Green Space Provision in The Brussels Metropolitan Region by Sebastiaan Willemen

GREEN SPACE PROVISION IN THE BRUSSELS METROPOLITAN REGION Analysis and Research by Design of Urban Landscape Infrastructure Towards an Improved Urban Environmental Quality Sebastiaan Willemen 2016 - 2017

Master thesis submitted under the supervision of Prof. Ahmed Khan, the co-‐supervision of Philip Stessens, in order to be awarded the Master’s 1 Degree in Architectural Engineering

Content Abstract 1. Introduction

2. State of the art

3. Research by design

4. Design

7 1.1 1.2 1.3

10 11 11 12

Problem statement Research goal Methodology

2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4

16 20 21 22

Definitions Urban landscapes Urban Ecosystem Services Green Space Provision

3.1 3.2 3.2.1 3.2.1.1 3.2.1.2 3.2.1.3 3.2.1.4 3.3 3..3.1 3.3.2 3.3.3 3.3.4 3.4 3.5

96 99 108 122 136 138

Definition Detailed Methodology Preparation On Site Experience Improve Green Space Provision for the BCR Bufferdetermination Case Studies Workshop Feedback Sessions Design Session on Provision Design Session on Quality Design Session on Proximity Workshop outcome Elaboration

148 149 165

Maximiliaan CitroĂŤn

4.1 4.2

28 28 60 60 86

5. Results

184

6. Conclusion

188

7. Bibliography

190

ABSTRACT

Urban growth in combination with climate change prospects, present numerous challenges for the maintenance of urban green spaces, and consequently exerts added stress on the environmental quality of our cities. (Stessens, 2016, IPCC, 2007). As urban green spaces are the primary source of contact with nature for the urban dweller, the degradation of urban and peri-urban green space, implies a decrease of human health and well-being (Tzoulas et al., 2007). In order for our cities to withstand these prospects, a balanced, fine grained and interconnected urban green structure is of vital importance. In the specified context of the Brussels Capital Region (BCR) a population growth of 14.000 per annum on a population of 1.167.951 in 2015 (FOD Economie, 2013) is expected. Therefore, the protection and improvement of the accessibility and quality of urban green spaces has a particular significance in the case of Brussels. In the following master thesis, the existing green structure of the BCR was analyzed and a methodology to improve this existing green structure was proposed based on green space development localization and research by design scenario developments. In order to obtain a proposal to

strengthen the existing green structure, an autonomous research was combined with the organization of a multi-disciplinary research by design workshop. During the individual research, an analysis of the existing urban landscape infrastructure through site visits and GIS-estimations helped in the determination of new possible green space development sites at multiple spatial levels, while the workshop served to think of new strategies on where and how the urban green structure could be improved. Finally the outcome of this master thesis resulted in a list of possible locations which could contribute to the overall green space provision increment, in combination with a set of scenarios and case studies in order to show how this can be achieved.

1 INTRODUCTION

Urban growth in combination with climate change prospects, present numerous challenges for the maintenance of urban green spaces, and consequently exerts stress on the environmental quality of our cities. (Stessens, 2016, IPCC, 2007). As urban green spaces are the primary source of contact with nature for the urban dweller, the degradation of urban and peri-urban green space, implies a decrease of human health and well-being (Tzoulas et al., 2007). In order for our cities to withstand these prospects, a balanced, fine grained and interconnected urban green structure is of vital importance. In the specified context of the Brussels Capital Region (BCR) a population growth of 14.000 per annum on a population of 1.167.951 in 2015 (FOD Economie, 2013) is expected. Therefore the protection and improvement of the accessibility and quality of urban green spaces has a particular significance in the case of Brussels. In the following master thesis, the existing green structure of the BCR was analyzed and a methodology to improve this existing green structure was proposed. For the analysis of the current state of the green structure, the green space provision was analyzed at different spatial scales, through GIS-based investigation and the execution of multiple on-site surveys and questionnaires. In order to obtain a proposal to strengthen the existing green structure, an autonomous research was combined with the organization of a research by design workshop. During the autonomous research, a GIS-based methodology was developed to increase the green space

provision, by localizing possible green space development sites on different spatial levels. This was enforced by a selection of case studies, showing how the contribution of specific urban typologies in the green space provision assessment could be increased or how new green space could be implemented in comparable urban situations. During the research by design workshop, professionals with different backgrounds were invited to develop design scenarios about where and how new green space could be implemented, how existing green spaces could be enlarged or the quality of an existing green space could be improved. Finally, a proposal was developed, consisting of two principle chapters. First, a list of new green space development sites was developed, in order to show where increment of the green space provision in the BCR was needed and possible, this was executed at multiple spatial levels. Secondly, a tool palette of strategies and design scenarios was presented, regarding how a stronger green structure could be achieved. Through showing different typologies for the implementation of new green spaces and by the presentation of specific design interventions, regarding the improvement to certain quality indicators in existing green spaces, an emblematic methodology was developed on how the urban environmental quality of specific green spaces could be increased. Finally, an elaborated research by design assessment and a detailed design exercise were executed for respectively, the green spaces around the Maximiliaan park and the reconversion of the 8

Citroën building into a green space. These were held to show how design interventions could increase the quality of an existing green space, and consequently increase its ecosystem services and contribution to the overall green space provision assessment. The detailed design of the Citroën building, served to present a typology of green space implementation in an industrial building. 1.1 Problem Statement With a globally increasing migration from people moving towards the city, the percentage of people living in cities worldwide is increasing from 50% in 2010 to 70% in 2050 (UN habitat, 2009). At this moment already cities produce 60% of all carbon dioxide and significant amounts of other greenhouse gas emissions and consume 78% of the world’s energy (UN habitat, 2014). This trend of global urban growth in combination with climate change exerts added stress on the urban environment through increased amount of heat waves, droughts and flood risks and water supply problems (Stessens, 2016, IPCC, 2007). Additionally, the densification of the urban area comes together with a degradation of urban and peri-urban green space (Tzoulas 2007). This not only has a negative impact on the biodiversity and the ecosystem of the urban area (Uslu 2013), it also influences the quality of life and human health in the city, as it affects the primary source for contact with nature directly for the city dweller (Fuller 2007). In order to derive at cities which can withstand these prospects in the future, concepts of ecosystem services, resilience and sustainability, biodiversity, human health and well-being need to be taken up into the governance agenda and policies (FAO, 2011; Hansen et al., 2015). To be able for an urban landscape to translate these concepts, it is vital to have a balanced and equally spread green structure consisting of different types of green infrastructures such as public parks, green corridors, residential green spaces, wastelands, green roofs,…. Pulighe et al. (2016,) indeed stressed the

gained importance of green infrastructure in planning and policy making thanks to the attributable ecosystem services for either city dwellers (Tzoulas et al., 2007) or climate change mitigation and adaption (Demuzere et al., 2014; Stessens, 2016). In the specified context of the Brussels Capital Region (BCR) a population growth of 14.000 per annum on a population of 1.167.951 in 2015 (FOD Economie, 2013) is expected. Therefore the improvement of the accessibility and quality of urban green spaces has a particular significance in the case of Brussels. The development of new qualitative green spaces in combination with the maintenance and improvement of accessibility and quality of existing green spaces is a crucial part of densification strategies. In his PHD research, Philip Stessens presents a GIS-based modelling approach for assessing the proximity and quality of urban green spaces accessible to the general public and applies he the proposed approach to the BCR, generating an overview of the availability, proximity and quality of the city’s urban green spaces. This model is based on a refinement of the concept of Functional levels as proposed by Wiedemann & Van Herzele in 2003 on the one hand and on the definition of indicators to value accessibility and quality of green spaces on the other. Still a methodology for scenario development was needed in order to show how and where the landscape could be altered to optimize the accessibility of a site or the provision of one or more indicators at a site and how this could influence the overall proximity and quality assessment of the BCR. 1.2

Research Goal

As shown in figure 1 this master thesis can be seen as an intermediate contribution research for the ongoing PHD research concerning green space provision in the Brussels Capital Region and its environment. The aim of this master thesis, in combination with the master thesis of engineering student Juan Guillerme Robayo Mendez, is both to complete the database, built up 9

by questionnaires in the summer of 2015 (Stessens, 2016) and to doing in depth research in order to broaden the knowledge about the functioning of the model and thus eventually improve the developed model. In my case this concerns design research through developing multiple scenarios for different situations and sites, in the case of Juan G.R. Mendez this deals with a sociocultural analysis, studying the influence of cultural background on the perception and evaluation of the quality of green space provision in Brussels. The outcome of both these researches will then again been elaborated by the PHD researcher and, if useful, used in his further development. This master thesis aims to develop a research-by-design scenario development methodology, executed for the BCR, which can serve as a base for design research on urban green space provision and sustainable urban development planning and policymaking. In this thesis I seek to propose a methodology for the overall improvement of the existing green structure of the BCR by searching in detail where the green space provision is lacking on both quantitative as qualitative level and how this lack of green space infrastructure can be tackled by proposing specific design strategies. This implies that attention was paid on how design decisions influence ecosystem services provided by a certain green spaces and on how specific design tools can be used in order to improve or inject specific indicators regarding quality or accessibility in a green space. In this sense this research wants to contribute in a more general research on how Brussels should evolve towards a more resilient and sustainable city in order to withstand the existing or future issues described earlier. I hope that the design research as proposed in this thesis can contribute to the model improvement of the PHD research of Philip Stessens, as it might give in depth insights in certain indicators concerning the quality and proximity of a green space. Secondly, an impact assessment of the proposed design improvements on the overall green space provision of the BCR can help to test or

show the value of the developed assessment model. 1.3 Methodology The existing database of questionnaires and on-site surveys was built up during the summer of 2015 through an online and on-site questionnaire in three languages (English, French, Dutch) held with 371 valid responses. These were executed during park visits and always combined with on-site surveys, conducted in 46 public green spaces by the interviewers. The surveys consisted mainly out of a photographic analysis and a noise analysis through measuring the dB-values for different spots in the green space. To enlarge this dataset, both Juan G.R. Mendez and myself executed a second range of park visits inside the BCR in the summer of 2016, in which each of them we held the same on-site questionnaires with about ten visitors of the parks and executed the similar on-site surveys. This activity, however, was not only useful for the completion of the database, it was also a valuable first encounter with multiple green spaces of the BCR and it users. During the site visits we were able to experience several different green spaces and the opinions of their users ourselves and build up an improved knowledge and photographic analysis about the current situation of the visited green spaces and by extension of the overall green structure of the BCR and surroundings. In the following months, and ongoing, I have kept visiting and photographing accessible and not accessible green spaces in order to create a broad knowledge about the present green structure of the BCR. As a master student of architectural engineering, the decision of writing a master thesis about green space provision, and thus with more common ground with landscape architecture than with engineering architecture, required to create an insight about several concepts specific to landscape architecture such as landscape urbanism, ecosystem services, urban biodiversity, resilience, etc.. In order to do so literature 10

was considered, mainly in the shape of essays, papers and books, and an additional class about landscape urbanism, given by Fabio Vanin (Master Stedenbouw en Ruimtelijke Planning, VUB) was followed. This provided an insight about the history of landscape architecture, about philosophies behind terms such as “landscape urbanism” (Waldheim), “third nature” (Clement) of “dross-scape” (Berger) and about more technical terms such as ecosystem services or urban biodiversity. Secondly a following literature review was performed dealing in particular with the case of green space provision and quality assessment. First a closer look was given on how the assessment of space provision - first of open space, later of green space – has evolved from the open space per person ratio (Richard Baumeister, 1876) towards the multilayered approach, including different functional levels as proposed by Wiedemann & Van Herzele (2003). Later a literature research was done to compare how different cities have dealt with the development of a similar green space provision model and finally attention was paid on how quality is perceived by visitors and which conditions should be fulfilled so inhabitants would be attracted to visit certain green spaces. For the spatial analysis, the acquirement of GIS (Geographical Information Software) software was a necessary precondition. Thanks to this software it was possible to work with the data gathered through the questionnaires and surveys and have access to maps generated during the PHD-research. The generated maps provide information about the green space provision in BCR for every functional level, making it possible to designate the areas which are lacking in qualitative and accessible green space provision. This knowledge could then be used in combination with aerial pictures and knowledge gathered through on-site visits, to light out locations inside such neighborhoods. These locations might show a potential of hosting newly implemented green space or, in the case of an existing green space, could be improved regarding

quality or accessibility. Parallel to this, one map was generated showing all green spaces in development for all functional levels at this moment. Together the generated maps form a package showing the green structure of the BCR at this very moment, of the nearby future and in the ideal proposed situation, for both the separate functional levels and the overall situation. This spatial analysis gives insight about which areas in BCR are lacking in green space provision on each separate functional level and shows a first attempt on where injection or improvement of green space can be influential for the overall assessment. In this methodology, however, no consideration was held with ownership or economic benefits. After designating the areas in Brussels where green spaces are underrepresented for a certain functional level, and pointing out locations in each of these areas, an exemplary typology study was held with the intention to show how green spaces could be improved, enlarged or implemented on different scales. Therefore, examples from inside Brussels and abroad were brought together from books, internet and on-site experience to show how multiple solutions can be found to deal with the improvement of green space provision regarding the chosen locations. This study was enforced with a detailed case comparing study of two recently developed green spaces. Furthermore on this preparation, a one week workshop was organized in the context of the PHD research and this master thesis, bringing together a wide scale of professionals and students from different branches including geologists, hydrologists, urban planners, landscape architects and engineering architects. The workshop consisted of two main themes spread over two principal days. First the cultural aspect of green space provision was discussed regarding quality and proximity of green spaces, secondly the focus was on the more environmental impact of green spaces regarding heat-island effect or increasing flooding risks. During this first day three 12

main activities have had an influence on this master thesis. First feedback on the chosen indicators for quality and accessibility was formulated in a table discussion, later the chosen sites were discussed and potentially new sites were brought forward after analyzing the original maps and aerial pictures in team, and finally a selection of sites was made for different functional levels, for which design scenarios were developed in smaller groups. Each of the chosen sites and developed scenarios dealt with a different aspect or indicator for the quality or proximity of green space, resulting in a range of scenarios each proposing different design strategies for specific difficulties. Finally the results of the preparation and following workshop, were used for autonomous elaboration and evaluation, and proposed aspects were used for the development of a more detailed design exercise of the Maximiliaan Park in the north quarter of the BCR and of the reconversion of the CitroĂŤn building into a new green space.

2 STATE OF THE ART Agropark

An ‘Agropark’ is a spatial clustering of agricultural and non-agricultural functions in order to create a closed loop cycle by using the waste flow of one activity as resource for another. The development of Agroparks offers perspectives in closing cycles, reducing transportation distances and efficient use of space. Moreover, the geographical bundling of agricultural activities reduces the fragmentation and industrialization of green space, while the synergy between different activities offers economic and ecological advantages.

Biodiversity

Biodiversity is one of the most important indicators of ecosystem health (Rapport, 1995) as heterogeneous habitats are considered more resilient than homogeneous habitats (Bengtsson et al., 2005).

Compact city

The ‘compact city’ is characterised by high density housing, mixed use, well- functioning public transport (transit oriented development) and promotion of cycling and walking (Burton, 2000). One issue identified is the lack of urban green space in densified urban areas and the removal of green space when densifying city areas

Ecological corridor

The development of ecological networks has been advocated as a means of alleviating the ecological impacts of habitat fragmentation. This makes biodiversity conservation an integral part of sustainable landscapes (Opdam et al., 2006). Only a few empirical studies have shown the successful role of ecological corridors as conduits for wildlife (e.g. Haddad and Tewsbury, 2005). So, the functionality of corridors in ecological networks remains contested (Noss, 1993; Hobbs, 1992; Beier and Noss, 1998; Simberloff et al., 1995). However, in the absence of alternative strategies for addressing the ecological impact of fragmentation, ecological networks have become a popular element of urban planning (Jongman and Pungetti, 2004).

Ecosystem

Ecosystems are a set of interacting species and their local, non-biological environment functioning together to sustain life (Moll and Petit, 1994). In the case of the urban environment we can both define the city as one single ecosystem or composed of several individual ecosystems. Seven different natural urban ecosystems can be defined: street trees, lawns/parks, urban forests, cultivated land, wetlands, lakes/sea and streams.(bolund and Hunhammar, 1999)

Ecosystem health

Ecosystems can be considered as healthy when it is free from, or resilient to, stress and degradation, and maintains its organization, productivity and autonomy over time. (Costanza, 1992; Rapport et al., 1998; Brussard et al., 1998). Diversity is a very important indicator of ecosystem health. The healthiness of the ecosystem is of importance as it accords to the ecosystem services it provides. Therefore ecological functions and ecosystem services derived from a green infrastructure contribute to ecosystem health and to public health.

Ecosystem services

The delivery, provision, protection or maintenance of goods and benefits that humans obtain from ecosystem functions (Millennium Assessment, 2003; de Groot et al., 2002; Bolund and Hunhammar, 1999).

Ecosystem functions

Include biotic, bio-chemical and abiotic processes, within and between ecosystems (Turner et al., 2005; Brussard et al., 1998)

Functional level (FL)

â&#x20AC;&#x153;Functional levelsâ&#x20AC;?: Green spaces inside and outside the city are no substitutes for each other and both are perceived in different ways. Urban greening should be evaluated in relation to the relevant functional scales, ranging from street to city level.

Green Index (GI)

Critical in the assessment of the quality of the green space provision for an urban area is the measurement of the greenness of an area using remote sensing images in percentages area of green. This is the Green Index (GI).

Green infrastructure

all natural, semi-natural and artificial networks of multifunctional ecological systems within, around and between urban areas, at all spatial scales. The concept of green infrastructure emphasizes the quality as well as quantity of urban and peri-urban green spaces. (Turner, 1996; Rudlin and Falk, 1999), their multifunctional role (SandstrĂśm, 2002) and the importance of interconnections between habitats (van der Ryn and Cowan, 1996). If green infrastructure is proactively planned, developed, and maintained it has the potential to guide urban development by providing a framework for economic growth and nature conservation. (Walmsley, 2006; Schrijnen, 2000).

Green space

Green space can be defined for this master thesis as any vegetation found in the urban environment, whether publicly or privately owned, including parks, open spaces, residential gardens, or street trees ( Kabisch and Haase, 2013, p. 113). In this study, urban green spaces are considered as providers of ecosystem services – more particularly as providers of cultural ecosystem services of recreation (Stessens, 2016).

