AA 01 2011 01 12 Metamorphic Urbanity

ARCHITECTURAL ASSOCIATION SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE GRADUATE SCHOOL PROGRAMMES

COVERSHEET FOR SUBMISSION 2010-2011

PROGRAMME:

MA [Landscape Urbanism]

TERM:

Autumn

STUDENT NAME(S):

KELVEKAR, Shantesh

SUBMISSION TITLE

Metamorphic Urbanity a [meta]physical transition

WORD COUNT

4,391 words

COURSE TUTOR

SPENCER, Douglas

COURSE TITLE

Models, Methods and Theories

SUBMISSION DATE:

17th January 2011

DECLARATION: “I certify that this piece of work is entirely my/our own and that any quotation or paraphrase from the published or unpublished work of others is duly acknowledged.”

Signature of Student(s):

Date:

Metamorphic Urbanity -a [meta]physical transition KELVEKAR, Shantesh AA MA [LU] 2010-11

Abstract Cities in the present scenario are both shrinking and expanding. Shrinking, as the virtual becomes more realistic and provides a platform for social, communal and economic activities; eliminating the need for physical space. And at the same time expanding because of the shear need to cater to the growing urban population, by providing new physical infrastructures.

Due to this immense need for growth the pressure is increasing tremendously on the planning organisations. The transition in the current scenario is drastic and the conventional planning methodologies seem to operate less efficiently. As Koolhaas states (with respect to architecture) that there is a discrepancy or time-lag between the acceleration of culture and the continuing slowness in architecture1, the case becomes intensely factual with respect to the current urban growth where the economic and social conditions are altering rapidly.

Growth is evident, curbing the growth is not a possibility; in such a dialectic situation going anti-urban would be demanding going against the system! But, following the system with traditional models of urbanism is also ridiculous. Between these conflicts lies the solution of our future urban; the investigation aims at delivering a model which challenges the conditions and emerges from it as a promising methodology.

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Introduction The Asian market is booming up rapidly and one can clearly see the reflection of it in the growing economic giants like China and India. China in the recent past has become a humungous economic hub for the world market. The neo-liberal policies on international trade during 1980s opened up the whole world to transformative market and financial forces. In this clinch China also opened up, albeit under strict state supervision, to foreign trade and foreign investment, thus ending China’s isolation from the world market2. As a response, sudden growth of economy was evident in South-East China because of the proximity of a long coastline which led to international trade routes. This has led to certain alterations within the urban cores of this region closer to Shanghai, which raises questions of concern with respect to consequences in urban development. The primary changes occurred in the last twenty years is a thick migration from rural to urban; this has led to an unimaginable growth of the cities in this region. In some of the cases the bureaucratic boundaries of these cities have expanded up to more than two folds.

Taking the case of China and its stance to rapid urbanisation the intent of this paper is to enquire the methodologies applied in the process of its recent growth and its ambitious proposals in the near future.

The implied prototypical methodologies of planning for urbanisation in China fail to function as desired, leading to stagnation in moulding the urban. There is a clear need for an adaptive practice, which manoeuvres itself according to the changing conditions and yet blends perfectly with the context. Equally, the methodology should be proficient enough to be implied in multiple scenarios, as there is a need for an urgent growth. Existing cities are expanding, new cities are proposed to distribute the pressure of the existing cities; the approach should not be the solution itself, rather it should become a proficient situation to start a new acceptable disturbance within the existing which attempts to make the entire system autonomous.

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Conditions The world is transforming rapidly. Probably alterations and changes occurred in lifestyles, cultures and societies in the last two centuries could be accounted more than it has ever occurred. One of the major reasons for this drastic change is the advent of the new technological systems and acceptance of newer scientific methodologies. As Guattari states, “The earth is undergoing a period of intense techno-scientific transformations. If no remedy is found, the ecological disequilibrium this has generated will ultimately threaten the continuation of life on the planet’s surface”3, the situation although not so intense at present, raises a question over the rapid urbanisation happening around; in this case China.

