 8°.

poetical

the

and the mouth

inhabitants

the

three

towards

in

perceived

only, which they cover with a handkerchief.

bear,

traveller

On toises

than

are

Higuerote

wretched

themselves the

not

great rivers (for instance, at C u m a n a a n d are

coast

the

be

is

hundred

a u g m e n t e n o r m o u s l y at N u e v a Barcelona, and west,

may

o f t h e ocean, in the very dry plains r e m o t e of

Calabozo), there most

more

It

and zancudos

v e n u t i al l u o g o , o v ' i ' t ' h o

read

Inferno:—

detto

C h e tu vedrai le genti d o l o r o s e .

T h e l o w e r strata o f air, f r o m t h e surface o f t h e g r o u n d the height of

fifteen

v e n o m o u s insects.

or t w e n t y feet, are absolutely

to

with

filled

I f i n a n o b s c u r e s p o t , f o r i n s t a n c e in

tho

grottos of the cataracts formed by superincumbent blocks o f g r a n i t e , y o u direct y o u r eyes toward the o p e n i n g e n l i g h t e n e d by t h e s u n . y o u s e c c l o u d s o f

mosquitos more

or

less

thick.

A t t h e m i s s i o n o f S a n Borja, t h e s u f f e r i n g f r o m m o s q u i t o s greater and

than at C a r i c h a n a ;

a b o v e ; all

at

M a y p u r e s . this

a t t a i n its m a x i m u m .

I

suffering

doubt whether

may be

there!

be

u p o n e a r t h w h e r e m a n is e x p o s e d t o m o r e c r u e l t h e rainy season. you

are

somewhat

H a v i n g passed the less

is

b u t in t h e Raudales, at A t u r e s ,

stung;

but

the stings are m o r e painful, because

fifth on the

a

said

to

country

torments

in

degree of latitude,

the heat

Upper

Orinoco

and

the abso-

27&

BLACK AND WHITE WATERS.

lute w a n t o f w i n d render the air m o r e b u r n i n g and m o r e irritating in its c o n t a c t with the skin. " H o w comfortable m u s t p e o p l e b e in the m o o n ! " said a Salivo Indian to Father G u m i l l a ; " s h e looks so beautiful and so clear, that she must bo free from m o s q u i t o s . " T h e s e w o r d s , which d e n o t e the infancy o f a p e o p l e , are very remarkable.

T h e satellite o f t h e earth appears t o all savage nations the abode o f the blessed, the c o u n t r y o f a b u n d a n c e .

T h e Esquimaux, w h o c o u n t s a m o n g his riches a plank or trunk of a tree, t h r o w n b y the currents o n a coast destitute of vegetation, sees in the m o o n plains covered with forests ; t h e Indian o f the forests o f O r i n o c o there beholds o p e n savannahs, where the inhabitants are never s t u n g b y mosquitos.

A f t e r p r o c e e d i n g further t o the south, where the system of yellowish-brown waters c o m m e n c e s , * o n the banks o f t h e A t a b a p o , the T u n i , the Tuamini, and t h e K i o N e g r o , w e e n j o y e d an unexpected repose.

T h e s e rivers, like t h e O r i n o c o , cross thick forests, but the tipulary insects, as well as t h e crocodiles, shun the proximity o f t h e black waters.

Possibly these waters, which are a little colder, and chemically different from the white waters, are adverse t o the larvĂŚ o f tipulary insects and gnats, which may b e considered as real aquatic animals. S o m e small rivers, the c o l o u r o f which is deep blue, o r yellowish-brown (as the T o p a r o , the M a t a v e n i , and the Z a m a ) , are exceptions to the almost general rule o f t h e absence o f m o s q u i t o s over t h e black waters.

These three rivers swarm with them ; and the Indians themselves fixed o u r attention o n the problematic causes o f this p h e n o m e n o n . I n g o i n g d o w n the Rio N e g r o , w e breathed freely at M a r o a , D a r i p e , and San Carlos, villages situated o n the boundaries o f Brazil. B u t this improvement o f o u r situation was o f short c o n t i n u a n c e ; o u r sufferings r e c o m m e n c e d as soon as w e entered the Cassiquiare. A t Esmeralda, at t h e eastern extremity o f the U p p e r O r i n o c o , where ends the k n o w n world ot the Spaniards, the clouds o f m o s q u i t o s are almost as thick as at the G r e a t Cataracts. A t Mandavaca we f o u n d an old missionary, w h o told us with an air or sadness, that he had had " h i s t w e n t y years o f m o s q u i t o s " * in A m e r i c a . * Generally called 'black waters' (aguas negras). †"Yo tengo mis veinte aùos de mosquitos."

