Thesis_The Informal City by Shane O Donnell

SHANE O’DONNELL A5

THE INFORMAL CITY >> ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

SHANE O’DONNELL A5

THE INFORMAL CITY >> ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

acknowledgements Thesis is dedicated to Dad, Mam, Elaine and Kevin. Without your support, encouragement and guidance over the years none of this would have been possible. I want to thank my tutors Fintan Duffy, Miriam Fitzpartick, Aleksander Kostic, Loy Lee and Sharon O’ Brien, for their welcomed criticism and continuous support. I would also like to acknowledge the tireless work of Maire Henry for her dedication and promotion of WIT’s School of Architecture.

III

SHANE O’DONNELL A5

THE INFORMAL CITY >> ABSTRACT

SHANE Oâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;DONNELL A5

THE INFORMAL CITY >> ABSTRACT

abstract This thesis seeks to identify the relationship between the formal and the informal, order and disorder within the city, with a view to providing a more social, compassionate and autonomous architectural typology for the community that will concentrate on the needs of the underprivileged.

â&#x20AC;&#x192; V

SHANE O’DONNELL A5

THE INFORMAL CITY >> TABLE OF CONTENTS

SHANE O’DONNELL A5

THE INFORMAL CITY >> TABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS Definitions

VII

Introduction

Informal City

Who Decides?

Global/Local

Conclusion

Case Study

Brief

Site Analysis

Apendices

Bibliography

List Of illustrations

VII

SHANE O’DONNELL A5 definitions

formal: Characterised by established conventions of ceremony and behaviour, of or for formal occasions, stiff in manner, organised, symmetrical.

informal: Not being in accord with prescribed regulations or forms, unofficial, disorderly.

autonomy: A self-governing country or region, freedom from external control or influence, independence, the capacity of an agent to act in accordance with objective morality rather than under the influence of desires.

heteronomy: Subject to a law or standard external to itself, acting in accordance with one’s desires rather than reason or moral duty, subject to different laws of growth and development.

community: A group of people living in the same place or having a particular characteristic in common, a similarity or identity, joint ownership or liability.

VIII

DEFINITIONS THE INFORMAL CITY >>

SHANE O’DONNELL A5

THE INFORMAL CITY >> INTRODUCTION

1.0 INTRODUCTION “The city is man’s most consistent and on the whole, his most successful attempt to remake the world he lives in more after his heart’s desire. But, if the city is the world which man created, it is the world in which he is henceforth condemned to live. Thus, indirectly, and without any clear sense of the nature of his task, in making the city man has remade himself”1 In the 1950’s it was recorded that 740 million people lived in cities. Today 3.5 billion people now live in urban areas with 1.2billion living in slums. In 1950 New York’s population surpassed 10 million becoming the world’s first metro pole, but in the year 2000, 19 cities were considered metropolises. With such an increasing urban population, governments are unable to provide sufficient housing and sanitary services for all. More and more people in the third world are therefore living in informal, squatter settlements. In his book Planet of the Slums MikeDavis coined this transformation as an, “urban involution”2 . Such growth is predicted to increase even faster due to the current world recession. Modern architectural education will have failed if it doesn’t tackle informal urbanism, preparing students for the city of the future. Currently there is an ideological shift within the profession where the modernist master plan is being replaced by a more compassionate ideology, which integrates design without disturbing the urban fabric. I am interested in architecture for the informal city that will reinforce community spirit and allow its citizens to autonomously build and maintain their own environment. This will strengthen relationships and give them a sense of ownership all the while providing basic needs that will improve the lives of the underprivileged. In full I will investigate; how can informal urbanism act as a platform for a more autonomous community?

1 Park,R. (1967) On social Control and Collective Behaviour. Chicago,IL: Chicago University Press. p03 2 Mike Davis, 2006. Planet of Slums. Edition. Verso.p183

SHANE O’DONNELL A5

Fig1.

INTRODUCTION THE INFORMAL CITY >>

SHANE Oâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;DONNELL A5

THE INFORMAL CITY >> INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction Firstly I will investigate the social nature of cities and look at the origins of the planned and the unplanned city. Modern examples of the informal are known around the world under different manes. They are called barrios in Caracas, favelas in Rio, barbacoas in Havana, bidon villes in Algiers and barong-barong in Manila or simple a shanty town. Although they are seemingly chaotic and disorderly I will hope to locate the order within the informal so as to better understand the situation. Furthermore I will discuss the characteristics of the informal city and continue to compare it with reference to the formal. In the second section, I will analyse housing, investigating how it has acted as a catalyst towards a new urban typology. Thirdly, I will discuss how this new urban typology provides communities with a moral and cooperative local structure while allowing governments to provide basic needs and resources such as clean water, waste treatment, construction materials, land and security for the future.

Fig1.1

â&#x20AC;&#x192; 3

SHANE O’DONNELL A5

INFORMAL CITY THE INFORMAL CITY >>

SHANE O’DONNELL A5

THE INFORMAL CITY >> INFORMAL CITY

INFORMAL CITY

Fig2.0

what is a city?

planned and unplanned

informal city/favela

control

19th century paris

the flaneur

2.0

SHANE O’DONNELL A5

2.1 what is a city Lewis Mumford takes an interesting look at the origins of the city in his essay Retrospect and Prospect, where he acknowledges that the ancient cities of Mesopotamia, Egypt and the Indus valley were fascinating in terms of human interaction. For the first time in history, people turned towards the city, away from rural life. Such a concentration of people acted as a catalyst, speeding up social interaction and structures. This system of disciplined work groups, organised by a central command was utilised by the first urban populations allowing people to manipulate floods, the landscape around them and in time they were able turn their attention to “other collective enterprises”1 . As Mumford explains, “Through the concentration of physical and cultural power, the city heightened the tempo of human intercourse and translated its products into forms that could be stored and reproduced. Through its monuments, written records, and orderly habits of association, the city enlarged the scope of all human activities.”2From generation to generation, storage facilities such as (buildings, books) etc, have transmitted culture so that humans can pass on and enlarge their heritage. Mumford looks at modern day electronic devices for storing information explaining that they cannot be compared to the complex human order of the city. “Our elaborate rituals of mechanization cannot take the place of human dialogue, the drama, the living circle of mates and associates, the society of friends. These sustain the growth and reproduction of human culture, and without them the whole elaborate structure becomes meaningless”3

1 Lewis Mumford, 1968. The City in History: Its Origins, Its Transformations, and Its Prospects. EditionMariner Books.p568 2ibid. 3 ibid.

