In Touch Issue 10

S C I E N C E S T U D E N T S ’ S OC I E T Y

in TOUCH

Issue 10 - April 2016

EMbryo Freezing page 16

Stochastics The Language of Time

Varying Laws of Chance page 8

Biological Warfare Could Ebola be used as a Biological Weapon ? page 6

with future scientists

CONTENTS Foreword and Message from the President

Stochastics

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The Language of Time-Varying Laws of Chance

Biological Warfare Can Ebola be used as a Biological Weapon ?

08

06 VOXPOP:

Getting to know our Students

Intenational S-Cubed‘s Educational Trips

14

Embryo Freezing

12 IAPS Internation Association of Physics Students

Science Crossword Address: Students’ House, KSU Office – S3 [S-Cubed], University of Malta, Msida MSD 2080

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18 Science Communication office

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Contact: President – Simon Agius - president@scubed.org.mt Vice-President – Lucia Farrugia – vicepresident@scubed. org.mt www. scubed.org.mt

Foreword

A Message From the Editing Team

Dear reader, Whether you’re a sixth form student who has never heard of S-Cubed or a M.Sc. student who has been involved in S-Cubed for years, we hope this magazine has something that interests you!

After a hiatus of three years, this year’s executive decided to publish another issue of InTouch. One of the reasons for bringing it back is that we’d like to give space for students and academics to voice their opinions and ideas. Mikael Scerri Forte discusses biological warfare and Prof. Lino Sant weighs in on modelling science (and football and financial markets) using stochastics.

As the current executive’s term comes to an end we will highlight some of our work this year. This year S-Cubed has gone off to two educational trips abroad, to London and CERN and you can read more inside. Maria Falzon, an active member in our social policy office, has written an article on a current issue - embryo freezing.

Romario Catania

Jean Paul Formosa

Ryan Busuttil

Mikael Scerri Forte

Maria Fenech

Nicolanne Scicluna

Last but not least, find out what students like the most about S-Cubed and University life.

Regards, The InTouch Team Romario Catania, Jean Paul Formosa, Ryan Busuttil, Mikael Scerri Forte, Maria Fenech, Nicolanne Scicluna

S-Cubed (the Science Students’ Society) is a student organisation representing science students at the University of Malta and its institutions. We are based at the Faculty of Science (which offers courses in mathematics, physics, biology, chemistry, statistics and geosciences), at the University of Malta and have a very active student body. Throughout the year we organise many leisure events, such as the weekend seminar, On The Trail (a camping event) and an international trip - this year we went off to Amsterdam! S-Cubed is also involved in science communication initiatives, such as Science in the City and does events related to education, such as site visits.

If you’d like to know more about what we do, contact us on pro@scubed.org.mt!

Current Executive Simon Agius - President Lucia Farrugia - Vice-President Anna Vella - Secretary General Ryan Busuttil - Financial Controller Romario Catania - Public Relations Officer Martina Cutajar - Education Officer Dean Grech - Leisure Officer 04

Luke Tabone - Leisure Officer Jessica Edwards - Science Communication Officer Rebecca Bezzina - Social Policy Officer Desiree Chetcuti - International Officer Jean Paul Formosa - Media officer Lara Azzopardi - Internal Secretary

A Message from the

President Dear Science Student,

Science100 reception

Site Visit to Medichem

Before departing from the organisation, I would like to share my last few words with you. These past two years have been a true rollercoaster ride; a learning curve that I am still experiencing and cherishing till this very moment. It has been a great honour to represent science students for two whole years, in particular this current year as President. It has been even more special to lead the organisation in a milestone year for our faculty – its centenary!

Our international office managed to establish two new annual trips – pushing up the standard to 3 annual trips per year. We did a rebranding which was needed for years. Leisure events were also highly improved upon almost always receiving positive feedback. In particular we organised a reception to commemorate the Faculty’s centenary, having an impressive attendance of around 250 students from a faculty of merely 400. We also decided to tackle the main problem facing science students – no professional title – ok I have B.Sc. now what?

In light of this, site visits flourished this year, having 9 from last year’s one. We organised an info session on Masters studies and held a conference titled “Science: A Lifetime of Opportunities” in which we delved deeper into the topic, investigating students’ push and pull factors on pursuing further studies vs. immediate employment. #UnitedInScience! I’m sure you’ve came across this on your news feed if you have liked our page. This year’s executive set forth to promote unity within the Faculty of Science itself. We aren’t maths students or chemistry students, we are Science Students!

Uniblue Site Visit

The Lab - Open bar

If I could sum up my S-Cubed experience in a sentence, it would probably be something of this sort; an experience in which you will be tested to the limit, your weakness will be exploited more than ever and your time management skills will start taking steroids. However, it is still my best experience to date and I would recommend those who have never given student activism a second thought to get involved - it might be the best decision of your university years!

Simon Agius 05

Biological Warfare

Could Ebola be used as a biological weapon?

Biological weapons

or biological warfare is the use of living organisms to cause death, disability or damage in humans, animals or plants.