T

2

276

VARIOUS SPECIES OF M O S Q U I T O S .

H e desired us to look at his legs, " t h a t we might be able to tell one day, beyond sea (por alla), what the poor monks suffer in the forests of Cassiquiare." Every sting leaving a small darkish brown point, his legs were so speckled that it was difficult to recognize the whiteness of his skin through the spots of coagulated blood.

If the insects of the genus Simulium abound in the Cassiquiare, which has white waters, the culices or zancudos are so much the more rare; you scarcely find an) there; while on the rivers of black waters, in the Atabapo and the Kio, there are generally some zan cudos and no mosquitos.

I have just shown, from my own observations, how much the geographical distribution of venomous insects varies in this labyrinth of rivers with white and black waters.

It were to be wished that a learned entomologist could study on the spot the specific differences of these noxious insects,* which in the torrid zone, in spite of their minute size, act an important point in the economy of nature.

What a p peared to us very remarkable, and is a fact known to all the missionaries, is. that the different species do not associate together, and that at different hours of the day you are stung by distinct species. Every time that the scene changes, and. to use the simple expression of the missionaries, other insects 'mount guard,' you have a few minutes, often a quarter of an hour, of repose. The insects that disappear have not their places instantly supplied by their successors.

From half-past-six in the morning till five in the afternoon, the air is filled with mosquitos; which have not, as some travellers have slated, the form of our gnats, † but that of a small fly. They are simuliums of the family Nemocera of the system of Latreille. Their sting is as painful as that of the genus Stoinox.

It leaves a little reddish brown spot, which is extravased and coagulated blood, where their proboscis has pierced the skin. An hour before sunset *The mosquito bovo or tenbiguài ; the melero, which always settles upon the eyes ; the tempranero, or putchiki; the jejen; the gnat rivaù ; the great zancudo, or matchaki , the cafafi, &c. † Culex pipiens. This difference between mosquito (little fly,—simulium) and zancudo (gnat,—eulex) exists in all the Spanish colonies.

The word zancudo signifies 'longlegs,'—qui tiene las zanrax largas.

The mosquitos of the Orinoco are the moustiques ; the zancudos are the maringouins of French travellers.

PERIODS OF APPEARANCE AND DISAPPEARANCE.

277

a species o f small gnats, called tempraneros,* because they appear also at sunrise, take the place o f the mosquitos Their presence scarcely lasts an hour and a h a l f ; they disappear b e t w e e n six and seven in t h e evening, or, as thev say here, after the Angelus (a la o r a c i o n ) . A f t e r a few min u t e s ' repose, y o u feel yourself s t u n g b y zancudos, another species o f gnat with very l o n g legs. T h e zancudo, the p r o boscis o f which contains a sharp-pointed sucker, causes the m o s t acute pain, and a swelling that remains several weeks.

I t s h u m resembles that o f the E u r o p e a n gnat, b u t is l o u d e r and more prolonged. T h e Indians pretend t o distinguish the zancudos and the tempraneros " b y their s o n g ; " t h e latter are real twilight insects, while the zaucudos are m o s t frequently nocturnal insects, and disappear toward sunrise.

I n o u r way from Carthagena to Santa FĂŠ de B o g o t ĂĄ , w e observed that between M o m p o x and H o n d a , in the valley o f t h e Rio Magdalena, the zancudos darkened the air from eight in the evening till m i d n i g h t ; that towards midnight they diminished in n u m b e r , and w e r e hidden for three o r four h o u r s ; and lastly that they returned in c r o w d s , about four in the m o r n i n g . What is the cause o f these alternations o f motion and r e s t ?

A r e these animals fatigued b y l o n g flight?

It is rare on the O r i n o c o t o see real gnats b y d a y ; while at the Rio Magdalena we were stung night and day, e x c e p t from n o o n till a b o u t t w o o ' c l o c k .

T h e zancudos o f the t w o rivers are n o d o u b t o f different species.

We have seen that the insects o f the tropics everywhere follow a certain standard in the periods a t which they alternately arrive and disappear.

A t fixed and invariable h o u r s , in the same season, and the same latitude, the air is p e o p l e d with new inhabitants, and in a z o n e w h e r e the barometer b e c o m e s a c l o c k , * where everything proceeds with such admirable regularity, we might guess blindfold the hour o f the day o r night, b y the h u m o f the insects, and b y their stings, * ' W h i c h appear at an early hour' (temprano). Some persons say, that the zancudo is the same as the tempranero, which returns at night, after hiding itself for sometime.

I have doubts of this identity of the species ; the pain caused by the sting of the two insects appeared to me different. †By the extreme regularity of the horary variations of the atmospheric pressure.