INFORMAL CITY THE INFORMAL CITY >>

SHANE O’DONNELL A5

THE INFORMAL CITY >> INFORMAL CITY

Fig2.1

2.2 planned and unplanned It is undoubtedly true that when we know more about a culture, its society and it history under different climatic conditions, we can better understand how to read the built environment. The City is considered neutral until it is shaped with specific cultural intent. Such intent has been realised with L’Enfant’s plan for Washington, the absolutist diagrams of Versailles and Haussmann’s Paris to name a few. Throughout history many variations of patterns have influenced the urban fabric of many cities but all such typologies can be categorised under planned and unplanned. There are two types of cities, the first is the planned. It is realised by a predetermined pattern that is decided on by the ruling authority.

The other is known as “Ville Spontanee” 1 or the spontaneous city which is considered “geomorphic”2 , that is it is determined by the lay of the land. It develops uncontrolled by designers and it is not subject to a master plan. The only determining factors are the lay of the land, the daily lives and connections between its inhabitants and time. As a result an irregular, non geometric organic form with diverse street patterns and randomly defined open spaces are created. The informal is therefore, not lacking form, it has a more intimate relationship between itself and its maker, where form is unrecognised or even unfinished, but the informal is still subject to rules that are just as exact and necessary as that of the formal city and official governance.

1 Spiro Kostof, 1999. City Shaped. Edition. Thames & Hudson.p43 2 ibid.

SHANE O’DONNELL A5

INFORMAL CITY THE INFORMAL CITY >>

“The informal city is that part of the city which does not have legal urbanization , where subdivision of the land is uncontrolled and the buildings have no planning, resulting in so called spontaneous settlements, having little or no infrastructure and services.”1

1 São Paulo Architecture Experiment | São Paulo - Projeto de Urbanização de Favelas. 2011. São Paulo Architecture Experiment | São Paulo - Projeto de Urbanização de Favelas. [ONLINE] Available at: http:// www.habisp.inf.br/theke/documentos/publicacoes/spae/index.html.

SHANE O’DONNELL A5

THE INFORMAL CITY >> INFORMAL CITY

2.3 informal city/ favela

Fig2.2 urbanization of 23 de Enero, Caracas, 1956

Fig2.3 urbanization of 23 de Enero, Caracas, 2005 Between 1950 and 1954, 115 superbloques were built in several massive developemants in caracas, venezuala. Although intended to rehouse squatters and to eliminate th espreading barrios. The barrios continued to grow and the open spaces of the projects were used. The superbloques were cheap at first but rent was high and ownership could never be acqquired

Fig 2.4 Sao paulo brazil precedent The brazilian favela, which appeared in the late 20th cnetury, is a modern vernacular that takes on a new definition of place,capitalising on opportunities of informal developement.

Image source: Caracas Central Criteria Editorial, C.A. Caracas, 2005

Alfriezi states that the city, “is not the dimension of function, it is the dimension of existence”1 , where urbanism can be understood based on the experiences of the individual and their personal value of visual effects. Alfriezi understands that the relationship between the individual and the city is based on memory and imagination. Such a new perception has provided a way of thinking with regards the informal city and the areas constructed by the poorest people. This is where previous efforts by families can be taken as the starting point for the construction of a plan for future interventions. Slums have two main characteristics compared to legal cities. The designs do not obey any established urban rule and legislation where the road system is not defined by the authorities and the implementation of water and sanitation is proposed after the occupation of dwellers. It is the empty space that defines a new build. The process of occupation is known as “uncontrolled occupation”2 either in the public or private land. The favela in contemporary terms is understood as an urban phenomenon; it is an influential part of the city, as the city is one of the elements that shape it and vice versa. The favela is often unjustly portrayed, seen as a “focus of problems”3 . The favela dwellers themselves do not entertain this idea only seeing their urbanization as a solution that will allow stability in an area where they can improve their homes into the future. As Francisco Perez, a community leader in La Vega, Caracas says “What you call a barrio, I call my home”4 . Only from this understanding, of favelas as an integral part of the city, is it possible to make a start on its urbanization which would not be just a replica of the conventional city but a design for the 21th century. 1 São Paulo Architecture Experiment | São Paulo - Projeto de Urbanização de Favelas. 2011. São Paulo Architecture Experiment | São Paulo - Projeto de Urbanização de Favelas. [ONLINE] Available at: http://www.habisp.inf.br/ theke/do cumentos/publicacoes/spae/index.html. 2ibid 3ibid 4 Brillembourg,A., H. Klumpner, 2005. Informal City: Caracas Case. Edition. Prestel Publishing.p24

SHANE O’DONNELL A5

THE INFORMAL CITY >> INFORMAL CITY

Fig2.5 Ballymun demolition Ballymun was built demolished 40 years after its construction as a result of its unpopularity and vandalisation

2.4 control “When people have neither control over, nor responsibility for, key decisions in the housing process, dwelling environments may become a barrier to personal fulfilment and a burden on the economy”1 The poor should be able to design for themselves but in the formal city this is not the case where mass produced public housing, in the spirit of Le Corbusier’s living machine is provided. These housing schemes are controlled by governmental or private investors and as turner says, “When centralised systems are used to house the poor, their scale and the limitations of management rule out the essential variety and flexibility of housing options”2 Examples of these housing forms are repeatedly abandoned and replaced by newer model from the same centralised system. People have no connection to the building and “the relatively short life of large scale, centrally administered modern housing accelerate the exhaustion of scarce resources”3 So many new houses 1 John F.C. Turner, 1977. Housing by People. Edition. Pantheon.p6 2 John F.C. Turner, 1977. Housing by People. Edition. Pantheon.p7 3 John F.C. Turner, 1977. Housing by People. Edition. Pantheon.p47

are in worse condition than those of past generations, contributing to a surplus usage of resources. Why is it that we have to demolish poorly built housing every 40 years? It is such a waste of depleting resources, cost and time. An example of this is Ballymun Housing project. Instead of large scale projects, resources should be increasingly made available to the public so that they themselves can autonomously create their own dwellings. But this system is not fool proof and has limitations “It is argued that housing and, by implication, all other personal and locally specific services, must be autonomous. It is also argued that this autonomy is far from absolute- for it depends on access to essential resources” 4. But the common perception is that the ordinary person is incapable of creating his/ her own dwelling and that the government and specific professionals should control the housing sector “It is easy to anticipate how wealthy observers feel when confronted with such overwhelming demonstrations of local actions from which they cannot insulate 4 John F.C. Turner, 1977. Housing by People. Edition. Pantheon.p9

