New Urban Strategies for the city of Valencia: A Bioclimatic Rethink for the Historical City

NEW URBAN STRATEGIES FOR THE CITY OF VALENCIA:

A BIOCLIMATIC RETHINK FOR THE HISTORICAL CITY SHEILA ESTEVE GANAU

DISSERTATION SEPTEMBER 2015

MSC SUSTAINABLE ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN 2014 - 2015 AA E+E ENVIRONMENTAL AND ENERGY STUDIES PROGRAMME GRADUATE SCHOOL - ARCHITECTURAL ASSOCIATION SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE

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ABSTRACT

Historical Urban Spaces portray the history and identity of a community, and thus configure the image of the city. The open spaces in the Historical City of Valencia are scenario of diverse cultural, economical and social activities, and hence a platform for fortifying the bonds among the citizens. It is important to enhance the liveability and use of these spaces in order to “build up� a healthy society.

The success of public open spaces is determined by the microclimatic conditions that the place offers. The interaction of physical, physiological and psychological factors drive an individual to a state of satisfaction with its surroundings. This state of physical and mental well-being is defined as comfort, and can only be achieved when thermal satisfaction is reached. This research makes a first approach in determining and quantifying the psychological factors that alter the thermal sensation of individuals in the open spaces of the historical city of Valencia. It was observed that the reason and activity developed (the level of activity dislike) was the main psychological factor affecting the thermal sensation. This activity dislike and the Physiological Equivalent Temperature define the Predicted Actual Sensation, a tool that can be used to measure the levels of comfort for diverse situations.

On the other hand, strategies to improve the microclimatic conditions of these urban spaces were studied to draw guidelines for the rehabilitation and revitalization of open spaces in historical urban landscapes. In Mediterranean Climates any intervention that aims to decrease the air temperature, such as water elements and use of cool materials, should be complemented with a considerable reduction of the mean radiant temperature by the use of shading devices or vegetation. It is crucial that these proposals do not modify the character of the place. Temporal solutions can provide suitable microclimatic conditions all over the year.

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AUTHORSHIP DECLARATION

AA SED ARCHITECTURAL ASSOCIATION GRADUATE SCHOOL

PROGRAMME

SUBMISSION

TITLE

MSC SUSTAINABLE ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN 2014-2015

DISSERTATION

NEW URBAN STRATEGIES FOR THE CITY OF VALENCIA: A BIOCLIMATIC RETHINK FOR THE HISTORICAL CITY

NUMBER OF WORDS

16250 WORDS

STUDENT NAME

SHEILA ESTEVE GANAU

DECLARATION

I certify that the contents of this document are entirely my own work and that any quotation or paraphrase from the published or unpublished work of others is duly acknowledged.”

SIGNATURE

SEPTEMBER 2015

DATE 5

TABLE OF CONTENTS PART 1: RESEARCH FRAMEWORK

page 19

1. URBAN COMFORT page 20 1.1 COMFORT page 21 1.1.1 PHYSICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL FACTORS page 21 1.1.2 PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS page 24

1.2 URBAN CLIMATE page 26

1.3 MICROCLIMATES page 28 1.3.1 RADIATION, AIR TEMPERATURE page 28 1.3.2 WIND FLOW page 30 2. CONTEXT page 32 2.1 VALENCIA: CLIMATE ANALYSIS

page 32

2.2 VALENCIA: URBAN CLIMATE page 34 2.2.1 WIND FLOW page 34 2.2.2 GLOBAL RADIATION AND HUMIDITY page 34 2.2.3 AIR TEMPERATURE page 35 2.3 VALENCIA: CLIMATE CHANGE

page 35

3. PRECEDENTS page 36

PART 2: INHABITANT AND PLACE RESEARCH

page 39

1. METHODOLOGY page 41 2. ANALYSIS OF THE PLACE page 42 2.1 CONTEXT page 42 2.2 SUN AND WIND STUDIES 2.2.1 PLAZA DE LA VIRGEN 2.2.2 PLAZA DEL AYUNTAMIENTO

page 46 page 46 page 46

3. FIELDWORK: OBJECTIVE DATA page 46 3.1 WEATHER DATA page 49

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3.2 IDENTIFYING THERMAL COMFORT PATTERNS page 50 3.2.1 AIR AND SURFACE TEMPERATURE page 50 3.2.2 AIR TEMPERATURE, RELATIVE HUMIDITY AND WIND page 54 3.2 IDENTIFYING NOISE PATTERNS

page 56

4. SURVEYS: COMFORT page 60 4.1 MEASURING COMFORT page 60 4.1.1 PHYSIOLICAL EQUIVALENT TEMPERATURE page 60 4.1.2 ACTUAL SENSATION page 62 4. OBSERVATIONS: BEHAVIOURAL PATTERNS PART 3: THE MICROCLIMATE RESEARCH

page 66 page 69

1. BASE CASE page 70 2. PROMOTING EVAPORATION page 71 2.1 WATER ELEMENTS page 72 3. REDUCING RADIATION page 74 3.1 COOL MATERIALS page 74 3.2 SHADING page 75 4. ASSESSMENT OF PROPOSALS page 80 PART 4: RESEARCH CONCLUSIONS

page 85

1. STRATEGIES page 86 1.1 IMPROVE THE “STATE OF THE BODY”

page 86

1.2 ENHANCE THE “STATE OF THE MIND”

page 87

2. APPLICABILITY page 88 2.2.1 PLAZA DE LA VIRGEN page 50 2.2.2 PLAZA DEL AYUNTAMIENTO page 54 3. CONCLUSIONS page 90

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LIST OF FIGURES PART 1: RESEARCH FRAMEWORK PAGE FIGURES AND TABLES

21 Figure 1.1 Diagram Heat Flow in an Outdoor Space 23 Table 1.1 Summary of the Outdoor Comfort Indices 24 Figure 1.2 Diagram Levels of Adaptation in Outdoor Comfort 27 Table 1.2 Main Modifications in the Urban Context (Source: after Landsberg, 1981)

27 Figure 1.3 Example Heat Island in Valencia the 13th February 1989

(Source: after Perez Cueva, 1994) 29 Figure 1.4 Diagram Urban Heat Energy Fluxes 31 Figure 1.5 Diagram Wind Speed 31 Figure 1.6 Diagram Section Wind Flow for an Isolated Building 31 Figure 1.7 Diagram Plan Wind Flow for an isolated Building 31 Figure 1.8 Diagram Air Flow High H/W Ratio Skimming Air Flow 31 Figure 1.9 Diagram Air Flow H/W > 0.5 - Week Interaction 31 Figure 1.10 Diagram Air Flow H/W Ratio < 0.5 - No Interaction 32 Figure 1.11 Valencia Climate: Kรถppen Climate Classification 32 Figure 1.12 Valencia - Olygay Model

(Source: after Perez Cueva, A.J., 2001) 33 Figure 1.13 Daily Annual Air Temperature Fluctuation

(source: Meteonorm) 33 Figure 1.14 Annual Relative Humidity and Global Horizontal Radiation (Source: Meteonorm) 33 Figure 1.15 Annual Precipitation

(Source: Meteonorm) 33 Figure 1.16 Prevailing WInds for summer and winter

(Source: Meteonorm, after ECOTECT) 35 Figure 1.17 Urban Isotherms 11 pm 35 Figure 1.18 Urban Isotherms 5 am 35 Figure 1.19 Urban Isotherms 8 am 35 Figure 1.20 Urban Isotherms 11 am 35 Figure 1.21 Urban Isotherms 2 pm 35 Figure 1.22 Urban Isotherms 5 pm 35 Figure 1.23 Urban Isotherms 8 pm 36 Table 1.2 Strategies for the Conditioning of Outdoor Spaces

(Source: after Guerra, J., et al, 1991)

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PART 2: INHABITANT AND PLACE RESEARCH

PAGE FIGURES AND TABLES 41 43 43 44 44 44 44 44 44 46 46 46 47 47 47 47 47 47 47 47 47 47 47 47 47 47 47 47 48 48 49

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Figure 2.1 Aerial View of the Historical City Figure 2.2 Aerial View of the Squares Table 2.1 Comparison Plaza de la Virgen and Plaza del Ayuntamiento Figure 2.3 View N-S Plaza de la Virgen Figure 2.4 View S-N Plaza de la Virgen Figure 2.5 View N-S Plaza del Ayuntamiento Figure 2.6 View S-N Plaza del Ayuntamiento Figure 2.7 Plaza de la Virgen Axonometric View Figure 2.8 Plaza del Ayuntamiento Axonometric View Table 2.2 Summary Materials in the Square and Characteristics Figure 2.9 Map of Materials Plaza de la Virgen Figure 2.10 Map of Materials Plaza del Ayuntamiento Figure 2.11 Shadow Plaza de la Virgen 9 - 11 am Figure 2.12 Shadow Plaza de la Virgen 12 - 2 pm Figure 2.13 Shadow Plaza de la Virgen 3 - 5 pm Figure 2.14 Shadow Plaza de la Virgen 6 - 8 pm Figure 2.15 Wind Speed Plaza de la Virgen Figure 2.16 Wind Flow Plaza de la Virgen Figure 2.17 Sun Path Plaza de la Virgen Figure 2.18 Sun Path Plaza de la Virgen Figure 2.19 Shadow Plaza Ayuntamiento 9 - 11 am Figure 2.20 Shadow Plaza Ayuntamiento 12 - 2 pm Figure 2.21 Shadow Plaza Ayuntamieno 3 -5 pm Figure 2.22 Shadow Plaza Ayuntamiento 6 -8 pm Figure 2.23 Wind Speed Plaza Ayuntamiento Figure 2.24 Wind Flow Plaza Ayuntamiento Figure 2.25 Sun Path Plaza Ayuntamiento Figure 2.26 Sun Path Plaza Ayuntamiento Figure 2.27 Spots Measured Plaza de la Virgen Figure 2.28 Spots Measured Plaza Ayuntamiento Figure 2.29 Air Temperature during Fieldwork (Source: Wunderground)

Figure 2.30 Relative Humidity during Fieldwork (Source: Wunderground)

Figure 2.31 Thermal View Plaza de la Virge Figure 2.32 Thermal View Plaza de la Virge Figure 2.33 Thermal View Plaza de la Virge Figure 2.34 Air and Surface Temperature in Plaza de la Virgen Morning (11 am aprox) Figure 2.35 Air and Surface Temperature in Plaza de la Virgen Afternoon (4 pm aprox) 9

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Figure 2.36 Air and Surface Temperature in Plaza de la Virgen Morning (11 am aprox) Figure 2.37 Surface Temperature in Plaza de la Virgen Morning (11 am aprox) Figure 2.38 Surface Temperature in Plaza de la Virgen Afternoon (4 pm aprox) Figure 2.39 Surface Temperature in Plaza de la Virgen Evening (8 pm aprox) Figure 3.40 Thermal View Plaza Ayuntamiento Figure 3.41 Thermal View Plaza Ayuntamiento Figure 3.42 Thermal View Plaza Ayuntamiento Figure 2.43 Air and Surface Temperature in Plaza del Ayuntamiento Morning (11 am aprox) Figure 2.44 Air and Surface Temperature in Plaza del Ayuntamiento Afternoon (4 pm aprox) Figure 2.45 Air and Surface Temperature in Plaza del Ayuntamiento Morning (11 am aprox) Figure 2.46 Surface Temperature in Plaza del Ayuntamiento Morning (11 am aprox) Figure 2.47 Surface Temperature in Plaza del Ayuntamiento Afternoon (4 pm aprox) Figure 2.48 Surface Temperature in Plaza del Ayuntamienton Evening (8 pm aprox) Figure 2.49 Average Air Temperature Registered in each Spot Plaza de la Virgen Figure 2.50 Average Relative Humidity Registered in each Spot Plaza de la Virgen Figure 2.51 Average Wind Speed Registered in each Spot Plaza de la Virgen Figure 2.52 Average Air Temperature Registered in each Spot Plaza del Ayuntamiento Figure 2.53 Average Relative Humidity Registered in each Spot Plaza del Ayuntamiento Figure 2.54 Average Wind Speed Registered in each Spot Plaza del Ayuntamiento Figure 2.55 Noise Map Plaza de la Virgen Figure 2.56 Correlation Noise Level and Perception Plaza de la Virgen Figure 2.57 Noise Map Plaza del Ayuntamiento Figure 2.58 Correlation Noise Level and Perception Plaza del Ayuntamiento Table 2.3 Ranges PET for Valencia (Source: After Gomez, F., 2013)

Figure 2.59 PET for each Spot in Plaza de la Virgen Figure 2.60 PET for each Spot in Plaza del Ayuntamiento Figure 2.61 PET Plaza de la Virgen Morning Figure 2.62 PET Plaza de la Virgen Afternoon

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Figure 2.63 PET Plaza de la Virgen Evening Figure 2.64 PET Plaza Ayuntamiento Morning Figure 2.65 PET Plaza Ayuntamiento Afternoon Figure 2.66 PET Plaza Ayuntamiento Evening Figure 2.67 Question 1 and 2 of Survey Figure 2.68 Actual Sensation Figure 2.69 Sensation Desired for the different Actual Sensations Figure 2.70 Comparison Actual Sensation (AS) and Physiological Equivalent Temperature (PET) Figure 2.71 Comparison Actual Sensation in Each Square Figure 2.72 Comparison Physiological Equivalent Temperature in Each Square Figure 2.73 Difference Between AS and PET in Each Square Figure 2.74 Question 4 of the Survey Figure 2.75 Visual Delight Plaza de la Virgen Figure 2.76 Visual Delight Plaza del Ayuntamiento Figure 2.77 Time of Exposure Outdoors Plaza de la Virgen Figure 2.78 Time of Exposure Outdoors Plaza del Ayuntamiento Figure 2.79 Mapping AS - PET Plaza de la Virgen Figure 2.80 Mapping AS - PET Plaza del Ayuntamiento Figure 2.81 Plaza de la Virgen Morning Figure 2.82 Plaza de la Virgen Afternoon Figure 2.83 Plaza de la Virgen Evening Figure 2.84 Plaza Ayuntamiento Morning Figure 2.85 Plaza Ayuntamiento Afternoon Figure 2.86 Plaza Ayuntamiento Evening Figure 2.87 Plaza de la Virgen Morning Figure 2.88 Plaza Ayuntamiento Morning Figure 2.89 Plaza de la Virgen Afternoon Figure 2.90 Plaza Ayuntamiento Afternoon Figure 2.91 Plaza de la Virgen Evening Figure 2.92 Plaza del Ayuntamiento Evening

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PART 3: MICROCLIMATE RESEARCH PAGE FIGURES AND TABLES

71 Figure 3.1 BC Direct Radiation 4pm 71 Figure 3.2 BC Wind Speed Change 71 Figure 3.3 BC Air Temperature 4pm 71 Figure 3.4 BC Relative Humidity 4pm 71 Figure 3.5 BC SurfaceTemperature 4pm 71 Figure 3.6 BC Mean Radiant Temperature 4pm 72 Figure 3.7 Envimet Model Disperse Fountain 72 Figure 3.8 Envimet Model Perimeter Fountain

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Figure 3.9 Envimet Model Central Fountain Figure 3.10 Change Ta Disperse Fountain 4pm Figure 3.11 Change RH Disperse Fountain 4pm Figure 3.12 Change Ta Perimeter Fountain 4pm Figure 3.13 Change RH Perimeter Fountain 4pm Figure 3.14 Change Ta Central Fountain 4pm Figure 3.15 Change RH Central Fountain 4pm Figure 3.16 Change in Tmrt Central Fountain 4pm Figure 3.17 Envimet Model: Existing Materials Figure 3.18 Envimet Model: High Albedo Materials Figure 3.19 Change in Albedo Figure 3.20 Change Ta Cool Materials 4pm Figure 3.21 Change RH Cool Materials 4pm Figure 3.22 Change Ts Cool Materials 4pm Figure 3.23 Change Tmrt Cool Materials 4pm Figure 3.24 Envimet Model Central Shadow Figure 3.25 Envimet Model North Shadow Figure 3.26 Envimet Model Dispersed Shadow Figure 3.27 Change Ta Central Shadow Figure 3.28 Change Ta North Shadow Figure 3.29 Change Ta Dispersed Shadow Figure 3.30 Change HR Central Shadow Figure 3.31 Change HR North Shadow Figure 3.32 Change HR Dispersed Shadow Figure 3.33 Change in Wind Central Shadow Figure 3.34 Change in Wind North Shadow Figure 3.35 Change in Wind Dispersed Shadow Figure 3.36 Radiation Central Shadow Figure 3.37 Radiation North Shadow Figure 3.38 Radiation Dispersed Shadow Figure 3.39 Change Ts Central Shadow Figure 3.40 Change Ts North Shadow Figure 3.41 Change Ts Dispersed Shadow Figure 3.42 Change Tmrt Central Shadow

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Figure 3.43 Change Tmrt North Shadow Figure 3.44 Change Tmrt Dispersed Shadow Figure 3.45 Points Analysed Table 3.1 Summary Environmental Conditios, Pet and Predicted Actual Sensation Base Case Table 3.2 Summary Environmental Conditios, Pet and Predicted Actual Sensation Central Fountain Table 3.3 Summary Environmental Conditios, Pet and Predicted Actual Sensation Cool Materials Table 3.4 Summary Environmental Conditios, Pet and Predicted Actual Sensation Central Shadow Summary Environmental Conditions, PET and Predicted Actual Combination of Improvements Figure 3.46 Change Ta All Elements Together Figure 3.47 Change HR All Elements Together Figure 3.48 Change Ts All Elements Together Figure 3.49 Change Tmrt All Elements Together

PART 4: RESEARCH CONCLUSIONS PAGE FIGURES AND TABLES 88 88 89 88

Figure 4.1 Actual View of Plaza de la Virgen Figure 4.2 View of Proposal for Plaza de la Virgen Figure 4.3 Actual View Plaza Ayuntamiento Figure 4.2 View of Proposal for Plaza del Ayuntamiento

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Sharing knowledge, time and experience make us grow, not only as professionals, but also as persons. The SED experience has enriched me in different ways and therefore I cannot submit this work without acknowledging all the people that have contributed to it. I would like to thank...

All the SED staff for sharing their knowledge, especially Jorge Rodriguez for providing constructive tutorials, useful advice and information for this research.

Professor Simos Yannas and Paula Cadima for their guidance throughout the course and offering their time and professional experience.

My family, who will never let me fall. Thanks for the continuos support, patience and encouraging me to live this experience.

My SED classmates for giving me a smile every morning. To Jennifer, Kwan and April for being part of my “working team” throughout the year. For teaching me that sharing work, time and dinners, drives to a better understanding of the concepts.

Especial thanks to my “SED Spanish Team”, Julia and Victoria, for our countless conversations about “anything and everything”. Because they shed light on my way and “day-light up” my mood.

Barbara, Nereida and Inma, who never doubt in helping me during fieldwork.

The spot measurements and surveys could not have been undertaken without their help.

To all the people who cheer me up these lasts weeks because they pushed me to do this work better.

And everyone who made my London experience, somehow, meaningful.