278

EUROPEAN AND TROPICAL VARIETIES.

t h e pain

o f which

differs a c c o r d i n g

to

the

nature

of

the

p o i s o n t h a t each species d e p o s i t s in t h e w o u n d .

A t a period w h e n the g e o g r a p h y of a n i m a l s a n d o f had n o t y e t b e e n s t u d i e d , t h e a n a l o g o u s s p e c i e s o f climates were often confounded.

plants

different

I t was believed that

the

p i n e s a n d r a n u n c u l u s e s , t h e s t a g s , t h e r a t s , a n d t h e tipulary i n s e c t s o f t h e n o r t h o f E u r o p e , w e r e t o b e f o u n d in on t h e r i d g e o f the A n d e s , and at t h e S t r a i t s of J u s t l y c e l e b r a t e d n a t u r a l i s t s have t h o u g h t

Japan,

Magellan.

that the zaneudo

o f t h e torrid z o n e w a s t h e g n a t o f o u r m a r s h e s , b e c o m e m o r e vigorous, more voracious, and more noxious, under the fluence

of a

opinion.

burning

climate.

This

is a

very

in-

erroneous the

spot

t h o s e z a n c u d o s , the s t i n g s of which are most t o r m e n t i n g .

I carefully e x a m i n e d a n d described upon

In

t h e rivers M a g d a l e n a a n d G u a y a q u i l a l o n e t h e r e are live d i s t i n c t species.

The

culices

of South

America

have g e n e r a l l y

the

c o r s l e t , a n d l e g s of an a z u r e c o l o u r , r i n g e d a n d with

a

mixture

of

spots

of

metallic

wings,

variegated

lustre.

H e r e as

in

E u r o p e , t h e m a l e s , which are d i s t i n g u i s h e d by their f e a t h e r e d a n t e n n æ , are e x t r e m e l y r a r e ; y o u are seldom s t u n g by

females.

The

i m m e n s e increase of t h e s p e c i e s , each hundred

eggs.

except

preponderance of this sex explains

In

going

up

one

female l a y i n g

of

the

great

tho

several

rivers

of

A m e r i c a , it, is o b s e r v e d , t h a t t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f a new s p e c i e s of culex d e n o t e s t h e p r o x i m i t y of a n e w I shall

mention

an

instance of this

stream

curious

flowing

T h e C u l e x l i n e a t u s , which b e l o n g s t o t h e C a ñ o is o n l y

p e r c e i v e d in

the valley of the

M a g d a l e n a , at a league north of rivers; Grande.

it

goes

up,

but

scarcely

the

Rio

Tamalamec,

Grande

junction

ever

in.

phenomenon. do

la

of

the

two

descends

the

Rio

I t is t h u s , t h a t , on a principal v e i n , t h e a p p e a r a n c e

o f a n e w s u b s t a n c e in the g a n g u e indicates to the m i n e r t h o n e i g h b o u r h o o d o f a secondary vein t h a t j o i n s the first.

O n r e c a p i t u l a t i n g t h e o b s e r v a t i o n s here r e c o r d e d , w e s e e , t h a t within t h e t r o p i c s , the m o s q u i t o s a n d z a n c u d o s d o n o t rise on t h e s l o p e o f t h e

Cordilleras*

toward the

temperate

* The Culex pipiens of Europe does not, like the culex of the torrid zone, shun mountainous places. Giesecke suffered from these insects in Greenland, at Disco, in latitude 70°. They are found in Lapland in summer, at three or four hundred toises high, and at a temperature of 11° or 12°.

P R E V A L E N C E OF T H E P L A Q U E O F M O S Q U I T O S .

279

region, where the mean heat is b e l o w 19° o r 2 0 ° ; and that, with few exceptions, they shun the black waters, and dry and u n w o o d e d s p o t s . * T h e atmosphere swarms with t h e m m u c h m o r e in the U p p e r than in the L o w e r O r i n o c o , because in the former the river is surrounded with thick forests o n its banks, and the skirts o f t h e forests are n o t separated from the river b y a barren and extensive beach.

T h e mosquitos diminish on the N e w C o n t i n e n t with the diminution o f the water, and the destruction o f t h e w o o d s ; b u t the effects o f these changes are as slow as the progress of cultivation. T h e t o w n s o f A n g o s t u r a , N u e v a Barcelona, and M o m p o x , where from the w a n t o f police, the streets, the great squares, and the interior o f court-yards are o v e r g r o w n with b r u s h w o o d , are sadly celebrated for the abundance of zancudos.

P e o p l e b o r n in the c o u n t r y , whether whites, mulattoes, n e g r o e s , o r Indians, all suffer from the sting o f these insects.