SHANE O’DONNELL A5

THE INFORMAL CITY >> INFORMAL CITY

Fig2.6

themselves with misplaced pity”5 . Slums all across the world are from Mumbai to Sao Paulo are disobeying this centralised system opting instead for a more autonomous structure, “personal capability is at last resurfacing after the urban- industrial flood”6 . Traditional planning methods have shaped the city over the past few centuries, exerting a rationalism that has been backed by architects and planners alike. This cartesian model has been used to analyse and subject order to the city but has failed to represent or define informal urbanism where “the absence of zoning codes and well established private property rights and the existence of alternatively organized communities was seen as primitive and problematic”7 Ever since the remodelling of 19th century Paris by Baron Haussmann urban planning has not been questioned by city authorities....

5 John F.C. Turner, 1977. Housing by People. Edition. Pantheon.p19 6 John F.C. Turner, 1977. Housing by People. Edition. Pantheon. p169 7 Brillembourg,A., H. Klumpner, 2005. Informal City: Caracas Case. Edition. Prestel Publishing.p19

SHANE O’DONNELL A5

INFORMAL CITY THE INFORMAL CITY >>

2.5 19th century Paris Haussmann’s class cleansing of central Paris from 1852 to 1870 is a perfect example of governmental and bureaucratic control. At the time Paris was growing at an enormous rate due to rural immigrants while sanitation and control became a problem within the patchwork of seventeenth and eighteenth century buildings. Small and winding streets encouraged riots as the street scale offered a sense of safety to the rioters and prevented the government from applying swift retribution. In 1852 Louis-Napoleon became emperor intent on rebuilding the city of Paris with the help of Baron Georges-Eugene Haussmann (1809-1891). This huge undertaking cut new streets through the heart of the city and had entire sections of the medieval core demolished. With the introduction of these wide, straight linear streets the emperor was able to control the riots within a matter of minutes. While implementing the plans many poor people suffered, being evicted from their homes. This leads to what Lefebvre portrays the city as a site of social and economic exclusion. “(Social) space is a (social) product [...] the space thus produced also serves as a tool of thought and of action [...] in addition to being a means of production it is also a means of control, and hence of domination, of power.”1

1 Lefebvre,H. (1905),The production of Space, Blackwellproductions, U.K. p 15

Fig2.7 Map showing the vast scale of hausmann’s work in Paris. The black lines show the new streets, the cross-thatched areas are the new districts.

Map showing the v hausmann’s work lines show the new cross-hatched area districts.

SHANE O’DONNELL A5

THE INFORMAL CITY >> INFORMAL CITY

2.6 the flaneur

Fig2.8 Paris arcades

Passage Du Caire, Paris 1779

It is facinating examlpe of the arcades typology that integrated the streets of pre-hausmann Paris.

At this time a group called the surrealists were being formed who opposed the formal ideals of Baron Haussmann. The group’s beginnings coincided with the “Flaneur”2 who Walter Benjamin reflects on as “an isolated and estranged figure who is both a man of the crowd and the detached observer of it”3 . The flanuer advocates the wonders of urban life but also speaks of the demise of the aimless pedestrian. It is within the arcades of nineteenth century Paris that represents the idle strolling of the Flaneur. It is the flaneur that represents the birth of the new Paris and the death of the old. With Haussmann’s Paris the flaneur found himself at odds with the new and more regimented structure. The city’s public space became private and the phenomenon of cars forced walking to the kerb. The arcades with their glass covered ceilings lost their autonomy only to be replaced by boulevards. In paris today Passage Verdeau, Passage Jouffroy, and Passage des Panoramas form a brief link across Boulevard Montmartre reminding us of the pedestrian connections that were once separate from the surrounding street pattern. From this phsycogeography was born “a means of reclaiming the streets for the pedestrian” . The protagonists of phsycogeography has many similarities to those of the informal city. They express the same ideals of an uncontested public realm that relishes in social interaction and variety; A place for everyone within the city.

Passage Du Caire, Paris 1779 It is facinating examlpe of the arcades typology that integrated the streets of pre-hausmann Paris. 4

Passage Du Caire, Paris 1779 It is facinating examlpe of the arcades typology that integrated the streets of pre-hausmann Paris.

Fig2.9

Images Source: Herman Hertzberger

2 Merlin Coverley, 2010. Psychogeography (Pocket Essential series). Edition. Pocket Essentials.p60 3 ibid. 4 ibid.

SHANE O’DONNELL A5

WHO DECIDES? THE INFORMAL CITY >>

SHANE O’DONNELL A5

THE INFORMAL CITY >> WHO DECIDES?

Fig3.0

WHO DECIDES? architecture without architects

limits

housing as a verb

3.0

SHANE O’DONNELL A5

Fig3.1

The underground towns and villages in the Chinese loess belt are built beneath salt deposits. The salt is easy to carve and has becoming the homes vaulted ceiling The dwellinga are lighted and aired by openings that look out onto courtyard. The salt acts as both a floor and crop field. It is an intrigueing example of a local vernacular

3.1 architecture without architects But why is it that architects believe, that they alone should be responsible for the built environment. As stated by Dioxadis, 98 percent of the built environment is shaped without the contribution of the architectural community1. In his book Architecture without Architects Bernard Rudofsky promotes the idea of cultural and vernacular architecture. This is an architecture that does not rely on the architect but on a “communal enterprise”2 where overtime, this architecture would become suitable to site and climate, “a whole people with a common heritage acting under a community of experience”3.Similarly the late Samuel

1 Constantinos A. Doxiadis, 1985. Architecture in Transition. Edition. Oxford University Press.p5 2 Bernard Rudofsky, 1987. Architecture Without Architects: A Short Introduction to Non-Pedigreed Architecture. Edition. University of New Mexico Press.p6 3 Bernard Rudofsky, 1987. Architecture Without Architects: A Short Introduction to Non-Pedigreed Architecture. Edition. University of New Mexico Press.p6