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INTRODUCTION The urban spaces in the historical city of Valencia are cultural, economical and social infrastructures that play an important role in community life, and therefore in the social well-being of the inhabitants. Thus, it is crucial to promote the use of them in order to enhance the quality of life of its citizens. The success of urban spaces is determined by urban design and the microclimatic conditions created.

The mild temperatures throughout the year of this Mediterranean city, offer the ideal scenario for the use of outdoor spaces as an â&#x20AC;&#x153;outdoor salonâ&#x20AC;?. Moreover, the characteristics of the historical landscapes attract citizens, and as a result these spaces become a platform for social interaction. However, the latest renovation work on these spaces focused on functional and aesthetical requirements and did not take into consideration the climatic and environmental factors. Consequently, under the severe conditions of summer the use of the spaces drops, as they do not provide a comfortable environment.

The maximum heat island intensity is registered in this area, and therefore the open spaces in it record the highest air temperatures. This is due to the narrow streets, the high height/width ratios, the low albedo materials and the lack of vegetation and open spaces. The high air temperatures, and the low relative humidity and air flow in this area, result in greater discomfort during summer.

This research focuses on the squares of the historical city as they host intense social activity in spring and autumn, which drops considerably in summer and winter due to the climatic conditions. This study will concentrate on the warm season as it is more prolonged in time, the conditions are more difficult to deal with and studies reveal that the minimum temperatures will continue rising.

Improving the microclimatic conditions of the open spaces not only improves comfort levels, but also reduces the energy consumption of the adjacent buildings.

In order to develop a successful urban design, it is necessary to research bioclimatic comfort and urban climate. This research aims to define comfort for the city of Valencia and strategies to achieve it in the historical urban spaces. Numerous studies have shown the contrasting perceptions of weather conditions in different cultures, countries and climate zones. Furthermore, weather perception and thermal satisfaction also depend on the immediate context: the particular place and short-term experience.

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The target of the research is to define a tool that helps to measure comfort in the context explained above, in order to assess the possible solutions â&#x20AC;&#x201C; understanding that thermal experience is a multi-layered sensation determined by physical, physiological and psychological conditions and adaptive opportunities. Different indices used in outdoor comfort research were analysed and it was decided to focus on the Physiological Equivalent Temperature, as it is the most frequent and precise index used. PET usually overestimates the thermal stress of the inhabitants, as it does not take into consideration the psychological factors that affect the thermal perception. The Actual Sensation of the users was compared to the theoretical sensation, through the calculation of PET with RAYMAN PRO. Marked differences were found, and other factors (visual delight, noise comfort, activity dislike or level of obligation, short term experience and time exposed to outdoor conditions) were considered in order to identify the factors that alter the thermal sensation and to quantify the effect of them It was observed that the most determinant factor was activity dislike or level of obligation to be in the urban square. And a correlation between actual sensation, physiological equivalent temperature and activity dislike was established. As a result the Predicted Actual Sensation was defined in order to use it as a tool for the assessment of proposals.

The proposals aimed to improve the microclimatic conditions of the squares: to reduce the air temperature, increase the relative humidity, take advantage of the existing air flow and decrease the mean radiant temperature. Extensive published literature analyses the different materials and the benefits of vegetation and water elements. This work investigates different arrangements to optimise the effect of the diverse solutions and they were tested with the ENVIMET 4 software. The analytical work shows the benefits of concentrating the elements, as this has a higher impact on the air temperature. Moreover, it was proved that in Mediterranean climates, due to the high solar radiation and insolation, the most effective proposal is to provide shade.

Furthermore the studies aim to show that isolated proposals do not have a big impact to the comfort of the inhabitant. But the combination of different features will generate a microclimate of improved conditions. This will enhance the comfort of the place and therefore the use of it. Architects and urban designers should bear in mind that any solution in an urban project has an impact on the environmental circumstances of the place, and on the comfort of the inhabitants. Successful urban spaces provide a suitable environment to be occupied. Therefore, this work proposes a method to study, analyse and assess the context where the project is developed, that can be applied in the renewal of urban spaces.

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PART 1

RESEARCH FRAMEWORK 1. URBAN COMFORT 1.1 COMFORT 1.1.1 PHYSICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL FACTORS 1.1.2 PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS

1.2 URBAN CLIMATE

1.3 MICROCLIMATES 1.3.1 RADIATION, AIR TEMPERATURE AND HUMIDITY 1.3.2 WIND FLOW

2. CONTEXT 2.1 VALENCIA: CLIMATE ANALYSIS 2.2 VALENCIA: URBAN CLIMATE 2.2.1 WIND FLOW 2.2.2 GLOBAL RADIATION AND HUMIDITY 2.2.3 AIR TEMPERATURE

2.3 VALENCIA: CLIMATE CHANGE 3. PRECEDENTS

NEW URBAN STRATEGIES FOR THE CITY OF VALENCIA: A BIOCLIMATIC RETHINK FOR THE HISTORICAL CITY

PART 1: RESEARCH FRAMEWORK 1. URBAN COMFORT The relationship between humans and climate has been studied in depth through history to understand how the characteristics of a place impact the quality of life of the inhabitants. Published literature states the importance of climate and ambiance to bioclimatic comfort and, as a consequence, to the health, mood and behaviour of a community. Thus, architects should comprehend the context and climatic conditions in order to design spaces fit for dwelling.

The concept of comfort has developed over time, through the multiple research focused on this topic. While the first studies understood the individual as a passive subject, whose comfort was only conditioned by environmental circumstances, latest researches proved that physiological adaptation and psychological conditions influence thermal comfort. These last factors play an important role in outdoor spaces, due to the complexity of this scenario, and the lack of control over the weather conditions, along with cultural and behavioural factors. Hence, outdoor comfort is the result of multiple and complex variables that lead an individual to a sensation of satisfaction with the surrounding conditions.

An extensive bibliography has been developed on the definition and comprehension of bioclimatic comfort in the urban context. Max Sorre in “Les Fondaments de la Geographie Humaine”, made a first approach in defining urban comfort, relating it with the microclimate of a place (Sorre, M., 1943).

Changes in landscape modify the climatic conditions of urban open spaces and therefore the parameters that affect outdoor comfort. Thus, architects, urban planners and designers should have a clear understanding of how urban microclimates alter the comfort of the inhabitant, and hence the use and activities carried out in open public space.

However, the early studies on urban climate and comfort were developed in parallel. The first attempts to relate climate and comfort came from Olygay (1963), with the bioclimatic model, and Givoni. This last author, in his book “Man, Climate and Architecture” (Givoni, B., 1976) established the importance of physical and physiological conditions to comfort and related them to the different climates. In 1996 Golany highlighted the importance of focusing on design at a neighbourhood level, as open public spaces have relevant effects on the citizen’s health, indoor comfort and social life. In the last decade, there has been increasing interest in this topic, and accordingly the definition of outdoor comfort has been of concern for many researchers.

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PART 1. RESEARCH FRAMEWORK

1.1 COMFORT The first studies undertaken to determine human comfort, were based on experiments that aimed to establish the biological and natural limits of the heat energy balance between a person and its environment. These experiments, based only on physical aspects, were the starting point for further research based on physiological adaptation.

1.1.1 Physical and Physiological Factors

The approach to the study of human comfort can be: empirical or rational (Morgan, D.L., et al, 1974). The empirical studies establish the relationship between environmental factors and thermal perception, not taking into account the physiology, clothing, activity and other personal data (weight, height, gender, ageâ&#x20AC;Ś). These research studies result in indices such as, the Effective Temperature Comfort Index (ET) and the Temperature Humidity Index (HTI).

Rational studies, developed later, are based on the theory of Heat Energy Transfer between an individual and the environment. These comfort theories rely on the Heat Energy Balance, understanding the individual as a steady-state model that experiences comfort when the heat produced by the body is equal to the heat loss to the environment. Figure 1.1 shows the heat energy fluxes between an individual and the environment.

HEAT GAINS IH - Internal Heat RS - Short Wave Radiation RL - Long Wave Radiation RD - Reflected Radiation C - Conduction HEAT LOSSES CV - Convection R - Radiation C - Conduction E - Evaporation (Respiration, Perspiration)

Figure 1.1 Diagram Heat Flow in an Outdoor Space 21

NEW URBAN STRATEGIES FOR THE CITY OF VALENCIA: A BIOCLIMATIC RETHINK FOR THE HISTORICAL CITY

Many different rational indices have been used in outdoor comfort and microclimate assessment (Table 1.1). The most popular rational indices used to analyse comfort are: the PMV (Fanger, P.O., 1982) and PET (Mayer, H., et al, 1987). Fanger developed the Predicted Mean Vote or PMV that predicts the thermal assessment of a large proportion of the population in a seven-point scale from +3 to -3 (+3 = hot, +2 = warm, +1 =slightly warm, 0 = neutral, -1 = slightly cold, -2 = cool, -3 =cold). It understands comfort as “thermal neutrality” and calculates the thermal sensation under a combination of environmental conditions at a certain metabolic rate and clothing level. PMV is used to define the number of people in comfort in an indoor space by translating it into the Percentage of People Dissatisfied (PPD). Although many outdoor studies used this index to assess outdoor spaces, it has been demonstrated that the PMV overestimates the level of dissatisfaction in open spaces. (Nikolopoulou, M., et al, 2001, Nikolopoulou, M., et al 2004) On the other hand, the Physiological Equivalent Temperature (PET), using a comprehensive unit (ºC), estimates the level of thermal stress of an individual.

It is defined as the air temperature of a typical indoor space, with no wind or radiation, at which the body and skin temperature, along with the sweat rate, would be the same as under the conditions measured. This index is based on the Munich Energy-Balance Model (MEMI) and it is of interest because it translates complex outdoor circumstances into simple interior conditions. However, it establishes a clothing level of 0.9 and activity rate of 80W, and a single result is not suitable for all climates and scenarios. Andreas Matzarakis (2015) in his last lecture for the SED programme at the Architectural Associated presented a new tool based on PET; the Modified Physiological Equivalent Temperature (mPET), which varied with the activity and clothing of the individual.

In addition to these indices, Maria Lena Nikolopoulou, Spyros Lykoudis and Maria Kikira (2004) developed for the RUROS project an index that related the microclimatic conditions to the actual sensation of the people: the Actual Sensation Vote (ASV). It is a model based on results and can only be used between 5 - 35ºC, as that is the range of temperatures that the study covered.

The ASV was calculated for different cities, and it is interesting to note how some parameters can affect subjects in a contrasting way in different cities.

(Nikolopoulou, M., et al, 2004.) For example, in Athens the Relative Humidity is inversely proportional to the ASV, while in Thessaloniki it is directly proportional.

This proves that microclimatic strategies have to consider how the particular local factors affect the thermal sensation for the inhabitants of that place.

The International Society of Biometeorology (IDB) started a research project to find an index that could be used universally. An extensive review of the existing indices was carried out in order to develop the UTCI; an index that considers all the comfort factors and that has the same meaning in any climate.

Yet these indices still do not take into consideration all the factors that define the climate experience. Liang Chen and Edward Ng explain that these steadystate assessment methods do not consider the dynamic aspects of adaptation (Chen, L., et al, 2012), which are fundamental to understand the weather perception, thermal sensation and behaviour of the inhabitants.

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PART 1. RESEARCH FRAMEWORK

Table 1.1 Summary of the Outdoor Comfort Indices

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NEW URBAN STRATEGIES FOR THE CITY OF VALENCIA: A BIOCLIMATIC RETHINK FOR THE HISTORICAL CITY

1.1.2 Psychological Factors

Höppe stated, “The problem we face today is that there are no internationally accepted non-steady indices for the solution of this problem.” (Höppe, P., 2002) Nowadays, one decade on, there is still no universal index or tool able to assess outdoor comfort, taking into consideration the diverse layers of adaptation: physical, physiological and psychological.

The advancement in technologies has provided researchers with important tools to analyse microclimates and thermal comfort. From the first studies, such as the one developed for the city of San Francisco by a group of the University of California in Berkeley (Bosselman P., et al and Arens, E., et al, 1989), the techniques to study the effect of form and design in microclimates have evolved.

Nowadays, it is easier and faster to obtain more detailed and well-defined results. Analysing and assessing the different design solutions can be done by the use of computational programs, and will provide precise objective data, but this is not enough when evaluating the performance of an outdoor space.

More is required for a better comprehension of comfort in open spaces as 50% of thermal satisfaction cannot be measured with physical parameters.

(Nikolopoulou, M., et al, 2001) Figure 1.2 shows the different factors that influence outdoor experience and how to define them.

URBAN STRUCTURE DESIGN PHYSICAL

PHYSIOLOGICAL

MATERIALS

MEASUREMENTS + MODELING

VEGETATION

MICROCLIMATE

CLIMATE

WEATHER CONDITIONS

MEASUREMENTS + MODELING

RESPONSE

BODY THERMOREGULATION

MONITORING + MODELING

INDIVIDUAL ACTION

CLOTHING ACTIVITIY

OBSERVATION + MODELING

PAST EXPERIENCE CLIMATE

EXPECTATIONS NEUTRALITY

OBSERVATIONS + SURVEYS + INTERVIEWS

PREFERENCE

PSYCHOLOGICAL

INDIVIDUAL

MEMORIES AND MEANINGS PERSONAL

SURVEY + INTERVIEW

MOOD FREEDOM

VISUAL DELIGHT DESIGN

ENVIRONMENTAL STIMULATION

OBSERVATIONS + PLACE ANALYSYS + SURVEYS

ADAPTIVE CHOICE

SOCIAL FUNCTION PLACE

ECONOMICAL FUNCTION

OBSERVATIONS + PLACE ANALYSIS

CULTURAL FUNCTION BEHAVIOURAL

CULTURAL COMMUNITY SIGNICANCE SOCIAL

ACTIVITIES

OBSERVATIONS + SURVEYS

PREFERENCES

FACTORS THAT CAN BE OBJECTIVELY ASSESSED BY THE PROFESSIONAL FACTORS THAT CANNOT BE ASSESSED WITHOUT CONSIDERING THE INHABITANTS PERCEPTION

Figure 1.2 Diagram Levels of Adaptation in Outdoor Comfort.

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PART 1. RESEARCH FRAMEWORK

Subsequently, most of the studies developed in this last decade aim to analyse how weather conditions influence thermal sensation and as result, people’s behaviour. Field studies have become decisive in complementing the universal methods, in order to draw further conclusions on the correlation between microclimates, thermal sensation, thermal satisfaction and behavioural patterns.

Nowadays, an increasing number of studies focus on identifying how the weather perception affects the use of the space. Nikolopoulou and Steemers (2003) distinguished between thermal sensation and thermal satisfaction, and stated that, thermal satisfaction depends upon the adaptive opportunities of the place. They identify three levels of adaptation: Physical, the individual actions that people can take to improve their thermal sensation, physiological, related to the time of exposure and psychological adaptation. This last level is related to the individual (experience, expectation and time of exposure) and the conditions that the context offers (Naturalness and Perceived Control) (Nikolopoulou, M., et al 2001 and Nikolopoulou, M., et al 2003).

The study “Climate and Behaviour in a Nordic City” (Eliasson, I., et al, 2007) shows that the micrometeorological variations and human perception of the climate will affect the perception of weather, the behavioural patterns and the aesthetical and emotional assessment of a place, and vice versa. He states that microclimatic conditions should take advantage of the existing weather in order to create a space that achieves the thermal satisfaction of the inhabitants all through the year.

In addition to this, Lin (2009) demonstrates in his study performed in Taiwan, that adaptation plays an important role in the assessment and preferences of the inhabitants. He shows that the neutral sensation is achieved at higher temperatures than in Europe, and that the preferred conditions change depending on the season. Further, the thermal satisfaction depends on the activity or reason for being in the space, “when autonomy is high, the level of satisfaction is high; when autonomy is low, the level of satisfaction is low.” (Lin, T., 2009) Thence, this paper concludes that the thermal and psychological adaptation along with the behavioural adjustment, are interrelated and they influence each other when responding to the environmental conditions.

A wide range of studies prove that there is a strong correlation between the weather conditions, the climate of the place and the presence of people in the outdoor space (Katzchner, L., 2006, Thorsson, S., et al, 2007, Martín del Guayo, P., 2013). Concluding that cultural, behavioural and climatic expectations will modify human thermal satisfaction and weather assessment. In the same way, the weather conditions will determine the assessment of the place and thus the use of it.

The microclimatic conditions of a space will therefore be determinant in its success. Urban design should not only improve the microclimatic conditions but also cover the needs, wants and preferences of the society as “the use of outdoor spaces is determined not only by the ‘state of the body’ but also by the ‘state of the mind’” (Chen, L., et al, 2012).

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NEW URBAN STRATEGIES FOR THE CITY OF VALENCIA: A BIOCLIMATIC RETHINK FOR THE HISTORICAL CITY

1.2 URBAN CLIMATE The built environment is â&#x20AC;&#x153;the physical result of various economic, social and environmental processes, which are strongly related to the standards and needs of societyâ&#x20AC;? (Santamouris, M., 1999) All these processes have an impact on the environmental quality and climatic conditions of the urban context, (see Table 1.2) creating the urban climate. The urban climate is the result of the multiple microclimates generated within a city. They are defined by the characteristics of the surrounding urban environment; form, materiality and anthropogenic heat are the principal factors that influence the microclimates. As a result, there is a higher level of pollution, the global radiation is lower due to the scattering and absorption of the particles in the air and the cloudiness and precipitation rates are altered. Furthermore, while the air temperature increase, the humidity is decreased, the wind flow is modified and its speed reduced in the urban canopy layer. (Landsberg, B.H.,1981) These last parameters are crucial for comfort, and therefore, as the city develops, it becomes a more uncomfortable scenario to be to reside in. Furthermore, most of the environmental circumstances in the urban context are determined by the parameters that affect the Urban Energy Balance, which states that energy is always conserved in one form or another:

ENERGY GAINS = ENERGY LOSSES + ENERGY STORAGE The energy gains are the combination of anthropogenic heat, solar radiation and long-wave radiation from the materials. These heat gains should be dissipated in the form of sensible heat, through convection between the surfaces and the environment, along with latent heat, through evaporative processes, and the fluxes between the urban context and its surroundings. The energy that cannot be consumed or scattered is stored in the urban fabric. The high anthropogenic heat, the high absorption of the short-wave radiation and the blockage of the long-wave radiation, due to urban form and pollution, results in a positive global thermal balance, and therefore an increase in the air temperatures of the urban canopy layers. This is known as the Heat Island Effect, Figure 1.3 shows the Heat Island in Valencia for a particular day.

The Heat Island Intensity is the difference between the maximum temperatures in the urban landscape and the surrounding rural areas. The heat island varies depending on the location and daily circumstances, as it is related to the climate, topography, layout and short-term weather conditions. (Santamouris, M., 1999).

This effect occurs throughout the day, but as Sanda Lenzholzer says it is more appreciable at night time on hot days with clear sky and little wind. (Lenzholzer, S., 2015). There are several factors that influence the Heat Island Effect. Some are related with the city existence and its activities, such as the reduction of evaporative surface, anthropogenic heat and the urban greenhouse effect. On the other hand, many are related with urban design and layout, such as canyon radiative geometry, the thermal properties of the materials and the decrease in the wind flow due to the roughness of the city. This research will focus on the latter factors because they directly affect the microclimate and the comfort of the inhabitants in it.