The effects from biological weapon exposure, range from mild illness to death. However, biological weapons are incapable of causing mass destruction of buildings and equipment. Most countries have agreed to ban the entire class of biological weapons, due to the difficulty of control and the fear they instil.

However, recent technologic developments include the detection of these biological weapons, which can sense small quantities of biological particles in the air. This in turn will issue an alarm in less than a minute. The sensor is of the bioelectronics identifying type, meaning that it will detect and identify the biological weapon, from a single particle.

Biological weapons are categorized as follows: i) Bacteria – cause diseases such as anthrax, brucellosis and plague. ii) Rickettsiae - similar to Bacteria but differ since they are intracellular parasites. Typhus is the disease caused. iii) Viruses – intracellular parasites that can be used to cause equine encephalitis. iv) Fungi - used against crops to cause cereal rust and potato blight. v) Toxins – extractions from animals (snakes and insects).

The survivors that escaped from Kaffa introduced the plague in Europe. The problem with bioweapons is that they contain living organisms.

Bioweapons are also used to intimidate civilians and Mikael Scerri Forte a second year B.Sc. Biology governments, which will is Student who is an avid reader, result in bioterrorism. It ranging from history to science. is especially interested in may not be possible to He genetic engineering. stop all wars, but recent advancements in health systems enable us to respond to these bioweapons.

New vaccines are being developed successfully, and existing ones are being stockpiled for use where required. Another disadvantage of using bioweapons is that it takes days for it to be effective. It may even cause casualty of an unintended population such as friendly forces, not on the intended target.

Bioweapons are also classified based on their ease of transmission and their effect. There are three major categories:

- Category A (Highest Priority Agents) - where microorganisms are very easily transmitted from person to person. This would result in high mortality rates. An example would be using the Smallpox virus as a bioweapon.

- Category B (Second Highest Priority Agents) - are moderately easy to disseminate. They also result in medium to low levels of mortality. Examples of The earliest recorded use of biological weapon was in this would be the bacterium Chlamydia psittaci 1346, where plague-ridden bodies were catapulted and the Hepatitis A virus. by the Tartar army on the walls of Kaffa in Ukraine.

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- Category C (Third Highest Priority Agents)- these are most available microorganismWs that can be used as bioweapons. They are easy to produce and disseminate. These can be bioengineered to be potential weapons that cause high morbidity and mortality. Examples of Category C bioweapons are the viruses, such as Tuberculosis and the Influenza virus.

The Ebola virus There are various species of the genus Ebolaviruses, but the most common one (causing 90% of all cases) is the Zaire ebolavirus, also referred to as ZEBOV. Other species are the Sudan ebolavirus (SUDV), Bundibugyo ebolavirus (BDBV), Reston ebolavirus (RESTV) and the Taï Forest ebolavirus (TAFV).

gland tissue. After infection, the virus uses the cell’s mechanism to replicate into them. This would result in rapid viraemia.

Prevention includes high sanitary practices, such as frequent washing of hands. The availability of treatment includes supportive care, where fluid and salt replacement has been shown to improve survival rates. Specific antiviral treatments are still in their experimental stage.

These species occur in animals native to Africa.

Knowing all this information, can the Ebola virus be Pathogenicity varies across these different speused as a biological weapon? cies, with ZEBOV being lethal to humans, whereas RESTV causes diseases in animals such as in pigs, Bio-weaponization first and foremost includes obwhilst not showing any effects in humans. taining and isolating the virus and knowing how to handle it. All of this includes growing, storing and Transmission of ZEBOV in humans can be either dispensing the agent. Research has shown that the via mucosal surfaces, breaks and injuries in the skin Ebola virus is very fragile and does not survive outor else by direct parental transmission. However, it side a host. Physical factors such as higher temperis important to note that the virus is introduced into atures are likely to reduce the survival rate of the vithe human population via animals (such as infected rus in the environment. A high temperature would monkeys, gorillas, infected insects and fruit bats). dry up the virus and inactivate it (but not outright kill it). High Light intensity and low-humidity also Early symptoms of the Ebola virus disease (EVD) inactivate the virus. Bleach and common disinfectinclude “flu-like” symptoms such as the onset of feants kill the virus. ver, headache, acute muscle pain and a sore throat.