As Bernard Rudofsky Non-Pedigreed Archite WHO DECIDES? back to the “fairy-tale THE INFORMAL CITY >> enterprise” should urg ronments not produce cialists, but by the spo ity of a whole people w under a community of

As Bernard Rudofsky proclaimed in his manual on Non-Pedigreed Architecture in 1964, a respectful look back to the “fairy-tale countries” and their “communal enterprise” should urgently happen; exotic built environments not produced by a few intellectuals or specialists, but by the spontaneous and continuing activFig3.2 ity of a whole people with a common heritage, acting Music Man’s House by Rural Studio. The of tall, under a community experience. 600-square-foot dwelling’s front porch is enclosed with hog wire, plastic, and“One tin found the radical site. solutions in the field of shelof theon most

ter is represented by the underground towns and villages in the Chinese loess belt. Loess is silt, transported and deposited by the wind. Because of its great softness and high porosity (45%), it can be easily carved. [...] The dark squares in the flat landscape are pits [...] about the size of a tennis court. Their vertical sides are 25 to 30 feet high. L-shaped staircases lead to the apartmments below whose rooms are about 30 feet deep and 15 feet wide, and measure about 15 feet to the top of the vaulted ceiling. They are lighted Mockbee of southwest Alabama considand aired by openings that give onto the courtyard.” ered that communal architecture boiteaoutils should on B. Rudofsky's [from LeopoldLambert's Architecture architects]Inbecome an endeavour ofwithout Academia.

spired by this Mockbee friend, The floor/roofand has ahis double function: shelter and crop field. Neither additional air-conditioning nor heating is Professor D.K. Ruth founded Rural Studio required, due to natural thermal lag kept in the soil in 1992. The Studio located New mass. was Furthermore, graininfrom the fields may be dried above and afterwards downstairs in Barn, a small town inground, the poorest areastoraged of the cave dwelling, simply by letting it directly fall into Hale, Alabama. Here students while workthe storage room, through a hole on the floor/roof. ing together were encouraged to design and build projects for the less fortunate; [Image above> Sunken courtyards in Tungkwan, China transforming everyday materials in B. Rudofsky's Architecture into without architects, 1964] buildings. Mockbee’s architecture is dis[Image below> Sunken courtyards in Henan Province, tinctly contemporary butchinaculture] is “grounded in China from Southern culture, and found inspiration in February 26, 2010 04:59. such vernacular Published sourcesonas overhanging Filed under: non-pedigreed galvanized roofs, rusting metal trailers, dogtrot forms, and porches”4 .

4 Andrea Oppenheimer Dean, 1998. Proceed and Be Bold: Rural Studio After Samuel Mockbee. 1 Edition. Princeton Architectural Press.p8

“One of the most radi ter is represented by lages in the Chinese l ported and deposited softness and high por carved. [...] The dark s pits [...] about the size sides are 25 to 30 fee to the apartmments b feet deep and 15 feet feet to the top of the v and aired by openings [from LeopoldLamber Architecture without a

The floor/roof has a d field. Neither addition required, due to natur mass. Furthermore, g above ground, and af the cave dwelling, sim the storage room, thro

[Image above> Sunke in B. Rudofsky's Archi

[Image below> Sunke China from chinacultu

Published on Februar Filed under: non-pedig

SHANE O’DONNELL A5

THE INFORMAL CITY >> WHO DECIDES?

Fig3.3 Water reservoir, Surjek, India

He not only promoted the vernacular but thought that architects should promote more social and environmental changes, instead of becoming “house pets for the rich”5 . His community based projects for the poor are built at low costs from often local and recycled materials, claiming many similarities to the informal city. Following from Mockbees inspiration, it is essential that attitudes change from the top down giving responsibility to local authorities and in turn to the people themselves. Therefore governments can provide essential resources while local authorities and individual citizens can act autonomously, influenced by relevant personal needs and objectives. “And demand that those in power help us do what we can do locally for ourselves- by guaran

5Andrea Oppenheimer Dean, 1998. Proceed and Be Bold: Rural Studio After Samuel Mockbee. 1 Edition. Princeton Architectural Press.p7

teeing our access to fair shares of available resources – and where essential by providing complimentary infrastructure that cannot be installed locally and that can be provided for all ”6 . An example of this is the Water Reservoir at Surkej, which was built by the Indian royalty, in anticipation of extended periods of drought. The reservoir includes a large “stepped surround”7 , which assures that no matter how low the water reaches, that people can easily gain access to the water’s edge. The design also includes extended steps that provide seating and a subtle division of space. As Hertzberger suggests “If ever an architectural environment demonstrated how a generous gesture of royal form can offer space to accommodate the daily life of countless people, it must be these steps” 8

6 John F.C. Turner, 1977. Housing by People. Edition. Pantheon.p26 7 Herman Hertzberger, 2005. Herman Hertzberger Lessons for Students in Architecture. Edition. 010.p267 8ibid.

SHANE O’DONNELL A5

THE INFORMAL CITY >> WHO DECIDES?

3.2 limits

Plan

Construct

Manage

Plan

Construct

Manage

Regulators or Public sector

Suppliers or Private (commercial) sector

User or Popular sector

Locally self-governing or autonomous housing systems

Centrally administered or heteronomous housing system

Fig3.4

If a system has set rules that need to be adhered to it is difficult to change and promote new ideas. Therefore a centralised system makes it difficult for people to manoeuvre through rules and regulations. In comparison an autonomous system (self-governing) would set out guidelines, allowing people to freely move and create within set limits offering people a sense of well needed freedom to contribute to genuine culture. Ashby’s principle of relative variety states “If stability (of a system) is to be attained, the variety of the controlling system must be at least as great as the variety of the system to be controlled”1 . Decision making is directly influenced by the controlling system. Within centralised systems decision flow from the top down provides a generically designed product. But when rules are deliberately removed from the system and replaced by limits, the system is transformed into a non hierarchic structure intent on autonomy. The students of rural studio are set limits which they can move freely within. One such example is the materials they use. As a group they collectively acquire materials they feel may help their design. They use salvaged goods, recycled and strange materials. Examples of this include straw 1 p32

John F.C. Turner, 1977. Housing by People. Edition. Pantheon.