Figure 1: Potential zones of urbanisation in China (Source: GO-West)

China is determined to create 400 cities by 2020; the attitude is bold but the impact is an outcome of a very shallow vision. In the urge

of

delivering

cities at a faster rate planners are giving a rhetoric

output.

methodology seems construct

The

implied

easier

to

but

is

leading to one of the conditions already criticised in the post industrial cities, the sprawl.

Reasoning the approach As Koolhaas states in his essay ‘The Generic City’: “The Generic City is on its way from horizontality to verticality. The skyscraper will look as if it will be the final, definitive typology. It has swallowed everything else. It can exist anywhere: in a rice field, or downtown – it makes no difference anymore.”4 KELVEKAR, Shantesh

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Koolhaas further enquires a hypothesis which never was considered, that cumulatively the endless contradictions a generic city would go through might actually prove the richness of it giving an identity to each case.5 The approach is generic, agreed; but with different social, cultural, economic and ecological scenarios can the ‘generic’ become ‘individualistic’? This further leads to an intense confusion, questioning the applied approach in these models of urban development. Giving a reference of Brasilia, James Holston explains that formal equivalence and functional differentiation reveals a number of contradictions in the intention of modern planning; where the functions remained spatially separate and the organisational principles or the form appeared similar6. These very approaches failed in certain other scenarios like Detroit where the entire city failed to operate after a while because of its very operatable and promising element of growth, the built, the rapidly over grown factory setups. The traditional urban design methods proved less efficient, costly, slow and inflexible in the growth of new infrastructures within, adapting with the local ecology, for urban de-densification. Instead landscape felt as a more promising domain to address to these issues.7

Figure 2: The image of a street in Singapore is referenced

by Rem Koolhaas as “ The Generic City” (Source: S,M,L,XL)

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Conflict between methodology and conditions Belgian urban designer, Marcel Smets attempts to promote landscape as a saviour to contemporary urban development. Smets has categorised spatial design concepts explaining how contemporary designers work with a condition of “uncertainity”8 and imply it as indeterminacy for future development; using its incapability of shaping a definite form as a potential tool for evolution of the urban.

At this juncture we have two contradicting ideas: one if generic, with the locale (ecology, society, culture and economy) can be used as a rescuer from the generic itself; the other perceiving the urban through a lens of landscape, creating a situation which can imbibe future fluxes. In both these conditions one cannot stop the expansion of the physical boundaries of the urban, the sprawl. Sprawl embraces theatricality, hybridity and even density in abundance; sprawl is simply the contemporary urban condition9.

America’s urbanisation through the entire twentieth century explains the case where urban as a form rapidly grew. As Charles Waldheim states in his writing “Motor City” that flexibility, mobility and speed made an international model for industrial urbanisation; traditional models of dense urban arrangements were quite literally abandoned in the favour of escalating profits, accelerating accumulation and the culture of consumption10. Detroit as a model of industrial urbanisation fitted perfectly as an example for this. Figure 3 illustrates the rise and hollowing of the urban form of Detroit in the twentieth century. In the second half of the twentieth century, the city of Detroit, once the fourth largest city in the US, lost over half of its population. The process of decentralisation started in 1920s when Henry Ford announced the relocation of his production line outside Detroit to reduce production costs. Detroit, once famous for its blue collared jobs in the entire US, and perhaps the entire world, had risen from a nowhere into remarkable industrial town. It was in its peak of being a resourceful, profit making industrial hub. In the next 80 years, because of it growth pattern of the past 80 years, no one even remotely anticipated the collapse of this industrial town. It had turned into an empty sprawl. The horrifying collapse, of once the industrial hub of the US becomes a ground of reference while devising urbanity on the other side of the world, in the far east of China; where in the urge to grow faster planners tend to repeat a similar mistake without reading the future scenarios.

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Figure 3: Ground Diagrams, Downtown Detroit by Richard Plunz, (Source: “Detroit is everywhere�, Architecture Magazine, 85(4))

The mistake then could be not only in terms of planning methodologies, but the economic policies, environmental and ecological measures and the sensitivity shown towards the local existing society and their cultural behaviour.