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PART 1. RESEARCH FRAMEWORK

Table 1.2.Main Modification in the Urban Context (Source: after Landsberg, 1981)

CLIMATIC CHANGES IN THE URBAN CONTEXT CLIMATIC PARAMETER

COMPARED TO RURAL CONTEXT

CONTAMINANTS

CONDENSATION NUCLEI PARTICULATES GASEOUS ADMIXTURES

+ + +

10 10 5 -­‐ 25

TIMES TIMES TIMES

RADIATION

TOTAL ON HORIZONTAL SURFACE ULTRAVIOLET, WINTER ULTRAVIOLER, SUMMER SUNSHINE DURATION

-­‐ -­‐ -­‐ -­‐

0 -­‐ 20 30 5 5 -­‐ 25

% % % %

CLOUDINESS

CLOUDS FOG, WINTER SUMMER

+ + +

5 -­‐ 10 100 30

% % %

PRECIPITATION

AMOUNTS DAYS WITH <5mm SNOWFALL, INNER CITY SNOWFALL, LEE OF CITY THUNDERSTORMS

+ + -­‐ + +

5 -­‐ 15 10 5 -­‐ 10 10 10 -­‐ 15

% % % % %

TEMPERATURE

ANNUAL MEAN WINTER MINIMA SUMMER MAXIMA HEATING DEGREE DAYS

+ + + -­‐

0,5 -­‐ 3 1 -­‐ 2 1 -­‐ 3 10

ºC ºC ºC %

RELATIVE HUMIDITY

ANNUAL MEAN WINTER SUMMER

-­‐ -­‐ -­‐

6 2 8

% % %

WIND SPEED

ANNUAL MEAN EXTREME GUSTS CALM

-­‐ -­‐ +

20 -­‐ 30 10 -­‐ 20 2 -­‐ 20

% % %

Figure 1.3 Example of Heat Island in Valencia the 13th February 1989 (source: after Perez Cueva, 1994)

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NEW URBAN STRATEGIES FOR THE CITY OF VALENCIA: A BIOCLIMATIC RETHINK FOR THE HISTORICAL CITY

1.3 MICROCLIMATES It is crucial to improve micro scale conditions in order to enhance the quality of life of the inhabitants. As explained by Sanda Lenzholzer in her book Weather in the City, “To make the urban climate more comfortable, many adjustments are needed, especially on the small scale- because many small interventions can have cumulative effects.” (Lenzholzer, S., 2015)

1.3.1 RADIATION, AIR TEMPERATURE AND HUMIDITY

Sun and Shadow

Materials

Urban Canyon

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The level of radiation, thermal characteristics of the materials and the configuration of the space will determine the energy fluxes in open spaces, and therefore the air temperature and comfort in the space. (See Figure 1.4) The levels of incoming solar radiation are determined by the sun and shadow patterns of the space. The buildings, or shading devices in the spaces, obstruct the incoming short wave radiation. As a consequence the surfaces absorb less energy, reducing the amount of long-wave radiation later emitted. As a consequence, the air temperature in the space is lower. Not only the sun and shadow patterns influence the incoming radiation, but also the angle of the solar rays. The sun path changes during the time of the year and the geographical location, modifying the strength of the solar radiation. When the angle between the solar rays and the earth is lower, the incoming radiation is also lower.

Furthermore, as Simos Yannas states in the research paper “Towards more sustainable cities”, “compared to flat, open ground, a built site has a larger external surface area on which to receive radiation.” (Yannas, S., 2001) Therefore the thermal properties of the materials used for these surfaces play a fundamental role in the exchange of heat energy. The thermal behaviour of the materials is determined by their albedo (reflectivity), emissivity and thermal conductivity. When shortwave radiation hits a surface, a percentage of it is reflected back to the air and the rest is absorbed, warming up the material and emitting it back to the air, in terms of long-term radiation. The quantity of energy reflected is determined by the reflectivity of the material, or albedo; a higher albedo will provide lower rates of long wave radiation. The emissivity and thermal conductivity will determine the quantity and speed in which the material radiates heat in terms of long-wave radiation.

Last, but not least, the urban canyon has a decisive role in the thermoregulation of the city. First the orientation and height/width ratio will influence the amount of shortwave radiation absorbed and emitted by the surfaces. Along with this, the H/W ratio affects the dispersion of the heat to the atmosphere, increasing the heat stored in the urban spaces. This is due to the fact, that long wave radiation emitted from surfaces is bounced back into the space, and the thermal radiation is retained in it. As a consequence, these spaces register higher temperatures after the sunset and in the morning, as they are not able to cool down as fast as open spaces.

PART 1. RESEARCH FRAMEWORK

On the other hand, other factors such as anthropologic heat and the reduction of evaporative surfaces, lead to increments in temperatures. Anthropologic heat is the heat energy that results from human activity: The heat flux between the buildings’ interior and exterior, the heat produced by cars and other sources of fuel combustion result in an increase of the outdoors temperature. Anthropologic heat is the “cause” and “consequence” of higher urban temperatures. The “improvement” of standards of living, has driven society to an increase in energy consumption in cooling and heating systems, transportation… (Santamouris, M., 1999) As a consequence, the production of anthropologic heat rises. This means an increase in the air temperature, which will lead to a further increase in the energy demand for cooling indoors.

Anthropologic Heat

At the same time, vegetation, water bodies and natural soils allow the cooling of air temperature through evaporation. Cities grow, transforming natural landscapes into hard paved scenarios, and hence reducing the evaporative surface. The lack of natural pavement and vegetation in the squares and open spaces of the city, results in higher air temperatures. Numerous studies have proved the cooling effect of parks and green areas.

Vegetation

These processes also result in a decrease in the humidity levels of the urban context. The city is a dry territory, due to the lack of permeable materials, such as soils and plants, and the reduction of evapotranspirative surface. Moreover, since relative humidity is inverse to temperature, “dry islands” are generated within the city following the same pattern as the air temperature; the spots with higher temperatures will register the lower percentages of relative humidity.

(Pérez Cueva, A.J., 2009) Therefore, hard paved squares will register higher air temperatures and lower relative humidity, while parks and green areas offer favourable microclimates for hot periods, with lower temperatures and higher relative humidity.

RS - Short Wave Radiation RL - Long Wave Radiation RR - Reflected Radiation C - Conduction AH - Anthropologic Heat E - Evaporation

Figure 1.4 Diagram Urban Heat Energy Fluxes 29

NEW URBAN STRATEGIES FOR THE CITY OF VALENCIA: A BIOCLIMATIC RETHINK FOR THE HISTORICAL CITY

1.3.2 WIND FLOW Airflow provides natural ventilation, reduces pollution in the air and is crucial when defining outdoor thermal comfort. In a city scale, air movement or wind is caused by the differential in temperature between areas. The warm air in the urban zone rises, and consequently, the cool air from surroundings is sucked in, providing natural ventilation for the city and cooling it down. The obstacles in the urban canopy, such as buildings, topography, traffic and vegetation will affect the wind flow and speed. The wind speed is usually around 30 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 50% lower in the urban canopy layer (Lenzholzer, S., 2015), due to the roughness of the city.

The height, length and width of the building will have an impact on the airflow.

Figure 1.5 - 1.7 show the alteration in the airflow due to an isolated building.

Buildings usually provide a sheltered area next to them, and the maximum wind speeds are registered at the corners. Special attention should be paid to very high buildings as the downwash can result in dangerously high wind speeds at the pedestrian level. When buildings are grouped together, distinct patterns are generated as the wind flows around the different buildings interact.

In the urban context, wind speed will be determined by: the wind velocity in the boundary urban layer, the street canyon and the thermal conditions of the street. (Santamouris, M., 2001.) Prevailing winds perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of a street show different behaviours depending on the height/width ratio.

(Figure 1.8 - 1.10) The different wind flow patterns do not interact when the H/W ratio is lower than 0.5, there is a weak flow interference in H/W ratios higher than 0.5, and when these ratios are very high there is a skimming air flow, and the air does not penetrate into the urban context. (Oke, T.R., 1988.) When the longitudinal axis of the street, is parallel to the prevailing wind flow of the boundary canopy layer, a secondary circulation is generated in the urban canopy layer with the same direction and the speed is proportional to the wind velocity above. Nonetheless, if this velocity is below 1.5 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 2 m/s there is a scatter relationship between the speed above and below the boundary layer.

(Santamouris, M., 1999.)

However, multiple factors will alter the airflow, therefore wind patterns and speed are a local phenomenon, which has to be individually studied in each case. This study can be performed by the use of wind tunnels or computational software; latest researches choose the second method, as it is easier and faster to obtain relatively precise results.

Wind has a relevant impact on the thermal sensation of the inhabitants. While under hot temperatures wind provides the ventilation needed to decrease the skin temperature by convection, during cool seasons wind protection is needed to provide a more comfortable scenario. The urban form is the main factor to promote wind flow; therefore it is easier to provide good levels of ventilation in new planning than in the renewal of existing scenarios.

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PART 1. RESEARCH FRAMEWORK

Figure 1.5 Diagram Section Wind Flow for an Isolated Building

Figure 1.6 Diagram Plan Wind Flow for an Isolated Building (Source: after Ecotect)

Figure 1.7 Diagram Wind Speed Source: Ecotect

Figure 1.8 Diagram Air Flow High H/W Ratio Skimming Air Flow

Figure 1.9 Diagram Air Flow H/W Ratio > 0.5 - Week Interaction

Figure 1.10 Diagram Air Flow H/W Ratio < 0.5 - No interaction 31

NEW URBAN STRATEGIES FOR THE CITY OF VALENCIA: A BIOCLIMATIC RETHINK FOR THE HISTORICAL CITY

2. CONTEXT 2.1 VALENCIA: CLIMATE ANALYSIS

Figure 1.11 Valencia Climate: Köppen Climate Classification

Valencia is located in the east of Spain, (Latitude: 39,48º, Longitude: -0.38º, Altitude: 13 m) and is a coastal city next to the Mediterranean Sea. It is classified by the Köppen Climate Classification as a Subtropical Mediterranean Climate (Figure 1.11), with very mild winters and hot to warm summers, as seen in Figure 1.12. The cold season (from December to February) records temperatures around 15ºC, while summer registers relative high temperatures during daytime, with maximums over 30ºC, without experiencing a significant fall at night. The rest of the year (spring and autumn) is characterised by relative warm conditions of approximately 20ºC. Valencia has lower rainfall than cities with typical Mediterranean climates; due to its geographical location, it is sheltered from Atlantic storms and those coming from the Gulf of Genoa. (Gómez, F., et al, 2013) The precipitation graph (figure 1.15) shows that the scarce precipitation is concentrated in September and November. Rainfalls usually come in the form of sporadic storms, concentrating the precipitation in isolated days, and usually occur during the transitional seasons (spring and autumn). Rainy days in summer are rare, with very low precipitation levels.

The Relative Humidity and the Horizontal Global Radiation are portrayed in Figure 1.14. Although the humidity is quite constant throughout the year, it is relatively lower during the warm periods, when the radiation is considerably higher. The absolute humidity is high due to the agricultural lands that make up the rural surroundings of the city and the proximity of the Mediterranean Sea. Further, as a Mediterranean city, the level of radiation and insolation are high, and this has a significant effect on the comfort of the outdoor spaces through the year. In winter, the radiation provides the heat needed to achieve the levels of comfort, but in summer these high levels of radiation increase the discomfort.

Figure 1.12 shows the bioclimatic comfort zone defined by Olygay (Olygay, 1963) and the conditions for the city of Valencia. It shows that discomfort due to cold temperatures can be redressed by higher levels of radiation and in summer, the high temperatures can be counteracted with wind flow, especially sea breeze (Pérez Cueva, A.J., 2009).

Figure 1.12 Valencia- Olygay Model (Source: after Perez Cueva, A.j., 2009)

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The wind patterns in the city of Valencia vary during the year as can be seen in figure 1.16. While in winter prevailing winds come evenly from the west and southeast, in summer the wind from the east is even stronger and the west winds nearly disappear. This is due to the difference in the air temperature between the sea and the land, which is even more marked in summer. Therefore, sea breeze appears to be a valuable tool to deal with the discomfort in open spaces, during summer.

PART 1. RESEARCH FRAMEWORK

Figure 1.13 Daily Annual Air Temperature Fluctuation

Figure 1.14 Annual Relative Humidity and Global Horizontal Radiation

Figure 1.15 Annual Precipitation

Figure 1.16 Prevailing winds in summer and winter 33

NEW URBAN STRATEGIES FOR THE CITY OF VALENCIA: A BIOCLIMATIC RETHINK FOR THE HISTORICAL CITY

2.2 VALENCIA: URBAN CLIMATE

2.2.1 Wind Flow

The climatic conditions described above correspond to Valenciaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s metropolitan area, as the data was obtained from the airport weather station in Meteonorm.

A.J Perez Cueva identified relevant differences between the data registered in the airport weather station (Manises) and one located inside the city (Viveros) in his study about the urban climate of Valencia. Highlighting the reduction in the wind flow, the increase in the air temperature and decrease in the relative humidity in the urban context. (Perez Cueva, A.J, 2009) A decrease in the speed of prevailing winds, of 50 km/h, was observed between the weather station in the urban area and the airport one. Not only the velocity varies, but also the wind flow direction, from north westerly to westerly wind flows (Perez Cueva, A.J, 2009). Nevertheless, the most important effects are experienced by the weaker winds, such as the sea breezes, which in some areas of Valencia will be annulled. Furthermore, the latest urban developments in the east block the penetration of wind from the sea. Prevailing winds, which came from the east, nowadays are recorded as coming from the south east.

2.2.2 Global Radiation and Humidity

34

On the other hand, the geographical conditions of this city promote the dispersion of pollutants in the air, and therefore no relevant reduction in the level of insolation and radiation is detected. The humidity is considerably lower in the urban context. Agricultural lands in the surrounding area are under continuous irrigation, increasing the absolute humidity. However, Valencia´s urban context is a dry scenario, with the non-permeable materials used in the urban scenarios promoting the decrease in humidity. These high levels of radiation and insolation with the lower relative humidity, have significant consequences in the air temperature and comfort levels. The change in air temperatures is the most appreciable feature of the urban climate. The positive urban heat balance of Valencia is mainly due to the alteration in the fluxes of latent and sensible perceptible heat, as the anthropological heat in this city plays a less important role. The climate of this city allows a lower use of heating systems, meaning that the heat energy fluxes between the indoors and outdoors are relatively low. (Perez Cueva, A.J, 2009) Consequently, the positive urban heat balance is predominantly due to the shortwave radiation, the long-wave radiation and the retained heat energy due to the urban structure.

PART 1. RESEARCH FRAMEWORK

2.2.3 Air Temperature The thermal behaviour of the city can be seen in the isothermal maps (figure 1.17 - 1.23). After the sun sets the urban landscape records higher air temperatures, the isotherms create a concentric pattern, and the maximum air temperatures are registered in the centre of the city, where the historical city is located. The maximum Heat Island intensity is reached at 23pm and is maintained till 5 am.

Then, when the sun starts to rise, the radiation is blocked by the buildings inside the urban context while it starts heating the open lands in the surroundings, the city registers cooler air temperatures than the surroundings.

When the solar radiation penetrates the urban canopy layer, it starts to warm up registering lower temperatures when closer to the sea. However, the thermal patterns during daytime depend on the different microclimates within the city.

After the sun sets, the cycle starts again. (Perez Cueva, A.J, 2009.)

Furthermore, the heat island intensity also depends on the climatic circumstances; the highest are registered in Valencia at 11pm on nights with no wind and clear sky. Under these conditions differences of nearly 3K were spotted between centre and the outskirting of the city, in a study carried out in 1994. (Perez Cueva, A.J, et al, 1994). Climate change leads to higher heat island intensities, and therefore this difference is increasing over time.

Ergo, in the urban frame of the city of Valencia, climatic conditions are altered.

There is an increase in the air temperature, decrease in humidity and reduction of wind flow, and consequently, inhabitants experience greater bioclimatic discomfort. This issue is particularly appreciable in the historical city, due to the high Height/Width ratios, the lack of big open spaces and vegetation, and the dark materials used.

Figure 1.17 Urban Isotherms 11 pm

Figure 1.18 Urban Isotherms 5 am

Figure 1.19 Urban Isotherms 8 am

Figure 1.20 Urban Isotherms 11 am

2.3 VALENCIA: CLIMATE CHANGE The rise in temperatures is the most appreciable parameter of climate change.

Studies on Climate Change in the city of Valencia indicate that temperatures will rise and precipitation will be even lower during summers. (Miró, J.J., et al, 2006) In Valencia there is a visible tendency towards increased average temperatures.

While the minimum temperatures trend to rise, the maximums registered will remain quite similar. This indicates that high temperatures will be recorded during more hours in a day and more times in a year, due to the more frequent tropical air masses covering this city. (Miró, J.J., et al, 2006) This means that as architects, urban designers and urban planners we should design for today’s daily worst case scenario, as it will be the most frequent in the future, as “the sticky heat of central parts of the day is tending to extend to other parts of the day” (Miró, J.J., et al, 2006)

Figure 1.21 Urban Isotherms 2 pm

Figure 1.22 Urban Isotherms 5 pm

Figure 1.23 Urban Isotherms 8 pm 35

NEW URBAN STRATEGIES FOR THE CITY OF VALENCIA: A BIOCLIMATIC RETHINK FOR THE HISTORICAL CITY

3. PRECEDENTS

Table 1.3 Strategies for The Conditioning of Outdoor Spacec (Source: after Guerra, J., et al, 1991) CRITERIA

REDUCTION OF SOLAR RADIATION

GENERIC ACTION

REDUCTION OF GAINS (W)

SPECIFIC TECHNIQUES

Obstruct direct and diffuse radiation

40 -­‐ 70

Obstruct reflected radiation

25 -­‐ 50

Provision of Shade Confinement Treatment of nearby surfaces

REDUCTION OR REVERSAL OF THE EXCHANGE OF LONGWAVE RADIATION Reduce temperature of surrounding surfaces

REDUCTION OR INVERSION OF CONVECTIVE EXCHANGE

Expo 92’

Reduce air temperature

20 -­‐ 50

Cool road surfacing Water features provision devices Waterfalls Water curtains

15 -­‐ 50

Confinement Sensible cooling Latent cooling Channeling of breeze Jets of water

Urban planning is a complex discipline that cannot be pursued without a diverse and multidisciplinary group of professionals. The complexity of this discipline has led, in the case of Valencia, to an urban planning and design that has not taken into consideration the climatic circumstances of the place. Some proposals have aimed to create a more sustainable city, such as “El Plan Verde de Valencia”, an urban project whose objective was to reduce pollution and combat urban discomfort through green spaces. (Salvador Palomo, P.J, 2003) Nevertheless, the renewal of existing spaces from a bioclimatic approach has not been tackled yet. This means there is a lack of precedents in the city, and therefore studies and proposals for other cities with a Mediterranean Climate were studied.

