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Cambridge University Press, New York

New York • London © 2014 by Cambridge University Press All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any electronic or mechanical means, including information storage and retrieval systems, without permission in writing from the publisher, except by reviewers, who may quote brief passages in a review. Scanning, uploading, and electronic distribution of this book or the facilitation of the same without the permission of the publisher is prohibited.

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ISBN 978-1-62465-201-4

Ded ic a t ed t o d r. su k yu n g l e e an d stua rt c l a rk .

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TABLE

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OF

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION Chapter 1

WHERE DO WE COME FROM?

015

THE FIRST SECOND AND THE BIRTH OF LIGHT

017

BEGINNING OF THE UNIVERSE

021

THE HEART OF SOLAR SYSTEM

023

Chapter 2

WHERE DO WE LIVE

025

FORMATION OF SOLAR SYSTEM

027

TERRESTRIAL PLANTS

031

NATURAL SATELLITES

033

Chapter 3

WHAT ARE WE

035

HOW MUCH OF THE HUMAN BODY IS MADE UP OF STARDUST

037

THE MOST ABUNDANT ELEMENTS OF LIFE

041

HOW MUCH OF THE HUMAN BODY IS MADE UP OF STARDUST

043

Chapter 4

WHERE ARE WE GOING?

045

PROBE LOCATIONS

047

CAN HUMANS LIVE IN UNIVERSE?

049

PIONEER PLAQUE

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011

INTRODUCTION

Questions in astronomy are invariably big. Even the simplest question can lead down a winding path of investigation that results in a profound answer. This answer may well be accompanied by a mind-blowing revelation, and this is surely one of the sub ject’s greatest attractions. The overwhelming size of the Universe, stretching across billions of light years of space and billions of years in time, and the unimaginable numbers involved in its description, provide a sense of awe in themselves. When you stand at a truly dark site—in a desert or some other wilderness where the only light to be seen is coming from the stars above—the stars fill the sky in such profusion that even the most familiar of the constellations is difficult to pick out. Although there may seem to be countless stars, in fact the human eye can resolve about 3000 under pristine conditions. This is but the tiniest fraction of the total number of stars in the Universe. It has long been a cliché to say that the number of stars in the Universe is the same as the number of grains of sand on all the beaches in the world, but while there is indeed a staggering quantity of sand grains on Earth, this total is not nearly large enough . According to the latest estimates there are some 70 sextillion stars in the entire Universe ; that is 70 thousand million million million, or a seven followed by 22 zeros. To pursue the comparison, this roughly equates to the number of grains of sand to be found on the beaches of 10,000 Earth-like planets. This book attempts to answer questions that spring to people’s minds about the wonders of the Universe. There are discussions of the exotic, half-glimpsed celestial objects such as quasars and pulsars, and the glorious close-up investigations of the nearby planets, such as Mars and Jupiter. Do not expect a complete answer here because even the experts don’t have that yet. These unsolved ones are perhaps the most captivating because they set the agenda for modern astronomy and cosmology. Regardless of our ability, or not, to fully answer it, each question tackles an important foundation stone in both our perception of the Universe and our efforts to appreciate our own place in its vastness; each question also delves a little into that special magic that we all feel a touch of when contemplating the Universe.

WHERE DO WE COME FROM

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015

The first second and the birth of light Our modern scientific understanding of the universe provides a kind of road map through time. Based in Hubble and Einstein and corroborated by such discoveries as the abundance of light elements and the cosmic microwave background radiation, this map points back 13.7 billion years to an event we know as the big bang.

At this point in the ancient past, there was no such thing as time or space. There was just a single hot, condensed point—a singularity—containing all matter in the universe. In addition, all four fundamental forces (the gravitational, electromagnetic, strong and weak forces) were unified as a single force. This unified period, called the Planck epoch, lasted 10-43 seconds. Then the universe expanded at a rate faster than the speed of light, growing from subatomic to golf-ball size almost instantaneously. Scientists call this the inflationary period. The universe then expanded outward in a flood of superheated subatomic particles. Three seconds after the big bang, space cooled enough for these particles to form elements.

Some 300 million years later, stars and galaxies formed as well.