Fig3.5

bales, used tyres within the walls of chapel and a windshield from a discarded Chevy. Although each of these examples is not compliant with say modern building regulation they fulfil the requirements of climate protection, cost, and appropriateness and above all they are aesthetically pleasing. Such scavenging is particularly a trend of the modern informal city. Nothing is wasted, especially not money. “Transmuting ordinary materials into extraordinary objects”2 2 Andrea Oppenheimer Dean, 1998. Proceed and Be Bold: Rural Studio After Samuel Mockbee. 1 Edition. Princeton Architectural Press.p8

Students are working on the Shiles House under a roof supported by poles. One wall is made of old tires filled with dirt and covered with cement.

SHANE O’DONNELL A5

THE INFORMAL CITY >> WHO DECIDES?

3.3 housing as a verb

Feed- froward from

PAST EXPERIENCE

CONTEXT

Organism or

ACTORS

Function or

ACTIVITIES

Environment or

ACHIEVEMENTS

Modified

CONTEXT

Feed- back from

FUTURE EXPECTATIONS

Adaption/change Formal production Geddes and Bertalanffy’s model

Adaptation/change process Formal production process

Fig3.6

“The important thing about housing is not what it is, but what it does in people’s lives” 1 John Turner defines housing in two ways, housing as a noun and housing as a verb. Both terms regard housing in a different manner. Housing as a noun represents housing as a physical unit while housing as a verb describes the on-going effect housing has on the lives of its inhabitants. Housing is only successful when real values such as relationships between the inhabitant, their actions and their subsequent accomplishments are realised. As Geddes and Bertalanffy’s diagram explains through “organism- functionenvironment”2 .

tenure are not being made available. Land tenure is vital to people within the slums. With this they are automatically transformed from the excluded into a respected land owner. Tenure provides the reassurance squatters need. “A dwelling must give its users access to the people, institutions, and amenities on which their livelihoods depend; it must provide a tolerable degree of shelter from climate and neighbours; and the users must have tenure long enough to make the move worthwhile.” 4

If planning authorities could concentrate on providing resources to achieve this, housing could return to the vernacular or spontaneous, where costs are low, waste is diminished, relationships are formed and creativity is nurtured. “Resourcefulness and longevity of buildings, as distinct from productivity and short-term costs, require imagination, initiative, and above all, personal will to care” 3. But here lies the problem; water shortages, transportation, electricity and land 1 John F.C. Turner, 1977. Housing by People. Edition. Pantheon. 2 John F.C. Turner, 1977. Housing by People. Edition. Pantheon.p63 3 ibid.

4 John F.C. Turner, 1977. Housing by People. Edition. Pantheon.p63

SHANE O’DONNELL A5

GLOBAL/LOCAL THE INFORMAL CITY >>

SHANE O’DONNELL A5

THE INFORMAL CITY >> GLOBAL/LOCAL

Fig4.0

GLOBAL/LOCAL Globalisation/informal

Inclusion/exclusion

4.0

SHANE O’DONNELL A5

THE INFORMAL CITY >> GLOBAL/LOCAL

4.1 globalisation/informal

Fig4.1

In the article Fragmented Urban Topographies and Their Underlying Interconnections, Saskia Sassen argues that cities which have become globalised contain both the formal and informal. This new urban form has arisen out of conditions of heightened disadvantage. One such example of this new urban form can be found in cities such as Sao Paulo and Mexico City. Globalisation has affected these large cities with relation to the corporate and the informal urban form. Firstly we must look at both examples. These forms are associated with the people who work within them. For example high income workers who are part of an advanced economy find their workplaces within the corporate areas of the city. In comparison low income workers find themselves in those parts of the city which can be described as underdeveloped and informal. Sassen notes that informality is not a result of the third world but a feature of advanced capitalism. The relationship between the working class and the economic sector in urban design shows that all levels of the economy are interconnected. Workers, companies and sectors all rely on each other.

Fig4.2

Sassen asserts that “cities are strategic sites for the new basic intermediate economy, and not only sites for the location of corporate headquarters”1 . It is within the informal city and its close proximity to the formal that such difference can be harnessed into economic growth. Multinational companies and a growing number of cities need both a mixture of high and low income workers. But if for instance it becomes too expensive and too far for low-income workers to travel to work then the, “economy of the city would suffer”2 . Such critical mass between both the formal and the informal, as Sassen asserts, “can be seen as a strategic component of advanced urban economies”3 . These intertwined relationships can only further the prosperity of cities.

1 Saskia Sassen, 2005. Informal City: Caracas Case. Edition. Prestel Publishing.p85 2 ibid 3 Saskia Sassen, 2005. Informal City: Caracas Case. Edition. Prestel Publishing.p86

Figure 4.1 &4.2 illustrate La ceiba station in Caracas, Venezuala. It was designed and built by Urban think thank. The cable car terminal connects the informal city with that of the formal all they while not interupting the urban fabric. The Terminal is equiped with wind turbines supporting the designs autonomy from the city which it is ironically assisting passengers too and from.

SHANE O’DONNELL A5

THE INFORMAL CITY >> GLOBAL/LOCAL

4.2 inclusion/exclusion As mentioned in the previous paragraph the neo liberal informal city, is influential to a thriving formal city. The remaining issue between the formal and the informal is security and exclusion. The formal city has acquired security where as the informal or excluded sector has not. People are social and need to feel included, as Aristotle states “Man is by nature a social animal; an individual who is unsocial naturally and not accidentally is either beneath our notice or more than human. Society is something that precedes the individual.”1 To remove the stigma of exclusion, private property rights must be attained by the citizens of the slums. With this the excluded poor become accepted land owners. But as Elmar Altvatar distinguishes, this only turns them “into small scale capitalists, thanks to the property rights; they have capital at their disposal”2 . In doing this people would reject the new community based ideals of cooperation and localised support. But if governments can provide community organisations with resources to develop, in conjunction with a legal frame that distributes property 1 Aristotle, 1981. The Politics (Penguin Classics). Revised Edition. Penguin Classics. 2 Elmar Altvater, 2005. Informal City: Caracas Case. Edition. Prestel Publishing.p52

rights. Then the integrity of a more social community is retained and the needs of the people are provided for. London in 1666 is an example of this system. It was in this year that London’s centre was destroyed by the great fire. The centre was then planned to be rebuilt by Christopher Wren among others. He prescribed a new layout in the baroque style, similar to that of Haussmann’s Paris. These plans were rejected by Charles II. He simply set out rules that had to be adhered to.“Demarcated plots and guarantees of secure tenure”3 , were provided with the stipulation that people were to invest within certain a time or forfeit their tenure. As turner says “a principle purpose... was to earn revenue... the king minimised initial investment and concentrated on ensuring the maximum investmement by his subjects”4. London soon prospered becoming the most powerful economic city in Europe. This growth did not occur due to organised plans and state intervention but from the contributions of private enterprises.