The design solutions developed for the Expo’92 in Seville have been a point of reference for numerous outdoor studies and urban design projects, due to the valuable documentation of the research undertaken. The main objective of this project was to “determine, from a set of possible situations, which one gives rise to a greater level of comfort.” (Guerra, J., et al, 1991). Reconditioning open spaces is achieving outdoor comfort by the “manipulation” of natural resources such as, wind, sun and water. Table 1.3 shows the strategies to provide a comfortable environment in summer conditions.

The study developed by this group concluded that vegetated coverings or white PVC coverings with irrigation provided the best results, as they reduced the radiation absorbed by the surfaces and decreased the temperature by evaporation. The solar protection reduced the surface temperatures to acceptable levels, but comfort levels were not achieved by this alone.

As a consequence, further strategies and mechanisms were designed and incorporated to the urban spaces, such as cooler towers that provided extra ventilation with cooled air. Nonetheless, the most successful intervention was the designed gardens, where vegetation, cool pavement and water elements (ponds, cascades) generated a microclimate that created suitable spaces to meet and carry out cultural activities. The combination of the different solutions provided spaces fit for occupation.

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PART 1. RESEARCH FRAMEWORK

On the other hand, some of the experimental solutions were not as successful as expected, though they have provided inspiration for diverse research projects and designs. It can be concluded from these experiments that a well-studied design, that provides a suitable environment in a passive way such as the designed gardens do, proves more effective than high-technology solutions over time.

Furthermore, as explained above, designs should not only aim to generate microclimates that improve the thermal conditions, but also satisfy the needs and wants of society. In this direction, Patricia Martín del Guayo develops a study comparing three urban spaces in three different cities of Spain: Metropol Parasol in Seville, Ecobulevar in Madrid and Plaza Pormetxeta in Barakaldo.

(Martín del Guayo, P., 2015). It is interesting to see how the three spaces decreased air temperature and provided better thermal conditions, but the inhabitants did not use them as expected. For example, in Seville the inhabitants preferred other squares, although the space in Metropol Parasol registered lower temperatures. This study proves the importance of understanding the place and the inhabitants, in order to offer places where people want to go.

The RUROS project developed a methodology to study and analyse existing urban spaces, considering the multiple factors that affect the perception and assessment of the place: thermal comfort, visual and noise comfort and social issues. In the framework of this project, Niobe Chrisomallidou, Max Chrisomallidis and Theodore Theodosiou define strategies for the rehabilitation of existing open spaces. The authors defend the importance of seasonal variation, not only for thermal comfort, but also for visual comfort, and state that “the design proposal has to take an integrated form taking into account all the parameters of comfort and the specific morphological and climatic characteristics of the site.” (Chrisomallidou, N., et al, 2004.)

Study of existing Scenarios

RUROS

The case studies “Kritis Square” and “Makedonomahon Square” show possible solutions for overheated squares due to solar exposure. The use of shading devices in the rest areas, vegetation and water elements help to improve the conditions of the place. In all of the proposals the visual component plays a fundamental role in the design process, as the visual delight of the individuals will have a relevant effect on the thermal satisfaction of the users. Consequently, projects for the renewal of existing urban spaces should consider the entire urban space and surroundings, and not only isolated spots within it. A wellstudied project will provide a comfortable space, improving the factors in all the layers of adaptation: physical, physiological and psychological. Successful urban spaces should attract people to the space by satisfying their needs and then provide comfortable conditions to motivate them to stay.

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PART 2

INHABITANT AND PLACE RESEARCH 1. METHODOLOGY 2. ANALYSIS OF THE PLACE 2.1 CONTEXT 2.2 SUN AND WIND STUDIES 2.2.1 PLAZA DE LA VIRGEN 2.2.2 PLAZA DEL AYUNTAMIENTO

3. FIELDWORK: OBJECTIVE DATA 3.1 WEATHER DATA 3.2 IDENTIFYING THERMAL COMFORT PATTERNS 3.2.1 AIR AND SURFACE TEMPERATURE 3.2.2 AIR TEMPERATURE, RELATIVE HUMIDITY AND WIND

4. SURVEYS: COMFORT PATTERNS 4.1 MEASURING COMFORT 4.1.1 PHYSIOLICAL EQUIVALENT TEMPERATURE 4.1.2 ACTUAL SENSATION

4. OBSERVATIONS: BEHAVIOURAL PATTERNS

NEW URBAN STRATEGIES FOR THE CITY OF VALENCIA: A BIOCLIMATIC RETHINK FOR THE HISTORICAL CITY

ANALYSIS OF THE PLACE 1. Analyse the squares where the study will focus.

- Context and history

- Materials

- Shadow and wind patterns FIELDWORK 2. Take in site measurements in both squares, recording:

- Air temperature, relative humidity and wind velocity

- Surface temperature

- Noise and Illuminance 3. Undertake surveys to identify the actual sensation of the individuals

- Recording the environmental factor

- Identifying possible constraints FIELDWORK ANALYSIS 4. Draw a first environmental map using the objective data recorded 5. Compare the objective data with the actual sensation and indices 6. Map the actual sensation and the predicted sensations 7. Identify the more comfortable areas and comfort patterns.

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PART 2. INHABITANT AND PLACE RESEARCH

1. METHODOLOGY

This study will focus on two squares: “Plaza del Ayuntamiento” and “Plaza de la Virgen”. These are two of the main public spaces in this neighbourhood; with different morphology, history and characteristics, they both constitute urban spaces with high community significance. They are the scenario for celebrations, gatherings and, at the same time, daily public life. Yet, the urban development and design of these spaces in recent years have not taken into considerations the localisation: urban context and the climate of the place. As a consequence, there is a drop in the use of this space during daytime in summer due to the severe conditions. Fieldwork will be undertaken to analyse the level of discomfort experienced in these spaces during summer.

A purely physiological approach is inadequate when trying to draw conclusions about what parameters drive individuals to a certain level of satisfaction. Thus, it is important to complement the measurements with surveys that help to understand how the inhabitants assess the weather conditions and, as a consequence, the place, and vice versa.

In recent years, attention to and interest in urban design and outdoor comfort has increased, and as a result numerous studies have aimed to establish a methodology for the study of the outdoor environment. The research paper “Instruments and methods in outdoor thermal comfort studies - the need for standardization” (Johansson, E., et al 2014) is a review of multiple studies, which analyses and compares the different methodologies and approaches. The review of a range of research described in this study helped to develop a particular methodology.

The study is based in the analysis of objective, subjective and behavioural factors. It aims to understand how people feel in a certain place by recording environmental data, asking people how they feel and observing how they behave. The objective of this study is to establish to what extent the different psychological factors that Nikolopoulou defines (naturalness, expectations, experience, time of exposure, perceived control, and environmental stimulation) alter the thermal sensation, trying to quantify these psychological parameters to obtain a more precise way of assessing the outdoor environment.

Figure 2.1 Aerial View of the Historical City 41

NEW URBAN STRATEGIES FOR THE CITY OF VALENCIA: A BIOCLIMATIC RETHINK FOR THE HISTORICAL CITY

2. ANALYSIS OF THE PLACE 2.1 CONTEXT

“Plaza de la Virgen” is in the heart of Valencia, as it dates back to the original roots of the city. It is located in the intersection between the Roman “Cardus” and “Decumanus”, where the Roman forum was found. Thus, it has been an important landmark during the history of the city, and hence it hosts the most famous pieces of historical architecture in Valencia, such as the Cathedral. Nowadays, this square is a meeting point as it is a pedestrian zone that invites people to stay.

However, the use of the space drops during daytime in summer, because as studied in previous research (Gómez, F., et al, 2013) adequate comfort levels in this square are not achieved.

The buildings that enclose La Plaza del Ayuntamiento have been declared a historic-artistic set, as they comprise important constructions of the architectural history of the city. However, the open space has undergone continuous modifications, which had led to an “unfinished plaza” that does not provide a suitable place for people to stay.

This square is a “car-based” designed space. Consequently, more than 50% of the square is asphalted and used by vehicles. Not only vehicles are a source of anthropologic heat, but also asphalt is a low albedo material, that stores heat energy, meaning an increase in air temperature and noise pollution, increasing the discomfort levels in summer. The central area, in the middle of the squares, aims to accommodate social activities. The materials used, lack of shading and the discomfort produced by the surrounding car lanes; result in an empty space that can hardly be used. Figure 2.9 and Figure 2.10 show the paving materials for both squares, and It can be seen that there is a lack of permeable materials.

These squares were chosen as they exemplify the typical squares found in a historical city and their main variables: dimensions, traffic, and materials. (As seen in table 2.2). This can help to draw conclusions about the psychological factors that intervene in the urban experience.

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PART 2. INHABITANT AND PLACE RESEARCH

Figure 2.2 Aerial View of the Squares Table 2.1 Comparison “Plaza de la Virgen” and “Plaza del Ayuntamiento”

PLAZA DE LA VIRGEN

PLAZA DEL AYUNTAMIENTO

7128,05

27327,97

TOTAL SURFACE

BUILDINGS

DESIGN

PERMEABLE PAVED

728,9

10%

1614,44

6%

TREE SHADING

947,6

13%

3697,55

14%

ARTIFICIAL SHADING

343

5%

0

0%

TOTAL SHADED

1290,6

18%

3697,55

14%

HEIGHT OF BUILDINGS

22

40

WIDHT

88

94

HEIGHT/WIDTH RATIO

1/4

3/7

GRADED BUILDINGS

YES

YES

PEDESTRIAN AREA

7128,05

100%

11314,37

41%

TRAFFIC AREA

0

0%

14399,16

53%

MAIN MATERIALS

STONE

ASPHALT

FURNITURE

NOT ENOUGH

NOT ENOUGH

RELAX GREEN AREA

ACTIVITIES

YES

10%

NO

0%

PLAYGROUND

NO

NO

RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS

YES

YES

BUSINESSES

YES

YES

SHOPS

YES

YES

RESTAURANTS

YES

YES

CULTURAL FACILITIES

YES

YES

SOCIAL IMPORTANT ACTIVITIES

YES

YES

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NEW URBAN STRATEGIES FOR THE CITY OF VALENCIA: A BIOCLIMATIC RETHINK FOR THE HISTORICAL CITY

Figure 2.3 View N-S Plaza de la Virgen

Figure 2.4 View S-N Plaza de la Virgen

Figure 2.7 Plaza de la Virgen Axonometric View

Figure 2.5 View N-S Plaza del Ayuntamiento

Figure 2.6 View S-N Plaza del Ayuntamiento 44

Figure 2.8 Plaza del Ayuntamiento Axonometric View

PART 2. INHABITANT AND PLACE RESEARCH

Table 2.2 Summary Materials in the Squares and Characteristics

Figure 2.9 Map of Materials Plaza de la Virgen

Figure 2.10 Map of Materials Plaza del Ayuntamiento 45

NEW URBAN STRATEGIES FOR THE CITY OF VALENCIA: A BIOCLIMATIC RETHINK FOR THE HISTORICAL CITY

2.2 SUN AND WIND STUDY

2.2.1 Plaza de la Virgen

Sanda Lenzholzer states “Shortwave radiation in light and shadow has the largest impact on thermal sensation in our parts of the world” (Lenzholzer, S., 2015) Shortwave radiation not only alters the Heat Energy Balance, but also increases the physiological and psychological adaptive opportunities. Simulations were first run for this period in both squares using ECOTECT and WINAIR. Figures 2.11 – 2.14 show the shadow analysis for “Plaza de la Virgen”, for the 31st of June. Due to the lack of shading, the surrounding buildings generate most of the shadows in the squares. As the shadow patterns are much shorter in summer, a high percentage of the square is constantly exposed to the sun; this increases the surface temperature, the mean radiant temperature and therefore the discomfort due to high temperatures. The central part, where the fountain is placed, receives high levels of shortwave radiation; no shadow covers this area till evening, when the sun starts setting. Therefore, higher levels of discomfort are expected in this central point.

2.2.2 Plaza del Ayuntamiento

46

On the other hand, the wind speed (Figure 2.15 – 2.16) is higher in the central area of the square; this could reduce the high thermal sensation at this point.

The main wind flow comes from the SE bringing cold breezes from the sea. As the buildings to the west are higher than to the east there is interference in the wind flow that changes the direction of the wind into the square. Sheltered areas, with lower wind speed, are created next to the buildings and in the small park.

The lack of shadow is also an issue in “Plaza del Ayuntamiento”. As figures 2.19 -2.22 shows most of the square has no shadow until the sun starts setting.

Although there are some trees in the central area, the benches in this space are continuously exposed. As the sun is more perpendicular in summer, the trees create a concentrated shadow. As a result, the square is a large paved area, with no shading, that absorbs and stores the heat energy from the solar radiation. Furthermore, the wind pattern simulations in this square (figure 2.23 – 2.24) show the interference that trees aligned perpendicular to the prevailing wind direction cause in the wind flow, decreasing the wind speed and creating a sheltered area. The low wind speed in the centre and the high radiation mean that this area is the least comfortable in the square.

PART 2. INHABITANT AND PLACE RESEARCH

La Plaza de la Virgen

Fig 2.11 Shadow Plaza de la Virgen 9-11 am

Fig 2.12 Shadow Plaza de la Virgen 12-2 pm

Figure 2.17 Sun Path Plaza de la Virgen

Fig 2.13 Shadow Plaza de la Virgen 3-5 pm

Fig 2.14 Shadow Plaza de la Virgen 6-8 pm

Figure 2.18 Sun Path Plaza de la Virgen

Figure 2.15 Wind Speed Plaza de la Virgen

Figure 2.16 Wind Flow Plaza de la Virgen

Fig 2.19 Shadow Plaza Ayuntamiento 9-11 am

Fig 2.20 Shadow Plaza Ayuntamiento 12-2 pm

Figure 2.25 Sun Path Plaza Ayuntamiento

Fig 2.21 Shadow Plaza Ayuntamiento 3-5 pm

Fig 2.22 Shadow Plaza Ayuntamiento 6-8 pm

Figure 2.26 Sun Path Plaza Ayuntamiento

Figure 2.23 Wind Speed Plaza Ayuntamiento

Figure 2.24 Wind Flow Plaza Ayuntamiento

La Plaza del Ayuntamiento

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NEW URBAN STRATEGIES FOR THE CITY OF VALENCIA: A BIOCLIMATIC RETHINK FOR THE HISTORICAL CITY

3. FIELDWORK

Fieldwork was carried out from the 30th of June to 3rd of July in the squares described explained. In situ measurements were taken in both squares the 30th of June; this day represents typical summer conditions: clear sky, an average temperature of 29º and a mean relative humidity of 32%.

Fig. 2.27 Spots Measured Plaza de la Virgen

Measurements were taken, in order to develop a “first environmental map” that would help in comparing how the different characteristics of the square affected the environmental conditions. The air temperature, relative humidity and wind velocity were measured at 1.2m height in the spots indicated in Figure 2.27 and Figure 2.28. Moreover, the different surface temperatures were measured under diverse conditions of time and solar incidence, in order to see the thermal behaviour of the current design solutions. Spot measurement tools were used and the data was recorded three times in the same day, in both squares, with a difference of no more than one hour between the first measurement in the first square and the first measurement in the second square. In parallel, the illuminance and noise were also recorded.

From the 1st to the 3rd of July, surveys were conducted in both squares during the whole day. The surveys aimed to find out the actual sensation of the users while the environmental parameters were recorded. The air temperature, relative humidity, wind velocity, surface temperature and illuminance were measured at the same time as individuals were interviewed, and the individual’s information (clothing, activity, gender, age range) was documented. All this objective data was registered to compare the actual sensation and the Physiological Equivalent Temperature – in the interests of identifying possible discrepancies and spotting the reasons that might explain them.

The users were first asked about the thermal sensation and satisfaction, enquiring about their actual thermal sensation, the thermal sensation desired and the thermal sensation they would not accept. These main questions aimed to establish patterns between the actual sensation and satisfaction of the users.

Furthermore, they were asked about the time they have been outdoors, what kind of space they were in before; outdoor or indoor, conditioned or not, and why they were in that square. Further, their personal visual and noise satisfaction was asked about. All these factors were requested to identify to what extent each factor affects the thermal sensation in these historical spaces.

Observations were recorded during the 4 days, reporting people’s preferences and activities performed. The observations were made 3 times per day (morning, afternoon and evening) during one hour in order to see if schedule, the sun’s path and weather conditions determine the users’ behaviour and the activities carried out.

Fig. 2.28 Spots Measured Plaza Ayuntamiento 48

PART 2. INHABITANT AND PLACE RESEARCH

3.1 WEATHER DATA The weather data from the 24th of June to the 4th of July was taken from different weather stations: “Malva Rosa” (near the sea), “La Huerta” (in the agricultural lands around the city) and “La Plaza del Ayuntamiento” (one of the squares studied). The recordings show that the maximum air temperature and minimum relative humidity is registered in the square studied, portraying how the urban context, anthropogenic heat, urban form and materiality modify the climatic conditions of a space.

The highest differences are recorded during the day, particularly on sunny days when the short-wave radiation is higher, and therefore the long-wave radiation increases due to the albedo and emissivity of the materials used in this square.

These changes in the climatic conditions increase the discomfort of this urban space during daytime, especially on the sunny days that are the most frequent in this city.

Figure 2.29 Air Temperature during Fieldwork (Source: Wundeground)

Figure 2.30 Relative Humidity during Fieldwork (Source: Wunderground) 49

NEW URBAN STRATEGIES FOR THE CITY OF VALENCIA: A BIOCLIMATIC RETHINK FOR THE HISTORICAL CITY

3.2 IDENTIFYING THERMAL COMFORT PATTERNS 3.2.1 AIR AND SURFACE TEMPERATURE Whereas obtaining the Mean Radiant Temperature is complicated and sophisticated tools are needed, the surface temperature and the sun- shadow pattern (see Figure 2.11 – 2.14 in page 47) can be used in order to identify the areas with a higher level of radiation. Later in this study the Mean Radiant Temperature will be calculated with Rayman Pro and Envimet. As the thermal pictures (Figure 2.31 – 2.33) show, the horizontal surfaces have higher surface temperatures than the façades. Horizontal elements are more exposed to the sun, especially in summer when the sun path is more vertical. Besides, as the buildings that enclose these spaces are listed, this research will focus on the study of the urban pavement.

Plaza de la Virgen

Figure 2.31 Thermal View Plaza de la Virgen

Figure 2.32 Thermal View Plaza de la Virgen

Figure 2.33 Thermal View Plaza de la Virgen 50

Figure 2.37 – 2.39 show the surface temperature of the pavements in the square “Plaza de la Virgen” at 3 different times of the day: morning, afternoon and evening. In the afternoon, the highest temperatures are registered, reaching surface temperatures of more than 50ºC. The surfaces with lower temperatures are those in shadow. In these areas the short-wave radiation is blocked, and therefore these surfaces absorb less heat energy. The red marble found in the centre of the square achieves high surface temperatures quickly, as it has high thermal conductivity and low albedo, and as a result, more heat is stored. The natural soil in the small green area to the west of the square registers lower surface temperatures; not only because of the vegetation that shades the area, but also because of the properties of this material. Natural soil, although it has low albedo, it has a low emissivity and conductivity. Thus, it stores and radiates less heat energy.