Late symptoms are characterised by diarrhoea, vomTo date, there is no evidence that Ebola can be transiting, impaired liver function and at extreme cases, mitted via contaminated water. However, research internal and external bleeding. Laboratory testing has shown that Ebola can be a potential bioweapon includes blood testing, often characterised by leuby airborne transmission of fluids. This is however, copenia (low white blood cell count) and low platevery conspicuous and impractical to perform. Relet count and an increase in liver enzymes. Serology producing the virus is no easy task, since it is extests are inadequate in diagnosing EVD, however tremely dangerous to work with. It can infect the rethe technique is still used to monitor epidemiologsearchers and the staff of a bioweapon facility, even ical and surveillance. For diagnosis, Reverse tranwith maximum biosafety measures. scription- Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-PCR) is However, the virus is quite slow to grow inside a the technique used. human host, as it takes about 21 days to complete its full incubation period when compared to an InPathogenicity of the virus includes a complex influenza virus for example, which takes 3 to 4 days terplay between the virus itself, the host and the to do so. People suffering from the Ebola fever are environment. As discussed before, the virus enters also conspicuous, rendering them unable to walk in the human through wounds or openings (or can be a crowded area. transmitted). Upon entry, ZEBOV is capable of infecting various cell types, including immune cells So, the Ebola virus is not an ideal candidate for use (macrophages and monocytes, types of white blood as a bioweapon. cells), hepatocytes (liver cells) and adrenal (kidney) 07

Stochastics

The Language of Time-Varying Laws of Chance In our daily lives, experience and education help us get accustomed to dealing with uncertainty. We start using happily the language and tools of probability as a matter of course at an early stage. Little do we realize the extent to which probabilistic arguments and paradigms fill intellectual habitats in contemporary times. Even the physical environment constructed within our homes for our needs and comfort, concrete and solid at it seems, owes a lot to probability. We clutter it is with so much equipment, gadgets and computers that depended crucially on the application of probability in the course of their technical and commercial conception and development. To be more precise, what mattered most was the application of theories where probability, time and statistics meet. This area has been fashionably named stochastics. But before we go stochastic, let us go at a more basic and elementary level of our everyday discourse ‌

We talk about how unlikely it is for a local football team to win against the European champions. We also note that as the sporting season matures, the degree of unlikeliness can change drastically for teams which were evenly matched at the start of the season. Some persons base their hopes on becoming rich exactly on predicting unlikely scores at the right juncture and betting on it. We would say rare events here would occur when a particularly wild score, a score no one would have dreamed about, actually happened. We might also argue about how exactly rare such scores are. Similar scores in rugby involving the same countries would be classified very differently.

Likewise we argue about how rare it is, or at least used to be, for rain to occur in July. Our summer holiday plans might be messed up by such rare events. But in winter months we know rain is more likely to fall while tourists become less likely to visit us. We worry about many source of uncertainty which effect our lives, pastimes or income. And on a more serious level, we worry when doctors give us the chances of success for a relative undergoing a serious operation. Humans have always dreamed about having a stronger hold on reality than they do.

Prof. Lino Sant

has been teaching at the Department of Statistics and O.R. since its inception in 1997.

His research interests include Bayesian statistical analysis and stochastic modelling of various phenomena as well as the theoretical mathematical basis of such techniques.

At times they implored for divine help. Some still do.

But rational beings have to live with expectations and their variations over time. They can best exploit their positive consequences and protect themselves against their negative effects by studying them.

Sophisticated use of probability, wedded with other mathematical and statistical theories, do offer lots of tools to work with in situations when laws of chance are known to rule over things which interest us; even more so when these rule vary with time in some pattern. The probability of a particular football team winning a game with the same opponent will not be the same at the beginning of the season as the end.

Variations in probability are also known to occur for chances of precipitation over different months and for success rates over the age of patients undergoing surgery. Such patterns of variations have been studied and models imitating their behaviour have been proposed and called stochastic processes. Such processes have been studied extensively for more than a century. Results obtained from ensuing theories have been used in practice with success repeatedly; but certainly not in all cases.

Simulation of particles following Brownian Motion

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Brownian Motion is the mechanism by which diffusion manifests itself

Physics was originally the first avid consumer of results from stochastic processes. There were quite a large number of problems in physics fueling a demand, if not greed, for stochastic models. The eighteenth and nineteenth century brought to the attention of scientists many natural phenomena which they somehow wanted to model mathematically. The behaviour of gaseous matter at molecular level, the spontaneous disintegration of radioactive chemical elements, to mention just a few, seemed to escape the enormous mathematical reach of the differential and integral calculus. Probability and chance mechanisms had to be brought into service.

In the social sciences situations where determinism was out of question, probability and statistics were harnessed with notable, though limited success. Statistical terminology and techniques helped quantify, qualify and eventually clarify various societal phenomena. But the emphasis was about equilibrium – the state of stasis towards which systems are supposed to strive. In a sense this was a “conservative” way of deconstructing nature.

to bite in. So even probability laws change over time and here is where stochastic processes marched in.

