Introduction: : A Home Study of Different Forms of Carbon
Introduction: A Home Study of Different Forms of Carbon
A. A Master Plumber & Rancher I just met asked me to help on a project as a PhD organic chemist w academic & industrial experience-Dow, Shell & Exxon-Mobil.
B. After months of hesitation, I drove 65 miles to learn the subject was focused on a new form of pure carbon: catenated fullerene onions [vs diamond & graphite].
C. Previously, I had viewed carbon allotropes w little interest, but I soon realized many of the puzzles in chemistry found solutions in the study of pure carbon.
D. Key Terms & Definitions
A form of a pure element unique in structure, bonding, thermodynamic
and chemical & physical properties [ex. O2 vs O3]
C60 Buckyball
Key to New Carbon-Only Materials
[Welcome to Nanocarbons, a New Realm of Chemistry]
Threshold to New Chemical Bonding Concepts and New Carbon-Only Materials
I’ve got a textbook of slides for you today. I just want to lay it all out for the TeslaTech video. I don’t want anything lost as happened to Nicola Tesla! I will pause on critical themes but leave the rest for home study.
[Acknowlegements: Billy Ford, Glenn Fearn, Brian Dansby, Dan Stevenson, Steve Elswick]
TeslaTech Value: 1. No Prevailing Narrative Refereeing 2. IP Public Disclosure Protection 3. Deep Thought
TFB TeslaTech Presentations –
New Understanding from Nanocarbon Technology Development
• 2022
First Public Disclosure of 3D pi-Bonding Electron Delocalization in Fullerenes & Crossenes
• 2023 Fullerene Coherency with Nature plus Independent pi-Bonds wrt specific p-Orbital Lobe
• 2024
Carbon Nano-Onion (CNO), MWCNT & Graphite: same van der Waals Distances 0.33nm [Layer Field Effects may vary vastly but van der Waals distances are identical.]
In scientific endeavors, there is first a discovery given from Above. Then come the questions, experiments, hypotheses, theories & laws – The Scientific Method What follows are practitioners with commercial applications & marketing. So it is with me on all fronts as a holistic thinker putting together the pieces of the puzzle.
Being a consultant w no lab, my concepts derive from my PhD experience, the literature and help & data from officers of the company.
Nanocarbons: Shakeup of The World of Chemistry
Thomas
F. Bailey - 2024 Saturday Aug 10 • Session 8 (9:30am) • True Tesla Technology
Science is the exploration and investigation of the world around us. Chemistry is a living science as evidenced by the recent discovery of a blob of 60 carbon atoms. That blob opened the doors to the discovery of a new allotrope of carbon named “fullerene” after the architectural geodesic dome proponent, Richard Buckminster Fuller. Its discovery was earthshaking in that it became a third distinct allotrope of carbon following the two known for millennia: diamond and graphite.
That new allotrope was discovered, characterized and named in the first ten days of September 1985. In that rush, it was grossly mischaracterized as a polyhedron, an individual truncated icosahedron structure that was a Euclidean close approximation of a sphere. In reality, it is a true sphere of a non-Euclidean nature as first characterized properly in US 11,718,530 issued on August 8, 2023.
This recent revelation was inspired by considering the crisis in chemical understanding 150 years ago that was resolved by August Kekulé’s discovery of electron delocalization in benzene versus the existing understanding in chemistry of traditional single, double and triple bonded molecules as in hypothetical electron undelocalized cyclohexatriene (1,3,5 & 2,4,6). The true nature of the new allotrope emerged upon extrapolating the 2D nature of benzene to the 3D nature of fullerenes.
For almost 40 years, the promise of the discovery of fullerenes has languished from the Euclidean misassignment. Now, the many unique observations of fullerene properties can be explained and new innovative ideas advanced. Developing aspects of the newly discovered allotrope of crossene of that same patent are reported here as well.
Carbon Nano-Onions (CNOs)
– New Allotropes of Carbon following Diamond & Graphite: Fullerenes & Crossenes
A. Synthesis, Structure, Bonding, Properties: Fullerenes & Crossenes
C. New Concepts in Chemistry & Science Studying Single-Element Material [Independent p-Orbital Lobes, van der Waals, Gravity, Rotating Concentric Spheres]
Note: See US 11,718,530 for further details of A. & B.
Very Detailed Slides are included for later study in TeslaTech Videos.
Nanocarbons are a Demarcation from traditional Organic Chemistry! [The same holds for the study of structured water!]
Carbon-Only vs Mix of Elements
Very Detailed Slides are included for later study in TeslaTech Videos.
Only C60 & C70 are soluble and volatile (C60 a sphere & C70 an ellipsoid):
thus SEPARABLE & purifiable by HPLC chromatography, crystallization & sublimation.
C60 & C70 are eluatable & crystallizable and sublimatable; none of the others.
Why is Carbon so Special?
[Through a Cornucopia of Bonding Options.]