B u t as cold does n o t render the north o f E u r o p e uninhabitable, so the mosquitos do n o t prevent m e n from dwelling in the countries where t h e y abound, provided that, b y their situation and g o v e r n m e n t , they afford resources for agricult u r e and industry. T h e inhabitants pass their lives in c o m plaining o f the insufferable t o r m e n t o f the mosquitos, y e t , notwithstanding these continual complaints, they seek, and even with a sort o f predilection, the commercial t o w n s of M o m p o x , Santa M a r t a , and B i o de la llaeha. Such is the force o f habit in evils which w e suffer every hour o f the day, that the three missions o f San Borja, A t u r e s , and Esmeralda, w h e r e , t o make use o f an hyperbolical expression o f the m o n k s , " t h e r e are more mosquitos than a i r , " * w o u l d n o d o u b t b e c o m e flourishing t o w n s , if the O r i n o c o afforded planters the same advantages for the exchange o f p r o d u c e , as the O h i o and the L o w e r Mississippi.

I t is a curious fact, that the whites b o r n in t h e torrid z o n e may walk barefoot with impunity, in the same apart* Trifling modifications in the waters, or in the air, often appear to prevent the development of the mosquitos.

M r . Bowdich remarks that there are none at Coomassie, in the kingdom of the Ashantees, though the town is surrounded by marshes, and though the thermometer keeps up between seventeen and twenty-eight centesimal degrees, day and night. †Mas moscas que aire.

280

EFFECTS OF THE. MOSQUITO-STING.

m e n t where a E u r o p e a n recently landed is exposed t o the attack o f t h e nigua o r chegoe ( P u l e x p e n e t r a n s ) .

This animal, almost invisible t o t h e e y e , gets u n d e r the toe-nails, and there acquires the size o f a small pea, by the quick increase o f its e g g s , which are placed in a bag under t h e belly o f the insect. T h e nigua therefore distinguishes what the most delicate chemical analysis could not distinguish, the cellular membrane and blood o f a European from those o f a creole white. T h e mosquitos, on the contrary, attack equally the natives and the E u r o p e a n s ; b u t t h e effects o f the sting are different in the two races of men. T h e same venomous liquid, deposited in the skill of a copper-coloured man o f Indian race, and in that o f a white man n e w l y landed, causes no swelling in the former, while in the latter it p r o d u c t s hard blisters, greatly inflamed, and painful for several d a y s ; so different is the action on the epidermis, according t o the degree o f irritability o f t h e organs in different races and different individuals!

I shall here recite several facts, which prove that t h e Indians, and in general all t h e p e o p l e o f colour, at t h e m o m e n t o f being stung, suffer like the whites, although perhaps with less intensity o f pain.

In the day-time, a n d even when labouring at t h e oar, the natives, in order t o chase the insects, are continually giving one another smart slaps with the palm of the hand. They even strike t h e m selves and their comrades mechanically during their sleep.

The violence o f their blows reminds o n e o f the Persian talo of the bear that tried to kill with his paw the insects o n t h e forehead o f his sleeping master. N e a r M a y p u r e s we saw some y o u n g Indians seated in a circle and rubbing cruelly each others' backs with the bark o f trees dried at the lire.

Judian women were o c c u p i e d , with a degree o f patience o f which the copper-coloured race alone are capable, in extracttracting, by means o f a sharp bone, the little muss o f c o a g u lated blood that forms the centre o f every sting, and gives the skin a speckled appearance.

O n e o f the most barbarous nations o f the O r i n o c o , that o f the O t t o m a c s . is acquainted with the use o f mosquito-curtains ( m o s q u i t e r o s ) w o v e n from the fibres o f the moriche palm-tree.

At Higuerote, on the coast: o f Caracas, the copper-coloured people sleep buried in the sand.

I n the villages o f the Rio M a g d a l e n a

NATIVE CONTRIVANCES.

281

the Indians often invited us to stretch ourselves as they did on ox-skins, near the church, in the middle of the plaza grande, where they had assembled all the cows in the neighbourhood. The proximity of cattle gives some repose to man. The Indians of the Upper Orinoco and the Cassi quiare, seeing that M . Bonpland could not prepare his Herbal, owing to the continual torment of the mosquitos, invited him to enter their ovens (hornitos). Thus they call little chambers, without doors or windows, into which they creep horizontally through a very low opening.

When they have driven away the insects by means of a lire of wet brushwood, which emits a great deal of smoke, they close the opening of the oven. The absence of the mosquitos is purchased dearly enough by the excessive heat of the stagnated air, and the smoke of a torch of copal, which lights the oven during your stay in it. M . Bonpland, with courage and patience well worthy of praise, dried hundreds of plants, shut up in these hornitos of the Indians.