Green Space Development Site

A location where the contribution in the green space provision assessment can be increased through the implementation of a new green space or the enlargement or qualitative improvement of an existing green space

Green structure

A well-developed green structure is needed to provide a physical framework for ecological networks (Tzoulas et al., 2007), which is important for conserving biodiversity (e.g. Haddad and Tewsbury, 2005) and maintaining the ecosystem’s health.

Human health

The World Health Organization defines human health as “a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being, and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity” (WHO, 1948).

Inherent quality

A quality indicator, that shows the proximity of qualitative green spaces for each building block. This is the result of a linear combination of the proximity towards all functional levels and the quality assessment of the green spaces within acceptable reach.

Multifunctional landscape

Efficient use of space is fundamental in urban planning since space is inherently limited and competed for in all urban environments. Multifunctionality in the context of urban planning and design involves the deliberate provision of multiple ecosystem service -- in a discrete area of urban land. The most common means of combining functions to achieve multifunctionality is by ‘‘spatial stacking’’—efficiently organizing functions to operate independently, or in a complementary manner within a limited space. Multifunctionality can also be achieved by ‘‘time shifting’’ by which uses of the same spatial location are separated in time, for example diurnal usage alternations, or seasonal shifting, for example to accommodate field nesting birds in a recreational area (Kato and Ahern 2009). In addition to achieving spatial efficiency, multifunctionality also holds the potential to build a diverse system of public support because multiple stakeholders associated with particular functions may share support for a specific multifunctional urban landscape (Naveh 2001). (Ahern, 2013)

Periurban farming

The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations defines peri-urban agriculture as “agriculture practices within and around cities which compete for resources (land, water, energy, labour) that could also serve other purposes to satisfy the requirements of the urban population.”

Resilience

The capacity to recover from disturbance without changing fundamental state to be sustainable over a longer term (Walker and Salt 2006) 16

Well being

A key component within public health. The WHO defines health as being a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being. Defined by socio-economic, psychological and psychosocial variables (Rioux, 2005) as well as by the feelings of connectedness to nature.

Urban sprawl

Urban sprawl can be defined as urban development with low-density housing, both residential and commercial, segregated land-use, high level of automobile use combined with lack of public transport, which is in high demand for land (Johnson, 2001).

Urban Landscapes For the last few decades the concept of landscape urbanism has developed as an integrated concept in urban planning. The integration of green structures into urban planning, however, is a relatively recent phenomenon. For a long period, urban design and planning focused primarily on the design of the city’s architecture, infrastructure or public space. The city was conceived as an artificially built environment, and all though parks were not neglected in this method, a very clear border existed between what was city, park and nature (Ahern, 2013). The role of public parks first raised importance in the 19th century as a reaction to general urbanization and the poor living conditions resulting from this, and were regarded as important factors for both public hygiene and for general moral (Jørgensen, 2005). The development towards more public parks was challenged by the message from the French revolution in 1779 “freedom, equality and brotherhood”. This is illustrated by the development of public parks in the 19th century in virtually all major cities in Europe, America and even in Japan. Hirschfeld is one of the first authors to recognize the potential value of public parks for the general well-being and education of the people, their recreational purposes and the effects upon the working population of nature and the escaping of the stressful urban environments in his book Theory of Garden Art (1779 – 1785). The development of public parks as a reaction of urbanization was an important step in the modernization of our cities and an efficient way to increase the health and comfort-level

of its inhabitants at that time. But due to the growing awareness on the environmental impact of our cities, the role of the public green started to change. As scientists created an interest in urban ecology in the 1920s (Wu, 2014) the perspective towards nature in the city extended and the protection of the natural environment became increasingly important. It is in the late 1960s that Ian McHarg writes the book Design with Nature (1969) stressing the importance of the fragile and important natural ecologies and pleas to preserve the natural areas in favor of urban development (Scheer, 2011). This highly influential book stressed as one of the first sources that urban planners and designers should take the natural environment into account, not only because of its benefits towards general well-being and recreational opportunities for city dwellers, but also, and primarily, because of its enormous benefit regarding the city’s impact on the environment (McHarg, 1969). Most recently the increasing urbanization, demographic evolutions, by 2030 60 % of world population is expected to live in cities (UN, 1997), and urban sprawl provoked a new movement of integrating nature in urban planning. Brenda Scheer sees in ‘landscape urbanism’ a very powerful response to the problems created by the metropolitan form (Scheer, 2011), such as heat waves, droughts and flood risks, water supply problems, air pollution, soil pollution and well-being (Stessens, 2016). Charles Waldheim even suggests landscape as a medium and model for the city as a collective spatial project and formulates the landscape architect as the urbanist from our age: “Landscape Urbanism describes disciplinary realignment currently underway 18

in which landscape replaces architecture as the basic building block of urbanism” (Waldheim, 2000; Scheer, 2011). The most recent approach towards landscape urbanism deals with the city as a landscape rather than with the landscape of the city. By inter- and transdisciplinary research, the natural ecosystems and geography of the landscape are analyzed and foregrounded as shapers of the metropolitan image while using their functions as ecosystem services for ecological, economic and social benefits for urban dwellers. Urban ecosystem services Main reasons for this emerging interest in urban ecology can be found in the numerous challenges for the maintenance of urban green spaces caused by urban growth, and consequently also for human health and well-being (Tzoulas et al., 2007). Although the urbanized land area only occupies less than 1% of the earth’s surface (Schneider, Friedl & Potere, 2010) the effects of urbanization are enormous from the local to the global scale. Cities are responsible for about 60 % of all residential water use, 75 % of energy use, 80 % of the wood used for industrial purposes and 80% of human greenhouse gas emissions (Grimm et al., 2009; Newman, Beatly & Boyer, 2009). Besides this impact of urbanization on the environment, the extensive loss of countryside to urban development has distanced city inhabitants from the natural landscape (Scheer, 2011), making urban green spaces the primary source of contact with nature (Stessens, 2016). Pulighe et al.(2016) observe that green infrastructure have gained importance in planning and policy making thanks to the attributable ecosystem services for both city dwellers (Tzoulas et al., 2007) and climate change mitigation and adaptation (Demuzere et al., 2014). Rapport et al. (1998) linked the ecosystem’s health directly to ecosystem services and determined how the health of an ecosystem related to its services. The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005)

defined ecosystem services as “the benefits people obtain from ecosystems” which include: provisioning services (e.g., food and water), regulating services (e.g., purification of air and water, regulation of climate, floods, diseases, hazard, and noise), cultural services (e.g., recreational, spiritual, religious and other nonmaterial benefits), and supporting services (e.g., soil formation, primary production, and nutrient cycling). The link between ecosystem health and public health is the set of ecosystem services provided by the Green Infrastructure (Tzoulas, 2007). Public health is defined by the WHO (1948) as a state of complete physical, social and mental well-being. A report outlining the different types of urban green spaces and ecosystem services in the context of the GREEN SURGE project (2013-2017) summarized the benefits of green space: Urban green spaces help to preserve and enhance biodiversity within urban ecosystems (Tzoulas et al., 2007). Green spaces provide fresh air, reduce noise and elevated air temperatures through their cooling capabilities (Bowler et al., 2010; Spronken-Smith and Oke, 1998). Social benefits include positive influence on psychological and mental health (Ulrich et al., 1991; Völker and Kistemann, 2013) via stress reduction (Chiesure, 2004; Kaplan, 1985) and relaxation (Kuo et al., 1998). Within a broader social view, urban green spaces act as a meeting place in neighborhoods (Martin et al., 2004) and play an important role in the interactions of residents of different population groups with others in their community by providing space (Kabisch and Haase, 2014). Finally, urban green spaces of the provide the primary contact with local flora and fauna and the natural environment for urban residents (Krasny et al., 2013). In particular, Anna Chiesura (2004) underpinned the strategic importance of urban green spaces for the quality of life in our increasingly urbanized society. Natural areas, namely, provide social and psychological services, which are of crucial significance for the livability of modern cities and the well being of urban dwellers. Park visits may reduce stress (Ulrich, 1981), enhance 19

contemplativeness, rejuvenate the city dweller and provide a sense of peacefulness and tranquility (Kaplan, 1983). Schroeder (1991) has shown that natural environments with vegetation and water induce relaxed and less stressful states compared with urban scenes without vegetation. Beside the social, psychological and environmental benefits mentioned above, urban green space provides economic benefits for both municipalities and citizens. E.g., air purification through trees can lead to reduced costs of pollution reduction and prevention measures and aesthetic, historical and recreational values of urban parks increase the attractiveness of the city and promote it as tourist destination, generating employment and revenues. Green space provision Because of the increasing stress on urbanized areas and the mitigating effect of ecosystem services provided by green spaces, provision of urban green space has become a fundamental part of sustainable urban development (Haaland and Konijnendijk Van Den Bosch, 2014). The following paragraphs give a historical overview of how the estimation of open and green space has changed during the years, influenced by technological revolution and how different cities and regions deal with green space provision now on changing methods. A well-known and long-debated dichotomy exists within urban planning and design concerning “dense” or “green”. The conflict between the popular 21st century urban planning schemes of densification and sprawl and green space exploitation describes this issue. According to Stähle (2009) this can be said to be represented by “the urbanists”, who fight for urban businesses, housing, social integration et cetera., and “the environmentalists”, who fight for the conservation of green belts, parks, and open spaces in the city. The fight between dense and green has been going

on ever since the birth of modern planning. Green and open space were one of the fundamentals in Ebenezer Howard’s famous diagram for the town-country (1945), and Le Corbusier’s idea of “La ville verte”. They have all tried to merge ‘dense’ and ‘green’ and have claimed that “density has little to do with overcrowding or town cramming. It has everything to do with design of the environment”. Efficient green space structure design is consequently one of the crucial issues in urban development (Stähle, 2009). The question is, however, how to define this. What is an efficient green space structure for an urban area? And how can this be measured, standardized, planned and designed? Since the birth of modern planning, several quantitative measures and standards for open space have been developed to define density and attraction in urban settlements. From simple area based methods calculating the total percentage of open space (open space area per person, Baumeister, 1876 or open space per total floor area, Hoenig, 1920s) to an accessibility and location based measurement introduced by Stockholm General Plan in 1952 defining a maximum distance from 300 meters for playground accessibility and eventually towards a multi-level approach as proposed by Van Herzele and Wiedemann in 2003. This latest approach consists of norms defining maximum distance to a minimum size open space for different functional levels of green spaces. They thus reflect attraction by size and accessibility by distance. According to Van Herzele and Wiedemann (2003) every urban residence should have an accessible, attractive green space at acceptable distance. In this strategy, it is important to recognize that green spaces fulfil different functions at different levels (e.g. Grahn, 1986; Crouch, 1994; Berggren-Bärring and Grahn, 1995). Large areas of forest in the urban periphery may be used more for weekend recreation, while small parks in the city center have a stronger connection with the local everyday life. The concept of functional levels developed mainly during 20

the 1970s and early 1980s from practical experience and surveys and distinguishes the whole city, a city district, a city quarter and a city neighborhood (Van Herzele and Wiedemann, 2003).With the present geographic information system (GIS) at hand, it has become relatively easy to work with these standards, by facilitating spatial analysis indicating where standards are met or not, or how they could be achieved. Similar approaches has been used for the development of multiple green space provision standards. However, the amount functional levels, their size and accordingly their maximum distances differ of the different standards. An overview is given in the paper of Stessens (2016, table 6) to define the functional levels used for this research project. Recently, spatial analysis and GIS-based research has been executed for multiple cities worldwide, regarding the provision standards of green spaces. A brief summary was made by De Ridder et al. (2004). Van Herzele and Wiedemann (2003) thus used a spatial GIS-based indicator system to cities in Belgium to plan accessible and attractive green spaces. Chiari and Seeland (2004) used GIS and regression analysis to assess the distribution and access of urban green spaces by social target groups in three cities in Switserland. While Comber et al. (2008) used a GIS approach for Leicester, UK, to assess green space Balram and Dragićević (2005) made an accessibility assessment based on interviews and collaborative GIS workshops. In the US, the focus of research and planning has been on the distribution of tree canopy rather than green space. While some European cities, sill provide threshold values of urban green space of minimum accessibility for a defined area per capita. In Berlin, for example, 6 m2 green space per person has to be present (Senatsverwaltung für Stadtentwicklung und Umwelt, 2013), while Leipzig aims at 10 m2 per capita (Stadt Leipzig, 2003). In the UK, it is recommended that – as a national target – city residents should have access to a natural green space of minimum 2

ha within a distance of 300m from home (Handley et al., 2003). Berlin’s Department of Urban Development and the Environment recommends that every resident should have access to urban green of minimum 0.5 ha within a 500 m distance from home. Similarly, Hutter et al. (2004) recommend green space of 1.0 – 10 ha for every resident within 500m. In recent work, Wüstemann and Kalisch (2016) give an overall overview of the development of targets and tresholds for urban green provision at European, national and subnational level. In Europe, the European Environment Agency (EEA) defines the green space provision target that people should have access to green space within 15 min walking distance, approximately 900 – 1000m (Stanners et al., 1995). The Netherlands target a minimum green provision of 60m2 per capita within a 500m radius (Roo et al., 2011), while in the UK, city dwellers should be able to reach 2ha green space within 300m from the residence (Handley et al., 2003). Beside standards of provision, a considerable amount of literature investigated the current provision of urban green spaces in cities. Fuller and Gaston (2009) examined the relationship between urban green space coverage, city area and population size of 386 European cities. Study results demonstrate that per-capita green space provision Belgium provides around 300 m2 per person. The study of Van Herzele and Wiedemann (2003) evaluated the accessibility and quality of urban green in the four Flemish cities of Antwerp, Kortrijk, Aalst and Ghent. This research showed that in Antwerp, Ghent and Aalst no quarter greening is available for about 35% of the population, while in Kortrijk this rises to 95%. In the case of the Brussels Capital region (BCR), no in depth estimating research was done yet. With an expected population growth of 14.000 per annum on a population of 1.167.951 in 2015 (FOD Economie, 2013), well-informed densification strategies and green space development strategies, however, are a pressing issue (Stessens, 2016). 21

Because of the benefits of urban green space, the support for more green space in and around cities is increasing, and multiple organizations and local municipalities are developing green structure strategies to ensure the quality of life in their rapidly densifying cities. BUGS (Benefits or Urban Green Spaces), for example, is an EU research project aiming at developing a methodology to assess the impact of green space and settlement patterns on urban environmental quality and social wellbeing and to formulate recommendations regarding the use of green space as a design tool in urban planning strategies. The Greater Copenhagen Authority describes the new five finger plan, which is a green structure strategy for future development of Copenhagen (Casperson, Konijnendijk and Olafson, 2006). Similarly, Groen in Gent, is a green structure strategy developed by Stad Gent that provides the implementation of new green spaces from the metropolitan scale in the periphery to residential green spaces in the center and the connection of green spaces through green space corridors.

3 RESEARCH BY DESIGN

DESIGN as a ‘noun’ = PRODUCT DESIGN as a ‘verb’ = PROCESS (Lawson, 2004, p.118) DESIGN(ing) = ‘disegno’ – Florentine language of Renaissance; ‘Conception’ in French = Ontwerp(en) – Dutch masters [Berlage, Oud] [De Jong, et al. 2002, p. 17]

“In research by design, the architectural design process forms a pathway through which new insights, knowledge, practices or products come into being. In architecture, design is the essential feature.” - EAAE

….the ‘Enquiry by Design’ collaborative design process, which has been successfully applied …..to projects ranging from individual buildings, to new towns …... Enquiry by Design is different from existing design processes in that it is ‘simultaneously proactive’ rather than ‘sequentially reactive’. – PCFBE

in order to develop a truthful analysis of the current situation and frame the possibilities for the future.

To understand the concept of Research by Design (RbD), a defining text was formulated, based on a class by professor A. Khan, thought in the Bruface master program in the autumn of 2016, during his course of Theory of Architecture and Urbanism.

The following list clarifies the difference between research and design and how these concepts interfere with each other with different purposes:

Design can be seen as a way of thinking, a habit of imaginative playing with possibilities in complex and ambiguous situations in order to explore, test and find a fitting solution. Design can be employed as a research tool by generating alternative scenarios and concepts through design language and knowledge, developing over-all story-lines or exploring through images, deploying alternative frameworks of analysis and process by testing, exploring, back & forth abduction for alternatives & their evaluation and 4-dimensional spatial synthesis through user participation and interaction with stakeholders and concern for future generations (Khan, 2016). Vital elements for RbD are graphical communication, design workshops and holistic analysis and evaluation of real places in the field, their sensory quality, behavior, history, economy, politics, sociology, technical structure, etc.. These are necessities

DESIGN AND RESEARCH are ways of ‘drawing forth’ or ‘generating’ ideas, which makes the designer “a researcher of ideas as well as images and objects” (Hill 2005). DESIGN AS RESEARCH is: “reflection – the element that turns search into research” (Glanville, 2005), to which Cross adds “the communication of some reusable results from that reflection” (Cross, 2007b). The 3 key modes of design research: ‘Research about design’ (or: into) draws out ideas that are useful and interesting for thinking about design, e.g., research about what designers do when designing, about design knowledge and design methods, about teaching and learning design, about what design should be, about history of design and designed things. ‘Research for design’ (or: to enable) is research that is carried out during the

Practice

The Sciences

The Arts

Knowledge

Expression Experience C

overall design process to support designing in whatever way the designer(s) regard as useful and this includes research intended to provide information and data that is necessary to successfully conclude the undertaking in question. ‘Research through design’ (or: by) evaluates the argument “that designing is a way of researching – that is a way of producing knowledge” (Downton, 2003, p. 5)], personal knowing which can become collective knowledge … or/and “designerly ways of knowing” which is considered to be quite different from the epistemological apparatus contributed by (natural) sciences and humanities/arts (Cross, 1982 & 2007). The 3 modes of design research are related, but different and yet inevitably overlap In this master thesis RbD is employed as a tool for reading and defining space and for the exploration of spatial quality of newly developed scenarios in order to propose a strategical spatial and structural planning for the green space provision in the BCR in the hope it can function as a powerful tool for negotiation and offer a synthesizing and convincing frame for pacts and agreements. 3.2 Detailed methodology The methodology for the research through design part followed during this master thesis can be divided into three principal stages executed alternatively autonomous and in group. First the preparation prior to the workshop was done autonomous, secondly the development of scenarios was done in team during the workshop and finally the results of the workshop were used for an extensive elaboration and evaluation, followed by a detailed design exercise on the improvement of the Maxiliaanpark and the reconversion of the Citroen building into a green space, which was again done autonomous.