In particular we mention Brownian motion and the Poisson process. Brownian motion is the process which was invented by probabilists to model the erratic and highly irregular movements of pollen particles suspended in a liquid. This phenomenon was first observed by the English botanist Robert Brown as he observed through his microscope pollen dart around. The source of energy which fed this process was mysterious until heat content was proposed as the source of molecular motion. Molecules were energetic and while fidgeting about they were hitting pollen particles haphazardly. The problem was that molecules were still invisible to microscopes available at the time. In the theoretical development of this model, amongst many renowned physicists and mathematicians, Einstein and Smoluchowski were eminently involved. But it was Norbert Wiener who performed the great mathematical achievement of actually defining rigourously a probability measure on the collections of all possible paths a What was fundamentally new by the end of the 19th particle can take. This was no mean feat and a macentury was the dynamical features that character- jor ground-breaking accomplishment in modern ized so many processes in nature and society. Rates mathematics. of nuptiality, of violent crime, quality of life and gini indices for wealth distribution all change apprecia- Not all time-varying probabilistic had continuous bly over generations and over different geographi- paths like Brownian motion. Processes which incal regions. Nothing is static. As evolution and as- volve counting are in the habit of jumping. They are tronomy reveal, different processes and phenomena also very common in nature. The growth, migration have their own clocks and take their own time to or disappearance over time of populations, be they evolve over years, when not over millennia or even agglomerations of humans, birds, viruses or genes light years. Many phenomena could not be under- are characterized by counting processes like birth, stood merely by having their equilibrium points de- death, disease propagation. Poisson processes were termined, and their internal structure at this state, invented to cater for the most elementary of countstudied. The passage of time was to form an integral ing processes. Eventually these were generalized and part of how things and large systems work. Dynam- extended to offer models for queues, demographic ical systems were proposed and studied to take care processes, radioactivity and loads of other phenomof such processes. However adherence to determin- ena in the natural sciences. Brownian motion and ism is not how the universe works. Randomness is at Poisson processes turned out in fact to be theoretthe root of many phenomena, whether we like it or ically of a fundamental nature – they formed some not. The study of natural processes, and other pro- sort of building blocks with which other more comcesses involving human intervention or living mat- plicated processes can be constructed. Their study ter especially, needed probability and time merged enriched not only all the natural, engineering and into expressive models with sufficient mathematical social sciences but also mathematics at all levels. structure to allow results and statistical techniques 09

Advances in the study of Brownian motion led to the invention of a new calculus. It resembles in part the differential calculus taught at post-secondary mathematics. But there is also a random part which adds something seemingly mysterious at first. On reflection and with deeper understanding, it was developed into a more general sort of calculus. It was considered to be a random version of differential equations. Engineers were the first to make direct and extensive use of this calculus in modelling and control problems. The electrical engineer was at grips with the perennial and ubiquitous problems of signal recovery from noisy inputs and controlling peripherals of digital equipment. The mechanical engineer wanted to be able to work out how to steer and control mechanical systems which operate under known forces subject to random fluctuations. A new topic grew out of all this under the name of stochastic differential equations (SDE).

Yet it was in finance where the use of techniques from SDEs created the biggest and widest hullabaloo. And in actual fact way back in 1900 it was an attempt by a French mathematician to model stock prices at the Bourse de Paris which anticipated the definition of a process which was to be baptized Brownian motion. Finance was to pick up its flirtation with stochastic processes and develop it into steady and fruitful romance sixty years later. As the vagaries and incompetence of various financial institutions, coupled with the unruliness of the capital markets wreaked havoc within the world of finance, a wild chase emerged for models to cater for the pricing of risky assets and the valuation of risks which

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need to be underwritten. SDEs provided many such constructs and finance was only too happy to reward handsomely statisticians and mathematicians willing to contribute in the area of stochastic analysis wedded to mathematical finance. Textbooks in probability, statistics and stochastic processes were written with newly forged paradigms taken off the universe of finance.

In spite of the tremendous pull that finance and insurance has exerted over decades on the best talents in stochastic processes, all the sciences still struggle somehow to cater for their many needs from stochastic analysis. They have been indebted towards the area in different degrees for over a century by now. Models for the neurons firing off messages within the brain, precipitation of rain over a region with specific features, chemical reactions and their kinetics, propagation and control of epidemics, cell homeostasis are a really tiny sample of how standard models within all the sciences have been “stochastized�. That is to say they have been extracted from their deterministic formulation and cultivated within a probabilistic setting which evolves over time, rendering the resulting models more realistic and more reliable. To gauge how far this progressive wave within all sciences has moved, one would be advised to look at statistical mechanics and the problems which it is tackling these days.

It would be no exaggeration to say that modelling within any particular science cannot be considered to be mature unless it incorporates stochastic features.

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INTERNATIONAL Out of the Classroom and Aboard an Airplane: S-Cubed’s Educational Trips

London

is a unique landmark city, well recognized around the world as the City of Lights, History and Culture. It is, however, not usually associated with the Biological Sciences. Against all odds however, the Department of Biology set off 12 students to England’s remarkable capital city for the very first Biology London Trip organised by S-Cubed, between the 10th and 14th September 2015. Although it was just a short stay, our 5-day trip was packed with educational site visits, sightseeing, and of course, what is London without a little shopping!

With the Underground Tube Oyster card in hand and ‘Mind the Gap’ engraved into our brains, we were able to quickly travel around the city and see the major tourist attractions like Oxford Street, Trafalgar Square, Marble Arch, Prince Albert’s golden memorial and hall, Piccadilly circus and obviously you cannot go to London without getting a look at the Houses of Parliament, Big Ben tower and the London Eye. It is also Gabriella Dalmas

Gabriella Dalmas is 22 years old and is currently a 2nd year student in BSc Biology (Hons).

