SAVAGE BEAU-
the romance of grotesque from 19th century to modern
2-5 Savage Beauty: Introduction
8-21 Revivals and Modernity: The Printed Image in Nineteenth Century France
24-25 Dark Romanticism
28-35 Fantasy and Dreams
Artist Biography:
36-45 Francisco De Goya
46-59 Francis Bacon
60-69 Llyn Foulkes
70-79 Kris Kuksi
80-87 Alexander McQueen
88-97 Paul McCarthy
98-100 List of Works
101-103 Exhibition Checklist
104-108 Bibliography
Introduction Since the early nineteenth century it has not been possible to describe the grotesque as peripheral to the visual arts. The romantic period marked the entrance of the grotesque into the mainstream of modem expression, as a means to explore alternative modes of experience and expression and to challenge the presumed universals of classical beauty. The modern ,era witnessed an explosion of visual imagery that in various ways incorporated the grotesque. A remarkable number of canonical works of modernism, including Gericault’s Raft of Medusa, Emsor’s Entry of Christ into Brussels, Picasso’s Les Demoiselles d’Avignon, Ernest’s Elephant of Celebes, or Bacon’s Study after Velaquez’s Portrait of Pope Innocent X, employ structures deeply rooted in the western tradition as grotesque. The grotesque figures prominently in romantic, symbolist, expressionist, prin1itivist, realist, and surrealist vocabularies, but it also plays a role in cubism and certain kinds of abstraction.
SAVAGE BEAUTY
The reemergence of the grotesque in the fine arts was only one of a remarkable range of new expressive modes through which the grotesque was extended, expanded, and reinvented in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. These cultural vehicles for the grotesque included such disparate developments as psychoanalysis, photography, mass media, science fiction, ethnography, weapons of mass destruction, globalization, and virtual reality. The grotesque was first linked to the notion of “primitive” expression in this era, with profound repercussions for modem art and aesthetics. The grotesque gave expression to other primal realities. In Le monstre, published in 1889. J. K. Huysmans contended that the microscope revealed an entirely new field of monstrosities equal to any of those animating medieval art. Odilon Redon's biological fantasies corroborate Huysmans's claim. Similarly, Freud's exploration of the unconscious was embraced by surrealists who employed grotesque modalities. A striking number of the period's most influential thinkers, including Baudelaire, Ruskin, Nietzsche, Freud, Bataille, Bakhtin, and Kristeva, have drawn from and reinterpreted the grotesque tradition. Given the prominent role of the grotesque in modem image culture, there are surprisingly few significant studies on these issues, a failure that reveals a blind spot in art-historical theory and practice. The neoclassical foundations of art history and aesthetics, with their emphasis on ideated beauty and rational inquiry, set up an intrinsic hostility toward the grotesque. There is,
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however, an even greater chasm between the history that modernism wrote for itself and the
grotesque character of modem life. The experience of modernity is one of unprecedented disjuncture and shifting boundaries, with the collision of cultures and scientific challenges repeatedly stripping away the veneer of familiar reality from the chaos of raw experience. The essays that follow explore the subversive undertow of the grotesque within the modern.
Acknowledging that any attempt to define the grotesque is a contradiction in terms, we begin with three actions, or processes at work in the grotesque image, actions that are both destructive and constructive. Images gathered under the grotesque rubric include those that combine unlike things in order to challenge established realities or construct new ones; those that deform or decompose things; and those that are metamorphic. These grotesques are not exclusive of one another, and their range of expression runs from the wondrous to the monstrous to the ridiculous. The combinatory grotesque describes creatures ranging from the centaur to the cyborg. Readily associated with images like Arcimboldo's bizarre portraits, it also animates Joan Mire’s frolicking harlequin and Otto Dix’s horrific image The Skat Players. Inasmuch as the combinatory grotesque brings together things from separate worlds, it also has provocative connections to collage. Grotesque also describes the aberration from ideal form or from accepted convention, to create the misshapen, ugly, exaggerated, or even formless. This type runs the gamut from the deliberate exaggerations of caricature, to the unintended aberrations, accidents, and failures of the everyday world represented in realist imagery, to the dissolution of bodies, forms, and categories. The individuals portrayed in Courbet's Burial at Ornans, their red-faced plainness merging with fleshy, trowelled paint, were castigated as grotesque by critics accustomed to the laminate perfection of French academic classicism. Dix’s mutilated figures are at once a kind of bricolage, patched together with the most unlikely objects, but they also function as caricature and mediate a living horror too real to dwell on. Photography created a whole new vehicle for exploring the grotesque in the real, not only broadening the field, but fixing moments, places, and events that were rarely seen before and exposing them to a mass audience. The abject and the formless also hover on the boundaries of this grotesque, each in its own way resisting form or coherent entity altogether. Central to the grotesque is its lack of fixity, its unpredictability and its instability. Victor Hugo’s observation has special resonance here: that ideal beauty has only one standard whereas the variations and combinations possible for the grotesque are limitless. Consider how a grotesque such as The Skat Players inverts the legend of Zeuxis: instead of the artist fusing the most beautiful individual components of the human body into one whole, perfect, proportioned form, Dix's bodies are made monstrous, jumbling categories, confusing orifices and wounds, creating their own horrific kind of non-sense. Confronted with the embodiment of Unlust, the impulses to scream and to laugh come at once. A premise central to Kant's idea of the beautiful, that it makes us feel as though the world is purposive, that it is here for us, cannot be more brutally and specifically refuted than in the disfigured
humans playing a game of chance. Grotesques are typically characterized by what they lack: fixity, stability, order. Mikhail Bakhtin emphasized the creative dimensions of this flux, however, describing the grotesque as “a body in the act of becoming . . . never finished, never completed; it is continually built, created, and builds and creates another body.” In other words, grotesques may be better under-stood as “trans-”, as modalities; better described for what they do, rather than what they are. We can go a step further to add that these modalities are at play on the boundaries and nowhere else. The grotesque is defined by what it does to boundaries, transgressing, merging, overflowing, and destabilizing them. Put more bluntly, the grotesque is a boundary creature and does not exist except in relation to a boundary, convention, or expectation. Griffins merge boundaries between lion and eagle; Dix’s figures subvert the expectations of both machine and man, merge horror with humor, and challenge the boundaries of propriety in order to attack the nationalism that created this result. Anamorphosis also plays against boundaries, transgressing the rules for looking into an idealized, perspectival space but depending on those rules for its impact. Boundedness is a critical feature of the grotesque's relationship with both the beautiful and the sublime. In aesthetic discourse, clear and
SAVAGE BEAUTY
discreet boundaries are integral to the apprehension of beauty, apoint Edmund Burke makes explicit. But, as Bakhtin observes: “the artistic logic of the grotesque image ignores the closed, smooth, and impenetrable surface of the body and retains only its excrescences and orifices, only that which leads beyond the body’s limited space or into the body’s depths.” The issue of boundaries differentiates the grotesque from the sublime in revealing ways. The boundlessness of the sublime, dynamical or numerical, overwhelms reason and exceeds its powers to contain and define. The grotesque, by contrast, is in constant struggle with boundaries of the known, the conventional, the understood. One can also take a historical and cultural view of these boundaries. For example, representations of a Nkisi from Congo or a Ganesha from India were neither intended nor defined as grotesques until they crossed into the European cultural sphere. As they were drawn into the peripheries of European art and aesthetics in the nineteenth century, these images were repeatedly described as monstrous and grotesque because of their perceived deformation of European rules of representation. Within one hundred years, however, these images were so completely assimilated into western culture that they ceased to be grotesque, appearing in art museums and academic curricula. In short, they were grotesque only while they troubled an established boundary.
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“Grotesque” is also a peculiarly western term, as its coinage in the Renaissance as a way to describe the “estranged world” indicates, as does its use in modern times to describe so-called “primitive” imagery. Many image traditions throughout the world include structures that resemble the western grotesque, but they do not carry the same cultural associations. On one hand, this belies modernist (and primitivist) myths of universality,
but it also demonstrates the extent to which the grotesque is rooted in the powerful mind-body duality of western thought. This study concentrates on the grotesque in modern European and American art for these reasons, because its meanings are culturally specific to the West. As we shall see, the grotesque identifies a class of imagery that has never fit comfortably within the boundaries traditionally set by either aesthetics or art history for its objects of inquiry. The term “grotesque” is itself problematic, exemplified by the fact that it springs from a fortuitous mistake. The term first appeared in the mid-sixteenth century to describe the fantastical figures decorating a Roman villa. Because the rooms were excavated below ground level, Renaissance observers “misconceived” them to be grottos. These decorative Roman designs preexisted the term, of course, as was the case with many types of images gathered under the grotesque rubric. Likewise, the term was extended to imagery completely outside the cultural purview of the West. Over the last two hundred years, other terms proliferated to describe aspects of experience that attach in one or more ways to the grotesque, among them arabesque, abject, informe, uncanny, bricolage, carnivalesque, convulsive beauty, and dystopia. Yet at the same time, the complex and contested meanings of the word “grotesque” have lost their resonance and devolved to describe something horrible, or something horribly exaggerated. Accordingly, the decision to use “grotesque” as the term for this study's object of inquiry requires some explanation. Grotesque arguably remains a broader and more inclusive term than those listed, notwithstanding its diminished use in modern times. The many connotations of the grotto - earthiness, fertility, darkness, death -link to all the variants of grotesque imagery discussed herein. At the same time, employing a term whose inadequacies are obvious has unexpected benefits. Its classical framework long since displaced, the limitations of “grotesque” as a term are readily discernible and as such, reinforce the notion that no name can hind these modalities to a fixed, discrete meaning. Using what seems so outmoded a term has another value in that it draws attention to the complex history of how the grotesque has been “disciplined” in modern art history and aesthetics. Compared with its classical forebears, who relegated the grotesque to a subservient, ornamental role, modernism has a far more complex and conflicted relationship with the grotesque. Although nineteenth- and twentieth-century imagery engages and expands the grotesque more than ever before in western imagery, modernist theory and history have (until recently) almost completely written out the grotesque and its associations with the material, the flesh, and the feminine. Kant’s Critique of Judgment, one of the most influential works in modern aesthetics, effectively banishes the grotesque from consideration. As demonstrated in Michael Chaouli’s essay, Kant rejects the grotesque as a threat to form and to the act of representation itself. And yet, the grotesque permeates modem imagery, acting as punctum to the ideals of enlightened progress and universality and to the hubris of modernist dreams of transcendence over the living world.