Inert Gas
Oxygen Carbon
Discontinuous cloud of free-roaming electrons w edges: Graphene
Continuous cloud of free-roaming electrons w/o edges: Fullerenes
Electron Delocalization only for Trigonally Substituted Carbon Atoms
Graphene Sheets Carbon Nano-Onions (CNOs)
Nanodiamonds
Each p-Orbital bears only one unpaired electron
Carbon Gymnastics via p-Orbital Versatility
Singly Unsaturated (Trigonally
Carbon Allotropes
Exterior Surface Zone > Interior Surface Zone
Sets up Electrostatic Forces
Responsible for Layer Creation
p-Orbitals aligned to the void core
p-Orbitals aligned parallel to each other Upper Surface Zone = Lower Surface Zone
[No Electrostatic Forces]
Orientation & Overlap for Fullerenic vs Graphitic/Aromatic Electron
Spherical vs Planar Graphene or Benzene C60 Fullerene Aromatic Bonding
Fullerenic Bonding
Outside Surface Zone > Interior Surface Zone Region of Weak Overlap
p-Orbitals aligned to the void core
Region of Weak Overlap Each
Above Surface Zone = Below Surface Zone
p-Orbitals aligned parallel to each other
There are two Concentric Spherical Bonding Clouds in Fullerenes, the Interior Cloud has a higher Electron Density than the Outside Cloud.
Region of Strong Overlap
There are two Donut-Shaped Bonding Clouds of Identical Electron Density, One Above and One Below the planar Carbon Ring for Graphene & Benzene.
Fullerenics set up Electrostatic Forces
Aromatics/Graphitics have no Electrostatic Forces
Outside Surface Area > Interior Surface Area
p-Orbitals aligned to the void core
Sets up Electrostatic Forces
Directing Plasma Shell Formation
p-Orbitals aligned parallel to each other
but Consists of Two Independent Molecular Orbitals
Clouds of Free Roaming or Delocalized Electrons on each side of
Different Forms of Coherency
From Chaos to Coherency
Graphite
Carbon Nano-Onions (CNOs)
Multilayered Allotropic Systems
Multiwalled Carbon Nanotube [MWCNT]
Fullerene Onions are Smooth Concentric Spheres. NOT Geodesic Dome CNOs!
The Innermost Shell is a C60 Fullerene!
Formation of Detonation Nanodiamonds (DNDs)
Precursor to Small Carbon Nano-Onions (CNOs)
Conversion of Graphite to Diamond w Intense Temperature & Pressure
Catenated Fullerene Chain of 50 Carbon Nano-Onions
If Each Fused Onion has 30 Shells, the Carbon Count for this 50 CNO Chain would be 25,000,000!
Electron Delocalization:
Fullerenes are Electron Delocalized by each Concentric Shell.
The whole Crossene Molecule is Delocalized into the tens of millions of carbon atoms!
3D Spherical Electron Delocalization Bonding Model for Interpreting The Thermal Conversion of an Unfused Concentric Shelled Fullerene to an Evenly Layered “Polyhedral” [?Fullerene? Or Crossene!]
Crossover Pathways via Charge-Transfer Complexes
Disclaimer: This is a working hypothesis w further data needed for fine tuning. The “polyhedral” shapes provided here are extremely rudimentary w incorrectly drawn sharp vs soft corners w extreme disparities in size comparisons.
Also, the number of shells/layers may differ between sphere & “polyhedral.”
Also, carbon counts per layer for spherical vs “polyhedral” may differ significantly.
Disclaimer: This is a working hypothesis w further data needed for fine tuning. The “polyhedral” shapes provided here are extremely rudimentary w incorrectly drawn sharp vs soft corners w extreme disparities in size comparisons. Also, the number of shells/layers may differ between sphere & “polyhedral.” Also, carbon counts per layer for spherical vs “polyhedral” may differ significantly.
Evenly Spaced “Polyhedral” Layers
The Four Allotropes of Carbon in Increasing
Thermodynamic Stability & Electron Delocalization Capability
1. Diamond [hard & abrasive, insulator]
Made up of 4 sp3 saturated carbon atoms
3. Fullerenes (C60) [molecular, antioxidant]
Made up of 3 sp2’ (puckered) unsaturated carbon atoms
20th & 21st Century Nanocarbon Molecules - Synthesized Millennially Known Materials - Mined
2. Graphite [soft & lubricative, conductor]
Made up of 3 sp2 unsaturated carbon atoms
Made up of 3 sp2’’ (mixed G & F) unsaturated carbon atoms
Discovered in 2016 in catenated form by TFB and 2 colleagues w
TFB writing a composition-ofmatter patent: US 11,718,530 issued on August 8, 2023. Discovered in the first ten days of September 1985 at Rice University.
Carbon performs its Ultimate Gymnastics via Hybrid
Mixing of its one s- and three p- atomic orbitals.