Economic policies: Urban growth What is seen in China, post 1980s, is a similar condition but only with a much bigger scale. And, to cater to this lucrative urbanity, the methodologies of planning are leading to sprawl. The existing cities are expanding at an uncontrolled rate, whilst

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there are new being added to the count. With one of the policies of the Chinese Government where the local authorities can define the percentage of taxes; the authorities are becoming self-competitive. This competition within and among territories is becoming a factor for the raging urbanity, eventually leading to intensifying of conditions. This is leading to a situation which is creating hollowness in the city and is leading to sprawl of the urban, which once has already proved as an urban disaster. This puts the policies of urban growth of China into question.

For instance cities like Guangzhou, Hangzhou which were, in the recent past, considered as Tier II cities; are now being transformed rapidly, and expanding at an unimaginable rate. Along with their geographical locations which seem viable enough for trading; economic potentials have been identified in both in terms of manufacturing and in terms of logistics of the manufactured goods because of its proximity of these cities to the international trade routes via sea. Since the implication of the neo liberal policies accepted by the Chinese authorities in the 1980s, the growth started to reflect from the early 1990s.

Hangzhou, a small industrial city in the Yangtze River delta, then with the presence of varied light industries, textile industries and agriculture was recognised as a base for logistics hub for coastal China. Soon the investors started identifying the economic potential of this territory and considered establishing market for this region.

Investment for building infrastructure was really cheap and human resource, for the global investors, was available at dirt price. In the last decade of the twentieth century various industries, ranging from electronic, bio-medical, mechanical, food and agro industries were established. A diversified market reflected in the GDP of the province, which from 1992 to 2000, in a span of eight years raised three folds.

This highlighted on the high yielding side of this province, and hence, the State council in the year 2000 declared the establishment of the transitory systems, an international airport and a sea port within the province; providing a further compatibility for growth within, competing against its viable potential neighbouring provinces.

Similarly, Guangzhou, another city which started growing in the last decade of the twentieth century has made a remarkable progress. This province, once known for its local products and artisans famous for wood and ivory carving, jade sculptures, KELVEKAR, Shantesh

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Figure 4 & 5: 22miles long Hangzhou Bridge, and the newly constructed airport in Guangzhou

The growing economy reflects in the urban growth in the form of huge investments in public infrastructure like development of road-networks, constructing new bridges and linkages and investing in transit points like air and sea ports KELVEKAR, Shantesh

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Cantonese embroidery and for the presence of many historic structures; now has dedicatedly turned into another industrial hub. Apart from software industry, this culturally strong town now has automobile assembly lines, heavy industries and biotechnology industries. Since the province’s location in the Pearl River delta, this province too becomes a hub for logistics.

Chengdu, which is landlocked with water resource unavailable, determined potential in the software and computer industry attracting giants like Intel, IBM, Motorola, Wipro, Microsoft, HP, Siemens and many more; explains that irrespective of resources available or unavailable, progress is inevitable. All these provinces show an uncontrolled pattern of growth only because of the economic policies and the competition created within. This surely is providing an economic boom, but its unpredictability is becoming a major threat from an urban evolution point of view.

Inference In the past, industrial giants have manipulated with the economic policies and fiddled the government authorities to yield high profits. Detroit as an urban model has seen an unexpected collapse within a short span as the automobile industry present all of a sudden was relocated. However, the scale of industry in Detroit then, or for that matter in any industrial towns, both in America as well as Europe did not seem enormous in comparison to the presently booming Chinese territories. These Chinese urban models, unlike the past models of America and Europe are not just confined to automobile industry, but are a conglomeration of several industries and this makes conditions scarier. The rapidity in growth, as compared to the previous models is enormous and the methodology implicated is still analogous to the aforementioned models. If Detroit as a model failed and is still recovering from its urban failure; the question raised is what would the consequences be if the upcoming Chinese urban models fail? This hence, is becoming a matter of concern among the urbanists and analysts about the unexpected and unprecedented chaos which might likely be created.

In the book “The Three Ecologies”, Felix Guattari expresses that the domestic life is being affected by the gangrene of mass-media consumption. By the standardization of the mass behaviour, society and culture are being ‘ossified’, and the relation between people and communities is being reduced to the meanest of the KELVEKAR, Shantesh

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expression!11 The relation between subjectivity and exteriority in both the domains of social and ecological are compromised in a way. He further states, “…it is the ways of living on this planet that are in question, in the context of the acceleration of techno-scientific mutations and of considerable demographic growth.12” The growth is tremendous and along with the political stance another major factor influencing the growth of the present urban setup is the rise and reach infrastructure is gaining.