The big bang theory still provides the best model for how the universe arose, but it’s not the only theory we have. For example, the steady-state theory modeled a universe with a consistent density that appears to expand due to the constant generation of new matter. Support for it, however, largely died out, thanks to the discovery of the cosmic microwave background (CMB) in 1965. The CMB was, in essence, the radiation signature of the early, expanding universe.

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All ideas concerning the very early universe are speculative. No accelerator experiments have yet probed energies of sufficient magnitude to provide any experimental insight into the behavior of matter at the energy levels that prevailed during this period.

Proposed scenarios differ radically. Some examples are the Hartle Hawking initial state, string landscape, brane inflation, string gas cosmology, and the ekpyrotic universe. Some of these are mutually compatible, while others are not. • Plank epoch (0 – 10 –43 second after the big bang) The Planck epoch is an era in traditional big bang cosmology wherein the temperature was so high that the four fundamental forces—electromagnetism, gravitation, weak nuclear interaction, and strong nuclear interaction—were one fundamental force. Little is understood about physics at this temperature; different hypotheses propose different scenarios. • Grand unification epoch (10 –43 – 10 –36 second after the big bang) As the universe expanded and cooled, it crossed transition temperatures at which forces separate from each other. These are phase transitions much like condensation and freezing. The grand unification epoch began when gravitation separated from the other forces of nature, which are collectively known as gauge forces. The non-gravitational physics in this epoch would be described by a so-called grand unified theory (GUT). The grand unification epoch ended when the GUT forces further separate into the strong and electroweak forces.

This transition should produce magnetic monopoles in large quantities, which are not observed. The lack of magnetic monopoles was one problem solved by the introduction of inflation. • Electroweak epoch (10 –36 – 10 –12 second after the big bang) According to traditional big bang cosmology, the Electroweak epoch began 10 −36 second after the big bang, when the temperature of the universe was low enough to separate the strong force from the electroweak force. In inflationary cosmology, the electroweak epoch ends when the inflationary epoch begins, at roughly 10 −32 second. • Inflationary epoch (Ending 10 –32 second after the big bang) Cosmic inflation was an era of accelerating expansion produced by a hypothesized field called the inflation, which would have properties similar to the Higgs field and dark energy. While decelerating expansion would magnify deviations from homogeneity, making the universe more chaotic, accelerating expansion would make the universe more homogeneous. A sufficiently long period of inflationary expansion in our past could explain the high degree of homogeneity that is observed in the universe today at large scales, even if the state of the universe before inflation was highly disordered.

VERY EARLY UNIVERSE

After cosmic inflation ends, the universe is filled with a quark gluon plasma. From this point onwards the physics of the early universe is better understood, and less speculative. • Electroweak symmetry breaking and the quark epoch (10 –12 – 10 –6 second after the big bang) As the universe’s temperature falls below a certain very high energy level, it is believed that the Higgs field spontaneously acquires a vacuum expectation value, which breaks electroweak gauge symmetry. At the end of this epoch, the fundamental interactions of gravitation, electromagnetism, the strong interaction and the weak interaction have now taken their present forms, and fundamental particles have mass, but the temperature of the universe is still too high to allow quarks to bind together to form hadrons. • Hadron epoch (10 –6 – 1 second after the big bang) The quark gluon plasma that composes the universe cools until hadrons, including baryons such as protons and neutrons, can form. At approximately 1 second after the big bang neutrinos decouple and begin traveling

EARLY UNIVERSE

017

freely through space. This cosmic neutrino background, while unlikely to ever be observed in detail since the neutrino energies are very low, is analogous to the cosmic microwave background that was emitted much later. • Lepton epoch (1 – 10 seconds after the big bang) The majority of hadrons and anti–hadrons annihilate each other at the end of the hadron epoch, leaving leptons and anti-leptons dominating the mass of the universe. Approximately 10 seconds after the big bang the temperature of the universe falls to the point at which new lepton ⁄ anti–lepton pairs are no longer created and most leptons and anti-leptons are eliminated in annihilation reactions, leaving a small residue of leptons. • Photon epoch (10 seconds – 380,000 years after the big bang) After most leptons and anti-leptons are annihilated at the end of the lepton epoch the energy of the universe is dominated by photons. These photons are still interacting frequently with charged protons, electrons and nuclei, and continue to do so for the next 380,000 years.