The sections in Figure 2.34 – Figure 2.36 compare the surface and air temperature in the different spots. Whereas the air temperature is more constant across the square, surface temperatures have higher differences between spots. This is due to the air fluctuation in the spaces that makes warm air move into cooler regions, mixing the air. The sections show a slight correlation between both, registering lower air temperatures in the spots where the surface temperatures are also lower.

There is a difference of more than 1 K during the afternoon between the air temperature in the green area and the rest of the square. The properties of the material explained above and the evapotranspiration of the trees create a microclimate that generates a suitable space to occupy. Likewise, the group of trees at the eastern side of the square also offer more comfortable conditions, although with higher surface temperature as the material used does not have the same characteristics; the trees create a shadowed space, with lower temperatures and lower mean radiant temperature. Although water decreases the air temperature through evaporation, in the square studied, the fountain in the centre of the square, does not help during the hours when there is a higher level of radiation. The effect is only appreciable when there is no direct solar radiation.

PART 2. INHABITANT AND PLACE RESEARCH

Figure 2.34 Air and Surface Temperature in Plaza de la Virgen Morning (11 am aprox)

Figure 2.35 Air and Surface Temperature in Plaza de la Virgen Afternoon (4 pm aprox)

Figure 2.36 Air and Surface Temperature in Plaza de la Virgen Evening (8 pm aprox)

Figure 2.37 Surface Temperature in Plaza de la Virgen Morning (11 am aprox)

Figure 2.38 Surface Temperature in Plaza de la Virgen Afternoon (4 pm aprox)

Figure 2.39 Surface Temperature in Plaza de la Virgen Evening (8 pm aprox)

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NEW URBAN STRATEGIES FOR THE CITY OF VALENCIA: A BIOCLIMATIC RETHINK FOR THE HISTORICAL CITY

Plaza del Ayuntamiento

Figures 2.46 – 2.48 show the surface temperature of “Plaza del Ayuntamiento”.

This square also reaches high surface temperatures (see Figure 2.40 – 2.42) due to the lack of shade and the materials used. The materials in this square also have a low albedo, high emissivity and high thermal conductivity; as a consequence they warm up quickly and will release the heat energy in the form of long-wave radiation, increasing the air temperature.

The shadowed areas register lower temperatures, particularly under the deeper shadows projected by buildings. Maximum temperatures are registered above the asphalt and in the central area. The cooler surfaces are the small green areas, covered with grass and vegetation, where temperature remains relatively constant during the day. In the evening, when there is no direct radiation, the surface temperatures start to decrease, since the air temperatures drop and the surfaces release the heat energy to the air. As the materials used in this square have high emissivity they release the energy quickly and cool down relatively fast, especially the asphalt. The relation between air and surface temperature can be seen in the section (figures 2.43 – 2.45). The difference between surface and air temperature is relatively small in the spots in shadow. In the morning, the air temperature of these shadowed spots is even higher than the surface temperature; this is due to the movement of warm air to the cool spots, but also to the anthropogenic heat and the radiant heat energy from the rest of surfaces that enclose the square. The sections (figure 2.43-2.45) portray how the air temperature is relatively higher in the spots close to the car lane; this increase in temperature is due to the heat released by vehicles.

Fig. 2.40 Thermal View Plaza Ayuntamiento

Fig. 2.41 Thermal View Plaza Ayuntamiento

Fig. 2.42 Thermal View Plaza Ayuntamiento 52

Although the shade from the trees has a relevant impact on the surface temperature, the air temperatures (Figure 2.40) do not decrease as they did in the small park in the previous square. Many different aspects can lead to this result, first, the trees are more dispersed in the square, and do not create a dense evapotranspirative surface. Second, the trees in the first square have denser foliage than the ones in “Plaza del Ayuntamiento”. Moreover, the trees in this square are surrounded by hard pavement with high surface temperature, while in the case studied previously it was a natural soil that not only has different thermal properties, but also is a permeable material that contributes to the process of evaporation of the water in this soil. Last but not least, the trees are located at the edge of the pedestrian area, next to the traffic, and therefore the effect that these elements have in reducing the air temperature is counteracted by the increase in temperature due to heat released by vehicles.

Despite the fact that “Plaza de la Virgen” is pedestrian and the second square has traffic, which means higher levels of anthropogenic heat, it is interesting to find out that the former registered higher air temperatures during the afternoon and especially the evening. This can be explained by looking at the urban form; the first square has a higher Height-Width ratio, retaining more long-wave thermal radiation and anthropogenic heat in the urban space. On the other hand, the winding and narrow streets that lead to “Plaza de la Virgen” limit the wind flow, while in “Plaza del Ayuntamiento” the wide and straight streets conduct the wind into the square and cool the space.

PART 2. INHABITANT AND PLACE RESEARCH

Figure 2.43 Air and Surface Temperature in Plaza del Ayuntamiento Morning (11 am aprox)

Figure 2.44 Air and Surface Temperature in Plaza del Ayuntamiento Afternoon (4 pm aprox)

Figure 2.45 Air and Surface Temperature in Plaza del Ayuntamiento Evening (8 pm aprox)

Figure 2.46 Surface Temperature in Plaza del Ayuntamiento Morning

Figure 2.47 Surface Temperature in Plaza del Ayuntamiento Afternoon

Figure 2.48 Surface Temperature in Plaza del Ayuntamiento Evening

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NEW URBAN STRATEGIES FOR THE CITY OF VALENCIA: A BIOCLIMATIC RETHINK FOR THE HISTORICAL CITY

3.2.1 AIR AND SURFACE TEMPERATURE

Plaza de la Virgen

Thermal sensation is the result of the combination of all the environmental factors, as they cannot be perceived separately. So, to identify the most comfortable areas not only air temperature should be considered, but also wind and humidity. Published literature states that the factors that most influence weather perception are: air temperature, wind speed and clearness index (Carmona, M., et al, 2003). Nonetheless, the materials used in the urban spaces of the historical city have a relevant impact on the humidity. There is an important reduction in the vapour pressure in the air; this will have a negative impact on outdoor comfort during summer days. In order to achieve comfortable spaces during summer we need the combination of lower temperatures, higher humidity and breezes.

Figures 2.49 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 2.51 show the average values obtained from the measurements at different times of the day in each spot, in order to compare the areas, establishing patterns of warm and cool, humid and dry, windy and sheltered conditions.

Figure 2.49 shows the air temperature distribution, a difference of nearly 4K is registered from the warmest point to the coldest. The air temperature is higher in the area that has more hours of insolation. As the relative humidity is a function of the air temperature, it was expected to find the inverse pattern: high relative humidity in the spots where lower temperatures were registered. It is observed that the line that connects both green parks has higher humidity than expected, this is probably due to the succession of trees, water fountain and trees along with the sea breeze coming from the east.

As expected from the simulations undertaken with Ecotect (see page 47 figure 2.15-2.16) we find a lower wind velocity in the areas next to the buildings, as they create a sheltered space protected from the wind. Also, the wind speed is higher in the centre of the square and in the streets coming from the East. The best conditions are presented next to the park, were lower air temperature, higher relative humidity and wind speed were measured. On the other hand, these areas that present better conditions for summer, will be the least suitable during winter because the sensation of cold will be intensified.

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PART 2. INHABITANT AND PLACE RESEARCH

Figure 2.49 Average Air Temperature Registered in each Spot Plaza de la Virgen

Figure 2.50 Average Relative Humidity Registered in each Spot Plaza de la Virgen

Figure 2.51 Average Wind Speed Registered in each Spot Plaza de la Virgen 55

NEW URBAN STRATEGIES FOR THE CITY OF VALENCIA: A BIOCLIMATIC RETHINK FOR THE HISTORICAL CITY

Plaza del Ayuntamiento

The average values of the measurements taken in “La Plaza del Ayuntamiento” are displayed in the figure 2.52 – 2.54. In this square we find the same behaviour as before: higher air temperatures in the areas with higher levels of insolation.

Nonetheless, in this case we can identify an area that is particularly warmer; the spots that are closer to the bus stops show higher air temperatures.

When analysing the relative humidity of this square we find higher values than in the previous square. There are some spots with grass and plants, and therefore irrigated, trees are more dispersed, offering more shaded areas under evapotranspirative surfaces. In both of the squares we can identify that shade is essential for maintaining higher levels of humidity.

The dimensions of this square and the urban context promote the wind flow, and as a result higher wind speeds are achieved, especially in the centre of the square. Once more, the effect of trees in blocking wind flow was over-estimated in the simulations. Although it can be seen that where the trees are arranged at shorter distances the effect reducing the wind speed is more appreciable.

The areas that could be identified as more suitable are: the benches next to the tall palms and the south area were trees and vegetation create a shaded space with lower air temperatures, although there is no urban furniture for people to occupy. Nonetheless, these points are adjacent to the areas with more traffic, and this does not encourage people to use them.

The square’s design does not allow the optimization of the environmental conditions. The sitting areas are placed in the spots of maximum solar exposure, close to the vehicles. Since this work focuses on the existing scenario, the factors derived from the urban form cannot be modified. Nevertheless, these conditions can be used as tools for the renewal of the space. The small green areas and water elements found in these urban spaces do not help to improve the overall conditions of the place, due to the size and the location of them. In the second square, the pedestrian cannot use the areas closed to the fountain, and hence, the user cannot enjoy the advantages of this element.

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PART 2. INHABITANT AND PLACE RESEARCH

Figure 2.52 Average Air Temperature Registered in each Spot Plaza del Ayuntamiento

Figure 2.53 Average Relative Humidity Registered in each Spot Plaza del Ayuntamiento

Figure 2.54 Average Wind Speed Registered in each Spot Plaza del Ayuntamiento 57

NEW URBAN STRATEGIES FOR THE CITY OF VALENCIA: A BIOCLIMATIC RETHINK FOR THE HISTORICAL CITY

3.3 IDENTIFYING NOISE PATTERNS

Professor Jiang Kang, Wei Yang and Dr. Mei Zhang establish the importance of the “sound environment” for physical comfort in their research for the RUROS project (Kang, J., et al, 2004). The latest studies on comfort relate thermal comfort with visual and noise satisfaction. Noise can disturb the perception of the place, and as a consequence the thermal satisfaction of individuals and thus, the overall comfort. It is interesting to study the sound environment of an existing place, to identify the main problems and issues, and take them into consideration in the design strategies.

Identifying the sound environment is not only measuring the level of noise of the place, but also social, psychological and physiological aspects will affect the noise perception and therefore the comfort of the user. (Kang, J., et al 2004).

Looking at both maps (Figure 2.55 and Figure 2.57) we can identify that the pedestrian square, “Plaza de la Virgen” has levels of noise much lower than “Plaza del Ayuntamiento.” Traffic is the main factor of noise pollution, and therefore the squares with vehicular circulation provide less comfortable spaces to stay and relax. Furthermore, the noise from vehicles and construction sites has a higher impact on the noise perception, and therefore such spaces are highly unpopular. Thus, it is not surprising that the surveys reveal that people perceive high levels of noise in “Plaza del Ayuntamiento”, concentrating most of the responses in the positive side as Figure 2.58 shows.

High levels of noise are also registered in the pedestrian square. Nevertheless the maximum levels are registered next to the fountain. The elements related to natural features, such the noise of water of the fountain, are assessed as being satisfactory although the noise is high.

Both graphs (Figure 2.56 and Figure 2.58) show the correlation between the real level of noise and the perceived noise. The noise perception is measured in a scale from +3 to -3, being +3 too noisy and -3 complete silence. As the graphs portray there is not a strong correlation between the level of noise recorded and the perception; this is due to the fact that the background noise level is high, and therefore levels that in another context would be graded as inacceptable, are accepted in these spaces.

During the study, it was observed that expectations and previous experience also alter the current noise perception. Responses such as “Today it is quite low” or “when there is dense traffic is much worse” shows that people compare with previous experience and judge the noise level depending on what they expect of the place. Therefore, although the pedestrian square has lower dB levels, the fact that the surroundings are much quieter could make people be more sensitive to the level of noise than in “Plaza del Ayuntamiento” where the surroundings are even noisier.

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PART 2. INHABITANT AND PLACE RESEARCH

Figure 2.55 Noise Map Plaza de la Virgen

Figure 2.56 Correlation Noise Level and Perception Plaza de la Virgen

Figure 2.57 Noise Map Plaza del Ayuntamiento

Figure 2.58 Correlation Noise Level and Perception Plaza del Ayuntamiento

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NEW URBAN STRATEGIES FOR THE CITY OF VALENCIA: A BIOCLIMATIC RETHINK FOR THE HISTORICAL CITY

4. COMFORT PATTERNS 4.1 MEASURING COMFORT

4.1.1 Physiological Equivalent Temperature Table 2.3 Ranges PET for Valencia (Source: After Gomez, F., 2013)

The Physiological Equivalent Temperature was calculated for the spots previously explained. This was done to study the performance of these spaces in terms of comfort for a standard individual; a man of 35 years old for a clothing value of 0.9 clo and a metabolic rate of 80 met. The maps in figure 2.61 – 2.66 illustrate the PET values obtained with the Rayman Pro. Air and surface temperature, relative humidity and wind velocity from the spot measurements were considered.

Global radiation was obtained from the weather station and the illuminance was taken into consideration to calculate the global radiation at the precise spot and point in time. Appendix A displays the inputs and calculations made.

The table 2.3 displays the correlation between PET values and the thermal sensation of people for the city of Valencia (Gomez, F., et al, 2013) The results indicate that the users of both squares should be under thermal stress, as the microclimatic conditions offered in the place do not help to reduce the thermal sensation. Only in the evening, when there is no solar radiation, temperatures decrease and humidity rises, is the square a comfortable space to be, as acceptable levels of PET are achieved. However, sections (Figure 2.59 and Figure 2.60) show that lower PET values are registered in the spots that are in shadow, especially in the green areas or when the shadow is produced by the trees. These small green areas in “Plaza de la Virgen” have a bigger impact in the afternoon; while the levels of discomfort rise in the rest of square, in the park the PET has lower values.

PET values in the afternoon and in the morning are similar in “La Plaza del Ayuntamiento”. The average wind speed and humidity of all spots was higher in the afternoon than in the morning and air temperature lower, but the mean radiant temperature is higher at this time of the day. The mean radiant temperature has a crucial impact on the thermal sensation, and therefore on the PET. “Plaza de la Virgen” also registers lower air temperatures and higher wind speed in the afternoon, but the PET values are considerably higher during the afternoon, because the mean radiant temperature is appreciably higher. Thus, it can be concluded that in order to provide a more comfortable space for uses the main objective should be to decrease the mean radiant temperature of both squares.

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PART 2. INHABITANT AND PLACE RESEARCH

Figure 2.59 PET Calculation for each Spot Plaza de la Virgen

Figure 2.60 PET Calculation for each Spot Plaza del Ayuntamiento

Fig 2.61 PET Plaza de la Virgen Morning

Fig 2.62 PET Plaza de la Virgen Afternoon

Fig 2.63 PET Plaza de la Virgen Evening

Fig 2.64 PET Plaza Ayuntamiento Morning

Fig 2.65 PET Plaza Ayuntamiento Afternoon

Fig 2.66 PET Plaza Ayuntamiento Evening 61

NEW URBAN STRATEGIES FOR THE CITY OF VALENCIA: A BIOCLIMATIC RETHINK FOR THE HISTORICAL CITY

4.1.2 Actual Sensation

The thermal experience is the result of a personal interaction with the environment.

As has been previously explained in this study, is the result of multiple levels of adaptation: physical, physiological and psychological. This last factor, the psychological parameter, has a 50% effect on thermal experience. Therefore, it is important to assess what people feel in a certain place and to seek design solutions that can provide a wider “comfort satisfaction band”.

In this direction, surveys were conducted to identify how people feel, where and why. Visual comfort can change our thermal perception, as people can be more tolerant to weather conditions depending on the place.

This study aimed to identify if there is a correlation between the architectural value and thermal sensation. Observing where people like to sit or be, and why.

On the other hand, the survey tried to quantify how parameters such as time exposure and other psychological factors could alter the thermal sensation.

A total of 100 people were interviewed, 61% of them were women and 39% men. Most of them were in the space for leisure: meeting with friends, tourism or they lived closed and wanted to relax in an outdoor space. People of all age ranges were asked.

Figure 2.67 Question 1 and 2 of Survey

Figure 2.68 Actual Sensation

First, they were asked about their current thermal sensation, giving a value from -3 to 3, with -3 being too cold and 3 too warm. Colours were used in the survey to help people visualize the sensations. In order to estimate the level of thermal satisfaction, the thermal sensation desired was asked about later. (See Figure 2.67). The graphs (Figure 2.68 and 2.69) show what people answered. Most of the people interviewed were feeling warm or too warm, but a high percentage of them were feeling slightly warm or neutral, which means that they were not feeling thermal stress. Figure 2.69 shows the thermal sensation desired for the different thermal sensations. It can be appreciated that most of the people wanted to feel slightly cold; this conveys that a high percentage of the users were not satisfied. The actual sensation desired is linked to the experience the inhabitant is undergoing.

The actual sensation was compared to the PET; these PET values were calculated using Rayman Pro for each individual taking into consideration the measurements taken while asking each person. The PET was converted into a scale of -3 to 3 as the table 2.3 shows, in order to compare with the actual sensation of the users. The graph below (figure 2.70) shows the comparison between PET in a scale of -3 to 3 and the actual sensation. While the PET calculations indicate that most of the people should be experiencing thermal stress, the real current sensation has a more uniform distribution.

In order to find the reasons that lead to this difference, it is interesting to analyse each scenario where the surveys were done separately. Figure 2.71 shows the actual sensation of the people that were in the different squares. It is interesting to note that the actual sensation of people in “Plaza de la Virgen” is hotter than in “Plaza del ayuntamiento”, especially when the PET calculations indicate that people should be experiencing more thermal stress in the second square.