3 John F.C. Turner, 1977. Housing by People. Edition. Pantheon.p12 4 John F.C. Turner, 1977. Housing by People. Edition. Pantheon.p125

SHANE O’DONNELL A5

CONCLUSION THE INFORMAL CITY >>

SHANE O’DONNELL A5

THE INFORMAL CITY >> CONCLUSION

5.0 conclusion There are dramatic changes occurring in our cities all over the world. The critical issue in relation to the urban fabric is responsibility. Who decides and to what end? With an ever growing population the modern city is seen as being in crisis. As Brillembourg states “there lies the historic errors of urban planners and designers and of architects: they fail to see, let alone analyse or capitalise upon, the informal aspects of urban life because they lack a professional vocabulary for describing them”.1 As architects we must re-evaluate and change the manner with which we study the informal. By embracing the informal we become aware of its autonomous qualities, its self organising and spontaneity. Its form is acting as a catalyst for a new urban typology that demonstrates a highly democratic but appropriately scaled housing that considers minimum cost for maximum use. But with a diminishing supply of resources, this form of architecture must also become autonomous in terms of energy use. This lack of resource is becoming the limits by which they evaluate design. “The conditions imposed by city’s need to perform its vital functions within sustainable frameworks, are literally becoming the generators of its urban structure”2 But for a truly autonomous urban form to be realised a new system of control must be embraced. Governments must support the already industrious people of the informal city by providing them access to resources. If these resources are provided the people of the slums can then provide for themselves, insuring a more autonomous urban community. “and demand that those in power help us do what we can do locally for ourselves- by guaranteeing our access to fair shares of available resources – and where essential by providing complimentary infrastructure that cannot be installed locally and that can be provided for all”3

1 Alfredo Brillembourg, 2005. Informal City: Caracas Case. Edition. Prestel Publishing.p52 22 Alfredo Brillembourg, 2005. Informal City: Caracas Case. Edition. Prestel Publishing.p52 33 John F.C. Turner, 1977. Housing by People. Edition. Pantheon.p190

SHANE O’DONNELL A5

CASE STUDY THE INFORMAL CITY >>

SHANE O’DONNELL A5

THE INFORMAL CITY >> CASE STUDY

CASE STUDY sean o’casey community centre

contemporary building strategies

31 32

water studies

6.0

SHANE O’DONNELL A5 6.1 Sean O’Casey Community Center

CASE STUDY THE INFORMAL CITY >>

SHANE O’DONNELL A5

THE INFORMAL CITY >> CASE STUDY

SHANE O’DONNELL A5

CASE STUDY THE INFORMAL CITY >>

SHANE O’DONNELL A5

THE INFORMAL CITY >> CASE STUDY

6.2 contemporary building strategies

Caracas: Growing House In Caracas, Venezuala, the majority of the cities population lives in the informal city within buildings that are more akin to rural dwellings and that are never fully ﬁnished. This instalation represents the Barrios where rebar extends fromt every roof top urging the next round of construction which can occur at any time

New Orleans: Shotgun House with Rainwater-Harvesting Tank The Shotgun House is a representation of the deconstruction of modernist architecture in a search for an alternative, 21st century social model for democracy. Due to Katrina, New Orleans is being rebuilt by its citizens who are issuing the revival of the shotgun house (a local architectural style) and a shif towards self- sustinablitiy.

Rural Studio: The Lucy House Tornado Shelter The Lucy House, was designed in 2002 by architect Samuel Mockbee and the Rural Studio Programme. The design is a combination of a house (residential) and a tornado shelter (emergency).

Fg5.0

http://www.potrc.org/project1.htm

SHANE O’DONNELL A5 water case study

CASE STUDY THE INFORMAL CITY >>

SHANE O’DONNELL A5

THE INFORMAL CITY >> CASE STUDY

SHANE O’DONNELL A5

THE INFORMAL CITY >> BRIEF

“City areas with flourishing diversity sprout strange and unpredictable uses and peculiar scenes. But this is not a drawback of diversity. This is the point... of it... and one of the missions of cities” Jane Jacobs

SHANE O’DONNELL A5

THE INFORMAL CITY >> BRIEF

Fig7.0

BRIEF aspirations

spatial diagrams

schedule

7.0

SHANE O’DONNELL A5 7.1 aspirations

My aspiration for this thesis is to desigtetting, a purpose built water treatment plant and community centre for the poor.From my study of the informal it is apparent that cooperation is a powerful tool, but that community based facilities are almost unheard off. The inhabitants of the informal are not being provided with basic needs such as water, electricity and waste disposal. A mix use community centre will cater for these needs and encourage interaction between all age groups both young and old. “ exciting things happen when a variety of overlapping activities designed for all people, the old and the young, the blue and the white collar, the local inhabitants and the visitor, different activities for different occasions meet in a flexible environment, opening up possibilities of interaction outside the confines of institutional limits... places where all can participate”1.

1 Richard Rogers, 1969. from Barbie Campbell Cole and Ruth Elias Rogers, ed. Richard Rogers + Partners. p11.

BRIEF THE INFORMAL CITY >>

7.2 spatial diagram

With this the building will act as a catalyst for unexpected and diverse forms of informal trade and activities crucial to providing a public presence and connection. To achieve autonomy, the local citizens working together will administrate the building with a minimal connection to government institutions. To attain this autonomy the building must seamlessly relate to its surroundings, utilising all available resources. This will link both building and site in the fashion of a modern vernacular. The design

is to remain low cost so recycled and scavenged materials will be used where ever possible. Energy autonomy will be achieved through waste recycling and reuse. This has been inspired by my case studies and design charette where I created a bathhouse with rainwater harvesting, waste treatment, recycling and solar electricity which provided the building with a sustainable yet clear way of providing for the poor.