These precautions of the Indians sufficiently prove that, notwithstanding the different organization of the epidermis, the copper-coloured man, like the white man, suffers from the stings of insects; but the former seems to feel less pain, and the sting is not followed by those swellings which, during several weeks, heighten the irritability of the skin, and throw persons of a delicate constitution into that feverish state which always accompanies eruptive maladies.

Whites born in equinoctial America, and Europeans who have long sojourned in the Missions, on the borders of forests and great rivers, sutler much more than the Indians, but infinitely less than Europeans newly arrived. It is not, therefore, as some travellers assert, the thickness of tho skin that renders the sting more or less painful at tho moment when it is received; nor is it owing to the particular organization of the integuments, that in the Indians the sting is followed by less of swelling and inflammatory symptoms; it is on the nervous irritability of the epidermis that the acuteness and duration of the pain depend.

This irritability is augmented by very warm clothing, by the use of alcoholic liquors, by the habit of scratching the wounds, and lastly, (and this physiological observation is the result of my own experience,) that of baths repeated at too short

282

MIGRATIONS OF THE MOSQUITOS.

intervals. In places where the absence o f crocodiles permits p e o p l e t o enter a river, M . B o n p l a n d and myself observed that the immoderate use o f baths, while it moderated the pain o f old stings o f zancudos, rendered us more sensible t o new stings. Bу bathing more than t w i c e a day, the skin is b r o u g h t into a state o f nervous irritability, o f which n o idea can b e formed in Europe.

It wo u l d s e e m as if all feeling were carried toward the i n t e g u m e n t s .

A s t h e mosquitos and gnats p a s s two­thirds o f their lives in the water, it is n o t surprising that these n o x i o u s insects b e c o m e less numerous in proportion as y o u recede from tho banks o f the great rivers which intersect tho forests.

They seem t o prefer the spots w h e r e their metamorphosis t o o k place, ami w h e r e they go t o d e p o s i t their e g g s .

In fact the wild Indians ( I n d i e s m o n t e r o s ) experience the greater diffi­ c u l t y in a c c u s t o m i n g themselves t o the life o f the missions, as they sutler in t h e Christian establishments a t o r m e n t which they scarcely know in their own inland dwellings.

The natives at M a y p u r e s , A t u r e s , and Esmeralda, have b e e n s e e n Hoeing to t h e o wo ds, or, a s they say, аl monte, solely from the d r e a d o f mosquitos. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , all the M i s s i o n s o f the O r i n o c o have b e e n established t o o near the banks o f the river.

At Esmeralda t h e inhabitants assured us that if the village were situated in o n e o f t h e live plains s u r r o u n d i n g the high mountains o f Duida and Maraguaca, t h e y should breathe f r e e l y , and e n j o y s o m e repose.

T h e great cloud o f m o s q u i t o s (la n u b e de moscas) t o use tho expression o f t h o m o n k s , is suspended only over the O r i n o c o and its tributary streams, and is dissipated in proportion as you remove from t h o rivers.

W e should form a very inaccurate idea o f G u i a n a and Brazil, w e r e we t o j udge of that great forest four hundred leagues wide, lying between the sources o f the M a d e i r a and t h e L o w e r O r i n o c o , f r o m the vallies o f the rivers b y w h i c h it is crossed.

I learned that t h e l i t t l e i n s e c t s o f the family o f the nemoceræ migrate f ro m time t o t i m e like the alouate m o n k e y s , which live in society. In certain s p o t s , at the c o m m e n c e ­ m e n t o f the rainy season, different s p e c i e s a p p e a r , the sting o f which has not y e t b e e n felt.

W e were informed at the Rio Magdalena, that at Simiti no other culex than the jejen Was formerly k n o w n ; and it was then possible to enj oy a

THEIR

VORACITY IN CERTAIN PLACES.

283

tranquil night's rest, for the jejen is not a nocturnal insec Since the year 1801, the great blue-winged gnat (Cule cyanopterus) has appeared in such numbers, that the pool inhabitnats of Simiti know not how to procure an undisturbed sleep. In the marshy channels (esteros) of the isle of Baru, near Carthagena, is found a little white fly called cafafi. It is scarcely visible to the naked eye, and causes very painful swellings. The toldos or cottons used for mosquito-curtains, are wetted to prevent the cafafi penetrating through the interstices left by the crossing threads.

This insect, happily rare elsewhere, goes up in January, by the channel (dique) of Mahates, as far as Morales. When we went to this village in the month of May, we found 1

there cimuliœ and zancudos,

but no

jejens.