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Figure 2.69 Sensation Desired for the different Actual Sensations

PART 2. INHABITANT AND PLACE RESEARCH

AS vs PET

Figure 2.70 Comparison Actual Sensation (AS) and Physiological Equivalent Temperature (PET)

Figure 2.71 Comparison Actual Sensation in Each Square

Figure 2.72 Comparison Physiological Equivalent Temperature in Each Square 63

NEW URBAN STRATEGIES FOR THE CITY OF VALENCIA: A BIOCLIMATIC RETHINK FOR THE HISTORICAL CITY

Figure 2.74 Question 4 of the Survey VISUAL'LIKE/DISLIKE:'LA'PLAZA'DE'LA'VIRGEN' (1" 0%" (2" 2%"

(3" 4%"

0" 11%"

1" 11%"

3" 50%"

Figure 2.73 Difference Between AS and PET in Each Square

2" 22%"

Figure Visual LDelight de la Virgen VISUAL 2.75 LIKE/DISLIKE: A PLAZA Plaza DEL AYUNTAMIENTO -­‐2 0% -­‐1 7%

-­‐3 4%

3 13%

2 20%

0 43% 1 13%

Figure 2.76 Visual Delight TIME O UTDOORS: PLAZA Plaza DE LA VAyuntamiento IRGEN

< 30 MINS 28%

> 60 MINS 46%

30 -­‐ 60 MINS 26%

Figure TimePLAZA of Exposure Outdoors TIME O2.77 UTDOORS: DEL AYUNTAMIENTO Plaza de la Virgen

> 60 MINS 35%

< 30 MINS 37%

30 -­‐ 60 MINS 28%

64

Figure 2.78 Time of Exposure Outdoors Plaza del Ayuntamiendo

The following bar chart (figure 2.73), illustrates the difference between actual sensation and PET for each square. This figure shows that 30% of the people in the “Plaza de la Virgen” and 30% in “Plaza del Ayuntamiento” were feeling as expected. Moreover, 52% of the people in the first square had a lower thermal sensation than expected, 15% 2 points lower and 7% up to 3 points lower. In the second square, 63% of the users had an actual sensation lower than the PET scale indicated, and 15% of these with a difference of more than 3 points. On the other hand, it is interesting to see that in “Plaza de la Virgen”, a pedestrian square, 19% were feeling warmer than expected through the PET calculations while this only occurred with 2% in the other square. This difference between the PET and Actual Sensation was plotted in the plans shown in figure 2.79 and 2.80 – no pattern between location and views can be concluded in this research.

Additionally, the inhabitants were also asked to what extent they liked or disliked the square they were in (see figure 2.74). The pie charts (figure 2.75 and figure 2.76) show the answers for “Plaza de la Virgen” and “Plaza del Ayuntamiento” respectively. As expected, people like the first square most, as it is a pedestrian square that can be enjoyed by the inhabitants, and due to its proportions and design the architecture and space can be more appreciated by the people.

Therefore, it is surprising to find that people were feeling less thermally satisfied in a place that they liked more.

Figures 2.77 and 2.78 show the time that the individuals who were asked have been outdoors. They show that people in “Plaza de la Virgen” have been outdoors longer, and observations show that people remain for more time in the square. Although no clear correlation can be established between visual and thermal satisfaction, the aesthetic characteristics enhance the use of public space, and visual delight promotes the use of the space, making people go and stay there.

Yet the activity people are doing, and the level of “obligation” to be in that space also alter the thermal sensation. People who are forced to be in outdoor conditions will be less tolerant than those who want to be there. Thus, this factor should also be taken into consideration when understanding how the actual

PART 2. INHABITANT AND PLACE RESEARCH

Figure 2.79 Mapping AS - PET

Figure 2.80 Mapping AS - PET

Plaza from de la the Virgen Plaza del Ayuntamiento sensation differs predicted discomfort levels calculated through PET.

In order to measure how the different factors influence the thermal sensation a regression between Actual Sensation and Physiological Equivalent Temperature was calculated. Multiple factors were considered as possible parameters: visual comfort, noise comfort, sensation desired, time outdoors, activity dislike and the physiological equivalent temperature. The last two appear to be the strongest factors in the historical city, and the statistical values can be seen in the Appendix B. Therefore, the Predicted Actual Sensation (PAS) can be defined as a correlation between the PET and the Activity Dislike (AD).

PAS= 0.013(AD) + 0.12(PET) (R2=0.96) PAS - Predicted Actual Sensation AD - Activity Dislike PET - Physiological Equivalent Temperature For the regression, the Physiological Equivalent Temperature was calculated, as before, taking account of the individual circumstances to which each individual was exposed. The activity dislike was converted into a percentage: 25 was given to people that were meeting others or performing other leisure activities, 50 to those that had to be in or go across the square for some reason and 100 for those working in the outdoor space.

This equation can only be used in Valencia and under summer conditions, due to the fact that data was only recorded for this time of the year, as this research had a very limited time of study. Nonetheless, due to the particularities of historical context, the meanings and memories condition the psychological assessment of the place, as does the seasonal experience. Therefore when establishing a proposal for a particular space and for particular conditions, it is helpful to develop a particular formula.

PAS - Predicted Actual Sensation (Scale 1 - 7) 1 - Very Cold, 2 - Cold, 3 - Slightly Cold, 4 - Neutral, 5 - Slightly Warm, 6- Warm, 7- Very Warm

AD - Activity Dislike (In percentage) 25 - Tourism, meeting, they like the place 50 - Work near, closest place to meet 100 - Work here

PET - Physiological Equivalent Temperature (ยบC)

65

NEW URBAN STRATEGIES FOR THE CITY OF VALENCIA: A BIOCLIMATIC RETHINK FOR THE HISTORICAL CITY

5. BEHAVIOURAL PATTERNS The Maps (Figure 2.81 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 2.86) overlap the use of the space and the sunshadow patterns at different times of the day. It can be observed that more people stay in the pedestrian square, as inhabitants like it more. Observations were undertaken from the 30th June to the 3rd July, with sunny and cloudy days, and at three different times of the day, comparing both squares. The red spots in the figures indicate that at least 1 person stayed in this spot for more than 10 minutes during the observation time.

Figure 2.87-2.92 show the human behaviour in the square studies. In both cases, the users congregate in the shadowed areas, and only when there was no sun, in the evening or cloudy days, was all the space used. Intense solar radiation leads to a drop in the use of the area close to fountain. On cloudy days, the first place to be occupied is this area, while on a sunny day the inhabitants preferred the park in the east.

Along with these findings, observations made in spring for Research Paper 2 showed that people preferred to be in the area near the fountain, as it has the combination of solar radiation, lower air temperatures and the positive effects of the water element.

People walking across the square took the shortest route, without taking into consideration whether it was in shadow or not. However, if they had to stand in a spot for some time, they chose the areas shadowed by the buildings, and particularly during the mornings people preferred to wait in the area close to the cathedral. After noon, people waited in the street that enters the square from the south.

Other particular measures were taken by individuals to achieve better thermal comfort. Tourists used umbrellas and caps to protect themselves from the intense solar radiation. For lunch people preferred the shade under the textile devices provided by the local businesses, and seated women fanned themselves. This proves that people take action to improve their thermal satisfaction, and it was observed that this kind of adaptation usually occurred when the individuals were exposed, or knew that they were going to be exposed to the outdoor conditions for more than 10 minutes.

66

PART 2. INHABITANT AND PLACE RESEARCH

Figure 2.87 Plaza de la Virgen Morning

Figure 2.81 Plaza de la Virgen Morning

Figure 2.84 Plaza Ayuntamiento Morning

Figure 2.88 Plaza del Ayuntamiento Morning

Figure 2.89 Plaza de la Virgen Afternoon

Figure 2.82 Plaza de la Virgen Afternoon

Figure 2.85 Plaza Ayuntamiento Afternoon

Figure 2.90 Plaza del Ayuntamiento Afternoon

Figure 2.91 Plaza de la Virgen Evening

Figure 2.83 Plaza de la Virgen Evening

Figure 2.86 Plaza Ayuntamiento Evening

Figure 2.92 Plaza del Ayuntamiento Evening 67

PART 3

THE MICROCLIMATE RESEARCH 1. BASE CASE 2. PROMOTING EVAPORATION 2.1 COMFORT 3. REDUCING RADIATION 3.1 VALENCIA: CLIMATE ANALYSIS 3.2 VALENCIA: URBAN CLIMATE 4. ASSESSMENT OF PROPOSALS

NEW URBAN STRATEGIES FOR THE CITY OF VALENCIA: A BIOCLIMATIC RETHINK FOR THE HISTORICAL CITY

1. BASE CASE

Plaza de la Virgen is chosen as the base case, due to the fact that it embodies the typical square in the historical city. Simulations were run for the 30th of June, in order to compare with the fieldwork. The weather data was taken from the weather station located in Plaza del Ayuntamiento.

As explained before in this work (see page 35), studies on climate change in the city of Valencia predict that the worst daily conditions (see appendix C for daily fluctuation), registered nowadays from 1 pm to 5 pm, will be further prolonged during the day. Therefore, the comparison between solutions will focus on the worst case scenario registered in a day; for the simulations run, the most unfavourable conditions are recorded at 4pm. Figure 3.1-3.6 show the different parameters that affect the thermal sensation: wind, air temperature, relative humidity, surface temperature and mean radiant temperature.

Wind is relatively low all around the square, and the prevailing wind direction used is southeast as it is the most frequent in summer. Furthermore, it can be identified that the south and west areas of the square are cooler; this pattern was also identified in the fieldwork analysis. Moreover, the water fountain has a low cooling effect â&#x20AC;&#x201C; a slight reduction in the air temperature can be noted, nonetheless the impact of it is not significant. This is probably due to the size of the element and because it is at the point of maximum radiation, and therefore heat gains at this point are the highest.

The mean radiant temperature is lower in the area densely shaded by the buildings, as shown in the direct solar radiation map (Figure 3.1). The Mean Radiant Temperature is very high, not only due to the high solar radiation but also the thermal properties of the materials used in the design. Figure 3.3 shows the Surface Temperature, as was also highlighted in the fieldwork analysis; except for the small green area, the rest of the square registers excessively high temperatures.

70

PART 3. THE MICROCLIMATE

Figure 3.1 BC Direct Radiation 4pm

Figure 3.2 Wind Speed Change (%)

Figure 3.3 BC Air Temperature 4pm

Figure 3.4 BC Relative Humidity 4pm

Figure 3.5 BC Surface Temperature 4pm

Figure 3.6 BC Mean Radiant Temperature 4pm

71

NEW URBAN STRATEGIES FOR THE CITY OF VALENCIA: A BIOCLIMATIC RETHINK FOR THE HISTORICAL CITY

Nº WATER ELEMENTS: 20

2. PROMOTING EVAPORATION 2.1 WATER ELEMENTS

Figure 3.7 Envimet Model Disperse Fountain

Nº WATER ELEMENTS: 46

Water, especially when it is in movement, reduces the air temperature by evaporation. The different simulations shown in Figures 3.10 – 3.16 were developed in order to establish how water elements should be arranged to optimize their benefits. While the first and second designs try to distribute the water elements around the square, the third design concentrates the water fountains in the central area. The envimet model are shown in Figure 3.7-3.9.

The contrasting images between the effects of disperse water jets (figure 3.10) and the water elements close together in the centre (figure 3.14), are interesting, as they show contrasting results using the same number of water jets. When the water elements are clustered together, the effect of evaporation is enhanced, having a greater impact on the temperatures near the fountain. This difference in temperatures promotes the wind fluctuation between warm and cold areas.

Figure 3.8 Envimet Model Perimeter Fount.

Nº WATER ELEMENTS: 20

The water belt around the perimeter (Figure 3.12) and the first scenario, portray the importance in the location of the water elements. The water jets placed on the north side of the square have a greater impact on the air temperature, than the ones in the south; as higher temperatures are registered in the north areas the evaporation process is enhanced. Temperature drops even more in the area where wind turbulence is generated.

In parallel, relative humidity increases proportionally to the air temperature decrease. Both parameters together help to decrease discomfort, especially in the last scenario, where the water jets are agglomerated together, in the south east of the square. The air moves the humidity and cool air to the rest of the square, producing better results.

The change in mean radiant temperature is quite low, as seen in Figure XX. The better conditions in air temperature and relative humidity are not enough to counteract the effect of radiation. However, the water in movement generates a breeze near the water element, which improves the comfort of the area next to the fountain.

Figure 3.9 Envimet Model Central Fountain 72

PART 3. THE MICROCLIMATE

Figure 3.10 Change Ta Disperse F. 4pm

Figure 3.11 Change RH Disperse F. 4pm

Figure 3.12 Change Ta Perimeter F. 4pm

Figure 3.13 Change RH Perimeter F. 4pm

Figure 3.14 Change Ta Central F. 4pm

Figure 3.15 Change RH Central F. 4pm

Figure 3.16 Change in Tmrt Central F. 4pm 73

NEW URBAN STRATEGIES FOR THE CITY OF VALENCIA: A BIOCLIMATIC RETHINK FOR THE HISTORICAL CITY

3. REDUCING RADIATION 3.1 COOL MATERIALS

The pavement in the existing scenario reaches excessive surface temperatures, to the extent that it generates discomfort to people walking or sitting on it. The square is nowadays a patchwork of different materials, with different thermal properties. The different materials used are explained previously in this work (see page 45) and they were modelled as figure 3.18 shows. The existing materials are changed to materials with higher albedo and lower thermal conductivity, not only in the square, but also in the surrounding streets. Figure 3.19 shows the changes in the albedo of the different surfaces.

The green area conserves the natural pavement, and this is also used in other spots that could have a more “recreational” function. This natural pavement not only decreases the surface temperature of this area but also helps to maintain higher levels of relative humidity. Due to the evaporation of the water in the soil, air temperature is decreased. Furthermore, for the rest of the surface, NaturalPAVE Resin Pavement is used. This material has a high albedo, low thermal conductivity and can be overlaid to existing materials, which is important when working in existing urban spaces.

Figure 3.22 illustrates the difference in the surface temperatures, portraying a reduction of up to 20K. This change is particularly visible in the area with higher levels of direct solar radiation. The mean radiant temperature is reduced in the entire square, especially in the areas that are shadowed.

There is a decrease in the overall air temperature (Figure 3.20), especially in the north area, which registers the highest levels of radiation and insolation. The relative humidity, as it is a factor of the air temperature, increases following the same pattern (figure 3.21). The area with trees on the east side registers the maximum differences: dTa=-2.50K, dHR=+9%. The results convey that the higher albedo materials, along with shading elements, can result in a meaningful change of climatic conditions. These small changes in each factor are significant in the comfort levels of the inhabitants as they have cumulative effects. Yet, as the mean radiant temperature (Figure 3.23) is still relatively high, the discomfort in the square is high too. As the studies for EXPO’82 proved, shading has a greater impact on the mean radiant temperature, and therefore on comfort.

Figure 3.17 Envimet Model: Existing materials 74

PART 3. THE MICROCLIMATE

Figure 3.18 Envimet Model: High Albedo Mat.

Figure 3.19 Change in the Albedo

Figure 3.20 Change Ta Cool Materials 4pm

Figure 3.21 Change RH Cool Materials 4pm

Figure 3.22 Change Ts Cool Materials 4pm

Figure 3.23 Change Tmrt Cool Materials 4pm 75

NEW URBAN STRATEGIES FOR THE CITY OF VALENCIA: A BIOCLIMATIC RETHINK FOR THE HISTORICAL CITY

3.2 SHADING

Figure 3.24 Envimet Model Central Shadow

Shading improves the comfort of users physically, by reducing the heat gains by radiation, and psychologically by increasing the choice and visual comfort of people. Published literature states that the use of trees or vegetated pergolas as a shading device is the most effective in improving comfort. This research focuses on the best arrangement to create better conditions for the inhabitants to occupy the space. Figure 3.24 - Figure 3.26 show the different arrangements for the shading device studied.

Three different cases were studied: locating the pergola in the middle of the square, in the area with maximum radiation (north side), or dispersed. The total surface of the pergola is the same, in order to enable comparison. The shading used for the simulation is a PVC material used for outdoor shading devices, which creates a dense shadow. Vegetation as it is more permeable will have a lower impact on the mean radiant temperature but will promote a decrease in air temperature by evapotranspiration.

Figure 3.25 Envimet Model North Shadow

Figures 3.27 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 3.32 show the air temperature and relative humidity change. They demonstrate that although the maximum difference is registered in the second case, the central pergola offers better conditions in the entire square. The disperse pergola shows that the air temperature change is more noticeable on the south side, as at this time it is more exposed to solar radiation.

Figure 3.33 shows that the central pergola has a greater impact on wind speed than the rest, considerably decreasing the speed under the pergola, and increasing it in the southeast of the square. All of the shading devices reduce the wind speed in the area under it, and making this element higher or more permeable will help to generate wind flow inside. Although this decrease in wind speed can be an issue for comfort, the relevant impact of the shading device on the surface temperature and mean radiant temperature (figure 3.39 and Figure 3.34) will improve the conditions, offering a suitable space to occupy.

A decrease of more than 28k is registered in all the cases under the shading device, and the mean radiant temperature decreases in this spot by more than 27k.

Figure 3.26 Envimet Model Dispersed Shadow 76

PART 3. THE MICROCLIMATE

Figure 3.27 Change Ta Central Shadow

Figure 3.30 Change HR Central Shadow

Figure 3.28 Change Ta North Shadow

Figure 3.31 Change HR North Shadow

Figure 3.29 Change Ta Disperse Shadow

Figure 3.32 Change HR Disperse Shadow 77

NEW URBAN STRATEGIES FOR THE CITY OF VALENCIA: A BIOCLIMATIC RETHINK FOR THE HISTORICAL CITY

78

Fig. 3.33 Change in Wind Central Shadow

Figure 3.36 Radiation Central Shadow

Figure 3.34 Change in Wind North Shadow

Figure 3.37 Radiation North Shadow

Fig 3.35 Change in Wind Dispersed Shadow

Figure 3.38 Radiation Dispersed Shadow

PART 3. THE MICROCLIMATE

Figure 3.39 Change Ts Central Shadow

Figure 3.42 Change Tmrt Central Shadow

Figure 3.40 Change Ts North Shadow

Figure 3.43 Change Tmrt North Shadow

Figure 3.41 Change Ts Dispersed Shadow

Figure 3.44 Change Tmrt Dispersed Shadow 79

NEW URBAN STRATEGIES FOR THE CITY OF VALENCIA: A BIOCLIMATIC RETHINK FOR THE HISTORICAL CITY

4. ASSESSMENT OF PROPOSALS Tables 3.1 to 3.4 summarise the climatic conditions at different points (Figure 3.45) of the square with the different interventions. The Physiological Equivalent Temperature is calculated for each of them, and the Predicted Actual Sensation is calculated for 3 different activities: meeting others (25 % of dislike), walking across (50 % of dislike) and working in the outdoor space (100% of dislike).

It can be seen that a decrease of 4K in PET is needed, to decrease the Predicted Actual Sensation up to one point for people with low activity dislike: people meeting, relaxing, enjoying the view and tourists. While a difference in PET of more than 10K is needed in order to decrease the Predicted Actual Sensation one point for those working, waiting or obliged to be there.

While the water element and cool materials do not have a big impact, shade reduces the PAS in most of the spots for those meeting or walking. For someone working in the space, the thermal sensation predicted only decreases under the shade. The water elements and materials have a major impact under the shaded areas (spot 1). This means that a slight change in the air temperature and humidity will have an important effect when the mean radiant temperature is low. Therefore the strategies should first provide shade and then be complemented with other air-cooling devices.

This method can be employed in order to assess the different design solutions and test whether the areas respond to the needs of the inhabitants carrying out different activities. Not all the square needs provide optimal conditions to those working or waiting, as they congregate in the areas close to the bars and terraces.