In order for the light to shine so brightly, the darkness must be present.
— Francis Bacon
Since the advent of the printed image in Europe in the fifteenth century, the history of its artistic development has been intertwined with that of technical innovation. At no other time were these forces so dynamically linked as in the nineteenth century, in France, when the technological advances that facilitated the reproduction of images in the commercial sphere intersected with the revival of traditional print media.
Revivals and Modernity: The Printed Image in Nineteenth-Century France Revivals and Modernity
The first quarter of the century witnessed the rise of the reproductive print-an exacting, detailed illustration of a work of art, executed primarily through the laborious process of engraving.1 A wide variety of these reproductions flooded the market, popularizing paintings by well-known artists and targeting eager middle-class buyers. Soon lithography and photography also became contenders in the quest to achieve a faithful reproduction. At the other end of the spectrum, the latter half of the century saw the ascendance of the artist's print, an
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original work of art that was both an extension of the painter’s art and a vehicle for artistic experimentation.
The path from the reproductive
receptive to a wide variety of repro-
print to the artist's print was neither
ductive and original prints in different
linear nor clearly defined, however.
media as well as to photographs.
Throughout this period there were
Reproductive prints after paintings
numerous debates surrounding the
existed alongside original etchings by
merits of the print-its originality,
the same artists and photographs of
reproducibility, and audience. The
their works, often in the same portfolio.
critics, publishers, collectors, and
While photography itself was seen
artists involved in the discourse
primarily as a means of reproduction,
about the relative virtues of various
hybrid processes that evolved from
approaches were often polarized in
photography, such as clichĂŠ verre, were
their arguments. At midcentury both
a source of creative experimentation
publishers and the public remained
for artists engaged with printmaking.
GODEFROY ENGLMANN Large Clock Tower, Evreux (Tower du gros horloge, Evreux), plate: 33.7 x 21cm, 1824. Lithograph on China paper
PAUL GAVARNI The Lithographer's Studio: How Light It Is ! (L'atelier du Lithographe: Comme c'est leger!), 1840. Lithograph
Revivals and Modernity
The relatively new medium
Lithography was also the primary
of lithography, invented in 1798,
medium for countless popular series
and the centuries-old technique of
of topographical landscape prints
etching-both essentially techniques
depicting scenic cities and villages
of drawing were the most significant
in France, such as Voyages pittoresques
for artistic innovations because they
et romantiques dans l'ancienne France
were accessible to artists who were
(Picturesque and romantic journeys
not professional printmakers trained
in old France), published from 1820
in the arduous craft of engraving.
to 1878. As improved production
In the 1820s and 1830s lithography
methods allowed for larger print runs,
became the preferred print medium
lithography soon replaced engraving
for Romantic painters, lured by the
in popular illustrated books and
ease of drawing on limestone blocks
journals, making possible the weekly
with waxy lithographic crayons
or even daily publication of satirical
and by the fine textural and tonal
illustrations in newspapers such as La
qualities of the resulting impressions.
caricature (1830–35, 1838–43) and Le
Eugene Delacroix (1798–1863) and
charivari (1832–1937). The topicality
Theodore Gericault (1791–1824)
of these journals, however, along
created numerous drawings on stone,
with the sometimes-lackluster quality
though with little financial success.
of their illustrations, contributed to critical rejection of the printed images as works of art. Indeed, lithography was considered primarily a commercial medium from the 1830s until its artistic revival in the 1870s.
In the 1840s and 1850s a
number of French painters began making original compositions in the medium of etching. Drawing with an etching needle through an acid-resistant ground onto a copper plate that is later immersed in acid, which etches only the exposed lines of the drawing, several of these so-called peintre-graveurs, or
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painter-etchers, including Charles François Daubigny (1817–1878),
Charles-Emile Jacque (1813–1894),
“glass negative”) involves scratching
and Charles Meryon (1821–1868), had
through a prepared ground on a
begun their careers as commercial or
glass plate to create a design, which
reproductive printmakers. As original
is then printed onto light-sen-
etchers, however, they specialized in
sitive paper in a darkroom. Like
landscapes and cityscapes. The artists
etching, it provided a relatively
of the so-called Barbizon school
undemanding transition for painters.
brought new freshness, naturalism,
Meryon, who began as a map
and majesty to the depiction of the
engraver, was the first French artist of
native French landscape. They intro-
the period to make his career solely as
duced these qualities to printmaking
an etcher, to the exclusion of painting
by taking their portable copperplates
or reproductive printmaking. Almost
outside in order to better capture
all of Meryon's oeuvre consists of
nature. Daubigny, who had earned
etched views of Paris, rendered in
a substantial living as an illustrator,
precise detail and aided by highly
began etching after his return from
finished preliminary drawings as well
Italy in 1839 and had a studio boat
as photographs. 13 His best-known
specially built for the purpose of
work, an 1852 album of prints titled
etching bucolic scenes from his river
Eaux-fortes sur Paris (Etchings of Paris),
travels. Jacque made more than four
helped revive interest in the portfolio
hundred etchings between 1842 and
format. Topographically accurate but
1848, and introduced the technique
hardly picturesque, Meryon’s views
to his neighbor Jean-François Millet
depict a personal and disturbing
(1814–1875), who also etched original
vision of a vast and indifferent city.
compositions. Several Barbizon artists,
He was admired by fellow artists and
most notably Jean-Baptiste-Camille
by critics and writers such as Charles
Corot (1796–1875) and Dau bigny,
Baudelaire and Victor Hugo, and his
were the first to experiment with
short career and distinctive use of
cliché verre. The process of cliché verre
the medium formed an important
(meaning “glass negative”) involves
precedent for subsequent etchers.
s c r a t ch i n g t h r o u g h a p r e p a r e d ground on a glass plate to create a design, which is then printed onto light-sensitive paper in a darkroom.D2 Like etching, it provided a relatively undemanding transition for painters. The process of cliché verre (meaning
1 For the history of reproductive engraving duting this period, see Stephen Bann, Parallel Lines: Printmakers, Painters, and Photographers in Nineteenth-Century France (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2001). 2 Most cliche verre prints were produced by this method, but there is an alternative process that involves drawing with paint on uncoated glass. See Elizabeth Glassman and Marilyn F, Symmes, Cliche-Verre, Hand-Drawn, Light-Printed; A Survey of the Medium from 1839 to the present, exh. cat. (Detroit: Detroit Institute of Art, 1980). 3 See JamesD. Burke, Charles Meryon: Prints and Drawings, exh. cat. (New Haven: Yale University Art Gallery, 1974). 4 Michel Melot, The Impressionist Print, trans. Caroline Beamish (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1996), 30. 5 See Janine Bailly-Herzberg, L'eau-forte de peintre au dixneu-vieme siecle: La Societe des aquafortistes, 1862–1867, 2 vols. (Paris: L. Laget, 1972).
was printed and editioned, and who should be involved in the process, was the focus of considerable debate. The artist and printer Auguste Delatre (1822–1907), who had taken over Jacque’s printing shop in 1847, printed etchings for the painters of the modern school, including Corot, Daubigny, Meryon, and Millet. Many
CHARLES-FRANCOIS DAUBIGNY The Ferry at Bezons (Le bac de Bezons), plate: 9.7 x 16.1 cm, 1850. Etching
The question of how an image
of these artists insisted upon being present at the printing of their plates and being consulted in decisions about how they were printed. Several artists, including Meryon and Felix Bracquemond (1833–1914), printed their plates themselves and Bracquemond determined to print his own works “because there were no 4
good printers left,”1 and experimented with innovative methods of printing, reworking his plates in various states.
JEAN-FRANCOIS MILLET Leaving for Work (Le depart pour le travail), plate: 38.7 x 30.8 cm, 1863. Etching
Revivals and Modernity
also acquired their own presses.
12 / 13
Around 1860 growing critical favoritism toward etching paved the way for the so-called etching revival, which would flourish in France and England throughout the 1860s and 1870s. The Parisian publisher Alfred Cadart (1828–1875) founded the Societe des aquafortistes (Society of Etchers) in 1862.51 Employing the talents of the artists Bracquemond, Maxime Lalanne (1827–1886), Edouard Manet (1832–1883), and others, with Delatre as printer, the Societe des aquafortistes launched the series Eauxfortes modernes: Publication d 'c:euvres originales et inedites (Modern etchings: Original and unpublished works) in 1862. The series, which would continue until 1867, featured sixty new etchings annually, with five prints by five different artists each month, as well as earlier prints by artists such as Delacroix. Its first issue contained etchings by Bracquemond, Lalanne, and Manet, with subsequent editions including prints by the landscape painters Adolphe Appian (1818–1898), Corot, Daubigny, and Jacque. By this time photography had replaced reproductive engraving as the premier medium for reproducing an original work of art.