She is a big animal lover and one day hopes to work in conservation.

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worth mentioning our keen fascination towards a squirrel we stared at for a good 20 minutes in Hyde Park. We also enjoyed a quick trip to the land of Oz at the viewing of the ‘Wicked’ West End show.

Our main focus was a visit to the Natural History Museum that took us back to a time to when our solar system was formed and eventually gave rise to the beginning of life on planet Earth that eventually evolved to the living organisms we know today. With a particular focus to the time that dinosaurs roamed the Earth, we were greeted at the entrance doors by a Stegosaurus (named Sophie) and a 26-meter life size Diplodocus (named Dippy). To finalise our trip and for memory’s sake, we can’t forget our photo with Charles Darwin himself.

Most unique of all, we got the chance to enter the world during which the early life forms started to emerge, in a virtual reality experience at the Sir David Attenborough studios.

The Kew Royal Botanical Gardens also offered us the opportunity to explore different plant habitats from around the world while observing the large range of plant diversity; includ-

ing some of the oldest trees, the world’s largest water lilies, various cacti, flowers and orchids.

Additionally, enjoyed more by some and dreaded by others, was the Tree top walkway raised 18 metres above ground.

We also visited the Science museum, neighbouring NHM, that offered a wide variety of collections and interactive exhibitions and gave us insight to the incredible achievements in science and exploration throughout the years.

I would like to take this opportunity to congratulate and thank the S-Cubed committee for very successfully organising the very first international trip for Biology students; making it not only educational but also enjoyable.

I would also like to thank Dr Sandro Lanfranco for his endless support and making our trip an interesting and a memorable one.

L

Our International Office organises the annual science trip every Easter - destinations included Vienna, Munich, France and most recently Amsterdam. However this year there we also had two educational trips to London and CERN!

n s

CERN

It is many scientists’ dream to visit CERN, the European Centre for Nuclear Research. This year, S-Cubed took 12 students to CERN on the 6th February. They visited the Anti-Matter Factory and CERN’s Data Centre amongst other attractions related to high-energy physics. On the second day, the group toured Geneva, visiting the Old Town.

This visit was organised with the help of Dr. Nicholas Sammut and Dr. Gianluca Valentino.

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VOXPOP

Getting to Know Our Students

1. I got to know about the course through various teachers at Sixth Form and I became interested immediately.

2. Episode X, a TV series theme party, since it was an amazing and original event.

3. I got to know about S-Cubed in Freshers’ week and I found it to be very helpful, not only in the work it produces but also in giving me the opportunity to form part of something special.

4. More video tutorials related to the courses such as how to use SPSS and various techniques that would help in the chemistry practicals.

Yacopo Baldacchino

B.Sc. Biology and Chemistry 1st year

1. Family ties and awareness from secondary school 2. I cannot pin-point one in particular since it’s such a varied one.

There’s always going to be a few episodes to reminisce, but I think that the friendships built throughout the course and the bonds forged during fieldwork are quite unique 3. Through the intro sessions held during our Fresher’s week. I recall the Science Gathering as one of the first events I’ve ever attended. I’ve been saying this from the beginning, the organisation has been doing an outstanding job at whatever they do, as long as the student is kept at the centre of it all.

4. More projects/activities that unite the student body across the entire faculty. It would be nice to see what other departments are doing outside one’s course, so that we can see science as one thing rather than as many separate entities.

Maria AttarD

B.Sc. Biology and Chemistry 4th year

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1. I got to know about my course during an A level maths private lesson session. The teacher asked the class what we wanted to be when we grow up and what course we intended on taking! I didn’t exactly know, but I knew that it was something that had to do with Maths as this was and still is my favourite subject. He suggested the B.Sc course so I looked into it.

2. My best university experience so far would have to be S-Cubed’s trip to CERN, I was one of the lucky few!

This was an amazing experience and I have to thank S-Cubed for this once in a lifetime opportunity.

3. I got to know about S-Cubed when my friend and I visited Uni during Fresher’s Week 2014, they came up to us asking what course we were taking. When they got to know that I was taking the Science road they started talking to me about their experiences so far. S-Cubed representatives are always there to help and keep us updated when any activities are organized.

4. I’m not sure what I would like to see more from S-Cubed, however I have to tell them that they should keep up their good work, as they just like me are students following a challenging course and I am sure that they have their own responsibilities, yet they still find time to keep up with the committee!

Leah Vella

B.Sc. Maths and Physics 2nd year

1. How did you get to know about your course at University?

2. What has been your best University experience so far?

3. How did you get to know about S-Cubed and how helpful do you find its contributions?

4. What would you like to see from S-Cubed?

1. My maths teacher at the time suggested it. I then did my own research on the University site to get to know what it consists of and what requirements do I need to get in.