The insects most troublesome at Orinoco, or as the Creoles say, the most ferocious (los mas feroces), are those of the great cataracts of Esmeralda and Mandavaca. On the Rio Magdalena the Culex cyanopterus is dreaded, particularly at Mompox, Chiloa, and Tamalameca. At these places this insect is larger and stronger, and its legs blacker. It is difficult to avoid smiling on hearing the missionaries dispute about the size and voracity of the mosquitos at different parts of the same river. In a region the inhabitants of which are ignorant of all that is passing in the rest of the world, this is the favourite subject of conversation. " How I pity your situation ! " said the missionary of the Raudales to the missionary of Cassiquiare, at our departure ; " you are alone, like me, in this country of tigers and monkeys ; with you fish is still more rare, and the heat more violent ; but as for my mosquitos (mias moscas) I can boast that with one of mine I would beat three of yours."

This voracity of insects in certain spots, the fury with which they attack man,* the activity of the venom varying in the same species, are very remarkable facts ; which find their analogy, however, in the classes of large animals. The crocodile of Angostura pursues men, while at Neuva Barce* Thin voracity, this appetite for blood, seems surprising in little insects, that live on vegetable juices, and in a country almost entirely uninhabited. " What would these animals eat, if we did not pass this way ? " say the Creoles, in going through countries where there are only crocodiles covered with a scaly skin, and hairy monkeys.

284

SUPPOSED SALUTARY

Lona

y o u m a y bathe tranquilly

chese

carnivorous reptiles.

The

EFFECT

in the Rio N e v e r i

amidst

j a g u a r s of M a t u r i n ,

Cuma-

n a c o a , a n d t h e i s t h m u s o f P a n a m a , are t i m i d in c o m p a r i s o n of t h o s e that

of the Upper

the monkeys

Orinoco.

T h e I n d i a n s well

o f s o m e valleys are easily

know

tamed, while

o t h e r s o f t h e s a m e species, c a u g h t e l s e w h e r e , will rather d i e of h u n g e r t h a n s u b m i t t o s l a v e r y . * The

common

people

in A m e r i c a

have

framed

systems

respecting the salubrity o f climates a n d pathological p h e n o m e n a , a s well a s t h e learned

o f Europe ; a n d t h e i r s y s t e m s ,

like o u r s , a r e d i a m e t r i c a l l y o p p o s e d t o each o t h e r , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e p r o v i n c e s into w h i c h t h e N e w C o n t i n e n t At

the

Rio

Magdalena

t h e frequency

regarded as troublesome, the inhabitants,

but s a l u t a r y .

But

inflammatory diseases.

w h i c h a r e very i n s a l u b r i o u s , all t h e i r

is d i v i d e d .

mosquitos

is

These animals, say

give us slight b l e e d i n g s , and preserve us, in

a c o u n t r y excessively h o t , from

for

of

sufferings.

t h e scarlet

fever, a n d o t h e r

at the Orinoco, t h e sick

the banks o f

blame

the mosquitos

I t is unnecessary

t o refute the

fallacy o f t h e p o p u l a r belief t h a t this action o f t h e m o s q u i t o s is s a l u t a r y

by its local

bleedings.

ants o f marshy countries irritate

the epidermis,

v e n o m which from

and stimulate

they deposit

diminishing

In E u r o p e t h e i n h a b i t -

a r e n o t ignorant in t h e w o u n d s

the inflammatory

that

t h e insects

its f u n c t i o n s

by the

they m a k e .

Far

state o f t h e skin, the

s t i n g s increase it.

T h e frequency o f gnats healthy plication

climates

only

o f these

insects

g i v e rise t o m i a s m a t a . soil

covered

with

and mosquitos

characterises u n -

s o far a s t h e d e v e l o p m e n t a n d m u l t i depend

These

plants,

o n t h e s a m e causes t h a t

n o x i o u s a n i m a l s love a fertile

stagnant

waters, and a humid air

n e v e r a g i t a t e d b y t h e wind ; they prefer t o an o p e n c o u n t r y those

shades,

that

softened

d a y , that

tempered

degree o f

* I might have added the example of the scorpion of Cumana, which it is very difficult to distinguish from that of the island of Trinidad, Jamaica, Carthagena, and Guayaquil ; yet the former is not more to be feared than the Scorpio europĂŚus (of the south of France), while the latter produces consequences far more alarming than the Scorpiooccitanus(of Spain and Barbary).

At Carthagena and Guayaquil, the sting of the scorpion (alacran) instantly causes the loss of speech. Sometimes a singular torpor of the tongue is observed for fifteen or sixteen hours. The patient, when stung in the legs, stammers as if he had been struck with apoplexy.

PRODUCED BY THE MOSQUITOS.