6 Quoted in Douglas Druick and Peter Zegers, "Degas and the Printed Image, 1856–1914," in Sue Welsh Reed and Barbara Stern Shapiro, Edgar Degas: The Painter as Printmaker, exh. cat. (Boston: Museum of Fine Arts, 1984), xxiii. 7 For a discussion of the relationship between etching and literature, see Anna Arnar, "Seduced by the Etcher's Needle: French Writers and the Graphic Arts in Nineteenth-Century France." in Elizabeth Helsinger et al., The "Writing" of Modern Life: The Etching Revival in France, Britain, and the U.S., 1850–1940, exh. cat. (Chicago: Smart Museum of Art, University of Chicago, 2008), 40.
Simultaneously, Cadart and his collab-
Enthusiastic critical support and
orators declared that among the print
promotion were essential to the
media etching was the most direct
success of Cadart’s endeavors and
manifestation of the artist’s creative
to the entire etching revival. Cadart
temperament because it was unmed-
engaged prominent critics to write
iated by mechanical and industrial
introductory texts for each issue of
processes. Extolling Rembrandt as
Eaux-fortes modernes in support of
etching’s greatest practitioner, they
his claims for etching’s superiority.
proclaimed the etching medium to
In the first issue Theophile Gautier
be the most like drawing. Directly
proclaimed the originality of the
connected to the hand of the
etching medium, noting, “every etching
artist, it was therefore the print
is an original drawing” and citing the
medium best suited to painters.
prints of Rembrandt as the epitome of the etcher’s art.61 In the second issue Jules Janvin detailed etching's superiority to photography. And in a preface to the third issue, Theophile Thore-
Revivals and Modernity
Burger promoted etching as “the analogue of printing and the press, which multiply written thought.” 27 Other literary figures also supported the primacy of etching, declaring it comparable to the written text in its capacity to disseminate a private artistic expression to a wide audience using the materials of paper and ink.38 The most influential critic was the poet Baudelaire, who, in his 1862 essay “Peintres et aquafortistes” (Painters and etchers), praised etching as a means of direct communication with the artist himself, noting that the medium made it difficult for the CHARLES-FRANCOIS DAUBIGNY The Goat Herder (La gardeuse de chevres), plate: 34.3 x 26.8 cm, 1862. Cliche verre
artist not to describe his most intimate personality. 49 Rejecting etching’s
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potential to become a popular medium,
Baudelaire characterized the technique
own prints embodied the tenets
as too personal, and therefore too
of the 1860s etching revival. He
aristocratic, to interest a larger public
exhorted artists to maintain the
beyond a close circle of knowledgeable
purity of the medium by respecting
10 1
amateurs. His claims for the intimacy
the integrity of the etched line,
of etching, and h is belief in its limited
and thus refraining from using
audience, were in direct conflict with
aquatint and other tonal methods.
Cadart’s advocacy of the etching as a popular vehicle. The success of Cadart's endeavor depended heavily upon the successful replication of images and their subsequent distribution to a wide audience. To that end Cadart worked with the printer
8 Martha Tedeschi, "The New Language of Etching in Nineteenth-Century England," in Helsinger, The "Writing" of Modern Life, 25–55; Arnar, "Seducecd by the Etcher's Needle," 39. 9 Charles Baudelaire, Art in Paris, 1845–1862: Salons and Other Exhibitions, trans. and ed. Jonathan Mayne (LondonL Phaidon, 1965), 217–22. 10 See Peter Parshall, "A Darker Side of Light: Prints, Privacy, and Possession," in Peter Parshall et, al., The Darker Side of Light: Arts of Privacy, 1850-1900, exh. cat. (Washington, DC: National Gallery of Art, 2009), 7. 11 Maxime Lalanne, The Technique of Etching, ed. Jay. M. Fisher, trans. S. R. Koehler (New York: Dover Publications, 1981). 12 See Melot, The Impressionist Print, 128. 13 See Reed and Shapiro, Edgar Degas.
Delatre on a new method of steelfacing the plates in order to preserve them and increase the number of impressions produced. The importance of the discerning collector and the question of limited editions would become a focus of debate in the ensuing decade, when Cadart’s medium diverged from the approach of collectors who favored the unique qualities of individual impressions. In 1866 Lalanne, an artist known for his etched city views as well as his landscape drawings, published his influential Le traite de la gravure a l 'eau-forte (Treatise on etching). It was the period’s most important and comprehensive discussion of the etching medium, with a second French edition in 1878 and subsequent editions in English.112 Both Lalanne’s treatise and his
ODILON REDON Apparition (La gardeuse de chevres), 1880-90. Charcoal and powdered charcoal with stumping and yellow pastel on brown wove
promotion of etching as a replicable
He also encouraged artists to do
also experimented with different
their own printing. Eschewing such
inkings and techniques, including
prescriptions, however, a number
retroussage, and these variations
of etchers gravitated toward exper-
increasingly attracted the support
imental and tonal techniques. In
of etchers during the 1870s. The
1876 the Maison Cadart, managed
production of individualized impres-
by Cadart's widow after his death
sions required the full commitment
in 1875, published Laux-fortes de
of the artist to the printing process
Lepic, an album of etchings by the
and precluded extended editioning
artist Ludovic Lepic. In the preface
and broad distribution. As a natural
Lepic declared that he would “make
extension of this interest in unique
prints like a painter, not like a
impressions, various artists were
12 1
Revivals and Modernity
printmaker,” He differentiated his
drawn to the monotype process. Edgar
impressions by creatively inking and
Degas (1834–1917) had worked with
wiping his plates, rather than making
virtually every graphic medium but
changes to the plates themselves,
rarely editioned his prints; he instead
thereby producing a series of unique
used various printmaking techniques,
impressions from the same plate.
particularly etching, experimentally
Lepic’s dramatic effects intentionally
1 and pulled proofs in various stages.13
hark back to Rembrandt's variations
Introduced to the monotype technique
in inking and wiping and to his use
by Lepic, he produced a range of
of papers of different textures and
monoprints that often involved
tones. Other French artists such as
extensive reworking and additions
Appian, and printers such as Delatre,
by hand in pastel and other media.
16 / 17 ADOLPHE0MARTIAL POTEMONT Seat of the Society of Etchers, 79 rue de Richelieu, plate: 25 x 36 cm, 1864. Etching
In the year of Cadart's death,
Felix-Hilaire Buhot (1847–1898) were
the critic Philippe Burty wrote an
of particular interest to collectors
article titled “La belle epreuve” (The
who valued specific features that
beautiful impression), in which he
distinguished an individual print
designated the first print off the press
or series of prints from others,
14 1
an “artist's proof.” The suggestion
such as proofs on special paper,
that one individual impression was
detailed recording of states, special
somehow most closely identified
stamps, signatures, and remarques.151
with the artist led to the creation of
The sometimes overly precious
a variety of designations directed
trappings of the belle epreuve stood
primarily at the collector who valued
in opposition to lithography’s popular
the unique impression over the
status as an easy means of dissemi-
uniform printed edition. A decade
nating images to a wide audience.
earlier Burty had advanced the idea
Lithography, though it shared etching’s
of limiting editions and destroying the
affinities with drawing, had not enjoyed
plates after printing, to the dismay of
the commercial or critical success that
some artists and publishers. Enthu-
etching had in the 1860s and 1870s.
siasts of the belle epreuve promoted
Cadart had tried, unsuccessfully,
the use of distinguishing features
to produce an Album lithographique
in impressions or limited editions
(Album of lithographs) in 1862, at
rather than relying on the natural
the same time that he published his
potential of the etching medium to
first Eaux-fortes modernes album, in the
produce a uniformly replicated suite
preface to which Gautier criticized
of images. The elaborate etchings of
“the vulgarity of the lithograph.” 14 See Allison Morehead, "Interlude: Bracquemond and Buhot," in Helsinger, The "Writing" of Modern Life, 58. Burty, who was himself a 15 collector, had first put forth the idea in 1863, and in 1869 insisted on the destruction of a plate by Millet after 350 copies had been printed. See Michel Melot, :The Nature and Rold of the Print," in Michel Melot et al., Prints, History of an Art (Geneva: Skira; New York: Rizzoli, 1981), 111. 16 For example, Degas had a collection of more than eight hundred Daumier prints. 17 See Clinton Adams, Nineteenth-Century Lithography in Europe (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Art Museum, 1998), 24. 18 Melot, The Impressionist Print, 118. 19 Lindsay Leard, "The Societe des Peintres-Graveurs Francais in 1889–97," Print Quarterly 14, no. 4 (December 1997), 355–63.
Burty had also supported the artistic merits of lithography in his preface to the 1861 sale catalogue of a group of lithographs by Romantic artists. But in spite of these claims for lithography as an artistic medium, it remained steadfastly linked in the eyes of critics and collectors with political imagery, propaganda, and commercialism. The spectacular pen lithographs of Rodolphe Bresdin (1822–1885) were
Revivals and Modernity
notable exceptions, but most fell
of detail and gradation of tone.
outside mainstream interests and
Beginning in the 1880s, proponents
garnered little attention from critics.
of lithography again promoted tradi-
Honore Daumier (1808–1879),
tional stone lithography and transfer
who had spent his career making
lithography as media for painters.
drawings on stone on a daily basis
Alfred Lemercier, who had declined
for popular magazines, was largely
to print lithographs, for Cadart’s
dismissed as a journalist by critics and
doomed project in 1862, ran the
collectors, if not by his fellow artists.161 largest lithographic printing business Indeed, in works such as Civil
in Paris. With multiple presses specif-
War of 1871, Manet was perhaps
ically designed for different types of
evoking the subversive nature of
lithography, Lemercier printed works
Daumier's lithographic crayon in his
by artists ranging from Bresdin to
depictions of actual events.