Yields of roughly 10%
Actually, a Sphere - NOT a Geodesic Dome or Truncated
Production of Large CNOs
Underwater Arc-Discharge Plasma: [UWAD]
Carbon Nano-Onion Production
Onions of 20-30 Layers
Separation of Layers: 0.33nm Actually, Concentric Spheres
NOT Concentric Geodesic Domes
Example of a 5-layered onion from thermal conversion of a nanodiamond to a nano-onion
Arc Discharge Fullerene Plasma Syntheses
Why is C60 produced in Helium but CNOs of 20-30 Layers are produced in Water?
Kratschmer/Huffman Process for Producing C60 Fullerene:
Helium is nonpolar like fullerenes and serves as the medium for the most popular C60 fullerene synthesis where van der Waals interactions are exceptionally strong with the exceptionally active exterior surface of the C60 fullerene in the arc discharge plasma to the point of depriving the nascently forming C60 fullerene from engaging with plasmaproduced atomic carbon for aggregating or layering together into onions and thus favoring simple C60 production.
Sano Underwater Arc Discharge Process
for
Producing Carbon Nano-Onions (20-30 shells)
Water is polar unlike nonpolar and hydrophobic fullerenes and forces repulsion of the forming fullerenes from any van der Waals engagement except for the atomic carbon forming in the arc discharge plasma that readily engages the C60 fullerene with its reactive exterior surface thereby favoring onion production to the 20-30 shell numbers where carbon count per shell reaches into the hundreds of thousands of carbon atoms for those of a much lower degree of puckering due to a much lower degree of curvature compared to the core C60 fullerene and onion systems of lower shell number thereby allowing competition for layering on smaller onions to overwhelm that of larger onions.
Arc Discharge Plasma Syntheses:
Inert Gas Arc Discharge Plasma:
C60 Fullerene Production
60 Carbon Sphere
[Not a Geodesic Dome!]
Yields of roughly 10%
Underwater Arc Discharge Plasma:
Carbon Nano-Onion Production
Onions of 20-30 Layers of Concentric Spheres w 0.34nm Layer Separation
First the plasma chaos followed by coherency at the lowest possible thermodynamically stable state.
Structures of Known Carbon Allotropes
Crystalline Diamond Carbon Nanotubes
Graphite Sheets
Tetra-Substituted Carbon
Saturated Carbon
Crystalline Abrasive Hard
Tri-Substituted Carbon
Singly Unsaturated Carbon
Planar Sliding Lubricant Soft
Tri-Substituted Carbon
Singly Unsaturated Carbon
Curved Reactive Exterior Surface
Confusion Comparing Fullerenes to Graphite
Both have trigonal (unsaturated) carbon substitution. Graphite is a planar material; C60 is a soluble molecule.
30 ELECTRONS [EXTERIOR]
Fullerenics set up Electrostatic Forces
Aromatics/Graphitics have no Electrostatic Forces
Exterior Surface Area > Interior Surface Area
Sets up Electrostatic Forces
Directing Plasma Shell Formation
p-Orbitals aligned to the void core
Electron Sparse Region
Region of Weak Overlap
Region of Weak Overlap
Region of Strong Overlap Electron Rich Region
p-Orbitals aligned parallel to each other
Spherical vs Planar
Upper Surface Area = Lower Surface Area [No Electrostatic Forces]
Fullerene Antioxidants
(delocalized over 59 carbons)
Covalent Sigma Bond Formation to an exterior carbon of any fullerene molecule diminishes electron delocalization by only 1/60 (for C60) in the course of extinguishing the violently reactive & biologically destructive free radical ROS
Covalent Sigma Bond Formation to the carbonyl carbon (below carboxyl) continues the oxidative degradation & disassembling of the fullerene molecule in extinguishing the violently reactive & biologically destructive free radical ROS
Perfect Symmetry is what Nature teaches.
Example: Perfect tetrahedrons in diamonds.
Tenets of Thermodynamic Stability:
Spatial freedom with equal repulsion. Mobility freedom in electron delocalization.
These are not Spiked Proteins but rather representations of a better approach to characterizing the shape, structure and bonding of C60 Fullerene with an even distribution of the exterior lobes of the p-Orbitals with the contributing carbon atoms all equidistant and equiangular to one another unlike the buckyball with a truncated icosahedral structure bearing platelets of 12 pentagons surrounded each by the 20 hexagons.
Antioxidant Comparison of C60 w unfused Onions & fused Onion Chains
C60 Fullerene:
• C60 possesses the greatest degree of curvature/puckering – thus, external shell reactivity
• External shell reactivity matters little as unstable free radicals attack anything & everything
• C60 loses its fullerene character & properties, probably before reaching 10% ROS quenching
Unfused Onions:
• Can quench ROS almost to its full carbon count quenching capacity down to the C60 core
• Present production produces onions of only 6-8 layers averaging carbon counts < 10,000
• Toxicity may be an issue for DND-based onions
Catenated Fused Fullerene Onions & the New Multilayered Allotrope of Crossene:
• ROS quenching capacity is almost 100% with carbon counts over 100,000 times C60’s likely
C60 probably has ~90% less Quenching Capacity per Gram next to Onions & Crossenes.