Figure 3.45 Points Analysed Table 3.1 Summary Environmental Conditions, PET and Predicted Actual Sensation Base Case

80

BASE Â CASE

TA

HR

W

MRT

TS

SVF

PET

1

33

21,5

0,5

56

26

0,1

43,8

2

34

19,75

1,25

71

46

0,55

50,4

3

33,5

20

1,75

71

43

0,45

48,7

4

33,75

19,5

0,5

71

46

0,4

53,3

5

35

18,5

0,5

71

44

0,35

54

ACTIVITY 25 50 100 25 50 100 25 50 100 25 50 100 25 50 100

PAS 6 6 6 6 7 7 6 6 7 7 7 7 7 7 7

PART 3. THE MICROCLIMATE

Table 3.2 Summary Environmental Conditions, PET and Predicted Actual Sensation Central Fountain

WATER

TA

HR

W

MRT

TS

SVF

PET

WATER 1 WATER 1

TA 32,75 TA 32,75

HR 22 HR 22

W 0,5 W 0,5

MRT 50 MRT 50

TS 24 TS 24

SVF 0,1 SVF 0,1

PET 40,8 PET 40,8

1 2

32,75 33,25

22 20,75

0,5 1,25

50 70

24 42

0,1 0,55

40,8 49,3

2

33,25

20,75

1,25

70

42

0,55

49,3

2 3

33,25 33,5

20,75 20,5

1,25 1,75

70 70

42 27

0,55 0,45

49,3 48,2

3

33,5

20,5

1,75

70

27

0,45

48,2

3 4

33,5 33,5

20,5 20

1,75 0,5

70 70

27 46

0,45 0,4

48,2 52,5

4

33,5

20

0,5

70

46

0,4

52,5

4 5

33,5 34,5

20 18,75

0,5 0,5

70 70

46 44

0,4 0,35

52,5 53,1

5

34,5

18,75

0,5

70

44

0,35

53,1

5

34,5

18,75

0,5

70

44

0,35

53,1

MATERIALS

ACTIVITY 25 ACTIVITY 50 25 ACTIVITY 100 50 25 25 100 50 50 25 100 100 50 25 25 100 50 50 25 100 100 50 25 25 100 50 50 25 100 100 50 25 25 100 50 50 25 100 100 50 25 100 50 100

PAS 5 PAS 5 5 PAS 6 5 5 6 6 5 6 6 6 7 6 6 6 7 6 6 6 7 7 6 6 7 7 6 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7

TATable 3.3 Summary HR W MRT PET andTSPredicted Actual SVF SensationPET ACTIVITY Environmental Conditions, Cool Materials

PAS 5 PAS 5 5 PAS 6 5 5 6 6 5 6 6 6 7 6 6 6 7 6 6 6 7 7 6 6 7 7 6 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 PAS 5 PAS 5 5 PAS 6 5 5 5 6 5 5 5 6 6 5 5 6 6 5 6 6 6 7 6 6 5 7 6 5 5 7 6 5 5 6 6 5 6 6 6 7 6 6 7 6 7

MATERIALS 1 MATERIALS 1

TA 32,25 TA 32,25

HR 24,75 HR 24,75

W 0,5 W 0,5

MRT 47 MRT 47

TS 20 TS 20

SVF 0,1 SVF

PET 39 PET

1 2

32,25 32,75

24,75 23

0,5 1,25

47 70

20 35

0,1 0,55

39 48,9

2

32,75

23

1,25

70

35

0,55

48,9

2 3

32,75 32,75

23 22,5

1,25 1,75

70 70

35 29

0,55 0,45

48,9 47,5

3

32,75

22,5

1,75

70

29

0,45

47,5

3 4

32,75 33,25

22,5 22,5

1,75 0,5

70 70

29 32

0,45 0,4

47,5 52,4

4

33,25

22,5

0,5

70

32

0,4

52,4

4 5

33,25 33,25

22,5 24

0,5 0,5

70 70

32 35

0,4 0,35

52,4 52,4

5

33,25

24

0,5

70

35

0,35

52,4

5

33,25

24

0,5

70

35

0,35

52,4

25 ACTIVITY 50 25 ACTIVITY 100 50 25 25 100 50 50 25 100 100 50 25 25 100 50 50 25 100 100 50 25 25 100 50 50 25 100 100 50 25 25 100 50 50 25 100 100 50 25 100 50

SHADOW

TA

HR

W

MRT

TS

SVF

PET

ACTIVITY

SHADOW 1 SHADOW

25 Table 3.4 Summary Environmental Conditions, Predicted Actual Central Shading TA HR W MRT PET and TS SVFSensation PET ACTIVITY

0,1

39

1

32,5 TA 32,5

21,25 HR 21,25

0,5 W 0,5

49 MRT 49

22 TS 22

0,1 SVF 0,1

40,1 PET 40,1

1 2

32,5 33,25

21,25 20,5

0,5 1

49 49

22 43

0,1 0,3

40,1 39,6

2

33,25

20,5

1

49

43

0,3

39,6

2 3

33,25 33

20,5 20,5

1 1,25

49 70

43 19,75

0,3 0,1

39,6 49,1

3

33

20,5

1,25

70

19,75

0,1

49,1

3 4

33 33,25

20,5 20

1,25 0,5

70 49

19,75 38

0,1 0,2

49,1 40,6

4

33,25

20

0,5

49

38

0,2

40,6

4 5

33,25 34

20 19,5

0,5 0,75

49 65

38 41

0,2 0,3

40,6 48,8

5

34

19,5

0,75

65

41

0,3

48,8

5

34

19,5

0,75

65

41

0,3

48,8

100

50 25 ACTIVITY 100 50 25 25 100 50 50 25 100 100 50 25 25 100 50 50 25 100 100 50 25 25 100 50 50 25 100 100 50 25 25 100 50 50 25 100 100 50 25 100 50 100

7

81

NEW URBAN STRATEGIES FOR THE CITY OF VALENCIA: A BIOCLIMATIC RETHINK FOR THE HISTORICAL CITY

Figure 3.46 - 3.49 show the environmental improvements of the three proposals together. All the parameters combined have a relevant impact on the different environmental factors, especially the air temperature and relative humidity. As a result, the PET decreases considerably, but the PAS do not decrease as much.

(Table 3.5) Nevertheless, the Predicted Actual Sensation is reduced in most of the spots. The wind in spot 3 reduces due to the shading devices next to it, therefore extending the shading to decrease a Mean Radiant Temperature or introducing extra ventilation can provide better conditions in this spot.

Table 3.5 Summary Environmental Conditions, PET and Predicted Actual Combination of Improvements

ALL Â TOGETHER

TA

HR

W

MRT

TS

SVF

PET

1

32,25

23

0,5

46,75

21

0,1

38,4

2

32,75

22,75

1,5

46,75

20

0,55

37,5

3

32,5

22.5

1,5

69

28

0,45

47,7

4

33

21.5

0,75

46,75

27,75

0,4

38,8

5

33

23

0,75

63

30

0,35

47,1

82

ACTIVITY 25 50 100 25 50 100 25 50 100 25 50 100 25 50 100

PAS 5 5 6 5 5 6 6 6 7 5 5 6 6 6 7

PART 3. THE MICROCLIMATE

Figure 3.46 Change Ta All Elements Together

Fig. 3.47 Change HR All Elements Together

Figure 3.48 Change Ts All Elements Together

Fig. 3.49 Change Tmrt All Elements Together 83

PART 4

RESEARCH CONCLUSIONS 1. STRATEGIES 1.1 IMPROVE THE “STATE OF THE BODY” 1.2 ENHANCE THE “STATE OF THE MIND” 2. APPLICABILITY 3. CONCLUSIONS

NEW URBAN STRATEGIES FOR THE CITY OF VALENCIA: A BIOCLIMATIC RETHINK FOR THE HISTORICAL CITY

1. STRATEGIES 1.1 IMPROVE THE â&#x20AC;&#x153;STATE OF THE BODYâ&#x20AC;?

As explained previously the best solution is to combine the different tools (water, vegetation, materials and shading devices) to provide a place where people are thermally satisfied. The most important factor in a Mediterranean city, such as Valencia, is to decrease the direct solar radiation and hence decrease the mean radiant temperature. The reduction in the mean radiant temperature emphasizes the effect of the rest of the elements on thermal comfort.

Therefore, coverings should be designed for the resting areas and working areas, especially for the latter. As proved previously the effect of this covering is higher and better distributed when it is a large element, located in the centre of the square, shading the actual fountain. Denser shadows provide mean lower mean radiant temperatures, and therefore higher levels of comfort. Furthermore this shadow should be tall enough to enable wind flow into the square. On the other hand, permeable solutions can also be used, but this usually reduces the density of the covering, and therefore the impact on the radiant temperatures is lower. Published literature states that vegetated coverings, trees or shading with irrigation provide the best conditions as they not only protect from solar radiation but also decrease the air temperature by evaporation. Furthermore, this solution should be temporal, due to the change in needs in the different seasons. Consequently the best options are PVC or textile elements that could be removed or deciduous vegetated elements. Shadow is required for rest areas and the spots where people work.

The use of other materials, with similar properties to natural surfaces, can decrease the absorption of heat and therefore reduce the long wave radiation. Using these materials not only in the square, but also in the adjacent streets improves the overall conditions of the area. It should be added that these materials also provide better conditions at night, as the long wave radiation decreases noticeably. Last but not least water elements should be concentrated in the corner from where prevailing winds enter the square. The water should wet the pavement, so that a large extension of wet paving and water elements decrease the air temperature by evaporation. Concentrating the water jets intensifies the temperature reduction, and the wind flows from cooler areas to warmer, providing better conditions in the entire square.

86

PART 4. RESEARCH CONCLUSIONS

1.2 ENHANCE THE â&#x20AC;&#x153;STATE OF THE MINDâ&#x20AC;?

Historical city scenarios have an important aesthetic and cultural value. Historical landscapes attract citizens due to their location, the businesses and commerce, and last but not least the character of the place. Therefore, it is crucial to design solutions that do not alter the image of these spaces: materials, shading devices, vegetation and ornamental solutions should maintain the character of the place. Light structures, with the correct location and height, will manage to provide shade while the overall image is not altered.

At the same time, the choice of vegetation should consider the cityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s historical gardens; what species were chosen and why. This will help to choose species that are suitable for the climate and do not modify the image of the space.

The use of vegetation and water not only improves physical conditions but also the psychological perception, as they are related with nature. The use of vegetation in small historical squares can affect the character of the place, so the utilisation of these elements should be well studied.

Moreover, the design should offer multiple experiences in a same square: sun and shadow, sounds and silence, sitting or lying. The user should have the freedom to choose what conditions to be exposed to; this will improve the satisfaction of the inhabitant.

Last but not least, designs should create a dynamic scenario, where conditions change with time. Although a static environment could provide optimal thermal conditions, the highest levels of satisfaction will not be achieved. Water elements can be on and off, have different heights in order to offer a change in the landscape. Besides, the seasonal requirements can result in a changing scenario over the year that could generate interest for the inhabitants. For example, the shading devices can be the result of annual competitions between designers, establishing criteria of permeability and density; the design could change every year, resulting in an event that attracts the citizens.

87

NEW URBAN STRATEGIES FOR THE CITY OF VALENCIA: A BIOCLIMATIC RETHINK FOR THE HISTORICAL CITY

2. APPLICABILITY 2.1 PLAZA DE LA VIRGEN

Figure 4.1 Actual View of Plaza de la Virgen

Figure 4.2 Show a view for the proposal of “Plaza de la Virgen” Microclimatic conditions are improved by the installation of water jets that could be used as a place to play in the centre of the square. The shadow is provided by temporal shading devices that can be removed in winter, providing comfortable conditions all year. The pavement of the recreational spaces is change to a material with high albedo, and low thermal conductivity. The use of movable urban furniture offers the inhabitants the freedom to choose where to sit, by being able to change these elements of place.

Figure 4.2 View of Possible Proposal for La Plaza de la Virgen 88

PART 4. RESEARCH CONCLUSIONS

2.1 PLAZA DEL AYUNTAMIENTO

Figure 4.4 portrays the proposal for â&#x20AC;&#x153;Plaza del Ayuntamientoâ&#x20AC;?. The dimension of this square allows the use of trees for providing shade. Due to the contrasting seasonal conditions, deciduous trees are best for the design of green areas.

Salvador Palomo states that the best species for these climates are: the Tilia, Melia, Acer, Robinia, Sophora and Morus (Salvador Palomo, P. J., 2003). Water Jets with different heights and densities are placed along the long axis of the square. Moreover, the traffic is limited to only buses and the car lanes are used for the pedestrian.

Figure 4.3 Actual View Plaza Ayuntamiento

Figure 4.3 View of Possible Proposal Plaza del Ayuntamiento 89

NEW URBAN STRATEGIES FOR THE CITY OF VALENCIA: A BIOCLIMATIC RETHINK FOR THE HISTORICAL CITY

3. CONCLUSIONS

Outdoor experience is the combination of sensations derived from interaction with multiple stimuli found in the urban environment. The experience will be determined by the ambiance of the place, which is the result of physical, physiological and psychological adaptive opportunities. The renewal of existing urban spaces should aim to improve the conditions of the place for the citizens in order to enhance the social life of the city, but maintaining the character of it. Citizens are physiologically adapted to the climate, and therefore strategies should focus on providing physical and psychological adaptive opportunities to improve the satisfaction of the inhabitants.

The research presented here seeks to understand the real sensation of the inhabitant and quantify it. The research conveys that the main psychological factor affecting thermal satisfaction in these spaces is activity contentment, influenced by the level of obligation and dislike.

Urban spaces in the historical city attract people for diverse reasons: work, leisure and tourismâ&#x20AC;Ś Design proposals should aim to improve the thermal experience of the occupiers of the space; improving the satisfaction of these users, will improve the satisfaction of those in transit too. The Predicted Actual Sensation presented in this work can be used to assess the different solutions for each of the activities performed in the different areas of the square. It was observed that to improve the predicted actual sensation of people with low activity dislike (meeting, relaxing, enjoying the views...) a decrease of 4K in PET is sufficient, while people working need a decrease of more than 10K to decrease their actual sensation by one point. The Predicted Actual Sensation is, therefore, a tool that can be used to establish to what extent the Physiological Equivalent Temperature should be reduced in different areas to achieve higher levels of satisfaction for different activities.

Moreover, analytical work was used to study how to optimise the effect of the different tools employed to improve the physical conditions. It was discovered that, using the same number of water jets, these have a greater impact when clustered. Likewise the shading devices were also more effective when the surface was concentrated in one area.

90

PART 4. RESEARCH CONCLUSIONS

In a Mediterranean city, in summer, the main factor of discomfort is the mean radiant temperature due to the intense direct solar radiation. As a result, designs should aim first to reduce the incoming short wave radiation, and then improve the rest of the environmental conditions. The various simulations show that the cooling effect of “cool materials” and the water elements was more effective under the shade.

Temporality is fundamental when designing in Mediterranean climates due to the different climatic conditions of each season. Deciduous vegetation, temporal shading devices and controllable water devices can create favourable conditions throughout the year. Moreover, this ephemerality can play a favourable role in the psychological factors affecting not only the use of the space, but also the thermal satisfaction of the users.

No clear correlation was established between visual delight and thermal sensation, but a relationship between the number of people remaining in a space and the aesthetic assessment was observed. A higher attractiveness increases the use of the space and the presence of people in it. The attractiveness of the square is determined by not only the buildings but also the urban design. The surveys show that, although both squares have graded buildings, the presence of traffic downgraded the general perception in “Plaza del Ayuntamiento”. Thus it is crucial to enhance the beauty of the place in order to motivate people to use it.

Last but not least, historical open spaces symbolize the memories of the community. The appreciation of these spaces is influenced by the meaning and memories which the inhabitants infuse them with, and therefore it is crucial to respect the character of the place. Any intervention should aim to achieve coherence with the existing buildings and play a secondary role in the overall view. The bioclimatic rethink of the historical landscapes should improve the physical conditions of the place, while respecting its atmosphere.

91

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APPENDICES

APPENDIX A: COMFORT A.1 SURVEYS

ARCHITECTURAL ASSOCIATION SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE GRADUATE SCHOOL SED PROGRAMME ESTUDIO DE CONFORT URBANO EN VALENCIA

ARCHITECTURAL ASSOCIATION SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE GRADUATE SCHOOL SED PROGRAMME

APPENDIX A: COMFORT A.2 DATA RECORDED 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100

Ta 29,8 31,6 31,6 31,2 31,4 30,2 29,4 29,1 29,4 31,5 32,9 31,8 30 30 30 30,2 29,8 29 29,3 28,4 28,5 28 29,1 29,9 28,5 30,3 29,9 30,4 30,1 30,3 30,9 31,9 31,3 28,5 28,8 29,9 28,7 31 29,3 29,4 30,8 30,9 30,8 29,8 30,3 30,1 31,5 34,7 30,7 30,7 30,6 31,6 30,7 29,5 30,9 29,8 31,6 31,9 32,1 33,2 29,3 30 30,1 30,1 30,1 30,1 30,1 30,5 30,6 30,9 30,6 31 32,7 33,5 32,3 31,5 31,8 30,9 31,5 30 30,2 29,2 30,1 31,3 30,7 30,5 29,6 29,9 30,6 30,3 29,7 30,8 30,6 32,1 29,5 29,3 29 29,8 29,7 29,7

HR 60,8 52,7 52,6 50,7 49,9 54,3 56,1 55,9 55,2 49,5 44,7 48,3 60,3 60,3 60,3 59,7 62,1 62,2 62,9 66,3 67,1 72,9 70,4 61,2 60 59,7 60,6 60,7 59,6 58,7 51,8 48,5 51,4 64,8 63,2 62,9 64,2 55,2 61,1 59,5 55,9 57,2 52,4 54,5 53,7 55,5 51 42,7 54,6 54,6 53,7 51,2 54 56,5 53 53,1 52,5 51,3 51,3 48,3 57,4 52,6 49,5 49,5 49,5 49,5 49,5 47,6 48,2 48,8 48,6 46,7 42,4 40,8 42,7 42,7 42,9 43,6 43,4 46,2 46,4 49,7 50,4 45,2 50,3 50,8 52,2 53,3 48,9 53,3 53,8 52,7 51,8 49,5 54,8 57,4 59,1 57,1 57 57

W 0,7 1,5 0,7 0,5 1,6 1,6 1,2 1,7 1,7 1,2 1,3 0,6 0 0 0 1,8 1,4 1,1 1,7 1,4 1,6 1,1 1,3 1,8 3,4 0,9 0,7 1,1 1,3 0,5 0,6 0,6 1,4 1 0,5 1,4 0,6 1 1,7 1,8 1,1 0,5 1,2 1,3 1 0,6 0,9 0,9 0,5 0,5 1,6 1,6 0,8 1,8 0,9 1,1 0,5 1,5 0,5 0,4 1,2 1,2 0,8 0,8 0,8 0,8 0,8 2,1 1,1 0,4 1 0,6 0,5 0,4 0,5 0,5 0,7 1,3 0,9 1,7 1,2 0,7 0,4 0,8 1 1,1 1,1 0,5 0 0,4 1,1 0,5 1,2 0 1,5 1,2 0,7 0,8 0,4 0,4