Eugene Carriere (1849–1906) and
Many of the techniques that had
Odilon Redon (1840–1916). The
facilitated the commercial devel-
most significant improvements of
opment of lithography had proved
the period were in the technique of
detrimental to the quality of the
transfer lithography, which obviated
17 2
18 / 19
prints. Most of Daumier's late works
the use of a lithographic stone, and
were printed by the new technique
these led to innovation and a revival of
of gillotage, which by the 1870s had
artistic lithography. Even more akin to
largely displaced lithography as a
drawing than traditional stone lithog-
means of printing popular imagery.
raphy, transfer lithography involves
Gillotage, which turned a lithographic
drawing with lithographic ink or
plate into a relief block compatible
crayon on special paper, which is then
with blocks of type, favored easy,
transferred to the lithographic stone
simultaneous production of print
and printed. The resulting image prints
and image. In many illustrations the
in the same direction as the drawing
RODOLPHE BRESDIN Bataille dans une plaine rocheuse, 1865. Etching
on paper, and can also convey the texture of the lithographic transfer paper. In the 1870s Lemercier introduced a thin, smooth coated paper, known as papier vegetal, which became exceptionally popular with artists. The smooth surface was receptive to delicate crayon work, and the paper, because of its thinness, could pick up the texture of any surface underneath it. Corot came to transfer lithography late in his career, in the 1870s, using drawings, with little reworking. Henri FantinÂL atour (1836–1904) first exhibited his lithographs at the Salon of 1877, employing the medium to create visual counterparts of music by Brahms, Schumann, and Wagner. He initially worked up a drawing on transfer paper placed over a textured surface, and then reworked the stone through scraping and crayon additions. Redon learned transfer techniques from FantinLatour; he too began with transfer lithography and then extensively reworked the drawing on the stone.
HONORE DAUMIER Meanwhile They Keep Insisting That She [The Monarchy] Has Never Been Better, 1872. Lithograph on newsprint
it largely as a medium to replicate
LUDOVIC LEPIC Lake Nemi, plate: 24 x 31.7 cm, 1870. Etching with monoprint inking in black on China paper
Revivals and Modernity
Many artists valued the ease and
and by the 1890s color lithog-
simplicity with which transfer lithog-
raphy would dominate the
raphy reproduced their drawings-the
market for the original print.
very qualities that had alienated critics
In many ways the first exhibition,
and collectors from lithography there-
in 1889, of the Societe des peintres-
tofore. As Redon noted, “Transfer
graveurs (Society of Painter-Print
paper is excellent for improvisation.
makers) represented a culmination
I like it very much because it is more
of the movement from the repro-
responsive than the stone.”
118
20 / 21
Use
ductive print to the idea of the print
of transfer paper allowed artists to
as an extension of the painter’s art. A
work on a composition in private
collaborative effort by Buhot, Burty,
without engaging with printers and
and the dealer Paul Durand-Ruel,
the larger collaborative workshop,
the Exposition des pei ntres-graveurs at
though, like Redon, many continued
the Durand-Ruel gallery featured
working on their compositions after
353 entries by thirty-nine artists.191
they were transferred to the stone.
Encompassing different generations
Although the use of transfer lithog-
of painters and printmakers, from
raphy wu uid continue to be contro-
the 1860s etching movement to the
versial, collectors soon gained confi-
Impressionists, the exhibition featured
dence in the medium of lithography,
original prints in all media alongside
paintings, drawings, and pastels. Maintaining that no reproductive work was included, Burty emphasized in his preface to the exhibition catalogue the importance of the print as an original expression of the artist, on an equal footing with painting and sculpture. Buoyed by critical support and commercial success, the artist’s print would continue its primacy well into the next century.
ODILON REDON Precarious Glimmering, a Head Suspended in Infinity (Lueur precaire, une tete a l'infini suspendue), 1891. Lithograph of chine colle
But where do they find these lines in nature? I can only see luminous or obscure masses, planes that advance or planes that recede, reliefs or background. My eye never catches lines or details.
— Francisco de Goya
this stream of terrifying imagery, pointing enigmatically to human f o l l y, i n t h e l a t e r s e r i e s L o s proverbios, which he made between 1816 a n d 1819 but w h i c h wa s published posthumously in 1864.
Dark Romanticism
Goya was no less sensitive to black drawing media than to print media. Throughout his career he produced drawings in brush and
From around 1850 to 1900, artists made black prints and drawings with increasing consciousness of the properties and effects of black media, and of the importance and meaning of black with respect to subject matter. This phenomenon had strong beginnings in the art of the preceding half-century.
black ink that are among the most delicate, sensitive, and, at times, disturbing tonal drawings ever made. He was deliberate and specific in his choice of media, selecting brown ink, black ink, or, later in life, during his exile in Bordeaux from 1824 to 1828, black crayon. Pierre
Dark Romanticism 24 / 25
A large part of the story of black
Gassier believed that Goya made
media and black subject matter in
this dramatic change of medium in
the later nineteenth century has its
connection with lithography- the
origins in the work of Francisco
latter was then emerging as a new
de Goya (1746 –1828). His series
print medium with which Goya
of etchings Los caprichos, published
was experimenting in Bordeaux. 21
in 1799, was his only body of work
These late drawings are black and
widely known in France until the
smudgy indeed, their backgrounds
m i d - n i ne t e e nt h c e nt u r y.
T he
often covered by deep deposits
imagery brought viewers face to face
of material for med by shading.
with a hitherto unimagined world
Delacroix’s greatest contribution
of savagery, lunacy, and demonic
to black media and the multivalent
frenzy. Night scenes play a key
associations of black with spiritual
role in the Caprichos, and Goya’s
darkness and artistic fantasy are his
masterful use of aquatint, whose
eighteen lithographic illustrations for
multitudinous tiny granules print
the 1828 French edition of Goethe’s
as light suffusing the darkness, is
Faust, Part One. The volume marks
critical to their baleful character.
an early milestone in the history of
The night sky be comes a flattened,
lithography, As it was the first major use
sh a d ow y c o s m i c b a c k d r o p t o
of the medium in France to illustrate
horrific actions. Goya continued
a contemporary work of literature.23
1
One drew freely on the lithographic
dark g raphic works that held
stone, needing no specialized print powerful sway over the next genermaking skills, and this made possible
ation of French artists. A Blacksmith
the tr ue livre de peintre (painter’s
depicts a modern-day Vulcan in a
book), of which Delacroix ‘s Faust
cave like forge; with his fearsome
was the first. 41 Mephistopheles Aloft,
expression and brute strength, he
with its ghastly energy and demonic
is the very incarnation of dark,
delight, embodied capricious
igneous forces. Delacroix's expert
evil as a universal force. It also
use of aquatint creates kaleidoscope
marked the moment when the
of vibrating shadows of varying
tonal black medium of lithography
intensity. The print dates from 1833,
became linked to its special
but it so inspired the next gener-
capacity to unleash the shadowy
ation of etching-revivalprintmakers
forces of the artistic imagination.
that it was printed, in its fifth state,
French Romantic artists turned to
in the same 1867 issue of Cadart’s
black in their exploration of themes
Eaux-fortes modernes (Modern
of horror, violence, demonic evil,
etchings) that contained the calmingly
and vital struggle. Like Goya, Eugene
tranquil A Pond near Rossi / Ion,
Delacroix (1798–1863) created
by Adolphe Appian (1818–1898).
FRANCISCO GOYA And His House Is on Fire, Ysele Quema La Casa, 1799. Etching and burnished aquatint, the plate-mark 218 x 152 mm, the entire sheet 332 x 241 mm.
1 Manuela B. Mena Marques, “Goya abd the Dark Beauty,” in Dark Romanticism: From Goya to Max Ernst, ed. Felix Kramer, exh. cat. (Osfildern: Hatje Cantz, 2012), 55. 2 Pierre Gassier, The Drawings of Goya: The Colplete Albums (London: Thames and Hudson, 1973), 499–501, 567, no. G. 42; Pierre Gaussier and Juliet Wilson, The life and Complete Work of Francisco Goya, 2ne ed. (New York: Harrison House, 1981), 366, no. 1747. 3 Gassier, The Drawings of Goya, 504. 4 Loys Delteil, Delacroix: The Graphic Work; A Catalogue Raisonne, trans. and rev. Susan Strauber (San Francisco: Alan Wofsy Fine Arts, 1997), 44-45, no. 19; Janine Bailly-Herzberg, L'eau-forte de peintre au dix-neuvieme siecle: La Societe des aquafortistes, 1862-1867 (Paris: L. Laget, 1972), 1:230, no. 290.
The artist yields often to the stimuli of materials that will transmit his spirit.
— Odilon Redon
Realist artists used black media to evoke the material weight, texture, and substance of working-class life. Many other French graphic artists used black to explore the realm of the imagination.In the work of some of the artists associated with the etching revival, the cityscape becomes a nightmare.