Developers, to penetrate into the urban and reach the masses need a medium, and infrastructure seems to provide that easily.

Physical Infrastructures: Beyond mere Functionality One of the primary elements needed for urbanisation is the provision of physical infrastructures like roads, highways, water supply, sewers and drains, canals, public amenities etc., and the other fragments of urban like the residential, commercial, recreational and economic centres spring around it. As Kennith Frampton states: “…essentially 19th-century city fabrics in the early 1960s have since become progressively overlaid by the two symbiotic instruments of Megalopolitan development - the freestanding high-rise and the serpentine freeway13”. The quality of lifestyle and the evolutionary scope for it depends on the quality and structure in which these elements of urban are laid, and the quality and structure of the elements of urban are directly proportional to the efficiency of the system of physical infrastructure devised. For infrastructure, it is also important how it functions beyond its mere functionality. It reasons how infrastructure becomes capable of performing more than just what it can, binding together various parameters considered in any urban intervention; like the primary domains of ecology, economy and sociology synchronising and operating in co-ordination.

The initial conscious attempts to use infrastructure to bind the socio-cultural fabric in the urban setup with the ecological setup began as early as in the mid nineteenth century. During this period Paris went through a major alteration. As Emily Kirkman states, Paris became a hub for industrial change and cultural advancement, it became a home for many immigrants, overcrowding the ancient district. Paris soon started tumbling to an unexpected growth and soon became an unhygienic epidemic city.

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AA LU 2010-11 Figure 6: The map based indicates Haussmannian streetwork between 1850 and 1870 (Copyright 2004, Mark Jaroski)

Figure 7 & 8: (Left) Saint-Sulpice church, at the end of la rue du VieuxColombier in the 6th arrondissement (Right) Le boulevard Arago

Some of these places still look like they did in the late 1800s, with the boulevards and streets of Paris having gained an urban identity KELVEKAR, Shantesh

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The tight confines of Medieval Paris were hindering city’s potential and desire to transform into a more organised urban centre. In order to bring some rationality and to transform and liberate Paris from the menace Napolean III commissioned an urban renovation project to Baron Haussmann. The Parisian boulevards, parkways, highways and road network were being redesigned and many were being added to the existing. The drains and sewers too faced a severe problem and the direct impact of it was seen on the societal behavioural changes. Baron Haussmann was among the first visionaries to formulate a metropolitan-scale response to this function and to recognize the opportunity it provided to "modernise" Paris14. The boulevard combined many functions within and operated beyond the mere function of being a boulevard. The rebuilding of Paris between 1850 and 1870 is a crucial moment in urban history. The attempt by Haussmann to rationalise the urban space is one of the formative legacies of urban planning. His approach, although initially was criticised by his contemporaries were re-evaluated when modernist methodologies of urban planning were reasoned and questioned. Its wide boulevards have given Paris its present identity, the boulevards with shops and cafés and commercial facades determine a new urban typology. It changes the everyday lives of the Parisians and helped evolve and reshape the societal behaviour and the local culture.

As a part of urban renovation, Parisian boulevards became an organisation of integrated sewers, water, parks, roads, pedestrian; this was a pragmatic example of conglomerating multiple layers. Edmund Bacon states with respect to Haussmann’s Paris, “reversal in the direction of energy, from the outward explosion of avenues and palaces of the Louis Kings to the implosion of the connecting and life-giving boulevards of Haussmann15”.

During the same period Haussmann’s, American contemporary Fredrick Law Olmsted was designing Boston’s Emerald Necklace. For Olmstead conceived, providing housing, commercial and recreational venues within the domain of Landscape provided along with circulation a space to respire within the nineteenth century urban. These were to be realised in conjunction with the existing and proposed infrastructural networks and had to function in coordination with the existing natural ecological systems. As Jacqueline Tatom states that projects like these were remarkable during of that era because they suggested modern urbanism that conceived an efficient circulation not as an independent system but it considered KELVEKAR, Shantesh

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merging other social and cultural setups of the everyday urban life, as well as integrating services like drains, sewers and water supply.