2. My best university experience so far was of last year’s KSU Students’ Fest. I got to meet new people and it was a lot of fun to participate in it. It consisted of a lot of rehearsals and hard work but it was all worth it.

3. I got to know about S-Cubed through my University course mates. I find S-Cubed really helpful because sometimes they organise educational events that I find helpful for my course. Apart from the educational events, the parties organised by S-Cubed are not to miss because you get to meet new people and it’s always fun.

4. I think that S-Cubed organises different events for everything like trips, educational events and even parties. But a suggestion would be to try and encourage more students to attend educational events.

Antonella Tabone

B.Sc. Maths and Banking 3rd year 1. I first heard about the statistics course when a group of 2nd year students came to Junior College distributing surveys as part of an assignment 2. My best experience so far has to be that of being part of the S-Cubed executive board. This gave me the opportunity to meet loads of new people from different courses. Although travelling to Vienna with S-Cubed was quite the adventure!

3. It was my first Freshers Week but it wasn’t until later on that year that I started involving myself in S-Cubed’s events. During this last year S-Cubed has been focusing more on statistics students and through organized site visits, I had the chance to meet future employers and get to know the industry.

4. A problem with university students, especially in our faculty, is apathy. Students don’t realise the benefits that come from events and from being part in a student organisation. Although knowing that S-Cubed is doing the utmost to involve students, I believe that there is always room to draw people to the organisation

MariJa Cini

1. From a previous Maths A-Level teacher since I was previously studying Engineering and felt that it wasn’t my course.

2. The KSU Skydiving Trip. I met a lot of people and conquered one of my biggest fea rs.

3. I got to know about S-Cubed from the moment I changed course basically and I think that it is offering a lot to students of the Faculty of Science, especially when it comes to events but also when the students need to be looked out for.

4. Maybe more activities on Quad during the year for science awareness

Steve FAYEK

B.Sc. Maths and Statistics 2nd year

B.Sc. Statistics and Banking and Finance 4th year

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EmbryoFreezing Freezing Embryo Embryo freezing is a procedure which can occur following In Vitro fertilization (IVF). During IVF an egg and a sperm cell are fused together outside the human body. This process is a form of assisted reproductive technology.

IVF, being a strenuous procedure, involves the harvesting of multiple eggs and sperm cells which are then fertilized; hence embryo freezing is considered as a viable option for future pregnancy attempts without the female having to undergo the difficult process of ovum extraction.

Embryo freezing is also referred to as embryo cryopreservation.

Embryos can be frozen until they reach the blastocyst stage, Maria Falzon which is compromised by is a first year B.Sc. Biology and Chemistry student and a 100-120 cells. At this stage member of the Education and Social Policy subcommittees. the embryo is around 120 She enjoys traveling, reading microns in size, hence the and painting. procedure of freezing the embryos is carried out using cryoprotectants. Cryoprotectants are ‘antifreeze’ chemicals that dissolve in water, causing the melting point of water to drop significantly.

Without the addition of cryoprotectants, the cells are trapped between ice crystals and squashed, which may damage the cells’ phospholipid bilayer.

Hence, cryoprotectants prevent this from occurring by displacing the water, impeding intracellular ice crystal formation. These ‘antifreeze’ chemicals also have a secondary function of stabilizing the cell membrane, protecting it from damage that may arise during the freezing process. Cryoprotectants are composed of sugar molecules, which maintain a hyper-osmotic environment (an environment which stimulates the passage of water out of the cell to the highly solute concentrated environment via osmosis, across the selectively permeable cell membrane). This environment aids in the dehydration of the cells.

The dehydration of cells is viable only if the water that was previously present within the cell is replaced with a fluid. Hence cryoprotectants are also constituted by molecules such as ethylene glycol or 16

glycerol, which substitute the water present in the cell and help the cells’ retain their 3-dimensional structure. This also prevents ‘solution effects’ which may result due to the presence of residual unfrozen water resulting in between the water ice crystals.

The method of cryopreservation of embryos takes place at a temperature of -196 °C. It occurs at this temperature in order to prevent any biological processes from further taking place. This procedure takes two to three hours to complete. Controlled-rate freezing techniques are used to cool the embryos gradually, from body temperature to the temperature of liquid nitrogen, in which they are stored in dewars (containers containing liquid nitrogen.) The embryos are placed in vials (also known as straws) which are sealed, before the freezing procedure is initiated. The embryos which have been cryopreserved are labelled meticulously in order to prevent their misidentification during thawing.

Embryo thawing is not time consuming, unlike the freezing. Thawing may be accomplished in one to two minutes at room temperature. However, thawing relies on the vigilant dilution of the cryoprotectant fluid in order to return the embryo in its original and initial stage, prior to freezing. Following thawing, the embryo is allocated to a culture medium and is further assessed for cryodamage, which may have resulted during the cryopreservation process.

Once the thawing process is terminated, an artificial opening is generally induced in the outer embryo shell due to the hardening of the zona pellucida during cryopreservation. This is done prior to transferring the embryo in the female. The embryos are implanted in the female within two to four hours of having reached body temperature.