SHANE O’DONNELL A5

To encourage local participation multifunctional, flexible spaces will act as a platform for auxiliaryfunctions like concerts and markets enabling the building to react to different occasions. This flexibility coupled with community participation should strengthen relationships between the people and the building “The practice of architecture not only requires participation in the profession but it also requires civic engagement.” Samuel Mockbee2.Such engagement by citizens can only strengthen the cooperative spirit of the community allowing a greater number of people to engage with this space. 2 Andrea Oppenheimer Dean, 1998. Proceed and Be Bold: Rural Studio After Samuel Mockbee. 1 Edition. Princeton Architectural Press.p9

THE INFORMAL CITY >> BRIEF

Promoting social inclusion ever further the distinction between the public realm and the building will be minimal, portraying a sense of continuity and transparency to the public.For this I hope to forge a connection with a prominent transport hub so that low income workers of the informal can be provided with simple bathing facilities between the daily commute. This will strengthen footfall, further enhancing a space for all people.

The community centre will be a meeting place where everyone can feel welcome and take part in a range of activities. A balanced programme will promote the use of the building both during the day and night. In the spirit of Sean O’ Casey’s community centre by O’ Donnell & Tuomey’s architects I would like to realize “A very good place to foment a little invisible social revolution” 3

3 Architectural Review, May 05, Sean O’Casey Community Centre

SHANE Oâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;DONNELL A5

BRIEF THE INFORMAL CITY >>

7.3 schedule of area entrance area entrance/lobby

area sqm

sport

area sqm

100

sports hall

250

reception

gym

150

consierge/security

dressing room

subtotal

120

subtotal

440

creche

area sqm

purification plant water storage

300

waste treatment

purification

waste recycling

60 460

subtotal

preschool

toddlers

babies

sleep area

office

storage

subtotal

195

age care

area sqm

culture

area sqm

theatre

450

nurse

exhibition space

100

kitchen

backstage

100

servery

storage

age care

subtotal

675

subtotal

140

38â&#x20AC;&#x192;

SHANE O’DONNELL A5

ancillary delivery area

THE INFORMAL CITY >> BRIEF

area sqm 40

subtotal

area sqm

administration staff

toilets/shower/locker

subtotal

Total programme

2150

Circulation + 10%

215

TOTAL AREA

2365

SHANE O’DONNELL A5

SITE THE INFORMAL CITY >>

SHANE O’DONNELL A5

THE INFORMAL CITY >> SITE

SITE

Fig8.0

site location

landmarks city today

built form

analytical mapping

historic maps historic pictures

8.0

SHANE O’DONNELL A5

Fig8.1

SITE THE INFORMAL CITY >>

limerick city centre: 1/25000

8.1 site location Limerick is Ireland’s third largest city, located in the south west of the country at the mouth of Ireland’s largest river. In the estuary there is an island, Kings Island, protected by the arms of the River Shannon. This is where the city began, the old or English town, where my site Is located on and alongside. Originally a walled enclosure, begun during the eleventh century, protected St. Mary’s Cathedral to the east and an abbey to the west. This enclosure expanded further to the west with the arrival of the Normans and the completion of Kings John’s Castle around 1200. The city grew at a steady pace over the next five centuries, separated by two walled enclosures, English town and Irish town. English town was located at the southern part of Kings Island and contains the site. However during the late seventeenth- early eighteenth century the Georgian sector of Newton Pery was constructed, drawing commerce, culture and life to a new city centre

SHANE Oâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;DONNELL A5

THE INFORMAL CITY >> SITE

Fig8.2

I have chosen to examine the river front, Limerick as a potential site for a Water Treatment Plan, due to its central location, proximity to the Shannon and its diverse demographic. While some regeneration has occurred in the area over the past few years from Arthurs Quay to Merchant Quay the area remains disassociated from the city centre.

time its identity has been lost. The water treatment plant looks to reinstate, water as an important element of urban life, while providing a community centre and public realm for the people of Limerick. This scheme provides the opportunity to give Limerick a modern identity as well as providing the area with a centre for the people.

Arthurs Quay Park is a degenerated area within the city where previous improvements have failed to prevent antisocial behaviour, hindering a connection to the city centre. The area has a diverse demographic with different groups such as, residential, commercial, work, cultural and the city council at City hall. All of which can influence the area re-establishing it as the City centre. The Quays have in a way turned its back on the people by not providing a continuous link along the shoreline. I can see a potential to reconnect the city with the quays where over

â&#x20AC;&#x192; 43

SHANE O’DONNELL A5 8.2 landmarks

Fig8.3

SITE THE INFORMAL CITY >>

SHANE O’DONNELL A5

THE INFORMAL CITY >> SITE

8.3 city today

SHANE O’DONNELL A5 8.4 built form

SITE THE INFORMAL CITY >>

SHANE O’DONNELL A5

THE INFORMAL CITY >> SITE

8.5 analytical mapping

SHANE O’DONNELL A5

SITE THE INFORMAL CITY >>

8.6 historical maps

ordinance survey 1864

1760 map of limerick

ordinance survey 1910

image source: limerickslife.com

SHANE O’DONNELL A5

THE INFORMAL CITY >> SITE

1792 map of limerick

1590 map of limerick

image source: limerickslife.com

1590 drawing of limerick

image source: limerickslife.com

SHANE O’DONNELL A5 9.1 poster submission

APPENDICES THE INFORMAL CITY >>

SHANE O’DONNELL A5

THE INFORMAL CITY >> APPENDICES

Appendices poster submission

charette 1

charette 2

9.0

SHANE O’DONNELL A5 9.2 charette 1

APPENDICES THE INFORMAL CITY >>

How can informal urbanization provide a more social communiy?