Laser Vaporization of Graphite revealed a Startling Observation by Mass Spectrometry!
Unexpectedly, evidence was been found for the existence of a new form of carbon: A molecule of only 60 atoms. It is a new allotrope of carbon following the millennially known Diamond & Graphite!
1, What is its structure?
2. What holds it together? What constitutes ifs bonding?
The C60 Glob is molecular in nature with a vapor pressure & solubility.
Solutions of C60 became available in 1990 w the Arc Discharge Process Development.
C60 Fullerene – The Buckyball
1. Necessarily flat 12 pentagons & 20 hexagons cannot be pasted onto a sphere as intolerable ring & bond strain is incompatible w “superstable” C60 Fullerene! A
The C60 Glob was proposed to be a Truncated Icosahedron during its 1st Ten Days of Discovery. Despite its inconsistency w its obvious exceptional stability, that proposal continues to stand today!
Truncated Icosahedron
Benzene Must Be Planar to be Stable!
The Pentagons are isolated from One Another by the Hexagons, Yielding A Mesmerizing Symmetry but not of uniform atom distribution!
Structures & Shapes
Fullerene
Bonding Systems
Thermodynamic Stability
Chemical & Physical Properties
C70 is a Mix of Two Allotropes: Hemi-Spherical Fullerenes capping each end of a CNT (Carbon Nanotube). [C70 is a Mix of Sphere and Cylinder.] Both are Molecular in nature with a vapor pressure & solubility.
Both are trigonally substituted & singly unsaturated (carbon-carbon double bonds).
Cylinder
Definition of An Allotrope
One of several different chemical forms available to a select few pure elements of the Periodic Table made available by the optimization of thermodynamic stability conditions for certain atom alignments.
Definition of Thermodynamic Stability
A temporary Comfort Zone status in chemistry for molecules or molecular ions/free radicals until sufficient energy or chemical inducement allows the overcoming of barriers to a more favorable Comfort Zone status.
[ Thermodynamic stability mimics water relentlessly gravitating to ever lower levels as in a leaky roof and rainwater finding its way to the ocean or a vapor in the sky. ]
Definition of Electron Delocalization
(a measure of Thermodynamic Stability)
The “Simple
Bodies” for Diamond & Graphite are Carbon Atoms
The “Simple Bodies” for Diamond & Graphite are Carbon Atoms
sp2
Different Structure & Bonding: Different Properties &Applications
[Carbon is the only nonmetal that is lustrous!]
Different Allotropic Forms of Carbon: Diamond & Graphite
Different Bonding involving Different Carbon Atom
Tetra- vs Tri-Substituted Carbon Atoms: sp3 vs sp2
Types
ELECTRONS
Aromatic Electron
Delocalization with Identical p-orbital lobe clouds of an Odd Number of pi electrons above & below the ring.
Fullerenic Spherical Electron
Delocalization with Electron-Dense & Electron
Sparse p-orbital lobe clouds of even number of electrons interiorly and exteriorly respectively.
Delocalization terminates at the edges of the plane.
Delocalization is unending within a spherical shell.
Bonding Difference: Graphite vs Fullerenes
1. Both involve singly unsaturated carbon atoms.
2. Each carbon atom has three substituents & a leftover p-Orbital bearing one unpaired free-to-roam electron.
The Difference in Allotropes is all about p-Orbital Alignment!
Graphite has p-Orbitals All Orthogonally aligned Parallel to one another with carbon atoms equidistant and equiangular within each graphene layer
Fullerenes have p-Orbitals Aligned with a Void Core, with carbon atoms equidistant and equiangular within a fullerene shell.
Spheres like C60 fullerene use a point core, a nucleus.
Nanotubes use an axis.
Ellipsoids use both: axis cylindrically & two nuclei at the capping ends as with C70 Fullerene.
The Proposed Structure of the C60 Glob is that of a Polyhedron that Does Not have a Uniform Distribution of Carbon Atoms
Polyhedron
A polyhedron is a 3D shape that has flat faces, straight edges, and sharp vertices (corners). The word "polyhedron" is derived from a Greek word, where 'poly' means "many" and hedron means "surface,” Thus, when many flat surfaces are joined together, they form a polyhedron. These shapes have names according to their faces that are usually polygons.
A polyhedron is a three-dimensional solid made up of polygons. It has flat faces, straight edges, and vertices. For example, a cube, prism, or pyramid are polyhedrons. Cones, spheres, and cylinders are non-polyhedrons because their sides are not polygons and they have curved surfaces. The plural of a polyhedron is also known as polyhedra. They are classified as prisms, pyramids, and platonic solids. For example, triangular prism, square prism, rectangular pyramid, square pyramid, and cube (platonic solid) are polyhedrons.Polyhedra are Euclidean in Structure; Curved Structures are Non-Euclidean.