3.2.1 Preparation 3.2.1.1 On Site Experience The preparation for the workshop started during the period organized for the questionnaires and surveys. Thanks to the multiple site visits spread out over the entire BCR a broader knowledge about the existing green spaces and about the overal landscape of the BCR was generated. As the visits were always done by bike, extra attention was paid on interesting sites encountered along the way, especially regarding potential green space development sites, located in strategic interesting locations, such as wastelands, poorly designed parks or public spaces, railway intersections, unused intermediate spaces, restspaces, etc. This on site experience made it easier to locate potentially interesting sites for improvement or implantation of green spaces in a later phase of the research. A photographic documentation of these spaces shows how poor design or governance has a direct influence, not only on its nearby neighborhood, but also on a larger, more layered scale. Moreover it shows that these ‘leftover’ spaces are vital in the further development towards a more fine grained urban green structure in the sense that they offer the opportunity to increase their contribution through rather small interventions: Oversized street corners could be transformed into a small scale play area only through the installation of a seesaw or a swing; small streets could be organized differently giving the pedestrian and cyclists preference over the car; Innercity cornfields could make space for an overal accessible field where neighbors could grow their own food.

Outcome

What?

Preparation

- Photographic report.

Site exploration

Autonomous

- Site exploration on map and on site. - Implementation of new green spaces.

Workshop Group work

Scenario development - implementation of new green spaces. - Scenario development based on proximity and quality indicators.

Elaboration Autonomous

- Elaboration of developped scenarios.

- Model improvement

- Maps. - Summary of exemplary typologies. - Different scenarios for specific cases inside the BCR and and for the implementation of new GS for the region.

- Detailed design of park in CitroĂŤn building and Maximiliaan park

- In depth 1 case - Impact assessment

3.2.1.2 Improve Green Space Provsion Following on the surveys, the research developed towards the drawing table. The main goal was to generate an ideal scenario for the BCR, in which every building block is provided with a qualitative green space within acceptable walking distance. To do so, research was done on where and how the green space infrastructure of Brussels could be improved at different scales for different sizes of green spaces. This multi layered approach strokes with the concept of functional levels as proposed by Van Herzele and Wiedemann (2003). The idea of functional levels is that different sizes of green spaces can provide different functions and should therefore be acknowledged in the green space proximity analysis (Stessens, 2016). A set of functional levels is defined based on a range of green space size, and is linked to the scale of the area which the green space serves e.g. residential, play, neighborhood, quarter, district, city and metropolitan. Each functional level has a theoretical maximum attraction distance based on the time it takes to reach the green space using the most suitable mode of transport (walking for functional levels up to city, bike or tram for metropolitan green spaces). The criteria used in this study for defining the size ranges of the different functional levels and their according maximum distances were taken from the paper written by Philip Stessens, in which the maximum distances were derived from questionnaires and the size ranges from literature research comparing the different national and international standards. So far, travel time was converted to distance depending on average travel speed using the most suitable mode of transport. To be able to use this value in a spatial analysis, the value needed to be converted into a radius, that describes a circle for which each point accords to the maximum map distance to reach the green space. Therefore a buffer was determined. Once a value for maximum distance an minimum size was set and converted into circle radii, the circles could be used to fill the gaps of green space

provision on each functional level using GIS software. This was done based upon the green space influence maps of the separate functional levels and aerial pictures of different scales. 3.2.1.3. Bufferdetermination The radii of the circles, representing the attraction radius and minimum size of a certain green space, were calculated following a multi-step approach. As discussed earlier, urban open space standards consist of norms defining maximum distance (e.g. 300 meters) to a minimum size open space (e.g. neighborhood park), mostly for different functional levels of green spaces. (Stessens, 2016). This means attraction is described by size and accessibility by distance. However in this case, a refinement is proposed to define the actual walking distance rather than working with the straight radius distance. A study from Grahn (1994) defined distance or walking time from home to be the single most important precondition for use of green spaces. In order to do so, a buffer value was determined by calculating the average ratio between a theoretical radius distance and the distance according to the projection of this theoretical distance on a map. In other words, the calculation measures the actual walking distance that matches a certain theoretical distance. For defining these theoretical distances the principal proposed in the paper of Stessens (2016) was used. This is based on the concept of functional levels as proposed by Van Herzele and Wiedemann in 2003, with a deviation within the lowest level (0ha-1ha) as it describes pocket parks or residential green as well as playgrounds. Therefore the functional level â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;play green spaceâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; was added to the terminology proposed by Van Herzele and Wiedemann, resulting in seven functional levels, each characterized by a size range. The maximum distances towards these green spaces were derived from the values based on questionnaire averages as described in 58

the research from Stessens (2016). These are formed through a calculation regarding not only the distance to the green space, but also the maximum travel time in minutes and the average travel speed using the most suitable mode of transport: walking for functional levels up to city green space, bike or tram for metropolitan green spaces. In the proposed refinement these values â&#x20AC;&#x201C; the minimum sizes in ha - are used and transferred into circle radii using formula (x). These circles were then placed on the map of Brussels in order to define the buffer value to calculate the actual walking distance. Followingly, dots were randomly chosen on these circles and the matching addresses were determined using google maps. While the length of the straight connection between the dots of the inner (minimum size) and the outer (max. distance) circle corresponds to the maximum distance as defined by Stessens (2016) (1 in figure) the distance as determined with google maps corresponds to the actual walking distance between the potential site of implementation and an actual address (2a,b,c in figure). By calculating the ratio between the walking distance and the predefined maximum distance, a value (x-buffer) is determined which can then be used to find a new value for the maximum distance. This is done by dividing the theoretical maximum distance with this buffer, resulting in a new value (3 in figure) which corresponds better to the actual walking distance if projected on a map. This process is followed for multiple locations and dots at each functional level, in order to find an average â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;xâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;-value for each functional level and a new average value for the maximum distance using this value as a buffer.

needed to be found (in these areas) where it was possible to implement a new green space with the calculated minimum size or where present green spaces could be merged to form a green space with the desired size. This was done with a double layered map, consisting of the green space area of influence map in combination with an aerial picture. For each functional level it was now possible to inject circles with the calculated minimum size radius on the maps and calculate their influence. This procedure was followed with the intention to come up with a range of maps, where no area in the BCR was insufficiently provided with green space for all functional levels. The usage of the aerial picture made it possible to place circles on the maps, regarding the strategic position on the one hand and the feasibility of realization on the other. These maps were combined with a typology study to show how green space improvement can be reached on different functional levels through multiple kind of interventions, such as the multifunctional use of cemeteries (Kopenhagen, Gent) or schoolyards, or the enlargement of a green space through connection (Luchtsingel, Rotterdam).

The newly determined values for maximum walking distance and minimum size green space could now be used for finding potential locations for the implantation or improvement of (new) green spaces. To do so, the maps showing green space area of influence per functional levels were used to see which areas are in need for the injection of qualitative green space. Therefore, spaces 59

METROPOLITAN min. size: 140 ha Max. walking distance: 11,305 km Max. reach: 10,106 km

CITY min. size: 20 ha Max. walking distance: 5,471 km Max. reach: 4,349 km

DISTRICT min. size: 8 ha Max. walking distance: 2,437 km Max. reach: 1,983 km

QUARTER min. size: 2 ha Max. walking distance: 1,784 km Max. reach: 1,549 km

Residential

Pla

Min. area size (ha)

0.01

0.2

Min. area size (sqm)

100

Min. area radius (m)

5.642

Max. area size (ha)

0.2

Max. area size (sqm)

2000

Max. area radius (m)

25.231

Distance, questionary based

108

Distance, Van Herzele & Wiedemann

150

Distance Literature based

172

23 60

NEIGHBORHOOD min. size: 1 ha Max. walking distance: 660 m Max. reach: 503,8 m

PLAY min. size: 0,2 ha Max. walking distance: 420 m Max. reach: 315 m

RESIDENTIAL min. size: 0,01 ha Max. walking distance: 108 m Max. reach: 49 m

Neighborhood

Quarter

District

City

Forest

Metropolitan

000

10000

20000

80000

200000

1400000

5.231

56.419

79.788

159.577

252.313

667.558

140

0000

20000

80000

200000

1400000

4000000

6.419

79.788

159.577

252.313

667.558

1128.379

660

1784

2438

5471

11305

400

800

1600

3200

5000

541

1007

2431

3002

5502

400

Table Manuscript for Ecosys-

Location new GS (Adress)

Adress of departure

Maximum Distance (

Obbergen x Oude Jetse Steenweg

Oude Jetseweg 40, 1731 Asse

11305

667.6

Obbergen x Oude Jetse Steenweg

Ronkel 153, 1780 Wemmel

11305

Metroplitan

667.6

Obbergen x Oude Jetse Steenweg

Ronkel 153, 1780 Wemmel

11305

Metroplitan

667.6

Obbergen x Oude Jetse Steenweg

Oude Jetseweg 40, 1731 Asse

11305

Metroplitan

667.6

Obbergen x Oude Jetse Steenweg

Serge Ecksteinlaan 29, 1731 Asse

11305

Metroplitan

667.6

Obbergen x Oude Jetse Steenweg

Jan Longinstraat 76, Asse

11305

Metroplitan

667.6

Obbergen x Oude Jetse Steenweg

Relegemstraat 1, Asse

11305

City

252.3

Zaventemse, Drie Linden

5471

City

252.3

Zaventemse, Drie Linden

5471

City

252.3

Zaventemse, Drie Linden

5471

City

252.3

Zaventemse, Drie Linden

5471

City

252.3

Zaventemse, Drie Linden

5471

City

252.3

Sparrenlaan 101-105

5471

City

252.3

Sparrenlaan 101-105

5471

City

252.3

Sparrenlaan 101-105

5471

City

252.3

Sparrenlaan 101-105

5471

City

252.3

Sparrenlaan 101-105

5471

District

159.6

Maximiliaan and around

Willebroekkaai 7, 1000 Brussel

2437

District

159.6

Maximiliaan and around

Willebroekkaai 7, 1000 Brussel

2438

District

159.6

Inner ring: Ninoofse poort South station

PoincarĂŠlaan 20, 1070 Anderlecht

2437

District

159.6

Inner ring: Ninoofse poort South station

PoincarĂŠlaan 20, 1070 Anderlecht

2438

District

159.6

Cemetary of Brussel

Jules Bordetlaan 168, 1140 Evere

2437

District

159.6

Cemetary of Brussel

Jules Bordetlaan 168, 1140 Evere

2437

District

159.6

Oude Keulseweg, Zaventem

Oude Keulseweg 204, 1933 Zaventem

2437

District

159.6

Oude Keulseweg, Zaventem

Oude Keulseweg 204, 1933 Zaventem

2437

District

159.6

Josaphat park

Generaal Wahislaan 16, 1030 Schaarbeek

2437

District

159.6

Josaphat park

Generaal Wahislaan 16, 1030 Schaarbeek

2438

District

159.6

Keelbeeksite Haren

Rue du Keelbeek 300, 1130 Bruxelles

2437

District

159.6

Keelbeeksite Haren

Rue du Keelbeek 300, 1130 Bruxelles

2438

Quarter

79.78

Mediapark

Kolonel Bourgstraat 6, 1030 Schaarbeek

1784

Quarter

79.78

Koninklijk diegemsport, Diegem

Kosterstraat 70, 1831 Machelen

1784

Quarter

79.78

3 linden

Lange Wagenstraat 76, 1932 Zaventem

1784

Quarter

79.78

Inner ring: Ninoofse poort South station

Jamarlaan 1D, 1060 Sint-Gillis

1784

Type Green Space

min. area radius (m)

Metroplitan

667.6

Metroplitan

m (m)

Max. Distance adress

Map distance (m)

distance / max. distance (=x)

theoretical distance / x (=y)

Arnaud Freiteurlaan 15, Elsene

12200

1.079

10475.658

Noordstraat 12, Machelen

12700

1.123

10063.230

M. Thirylaan 11, Sint-Lambr-Woluwe

12600

1.115

10143.097

Houzeaulaan 6, Ukkel

12300

1.088

10390.490

Stallestraat 87, Ukkel

13500

1.194

9466.891

Notelarenlaan 1, St-Pieters-Leeuw

12600

1.115

10143.097

Scheerweidestraat, 5, Lennik

12700

1.123

10063.230

Beillard 205, Brussel

6647.7

1.215

4502.586

Witte Vrouwenlaan 153, Kraainem

6047.7

1.105

4949.293

Vossemlaan 61, Zaventem

6347.7

1.160

4715.384

Koningstraat 312, Sint-Joost

6747.7

1.233

4435.858

Pagodenlaan 240, 1020 Brussel

8547.7

1.562

3501.742

Havenlaan 138, 1020 Brussel

7247.7

1.325

4129.840

J. De Ridderlaan 124, Wemmel

6647.7

1.215

4502.586

Lambermontlaan 3021, Schaarbeek

7347.7

1.343

4073.634

Steenwagenstraat 37, Steenokkerzeel

7547.7

1.380

3965.690

Krogstraat 159 Meise

6347.7

1.160

4715.384

Sint-Gisleinsstraat 40, 1000 Brussel

2600

1.067

2284.219

Edmond Bonehillstraat 129, 1080 Sint-Jans-Molenbeek

2400

0.984

2476.602

Jubelfeestlaan 63, 1080 Sint-Jans-Molenbeek

2500

1.026

2375.588

Waversesteenweg 270, 1000 Elsene

3400

1.395

1748.189

Calenbergstraat, 1831 Machelen

3300

1.354

1799.688

Jules Bordetlaan 168, 1140 Evere

2700

1.108

2199.618

Leuvensesteenweg 65, 3070 Kortenberg

3600

1.477

1649.714

Terwenberglaan, 1933 Zaventem

3300

1.354

1799.688

Wetstraat 56, 1000 Brussel

2800

1.149

2121.060

Koninginnelaan 203, 1000 Brussel

3300

1.354

1801.165

Heirbaan 189-197, 1830 Machelen

3400

1.395

1746.756

Harenweg, 1932 Machelen

3300

1.354

1801.165

Trooststraat 60, 1030 Schaarbeek

2200

1.233

1446.662

Bazellaan 1, 1140 Evere

3000

1.682

1060.885

Eversestraat 1, 1140 Evere

1800

1.009

1768.142

Negende Linielaan 2, 1000 Brussel

1900

1.065

1675.082

Average x-value

Average y-value

1.120

10106.528

1.270

4349.200

1.251

1983.621

Table 2. Walking distances

Quarter

79.78

TournTaxis park

Rotterdamstraat 1, 1080 Sint-Jans-Molenbeek

1784

Quarter

79.78

Poelaert + Louiza

Poelaert, 1000 Bruxelles

1784

Quarter

79.78

Valley of Plankenbeek

Tulpenlaan 30, 1702 Dilbeek

1784

Quarter

79.78

Abbatoir + Erasmus Campus

Ropsy Chaudronstraat 42, 1070 Anderlecht

1784

Quarter

79.78

West-Station

Alphonse Vandenpeereboomstraat 64, 1080 Sint-Jans-Molenbeek

1784

Neighborhood

56.42

Waterreserve Vivaqua

Verlaatstraat 2, 1000 Brussel

660

Neighborhood

56.42

Poelaert + Louiza

Stefaniatunnel 2040, 1000 Brussel

660

Neighborhood

56.42

Bara square

Zuidlaan 27, 1000 Brussel

660

Neighborhood

56.42

Ninoofse Poort

Nijverheidskaai 52, 1000 Brussel

660

Neighborhood

56.42

West-Station

Alphonse Vandenpeereboomstraat 52, 1080 Sint-Jans-Molenbeek

660

Neighborhood

56.42

Citroën building

Ijzerplein 7, 1000 Brussel

660

Neighborhood

56.42

TournTaxis park

Dieudonné Lefèvrestraat 162, 1020 Brussel

660

Neighborhood

56.42

Convivial VZW - site, next to Zenne

Paapsemlaan, 1070 Vorst

660

Neighborhood

56.42

Josaphat street 121

Josaphatstraat 121, 1030 Schaarbeek

660

Neighborhood

56.42

Cemetary Sint-Joost-Ten-Node

Henri Choméstraat 22, 1030 Schaarbeek

660

Play

25.23

Passerstraat 33

Passerstraat 19-33, 1070 Anderlecht

420

Play

25.23

St.-J-Baptist Voorplein

Deken Fierensstraat 19B, 1080 Sint-Jans-Molenbeek

420

Play

25.23

Gieterijpark

Olifantenstraat 4, 1080 Sint-Jans-Molenbeek

420

Play

25.23

Liedts Square

Liedtsplein 19-20, 1030 Schaarbeek

420

Play

25.23

Saint-Etienne Hospital

Josaphatstraat 15, 1210 Sint-Joost-tenNode

420

Residential

5.64

St.-J.-Baptist Voorplein

Deken Fierenstraat 16, 1080 Sint-Jans-Molenbeek

108

Residential

5.64

Graaf van Vlaanderen plein

Graaf van Vlaanderen plein, 1080 Sint-Jans-Molenbeek

108

Residential

5.64

Opzichter square

Speeplein opzichter, 1080 Sint-Jans-Molenbeek

108

Residential

5.64

KBC Brussels

Opzichterstraat (KBC), 1080 Sint-Jans-Molenbeek

108

Residential

5.64

Windroos School

Jean-Baptiste Decockstraat 29, 1080 Sint-Jans-Molenbeek

108

EugĂ¨ne Toussaintstraat 1, 1083 Ganshoren

2100

1.177

1515.550

Brugmannlaan 79, 1190 Vorst

2100

1.177

1515.550

Henri Moeremanslaan 44, 1700 Dilbeek

2400

1.345

1326.107

Visverkopersstraat 19, 1000 Brussel

1700

0.953

1872.151

Opzichterstraat 75, 1080 Sint-Jans-Molenbeek

1800

1.009

1768.142

Spiraalbuisstraat 18, 1050 Elsene

800

1.212

544.5

Lausannestraat 39, 1060 Sint-Gillis

850

1.288

512.471

Accolaystraat 10-26, 1000 Brussel

850

1.288

512.471

Arteveldestraat 49, 1000 Brussel

800

1.212

544.5

Oostendestraat 37, 1080 Sint-Jans-Molenbeek

700

1.061

622.286

Begijnhof 9, 1000 Brussel

800

1.212

544.5

Tivolistraat 49, 1020 Brussel

700

1.061

622.286

ThĂŠodore Verhaegenstraat 230, 1060 Sint-Gillis

1700

2.576

256.235

Brabantstraat 75A, 1030 Schaarbeek

1000

1.515

435.6

Jacques Georginlaan 30, 1030 Schaarbeek

900

1.364

484

Otletstraat 42, 1070 Anderlecht

500

1.190

352.8

Vanderstichelenstraat 1A, 1080 Sint-Jans-Molenbeek

500

1.190

352.8

Karperstraat 23, 1080 Sint-Jans-Molenbeek

650

1.548

271.385

Vondelstraat 68A, 1030 Schaarbeek

450

1.071

392

Hutstraat 14-16, 1030 Schaarbeek

850

2.024

207.529

Koorstraat 48, 1080 Sint-Jans-Molenbeek

170

1.574

68.612

vandermaelenstr 22, 1080 Sint-Jans-Molenbeek

280

2.593

41.657

Pierre Victor Jacobstraat 60, 1080 Sint-Jans-Molenbeek

220

2.037

53.018

Ulenstraat 45, 1080 Sint-Jans-Molenbeek

400

3.704

29.16

Van Malderstraat 13, 1080 Sint-Jans-Molenbeek

220

2.037

53.018

1.183

1549.808

1.397

503.816

1.405

315.303

2.389

49.093

Table 2. Walking distances

METROPOLITAN

Until present, only the southern part of the Brussels-Capital region is served with metropolitan green space within acceptable travelling distance, through the ForĂŞt de Soignes (right) and Hallerbos (left). To the north and the west of the region, however, some interesting landscape structures are present to develop new metropolitan scale green spaces in the future. To the west, the Scheutbos park is the center of a larger green structure characterized with very fertile soil, following the Maalbeek valley. On aerial pictures, a green penetration until deep in the urban tissue is clearly visible. In the publication Metropolitan Landscapes, Coloco, Gilles ClĂŠment and DEVSPACE designed a vision for this area, stressing on the protection and enforcement of this green structure through connectivity, accessibility and a multifunctional program. Somewhat to the right, a similar phenomenon is