Also, another notable project is Manhattan’s Central Park designed by Olmsted along with a British architect Calbert Vaux. Central Park was a unique landscape for its period since it was a radical approach towards landscape as it conceived beyond the simple realm of landscape. The landscape intervened with the urban domain understanding the social dynamics and provided scope for the adaptation with the upcoming future culture. The landscape here operates even through a frame of environmental engineering; it forms fresh water reservoirs and collects the surface run-off, in Croton reservoir majorly. As Jorge Otero-Pailos suggests, for its period the Central Park was to be a republican institution, where all the classes of society shared a single platform to mingle within themselves collectively raising the spirit of democracy. It meant to be, and in a way it still is an escape from the urban congestion. The ideas behind Central Park were accented by the moralistic overtones of the American transcendentalists who believed in a metaphysical need

Figure 9: Central Park in the Manhattan borough of New York City

The park acts as a relief from the dense urban condition, from the skyscrapers surrounding it KELVEKAR, Shantesh

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for individual communion with nature, as a way of salvaging personal autonomy from the social conformity spawned by the nascent commercialism of American culture16.

The appreciable stride of Vaux and Olmsted is their attempt relating the non-urban with the urban; in the favour of processes they ruled out over a, so called ‘utopian’ approach. As Koolhaas states the park is a formal indeterminacy, an example of liberation from the formal coerciveness of architecture, ‘a kind of erasure from the oppression, in which architecture plays an important role’17. Here the role of architecture was subdued by landscape. Apart from the visual influence the landscape here acted as a relief from the architecture itself, and helped derive an identity and evolve a local culture for Manhattan.

Realisation The previous examples provide an in-depth analysis of the performance of landscape and infrastructure functioning in co-ordination in an urban domain, and its influence in shaping the culture, ecology and economy within context and its influences both around as well as in time. These examples, however, are performing beyond what they are meant to be, although initial research in conceiving the ideas was not so intense. It is only when these projects were further revaluated, after its undergone mutations; they have disclosed the critical changes which have undergone to evolve the project to its current state.

Certainly, the depth of understanding in the early post-industrial approach of urban design was confined and did not consider multiple parameters and factors that influenced an urban evolution; it rather perceived urban through a purview of constructing it, rather than a conscious approach towards a processual strategy. The modernist perception of urban design from the frame of ‘Architecture’ restricted, to a great extent the evolution of urban and solidified the city without providing scope to operate beyond its functional expectations. What many urban designers did not visualise back then is that an urban cannot be ‘designed’ by being narcissistic; giving urban a form, a definition to realise its identity. Rather, an urban needs to, and irrespective of its design approach, will evolve in time simply because it is not a single persons vision but an urban is a cumulative effect. It is influenced by various parameters, right from society or community and culture (and variations within),

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regional conditions (or ecology), economic and political conditions, and performs beyond a sole vision.

The New Methodologies As Bernard Tschumi states, “Urban Design historically has oscillated between the treacherous poles of social control and manipulation, on one hand, and banal orchestration and management of urban services, on the other18”; the approach needed had to be more profound and radical. His project, Parc de la Villette in Paris is a conscious example of including multiple layers which would start conflicting within to evolve in time. The park designed, unlike conventional parks, intended of creating a space that existed in vacuum, without any historical precedent19. The park goes against the conventional signage and representations that have infiltrated architectural design and allowed for an existence of “non-place”. “Non-place”, envisioned by Tschumi, is an appropriate example of space and provides a truly honest relationship between the subject and the object20. Visitors react to the entire organisation of landscape and sculptural pieces without the scope to cross refer to previous works of historical parks or architecture. By allowing visitors to experience and assimilate the deconstructed architecture of the park within the constructed vacuum; the time recognitions and activities that start taking place in that space begin to acquire a more vivid and authentic nature21.