• Nucleosynthesis (3 – 20 minutes after the big bang) During the photon epoch the temperature of the universe falls to the point where atomic nuclei can begin to form. Protons (hydrogen ions) and neutrons begin to combine into atomic nuclei in the process of nuclear fusion. Free neutrons combine with protons to form deuterium. Deuterium rapidly fuses into helium-4. Nucleosynthesis only lasts for about seventeen minutes, since the temperature and density of the universe has fallen to the point where nuclear fusion cannot continue. By this time, all neutrons have been incorporated into helium nuclei. This leaves about three times more hydrogen than helium-4 (by mass) and only trace quantities of other nuclei.

Beginning of the universe The instant in which the universe is thought to have begun rapidly expanding from a singularity.

This expansion is estimated to have begun 13.798 ± 0.037 billion years ago.

• Matter domination (70,000 years after the big bang) At this time, the densities of non-relativistic matter and relativistic radiation are equal. The Jeans length, which determines the smallest structures that can form (due to competition between gravitational attraction and pressure effects), begins to fall and perturbations, instead of being wiped out by free-streaming radiation, can begin to grow in amplitude. According to CDM, at this stage, cold dark matter dominates, paving the way for gravitational collapse to amplify the tiny inhomogeneities left by cosmic inflation, making dense regions denser and rarefied regions more rarefied. However, because present theories as to the nature of dark matter are inconclusive, there is as yet no consensus as to its origin at earlier times, as currently exist for baryonic matter. • Recombination (377,000 years after the big bang) Hydrogen and helium atoms begin to form as the density of the universe falls. This is thought to have occurred about 377,000 years after the big bang. As the universe cools down, the electrons get captured by the ions, forming electrically neutral atoms. This process is relatively fast and is known as recombination. At the end of recombination, most of the protons in the universe are bound up in neutral atoms. Therefore, the photons’ mean free path becomes effectively infinite and the photons can now travel freely.

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Convective Zone

The heart of solar system.

Radiative Zone

The sun and its atmosphere are divided into several zones and layers. The solar interior, from the inside out, is made up of the core, radiative zone and the convective zone. The solar atmosphere above that consists of the photosphere, chromosphere, a transition region and the corona. Beyond that is the solar wind, an outflow of gas from the corona.

The core extends from the sun’s center to about a quarter of the way to its surface. Although it only makes up roughly 2 percent of the sun’s volume, it is almost 15 times the density of lead and holds nearly half of the sun’s mass. Next is the radiative zone, which extends from the core to 70 percent of the way to the sun’s surface, making up 32 percent of the sun’s volume and 48 percent of its mass. Light from the core gets scattered in this zone, so that a single photon often may take a million years to pass through. The convection zone reaches up to the sun’s surface, and makes up 66 percent of the sun’s volume but only a little more than 2 percent of its mass. Roiling “convection cells” of gas dominate this zone. Two main kinds of solar convection cells exist—granulation cells about 600 miles (1,000 kilometers) wide and supergranulation cells about 20,000 miles (30,000 kilometers) in diameter.

021

2,000,000 K

10,000 K 6000 K 14,000 K

400,000 K

15,000,000 K

Fahrenheit = Kelvin (K) x 9/5 - 459.67 Celsius = Kelvin (K) - 273.15

WHERE ARE WE LIVING

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025

Our solar system is estimated to have been born a little after 9 billion years after the Big Bang, making it about 4.6 billion years old.

It was formed from a giant, rotating cloud of gas and dust known as the solar nebula. As gravity caused the nebula to collapse, it spun faster and flattened into a disk. During this phase, most of the material was pulled toward the center to form the sun. Other particles within the disk collided and stuck together to form asteroid-sized objects named as planetesimals, some of which combined to become the asteroids, comets, moons and planets. The solar wind from the sun was so powerful that it swept away most of the lighter elements, such as hydrogen and helium, from the innermost planets, leaving behind mostly small, rocky worlds.

These rocky bodies would become the terrestrial planets. These compounds are quite rare in the universe, comprising only 0.6% of the mass of the nebula, so the terrestrial planets could not grow very large. The terrestrial embryos grew to about 0.05 Earth masses and ceased accumulating matter about 100,000 years after the formation of the Sun; subsequent collisions and mergers between these planet-sized bodies allowed terrestrial planets to grow to their present sizes

Formation of Solar System.