visible around the Laarbeekbos in Jette. Here the green space of the Laarbeekbos is separated with neighboring agricultural fields through the outer ring. An improved connectivity of both green spaces in combination with a more sustainable approach of the agricultural fields might attract more city dwellers towards the regional border. Closer to the city center, the opening of the Royal Domain to the public shows a large potential to create a new metropolitan scale green space in the inner city without any active land acquisition or development.

Location: Obbergen x Oude Jetse Steenweg, Wemmel/ Asse, Vlaanderen. Type: Agricultural fields - open, sloping landscape. Mode of implementation: multifunctional agropark, periurban

farming. Example: parque agrario del bajo llobregat, Barcelona, Spain.

CITY

Presence of city scale green spaces is found along valleys of the Zenne-Canal valley, Molenbeek valley and Woluwe valley. A lack of city scale green space provision exists clearly in the inner city, in the North-West in communes such as Schaarbeek, Evere, Diegem, Grimbergen or Haren and in the South west in Anderlecht, Neerpede and Dilbeek. Due to the large scale the development of a city scale green space in the inner city is an enormous challenge. The lacking regions outside the city center, however, contain multiple green spaces which aren’t used to their full potential. E.g. agricultural fields in Zaventem, near ‘Drie Linden’, are hardly used by neighboring inhabitants because their lack in accessibility. Instead they are owned privately and serve for the production of crops with low ecological value and no direct use for men. Using these agriculture fields for the sustainable production of vegetable or fruits for the

people living in the city, would not only be more logic and sustainable, it would also increase their ecological value and attractivity. The same kind of poor land use can be seen near the Scheutbospark or in Grimbergen. Another option for the creation of new city scale green spaces could be to rethink existing green spaces such as cemeteries. Redesigning them in order to increase their accessibility and user friendliness could be an easy challenge to create new green spaces without to much effort.

Location: Drie Linden, Zaventem Type: Agricultural fields Mode of implementation: multifunctional park

Location: Sparrenlaan, Grimbergen Type: Agricultural fields Mode of implementation: multifunctional park

Location: Maalbeek valley, Anderlecht Type: Agricultural fields, unaccessible green spaces Mode of implementation: Increase accessibility

Location: Cemetary â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Vogelzangâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;, Anderlecht Type: Cemetary Mode of implementation: Cemetary park

DISTRICT

While district scale green spaces are evenly spread over the region’s border, the entire city’s center inside the pentagon, and areas close to the center, such as parts Molenbeek and Anderlecht and the area around Matongé and Louiza lack district green spaces within their reach. In the periphery, a similar lack is shown in Evere, Diegem, South-Grimbergen and West-Zaventem. The only two green spaces within acceptable reach of some parts of the center are the Josaphat park in Schaarbeek and the Park van Vorst together with the Dudenpark. Liberating land of this size is difficult in the center, but solutions could be found in the linkage of existing green spaces. The connection between existing green spaces around the Maximiliaan park could be improved to create a continuous green space instead of different islands of green. Similar, the green space on the Tour and Taxis site together with the planned park

on the Materialenkaai could be merged together with the Maximiliaan park in order to create an actual district scale green space right in the center of the city. A second option inside the city center could be the transformation of the parking next to the inner-ring. This linear space, together with the area around the Bara square, could transformed into a green space, creating a continuous green strip all around the pentagon, from the Ninoofse Poort to the Hallepoort. Further from the center, the Cemetery of Brussels shows a large potential to be turned into a public park if it gets more accessible and connected with surrounding green. In the periphery, The Keelbeek site shows a very interesting landscape at is shaped by a river valley and has a high biological value. Planned is, however, to build the largest prison of Belgium on this site.

Location: Keelbeeksite, Haren Type: wasteland / unaccessible GSs Mode of implementation: Increase accessibility / New GS

Location: Cemetary of Brussels, Evere Type: Cemetary Mode of implementation: Cemetary park

Location: Maximiliaan park, Brussels Type: Fragmentation of GSs Mode of implementation: Increase connectivity / Enlarge GS

Location: Inner-ring, Brussels Type: Parking / Busy road / public space Mode of implementation: New GS

Location: Oude Keulseweg, Zaventem Type: Agricultural fields Mode of implementation: Multifunctional park / Periurban farming

Location: Josaphatpark, Schaarbeek Type: Fragmentation of GSs Mode of implementation: Enlarge GS

QUARTER

A similar pattern of provision can be seen for quarter scale green spaces. Again the city center as well as areas in Molenbeek, Anderlecht and Elsene close to the center, lack in the presence of green space. Inside the pentagon the Warandepark is the only green space offering provision, while the Jubelpark, Elizabethpark, Vorstpark and Veeweidepark provide quarter scale green space for certain areas around the city center. In the future the park around TournTaxis will contribute in the provision for the area of Laken and part of Molenbeek. Because these are not sufficient to provide every building block with qualitative green space within reach, new large scale green space should be developed. Therefore

the wasteland between Weststation and Beekkant, together with the site around the Abbatoir and the Erasmus campus, show the highest potential to serve as future quarter scale green spaces, in order to provide the areas of Molenbeek and Anderlecht close to the pentagon. Inside the city center, the inner-ring around the pentagon and the Maximiliaan park, show interesting structures to be developed as quarter scale green spaces.

Location: Valley of Plankenbeek, Dilbeek Type: River valley, wetland Mode of implementation: Increase accessibility / New GS

Location: Abbatoir + Erasmus Campus Type: Public space / School campus Mode of implementation: Multi-use Spatial flexibility

Location: Diegem Sports center, Diegem Type: Sports center + Agricultural fields Mode of implementation: New GS

Location: Mediapark Type: Private space Mode of implementation: New GS

Location: Weststation Type: Wasteland Mode of implementation: New GS

Location: Maximiliaan park Type: Fragmentation of GSs Mode of implementation: Connect GSs + Improve quality

NEIGHBORHOOD

In the case of neighborhood scale green spaces, the same regions lack provision. Again the areas of Molenbeek and Anderlecht along the canal, together with the lower part of the city center, and the MatongĂŠ area in Elsene are not provided with sufficient accessible green spaces. Because these areas show the highest population density, the youngest average population and lowest average income of the entire BCR, the provision of accessible green is from vital importance for the ecosystem services they provide for the benefits of the inhabitants. At this moment, one new green space is in construction at the Ninoofse Poort and will provide parts of Anderlecht and Molenbeek. Additionally, potential green space developments sites could be found in Anderlecht. The abandoned Powey-office building in combination with two patches of wasteland next to it, could be transformed into a new green space, connecting

the area of Kureghem with a larger green space next to the Canal and even with the green space around Veeweide. Secondly, space in between the tracks close the south station could contribute in the provision of Kureghem and Vorst, while opening a part of the Zenne to the public. In Elsene, a waterreserve site of Vivaqua is now closed for the public. And around the city center, the Bara square and the Poelaertsquare are two mineral public spaces where car traffic is the most important activity. Transforming these squares, while adding permeability and vegetation, for the benefit of the human scale could change the perception of these areas completely. In Sint-Joost-Ten-Node, again a cemetery could be revalued as green space if the accessibility and user friendliness for green space visitors would be developed.

Location: Barra square, Anderlecht Type: Traffic congested public space Mode of implementation: Improve spatial quality, inject green space.

Location: Anderlecht, Humaniteitslaan Type: Unused space Mode of implementation: New GS

Location: Powsey office building, Anderlecht Type: Wastelands and abandoned office building Mode of implementation: New GS

Location: Poelaert square, Brussels Type: public space Mode of implementation: New GS, Improve spatial quality

Location: Vivaqua water reserve, Elsene Type: Private green space Mode of implementation: Make public

Location: Cemetery St.-Joost-Ten-Node Type: Cemetery Mode of implementation: Cemetery park

PLAY

Because green space is for many citizens the sole contact with nature on a daily basis, the presence of small green spaces is vital for citizens to walk their dogs, play with their children or see snow in winters and colored leaves in autumn. These small scale green spaces fulfill a different role in the green space structure as they provide the everyday contact from inhabitants with nature. From the map can be seen that over the entire region, the provision on this scale is rather weak. Fortunately Brussels has a lot of empty buildings or unused spaces that could be transformed to contribute in the overall green space provision assessment, additionally playgrounds from schools or large carparks from public buildings could be redesigned regarding a more public program. The Canal zone, for example, contains multiple warehouses and abandoned industrial sites, with the potential to be transformed

into green space or winter gardens. While the transformation of the central avenue is an opportunity to create small scale green spaces right in the city center.

Location: CitroĂŤn buidling, Brussels Type: Industrial building Mode of implementation: Transformation into green spacec

Location: Gieterijpark, Molenbeek Type: Green space Mode of implementation: Improve GS quality

Location: Armand Scheurssquare, Schaarbeek Type: Green Space Mode of implementation: Improve GS quality

Location: St-Etienne Hospital, Schaarbeek Type: Car park Mode of implementation: New GS

Location: St.-Goedele School, Molenbeek Type: School courtyard Mode of implementation: Multi-used GS

Location: Brouckere square, Brussels Type: Public space Mode of implementation: Improve spatial quality, inject green

RESIDENTIAL

Residential scale green spaces have during this research, not been defined by a certain minimum size. Similar to play green spaces, residential green space are vital in the provision of daily contact with nature. This challenge is not linked with size as it can be provided through the smallest intervention and depends strongly on the designed quality. While the assessment and provision lack is similar to the one of the play scale green spaces, the exercise of finding new development sites differs as there is no scale limitation. While, during the assessment of play green space, the limitation was set on the size of an average building block. Now the focus zooms in closer and attention was paid to the gaps inside the building blocks. Especially attention was paid to the Canal zone and the MatongĂŠ area, as these are the areas with the highest concentration of young children, and the lowest concentration of

private gardens, and therefore should be primary provided with qualitative green space within reachability. Out of the questionnaires in the green spaces located in these neighborhoods, came forward that the overpopulation of the existing green spaces exerts enormous pressure on the userâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s quality perception. Therefore certain potential development sites were pointed out, such as the square behind the church on the Baptiste square in Molenbeek, the courtyard of an elementary school in the center of Molenbeek or the square next to the beguinage in the city center. Clearly more sites could be suited for the development of new sites.

Location: Begijnhofsquare, Brussels Type: Public space Mode of implementation: Improve spatial quality, inject green.

Location: Tulpstreet, Elsene Type: Public space Mode of implementation: Improve spatial quality, inject green

Location: Baptiste Voorplein, Molenbeek Type: Public space Mode of implementation: Improve spatial quality and traffic situation

Location: KBC Brussels, Molenbeek Type: Private green space Mode of implementation: Make public, improve biological value

Location: Passerstreet, Anderlecht Type: Wasteland Mode of implementation: New GS

Location: Windroos school Molenbeek Type: Playground of elementary school Mode of implementation: Multi-use green space

Map 1. Green space development sites after preparation

Functional Level

Green space development site

Location

Type

Metropolitan

Obbergen x Oude Jetse Steenweg

Asse, VL.

Agricultural fields

City

Zaventemse, Drie Linden

Zaventem

Agricultural fields

City

Sparrenlaan 101-105

Grimbergen

Agricultural fields

City

Scheutbos

Anderlecht

Agricultural fields + park

City

Cemetary ‘Vogelzang’

Anderlecht

Cemetary + Agricultural fields

District

Maximiliaan and around

Brussel

Fragmented green spaces

District

Inner ring: ‘Ninoofse poort’ - South station

Brussel

Parking

District

Cemetary Brussel

Evere

Cemetary

District

Oude Keulseweg

Zaventem

Agricultural fields

District

Josaphat park

Schaarbeek

Existing park + Waste land

District

Keelbeeksite

Haren

Waste land

Quarter

Mediapark

Schaarbeek

Waste land

Quarter

Koninklijk diegemsport, Diegem

Diegem

Agricultural fields / sportsclub

Quarter

3 linden

Machelen

Agricultural fields

Quarter

Inner ring: Ninoofse poort - Gare du Midi

Brussels

Parking

Quarter

Maximiliaanpark

Brussels

Fragmented green spaces

Quarter

Poelaert + Louiza

Brussels

Mineral public space / Busy road

Quarter

Valley of Plankenbeek

Dilbeek

Green corridor / Wetland

Quarter

Abbatoir + Erasmus Campus

Anderlecht

Waste land/ Market square / High school Campus

Quarter

West-Station

Sint-Jans-Molenbeek

Waste land

Neighborhood

Waterreserve Vivaqua

Brussel

Private green space

Neighborhood

Poelaert + Louiza

Brussels

Mineral public space / Busy road

Neighborhood

Bara square

Sint-Gillis

Mineral public space / Busy road

Neighborhood

Ninoofse Poort

Sint-Jans-Molenbeek

Waste land

Neighborhood

West-Station

Sint-Jans-Molenbeek

Waste land

Neighborhood

Citroën building

Brussels

Building

Neighborhood

TournTaxis park

Brussels

Waste land

Neighborhood

Convivial VZW - site, next to Zenne

Vorst

Unused space

Neighborhood

Josaphat street 121

Schaarbeek

waste land

Neighborhood

Cemetary Sint-Joost-Ten-Node

Sint-Joost-TenNode

Cemetary

Neighborhood

Powsey building

Anderlecht

Abandoned building/ Wasteland

Play

Passerstraat 33

Anderlecht

Waste Land

Play

Abbatoir

Anderlecht

Waste land/ Market square

Play

Bara square + Parking

Sint-Gillis

Mineral public space / Busy road

Play

Brouckere Square

Brussels

Mineral public space

Play

Fontainas square

Brussels

Mineral public space

Play

St.-J-Baptist Voorplein

Sint-Jans-Molenbeek

Mineral public space

Play

Pierron park

Sint-Jans-Molenbeek

Existing GS Table 3. Green space development sites

Play

Gieterijpark

Sint-Jans-Molenbeek

Existing GS

Play

CitroĂŤn building

Brussels

Building

Play

Liedts Square

Schaarbeek

Traffic intersection

Play

Saint-Etienne Hospital

Schaarbeek

Parking

Play

Armand Steurs square

Schaarbeek

Existing GS

Play

Stephensonstreet

Schaarbeek

waste land in betweer railway intersection

Play

TournTaxis park

Brussels

Waste land

Play

Sint Goedele School

Sint-Jans-Molenbeek

School playground + sportsfield

Residential

Tulp Street

Elsene

Mineral public space

Residential

Water reserve Vivaqua

Elsene

Private GS

Residential

Parking Courthouse

Brussels

Parking

Residential

Zwaardstreet

Brussels

Mineral public space

Residential

Barasquare

Anderlecht

Mineral public space

Residential

Gheudestreet / Memlingstreet

Anderlecht

Waste land

Residential

Abbatoir Anderlecht

Anderlecht

Waste land / Parking

Residential

Campus Erasmus

Anderlecht

University campus

Residential

Jules Rhulstreet

Anderlecht

Traffic intersection

Residential

Parking inner belt

Brussels

Parking

Residential

Hertogin van Brabant square

Sint-Jans-Molenbeek

Mineral public space

Residential

Windekind school

Sint-Jans-Molenbeek

School courtyard

Residential

Pierron park

Sint-Jans-Molenbeek

Existing GS

Residential

Ninoofse Square

Brussels

Mineral public space

Residential

Papenvest

Brussels

Unused space

Residential

Onze Lieve Vrouw van Vaak street

Brussels

Construction site

Residential

Nieuwe Graanmarkt

Brussels

Mineral public space

Residential

Jaques Brel Square

Brussels

Playground

Residential

End of Dansaertstreet

Brussels

Mineral public space

Residential

Back of Sint-Katelijne square

Brussels

Mineral public space

Residential

Begijnhof

Brussels

Mineral public space

Residential

Brouckere Square

Brussels

Mineral public space

Residential

Fontainas square

Brussels

Mineral public space

Residential

Gr. Van Vlaanderen

Sint-Jans-Molenbeek

Mineral public space

Residential

St.-J-Baptist Voorplein

Sint-Jans-Molenbeek

Mineral public space

Residential

Zwarte Vijversstraat

Sint-Jans-Molenbeek

Waste land

Residential

Windroos School

Sint-Jans-Molenbeek

School courtyard

Residential

Jardin Maritime

Sint-Jans-Molenbeek

Unused space

Residential

KBC Brussel

Sint-Jans-Molenbeek

Private GS

Residential

Akenkaai

Brussels

Street

Residential

Opzichter square

Sint-Jans-Molenbeek

Unused space Table 3. Green space development sites

Parc Agrari de Baix Llobregat Location: Barcelona, Spain Initiator: The Baix Llobregat counsel, Provincial council of Barcelona, Agricultural and landscape Society. Delivery: 1998 size: 2 938 ha Program: Agricultural park, Periurban farming Type: Wasteland website: http://www.diba.es/parcsn/parcs/index. asp?parc=9#sthash.aXyWYSfI.dpuf