Figure 10:

Plan of Parc de la Villette, Paris designed

by Bernard Tschumi split in its components Lines, Points and Surfaces (Source: EVENT CITIES 2)

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Unlike the present parks in that period, Parc de la Villette is not a reflection of a traditional approach of design. The park functions as a platform for evolving culture and maturing interaction. The frame of the park, due to its roots in deconstructivism, has the ability to change and react to the functions that it holds within22. The relations between the park and cultural interactions are dynamic and have the ability to undergo change. The deconstructiveness of the park is seen in its ability to host these interactions in an environment that is constructed for a cyclic change and reaction. This approach tends to bring radicality in the conception strategy as compared to the conventional park design strategies; it filters landscape’s functional role to its pragmatic level and triggers an open dimension for the perception of space, thus making the response unpredictable.

Critical arguments, Conscious implications Post Tschumi’s “Park de la Villette” a rigorous enquiry was generated among urbanists to question the traditional methods of urbanism. Landscape was being, for the first time, rather than architecture, considered a potential element to set an urban which has the capability to adapt to the present conditions and evolve and curate the culture of the territory. Park de la Villette became an experiment to test a new model of urbanism. This led to an evolving of a theory “Landscape Urbanism”. Landscape Urbanism is a theory arguing landscape, rather than architecture, is more capable of organising the city and enhancing the urban experience.

Speaking at the Oslo’s School of Architecture, Douglas Spencer states, “Both, landscape and infrastructure are territorial practices. Each functions as a kind of ‘groundwork‘, shaping, organising and servicing bases upon which forms of social, economic and ecological relations operate23”. This is reflected in OMA’s project in 2000, Park Downsview, Toronto. Koolhaas’s conception of “Tree City”, for the project Downsview, is an attempt of using trees rather than buildings to serve as a catalyst for urbanisation. He argues that vegetal clusters rather than built forms would provide site identity, and conceives the entire project as an urban domain constituted of landscape elements. OMA strategizes the entire project as a processual development, and that the phases of its development will evolve the site in time.

“Tree City”, therefore is a plan for attainable growth rather than a proposal to create an extensive bulk.

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Figure 11:

“Tree City”, Plan of Park Downsview, Toronto Designed by OMA, Rem Koolhaas (Source: CASE: Downsview Park Toronto)

Located at the juncture of major transit lines, “Tree City” intends to operate as a point of destination and dispersal. Currently in the sub-urban region, it anticipates of being in a condition of “city” or a dense urban setup in the future, for which landscape tends to provide scope to adapt to the fore coming conditions. James Corner, in his essay “Terra Fluxus” refers to one of the qualities of Landscape Urbanism as process in time, where he describes urbanisation as a dynamic process characterised by terms like fluidity, spontaneity and non-linearity as opposed to stability, predictability and rationality. This opens to a conscious intention of considering certain meta-parameters which pushes to reason beyond its mere response. The analysis and response to the perception of future urban scenario hence seems to be much more sophisticated.

Conclusion Horizontality and Sprawl, like in most American cities, is becoming a condition in the Chinese setup; or for that matter in any upcoming urban, and hence is a new urban reality. As many theories of urbanism tend to ignore this fact, or more recently attempt to retrofit it in theories like New Urbanism, Landscape Urbanism accepts it and tries to understand the conditions thoroughly. Traditional urbanism approaches, although consider this aspect, have a small and limiting scope. Landscape Urbanism KELVEKAR, Shantesh

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uses ‘territories’ and ‘potential’ instead of ‘programme’ to define a places use; it finds thinking in terms of adaptable ‘systems’ instead of rigid ‘structures’ as a better way to organise space.

Since in the recent years, urban is evolving not only because of the schema for infrastructure development but also because of the political conditions, acceptance of neoliberal and trade policies, alterations in social and cultural behaviour, and the changes in ecological, regional and environmental conditions, the growth in the coming future seems huge and erratic. Asia (and more specifically China) is a major ground of experimentation, where the conditions are exactly the same which America in the past had. It is left to the future urban visionaries to deal with these scenarios.

Exploring the possibility of Landscape Urbanism as a critically informed practice, the urbanists need to derive a design methodology which contradicts the negative factors of the prior approaches and perceives the future of urban through a lens of Landscape. Looking at the scenario of rapid transformations, we need go to the basic level, investigate the pragmatic structure to device a Metamorphic Urbanity which has the capability to adapt, accept and experience both physical and metaphysical transitions.