285

light, heat, and moisture which, while it favours t h e action o f chemical affinities, accelerates the putrefaction o f o r g a n M a y n o t the mosquitos themselves i n ised substances. crease the insalubrity o f the atmosphere ? W h e n w e reflect that to the height o f three o r four toises a c u b i c foot o f air is often peopled b y a million o f w i n g e d insects,* which contain a caustic and venomous l i q u i d ; when we recollect that several species o f culex are 1 8 line l o n g from t h e head t o t h e extremity o f the corslet ( w i t h o u t r e c k o n i n g the l e g s ) ; lastly, when w e consider t h a t in t h i s swarm o f mosquitos and gnats, diffused in the atmosphere like s m o k e , there is a great number o f dead insects raised by the force o f t h e ascending air, o r b y that o f the lateral currents which are caused b y t h e unequal heating o f t h e soil, w e are led t o inquire whether the presence o f so many animal substances in the air must not o c c a s i o n particular miasmata.

I think that these substances act on the atmosphere differently from sand and dust ; but it w i l l be prudent to affirm nothing positively on this subject. Chemistry has n o t y e t unveiled t h e n u m e r o u s mysteries o f the insalubrity o f t h e air ; it has only taught us that w e are ignorant o f many things with which a f e w years a g o we believed w e w e r e acquainted.

Daily experience appears in a certain degree to p r o v e t h e fact that at the O r i n o c o , Cassiquiare, Rio Caura, and whereever t h e air is very unhealthy, the sting o f the m o s q u i t o a u g m e n t s the disposition o f the organs to receive the i m pression o f miasmata.

W h e n y o u are exposed day a n d night, during whole m o n t h s , t o t h e t o r m e n t o f insects, t h e continual irritation o f the skin causes febrile c o m m o t i o n s ; and, from the sympathy existing between t h e dermoid a n d t h e gastric systems, injures the functions o f t h e stomach.

Digestion first becomes difficult, t h e cutaneous inflammation excites profuse perspirations, an unquenchable thirst succeds. and, in persons o f a feeble constitution, increasing impatience is succeeded b y depression o f mind, d u r i n g which all the p a t h o g e n i c causes a c t with increased violence.

I t is neither the dangers o f navigating in small boats, t h e savage Indians, n o r the serpents, crocodiles, o r jaguars, t h a t make Spaniards dread a v o y a g e o n t h e O r i n o c o ; it i s , as * It is sufficient to mention, that the cubic foot contains 2,985,984 cubic lines.

286

ABSENCE OF ANY REMEDY.

they say with simplicity, " el sudar y las m o s c a s , " ( t h e perspiration and the flies). W e have reason to believe that mankind, as they c h a n g e t h e surface o f t h e soil, will succeed in altering b y degrees t h e constitution o f the atmosphere.

T h e insects will diminish w h e n the old trees o f the forest have disappeared ; w h e n , in those countries n o w desert, t h e rivers are seen b o r d e r e d with cottages, and the plains covered with pastures and harvosts.

W h o e v e r has lived l o n g in countries infested b y m o s quitos will be c o n v i n c e d , as w e were, that there exists n o r e m e d y for the t o r m e n t o f these insects.

The Indians, covered with anoto, bolar earth, o r turtle oil, are n o t p r o t e c t e d from their attacks.

I t is doubtful whether t h e painting even relieves: it certainly does not prevent t h e evil. E u r o p e a n s , recently arrived at the O r i n o c o , t h e Rio M a g d a l e n a , t h e river Guayaquil, o r Rio Chagres ( I m e n t i o n the four rivers where the insects are must to be dreaded) at first obtain s o m e relief b y covering their faces and hands, b u t they soon feel it difficult to endure the heat, are weary o f being c o n d e m n e d to c o m p l e t e inactivity, and finish with leaving the face and hands u n c o v e r e d .

Persons who would renounce all kind o f occupation during the navigation o f these lasers, might bring some particular garment from E u r o p e in the form o f a bag, u n d e r which they c o u l d remain covered, o p e n i n g it only every half-hour.

This bag should be distended by whalebone hoops, for a close mask and gloves w o u l d b e perfectly insupportable.

Sleeping o n the g r o u n d , on skins, or in hammocks, we could not make use of mosquito-curtains ( t o l d o s ) while on the O r i n o c o .

T h e t o l d o is useful only where it forms a tent so well closed around the bed that there is n o t the smallest o p e n i n g b y which a gnat can pass. This is difficult to accomplish ; and often when y o u succeed (for instance, in going up the Rio Magdalena, where you travel with some degree of c o n v e n i e n c e ) , you are forced, in order to avoid being suffocated by the heat, to come out, from beneath y o u r toldo, and walk about, in the open air.