This park is located around five kilometers south of Barcelona alongside the fertile grounds of the Llobregat River’s delta. The rich soil – complemented by abundant sunshine, mild temperatures and the proximity of the Mediterranean Sea – has long established the Llobregat valley as a farmer’s paradise. The landscape, however, was greatly affected by industrial expansion and urban sprawl in the second half of the last century that the area’s farming tradition was threatened with extinction. As a response, this park was created as a large-scale agro-environmental project with a clear mandate to protect the agricultural tradition as a cultural treasure. Sustainable agriculture is integrated with ecological and cultural values while the focus is mainly on the economic, social and scenical role of the landscape. An agricultural park consortium, The Baix Llobregat counsel, was composed by the Agricultural Society and the provincial council of Barcelona for the management of the green space. By protecting the landscape infrastructure and its original functions, a buffering green structure was provided to the metropolitan area of Barcelona. Not only has this a positive influence on the resilience of the metropolitan region, it also benefits the inhabitants on multiple levels, from offering space for leisure and natural contact to serving them as a local foodbank for regional products. As will be shown in the following research, the metropolitan region of Brussels counts multiple interesting landscape structures stretching from far outside till, deep inside

the urban tissue, often following along the valley structures of the Maelbeek, Molenbeek or Senne, landscaping the Brussels-Capital region. Due to the predicted population growth, additional stress will be exerted on these authentic landscape infrastructures in the near future, while their role in the resilience assessment, urban heat island reduction, flooding risk decrement, food production,.. is of vital importance for the functioning of the metropolitan region. Projects like in Barcelona, show the potential of these suburban green spaces and could increase the awareness of their importance, while attracting city dwellers by local food production and participative agriculture. Another strength of this project is the possibility to generate a smaller loop in the urban food production and consumption. At this moment, most of the fields lying in the Brussels-Capital region (Drie Linden, Hoogveld, Zavelenber, etc.) are used for the mono-production of weeds and corns, which are being transported outside the city to be packed as food for the meat production. This loop excludes all surrounding elements or inhabitants completely, and is to no interest to anyone or anything inside the urban mechanism. Often they are unknown places for most urban dwellers due to poor accessibility and their function as explained above and they have no active role to play in the current green space provision assessment. Instead of growing weeds and corns, fields in the suburbs might serve as urban foodbank for the city. Activating these fields will transform them from inaccessible corn fields without any contribution to urban life, into a 84

vital link in the urban mechanism providing urban dwellers with food and attracting them to enter them and use them actively. This way a more sustainable relationship in between the different urban typologies of built space, green space and open space is generated and the importance of these spaces gets recognized and appreciated on a larger scale, creating a larger supporting plane for the protection and activation of these spaces during future urban expansions. 85

Park am Gleisdreieck Location: Berlin, Germany Delivery: 2011 Size: 40 ha Program: Inner-city park Design: Atelier LOIDL + Breimann Bruun Simons Landscape Engineering Pictures: Julien Lanoo Type: Wasteland website: http://www.atelier-loidl.de/atelier/ projekte/?lang=de

Since 1945 the area of the Anhalter and Potsdamer railway yards was waste land. Now, this patch of land has been reintegrated into the urban tissue regarding the relicts of the former railway junction. With the park a green connection was made between former separated neighborhoods creating a whole new urban dynamic, designed following the contemporary essentials of landscape architecture. Without any decoration an open landscape flows through different zones containing large terraces, sport tracks, a little forest, a main plaza, playground and meadows, each identified with specific vegetation and built elements. The green space arose on two large patches of land linked with an urban green promenade according to the logic of the ancient junction. The former tracks have been left untouched and cut through the open landscape poetically without having a vital impact on the spatial definition of the space.

activated for the creation of accessible green space so far. Emblematic is the wasteland around the tracks in between Weststation and Beekkant, which is closed off completely and serves since as local garbage dumping spot of the neighborhood. Similar sites can be found south to the Midi station, stretching all along the Senne valley to Drogenbos, and in the North at the intersection of several rail tracks near the Royal garden. The Park am Gleisdreieck in Berlin show beautifully, how abandoned, in-between spaces can be transformed from inaccessible wastelands to highly popular parks, attracting inhabitants from all over the city. The image on the following page, shows all wastelands in between tracks, which could be potential green space development sites.

In order to improve the green space provision in the Brussels-Capital region, analysis shows that the creation of new larger scale green spaces is necessary. Multiple sites have been pointed out as potential green space development sites in process of this master thesis, including sites of the development of both large and small scale green spaces. For the implementation of new district or quarter scale green spaces, multiple waste lands were underlined by showing high potential to serve as future green space development site. Wastelands around rail tracks, can be distinguished multiple times in the BCR, and in not one case, they have been used or 86

Assistens Kirkegård Location: Kopenhagen, Denmark Size: 25 ha Delivery: 1760 Program: Cemetery park Type: Spatial flexibility, multi-used green space, Cemetary park.

Assistant Kirkegard in Copenhagen is a large burial site as well as an important green space in the Nørrebro district. Ever since the 19th century citizens of Copenhagen have used the cemetery for excursions with picnic baskets and tea. The park is divided into four areas reserved for the local cemetery, a memorial park, a museum section and a cemetery park. The Swedish poet Karl August Nicander remembers the remarkable relationship between the Danish citizens and the cemetery fondly: “In order to enjoy another softer, quieter celebration, I walked out one evening through Nørre Port (the North Gate) to the so-called Assistens Cemetery. It is certainly one of the most beautiful graveyards in Europe. Leafy trees, dark paths, bright open flowery expanses, temples shaded by poplars, marble tombs overhung by weeping willows, and urns or crosses wrapped in swathes of roses, fragrance and bird song, all transform this place of death into a little paradise.”

can be achieved through the division in different programmatic zones. In Gent, The Westerbegraafplaats, will also be transformed in order to increase its accessibility and inherent quality towards leisure visitors. In the metropolitan area of Brussels, multiple cemeteries can be found which would be suited for this kind of activation. The Vogelzang Cemetery in Anderlecht (bottom left), the Cemetery of Brussels in Schaarbeek (Top right) and the cemetery of Sint-Joost ten Node (left of the one in Schaarbeek) are the best examples of large scale green cemeteries who lack accessibility and qualitative design, and could be activated in the future in order to increase their contribution to the green space provision assessment.

Additionally to the previous example, cemeteries have an important role to play in the green space provision assessment. As existing large scale green spaces, they already fulfill a role in the environmental assessment, however their presence does not contribute in the proximity assessment as they are not perceived as accessible green spaces or parks, people would visit for leisure activities. In order to activate them, additional design research is needed to test how cemeteries can fulfill different functional roles in the urban mechanism. The Kirkegard cemetery in Kopenhagen shows how this 88

Coupure Park Location: Gent, Belgium Initiator: Stad Gent + Gemeenschapsonderwijs, Vlaanderen Delivery: 2013 Design: ABSCIS-architects Program: Courtyard school and public green space. Type: Spatial flexibility, Multi-used green space Website: https://stad.gent/cultuur-sport-vrije-tijd/ buiten-genieten/coupurepark

The Coupurepark in Gent is a beautiful example of spatial flexibility and multi-used space. The green space serves as a private courtyard for a school during day time and as a public neighborhood park during the evening, weekends and holidays. The dual function was vital in the design of the green space and offers benefits for both the students as the park users. E.g. The students can profit from a green yard provided with a playground, a parkour installation and pĂŠtanque field, while the citizens are provided with a new green space in their densely built Coupure area.

following the spatial flexible principle. Serving as a private public space during working days and as open space during the rest of the year.

In the assessment of increasing the amount of smaller scale green spaces, for the provision of residential, play or neighborhood green spaces, new typologies and creative approaches are necessary. Spatial flexibility and multifunctionality are interesting approaches for the application of public spaces, as their usage is optimized and multiple actors benefit from their existence. The principle of a multi-used courtyard or car park can be of vital importance for the implementation of new green spaces in neighborhoods with high density and few opportunities for new green space development sites. In Sint-JansMolenbeek, multiple schools such as the Windroos primary school or the Sint-Goedele school, show the possibility to be transformed into multi-functional public spaces, increasing their accessibility towards the inhabitants. Similarly, a car park in Sint Joost ten Node, near the Overvloedstraat and Josaphatstraat, is an emblematic example of an unused public space, which could be transformed 90

Luchtsingel and Park Pompenbrug Location: Rotterdam, Netherlands Initiator: Gemeente Rotterdam Delivery: 2013 Program: Connection of fragmentation of abandoned spaces; Footbridge, green space, Rooftop green space, public square. Design: ZUS architects Type: Connection, wasteland. Website: http://www.luchtsingel.org/

The ‘Luchtsingel’ is a wooden construction connecting Rotterdam’s north area with the city center, bringing new life into an area which has been isolated from the rest of the city through traffic infrastructure. The Luchtsingel is a physical connection between isolated building blocks and the rest of the city, providing an additional link from Oud Noord with the central station plaza. The development of the bridge was the vital start and catalysator of the revitalization of the entire area, including the development of a neighborhood scale park (Pompenpark), a 390 meters long footbridge, a rooftop agricultural field and a public space on the former Hofsquare. As a physical connection, the Luchtsingel achieved in the reactivation of an urban area by intervening with the existing barriers and promoting new activities to emerge in the connected spaces. The isolation of the areas in Rotterdam were caused by urbanistic decisions, taken in the second half of the past century, excluding the human scale from the urban mechanism. Masterplans containing high rise office districts and separated trajectories for cars and pedestrians, popped up in several cities at different locations. The execution of such masterplans however, were often not finalized following the ideology of the architect, leaving away the pedestrian bridges or high cost public spaces. This phenomena, now -50 years later- has caused spatial wounds in the urban tissue in multiple European cities, characterized by vacant office buildings or city districts lacking in human scale. The project of the Luchtsingel is a good example

of how such districts can be revaluated in the existing urban tissue, and again play a role of importance for the city. In Brussels, a similar situation can be found in the district around the North station. The Manhattan area, is a typical high rise, monofunctional office district, where multiple unused spaces and large building blocks are characteristics for the area, which is often perceived as unsafe and lifeless.

Curo Garden Location: Brussels, Belgium Initiator: Parckdesign 2012, BIM Delivery: 2012 Program:Temporary and participative re-use of abandoned and closed space. Design: Raumlabor Type: Wasteland Website: http://raumlabor.net/curo-garden/

In the context of the 2012 edition of Parckdesign â&#x20AC;&#x201C; a biennial event dedicated to green space planning initiated by Brussels Environmental and the Brussels Ministry for Environment, Energy and Urban Renovation â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Raumlabor was asked to reflect on the redefinition of industrial wastelands, leftover spaces and interstices in Brussels. Raumlabor therefore reopened an outdoor space which was closed to the public during the past years, and invited the public to use and redefine the activities within the space. On a participative way, an unused space was reactivated and opened up to serve as a new play scale green space for the inhabitants of the neighborhood. Due to the participative character of the intervention, the space contained multiple social activities such as open barbeques, or small scale urban farming possibilities. This feature helps in attracting more people to the space and in the maintenance of the space, as the neighbors will identify with the space and the contributors. In the provision of residential and play scale green spaces, such principles are very valuable in the reactivation of leftover spaces. Leftover spaces can be found all over in the city of Brussels because of the chaotic political situation leading to poor policy and irresoluteness, leaving wastelands untouched and inaccessible. Organisations of Parckdesign are vital in the evolution towards more qualitative green space, as they act autonomously and independently from the local governments.

City Dessert Location: Brussels, Belgium Initiator & Design: ChĂŠpas Collective Delivery: 2016 Program: Scenographic intervention in public space Type: Spatial transformation Website: http://chepas.berta.me/

As a temporary intervention, over 200 Sanseveria house plants were placed randomly on a public space surrounded by traffic junctions of car roads and tram tracks. The space has an additional symbolic value as it was the scenery of a crime, containing the useless shooting of a 24 years old Brussels student. The artistic action aims to reflect on the existence of the rest space and shows how it can be transformed through a minimal intervention into a residential green space. Meant as an urban scenography installation, this project does not actually want to solve any issues, rather it creates awareness and underpins the existence of space as matter. Again, this example deals with the leftover spaces in Brussels, but this time on an even smaller scale. Indeed, this space is too small to function as a green space where people could gather, or activities could be organized. The intervention shows, however, how design, on any scale, has an important role in the perception a neighborhood. While being grey and lifeless before, the tiny intervention of the plants transform the entire intersection into a more enjoyable space, with a specific identity. Thus although it has few importance in the assessment of green space provision, this example underpins the importance of attention to design of our city, on any scale whether it is large parks, public squares or simple street corners.

3.3 Workshop

Vital in applying design methods for research purposes, is the contribution of feedback and exterior opinions generated through interdisciplinary workshops. In the first week of February 2017 such a workshop was organized on the Solbosch campus of ULB, to work on three main topics regarded in the ongoing PHD research and this master thesis. The first objective was to discuss and receive feedback on the methodology proposed in the PHD research, dealing with the concept of functional levels and the assessment of quality of green spaces. Ongoing on this topic, three team collaboration sessions were held to discuss the improvement of quality and accessibility of green spaces in the BCR. Therefore the separate teams first dealt with different functional levels to discuss possible locations for injection of new green spaces and look for new opportunities for the improvement of green space provision. During the second and thirds session, specific sites were selected and design propositions were generated with the help of specific maps showing different quality and proximity indicators such as biological value, inherent quality, noise,â&#x20AC;Ś During the first day of this workshop the focus in these design sessions was more on the indicators with cultural aspects, while in the second day indicators about environmental impact were being dealt with.

3.3.1 Feedback sessions During the feedback sessions critique was

formulated on certain aspects of the research methodology. Mainly the arguments dealt with how the functional levels were defined, how quality of urban green spaces is assessed and how the definition of the indicators was achieved. During the process of the workshop, and in the master thesis in general, the defining of the functional levels indeed, has led to many questions. Following the methodology of the PHD and as formulated by Van Herzele and Wiedemann (2003) a functional level is defined by its size, while their names and perception, in some cases, suggest the presence of certain activities. The functional level of play, for example, is not defined by the presence of a playground, while the name clearly suggests the contrary. This implies at the same time, that a playground larger then 1ha does not fit in the definition of a play functional level, or that a smaller green space offering multiple activities might have a larger reach than a large green space lacking sport or recreation facilities. This raises discussion about the relationship between minimum green space area and maximum walking distance as this assumption seems to narrow. Van Herzele and Wiedemann (2003), however, formulated in their definition that empirical studies assume that green spaces fulfil different functions at different levels (e.g. Grahn, 1986; Crouch, 1994; Berggren-BĂ¤rring and Grahn, 1995). In their formulation is assumed that the area size of a green space automatically implies their function of use without the actual presence 94

of specific facilities. This is based on the general idea that a small park in the inner city may have a strong connection with the local everyday life, while large areas of forest in the urban periphery may have significance to the totality of an urban area for weekend recreation (Herzele and Wiedemann, 2003). Regarding these two argumentations, a conclusions could be made that this is matter of scale. Indeed, metropolitan scale parks will allow certain activities to take place thanks to their size, while smaller green spaces will be used because of their accessibility. Here a clear difference in use can be distinguished. On the other hand if a closer look is laid, the difference in use between green city or district green spaces, or between play and neighborhood green spaces is blurred and their attraction range might overlap. This can be explained by the presence of certain activities or facilities, or by other indicators determining the quality of the green space influencing the attraction range of the green spaces. Therefore the quality assessment is essential in defining the overall quality of the green structure of a city or an area, but is it also defendable to use the concept of functional levels with minimum size and maximum walking distance for the improvement of the overall green space provision on different spatial levels.

among the participants. More specifically the argumentation dealt with defining the weight of each indicator and about the context dependency of this weight determination. Suggested was to think about introducing different weights for different scenarios and spatial levels. Naturalness and biological value, for example, might be more desirable in large forests while maintenance, cleanness or spaciousness can be more wanted in the inner city green spaces. Another topic was on how to measure quietness and how to use its weight in the overall quality assessment. Quietness, namely, is highly dependent on the time of the day and the year and can be linked to the amount of persons present in the park. In this consideration, a lack of quietness can be caused by overpopulation and thus could be measured through amount of persons per square meter instead of through decibels.

The assessment of quality and the achievement of the quality indicators, however was another subject to discussion

3.3.2 Design session 1 (Provision)

The intention of the first design session was to improve provision of different scale green spaces in the BCR, through pointing out potential development sites where green spaces could be implemented, improved or enlarged. The separate teams worked on different functional levels. This assessment is basically the same as shown above in the preparation. The difference is, that this session was held in group while the previous one was done autonomously. The difference in approach gives interesting insights in the overal research and broadens the perspective on how the green space provision can be increased. During this design sessions, green space influence maps were projected on a white board. The contributors could easily work with erasable markers on the white board to draw out design strategies. Team 1

Inherent quality

Neighborhood green spaces

District green spaces

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Session 1.1.1: Inherent quality

Team 1 started with working on the map showing total green space provision. This map shows the proximity of qualitative green spaces for each building block, which is the result of a linear combination of the proximity towards all functional levels and the quality assessment of the green spaces within acceptable reach. The map of inherent quality uses a color range from red to green, to indicate which building blocks are lacking the proximity of qualitative green spaces. Red building blocks are in need of qualitative green spaces on all functional levels , while the green ones are provided with green spaces on multiple spatial levels. The team presented a synthetic map showing a combination of different figures and colors, indicating different strategies of improvement. Blue clouds were used

to indicate which zones need to be paid attention to, as they are lacking in the provision qualitative green spaces while they are known to be densely populated and show a high concentration of young families with kids. Red figures show where new green spaces could be implemented, while the green show where improvement is expected in the near future. The black dashed line, on the other hand, shows where a green corridor could provide connection between existing green spaces and the black filled line shows where the improvement of existing green spaces could contribute to a better overall quality.