Figuring out the nature of the C60 Glob requires a Non-Euclidean Mindset vs a Polyhedral one!
Structure Assignment Challenge: Euclidean
vs NonEuclidean
• In the case of Structure Determination, or any Problem Solving, Man is like a fish!
• Men can see fish living in a different medium, but Fish CAN’T see it themselves!
• Likewise, Man traps himself into a singular mindset unknowingly!
• Unbeknownst to Man, his medium of thought has been honed to be Euclidean.
• Alternative NonEuclidean thinking escapes his mental discernment & assessment!
• Similarly, Man is manipulated politically, unaware of the intentions of influencers!
• It can be quite lucrative to impose clever Euclidean designs upon others unaware.
• Promoter Kroto seems to have done so on experimentalist Smalley & thinker Curl!
• Such was witnessed in this project as well plus realization of such in most careers.
Benzene & Fullerenes are symmetrical, planarly & volumetrically.
All Fullerene p-Orbitals are Equiangular & Equidistant to One Another.
The 2 Lobes of the p-Orbitals of spherical or cylindrical nanocarbons are not aligned parallel with adjacent p-Orbitals as in Aromatic or Graphitic Arrays but rather orient themselves along the curved geometrical contours with exterior lobes diverging outward and interior lobes converging inward to a Geometrical Void Core, a Nucleus or Point for a Sphere as in Fullerenes or an Axis for a Cylinder as in Carbon Nanotubes. Exterior lobes having reduced electron density are Reactive! It sets up a Dr. Jekyll & Mr. Hyde wrt reactivity, exterior vs interior.]
The Electron Delocalization Phenomenon is
The Key to Understanding Fullerenes!
Unraveling the Buckyball is Comparable to Unraveling Benzene.
Benzene uses two canonical forms. C60 uses 12,500.
Energetics in the Euclidean Realm differ from that of the NonEuclidean Realm: Benzene.
In the Euclidean Realm:
The Energy of Hydrogenation of a singly unsaturated cyclohexene is 120 kJ/mole
Three moles of cyclohexene requires 360 kJ for hydrogenation to cyclohexane. Likewise, cyclohexatriene should require 360 kJ for the same conversion.
In the NonEuclidean Realm:
The conversion of cyclohexatriene to cyclohexane, however, requires only 208 kJ!!!
An exceptional so-called resonance stabilization energy of 152 kJ/mole was determined. Such confirms August Kekule’s proposal that benzene is a perfectly planar hybrid structure of the two (1,3,5 and 2,4,6) cyclohexatriene canonical structures. Such is responsible for generating a NonEuclidean donut-shaped bonding pi-cloud of swarming delocalized electrons with 3 electrons freely roaming above & 3 electrons freely roaming below the six-carbon benzene planar array with identical bond lengths and also bond angles that correspond to Pauling’s 120 degree angles for sp2 hybrid atoms. Kekule discovered a New Concept of Bonding beyond that of Olefins: AROMATICITY
Hydrogenation of cyclohexene to cyclohexane (120KJ/mole
Hydrogenation of 1,4-cyclohexadiene to cyclohexane (240KJ/mole
3 x 120 = 360 kJ/mol Expected 208kJ/mol Observed
360 – 208 = 152 kJ/mol Resonance Energy for Benzene
Cyclohexane
Kekule’s Bonding Concept Incorporating two contributing stuctures ushered in a whole New Realm
of Chemistry of Graphitic/Aromatic Bonding
& Electron
Delocalization that Connects Thermodynamic Stability wrt Resonance Energy
? Birth of Quantum Organic Chemistry out of Classical Organic Chemistry ?
Thermodynamic Stabilization
Heats of Hydrogenation for Unsaturated 6-Membered Rings
42% Resonance Energy
Stabilization from just two resonance structures!
My Question: How do circulating electrons enhance Molecular Stability in a symmetrical array of carbon atoms?
Adjacent double bonds are conjugated with a small degree of electron delocalization.
Huckel
Demonstration of Electron Delocalization via Aromatic Ring
Current Effects on NMR Spectra of Aromatic Molecules
Head-on
Head-on Overlap
Overlap
The Existence & the Effects of Electron Delocalization have been proven for Aromaticity. The Why awaits Explanation!
Aromaticity’s Electron Delocalization:
A. Proof of Electron Delocalization (Free Roaming Electron Circuitry):
1. August Kekule (1872): Benzene Planar w All Bond Lengths & Angles Identical
2. Heats of Hydrogenation prove Extraordinary Thermodynamic Stability
3. Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy reveals unusual Chemical Shift Effects
B. Electron Delocalization Effects in Generating Exceptional Thermodynamic Stability:
From Chaos to Coherence -The Nature of Bonding
• Once the way atoms are put together is understood, the question of how they interact with each other can be addressed—in particular, how they form bonds to create molecules and macroscopic materials. There are three basic ways that the outer electrons of atoms can form bonds:
1.Electrons can be transferred from one atom to another.