Fantasy and Dreams Shrouded in darkness and punctuated by the black silhouettes of its medieval towers, Paris is dwarfed by a vortex of tortured, ghostly corpses in Cholera in Paris by Francois-Nicolas Chifflart
Fantasy and Dreams
(1825–1901), inspired by cholera epidemics that struck the city in 1865.1 Nominally more realistic but hardly lessmacabre is The Moles by Felix Bracquemond (1833–1914), which shows a close-up view of a branch stuck in the ground, upon which the animals’ little black bodies swing forlornly.2 The verse at the lower left states that as the bodies dance in suspension from the branches, the mole catcher walks to the farm to collect his pay. The small, ingenious calling card of Victor Hugo (1802–1885), made with brush, ink, and watercolor, presents a cluster of self-references as an apparition floating in the black
28 / 29
space of the cosmos. Out of a puff of smoke appear the glowing letters of his name (surname in reverse),
which support a small, separately glued-on card showing his home in exile on the island of Guernsey. In the slight and witty sketch, the tiny house casts a looming shadow behind it.13 The tendency to dematerialize the world through diminution finds its most extreme and compelling exponent in Rodolphe Bresdin (1822– 1885). The lithograph The Flight into Egypt, typically for him, presents its miniature human subjects subsumed
1 Loys Deliteil, Delacroix: The Graphic Work; A Catalogue Raisonne, trans. and rev. Susan Strauber (San Francisco: Alan Wofsy Fine Arts, 1997), 44–45, no. 19: Janine Bailly-Herzberg, L’eauforte de peintre au dix-neuviene Siecle: La Societe des aquafortistes, 1862–1867 (Paris: L. :aget, 1972), 1:230, no. 290. 2 Robert Vilain, “Faust, Part One and France: Stapfer’s Translation, Delacroix’s Lithographs, Goethe’s Responses,” Publications of the English Gorthe Society 81, 2 (Jund 2012):73. 3 Jacqueline Armingeat, “The Illustrated Book,” in Lithography: 200 Years of Art, History, and Technique, ed. Dominico Prozio, trans. Geoffrey Culverwell (New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1983), 223.
in a nocturnal natural environment FRANCISCO DE GOYA They Are Dying (Se mueren), ca. 1825-28 Black crayon on laid paper
that branches and subdivides into ever smaller, infinitesimal parts.42 Lit only by the night sky, the image becomes a self-contained microcosm whose obsessive and haunted aspects allude to the visionary mental world of the artist. While most lithographers exploited the smudgy, shading capacity of the lithographic crayon, Bresdin employed a polar opposite technique, drawing on the stone with a pen.53 One can appreciate this pen work in the rendered in black printer's ink with a metal nib so fine, and with such a light touch, that it can be fully perceived only with the aid of magnification. Bresdin’s most famous work, the lithograph The Good Samaritan, is a tour de force in which the artist's burgeoning, enchanted world of natural minutia expands to monumental, indeed suffocating, scale and profusion.6
FRANCISCO DE GOYA Contemptuous of the Insults, 1816-20 Brush and india ink, 29.5 x 18.3 cm (11 5/8 x 7 3/16 in.)
small drawing Fishing Port, which is
As Redon developed his dark visions over the course of the 1870s and 1880s, he exploited the floating quality of charcoal to a fuller extent than any other artist. He achieved this by applying successive layers, each of which he fixed before applying the next one. In addition, the fixative lent 9
a golden patina, which he prized. 1 CHARLES MERYON The Vampire (Le stryge), 1855 Etching on gray laid paper
These rich materials contributed to the celebrated chromatic quality of his 2 black drawings, as seen in Apparition.10
Here the abstract medium of black charcoal becomes part of the floating vision as it rains down in heavy deposits in front of a magus like head. Lithography offered a seamless way for Redon to translate the
Fantasy and Dreams
imager y and the effects of his black drawings into printed form. Using the technique of transfer lithography, he drew with waxy lithographic Whereas Bresdin’s murky fantasies at least reference an intact earth and celestial fir mament, those of his follower Odilon Redon (1840–1916) fragmented them into a floating, darkened cosmos of dismembered parts and hybrids. Redon created charcoal drawings, which he called his noirs, of such material power and richness, and with such compelling oneiric subject matter, that they came to define the essence of black to an extent that
30 / 31
remains unequaled.71 Indeed, as Jodi Hauptman ob served, Redon “made an art of the imagination that is inseparable from his use of charcoal.” 28
crayon on special paper, which was
(out of six lithographs and a title
transferred to the lithographic stone.
page) in To Edgar Poe, published in
Often he spontaneously worked the
1882. The strange balloon-eye from
stone further, adding texture and
which a severed head in a basket
density with the black crayon and
hangs is related to Poe's writings
scraping the medium away to form
only in an extremely oblique way. It
glowing whites, as in the crown of
has been speculated that it perhaps
thorns in Christ. In particular he
evokes the fantastical journeys into
produced suites of lithographs in
the unknown, the boundary crossing,
portfolio form that were sometimes
and the sojourns into the infinite
inspired by or dedicated to visionary
1 that Poe explored in his writings.11
writers such as Charles Baudelaire, Gustave Flaubert, and Edgar Allan Poe. These portfolios appealed to the sophisticated literati who appreciated Redon’s work and who would have contemplated the suggestive relationship of these private dream images to the accompanying text in the intimacy of a study or drawing room. The Eye, like a Strange Balloon, Mounts toward Infinity is the first plate FRANCOIS-NICOLAS CHIFFLART Cholera in Paris (Le cholera sur Paris), from Improvisations on Copper (Omprovisations sur cuivre), 1865 Etching wirh drypoint on wove paper
4 See Peyton Skipth, “Toward a Gothic Vision,” in Elizabeth Helsinger et al., The “Writing” of Modern Life: The Etching Revival in France, Britain, and the U.S., 1850–1940, exh. cat. (Chicago: Smart Museum of Art, University of Chicago, 2008), 68–78. Valerie Sueur-Hermel, 5 Francois Chifflart, graveur et illustrateur, exh. cat. (Paris: Reunion des musees nationaux, 1993), 29, 56, no. 12; Peter Parshall, “A Darker Side of Light: Arts of Privacy, 1850–1900, exh. cat. (Washington, DC: National Gallery of Art, 2009), 32–36. 6 The print was published by Alfred Cadart in July 1866. See Janine Bailly-Herzberg, L’eauforte de peintre au dix-neuvieme siecle: La Societe des aquafortistes, 1862–1867 (Paris: L. Laget, 1972), 1:188, no. 231.
T he most extensive of these
R e d o n’s m y s t i c a l s p i r i t u a l i t y
portfolios was inspired by Flaubert's
dominates the portfolio Dreams-In
phantasmagoric novel, The Temptation
Memory of My Friend Armand Clavaud
of Saint Anthony, and was published
(six lithographs), published in 1891.
in three series, in 1888, 1889, and
The plant physiologist and pantheist
1896. The plates in this exhibition are
Clavaud was a crucial presence in
from the 1888 series (which contains
Redon's life and shaped the artist’s
ten lithographs and a frontispiece)
perspective on spiritual matters. In
and display Redon's hallucinatory
the hauntingly delicate Day the thick
images accompanied by the corre-
wall of a dark prison cell is penetrated
sponding lines or passages from
by a barred window just beyond
12 1
Flaubert's book.
His visualization
which are ethereal trees growing in
of Flaubert's words taps into a quasi-
an unbounded natural world bathed
aquatic, quasi-entomological world
in brilliant sunlight, calling to mind
of alternately beautiful and horrible
the twin animating forces of natural
metamorphosis and dismemberment.
1 light and spiritual illumination.13
The 1860s and 1870s witnessed the explosive growth of lithography
Fantasy and Dreams
as a medium of creative expression. It was in 1878 that Redon was introduced to transfer lithography by Henri Fantin-Latour (1836–1904).142 Indeed, during the 1870s and 1880s Fantin Latour would become a major force in fostering a lithographic revival and reestablishing the preeminence of the painter-lithographer.153 Just as Redon's charcoal drawings and lithographs were cognates within his oeuvre, so too were Fantin Latour’s felix bracquemond The Moles (Les taupes), 1854 Etching on Japan paper
lithographs and drawings on tracing paper in lithographic crayon.Although on occasion Fantin Latour made enebrist, Rembrandtesque drawings in charcoal in which light and
32 / 33
shadow are dramatically separated, he invented a much different style of drawing for proto-Symbolist imaginative subject matter, which he also employed in his lithographs.
An example of this type of drawing is The Discouraged Artist, rendered in lithographic crayon on waxy lithographic transfer paper. Here he odilon redon Christ, 1887 Lithograph on laid paper
drew myriad discrete long hatchings in varying tones of black and gray. These hatchings never cohere as solid form, an effect heightened by his use of a grattoir (scraper) throughout the drawing to remove the crayon and allow the blank paper to shine through. The work also shows some of the drawbacks of the waxy lithographic paper, such as its resistance to establishing the richest range of tonal values and its tendency to 1 pucker when heavily worked.16 The
weightless figures, composed, alternately, of the action of luminosity and shadow, assume a mirage like quality. This dreamy, soft-focus otherworldliness suited the mythic and figural narratives that populate Fantin Latour’s lithographs, such as those that lend form to the world of music: Paradise and the Peri, inspired by Schumann’s eponymous oratorio; Love Poems, which evokes Brahms’s Liebeslieder (Love songs) waltzes; and the Wagnerian Twilight of the Gods: Siegfried and the Rhine Maidens.
7 See Florian Rodari et al., Shadows of a Hand: The Drawings of Victor Hugo, exh. cat. (New York: Drawing Center in association with Merrell Holberton, London, 1998), 99, no. 60. 8 Dirk Van Felder, Rodolphe Bresdin, Vol. 2, Catalogue raisonne de loeuvre grave (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1976), 39–44, no. 85. See also Harold Joachim, 9 “Rodolphe Bresdin,” in Odilon Redon, Gustave Moreau, Rodolphe Bresdin, exh. cat. (New York: Museum of Modern Art, 1962), 150. 10 Van Gelder, Rodolphe Bresdin, 2:66–73, no. 100. 11 For and excellent discussion of Redon in the wider context of charcoal drawing and other black media in nineteenth-century French draftsmanship, see Marie Pierre Sale, “The Singularity of Odilon Redon’s Charcoals,” in Odilon Redon: As in a Dream, ed. Margret Stuffmann and Max Hollein, exh. cat. (Os fildern” Hatje Cantz, (2007), 42–49. 12 See Jodi Hauptman, "Beyond the Visible," in Beyond the Visible: The Art of Odilon Redon, exh. cat. (New York: Museum of Modern Art, 2005), 28ff. 13 See especially Harriet K. Stratis, "Beneath the Surface: Redon's Methods and Materials," in Doughlas W. Druick et al., Odilon Redon: Prince of Dreams, 1840–1916, exh. cat. (Chicago: Art Institute of Chicago, 1994), 354–431. 14 See the essay by Michelle Sullivan and Nancy Yoccoin this publication. 15 See Norbert Miller, "Le fantastique reel: Redon's Encounter with Edgar Allan Poe," in Odilon Redon, 59–67. 16 See especially Starr Figura, "Redon and the Lithographed Portfolio." in Beyond the Visible, 77–95.