1. Blue clouds: 1.1 Center of Sint-Jans-Molenbeek 1.2 Kureghem 1.3 Lower Schaarbeek 2. New green spaces: 2.1 Car park on inner belt, between gate of Ninove and gate of Halle 3. Expected green spaces 3.1 Ninoofse poort 3.2 Central boulevards 3.3 Maximiliaanpark 4. Green corridor 4.1 Louiza avenue 5. Quality improvement 5.1 Albertpark 5.2 Abatoir 99

Session 1.1.2: Neighborhood

Continuing, the focus went to the neighborhood green spaces (1-2 ha). Here the discussion was held about whether the proposed or expected green spaces would actually influence the neighboring area and thus would improve the green space provision on this level. As an example the development of a green space was suggested for the Poelaertplein and the neighboring part of the inner belt, a commercial part of the city containing a high concentration of tourist and shopping people. Therefore the question was raised whether a green space in this location would actually benefit the people living in the neighboring MatongĂŠ area as a neighborhood park. Because of its location this green space would automatically differ in typology - as it will be more likely to be

designed as a green public space, rather than an actual neighborhood park - and thus also differ in the way it is used and received by the people living in its area. Such a case shows the importance of using different indicator weights in different scenarios. Here the distinction between park and green public space could ask for a different approach regarding their contribution in the overall green space provision assessment for different functional levels.

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1. The expected park near the Ninoofse Poort, Brussels 2. Poelaertsquare + part of the inner belt, Brussels 3. Carpark on inner belt between Ninoofse Poort and Barasquare, Brussels 4. Anspach Avenue, Brussels 5. Wasteland between Beekkant and Weststation, Molenbeek

6. Grounds between railtracks, next to the Zenne, site of ASBL-Convivial. 7. Boulevard next to the canal between Ninoofse and Vlaamse Poort. 101

Session 1.1.3: District

Because of the large scale of district green spaces (8-20 ha) and the lack of them in the biggest part of the inner city, solutions were thought of to fill in this void without having to implement a green space of this actual size. To do so, a strategy was proposed where smaller green spaces got adjusted to each other in order to fulfil the functions of use that characterize a district green space. The discussion here was whether a group of connected small green spaces, each offering different activities, equals the presence of a larger green space. To actually fill the void of a district green space in the inner city of Brussels, the proposed strategy stresses on the importance of creating an actual network of green spaces rather than have green islands each functioning separately. Therefore green corridors are

of vital importance to ensure the biological connection between the green spaces and to contribute in the linking of the different green spaces and thus, simulate the presence of a larger scale green space.

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1. Jubelpark + Leopoldpark + Ambiorixsquare / Marie Louise square 2. Becokaai + Maximiliaanpark + Bolivarpark + T&T-park 3. Poelaertplein + Warandepark + Congresplein 4. Wasteland near Weststation + Albertpark

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Session 1.2.1: Play

Team two was occupied with the provision of green spaces on play functional level. Due to the small scale of the green spaces to investigate, the working material at hand was not sufficient to come up with a detailed strategy. Indeed, the only tool available was a the projection of a map on the scale of Brussels. To pick out spaces from 1 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 2 ha, multiple maps at different scales would be necessary. However, thanks to the knowledge about the city from the participants, valuable strategies were thought of to implement new play green spaces. Emblematic projects were suggested at specific locations, with the intention to visualize different strategies which could be implied on multiple other sites. E.g. Place Liedts in Schaarbeek, was appointed as poorly designed public space, emblematic for multiple public spaces in Brussels, where

interventions could be made to increase its contribution in the green space provision assessment. Furthermore, the creation of green corridors, containing play infrastructures along their way, were proposed to connect several green spaces. As an example such corridors were suggested along the Senne river, next to the rail tracks in the South of Brussels, and in between the building blocks in Kureghem, connecting the Gate of Ninove with the Abatoir. Moreover, the potential of new pedestrian zone was underpinned as a new infrastructure that can be of great importance in the increment of green space provision in the city center. Similarly, the industrial sites around the Abatoir show a low density and a lot of space which can host new green space developments.

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1. Place Liedts 2. Parc Reine Vert 3. Central boulevards 4. Corridor between Ninoofse and Abatoir 5. Barra square 6. Southern green corridor 7. West station and Albertpark

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3.3.3 Design session 2 (QUALITY)

Throughout the second session the teams were asked to work on a specific site. The exercise consisted of developing design scenarios to improve the quality of a specific green space. With the help of a package of quality indicator maps the participants were able to read the qualities and weaknesses of the site, and formulate design strategies, based on these characteristics. The indicators used for this exercise were:

Inherent quality Spaciousness Quietness Biological value Surface cover Noise

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The location tackled by the first team during this session was the campus site of CERIA-COOVI. A relatively green, education campus located near the south-west border of the BCR, enclosed on three sides by the outer belt, the canal and a railroad. As a starting point the largest challenges were appointed with the help of indicator maps: noise coming from the tracks and the outer ring, a lack of biological value and finally low inherent quality (which was undefined). The variety between open and dense green spaces and the spaciousness of the campus were considered as the strengths of the site. Based on this, a specific design was proposed consisting of different zones and specialized interventions to tackle specific quality challenges.

Session 2.1.1: CERIA â&#x20AC;&#x201C; COOVI

Biological value

Noise

Inherent quality

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Based on the quality indicators, strengths and weaknesses were synthesized in this map above. Noise coming from the different traffic tracks created the largest challenge, while the different zones offered promising opportunities. The green, dashed line represents the intention to increase the

biologival value at certain locations and create green connection between valuable zones. As principle intervention, a dike was proposed to absorb the noise coming from the outer ring, the main cause of the noise problem.

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1. To temper the noise coming from the outer ring and improve the quietness, a dike was designed at the border of the campus. As a linear element - from which the slope offers space for vegetation, contributing in the improvement of biological value - this dike could also function as a parkour for pedestrians and cyclists.

2. The center of the campus site was chosen for the increment of biological value. The presence of the pond offered the opportunity to increase the variety of vegetation, while the functioning of the location, as a connection and transition zone between the different buildings, was favorable to create more intimate spaces. As an intervention, the enlargement of the small 110

pond was suggested and a continuation of small, connected spaces should alternate with dense vegetation. 3. Parallel to the dike, an existing, wide grass field was kept to enforce the feeling of spaciousness and offer the opportunity for many recreational activities. Moreover, the open grass field emphasizes the contrast

with the densely vegetated area in the center of the campus. 4. Next to the campus site, the old farmhouse, including ground around, was integrated in the project to function as communal vegetable garden and additional community house.

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Session 2.2.1: Josaphat

The second team examined the situation of the Josaphat park in Schaarbeek. This historic park (opened for public in 1904) designed in English landscape style, is enclosed by the Lambertmontlaan in the east and by the Algemeen Stemrechtlaan, Voltairelaan, Azalealaan and Generaal Eisenhowerlaan in the west. Furthermore, the park is crossed by the Louis Bertrandlaan, the Ambassadeur Van Vollenhovenlaan and by a rail track in the north. The entire green space can be seen as a patch of green spaces, consisting of the Josaphat park

including the minigolf, a tennis club to its south, a footbal stadium and small playground to its north, a green space in front of the Brusilia housingdevelopment on its west and a large wasteland on its east. The park is shaped through the ancient valley of the Roodenbeek from which one of the springs, the minnespring, is still visible in the eastern corner. The park is known for its rich variety of vegetation and its high historical and cultural value, as it contains multiple ancient statues and combines wide grass fields with ponds and flower fields. With a

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size of 20 ha the Josaphat park can be categorized as a District green space. The challenges in this green space, were to decrease the noise coming from the Lambertmontlaan and the trespassing railtracks, to increase the biological value, to merge the fragmented green spaces by increasing their connectivity and to benefit more from the parks typology regarding water collection and management. In order to do so the following interventions were proposed:

Biological value

Noise

Inherent quality

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1. By cutting the Louis Bertrandlaan and the Ambassadeur Van Vollenhovenlaan from traffic, and by tunneling the rail tracks crossing the park, the area occupied by the minigolf can merge completely with the park and fulfil another, more public function, contributing to the overall use of the green space. 2. The height difference between the park and the Lambertmontlaan was used to reinforce the existing valley structure. This way a barrier was created to reduce the noise coming from the Lambertmontlaan and increase the quietness quality in the green space 3. In order to create a continuous green space, a visual and physical connection was to be created between the different existing green spaces. Therefore, the seperating rail tracks were covered and the vegetation around the minigolf was reduced to create more spatiousness. Secondly the roads crossing the park were transformed to be more pedestrian friendly. Through chosing a continuous cover for both sidewalk and car road, while removing their seperating height difference, the road got downgraded to discourage car use along its axis and promote the perpendicular flow of pedestrians crossing the road. This downgrading was also proposed for the Chazallaan to connect the park with the tennis club. To create the visual connection, the hedges and fences were removed.Furthermore, the public park should continue through the tennis club, in order to connect the park with the wasteland on the other side of the Lambertmontlaan. 4. To improve the water absorption, the central pond was enlarged and wadis were created in the north of the park and were the playground used to be. These wadis are accompanied by areas of higher biological value, as they will have a less intensive mowing program. Overall, such areas of higher biological value are integrated in big parts of the park and one is added in the green space flanking the Brusilia building. 5. Along the Lambertmontlaan a natural pollution trap was designed in the shape of a 116

Infiltration

Served area

Pollution trap

Pedestrian orientated street

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Ediburgh raingarden, Melbourne, GHD Pty Ltd.

21st street, Paso Robles, California.

excavated stream accompanied with purifying vegetation. The water from the served area will be lead to natural infiltration areas in the park, which will additionally serve as stormwater catchment areas. This intervention reduces the flood risk in the neighborhood and decrease the loss of water into the sewage. Furthermore, The infiltration areas will add new vegetation, which will increase the biodiversity of the green space, together with the zones of increased biological value. The numerous interventions will improve the active quality of the green space, and increase its ecosystem services. Both for the users of the park, as for environmental purposes, the contribution of the green space to the life quality and resilience of its neighborhood will be increased.

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3.3.4 Design session 3 (PROXIMITY)

In the third design session, the participants were asked to develop design strategies in order to improve the proximity assessment. Therefore the green space influence maps were used to select locations for which designs would be developed. This session served to show how design interventions could increase the overall green space provision assessment. To enforce the strategies, proposed during the first session, sites were chosen according to the results of the first exercise. The developed designs from this session present scenarios about how the green space proximity can be increased in certain neighborhoods by means of site specific design interventions.

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Session 3.1.1: Center of Molenbeek Based on the findings of the first session, the center of Molenbeek was considered one of the areas in the BCR most in need of the injection of qualitative green spaces. As shown on the green space influence maps, the area indeed is lacking green space on all spatial levels, while this part of the city is not only very densely populated, it also contains the youngest population of the entire BCR (34 years and 10 months average, BISA, 2017). During this workshop session, solutions to improve the situation in Molenbeek, while using the opportunities offered by the existing infrastructure were discussed. Therefore a detailed map of Molenbeek was used in combination with aerial pictures and existing knowledge of the location. The suggested interventions contain a proposition for a new traffic situation, and different strategies to implement new green spaces or transform existing public spaces into greener alternatives.

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1. In order to liberate the center of Molenbeek from the congested traffic situation, a long term traffic adaption plan was proposed. In this solution, the roads crossing the center are cut, the toekomststraat was made car free, and a traffic loop was suggested to lead the ongoing traffic around the fragile center. Alongside, the busiest street, the Gentsesteenweg, will be downgraded to a one-way street, offering more space for pedestrians and cyclists. 2. For being a rather small area, the center of Molenbeek counts multiple public spaces. The principal square is the ‘Place

Communal Molenbeek’, a rather large and very mineral public space which houses the weekly markets and plural small shops and thee houses. Regarding environmental issues such as heat island effect, water absorption or air pollution, the square scores quiet poorly. In order to increase the contribution of the square to the resilience of the area, small scale greening strategies such as green facades or flower bins and water basins are suggested. 3. In connection with this principal square, a continuation of public spaces forms the core of the communes center. In one axis, the square around subway station ‘Graaf

Boulevard St.-Joan, Barcelona, Lola Domenech.

Gentste Steenweg, 2017

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van Vlaanderen’ flows over into the parking of the police station, which is connected with the playground in the ‘bonneviepark’ and the Voltaire square. Perpendicular to this axis, The schoolstraat could be made car free, and transformed into a green boulevard connecting the square around the church with the principal square and the Gentstesteenweg. Suggested is to enforce this connection by designing it as an active, green urban boulevard. This would establish a large, continuous and car free public square as the center of Molenbeek, with the opportunity to contain variable areas offering biological value, playgrounds, meeting places and neighborhood parks. 4. Another strategy consists of upgrading the existing ‘in between squares’. In between the margins of the dense built

area, some spaces have found a way to been kept free. These spaces are very often marginalized, poorly designed and favorized by shadowy affairs. In upgrading, and opening, these ‘rest spaces’ the area would gain a great amount of new public spaces or green spaces to contribute in the overall assessment of green space provision. Some temporary examples already show the contribution and positive effect of this approach. (Picture in previous pages) 5. Finally attention was paid to the possibility of converting flat roofs into accessible green roofs. The center of Molenbeek counts a lot of warehouses thanks to its history as production area, neighboring the canal, and thus counts a lot of generous flat roofs offering this opportunity.

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Session 3.2.1: Liedts

â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Place Liedtsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; is a square in the lower part of Schaarbeek, in the northern part of the BCR. This area is lacking in green space provision on any functional level, except for district green spaces thanks to the presence of the Josaphat park. The situation is comparable with the situation in Molenbeek, as it is situated in a very densely populated area, without the presence of small scale green spaces. Again, the existing public spaces, such as the Liedts square, are mostly poorly designed and occupied by traffic. The injection of qualitative green spaces on residential, play and neighborhood scale are highly needed to provide the inhabitants with green spaces where they can relax, play, come together and get in touch with nature.

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The Liedts square is mainly occupied by traffic. It houses the intersection of The Paleizenstraat, Brabantstraat, Koninginnenlaan, Liedtsstraat, Vandeweyerstraat, Brichautstraat, Groenstraat and Gallaitstraat and on top of it contains 4 tramstops offering access to 5 different tramlines in 3 different directions. As a greening strategy for the area, the greening of the Brichautstreet was suggested as an intervention. This street has a small open space at the point where it merges with the Liedts square. This can contribute to enforce the proposed green space, and provide the square with a greener faรงade. The main idea was to transform the parking spots into use pedestrian orientated strokes with permeable surface. in one stroke, the middle part would function as a natural infiltration bank. Densely vegetated it serves to slow down the water flow towards the sewage, while increasing the biological value of the street. Flanking this 129

Infiltration bank, to store and infiltrate rain water.

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excavated bank, two sidewalks with different speeds would be developed. On the side of the street, the sidewalk would act as green space and invite the users to stay, while the other sidewalk would be used by pedestrian passengers. This intervention would create a residential or play scale green space and increase the citizenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s contact with nature, while generating new space for recreation, encounter and relaxation. Furthermore, the infiltration buffer will prevent the neighborhood from flooding and reduce the percentage of water flooding to the sewage. The added trees and vegetation, would also reduce the heat island effect, and provide the inhabitants with seasonal awareness.

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Session 3.2.1: Anderlecht

The river Zenne plays a main role in the determination of the landscape of the BCR. The topography is completely determined by its valley and the valleys of the smaller rivers flowing into it, such as the Maelbeek, the Molenbeek or the Rodenbeek. In spite of this, the presence of the river is hardly noticeable in the inner city as it has been covered up, to be replaced by paved or built space.

ÂŠ 2016 Google ÂŠ 2016 Google

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In the following design strategy, a linear gap in the urban tissue is used as a starting point for the design of a green corridor connecting the new park at the Ninoofse poort with the site of the Abattoir. On the aerial picture it can be clearly seen, how a narrow space has been left ubuilt during the urban developments. In the meanwhile it was covered by streets or wasteland and sliced through private properties and building blocks. The intervention would be to use this stroke for the development of a linear green space,

connecting the surrounding wastelands and parks to form a dense network of small scale green spaces.

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3.4 Workshop outcome

The overall outcome of the workshop brought new insights in strategy developments regarding both the proximity and the quality assessment to increase the green space provision in the Brussels-Capital region. For the proximity assessment, the green space influence maps of different functional levels were used to develop strategies for individual spatial levels. The intention of this strategy development was to show how the urban green structure could be enforced and thereby serve as the foundation of the development of a tool to guide future policy making. Due to time limitations, only four functional levels were tackled. Valuable ideas were thought of, which could also be implied in the assessment on different levels. Each scale, however, has its characteristic demands, and therefore elaboration on all scales was necessary. This was done during the preparation. Green space provision During the first design sessions, regarding increasing the green space provision on different spatial levels, the functional levels of play, district and neighborhood were discussed, together with the overall green space provision map. As an introduction, an overall strategy for the BCR was thought of. The center of Molenbeek, Kureghem, parts of Schaarbeek and the center of Brussels, were underpinned as attention areas, which need new green space developments the most. The Gate of Ninove, the Anspach boulevard and the Maximiliaan park were expected to undergo a green development in the near future, and the car park following the inner belt was pointed out as green space development site with the most potential.