[Ionic Bonding]
2.Electrons can be shared between neighbouring atoms.
[Covalent Bonding]
3.Electrons can be shared with all atoms in a material.
[Delocalized Bonding] (Crossene bears the ultimate DB)
• Finally, in some materials each atom gives up an outer electron that then floats freely—in essence, the electron is shared by all of the atoms within the material. The electrons form a kind of sea in which the positive ions float like marbles in molasses. This is called the metallic bond and, as the name implies, it is what holds metals together. [In nanocarbons, electrons roam freely delocalized about scaffolds of nuclei.]
• The way that atoms bond together affects the electrical properties of the materials they form. For example, in materials held together by the metallic bond, electrons float loosely between the metal ions. These electrons will be free to move if an electrical force is applied. For example, if a copper wire is attached across the poles of a battery, the electrons will flow inside the wire. Thus, an electric current flows, and the copper is said to be a conductor.
[In the AC case, the current passed by a wire comprised of a good conductor is distributed with maximum current density on the surface of the wire, and the current density decays exponentially with increasing distance from the surface. Physics
An Electron Density Difference between 2 p-orbital lobes along a shell of a Fullerene Onion sets up a Kind of Dr. Jekyll & Mr. Hyde split personality.
The Interior Side is electron rich with exceptional p-orbital tangential overlap for strong covalent pi bonding (Jekyll) by converging together, but the Exterior Side becomes reactive (Hyde) as lobes diverge outward.
A permanent van der Waals interaction forms rivaling fullerene covalent bond strength substantially increasing Thermodynamic Stability due to increasing shell size & distant strengthening field effects of the aggregate.
30 ELECTRONS
30 ELECTRONS [INTERIOR] [EXTERIOR]
1. Onions form from a dipole interplay of the 2 p-orbital lobes between shells
The Exterior Lobes DIVERGING from the nuclear void are electron deficient.
The Interior Lobes CONVERGING to the nuclear void are electron rich.
The resultant dipole interplay increases Thermodynamic Stability.
2. The Outer Shells of Carbon Nano-Onions are Reactive (greatest for C60):
The Exterior Lobes seek equivalent electron density of the Interior Lobes.
The Interior Lobes have strong orbital overlap from CONVERGING together.
The Exterior Lobes have weaker orbital overlap from DIVERGING apart.
Carbon Nano-Onions
Detonation Nanodiamond vs Under-Water-Arc-Discharge FullereneChem Asian J. 2007;2:625–633. DND-Fullerenes (6-8 shells) were compared to UWAD-Fullerenes (20-30 shells)
Thermal Conversion to “polyhedral” for UWAD required greater temp vs DND [Echegoyen Group: Reactivity differences between carbon nano onions (CNOs) prepared by different methods. Chem Asian J. 2007;2:625–633.
Palkar, A.; Melin, F.; Cardona, C. M.; Elliott, B.; Naskar, A. K.; Edie, D. D.; Kumbhar, A.; Echegoyen, L. Chem. – Asian J. 2007, 2, 625–633. doi:10.1002/asia.200600426
Palkar A, Melin F, Cardona CM, et al. Reactivity differences between carbon nano onions (CNOs) prepared by different methods. Chem Asian J. 2007;2:625–633.
Carbon layer separation for Graphite, CNOs & MWCNTs are all 0.33 nm
Carbon Nano-Onions (CNOs) [Echegoyen study: Chem Asian J. 2007;2:625–633]
Detonation Nanodiamond Fullerene vs Under-Water-Arc-Discharge Fullerene
DND-Fullerenes (5-7 shells) were compared to UWAD-Fullerenes (20-30 shells)
UWAD Required 200-500C degrees over DND to convert to “Polyhedral” [Crossene]
Observations: Layer Interplay is substantial in affecting Thermodynamic Stability, Yet van der Waals distances are fixed at 0.33 nm for Graphite, CNOs & MWCNTs each.
CNOs: Strength of van der Waals Forces rivals Covalent Bonds wrt Thermal Barriers [In contrast, Graphene Exhibits dramatically enhanced properties over Graphite.]
Conclusions: van der Waals distances reflect repulsion of respective electron pi cloud layers that are unrelated to strong attractive electrostatic forces between layers.