Against the backdrop of elaborately realized phantasmagoric and mythic visions stood the eccentric, dark primitivism of Henri-Charles Guerard (1846–1897). Reverting to printmaking at its most elemental, he inked and printed his own right hand, titling the result My Guilty Hand. Through the work’s ver y starkness, it and its arresting variant Monkey’s Hand generate unsettling suggestions about the fluid identities of humans and other primates.171
Fantasy and Dreams FRANCISCO GOYA A Way of Flying (Modo de volar), plate 13 from Los proverbios, 1816-19, published 1864 Etching and aquatint on wove paper
34 / 35
FRANCISCO GOYA The Simpleton (Bobalicon), plate 4 from Los proverbios, 1816-19, published 1864 Etching, aquatint, and brushing on wove paper
17 See Barbara Larson, "From Botany to Belief: Odilon Redon and Armand Clavaud," in Odilon Redon, 94–101. 18 See Figura, "Redon and the Lithographed Portfolio," 79. 19 The Getty drawing was apparently not translated into a lithograph. See Fantin-Latour, ed. Douglas W. Druick and Michel Hoog, exh. cat. (Ottawa: Gallery for the Corporation of the National Museums of Canada, 1983), 279ff; Jos ten Berge, Kees Keijer, and Teio Meedendorp, "Hommes de valeur": Henri Fantin-Latour, Odilon Redon en tijdgenoten, exh. cat. (Zwolle: Waanders, 2002), 55, 79. 20 Druick and Hoog, Fantin-Latour, 283–84. 21 See Henri Guerard:Prints from a Private Collection; Selection of Ten Fine Works (Brussels: Eric Gillis, 2013), no. 1.
Francisco Jose de Goya y Lucientes 1746 -- 1828
Francisco José de Goya Lucientes
to any specific artistic category;
was born on March 30, 1746, in
his work was unique. However,
the northern Spanish town of
his ability to expose and depict the
Fuendetodos. He lived most of
foibles and evils of human nature
his adult life in Madrid, where he
as well as his original technique
painted for the Spanish royal court
of painting with slashing
and he died in exile in Bordeaux,
brushstrokes greatly influenced
France, at the age of 82. He is
many 19th and 20th centur y
best known for his paintings
artists. Goya is now considered
of portraits and genre scenes,
to be an important forerunner
for menacing and melancholy
of the modern art movement.
images that he painted during his
Art Principles
later years, and especially for his
Contrast—Contrast refers to differ-
superb graphic works, including
ences in values, colors, textures,
numerous satirical drawings
shapes and other elements so that
and etchings that reflected both
when placed next to each other,
his sense of skepticism about
the differences can be discerned
human nature and his abhorrence
and emphasized. Contrasts of
of tyranny and violence.
value, shape, and texture are all
Historians view Goya as an
emphasized in Goya’s works.
important artistic link between
Emphasis—Artists create dominant
the 18th and 19th Centuries, in a
points of focus and interest
time when art transitioned from
in their works by the use of
a decorative era (mainly serving
emphasis. Goya created emphasis
to please or instr uct) into a
on the most important subject or
diverse modern era (where each
focal point of his works by the use
artist created his own artistic
of placement, color dominance,
vision). Goya cannot be assigned
value contrast, or shape contrast.
SAVAGE BEAUTY
38 / 39 FRANCISCO GOYA Two Old Women Eating from a Bowl, 1820-23 Oil on plaster, transferred to canvas, 49.3 x 83.4 cm |
SAVAGE BEAUTY
40 / 41
FRANCISCO GOYA Saturn Devouring His Son (Saturno devorando a su hijo), 1819-23 Mural painting transferred to canvas, 57.5" x 32.75"
FRANCISCO GOYA The Sleep of Reason Produces Monsters, 1799 Etching, aquatint, drypoint, and burin, 21.2 x 15.1 cm
SAVAGE BEAUTY FRANCISCO GOYA Who Would Have Thought It! (Quien Lo Creyera!), 1799 Original Etching and Aquatint, 8.07" x 5.91"
FRANCISCO GOYA bon voyage (Buen Viage), 1799 Etching, burnished aquatint and burin, 21.5 × 15.7 cm
42 / 43
SAVAGE BEAUTY
44 / 45 FRANCISCO GOYA They Spruce Themselves Up (Se repulen), 1799 Etching, burnished aquatint, drypoint, and burin with watercolor additions on laid paper, 21 x 15 cm
FRANCISCO GOYA When Day Breaks We Will Be Off (Si amanece; nos vamos), 1797-99 Etching and aquatint on ivory laid paper, 198 x 149 mm
FRANCISCO GOYA Hobgoblins (Duendecitos), 1799 Etching, burnished aquatint, drypoint, and burin with watercolor additions on laid paper, 21.5 x 15 cm
Francis Bacon 1561 -- 1626
Francis Bacon, Baron Verulam,
themes that would occupy the rest
Viscount St. Albans, was born
of his career, namely humanity's
on 22 January 1561, in London,
capacity for self-destruction and
England, and died on 9 April 1626.
its fate in an age of global war.
He produced some of the most
  Bacon established his mature
iconic images of wounded and
style when he evolved his earlier
traumatized humanity in post-war
Surrealist style into an approach
art. Borrowing inspiration from
that borrowed from depictions of
Surrealism, film, photography,
motion in film and photography,
and the Old Masters, he forged
in par ticular the studies of
a distinctive style that made him
figures in action produced by the
one of the most widely recognized
early photographer Eadweard
exponents of figurative art in the
Muybridge. From these Bacon
1940s and 1950s. But his subjects
not only pioneered new ways to
were always portrayed as violently
suggest movement in painting, but
distor ted, presented not as
to bring painting and photography
sociable and charismatic types but
into a more coherent union.
as isolated souls imprisoned and
  Although Bacon's success
tormented by existential dilemmas.
rested on his striking approach
One of the most successful British
to figuration, his attitudes
painters of the twentieth century,
toward painting were profoundly
Bacon's reputation was elevated
traditional. The Old Masters
further during the widespread
were an important source of
return to painting in the 1980s,
inspiration for him, particularly
and after his death he was viewed
Diego Velazquez's Portrait of
by some as one of the world's
Pope Innocent X (c.1650) which
most important painters.
Bacon used as the basis for his
  Biomorphic Surrealism shaped
own famous series of "screaming
the style of T hree Studies
popes." At a time when many lost
for Figures at the Base of a
faith in painting, Bacon maintained
Crucifixion (1944), the work that
his belief in the importance of the
launched Bacon's reputation when
medium, saying of his own working
it was exhibited in London in the
that his own pictures "deserve
final weeks of World War Two.
either the National Gallery or the
The work established many of the
dustbin, with nothing in between."
48 / 49
FRANCIS BACON Crucifixion, 1965 Oil paint on 3 boards, each 940 x 737 mm
50 / 51 FRANCIS BACON Self Portrait, 1971 Oil on canvas, 35.5 x 30.5 cm
SAVAGE BEAUTY
FRANCIS BACON These self-portraits, 1974 Oil on canvas, each 14" x 125
52 / 53
FRANCIS BACON Three Studies for Figures at the Base of a Crucifixion, 1944 Oil on canvas and Pastel, 2' 5" x 3' 1"
SAVAGE BEAUTY
54 / 55
FRANCIS BACON Portrait of Henrietta Moraes, 1963 Oil on canvas, 65" x 56"
SAVAGE BEAUTY
56 / 57
FRANCIS BACON Three Studies for Portrait of Lucian Freud, 1965 Oil on canvas, each 14" x 11 7/8"
SAVAGE BEAUTY
58 / 59
FRANCIS BACON Study after Velรกzquez's Portrait of Pope Innocent X, 1953 Oil on canvas, 60" ร 46"
FRANCIS BACON Figure with Meat, 1954 Oil on canvas, 4' 3" x 4' 0"
Llyn Foulkes 1957 -- 1959
Llyn Foulkes (born 1934, 17
a light romance with nostalgic
November, Yakima, Washington)
Americana, savag e por traits
is an American artist living and
reminiscent of Francis Bacon and
working in Los Angeles. He
scathing commentaries on the
has been called the Zelig of
insidious nature of commercial
contemporary art. Over the past five
pop culture — particularly
decades he has been consistently
the products of Disney (dead
inconsistent, confounding critics
Mickey’s are strewn through
and galleries with dramatic changes
recent works). And although he
of direction whenever it seemed
has zigged and zagged through
he was about to be overtaken by
the decades, an echo of Dada
popular acclaim. He’s also been
and a Duchampian playfulness
consistently ahead of the curve.
inform much of his work (though
He showed a year before Andy
certainly not in a manner that
Warhol at the legendary Ferus
reveals any dreaded consistency).
Gallery in the mid-60's and was
He is also an accomplished
heralded as an early master of Pop
jazz musician. He played with R.
with his famous ‘Cow’ (a nicely
Crumb and formed the Rubber
rendered creature in blank space),
Band, appearing once on Johnny
anticipating Warhol’s bovine prints
Carson’s Tonight Show. Talking
by three years. Among the artists
to him, it’s clear he has a huge
with whom he emerged were John
fondness for the music. He is more
Baldessari, Wallace Berman, Robert
ambivalent about his career as an
Irwin and Ed Ruscha. Although he
artist (“painting is my torment,
would probably scoff at the label,
music is my joy” is a lyric from his
many admirers regard his musical
song, “A Ghost in Hollywood”),
performances as performance art.
possibly because he is so irked
His eclectic oeuvre includes
by an ar t market dominated
intriguing meditations on the
by bottom-line g alleries and
nature of photographic images,
self-important arbiters of cool.