Additionally, the strategy includes the development of a green corridor along the tracks following the Louiza avenue, and the quality improvement of green spaces around the Slaughterhouse and the Albertpark in Anderlecht. For the neighborhood functional level, 6 main strategies were proposed. The Poelaert square and the neighboring part of the inner ring were to be greened and linked spatially, forming a new green space in order to connect the center with the commercial shopping part of Louiza. Secondly, the carpark on the inner belt was used for the development of a new green space. By integrating the Barra square, the area around the South station could become a new green area, buffering the center and improving the urban environmental quality of this polluted area. Also the central boulevards were appointed to show high potential in the green space provision assessment for the city center between the pentagon. New green parks should be implemented in the wasteland around West station and on the grounds between the rail tracks next to the Senne. Finally a green corridor along the canal was proposed to finalize the green area surrounding the pentagon. For district functional level, new approaches were searched for to increase the amount of green spaces contributing in the provision on this level. Due to their large size, implementing new district green spaces where they are needed the most is hardly possible. Therefore, a strategy was proposed to link smaller scale green spaces, to generate a combined program that agrees with the program of a district scale functional level. The idea is that a continuous entity of green spaces is generated through green connections in the shape of green 134

streets or green corridors. Emblematic, this strategy was applied on the green spaces around and including the Jubelpark, the Maximiliaanpark, the Warandepark and the Albertpark. Finally a strategy was developed to increase the amount of play scale green spaces in the BCR. Due to their small scale, and the working methodology, in which a map on scale 1:10.000 was used, only a schematic visualization of the strategy was possible. Pointing out exact green space development locations was impossible at this scale. However, the site knowledge of the participants helped in developing a site specific strategy. The strategy focusses mainly on integrating play opportunities in public spaces of the Anspach Boulevard, or the Weststation and creating green connections between existing or new green spaces. Green corridors could serve for play green spaces as play functions can be implemented in small scale green spaces. Small corridors could therefore be implemented in the green space provision assessment on play scale level. Scenario development In the second part of the workshop, site specific scenarios were developed, to improve the contribution of the site to the overall green space provision assessment and the urban environmental quality. First two sites were tackled regarding quality improvement, secondly four sites were discussed, which could contribute to the proximity assessment. During these sessions, a tool palette of interventions was created to solve site specific problems. However, these interventions could be emblematic for the quality or proximity improvement on other sites, facing similar problems. Regarding the quality improvement, the Josaphat park and CERIA/COOVI campus were redesigned with the help of maps showing quality indicators, such as noise, biological value, inherent quality, land cover, spaciousness, naturality, cultural value, imperviousness,.. . For the Josaphat park, a proposition was made to increase the biological value and increase the green spaceâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s capacity to buffer the flooding effect. Therefore a pollution

trap in combination with several waddies was suggested. Additionally the accessibility and continuity of the park was improved by downgrading roads, removing visible barriers and covering rail tracks. In the CERIA/COOVI site, the main intervention was to enlarge the hill, protecting the green space from the noise of the highway. A main element in the landscape, the slope would become the principal activity in the green space, serving as a linear trajectory. Besides, the suggestion was made to enlarge the ponds, while alternating dense vegetation with open spaces in order to increase the spaciousness and biological value. To increase the green space proximity, three green space development strategies were proposed for the center of Molenbeek, Kureghem en Place Liedts. In Molenbeek a range of green strategies was proposed to increase the amount of vegetation and imperviousness in the area. As a densely populated area, a profound green structure was suggested to increase the areaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s urban environmental quality in order to protect and increase the quality of life of the inhabitants and to protect the area for the urban heat island effect, flooding risks and air pollution. Among other interventions, the Gentse steenweg was transformed into a green boulevard, through the addition of a vegetation strip and removing the car parks to make space for pedestrian and cyclists. To increase the contribution of the Liedts square, a bio swale street was proposed. This would buffer the water flow to the sewage and increase the evapotranspiration, reducing the urban heat island effect. Additionally, a linear green space is developed in order to bring the inhabitants in contact with nature. Between the Gate of Ninove and the Slaughterhouse, a green connection was designed. Here, a linear gap in the building blocks was distinguished as waste space, and transformed into a linear green space, serving the surrounding building blocks and connecting the ecosystems of the green space at the gate of Ninove with the green space of the Slaughterhouse. 135

3.5 Elaboration

In the final phase of the research process, the elaboration served to compare the results from the work done during the preparation and the workshops. In both cases a research was done on finding possible green space development sites in order to improve the overall proximity assessment and increase the green space provision in the Brussels-Capital region and its surroundings. While the autonomous preparation was a more elaborated assessment, the workshop sessions regarding new green space development sites, brought fresh perspectives and creative approaches on how to deal with this increment of green space provision. Rather than finding potential locations for new green space development sites, different strategies were proposed. E.g. the benefits of a district scale green space might be equated by a range of connected smaller green spaces to solve the lack of reachable large scale green spaces in and around the city center. Or residential or play scale green spaces could be provided through adding a green program into a street, rather than creating an actual public green space. Despite this, the preparation was essential for this master thesis, to deal with different functional levels separately and develop a fine grained green structure proposal, that offers proposals both on street level and on a metropolitan scale. To conclude, an overview was created, containing a summary of all potential green space development sites, proposed during the preparation and the workshop. The shown locations are a selection of all sites

discussed during the workshop, along with the locations from the preparation showing the most potential. As a synthesis map, this offers all locations in the Brussels-Capital region, suited best for the implementation of a new green space or improvement or expansion of an existing green space, regarding the quality and proximity assessment for the green space provision in the Brussels-Capital region. The main intention of this map is to synthesize the previous shown work. It shows the possibility to increase the green space provision of the BCR through the localization of sites where new green spaces actually can be developed, in regions where the injection of green space is of vital importance to increase the quality of life. These green space developments sites can be categorized according their typology as: wastelands, abandoned buildings, cemeteries, schools, carparks, mineral public spaces, agricultural fields, fragmented green spaces or private green spaces and ought to be treated accordingly. Case studies in the preparation show how these typologies could be transformed in order to improve their contribution in the provision assessment. Regarding all work done, certain sites came forward especially as potential green space development sites because of their fertile location or feasibility to develop a new green space. First, The wasteland in between the West station and Beekkant is an enormous patch of undeveloped urban landscape in the middle of a very densely populated area, 136

lacking in accessible green space provision. The development of a new green space at this site would benefit a large amount of inhabitants and increase the quality of life in the west of Sint-Jans-Molenbeek and Anderlecht. Additionally it could be linked with the neighboring Albert park to form a continuous green space, creating an even larger reach. Furthermore it could be an elongation of the Scheutbospark ecosystem in the Maelbeekvalley, if ecological corridors would be provided. Another site which appeared to be crucial, is the car park along the inner ring, together with the Barra square. As the center of Brussels is often perceived as a concrete jungle, the surrounding pentagon could serve as a linear green element offering a green space within reach for the inhabitants of the city’s center. Furthermore, the accompanied ecosystem services such as air purification, rainwater infiltration, evapotranspiration, contact with seasonal characteristics or recreational activities would benefit the quality of life and increase the urban environmental quality. One of the obstacles here, however, is the yearly fair in Augusts, which is located between the South station and the Ninoofse poort. In order to be able to remain its location, the fair demands a mineral and open space, which doesn’t stroke with the general idea of a green space. To find solutions, further design exercises should be executed combining both programs in different spatial arrangements. A similar problem counts for the neighboring Barra square. Although in this case, only a small part of the square is occupied by a large weekly market. Both places are emblematic for the open space management in the lower part of the Brussels-Capital regions. Both spaces give a rather sad impression due to their low percentage of vegetation and naturality in combination with a high occupation of parked cars and crossing traffic. Their poor design is accompanied with bad maintenance and therefore results in spaces that are perceived insecure and unpleasant. Nevertheless, these spaces

occupy quite a large surface and therefore have a high potential to serve as green space development sites, contributing to the green space provision in the city center and Kureghem. Another location showing similar potential is the site around the Abbatoir in Anderlecht. Similarly a weekly market occupies its ground in the weekend. While being empty the rest of the week, a site of this size in an area lacking accessible green spaces is the ideal scenario for the development of a new green space. Obviously, scenarios can be developed for which the weekly market has its place in the larger green space. North of the pentagon, multiple sites around the Citroën building show possibilities to serve as principle green space for the areas of Laken, Molenbeek and Brussels close the Canal and the city center. At the moment the green spaces are fragmented and isolated by busy traffic veins or built elements such as the Children’s farm, the Citroën building or the Willebroekkaai. Connecting these green spaces, while improving their quality could merge the existing green spaces into the large scale green space the city needs. The Poelaert square, East of the city center, is a mineral public square that is highly visited by tourists and forms the connection between the lower part of the center and the higher commercial part of Louiza. Because the neighboring Matongé area has appeared to be an area lacking green space access, this square could be transformed in order to generate more ecosystem services. Therefore the function does not necessarily has to change, increasing the percentage of vegetation and permeable surface could already serve a lot, regarding problems such as urban heat island effect or water storage. Moreover, the center of Sint-JansMolenbeek was underpinned as main area to be paid attention to. Due to its high population density and low percentage of green spaces, the development of green space is vital to bring the young population of Molenbeek in contact with nature again. 137

Finally; the transformation of the central avenues was pointed out as opportunity to inject the center with new green infrastructures. As a linear element, the Anspach Avenue is sufficiently wide to offer a recreational program in combination with green spaces and an urban boulevard. Moreover, the drawings and sketches generated during the workshops were elaborated and expanded into actual design scenarios. This was done autonomously, by transforming the proposed ideas into digital graphic images. These images are used in the workshop chapter of this master thesis, and will be used in a publication following on the workshop. This publication will serve to emphasize the outcomes of the workshop and deal with the pertinence of the quality indicators and proximity method now they have been used by end-users. Ultimately, this workshop and master thesis serve to optimize the tool, which will be developed during the PHD-research, to estimate the green space provision in the Brussels-Capital region.

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Car park, occupying space at the inner ring between south station and Hallepoort.

Abatoir in Anderlecht during a weekday when no market takes place.

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Barra square, Kureghem.

Maximiliaanpark

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Along the Canal, Anderlecht.

Vogelzang cemetery, Anderlecht

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Wasteland near West station, Sint-Jans-Molenbeek

Poelaertsquare, Brussels

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145 Map 2. Green space development sites after elaboration

4 DESIGN

Together with this master thesis research project, a detailed design was integrated, and executed during the advanced design studio. The detailed design project was executed autonomously and deals with the design of a green space on the site of the current CitroĂŤn building and the improvement of the surrounding green spaces of the maximiliaanpark. Following the design strategies proposed during the research project, this design synthesizes how the proposed methodology might be used for an actual design project. As a foundation, the environment was analyzed, and interventions were proposed to decrease present nuisances and to use the sites potentiality. Different typologies proposed during the master thesis, such as noise barriers or waddies, have been used in this project in order to test their feasibility and architectural quality at site.

of the Akenkaai and the surrounding green spaces of the Maximiliaanpark. This led to a schematic design involving the improvement of the Maximiliaan park, regarding specific quality indicators such as spaciousness, noise and inherent quality, and the connection of the isolated green spaces, creating a larger scale green space. Secondly, a more detailed design was executed, in which the relics of the CitroĂŤn building form the scenery of the development of a new smaller scale green space. However, the two design projects function as a whole as they deal with two different parts of the same site. The intention is that, together the Maximiliaanpark and the CitroĂŤnpark will form one coherent green space, providing a new district scale green space for the northern part of the city center.

As mentioned above, the design project contains two main parts dealing with the same site on different scales. First an elaborated analysis was done on a larger scale, focusing mainly on the redevelopment 146

4.1 Maximiliaanpark

4.1.1 Location The site is located next to the canal, to the north of the center of Brussels, on the crossing point of 4 different municipalities of the Brussels Capital region: Sint-JansMolenbeek, Brussels, Schaarbeek and Laken. The Akenkaai next to the water and the Maximiliaanpark, are located in an area of Brussels which is characterized by a high concentration of different building typologies, caused by drastic interventions in the past. Like an island, this part was isolated

from the city through the canal on one side, through train tracks on another and by the inner ring at its south. Additionally, the development of the monofunctional high rise office area next to the North station, accompanied with very wide car roads, has caused a loss of human scale and social interaction. Moreover, the area hosts some highly congested car roads, leading car users from the city center to the outer belt and in the direction of Antwerp. Due to its history as industrial zone by the water, the areas on both sides of the water consists of

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large building blocks and closed industrial sites, including the CitroĂŤn building and the TournTaxis site. The mix of different typologies and large scale building blocks, however, has left the area with a rather large amount of open space, which can form a fertile driver for new urban development in the future. The present public spaces, however, are in bad shape and donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t form a coherent whole as they are all isolated by wide car roads with often more than 4 strokes. Most of them arenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t even used, as they were leftovers from the built architecture on site. As the city is expanding and pushing industry further away from its city center, however, the area is transforming and industrial buildings are moving away to be replaced by contemporary apartment buildings, such as the 145 meters high upsite tower. In order to attract more urban dwellers in the future, qualitative open and

green space should form the foundation for further urban revaluation.

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5.1.2 Green structure The northern region around the CitroĂŤn building, together with large parts of Molenbeek, Laken and the city center, are lacking green space provision on metropolitan, city, district and quarter level. Therefore, the Maximiliaan park is of crucial strategic importance for the development of a new large scale green space to serve these parts of the city. Indeed, the existing urban fabric, formed between the high rise buildings and the isolated green spaces, shows high potential for the implementation of new green structures. After all, there is a concentration of green spaces present, but their reach has strong limitations due to the multiple barriers, making their accessibility very poor. Additionally, a new green space is foreseen on the other side of the water, at the Materialenkaai, and also the park at the TournTaxis site is beginning to take shape,

while the Zennepark has been completed recently. These expectations, make it possible not only to connect the green space of the Maximiliaanpark, but to create one coherent green connection along the water, stretching from Bockstael to the TournTaxis site, along the Maximiliaanpark, through the Zennepark towards the Park of Laken. This way a strong and connected green structure could be created, consisting of qualitative parks and green corridors as a foundation for future urban developments, protecting the resilience of this region and by extension the entire Brussels-Capital region, and providing the urban dwellers with sufficient accessible green spaces and green trajectories through the city.

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5.1.3 Fragmentation As discussed earlier, the built density of the area is, due to the high rise developments, lower than in the surrounding dwelling areas of Molenbeek, Laken, Brussels or Schaarbeek. Thereby, multiple open spaces can be distinguished. Besides the principle green spaces of the Maximiliaan park and public spaces around the Northern station, a range of leftover spaces can be identified (1), existing in the shadow of the high rise buildings. Such spaces are characterized by poor design and a lack of usage, often caused through a lack of accessibility, a waste of space or the occupation of car use. Mostly they can be found in front of large office buildings, on top of the first level of plinth buildings, or in between large office buildings. Recognizing the importance of these spaces for the urban fabric is vital for the creation of a human scale tissue.

In the drawing below, these spaces are marked in yellow and can be found near the North station and in between the high rise buildings, often isolated in between car roads. Moreover, the Akenkaai (2) forms a continuous public space along the water on both sides, hosting multiple temporary

4 1

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Playground Maximiliaanpark

Bolivarpark

Akenkaai

Materialenkaai

In front of CitroĂŤn

In front of Kaaitheater

Leftover space behind Maximiliaan park

Leftover space in between car park and building, Gilbertstraat

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events such as Brussel Bad or Brussel Brost. Besides those periods, however, the space is hardly used or perceived as public space, due to bad maintenance and non-existing design. Similar analysis can be made about the spaces in front of the CitroĂŤn building and the Yser square (3). Here a range of spaces are intervened with heavy traffic roads and therefore never function as a working public space. The main public space in this neighborhood consist of the green spaces of the Maximiliaanpark, the Bolivar park and the playground next the Maximiliaanpark (4). These parks suffer a bad perception due to safety problems and bad maintenance. Multiple reasons might be distinguished, such as the high concentration of homeless and refugees and the low grade of social interaction in the area. Design, however, plays an important role in these problematics. It can be clearly seen that multiple different barriers intervene with the green spaces, creating shaded zones and obstructing the feeling of spaciousness and

continuity. In the following design exercise, Possible solutions were tested to overcome these barriers and increase these senses of spaciousness, safety and coherence. 5.1.4 Traffic situation In order to achieve feasible solutions, a proposition was made for the modification of the existing traffic situation. As two main interventions the Willebroekkaai and Havenlaan were transformed into one direction roads, creating a traffic loop around the entire building block, and an enlarged roundabout was proposed in front of the CitroĂŤn building, releasing the pressure on the intersections through decreasing the amount of upcoming roads, and liberating the space in front of the building and on the Yser square. Following multiple roads were made one-direction, and the road between the two green spaces, leading to the North station, was narrowed and downgraded to give the pedestrians absolute priority.

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5.1.5 Center of different areas Due to its location on the crossing between four different communities, the site has important roles on different levels with different angles. As a transitions zone, a soft and green trajectory can be created between the different neighborhoods for both

humans as ecosystems. Besides this, the site can become a natural buffer for the city center, increasing its resilience and offering a green space for its inhabitants. And finally, a connecting role could be fulfilled in intervening the existing barriers and linking the different neighborhoods by increasing the accessibility. 153

5.1.6 The Senne The Senne river is located along the entire length of the Maximiliaan park and was covered in the second half of the 19th century. Although not visible, the river still plays an important role as a landscape structure in managing the waterflow in case of heavy rainfall. Unfortunately the river functions mostly as a sewage when the water of the

canal is rising or rain water is too much for the sewage systems. In a new design, the role of the river can be rethought in order to increase its capacity as a rainwater buffer. If it could actually function as a river from which the water could have the space to leave its beds in case of heavy rainfall, the Senne could again be of importance for the resilience of the city. 154

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5.1.7 Strategy The modified traffic situation releases space in order to connect the different public spaces and create a coherence of soft trajectories throughout the site. The Children’s zoo will be relocated and spread out over the site, in order to liberate the metro station and to connect the entrance of the metro with the Citroën building. A urban boulevard will be developed to connect the North station with the canal. A bridge will be build in the elongation of this boulevard to connect with the new park on the Materialenkaai. The existing hills will be replaced by one sloped surface leading to the top of the plinth. This way the plinth can be intergated in the rest of the green space and serve a public role. A linear structure will provide a visual coherence and house various functions including the children’s zoo, facilities for the sportzones and small bars. The citroën building will be opened up for the public, and in stead of creating a barrier, become a link between the green spaces and the waterfront. Multiple waddies will buffer the rainfall and provide the Senne with areas where it can flood out of it beds. On the following page, multiple scenarios are shown which have been tested as possible solutions to increase the spaciousness in the Bolivar park and open up the Senne. Moreover, section showing the modified traffic situation are shown.