VENUS SATURN URANUS MERCURY SUN MARS EARTH NEPTUNE

JUPITER

0

0.6

1.2

1.8

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3.0 â „billion miles

Mars

Jupiter

Saturn

Uranus

Neptune

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Bar Scale: 5000km

Terrestrial Planets MERCURY MARS VENUS

Terrestrial planets are Earth-like planets made up of rocks or metals with a hard surface—making them different from other planets that lack a solid surface. Terrestrial planets also have a molten heavy metal core, few moons, and a variety of topological features like valleys, volcanoes and craters. In our solar system, there are four terrestrial planets, which also happen to be the four closest to the sun: Mercury, Venus Earth and Mars. During the creation of the solar system, there were likely more terrestrial planetoids, but they likely merged or were destroyed. Mercury is the smallest terrestrial planet in the solar system, about a third of the size of Earth. It has a thin atmosphere, which causes it to swing between burning and freezing temperatures. Mercury is also a dense planet, composed mostly of iron and nickel with an iron core. Its magnetic field is only about 1 percent that of Earth’s. Venus, which is about the same size as Earth, has a thick toxic atmosphere that traps heat, making it the hottest planet in the solar system. Much of its surface is marked with volcanoes and deep canyons—the biggest of which is 4,000 miles long. Only two spacecraft have ever penetrated Venus’s thick atmosphere. Mars has some of the most interesting terrain of any of the terrestrial planets. The red planet has the largest mountain in the solar system, rising 78,000 feet above the surface. Much of the surface is very old and filled with craters, but there are geologically newer areas of the planet as well. At the Martian poles are polar ice caps that shrink in size during the Martian spring and summer. Mars is less dense than Earth and has a smaller magnetic field, which is indicative of a solid core, rather than a liquid one.

027

MOON 3,476 km diameter 4% core (by volume) MERCURY 4,880 km diameter 40% core (by volume) MARS 6,787 km diameter 9% core (by volume) VENUS 12,104 km diameter 12% core (by volume) EARTH 12,756 km diameter 16% core (by volume)

Natural Satellites

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M o o n s o f s o l i d S o l a r S y s t e m b o d i e s h a v e systems are unusual in the Solar System in been created by both collisions and capture. that the satellite’s mass is at least 1% that Mars’s two small moons, Deimos and Phobos, of the larger body. Jupiter and Saturn have are thought to be captured asteroids. The several large moons, such as Io, Europa, and Earth’s Moon is thought to have formed as Titan, which may have originated from discs a result of a single, large oblique collision. around each giant planet in much the same The impacting object probably had a mass way that the planets formed from the disc comparable to that of Mars, and the impact around the Sun. This origin is indicated by the probably occurred near the end of the period large sizes of the moons and their proximity of giant impacts. The collision kicked into to the planet. These attributes are impossiorbit some of the impactor’s mantle, which ble to achieve via capture, while the gaseous then coalesced into the Moon. The impact nature of the primaries make formation from was probably the last in the series of merg- collision debris another impossibility. The ers that formed the Earth. It has been further outer moons of the gas giants tend to be hypothesized that the Mars-sized object may small and have eccentric orbits with arbitrary have formed at one of the stable Earth–Sun inclinations. These are the characteristics Lagrangian points and drifted from its posi- e x p e c t e d o f c a p t u r e d b o d i e s . M o s t s u c h tion. The moons of trans-Neptunian objects moons orbit in the direction opposite the Pluto (Charon) and Orcus (Vanth) may also rotation of their primary. The largest irreguhave formed by means of a large collision: the lar moon is Neptune’s moon Triton, which is Pluto–Charon, Orcus–Vanth and Earth–Moon thought to be a captured Kuiper belt object.

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WHAT ARE WE

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Did you ever wonder where you came from? That is the stuff that’s inside your body like your bones, organs, muscles…etc.

All of these things are made of various molecules and atoms.

But where did these little ingredients come from? And how were they made? The answer to these questions will take us back to a time long ago when the universe was much different than it is now. However, the physics was the same.