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LLYN FOULKES But I Thought Art Was Special (Mickey & Me), 1995 Mixed media, 42 x 31.5 x 2.25"
LLYN FOULKES The Crucifixion, 1985 Mixed media, 42 x 31.5 x 2.25"
SAVAGE BEAUTY
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LLYN FOULKES Foulkes Mr.Palmer, 2011 Mixed media, 8.7 x 7.5 "
LLYN FOULKES Lucky Adam, 1985 Mixed media, 127 x 88.9 cm
SAVAGE BEAUTY
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LLYN FOULKES O Pablo, 1983 Acrylic and recycled materials, 208.3 x 251.5 x 22.9 cm
SAVAGE BEAUTY
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LLYN FOULKES Untitled (Bloody Head), 1975 Mixed media, 23.5 x 20.2 x 3.5 cm
Kris Kuksi 1973 -- Present
Born March 2, 1973, in Springfield
– From timeless iconic references
Missouri and g rowing up in
o f G o d s a n d G o d d e s s, t o
neighboring Kansas, Kris spent
challenging ideas of organized
his youth in rural seclusion and
religion and morality, to the
isolation along with a blue-collar,
struggle to understand, and bend,
working mother, two significantly
the limits of mortality. None
older brothers, and an absent
is complete without a final and
father. Open country, sparse trees,
brilliant touch of satire and rebuke
and alcoholic stepfather, all paving
all conceived in the aesthetic
the way for an individual saturated
essence of the Baroque fused with
in imagination and introversion.
the modern day industrial world.
His propensity for the unusual
In personal reflection, Kris feels
has been a constant since
that in the world today much of
childhood, a lifelong fascination
mankind is oftentimes frivolous
that lent itself to his macabre
and fragile, being driven primarily
art later in life. The grotesque to
by greed and materialism. He
him, as it seemed, was beautiful.
hopes that his art exposes the
Kris Kuksi garners recognition
fallacies of Man, unveiling a new
and acclaim for the intricate
level of awareness to the viewer.
sculptures that result from his
His work has received several
unique and meticulous technique.
awards and prizes and has been
A process that requires countless
featured in over 100 exhibitions in
h o u r s t o a s s e m b l e, c o l l e c t ,
galleries and museums worldwide
manipulate, cut, and re-shape
including the Smithsonian’s
thousands of individual parts,
National Portrait Gallery. Kris’ art
finally uniting them into an
can also be seen in a number of
orchestral-like seamless cohesion
international art magazines, book
that defines the historical rise
covers and theatrical posters. Kris’
and fall of civilization and
art is featured in both public and
envisions the possible future(s)
private collections in the United
of humanity. Each sculpture
States, Europe, and Australia that
embodies the trademarks of his
include individuals such as Mark
philosophy and practice, while
Parker (Nike CEO), Kay Alden,
ser ving as a testament to the
Fred Durst, Chris Weitz, Guillermo
multifaceted nature of perception
del Toro and Robin Williams.
KRIS KUKSI Antics and Mechanical Frolic, 2008 Mixed Media Assemblage, 34" x 34" x 9"
KRIS KUKSI Through Death United, 2007 Mixed Media Assemblage, 35" x 91" x 13"
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KRIS KUKSI The Beast of Babylon, 2008 Mixed Media Assemblage, 44" x 48" x 15"
76 / 77
SAVAGE BEAUTY
KRIS KUKSI Original Sin, 2007 Mixed Media Assemblage, 21" x 20" x 9"
SAVAGE BEAUTY
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KRIS KUKSI The Decision, 2007 Mixed Media Assemblage, 30" x 30" x 9"
KRIS KUKSI Lies and Persuasion, 2007 Mixed Media Assemblage, 34" x 25" x 5"
Alexander McQueen 1969 -- 2004
Alexander McQueen was born
The Cut’s Véronique Hyland and
on March 17, 1969, in Lewisham,
fashion bloggers Tom Fitzgerald
London. He became head designer
and Lorenzo Marquez, better
of the Louis Vuitton-owned
known as Tom&Lorenzo, on
Givenchy fashion line and, in
how the designer challenged
2004, launched his own menswear
the industr y he reveled in.
line. He earned the British Fashion
The overall shape, or silhouette,
Council's British Designer of the
of McQueen’s designs weren’t
Year award four times, and was
always human. The Armadillo
named Commander of the Order
boot, made famous by pop star
of the British Empire. McQueen
Lady Gaga in the “Bad Romance”
committed suicide in 2010, shortly
music video, is nearly 12 inch
after the death of his mother.
high footwear that elongated
Five years since his suicide in
the leg. It also transformed a
2010, McQueen, known to his
woman’s foot into a lobster claw.
friends as “Lee,” has been the
The shoe appeared in one of
subject of two biographies this
McQueen’s final runway shows
year, and an art exhibition called
in October 2010, in a collection
“Savage Beauty” that originally
that also included shoes inspired
opened in New York in 2011 and,
by the creature in 1979’s
more recently, in London. As
“Alien” and ensembles that
the designhouse McQueen built
made models look like jellyfish.
seeks to double in size, creative
“To do something special,
director Sarah Burton, who took
yo u
over the reins when McQueen
s i l h o u e t t e ,”
died, told The New York Times
The “Savage Beauty” exhibition
Style Magazine last year that the
at the Met in 2011 and the
company — and the work — had
Victoria&Alber t in London
to move on. The McQueen woman
this summer took McQueen’s
that graces the r unway these
garments out of the context of
days carefully steps away from
their theatrical productions and
the personal demons that fueled
set them behind the glass. In
Lee’s light-absorbing imagination.
their stillness, the clothes were
With the release of the full-length
divorced from the catwalk where
biography, “Alexander McQueen:
so much of McQueen’s artistry
B l o o d B e n e a t h t h e S k i n ,”
was found in seeing them move.
need
to
ch a n g e Wilson
the said.
SAVAGE BEAUTY
82 / 83 ALECANDER MCQUEEN Jellyfish: Spring/Summer 2010 A dress, leggings, and “Armadillo” boots (that are themselves embroidered with iridescent enamel paillettes), makes up the Jellyfish by McQueen.
ALECANDER MCQUEEN Oyster Dress: Spring/Summer 2003 The ivory silk-organza, georgette, and chiffon dress is a masterpiece, fusing luxe textures and fabrics.
SAVAGE BEAUTY
TIt’s Only A Game: Spring/Summer 2005 The dress and sash are made of lilac and silver brocade, while the silk jacket is embroidered with silver thread. The top nude section is also embroidered with silk thread.
ALECANDER MCQUEEN The Horn of Plenty: Autumn/Winter 2009-2010 Crafted from black duck feathers with an architectural approach to the silhouette.
84 / 85
ALECANDER MCQUEEN
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ALECANDER MCQUEEN Sarabande: Spring/Summer 2007 Nude silk-organza embroidered dress with silk flowers is yet another theatrical and romantic creation from the designer. Not only are there appliquĂŠd man made flowers, but fresh flowers were also used
ALECANDER MCQUEEN Eshu: Autumn/Winter 2000-2001 Yellow glass beads blending down into thick brown horsehair – contrast of textures.
Paul McCarthy 1945 -- Present
In the works of Los Angeles-based
entertainment-driven mass media
artist
M c C a r t h y,
and popular culture. Though
conventionally innocent figures
serious in intent and critique,
are made perverse, performing
McCarthy’s performances, and
taboo sex acts, making McCarthy
sculptures alike have an important
one of the most difficult-to-
element of comedy, though
stomach yet commercially
twisted and profane, that aids
and critically successful artists
in highlighting the absurdity of
of recent decades. Drawing
contemporar y circumstances.
inspiration from the radically
McCarthy's work has been
confrontational Viennese
exhibited extensively, including
Actionists and the Happenings
solo shows at the Hammer
of Allan Kaprow and others,
Museum in Los Angeles, the
McCarthy quickly strayed away
Whitney Museum of American
from his initial interest in painting
Art in New York City, the New
and in the 1970s began composing
Museum in New York, the
performances with the goal of
Museum of Contemporary Art
physically disrupting the sense of
in Los Angeles, the Museum
material comfort, general apathy,
of Modern Art. His work has
and violent cultural dissolution
also been featured at numerous
that he viewed as the results of
incarnations of the Whitney
the United States’ consumerist,
Biennial and the Venice Biennale.