Many debates have arisen, mostly over the wellbeing of the embryo following the arduous procedures of freezing and thawing. In a study conducted by Anja Pinborg of Copenhagen University Hospital in Denmark, more than 1200 children were born in Denmark in a period of eleven years as a result of IVF using frozen embryos. When compared to almost 18,000 children born following conventional IVF (using embryos which were not frozen prior to implantation) it was concluded that the children born from frozen embryos were of normal weight, while those born from embryos which were not frozen prior to implantation were on average 200g lighter. Hence this suggests, that frozen embryos may indeed give rise to healthier individuals, which according to Pinborg may be due to the selection process to which embryos are exposed during the freezing/ thawing process, during which not all embryos survive. The study also suggested that frozen embryos are not prone to suffer neurological problems or birth defects.

This result may also be due to other reasons. Unlike conventional IVF, women who opted for pregnancies with frozen embryos were not trying to determine a pregnancy following treatment with a hormone promoting super ovulation, which could, in certain cases hinder the process of embryo implantation. In Europe in 2004, the use of frozen embryos accounted to a fifth of assisted reproductive attempts.

Embryo freezing was also target for debate in Malta during the last months, currently the Embryo Protection Act states that only two eggs may be fertilized prior to being implanted in the woman. Presently, cryopreservation is against the law, exceptional circumstances which may arise linked to the women’s

health or change of mind about having a baby may allow freezing of the embryo to be considered. This is currently being tackled by the government, in favour of the freezing of embryos by vitrification, a procedure similar to cryopreservation, however which involves the use of higher concentrations of cryoprotectants with a faster cooling rate which is 10,000 times faster. Debate has been arisen by prolife NGOs as well as the church which have been concerned with the number of embryos lost due to the freezing/thawing process. Another common apprehension shared by the pro-life lobby is also the concern that the amended law may pave the way to legalization of abortion in Malta.

References http://www.alcor.org/cryonics/cryonics0703.pdf http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-do-embryos-survive-th/ http://www.timesofmalta.com/articles/view/20151022/editorial/Broad-debate-on-embryo-freezing.589135 https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn14268-frozen-embryos-do-better-in-ivf/

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What is IAPS ?

The International Association of Physics Students (IAPS) is an umbrella organisation formed by physics students and student societies from around the world. The idea behind this organisation is to build bridges between physics students on an international scale. This is achieved through an annual international conference for physics students (ICPS), visits to global research institutions, international competitions, summer schools and exchange programs.

ICPS The event which brings most of the members together is the annual conference. Each year, a member society of IAPS hosts this wonderful event, and this year it will be celebrating its 30th edition in sunny Malta. The conference gives its participants the opportunity to learn about physics in an international context, establish connections to fellow students from around the world, and share both their professional work, and also a part of their culture through the vast range of activities. The conference is composed of student lectures and posters sessions, which helps students improve on their public speaking and self-presentation skills.

In addition, several renowned speakers are invited to give lectures about their field. Furthermore, scientific and culture excursions are organised, allowing participants to explore the country’s culture and job opportunities. Finally, there are the evening social events, which include a nation’s party where participants bring a piece of their own culture to other participants. The conference is typically held in August. The following ICPS 2017 will be held in Turin, Italy. iaps2CERN This event is very popular with IAPS members as it gives students the opportunity to explore the world of particle physics at the famous European Centre of Nuclear Research.

The trip is organised yearly during the month of April, typically over four days for a fee of just a 100 euros. During the last couple of years, an optional trip to the United Nations has been organised for those who are interested. iaps@GranSasso This event is organised by the Italian national committee of iaps and is open for all iaps members. It 18

was first organised in Cumbo 2015, and is expected to Nicolai is a 4th year B.Sc. Physics and become an annual event Maths student and the current Vice-President of IAPS Malta. due to its high demand.

During this trip, participants visit the Gran Sasso National Laboratory (LNGS). This is currently the largest underground particle physics lab in the world and focuses on particle and astroparticle physics. It is located 1400 meters below the Gran Sasso Mountain, shielded from cosmic rays. A trip continues by a tour of the Gran Sasso Science Institute (GSSI), an international PhD School and a centre for advanced studies in physics, mathematics and computer science and social sciences. Finally, participants also visit the National agency for new technologies, energy and sustainable economic development (ENEA).

This is one of the largest research organisations in Italy. iaps4FUSION This trip was also organised for the first time in 2015, and is being organised again this year. Hosted in the United Kingdom, participants get to visit top institutes for research in the field of plasma physics. The trip consists of lectures given by top physicists in the field at the University of Oxford, a visit to the Culham Centre for Fusion Energy (CCFE) which hosts the Joint European Torus (JET), and finally a visit to Imperial College London, a world leader in science, technology and medicine.