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A-1

A-2

A-3

A-4

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B current situation

B New situation

C Current situation

C New situation

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5.1 Citroën building

In the context of the larger master plan, improving the spatial quality of the neighborhood around the Akenkaai and the Maximiliaanpark, a detailed design was exucuted for the reconversion of the Citroën building into a neighborhood scale park. Connected with the surrounding green spaces, however, this green space is part of a larger developed green space which can serve on quarter or district functional level. The location of the Citroën building was chosen in context of the advanced design studio, which dealt with the reconversion

of the building into a new museum of contemporary art. Due to the character of this master thesis, however, a reconversion into a green space was chosen as design topic. Furthermore, the transformation of the closed building into an open green space has an important influence on the masterplan, through connecting the different green spaces with the waterfront.

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0. Existing situation

1. A horizontal section opens the building to its surroundings, the removal of the roof converts the building into an exterior space.

2. An intervention in the topology of the surface protects the users from disturbing noises, coming from traffic.

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3. The existing columns offer a grateful structure for climbing plants, the main present vegetation in the green space.

4. The surrounding windows and existing structure provoke the feeling of a â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;hortus concludusâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;. New implementation of trees and furniture follow these frontiers to enforce this sense.

5. A crossing structure intervenes with the enclosed garden and leads the visitors to the core of the construction relic, offering new perspectives on both the environment and the inner space.

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January

Akebia Quinata

Wisteria Sinensis Alba

February

March

April

May

June

July

August

September October

November

December

I M

Parthenocissus quinquefolia ‘Engelmannii’ Hedera Helix

B Vinitus Coignetiae

I Humulus Lupulus

N G

Actinidia arguta ‘Issai’

3dNature

Betula pendula

Mediterranian

Lavandula

Corylus avellana

Bee plants and tares

Rosmarinus

Thymus

B u t t e r f l y B u s h

Buddleja dark knight

Buddleja Silver Anniversary

Buddleja White Profusion

Buddleja Empire Blue

Buddleje Weyeriana ‘Sungold’

T r e e

Alianthus Altissima

Koelreuteria Paniculata

GRASS

Different zones are characterized through different vegetation, chosen according their position and demands. As the green space is developed in the relics of a building, a vegetation is developed based on the third nature concept of Gilles Clement. Wild grasses and vegetation will form the principle vegetation type, enforcing the feeling of the naturalized building relic. Furthermore, the existing structure will be used as a structure for

different types of climbing plants. This will provide a dynamic palette of different colors changing throughout the year. In the upper levels, buddlejas will form the colorfulbackground of a butterfly garden in the roof.

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Third nature concept. Birch trees and wild vegetation

Climbing plants (Wisteria Sinensis and Parthenociccus quinquefolia) in MFO-park Zurich, Burckhardt+Partner

Ailanthus Altissima in autumn

mediterranean aromatic herbs

Wild flower meadow, yearly mowed grass field .

Butterfly garden, Different kinds of Buddleja.

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5 RESULTS

The research project started with the execution of questionnaires and site surveys in 17 different green spaces spread out over the BCR. The main intention of the questionnaires was to purchase information about the perception of the users on specific quality indicators defining the overall inherent quality of the green space. The results of these questionnaires were used in the PHD research, to define the weight of the different quality indicators in the overall quality determination. To define a value for the quality of a green space, a methodology was developed during the PHD through a linear combination of multiple indicators. A detailed explanation is described in the paper: Manuscript for Ecosystem Services Journal Special Issue ¬— “Servicing Ecosystem Services in a Challenging Environment” written by Philip Stessens. Therefore the results of the questionnaires aren’t explicitly shown in this master thesis, as they did not contributed to this research. The site experience gained during the multiple site visits, however, was important in creating an insight in the state of the current green structure of the BCR. With a photographic report, a visual summarization was made of green spaces, wastelands and rest spaces which are emblematic for the weaknesses in the green structure of the BCR. At the same time, these photographs show that the landscape of Brussels counts multiple places where the green structure can be improved. In this way, these pictures are a first step in the localization of possible green space development sites for the

increment of the green structure of the Brussels-Capital region. Following on the surveys, the research developed towards the drawing table. The main goal was to generate an ideal scenario for the BCR, in which every building block is provided with a qualitative green space within acceptable walking distance. To do so, research was done on where and how the green space infrastructure of Brussels could be improved at different scales for different sizes of green spaces. This assessment was done in two phases. First individually and for all functional levels during the preparation, and secondly in team for 4 functional levels during the first workshop design session. During the preparation, each functional level was tackled separately. The green space influence maps developed in GIS, were used in combination with aerial pictures and on site experience to fill the gaps of green space provision for every functional level. Because the concept of functional levels is based on the maximum walking distance, a buffer value was calculated to generate a reach radius based on the specific street pattern of the Brussels Capital region. Therefore the walking distance between two points was calculated on google maps, and a radius was calculated that accords with the average walking distance. The resulting reaches are shown in table 2. By drawing these circles on the green space influence maps in areas which are lacking in provision, on locations showing actual potential, an ideal green space provision design was generated without areas lacking in green space provision. This 182

resulted in a list of green space development sites as shown in table 3. Accordingly, the workshops were organized, where the results of the preparation were discusses, and new strategies for the improvement of green space provision were thought of. A similar approach was used to find possible green space development sites, using large scale green space influence maps. In both cases the analysis of the green structure led to a proposition map (map 1 and 2), showing where new green space needed to be implemented or the green space provision needed to be improved. In both cases the areas of Molenbeek center, Kureghem and Schaarbeek were underpinned as areas in need of green space provision at multiple levels. During the preparation, the importance of the agricultural fields outside the periphery and the large cemeteries was pointed out, and sites were located where spatial flexibility could transform schools or car parks into partly accessible green spaces. In both cases the wastelands around the Weststation, the car park on the inner belt, the Anspach boulevard, multiple space in between train tracks and the green spaces around the Maximiliaan park were pointed out as highly potential green space development sites. During the workshops the importance of green corridors along the canal, the Louiza and between the slaughterhouse and the gate of Ninove was highlighted for the contribution on small scale green space provision and the possibility to merge different smaller scale green spaces into a larger green space was tested for the green spaces around the Jubelpark, Warandepark, Maximiliaanpark and Albertpark. The strategy development, however was less accurate during the workshops, than during the preparation, but certainly as valuable because of the creative methods of implementation and improvement that were suggested. More specifically, an overview of green space development sites and strategies is presented in the following paragraph: For the increment on residential to neighborhood scale, multi used public spaces and spatial

flexibility are an interesting option in densely populated areas. Existing open spaces such as car parks, school courtyards or rooftops could be transformed and function as part or fulltime accessible green spaces while fulfilling their current function. As the provision of small scale green spaces is rather weak in areas where open space is rare, such as Molenbeek and Anderlecht, creative solutions have to be developed to provide the most fragile neighborhoods with qualitative and accessible green space. Miniscule interventions, however, such as the greening of a sidewalk or the installation of a playground, could be sufficient to bring inhabitants in contact with nature or provide them with space where encounters or relaxation could find place. On a larger scale, several sites show the potential to be transformed into quarter or district green spaces in the inner city. The wasteland between Beekkant and Weststation, is one of the most promising locations, as it is located in a densely populated area where the implementation of new green space is highly needed in order to increase the quality of life and the ecosystem services, according to the green space influence maps. Furthermore, following Gent or Kopenhagen, increasing the accessibility of cemeteries in order to make them contribute into the green space provision assessment, is a potential opportunity. The cemetery of Brussels, Sint-Joost-TenNode and Vogelzang are large scale green spaces from which the ecosystem services might be increased by means of minimal interventions. Providing them with zones for recreation or picnicking, for example, might increase their attraction for city dwellers to be used differently than solely for visiting dead souls. For the increment of the proximity of city and metropolitan scale green spaces, interesting landscape structure were highlighted in the periphery. Where the Forest de Soigne, is a penetration of green infrastructure from the periphery to the south east of Brussels towards the city center, a similar infiltrating green structure can be found in the North-Western area 183

of the BCR. Starting in the valley of the Plankenbeek in Dilbeek, a successive range of accessible and inaccessible green spaces infiltrate the city until the Albert park near Weststation. Increasing continuity and accessibility between the composing green spaces could articulate this green structure, which could be the foundation for the development of a new metropolitan green space around the Scheutbospark, serving the entire north and north west of the Brussels Metropolitan Region. Therefore, increasing the involvement of the agricultural fields surrounding the city in the overall green space provision assessment is a vital challenge. As open space in the periphery of Brussels, is often occupied by agriculture, and therefore doesnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t provide much ecosystem services, an example of the Agropark in Barcelona was shown. Here, a more sustainable and diverse form of agriculture was promoted and the inhabitants were involved in the production process of the land. Because of this, the ecosystem services of an agricultural field increased for the benefits of both the inhabitants as the well-being of the ecosystem. The methods that were used to improve the green space provision, thus existed out of pointing out different locations on the map and transforming them theoretically into green spaces or greened public spaces. And although the why and how for these interventions can be easily argued, other issues concerning the space were not discussed. The transformation of a space into a green space, indeed often implements the loss of car park capacity, car accessibility or market spaces and therefore often leads to resistance of certain actors of the urban metabolism. Not discussion these issues, however, was a considered choice during this master thesis. The intention of the assessment on improving the green space provision, is not to define in detail where exactly new green space should be implemented, but rather to present a methodology on how the green space provision can be improved through showing

emblematic sites which could serve as potential green space development sites. In other words, this research is aware of the fact that existing sites or green space might not be discussed or that the implementation of new green spaces on certain sites is hardly possible due to economic or other reasons. Furthermore, a e pertinence of the proposed quality indicators was discussed and tested with the end-users of the tool during the organized research by design workshop. During the workshop, participants with mixed backgrounds worked together to develop new scenarios for the Brussels Metropolitan area, regarding the improvement of the overall green space provision determined by a proximity and quality based estimation. While strategies were thought of, to increase the green space provision in the BCR, discussion raised about the pertinence of the concept of functional levels and about the estimation of quality indicators of green spaces. Functional levels are defined by size and do not imply the presence of certain facilities. This was food for discussion, as the lack of district or city green spaces in the inner city might be compensated by the connection of multiple small scale green spaces. Together these could be able to house the same functions as one large scale green space, and therefore replace the presence of an actual green space in the urban tissue. Despite the limitations shown through this approach however, the concept of functional levels remains a useful approach in the estimation of the overall green space provision assessment, as the size of green space do imply the presence of certain activities thanks to their size. Accordingly, the definition of quality indicators and their weight in the overall quality assessment was another argument. A scenario specific approach was proposed to define the importance of different quality indicators, according to the typology and location of the green space. In the second part of the workshop, a selection of possible interventions was presented through case studies and site specific scenario developments. This showed how the quality of a green space 184

could be improved or how an intervention could transform a site into a green space, contributing to the overall improvement of the urban environmental quality. The design of a hill was suggested to protect the green space at CERIA/COOVI campus from noise coming from the highway. A bioswale was suggested for a street at place Liedts, to increase its contribution to the urban environmental quality. A pollution trap was proposed along the Lambermontlaan, to buffer the waterflow coming into the Josaphat park. A network of green spaces connected through green corridors and green boulevards was drawn in order to improve the green character of the center of Sint-Jans-Molenbeek, increasing the quality of life and providing the densely populated area with more green spaces. A similar intervention was suggested for a linear gap between the new park at the Gate of Ninove and the Slaughterhouse in Anderlecht. Downgraded roads were used to improve the connection between isolated green spaces and create a coherent green space of the Josaphat park and its surrounding green spaces. A pond was designed on the CERIA/ COOVI campus site, in order to bring the users in contact with water and to increase the biological value of the site. Furthermore the case studies were used to show how cemeteries or agricultural fields could play an active role in the green structure of a city and how a temporary construction can be used to reactivate lifeless office districts. Both assessments, led to a detailed design for the quality improvement of the Maximiliaan park and the reconversion of the Citroën building into a green space. As shown in the green space provision assessment, the Maximiliaanpark is an important link in the green structure of the Brussels Capital region. Due to its location the provided ecosystem services benefit a large amount of citizens, while it plays an important role in the connection of fragmented neighborhoods in the northern part of the Brussels center. Multiple physical barriers, such as roads and buildings, however, prevent the green spaces to function as a coherent whole and fulfill

these functions at this moment. Therefore, a design exercise was done in order to increase the inherent quality of this green space, so that more ecosystem services would be developed and a coherent connection would be generated from inside the city center towards the Tour and Taxis site or the Northern station. For both design exercises, the methodology as used during the workshops were followed as a foundation for design decisions. Additionally, design interventions which came out the workshop’s scenario development, were used to tackle specific problems at the sites. E.g. a slope was designed in the Citroën park to protect the users from car noise, multiple ponds were designed inside the Citroën park and inside the Maximiliaanpark to increase the biological value and catch redundant rain water, a slope was proposed to integrate the barriers into the park in order to increase the feelings of spaciousness and social security or a linking structure was used to provide a physical coherence between the Bolivar park and the Maximiliaan park. Finally the proposed strategies, developed during the preparation and the workshop, were bundled together in this master thesis, provided with explaining text and illustrations. In the end an overview of selected green space development sites was created, showing the locations in the BCR with the highest potential to be contribute to the green space provision in the near future. Hoped is, that the proposed selection of locations together with the exemplary interventions, could form a directory for future policies regarding green space provision development or that it can be at least a source of inspiration regarding the improvement of the green infrastructure in the Brussels-Capital region. The proposed interventions and locations, however, did not take in account any site specific issues and were developed with on a theoretical level. This counts mainly for the localization of the green space development sites. In order to use this document for the implementation of new green spaces, site specific analysis need to be elaborated for most of the appointed green space development sites. 185

6 CONCLUSION

The green structure from an urban area can be compared with the bearing structure from a building. In order to resist external forces and remain stability during its lifetime, a building depends entirely upon its supporting structure. Therefore an hierarchic system, in which all layers and the connection between them are equally important both for their own stability, as for the stability of the whole, is needed. The primary bearing structure, for example, would not be able to survive external forces without the connection through secondary structural elements, while the behavior of the primary structure depends equally on the quality of the bolts holding them together or giving them space when needed. Similarly, the green infrastructure in an urban area is vital in planning and policy making thanks to the attributable ecosystem services for either city dwellers (Tzoulas et al., 2007) or climate change mitigation and adaption (Demuzere et al., 2014). In order to resist temperature fluctuations, population growths or environmental disasters, and create a healthy life environment for both the citizens as the ecosystems, a fine grained hierarchical system of connected green spaces should form the foundation of urban development. Moreover, the predicted environmental changes will cause additional stress on our life environments, increasing the importance of an elaborated green structure to ensure qualitative air and water supply or decrease the risk on flooding and the effects of heat waves for urban dwellers and urban ecosystems.

The main objective during this master thesis, was to generate an insight in the existing green structure of the Brussels Metropolitan Area and present a strategy to improve this structure, by the localization of sites where new nodes or connections could be created and the improvement of selected, existing green spaces through design research. The method used to estimate the quality of the existing structure of green infrastructure was based on the ongoing research of Philip Stessens, regarding the assessment of green space provision in the Brussels-Capital region. In this PHD research, the provision of green spaces in the BCR is estimated by means of a GIS-based modelling approach for assessing the proximity and quality of urban green spaces, accessible to the general public. Concerning proximity, a method was developed, based on the concept of functional levels as described by Van Herzele and Wiedemann (2003), which allows to indicate for each urban block which of the predefined functional levels of green space are within reach, according to the actual walking distances. For the estimation of quality, green spaces were evaluated in terms of their use and appreciation by users according to the procedure outlined in Stessens et al. (2016). Finally, an overall estimate of green space provision at the level of urban blocks was determined with green space provision being determined by both accessibility (distance) and quality of the green spaces. As the ongoing PHD-research has not yet resulted in a final outcome, this master thesis hopes to contribute to the 186

development of the tool and the estimation of green space provision in the BrusselsCapital region. In the end, this master thesis proposes an improvement of the green structure for the Brussels-Capital region. The proposed methodology is developed in two different chapters. First a list of new green space development sites and strategies to increase green space provision were proposed, along with maps showing the green space provision on different functional level. Secondly strategies and design scenarios were developed, presenting how new green spaces could be implemented or how the quality of existing green spaces could be improved. This way, the methodology presents which sites could contribute to the green space provision increment, and how this alternation could be designed, in order to increase the overall green space provision assessment regarding proximity and quality of green spaces in the Brussels-Capital region. The outcome of this master thesis, thus resulted in a list of possible locations which could contribute to the overall green space provision increment, in combination with a set of scenarios and case studies in order to show how this can be achieved. The results of this master thesis show that the BCR has a fertile landscape for the green structure to be improved, and that multiple spaces could improve their contribution to the urban environmental quality through specific interventions. However, it is shown that the current green structure is rather weak and not resistant to the changes predicted in the future, such as the predicted population growth or increasing rain fall. Therefore, an elaborated green structure improvement strategy is needed for the Brussels-Capital region to serve as a foundation for sustainable densification strategies, in order to protect and improve the quality of life of its inhabitants and ecosystems.

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8 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Supervisor: Professor Ahmed Z. Khan Co-supervisor: Philip Stessens Design guidance for the Citroën project: Jonas Lindekens, Thierry Berlemont, Laurent Ney, Stephane Meyrant, Aránzazu Galán Gonzales. Participants in the workshop: Kempeneers Serge, Agnies Winiarska, Ahmed Khan, Cesar Osorioe, Chantal Vanham, Frank Canters, Hans Keune, Nahad Rezazadeh Helmi, Paul Steinbrueck, Severine Hermand, Juan Guillerme Robayo Mendez, Charlotte Claessens and Philip Stessens. Pictures: Sebastiaan Willemen Images: Sebastiaan Willemen Lay out: Sebastiaan Willemen Special thanks to: Lola Daels, Maxim Lammens & Jef Mercks, Hilde Geets & Patrick Willemen, Philip Stessens, Ahmed Khan. Print: Hellinx Hasselt

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