Paul
SAVAGE BEAUTY
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PAUL MCCARTHY Train, Mechanica, 2003-09 Steel, platinum silicone, fiberglass, rope, electrical and mechanical components, 109 x 60 x 223"
SAVAGE BEAUTY
92 / 93 PAUL MCCARTHY Santa Chocolate Shop, 1997 Still From a Color Film
PAUL MCCARTHY Grand Pop, 1977 Performance View
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PAUL MCCARTHY Still from Painter, 1995 Video, projection or monitor, colour and sound, 50min, 1sec
PAUL MCCARTHY Spaghetti Man, 1993 Fibreglass, silicone, metal, clothing and fake fur, metal weight, 254 x 84 x 57 cm
SAVAGE BEAUTY
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PAUL MCCARTHY The Saloon, 1995–96 Mixed Media, 139 x 191 x 110" Installation view showing Dance Hall Girl and Cowboy (Gunfighter)
List of Works Francisco Jose de Goya y Lucientes
Two Old Women Eating from a Bowl, 1820-23 Oil on plaster, transferred to canvas, 49.3 x 83.4 cm
Francis Bacon
Saturn Devouring His Son (Saturno devorando a su hijo), 1819-23 Mural painting transferred to canvas, 57.5" x 32.75"
Self Portrait, 1971 Oil on canvas, 35.5 x 30.5 cm
These self-portraits, 1974 Oil on canvas, each 14" x 125
The Sleep of Reason Produces Monsters, 1799 Etching, aquatint, drypoint, and burin, 21.2 x 15.1 cm
Three Studies for Figures at the Base of a Cruci xion, 1944 Oil on canvas and Pastel, 2' 5" x 3' 1"
Who Would Have Thought It! (Quien Lo Creyera!), 1799 Original Etching and Aquatint, 8.07" x 5.91"
Portrait of Henrietta Moraes, 1963 Oil on canvas, 65" x 56"
bon voyage (Buen Viage), 1799 Etching, burnished aquatint and burin, 21.5 × 15.7 cm
Three Studies for Portrait of Lucian Freud, 1965 Oil on canvas, each 14" x 11 7/8"
They Spruce Themselves Up (Se repulen), 1799 Etching, burnished aquatint, drypoint, and burin with watercolor additions on laid paper, 21 x 15 cm
When Day Breaks We Will Be Off (Si amanece; nos vamos), 1797-99 Etching and aquatint on ivory laid paper, 198 x 149 mm
Hobgoblins (Duendecitos), 1799 Etching, burnished aquatint, drypoint, and burin with watercolor additions on laid paper, 21.5 x 15 cm
Cruci xion, 1965 Oil paint on 3 boards, each 940 x 737 mm
Study after Velázquez's Portrait of Pope Innocent X, 1953 Oil on canvas, 60" × 46"
Figure with Meat, 1954 Oil on canvas, 4' 3" x 4' 0"
Llyn Foulkes
But I Thought Art Was Special (Mickey & Me), 1995 Mixed media, 42 x 31.5 x 2.25"
The Cruci xion, 1985 Mixed media, 42 x 31.5 x 2.25"
Foulkes Mr.Palmer, 2011 Mixed media, 8.7 x 7.5 "
Lucky Adam, 1985 Mixed media, 127 x 88.9 cm
O Pablo, 1983 Acrylic and recycled materials, 208.3 x 251.5 x 22.9 cm
Untitled (Bloody Head), 1975 Mixed media, 23.5 x 20.2 x 3.5 cm
Kris Kuksi
Antics and Mechanical Frolic, 2008 Mixed Media Assemblage, 34" x 34" x 9"
Through Death United, 2007 Mixed Media Assemblage, 35" x 91" x 13"
The Beast of Babylon, 2008 Mixed Media Assemblage, 44" x 48" x 15"
Original Sin, 2007 Mixed Media Assemblage, 21" x 20" x 9"
The Decision, 2007 Mixed Media Assemblage, 30" x 30" x 9"
Lies and Persuasion, 2007 Mixed Media Assemblage, 34" x 25" x 5"
Alexander McQueen
Jellyfish: Spring/Summer 2010 A dress, leggings, and “Armadillo” boots (that are themselves embroidered with iridescent enamel paillettes), makes up the Jellyfish by McQueen.
Oyster Dress: Spring/Summer 2003 The ivory silk-organza, georgette, and chiffon dress is a masterpiece, fusing luxe textures and fabrics.
TIt’s Only A Game: Spring/Summer 2005 The dress and sash are made of lilac and silver brocade, while the silk jacket is embroidered with silver thread. The top nude section is also embroidered with silk thread.
The Horn of Plenty: Autumn/Winter 2009-2010 Crafted from black duck feathers with an architectural approach to the silhouette.
Sarabande: Spring/Summer 2007 Nude silk-organza embroidered dress with silk flowers is yet another theatrical and romantic creation from the designer. Not only are there appliquéd man made flowers, but fresh flowers were also used
Eshu: Autumn/Winter 2000-2001 Yellow glass beads blending down into thick brown horsehair – contrast of textures.
Paul McCarthy
Train, Mechanica, 2003-09 Steel, platinum silicone, fiberglass, rope, electrical and mechanical components, 109 x 60 x 223"
Santa Chocolate Shop, 1997 Still From a Color Film
Grand Pop, 1977 Performance View
Still from Painter, 1995 Video, projection or monitor, colour and sound, 50min, 1sec
Spaghetti Man, 1993 Fibreglass, silicone, metal, clothing and fake fur, metal weight, 254 x 84 x 57 cm
The Saloon, 1995–96 Mixed Media, 139 x 191 x 110" Installation view showing Dance Hall Girl and Cowboy (Gunfighter) additions on laid paper, 21.5 x 15 cm
Exhibition Checklist Publications:
The checklist reproduces the instal-
Every effort has been made to follow
lation sequence of the exhibition,
the standardizations established in
which is arranged thematically, to
this publication. In particular, the
allow for comparison and contrast
term conte is used generically to
of treatment of subject, style, and
describe drawing sticks composed of
technique, rather than chronologicÂ
carbon-black pigment and a binder,
ally. Titles of individual works have
except for specific references to
been translated from the original
Nicolas-Jacques Conte, his firm, and
language (which follows i n paren-
crayons bearing hi s name. In the
theses) or are descriptive titles.
event that a particular publication
Inscriptions and signatures have
(generally a catalogueraisonne) has
been transcribed. Measurements for
become a standard reference for an
works of art are given in centimeters,
artist, works by that artist are listed
followed by inches, with height
with the corresponding identifi-
preceding width.
cation number. These publications have been cited with the following
Unless otherwise noted, dimensions refer to the primary support of the object. All drawing media identification s were made with the aid of a microscope and other noninvasive tools. Media descriptions are based upon the guidelines set forth in the Philadelphia Museum of Art's 2014 online publication, Descriptive Terminology for Works on Paper: Guidelines for the Accurate and Consistent Description of the Materials and Techniques of Drawings, Prints, and Collages, by Nancy Ash, Scott Homolka, and Stephanie Lussier.
abbreviations:
Bouillon
Bouillon, Jean-Paul. Felix Bracquemond: Le realisme absolu; CEuvre grave, 1849-1859. Catalogue raisonne . Geneva : Skira, 1987.
Bourcard
Bourcard, Gustave. Felix Buhot: Catalogue descriptif de son ceuvre grave. With additions and revisions by James Goodfriend. New York: M . Gordon , 1979. raisonne . Geneva : Skira, 1987.
Curtis and Proute
Curti s, Atherton , and Pau l Proute. Adolphe Appian, son ceuvre grave et lithographie Paris: P. Proute, 1968. raisonne . Geneva : Skira, 1987.
Delteil
Gassier and Wilson
J. Harris
T. H arris
Hauke
Delteil, Loys. Delacroix: The Graphic Work; A Catalogue Raisonne. Translated and revised by Susan Strauber. San Francisco : Alan Wofsy Fine Arts, 1997. raisonne. Geneva : Skira, 1987.
Gassier, Pierre, and Juliet Wilson. The Life and Complete Work of Francisco Goya. 2nd ed. New York: Harrison House, 1981. raisonne. Geneva : Skira, 1987.
Harris, Jean C. Edouard Manet: Graphic Works; A Definitive Catalogue Raisonne. New York : Collectors Ed itions, 1970. raisonne. Geneva : Skira, 1987.
Hazard and Delteil
Hediard
Janis
Mellerio
Reed and Shapiro
Hediard, Germain. Fantin -Latour: Lithographies. Geneva: Editions du Tricorne, 1980.
Janis, Eugenia Parry. Degas Monotypes: Essay, Catalogue, and Checklist. Exh. cat. Cambridge, MA: Fogg Art Museum , Harvard Universi ty, 1968.
Mellerio, Andre . Odilon Redon: Peintre, dessinateuret grave ur. Paris: H. Floury, 1923.
Reed, Sue Welsh, and Barbara Stern Shapiro. Edgar Degas: The Painter as Printmaker. With contri buÂtions by Clifford S. Ackley and Roy L. Perkinson. Essay by Douglas Druick and Peter Zege rs. Exh. cat. Boston: Museum of Fine Arts, 1984.
Robaut
Robaut, Alfred . L 'ceuvre de Corot: Catalogue raisonne et illustre; Precede de l'histoire de Corot et de ses ceuvres, par Et ienne Moreau-Ne/a ton. 5 vols. Paris: Leonce Laget, 1965. raisonne. Geneva : Skira, 1987.
Schneiderman
Schneiderman, Richard S. The Catalogue Raisonne of the Prints of Charles Meryon. With the assistance of Frank W. Raysor II . London: Garton, 1990. raisonne. Geneva : Skira, 1987.
H a rr i s, Tomas. Goya: Engravings and Lithograph s . 2 vols. Oxford: B. Cassirer, 1964. raisonne. Geneva : Skira, 1987.
Hauke, Cesar M. de. Seurat et son ceuvre. 2 vols. Paris: Grund, 1961.
Hazard, Nicolas Auguste, and Loys Delteil, Catalogue raisonne de l 'ceuvre lithographie de Honore Daumier. Orrouy, Oise: N. A. Hazard, 1904.
Van Gelder Fernier
Gassier
Van Gelder, Dirk. Rodolphe Bresd in. Vol. 2, raisonne . Geneva : Skira, 1987.
Gassier, Pierre. The Drawing s of Goya: The Complete Albums. London : Thames and Hudson , 1973. raisonne. Geneva : Skira, 1987.
Weisberg
Weisberg, Gabriel P. Bonvin . Paris: Editions Geoffroy-Dechaume, 1979.
Wildenstein
Wildenstein, Alec . Odilon Redon: Catalogue raisonne de /'ceuvre peint et dessine. Vol. 2, Mythes et legendes. Paris: Wildenstein Institute, 1994.
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