A feeble wind, smoke, and powerful smells, scarcely afford any relief in places where the insects are very numerous and very voracious.

It is erroneously affirmed that these little animals fly from t h e peculiar smell emitted by the crocodile.

We w e r e fearfully s t u n g at

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Bataillez, in the road from Carthagena t o H o n d a , while w e were dissecting a crocodile eleven feet l o n g , the smell o f which infested all the surrounding atmosphere. T h e Indians much c o m m e n d the fumes o f b u r n t c o w - d u n g .

W h e n the w i n d is very strong, and accompanied by rain, the m o s q u i t o s disappear for s o m e time : they sting m o s t cruelly at t h e approach o f a storm, particularly w h e n the electric e x p l o sions are n o t followed by heavy showers.

A n y t h i n g waved a b o u t the head and the hands c o n t r i b u t e s to chase away the insects. " T h e m o r e y o u stir y o u r self, the less y o u will be stung, " say the missionaries.

The zancudo makes a buzzing before it settles ; b u t , w h e n it has assumed confidence, when it has o n c e b e g u n t o fix its sucker, and distend itself, y o u may touch its wings w i t h o u t its b e i n g frightened.

I t remains the whole time with its t w o hind legs raised ; and, if left to suck t o satiety, n o swelling lakes place, and no pain is left behind. W e often repeated this experiment o n ourselves in the valley o f t h e Rio Magdalena.

I t may b e asked w h e t h e r t h e insect deposits the stimulating liquid only at t h e m o m e n t o f its flight, w h e n it is driven away, o r whether it draws the liquid up again when left to suck undisturbed.

I incline t o this latter opinion ; for on quietly presenting the back o f m y hand t o the Culex c y a n o p t e r u s , I observed that t h e pain, t h o u g h violent in the b e g i n n i n g , diminishes in p r o portion as the insect continues t o suck, and ceases altogether when it voluntarily flies away. I also w o u n d e d m y skin with a pin, and rubbed the pricks with bruised mosquitos, and n o swelling ensued.

T h e irritating liquid, in which chemists have not yet recognized any acid properties, is contained, as in the ant and other h y m e n o p t e r o u s insects, in particular glands ; and is probably t o o much diluted, and consequently t o o m u c h weakened, if the skin b e r u b b e d with the whole o f the bruised insect.

I have t h r o w n t o g e t h e r at the closo o f this chapter all we learned during the course o f o u r travels o n p h e n o m e n a which naturalists have hitherto singularly neglected, t h o u g h they exercise a great influence on the welfare o f the inhabitants, the salubrity o f the climate, and the establishment o f new colonies o n t h e rivers o f equinoctial A m e r i c a .

I might j u s t l y have incurred the charge o f having treated

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this subject too much in detail, were it not connected with general physiological views.

Our imagination is struck only by what is great ; but the lover of natural philosophy should reflect equally on little things. We have just seen that winged insects, collected in society, and concealing in their sucker a liquid that irritates the skin, are capable of rendering vast countries almost uninhabitable. Other insects equally small, the termites (cornejen),* create obstacles to the progress of civilization, in several hot and temperate parts of the equinoctial zone, that are difficult to be sur­ mounted. T hey devour paper, pasteboard, and parchment with frightful rapidity, utterly destroying records and libra­ ries. Whole provinces of Spanish America do not possess one written document that dates a hundred years back.

What improvement can the civilization of nations acquire if nothing link the present with the past ; if the depositaries of human knowledge must be repeatedly renewed ; if the records of genius and reason cannot be transmitted to posterity ?

In proportion as you ascend the table­land of the Andes these evils disappear. Man breathes a fresh and pure air.

Insects no more disturb the labours of the day or the slumbers of the night. Documents can be collected in archives without our having to complain of the voracity of the termites. Mosquitos are no longer feared at a height of two hundred toises ; and the termites, still very frequent at three hundred toises of elevation,* become very rare at Mexico, Santa Fé de Bogota, and Quito. In these great capitals, situated on the back of the Cordilleras, we find linaries and archives, augmented from day to day by the enlightened zeal of the inhabitants. T hese circumstances, combined with others, insure a moral preponderance to the Alpine region over the lower regions of the torrid zone. If we admit, agreeably to the ancient traditions collected in both the old and new worlds, that at the time of the catastrophe which preceded the renewal of our species, man descended from the mountains into the plains, we may admit, with still greater confidence, that these mountains, • Literally, ' the eaters,' or ' the devourers.' + T here aresomeat Popayan (height 910 toises ; mean temperature 18'7°), but they are species that gnaw wood only.