Reactivity Differences between Carbon Nano Onions (CNOs)
Prepared by Different Methods
Amit Palkar, Frederic Melin Dr., Claudia M. Cardona Dr., Bevan
Elliott, Amit K. Naskar Dr., Danny D. Edie Prof., Amar
Kumbhar, Luis Echegoyen Prof. Dr. First published: 27 April 2007
Chemistry, an Asian Journal, Vol2, Issue5,May 4, 2007, 625-633
Strength Rivalling Covalent Bonds
Abstract
The carbon nanoparticles obtained from either arcing of graphite under water or thermal annealing of nanodiamonds are commonly called carbon nano onions (CNOs), or spherical graphite, as they are made of concentric fullerene cages separated by the same distance as the shells of graphite. A more careful analysis reveals some dramatic differences between the particles obtained by these two synthetic methods. Physicochemical methods indicate that the CNOs obtained from nanodiamonds (N-CNOs) are smaller and contain more defects than the CNOs obtained from arcing (A-CNOs). These properties explain the enhanced reactivity of the N-CNOs in cycloaddition and oxidation reactions, as well as in reactions involving radicals. Given the easier functionalization of the N-CNOs, they are the most obvious choice for studying the potential applications of these multi-shelled fullerenes.
Carbon Nano-Onion (CNO), MWCNT & Graphite have the same van der Waals Distances 0.33nm
Exterior cloud of 30 electrons of low electron density
Interior cloud of 30 electrons of high electron density
Van der Waals bond - definition of Van der Waals bond by The Free Dictionary
The study of pure carbon materials (allotropes) redefines van der Waals forces.
“A weak, short-range attractive force between atoms of molecules caused by their dipole moments, often arising in otherwise nonpolar atoms or molecules from a temporary shift of orbital electrons to one side of an atom or molecule.” [field effect – no vdw effect!.
“A weak force of attraction between electrically neutral molecules that collide with or pass very close to each other. The van der Waals force is caused by temporary attractions between electron-rich regions of one molecule and electron-poor regions of another. These attractions are very common but are much weaker than chemical bonds. The van der Waals force is what allows vapor to condense into liquid water.”
The forces between layers in carbon nano-onions are caused by electrostatic field effects between layers regarding exterior vs interior p-orbital lobe electron density in a shell of the onion, and they are unrelated to van der Waals forces.
The electrostatic field effects are not temporary but well established with long range field effects beyond adjacent layers of substantial strength rivaling the strength of covalent bonds in the onion.
Accordingly, bonding considerations in characterizing carbon allotropes must extend beyond sigma & pi bond considerations including beyond electron delocalization to include electrostatic field effects observed with carbon nano-onions.
Van der Waals bond - definition of Van der Waals bond by The Free Dictionary
van der Waals forces: Dictionary Weakness definition vs CNO Permanent Strong Observation
“A weak, short-range attractive force between atoms of molecules caused by their dipole moments, often arising in otherwise nonpolar atoms or molecules from a temporary shift of orbital electrons to one side of an atom or molecule.”
“A weak force of attraction between electrically neutral molecules that collide with or pass very close to each other. The van der Waals force is caused by temporary attractions between electron-rich regions of one molecule and electron-poor regions of another. These attractions are very common but are much weaker than chemical bonds. The van der Waals force is what allows vapor to condense into liquid water.”
This was last year’s slide – drastically altered now via pursuit of the Scientific Method!
The van der Waals forces between layers in carbon nano-onions are indeed caused by dipole moment differences between layers regarding exterior vs interior p-orbital lobe electron density in a shell of the onion, but the van der Waals forces are not temporary but well established with long range field effects beyond adjacent layers of substantial strength rivaling the covalent bonds of the onion. Accordingly, bonding considerations in characterizing carbon allotropes must extend beyond sigma & pi bond considerations including beyond electron delocalization to include the major van der Waals forces observed with carbon nano-onions.
Nanocarbons stretch beyond the Periodic Table
Matter has long been defined as individual atoms bound together sharing their respective atomic electron orbital systems about their respective nuclear cores.
Now we see unsaturated nanocarbon material consisting of a diffuse nuclear array of immense numbers of carbon atoms coherently aligned within massive clouds of free roaming or delocalized electrons in a multitude of structure-defining molecular electron orbitals or clouds of electrons with each exterior carbon atom available for reaction in line with the nature of the molecular orbital system.
From Chaos to Coherency
Review of Highlighting Codes:
Key Point for Guiding to Understanding
Changes needed as The Scientific Method is Followed revealing new Concepts
p-Orbital Orientation distinguishes Graphite from Fullerenes
Each lobe of the p-Orbital form independent pi electron clouds ex. BSo, BSa
Discovery of a New Allotrope of Carbon, the Ultimate in Electron Delocalization
Discovery of Fused Carbon Nano-Onions (CNO): Fullerene & Crossene
Discovery of New Concept in Antioxidation & Anti-Inflammatories
Development of a More Comprehensive Definition of Allotropes
Explanation for extra Thermal Demand for Large vs Small Onions to Crossenes
Discovery of a Strong Field Effect apart from van der Waals Forces in Onions
Euclidean is a Mere Distraction vs Non-Euclidean
Molecules / Allotropes with Electron-Delocalization are a Departure from Traditional Chemistry.