The early universe expanded after the big bang for only 3 seconds before it cooled to a state where subatomic particles assembled into atoms. Hydrogen atoms formed first since they are the simplest type of atom. Hydrogen atoms contain only one proton in its nucleus which makes it number one on the periodic table of elements. After the universe aged a little (roughly 300 million years) the hydrogen atoms started to clump together under the force of gravity. As these clumps grew in size, the pressure at the center grew larger. When the temperature reached 15 million degrees F, the pressure caused the hydrogen to fuse their nuclei together. This process is known as nuclear fusion. The positively charged nuclei naturally repel each other. However under high temperatures and pressure, the nuclei are moving fast enough to smash together and fuse. When the two proton nuclei of the hydrogen atoms fuse, they form a nucleus consisting of two protons. Some electrons also combine with protons to form neutrons and neutrinos. These neutrons also bind to the nucleus helping it to remain more stable under the nuclear forces. An atom with two protons in its nucleus is Helium. That’s why helium is number two on the periodic table of elements. The fusion process also releases a lot of energy in which some of the hydrogen mass converts into light energy. This conversion of mass in to energy uses Einstein’s famous equation: E=mc2.

035

How much of the human body is made up of stardust?

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CARBON

6

C

Carbon is nonmetallic and tetravalent—making four electrons available to form covalent chemical bonds.

There are three naturally occurring isotopes, with 12C and 13C being stable, while 14C is radioactive, decaying with a half-life of about 5,730 years.

NITROGEN

7

N

At room temperature, nitrogen is a gas of diatomic molecules and is colorless and odorless. Nitrogen is a common element in the universe, estimated at about seventh in total abundance in our galaxy and the Solar System. On Earth, the element is primarily found as the gas molecule; it forms about 78% of Earth’s atmosphere.

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HYDROGEN

1

H

Hydrogen is the lightest element on the periodic table.

It is the most abundant chemical substance in the universe, constituting roughly 75% of all baryonic mass.

Non-remnant stars are mainly composed of hydrogen in its plasma state. The most common isotope of hydrogen, termed protium, has a single proton and zero neutrons.

The most abundant elements of life

OXYGEN

8

O

Oxygen is a highly reactive nonmetallic element and oxidizing agent that readily forms compounds with most elements. By mass, oxygen is the third – most abundant element in the universe, after hydrogen and helium. At standard conditions for temperature and pressure, two atoms of the element bind to form dioxygen, a diatomic gas that is colorless, odorless, and tasteless.

How much of the human body is made up of stardust?

The human body is made up of elements in the following approximate proportions (by weight): 65% oxygen, 18% carbon, 10% hydrogen, 3% nitrogen, 2% calcium, 1% phosphorus, and 1% other elements such as potassium, sodium, iron, zinc, etc. By the number of atoms, however, the proportions are: 63% hydrogen, 24% oxygen and 12% carbon, with tiny traces of the others.

NITROGEN

OTHER

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4

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10 OTHER

10 5 IRON

8

CALCIUM

18 27

ALUMINUM

65 46

SILICON

EARTH

OXYGENN

HUMAN

HYDROGEN

OXYGEN

CARBON

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041 The earth’s crust is made up (by weight) of: 46% oxygen, 27% silicon, 8% aluminum, 5% iron, 4% calcium, 2% sodium, 2%

+

potassium and 2% magnesium, plus traces of the other 84 naturally occurring elements. The air we breathe contains roughly (by volume): 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 1% argon, 0.038% carbon dioxide, and trace amounts of other gases.

The element with 26 protons in its nucleus is iron. It turns out that this is the last element that is created. To create higher elements, fusion requires more energy than it produces. We mentioned earlier that a star glows because the fusing atoms release energy (E=mc2). However, the amount of energy released becomes smaller and smaller as the atoms grow larger. Eventually at iron, there is no energy released at all. And for elements beyond iron more energy is need for fusion than gravitational pressure can provide.

After a star has created enough iron, fusion ceases and the hot burning core begins to cool. Up until this point the hot core of the star erupting outwards and preventing gravity from collapsing the star. Now that the star has cooled, the core no longer expands and gravity quickly collapses the star. The star implodes with enough energy to immediately fuse some of the atoms into higher elements like Nickel, Krypton, Gold, Uranium,‌ etc. This quick and violent implosion releases an enormous amount of energy that explodes the star. The exploded remains from a supernova travel through out the universe only to someday clump together with other stardust and give birth to a new star. This is the life of our universe.

Now that we have established that every element in the periodic table aside from hydrogen is essentially stardust, we have to determine how much of our body is made up of this stardust. If we know how many hydrogen atoms are in our body, then we can say that the rest is stardust. Our body is composed of roughly 7x1027 atoms.