Landscape Urbanism, as a theory, not only seems promising in post-industrial cities or in conditions of rapid urbanisation of Asia, but seems promising in any hypothetical or existing scenario and scale, anywhere because of its adaptability and credibility towards the subtle nuances of the urban or global conditions.

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AA LU 2010-11 Bibliography 1 –Koolhaas, Rem (2004), in an interview in IconEye 2 –Harvey, David (2005), A Brief History of Neoliberalism, p.121, (Neoliberalism ‘with Chinese Characteristics’), New York, Oxford University Press Inc. 3 –Guattari, Felix (translated by Pindar, Ian) (2000), The Three Ecologies, p. 27, London, The Athlone Press 4 –Koolhaas, Rem, Mau, Bruce (1995), S,M,L,XL, p.1253 (Essay: The Generic City, Guide 1994); New York, The Monacelli Press 5 –In the essay “The Generic City”, Rem Koolhaas puts forward a hypothesis which becomes a radical question of enquiry; can the existing approach in building our approach become an evolutionary methodology?

6 –Holston, James (1989), The Modernist City, An Anthropological Critique of Brasilia, p.153, Chicago and London, The University of Chicago Press 7 –Kelly Shannon argues Landscape’s role in the modern urban development approaches as against traditional urban design theories perform better; defending to the discourse of “Landscape Urbanism” as an innovative design practice.

8 - Waldheim, Charles (2006), The Landscape Urbanism Reader, p.146, New York, Princeton Architectural Press (Essay: From Theory to Resistance: Landscape Urbanism in Europe; Shannon, Kelly) 9 –Bekaert, Geert (2002), After-Sprawl, p.11, Rotterdam, NAi Publishers 10 –Charles Waldheim states in his writing “Motor City” referring to Detroit as an international model of industrial urbanism; shaping the City: History, Theory and Urban Design (2004), p.80, 81, New York, Routledge 11 –Guattari, Felix, translated by Pindar, Ian (2000), The Three Ecologies, p.27; London, The Athlone Press 12 –Guattari, Felix, translated by Pindar, Ian (2000), The Three Ecologies, p.28; London, The Athlone Press 13 –Frampton, Kennith (Towards a Critical Regionalism: Six Points for an Architecture of Resistance) (1983), p.17, The Anti-Aesthetic, Editor: Foster, Hal, Port Townsend, The Bay Press 14 –Jordan, David (1995), Transforming Paris: The Life and Labors of Baron Haussmann, New York, The Free Press 15 –Gandy, Matthew (1999), p. 23, Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, New Series, Vol. 24, No. 1, London, Blackwell Publishing 16 –Otero-Pailos, Jorge (DEBATES: ‘Bigness’ in context: some regressive tendencies in Rem Koolhaas’ urban theory) (2000), p. 381, City, Vol. 4, No. 3, Carfax Publishing 17 –Koolhaas, Rem (1996), p. 63, Conversation With Students, New York, Princetom Architectural Press 18 –Tschumi, Bernard (2004), p. 500, Event-Cities 3 – concept vs. context, Cambridge (Massachusetts), London , The MIT Press 19 –Tschumi, Bernard (1987), p. 32, Cinégramme folie: le Parc de la Villette, Princeton, New Jersey, Princeton Architectural Press 20 –Papadakēs Deconstruction in Architecture (1988), p. 20-24, Academy Editions 21 –Tschumi, Bernard (1987), p. 108-119, Disjunctions, Cambridge (Massachusetts), The MIT Press (on behalf of Perspecta) 22 –Tschumi, Bernard, (Edited and Photographed: Futagawa, Yoko) (1997), p. 32, Bernard Tschumi “Parc de la Villette”, GA Document, 10, Tokyo, ADA Edita 23 –Spencer, Douglas (2010), Groundworks: Lecture at AHO’s Institute of Urbanism and Landscape (In a symposium ‘Landscape and Infrastructure), Oslo [source: terraincritical.wordpress.com]

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