PLANCKS IAPS organises an annual theoretical competition known as PLANCKS. The competition is intended for Bachelor and Masters level students. Every member country of IAPS are eligible to send their top teams to battle each other over extremely challenging exercises in a three day event. Teams consist of three or four contestants. During the competition, lectures by famous physicists are given. Plancks is the perfect environment to compete against worthy opponents, to challenge yourself, and measure your knowledge. This year, the competition is going to be held in Bucharest, Romania. The 2017 edition will be held in Graz, Austria.

Rudolf Ortvay Competition This competition is designed to solve challenging problems from the comfort of your home. The goal is to solve up to 10 questions from a collection of 42 challenging theoretical problems in a period of 10 days. This competition is open to both undergraduates and graduate students.

IMAP The IMAP program was set up as an initiative for National and Local committees of IAPS to interact with each other and accomplish projects together.

This grant has a maximum of 1000 euros. jIAPS This is a journal published by the IAPS, which features Physics related articles written by students. It is published once a year and distributed for free during the ICPS. Any student who would like to publish their article on jIAPS can send an email to jiaps@ iaps.info. This is a great opportunity to share your work with other students, and to give you the confidence and experience which is not given during the B.Sc. course. jIAPS also offers an article contest, where the winner gets their participation fee for the next ICPS refunded/paid.

For more information on anything IAPS related please visit the website at: http://www.iaps.info/

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SCIENCE COMMUNICATION Malcolm Muscat Rodo

BSc Maths & Statistics 2nd year Science in the City was a fun learning experience. It not only taught me the basics on how to communicate to a wide audience, but it also gave me the opportunity to explain a subject which I enjoy and to involve others in the learning process who may not have taken an interest in it in the past. Someone truly comes to grasps with an idea if they are able to successfully make someone else understand it too, and in this case it never was more true.

Lorella Spiteri BSc Chemistry & Statistics 3rd year By the look of children’s eyes, I could clearly observe excitement and curiosity. It was absolutely fascinating to observe how the lilac colour at the tip of the flame of the Bunsen burner, had enchanted the majority of the public visitors. This experience helped me to remember that the passion of science goes far beyond studying for exams, but instead it should be driven by curiosity, creativity and imagination. For the first time, I had the opportunity to share and discuss the beauty of chemistry with anyone, outside the labs and beyond thick books.

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As science students, we believe that it is our duty to educate and raise awareness on science to the public. S-Cubed takes part in many science communication activities, the main one being Science in the City in September, with 20,000 attendants. Read on to find out about the experiences of our volunteers!

Amik Lanfranco

B.Sc. Biology 2nd Year For the past two years I participated in Science in the City as a demonstrator of biology experiments. I had always wanted to show the public that science is not “boring” and that there is more to it than the fun facts that people share; and I could do that through Science in the City. For me, taking part in the event was a valuable learning experience because I learned how to work in teams and make science understandable to the public. I also learned more and more about the experiments that I had to demonstrate. I encourage that you participate too if you have the opportunity – it’s a choice that you’ll never regret.

Anita Farrugia

B.Sc. Physics and Chemistry 4th year Former Science Communication Officer I have participated in Science in the City with S-Cubed for the past three years and I have loved every second of it. Seeing the masses flock to Valletta filled with curiosity and excitement about what science has to offer is both an encouraging and humbling sight. My favorite part of the experience has got to be seeing the enthusiasm of myself and fellow volunteers bounce off each other with such an intensity that even the audience can’t help but get hyped up. Science can be at times a trying subject to understand, but it’s this event and the excitement it gives me and so many others like me that reminds me why I love the subject so much.

Next up, S-Cubed is participating in Eureka! at the President’s Secret Garden from April up till the end of June. Then our volunteers shall participate once again in Science in the City in the summer.

If you’re a science student - whether still at Sixth Form or even postgraduate - and you’d like to help out contact us on education@scubed.org.mt or on the S-Cubed - Science Students’ Society Facebook page!

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SCIENCE crossword 1

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Across:

Down:

1. The part of the plant that is found above ground and has leaves and nodes. (4) 3. The chemical elements in group 13 of the periodic table. (5) 6. A subatomic particle which is negatively charged.

(8) 10. A unit of distance used to measure distance in space (9) 12. Symbol of the Metalloid found in group 15 known as Antimony (2) 13. The solution that turns litmus paper blue. (8) 14. What do Fick’s first and second law describe? (9) 15. The S.I. unit for measuring an electric current. (6) 16. The focus of a concave mirror is______. (7) 17. A chemical compound with the molecular formula C6H5OH. (6)

2. A force exerted on an object that causes it to rotate from its fulcrum. (6) 4. The square root of eighty one. (4) 5. The longest bone in the body. (5) 7. A method of proof where it is assumed that a statement is not true. (13) 8. Enzymes that breakdown protein into amino acids. (8) 9. What are two non-empty sets whose intersection is an empty set called? (8) 10. The inverse operation of the exponent. (9) 11. Chemical element with symbol He. (6)

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30 SEP

Malta’s Science & Arts Festival European Researchers' Night 6pm Onwards till midnight

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