That is a lot of atoms! Try writing that number out on a piece of paper: 7 with 27 zeros behind it. We say roughly because if you pluck a hair or pick your nose there might be slightly less. Now it turns out that of those billion billion billion atoms, 4.2x1027 of them are hydrogen. Remember that hydrogen is big bang dust and not stardust. This leaves 2.8x1027 atoms of stardust. Thus the amount of stardust atoms in our body is 40%.

Since stardust atoms are the heavier elements, the percentage of star mass in our body is much more impressive. Most of the hydrogen in our body floats around in the form of water. The human body is about 60% water and hydrogen only accounts for 11% of that water mass. Even though water consists of two hydrogen atoms for every oxygen, hydrogen has much less mass. We can conclude that 93% of the mass in our body is stardust. Just think, long ago someone may have wished upon a star that you are made of.

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Intelligent life may be in it’s “very young” stage in the observable Universe. Its 200 billion galaxies show a clear potential to continue on as we see them today for hundreds of billions of years, if not much longer. Because planets and life are so young in our Universe, perhaps the human species are not late comers to the party.

We may be among the early ones. That may explain why we see no evidence of “them” and may go a long way to explaining where are they? Why haven’t we discovered any evidence of their existence?

CAN HUMANS LIVE IN UNIVERSE? Generations of stars made enough iron and oxygen, silicon and carbon, and all the other elements from the original hydrogen and helium about 13 billion years ago to be able to form the Earth we live on and the planets the Kepler Mission is discovering today. Stable environments in galaxies that were enriched enough to have planets only became available some nine billion years ago and rocky Earth – like planets and larger super – Earths, only some 7 to 8 billion years ago. And Life had to wait until that time if not later to begin its emergence throughout the Universe. Between 7 and 9 billion years ago, enough heavy elements were available for the complex chemistry needed for life to emerge were in place along with the terrestrial planets with stable environments necessary for chemical concentration.

Planets may be just a tiny fraction of the Universe because of their small size, but there are so many of them that the probability of life grows exponentially. The Universe is passing through the stelliferous era—its peak of star formation—but appears to be still peaking in its formation of planets. There are more stars in the Universe than there are grains of sand on Earth and there are an equal number of planets. There are 200 billion stars in the Milky Way and 90% are small enough and old enough to have planets in orbit. And only 10% of these stars were formed with enough heavy elements to have Earth-like planets with 2% of these—or 100 million super – Earths and Earths—will orbit within their star’s habitable zone.

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MAN GAK AYAN MAR S E XP RE S S

LUN AR STEREO A WI N D MAVEN

AC E

AK AT S UK I

ISEE-3

MARS RECON N AISSAN CE ORBI T E R S OHO STEREO B AR T E MI S P 1

AR T E MI S P 2

A2 0 0 1 MAR S ODYS S E Y

L AGR ANGE POINT

ME S S E N GE R

VENUS

SUN

M ER CUR Y

V E N U S E XP RE S S

047 V OYAGE R 1

R O SET TA

J UN O

HELIOPAUSE

PLUTO

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SATUR N

JUPITER

67P⁄CHURYUMOV-GERASIMENKO

CER ES

M AR S

Probe Locations M OON

EAR TH

V OYAGE R 2 N E W HOR I ZON S

D AW N

CA SSI NI

Sputnik’s successful launch on October 4th 1957 marked the beginning of a new era in humanity’s understanding of space.

Since that day, space agencies around the world have launched dozens upon dozens of spacecraft, all with the intent to investigate out solar system’s planetary bodies.

Many failed, but more have succeeded. So where are all the active planetary and lunar probes today? Some are en-route to exotic destinations like Jupiter and Ceres, while others have been collecting data for years already. One has even become the first manmade object to leave our solar system.

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C O U N A T

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M M I C E PIONEER PLAQUE

The Pioneer plaque is a gold-anodized aluminium plaques which were placed on board the 1972 Pioneer 10 and 1973 Pioneer 11 spacecraft, featuring a pictorial message, in case either Pioneer 10 or 11 is intercepted by extraterrestrial life. The plaque show the nude figures of a human male and female along with symbols that are designed to provide about the origin of the spacecraft.

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