Why do they exhibit exceptional Thermodynamic Stability simply because of Electrons Free to Roam?
Have we arrived in Organic Chemistry at our very own Crossroads likened to Classical vs Quantum Mechanics?
Last Section: Time for Tesla Stuff!
1. Definition of matter beyond the Periodic Table – Delocalized Carbon Arrays?
2. Bearing on Black Holes?
3. Bearing on Gravity?
4. Bearing on EMF Field Effects Biologically?
5. Bearing on Quantum Entanglements?
Rare Earth Complement?
6. More on Symmetry & Electron Delocalization and Thermodynamic Stability?
7. More on van der Waals interactions bonding?
8. What did we miss? 9.
I had already documented 2 years of my work publicly. I add 5 more years today. That much documentation cannot be covered in an hour-long presentation. To avoid Tesla’s plight, I present it all for video documentation, pausing occasionally.
Introduction: A Home Study of Different Forms of Carbon
A. A Master Plumber & Rancher I just met asked me to help on a project as a PhD organic chemist w academic & industrial experience-Dow, Shell & Exxon-Mobil.
B. After months of hesitation, I drove 65 miles to learn the subject was focused on a new form of pure carbon: catenated fullerene onions [vs diamond & graphite].
C. Previously, I had viewed carbon allotropes w little interest, but I soon realized many of the puzzles in chemistry found solutions in the study of pure carbon.
D. Key Terms & Definitions
A form of a pure element unique in structure, bonding, thermodynamic
and chemical & physical properties [ex. O2 vs O3]
From Chaos to Coherency -- Carbon,
Thomas F Bailey - 2023
Water and Energy Potentials
Saturday Aug 12 • Session 8 (8:00am) • ExtraOrdinary Concepts
Synergistic reinforcement of an effect is achieved through a coherent alignment of repetitive parts. Accordingly, lasers were born. Nanocarbon allotropes of unsaturated carbon atoms exhibit exceptional reinforcement of properties and thermodynamic stability through coherency-achieving alignment of carbon atom repeating units. August Kekule discovered this phenomenon of enhanced thermodynamic stability 150 years ago as he solved the mystery of benzene’s unique properties. A resonance stabilization energy resulted from a coherent alignment of carbon and hydrogen atom units with identical bond lengths and angles. So it is with planar graphitic allotropes of carbon and also curved fullerenes - making geodesic dome models a highly unstable proposal of nonuniform bond lengths and angles.
Kekule described a new bonding system beyond traditional Pauling sigma/pi bonding concepts. Instead of individual solar systems of atomic electron orbitals of the Periodic Table, a new order of diffuse carbon atoms of exceptional properties and thermodynamic stability is achieved involving molecular orbitals creating a galactic Milky Way of carbon atoms. Coherency effects are also found in structured EZ water and in resonant sound waves. Destructive harmonics of coherency are found in bridges collapsing and geoengineering.
A “resonance stabilization” energy resulted from a coherent alignment of carbon and hydrogen atom units in Benzene with identical bond lengths and angles – not a partial but a complete circular symmetry! Coherence is the quality of “order” and “flow.”
Geodesic dome models are a highly unstable
Proposal
.
The Carbon Revolution!
By Tom Bailey
20220812 9:30am Crowne Plaza Hotel, Albuquerque, NM
TeleTech, Extraordinary Science and Technology Conference
- Tesla Advocated for the Need to Unleash Carbon's Potential Through Advanced Chemistry! -
Carbon runs today's world: petroleum, coal, natural gas, plastics, photosynthesis. However, pure carbon holds value beyond energy considerations as distinct allotropes with unique properties: diamond and graphite with different structures derived from different bonding natures. The fullerene allotrope was discovered in 1985 in a volatile molecular spherical form of 60 carbon atoms. Its popularity grew in its resemblance to a soccer ball. It’s known as the buckyball, C60 fullerene, a nanoscale soccer ball, named after the iconic architect of geodesic dome fame, Buckminster Fuller.
In 1980, an enclosed pressure detonation of graphite led to the production of small nano-onions following thermal conversion of initially isolated less thermodynamically stable nano-diamonds. These small individual concentric-shelled onion fullerenes of 6-8 layers were expanded to 20-30 layers by a new process that also fuses the onions into chains. These chained onions disintegrate to form a new allotrope of carbon called crossene of extraordinary thermodynamic stability. Though nondiamond allotropes of graphite (graphene), fullerene and crossene involve trigonally substituted carbons, each bear its own bonding system. New bonding concepts for the nanocarbon allotropes are introduced. These new allotropes fed to mice compare to ormus materials through unparalleled biological antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activity increasing mice lifespans 3-5 fold
C60 Buckyball Key to New Carbon-Only Materials
[Welcome to Nanocarbons, a New Realm of Chemistry]
Threshold to New Chemical Bonding Concepts and New Carbon-Only Materials