Public circulation area

Classrooms

Library

Classrooms

Shower space

Women Wash Space

Clothes Wash Space

Plan 1/200

outdoor water source

Classrooms

Clothes Wash Space

Public circulation area

Bathing Area

Public circulation area

Courtyard

Mens Wash Space

Information

Public circulation area

Council Chamber

Health

Council Chamber

Public circulation area

Section b-b 1/200

Section a-a 1/200

Council Chamber

Washing Area Information/Health Library/ Classrooms

20020566

SHANE O DONNELL

BEING AND TRANSFORMATION

COMMUNITY INFORMATION AND SERVICES CENTRE

SHANE O’DONNELL A5 THE INFORMAL CITY >> APPENDICES

SHANE O’DONNELL A5 9.3 charette 2

APPENDICES THE INFORMAL CITY >>

SHANE O’DONNELL A5

THE INFORMAL CITY >> APPENDICES

SHANE O’DONNELL A5

BIBLIOGRAPHY THE INFORMAL CITY >>

10.0 BIBLIOGRAPHY São Paulo Architecture Experiment | São Paulo - Projeto de Urbanização de Favelas. 2011. São Paulo Architecture Experiment | São Paulo - Projeto de Urbanização de Favelas. [ONLINE] Available at: http://www. habisp.inf.br/theke/documentos/publicacoes/spae/index.html. Arendt,H 1958. The Human Condition. Chicago: University of Chicago Press Braungart,M & Mcdonagh,W 2002. Cradle to Cradle: Remaking the Way We Make Things. 1st Edition. North Point Press. Brillembourg,A &Feireiss,K & Klumpner,H (ed.) 2005. Informal City: Caracas Case. Edition. Prestel Publishing. Coverley,M 2010. Psychogeography (Pocket Essential series). Edition. Pocket Essentials. Darwin, C 2007. The Origin of Species, Cosimo, New York. Davis,M 2006. Planet of Slums. Edition. Verso. Doxiadis,C.A. 1985. Architecture in Transition. Edition. Oxford University Press. Ellman,R 1987. Four Dubliners, G. Braziller, New York. Gladwell,M 2002. The Tipping Point: How Little Things Can Make a Big Difference. Edition. Back Bay Books. Habraken,J 1999. Supports: An Alternative to Mass Housing, Urban Press Harvey,D 2009. Social Justice and the City (Geographies of Justice and Social Transformation). Revised Edition. University of Georgia Press. Harvey,D 1985, Consciousness and the urban experience, John Hopkins University Press edition, U.K. Hertzberger,H 2005. Herman Hertzberger Lessons for Students in Architecture. Edition. 010. Kostof, S (1991) The City Shaped, Brown and Company, Hong Kong. Kostof,S 1999. City Shaped. Edition. Thames & Hudson. Lees,L (ed.) 2004. The Emancipatory City?: Paradoxes and Possibilities. 1st Edition. Sage Publications Ltd. Lefebvre,H 1905,The production of Space, Blackwellproductions, U.K. Marx,C 1998, The communist manifesto, The Merlin Press Ltd; New Edition Menand, L 2001. The Metaphysical Club: A Story of Ideas in America. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. Mumford,L 1968. The City in History: Its Origins, Its Transformations, and Its Prospects. Edition. Mariner Books. Nicolaides,B and Wiese, A 2006 The Suburb Reader, Routledge, New York. Oppenheimer Dean,A 1998. Proceed and Be Bold: Rural Studio After Samuel Mockbee. 1 Evdition. Princeton Architectural Press. Park,R 1967. On social Control and Collective Behaviour. Chicago,IL: Chicago University Press. Parker,S 2004, Urban Theory and the Urban Experience encountering the city, Routledge, New York. Plato, 1992.Plato: Republic. 2nd Edition. Hackett Pub Co. Rudofsky,B 1987. Architecture Without Architects: A Short Introduction to Non-Pedigreed Architecture. Edition. University of New Mexico Press. Saunders,P 1981, Social Theory and the Urban Question,1st edn, London; Hutchinson. Simmel, G. 2000, The Metropolis and Mental Life, Humanity Books Ltd, Stevens, D 2007. Rural, Mermaid Press, Leitrim, Ireland. Teilhard de Chardin, P. 1967 Phenomenon of Man Project, Harper Perennial, New York p198 Tschumi,B 1996. Architecture and Disjunction. Edition. The MIT Press. Turner,J.F.C 1977. Housing by People. Edition. Pantheon. Uglow ,J 2003. The Lunar Men: The Friends Who Made the Future. Faber and Faber Whyte,W 1956. The Rise Of Oganization Man. University of Pennsylvania Press. Ward, C 1978. The Child in the City, NCVO Publications

SHANE Oâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;DONNELL A5

THE INFORMAL CITY >> LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

11.0 list Of illustration sources Fig1.0 Author Fig1.1 www.archdaily.com/146314/regeneration-of-the-favela-de-rocinha-slum-jan-kudlicka/07-slumsand-urban-population/ Fig2.0 http://lebbeuswoods.wordpress.com/2010/10/12/knots-the-architecture-of-problems/ Fig2.1 http://www.zacharyaders.com/2010/09/sao-paulo-architecture-experiment/ Fig2.2 Revista, Integral 7, arquitectura y urbanismo CA Caracas 1957 Fig2.3 ibid. Fig2.4 ibid. Fig2.5 Image Source: avoe.org Fig2.6 http://greenarchitecturenotes.com/2010/01/favela-bairro-project-jorge-mario-jauregui-rio-de-janiero/ Fig2.7 Image Source: Spiro, K Fig2.8 Hertzberger,H 2005. Herman Hertzberger Lessons for Students in Architecture. Edition. 010. Fig2.9 Hertzberger,H 2005. Herman Hertzberger Lessons for Students in Architecture. Edition. 010. Fig3.0 http://www.austinsmithlord.com/our-news/stories/77/ Fig3.1 Rudofsky,B 1987. Architecture Without Architects: A Short Introduction to Non-Pedigreed Architecture. Edition. University of New Mexico Press. Fig3.2 Oppenheimer Dean,A 1998. Proceed and Be Bold: Rural Studio After Samuel Mockbee. 1 Evdition. Princeton Architectural Press Fig3.3 Hertzberger,H 2005. Herman Hertzberger Lessons for Students in Architecture. Edition. 010. Fig3.4 author Fig3.5 Oppenheimer Dean,A 1998. Proceed and Be Bold: Rural Studio After Samuel Mockbee. 1 Evdition. Princeton Architectural Press Fig3.6 Turner,J.F.C 1977. Housing by People. Edition. Pantheon. Fig4.0 http://csi-saopaulo.blogspot.com/2009_04_01_archive.html Fig4.1 http://www.detail.de/artikel_metro-cable-system_28228_En.htm Fig4.2 http://www.detail.de/artikel_metro-cable-system_28228_En.htm Fig5.0 http://www.potrc.org/project1.htm Fig 7.0 http://usslave.blogspot.com/2011/06/favelas-brazilian-ghetto-like-shanty.html Fig 8.0 http://www.irelandaerialphotography.com/aerial_photos/dr_f2_3551_arthurs_quay.html Fig 8.1 http://www.google.com/earth/index.html Fig 8.2 http://www.google.com/earth/index.html

â&#x20AC;&#x192; 57