Ts 30,4 32,2 32,7 28,5 40,5 32,9 30,3 32,4 38,5 40,6 38,2 38,3 42 42 42 39,2 26,8 38,7 35,1 34,6 35,3 29,1 30,2 32,8 30,3 38 37,5 32,5 32,8 29,6 28 32,4 33,9 30 28,6 38,2 27,1 40,5 28,4 33 26,9 43,6 43,2 34,3 33,3 29,1 48,6 24,4 27,8 27,8 34,5 30,7 30,7 28,8 39,3 39,4 44,8 41 30,7 46,2 39,4 40,8 29,7 29,7 29,7 29,7 29,7 37,5 34,9 41,3 35,4 37,4 44,2 42,2 40,9 40,3 44,3 42,8 40,5 34,6 37,5 29,4 40,9 40,9 34,3 34,7 29,5 31,3 30,9 42,8 37 39,8 40,1 33,1 34,8 36,2 28,4 31,7 28,8 28,8

Lux 9445 20250 17677 7793 56800 14616 17489 17927 35580 84660 41890 73100 38700 38700 38700 4502 3615 15903 7018 5798 6519 5917 17363 13949 25250 49790 42770 36750 29530 9225 3870 12578 62430 17616 14335 44530 3179 93730 14262 96920 2859 99400 99330 16513 14029 52470 87830 12784 8744 8744 10194 13433 13712 5410 40680 23940 93020 51310 9836 77880 19584 16389 2182 2182 2182 2182 2182 18595 18889 47840 12790 8756 42380 19450 14463 19594 28820 18855 20050 15379 16779 6212 45960 7253 15489 16559 3641 2604 33,5 38540 8783 35220 27390 3719 5465 9575 1087 2097 1050 1050

dB 63,1 63,1 61,9 63 66,3 57,4 53,7 59,2 29,2 73,6 71,7 58,2 66,5 66,5 66,5 61 69,2 69 64,5 73,2 66,5 74,4 63,7 69,5 70,11 66,7 64,8 61 68,9 71,7 56,7 62,3 64 63,3 67,1 63,4 70,3 65,8 65,4 71,6 73,7 75,7 75,3 67,4 62,8 61,5 61,7 59,6 66,8 66,8 65,5 68,5 67,9 76,2 63,2 64,2 62,9 63,7 74 71,5 72,2 67,4 70,6 70,6 70,6 70,6 70,6 67,2 76,2 68,6 69,3 64,7 67,4 76,2 70 63,9 65,6 69,9 65,1 70,5 70,6 66,7 63,1 62,3 61,2 62,1 68,5 65 61,8 68,1 62,5 63,7 65,6 62,2 59 59,6 54 62,9 51,9 51,9

12:20 12.30 12:40 12:50 12:55 13:05 13:15 13:25 13:30 13:32 13:40 13:45 16:00 16:00 16:00 16:10 16:15 16:20 16:25 16:27 16:30 16:35 16:40 16:45 16:50 16:55 17:00 17:05 17:10 17:20 17:40 17:45 17:55 11:20 11:30 11.35 11:45 11:50 12:00 11:55 12:35 12:40 12.42 12:45 12:47 12:50 13:00 13:05 13:20 13:20 13:25 13:27 13:30 13:40 13:50 13:57 14:00 14:05 14:10 14:15 15:55 15:00 15:15 15:15 15:15 15:15 15:15 17:40 17:45 17:50 17:55 17:57 17:58 18:00 18:00 18:05 18:10 18:15 18:15 18:20 18;25 18:40 18:45 18:50 18:50 18:55 18:57 19:00 19:05 19:10 19:15 19:17 19:20 19:25 19:30 19:35 19:40 19:42 19:45 19:45

Clo 0,55 0,5 0,5 0,5 0,5 0,5 0,65 0,5 0,55 0,5 0,5 0,5 0,5 0,5 0,5 0,5 0,5 0,55 0,55 0,55 0,55 0,55 0,55 0,55 0,55 0,5 0,5 0,55 0,55 0,5 0,5 0,5 0,65 0,5 0,55 0,65 0,55 0,65 0,55 0,55 0,5 0,5 0,5 0,5 0,5 0,5 0,65 0,5 0,5 0,55 0,5 0,5 0,5 0,65 0,65 0,55 0,5 0,5 0,55 0,5 0,5 0,5 0,5 0,5 0,65 0,65 0,5 0,55 0,5 0,5 0,5 0,5 0,5 0,5 0,55 0,55 0,55 0,5 0,5 0,55 0,5 0,65 0,55 0,55 0,5 0,55 0,5 0,55 0,55 0,5 0,5 0,55 0,65 0,55 0,55 0,65 0,55 0,55 0,5 0,5

Met 65 65 65 65 70 65 65 65 65 80 80 65 70 70 70 65 70 65 65 65 65 70 80 65 65 65 65 65 65 70 65 65 70 65 65 80 65 80 65 80 65 65 70 65 80 70 80 65 70 70 65 65 70 75 65 65 65 70 70 65 70 65 70 70 70 70 70 70 65 65 65 65 65 65 70 65 65 70 80 65 65 655 65 65 65 65 60 70 70 70 65 65 70 70 80 75 80 80 70 70

AGE 60 -­‐ 70 50 -­‐ 60 20 -­‐ 30 20 -­‐ 30 30 -­‐ 40 20 -­‐ 30 30 -­‐ 40 15 -­‐ 20 60 -­‐ 70 40 -­‐ 50 20 -­‐ 30 30 -­‐ 40 20 -­‐ 30 20 -­‐ 30 30 -­‐ 40 40 -­‐ 50 50 -­‐ 60 15 -­‐ 20 40 -­‐ 50 15 -­‐ 20 20 -­‐ 30 30 -­‐ 40 20 -­‐ 30 > 70 40 -­‐ 50 30 -­‐ 40 50 -­‐ 60 50 -­‐ 60 50 -­‐ 60 30 -­‐ 40 40 -­‐ 50 30 -­‐ 40 40 -­‐ 50 20 -­‐ 30 50 -­‐ 60 40 -­‐ 50 30 -­‐ 40 40 -­‐ 50 20 -­‐ 30 20 -­‐ 30 15 -­‐ 20 60 -­‐ 70 30 -­‐ 40 20 -­‐ 30 40 -­‐ 50 30 -­‐ 40 50 -­‐ 60 20 -­‐ 30 30 -­‐ 40 30 -­‐ 40 30 -­‐ 40 50 -­‐ 60 30 -­‐ 40 20 -­‐ 30 40 -­‐ 50 50 -­‐ 60 20 -­‐ 30 20 -­‐ 30 20 -­‐ 30 30 -­‐ 40 20 -­‐ 30 15 -­‐ 20 20 -­‐ 30 20 -­‐ 30 20 -­‐ 30 20 -­‐ 30 20 -­‐ 30 15 -­‐ 20 > 70 20 -­‐ 30 20 -­‐ 30 60 -­‐ 70 50 -­‐ 60 20 -­‐ 30 50 -­‐ 60 50 -­‐ 60 20 -­‐ 30 30 -­‐ 40 15 -­‐ 20 > 70 20 -­‐ 30 50 -­‐ 60 30 -­‐ 40 60 -­‐ 70 60 -­‐ 70 60 -­‐ 70 40 -­‐ 50 20 -­‐ 30 20 -­‐ 30 40 -­‐ 50 30 -­‐ 40 60 -­‐ 70 50 -­‐ 60 40 -­‐ 50 60 -­‐ 70 50 -­‐ 60 30 -­‐ 40 40 -­‐ 50 40 -­‐ 50 30 -­‐ 40 TOTAL

FEMALE 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 FEMALE 61

MALE 1

1 1 1 1 1

1 1

1 1 1 1

1

1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1

1 MALE 39

PET

PMV

SET

MATERIAL Mármol Mármol Sand piedras Mármol Sand Stone Stone Mármol Mármol Mármol Tiles Tiles Tiles Tiles Mármol Mármol Mármol Mármol Mármol Mármol Mármol Mármol Mármol Mármol Mármol Mármol Mármol Mármol Mármol piedras Mármol Mármol piedras piedras Mármol piedras Stone Stone Stone piedras Mármol Mármol Stone Stone Sand Mármol Stone Stone Stone Stone Stone Tiles Tiles Mármol Mármol Mármol Mármol Mármol Mármol Mármol Mármol Mármol Mármol Mármol Mármol Mármol Mármol Mármol Mármol Mármol Mármol Mármol Mármol Mármol Mármol Mármol Granito Granito Mármol Mármol Sand Stone Stone Stone Stone Stone Stone Stone Tiles Stone Stone Stone Stone Stone Stone Stone Stone Stone Stone

CONDITIONS Cloudy Sun Sun Sun Sun Cloudy Cloudy Cloudy Cloudy Cloudy Cloudy Cloudy Cloudy Cloudy Cloudy Cloudy Cloudy Overcast Overcast Cloudy Start Rain Rain Rain Cloudy Cloudy Sun Cloudy Sun Sun Sun Sun Sun Sun Sun Sun Cloudy Sun Sun Sun Sun Sun Sun Sun Sun Sun Sun Sun Sun Sun Sun Sun Sun Sun Sun Sun Cloud Sun Cloudy Cloudy Cloudy Sun Sun Sun Sun Sun Sun Sun Sun Sun Sun Partially Cloud Partially Cloud Sun Partially Cloud Cloudy Cloudy Cloudy Cloudy Cloudy Cloudy Cloudy Cloudy Sun Cloudy Cloudy Cloudy Sun Sun Sun Sun Sun Sun Sun Sun Sun Sun no sun no sun no sun no sun

Shadow T Shadow S Shadow T Shadow T Shadow T

Fountain

Fountain Fountain

Shadow S Shadow S

Shadow S Shadow S

Shadow P Shadow B Shadow T Shadow B Shadow B Shadow B Shadow B Shadow T Shadow S Shadow T Shadow S Shadow B Shadow T

Fountain Fountain

Shadow B Shadow B Shadow B Shadow T Shadow T Shadow P Shadow T Shadow T

Partially Cloud

Shadow F Shadow P Shadow B Shadow T Shadow B Shadow B Shadow B Shadow B Shadow B Shadow T Shadow T Shadow T Shadow T Shadow T Shadow B

Shadow T Shadow T Shadow B Shadow B Shadow T Shadow B Shadow B Shadow B Shadow B Shadow B Shadow B Shadow B

Fountain Fountain Fountain

AS 3 3 3 1 3 2 1 2 1 1 2 2 1 1 0 3 3 3 3 2 2 1 3 0 1 2 2 1 1 2 1 2 2 2 0 2 1 2 0 3 2 2 2 3 2 2 0 1 3 1 3 0 0 0 3 0 2 0 1 1 3 3 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 3 2 2 3 2 2 3 1 3 1 2 0 0 1 3 3 2 3 3 3 3 3 -­‐1 2 0 3 2 2

ASD -­‐1 1 1 -­‐1 1 1 -­‐2 -­‐1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 -­‐1 -­‐1 -­‐1 -­‐1 1 1 -­‐2 0 0 1 2 1 -­‐1 0 -­‐1 -­‐1 0 1 -­‐1 0 -­‐1 0 2 0 -­‐1 1 0 -­‐1 -­‐1 0 1 -­‐1 -­‐1 -­‐1 -­‐1 -­‐2 -­‐1 0 -­‐1 -­‐1 -­‐1 -­‐1 -­‐1 -­‐1 -­‐1 0 1 -­‐1 0 -­‐1 0 -­‐1 -­‐1 -­‐1 0 -­‐1 -­‐1 1 -­‐1 -­‐1 -­‐1 -­‐1 -­‐1 1 0 -­‐1 0 0 0 -­‐1 -­‐1 2 -­‐1 0 -­‐1 -­‐1 1 -­‐1 2 -­‐1 -­‐1 0 1 0 -­‐1

ASN

AS

ASD

ASN

-­‐3 -­‐3 -­‐3

-­‐3 -­‐3 -­‐3

-­‐3 -­‐3 -­‐3 -­‐3 -­‐1 -­‐3

ASN 3

3 3

VISUAL COM 1 3 2 2 3 3 1 2 3 1 3 2 1 2 0 -­‐3 2 -­‐1 3 2 3 2 0 0 0 0 2 0 3 0 0 3 2 3 3 2 0 0 2 -­‐2 2 3 3 3 2 0 1 3 -­‐3 2 3 0 2 2 0 0 2 1 0 2 1 0 -­‐3 -­‐1 0 1 1 0 -­‐1 0 0 0 3 0 1 0 0 3 3 0 2 3 3 0 3 3 3 -­‐3 1 3 1 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 3

NOISE 0 1 -­‐1 0 0 1 2 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 3 0 1 3 2 2 2 2 0 0 1 3 -­‐1 -­‐1 3 0 2 0 0 -­‐1 2 3 0 1 -­‐2 0 0 0 -­‐1 0 2 0 2 2 -­‐1 1 3 2 0 0 -­‐1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 2 0 -­‐1 1 0 0 2 0 2 -­‐2 0 2 0 3 0 3 2 -­‐1 2 0 -­‐2 0 0 0 1 2 0 0 -­‐2 -­‐2 -­‐2 0 0 2

ASN

VISUAL COM

NOISE

3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

3 3 2 3 3 3

-­‐3 -­‐3 -­‐3

-­‐3 -­‐3 -­‐3 -­‐3

-­‐3

-­‐3 -­‐3 -­‐3 -­‐3 -­‐3 -­‐3 -­‐3 -­‐3 -­‐3 -­‐3 -­‐3 -­‐3 -­‐3 -­‐3 -­‐3 -­‐3 -­‐3 -­‐3 -­‐3 -­‐1 -­‐3 -­‐3 -­‐3 -­‐3 -­‐3 -­‐3 -­‐3 -­‐3 -­‐3

-­‐1 -­‐3

3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

1 3 0 1 0 3 3 3 0 0 1 0 1 3 1 3 3 2 0 1 1 1 3 1 3 0 1 2 2 3 1 1 2 0 1 3 3 3 3 3 0 1 0 1 0 2 3 3 3 3 3 1 0 3 1 1 0 1 3 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 3 1 1 1 0 2 0 1 1 1 1 1

WHAT? MEETING WORK TURISM MEETING TURISM WORK WORK WORK TURISM TURISM MEETING TURISM MEETING WORK MEETING WORK WORK LIVE CLOSE TURISM MEETING MEETING SHOPPING WORK MEETING WORK TURISM MEETING LIVE CLOSE LIVE CLOSE WORK CATHEDRAL MEETING LIVE CLOSE TURISM OTHER WORK WORK WORK WORK WORK TURISM SHOPPING TURISM OTHER TURISM LIVE CLOSE WORK WORK WORK WORK WORK OTHER TURISM WORK MEETING MEETING TURISM OTHER WORK TURISM MEETING MEETING MEETING MEETING MEETING MEETING MEETING OTHER LIVE CLOSE OTHER TURISM TURISM MEETING MEETING MEETING OTHER MEETING MEETING LIVE CLOSE OTHER MEETING MEETING TURISM TURISM MEETING OTHER MEETING TURISM WORK MEETING MEETING OTHER TURISM LIVE CLOSE TURISM OTHER MEETING MEETING MEETING MEETING

WHERE BEFORE? TIME OUT INTERIOR AC 30 -­‐ 60 INTERIOR AC 30 -­‐ 60 OUTDOORS > 60 OUTDOORS 30 -­‐ 60 OUTDOORS > 60 OUTDOORS > 60 INTERIOR AC < 30 OUTDOORS 30 -­‐ 60 OUTDOORS > 60 OUTDOORS 30 -­‐ 60 INTERIOR NO AC > 60 OUTDOORS > 60 INTERIOR AC < 30 INTERIOR AC < 30 INTERIOR AC < 30 INTERIOR AC CHANGING INTERIOR AC CHANGING INTERIOR AC < 30 OUTDOORS 30 -­‐ 60 OUTDOORS > 60 OUTDOORS < 30 INTERIOR NO AC 30 -­‐ 60 OUTDOORS > 60 INTERIOR NO AC < 30 INTERIOR AC < 30 OUTDOORS > 60 OUTDOORS 30 -­‐ 60 INTERIOR NO AC > 60 INTERIOR AC > 60 OUTDOORS > 60 OUTDOORS > 60 OUTDOORS 30 -­‐ 60 INTERIOR AC < 30 OUTDOORS 30 -­‐ 60 INTERIOR AC > 60 INTERIOR AC < 30 INTERIOR AC < 30 INTERIOR AC < 30 OUTDOORS 30 -­‐ 60 CHANGING > 60 INTERIOR AC < 30 INTERIOR NO AC < 30 INTERIOR AC > 60 INTERIOR NO AC > 60 OUTDOORS > 60 INTERIOR NO AC 30 -­‐ 60 INTERIOR AC < 30 INTERIOR NO AC < 30 INTERIOR AC > 60 INTERIOR AC > 60 INTERIOR AC > 60 INTERIOR AC < 30 INTERIOR NO AC 30 -­‐ 60 OUTDOORS > 60 INTERIOR AC > 60 INTERIOR AC < 30 INTERIOR AC > 60 OUTDOORS < 30 INTERIOR AC < 30 OUTDOORS > 60 TRAIN 30 -­‐ 60 INTERIOR AC < 30 TRAIN 30 -­‐ 60 INTERIOR NO AC < 30 INTERIOR NO AC 30 -­‐ 60 OUTDOORS 30 -­‐ 60 INTERIOR NO AC < 30 OUTDOORS 30 -­‐ 60 OUTDOORS 30 -­‐ 60 INTERIOR NO AC 30 -­‐ 60 OUTDOORS > 60 INTERIOR AC 30 -­‐ 60 INTERIOR AC < 30 OUTDOORS > 60 INTERIOR NO AC > 60 INTERIOR AC > 60 INTERIOR AC < 30 INTERIOR AC < 30 OUTDOORS < 30 INTERIOR NO AC 30 -­‐ 60 OUTDOORS 30 -­‐ 60 INTERIOR AC < 30 INTERIOR AC > 60 OUTDOORS > 60 INTERIOR AC < 30 INTERIOR NO AC < 30 OUTDOORS > 60 OUTDOORS > 60 OUTDOORS > 60 INTERIOR AC < 30 INTERIOR AC < 30 OUTDOORS 30 -­‐ 60 INTERIOR NO AC 30 -­‐ 60 INTERIOR NO AC < 30 OUTDOORS > 60 OUTDOORS 30 -­‐ 60 OUTDOORS 30 -­‐ 60 INTERIOR NO AC < 30 INTERIOR NO AC < 30 INTERIOR NO AC < 30

30 30 60 30 60 60 5 30 60 30 60 60 5 5 5 60PUESTO FLORES 60 PUESTO FLORES 5 30 60 5 30 60 5 5 60 30 60 60 PUESTO 60 HORCHATA 60 30 5 30 60 5 5 5 30 60 CAMARERO 5 5 60 60 60 30 5 5 60 60 60 5 30 60 60 30 60 5 5 60 30 5 30 5 30 30 5 30 30 30 60 30 5 60 60 60 5 5 5 30 30 5 60 60 5 5 60 60 60 5 5 30 30 5 60 30 30 5 5 5 <30

30-­‐60

>60

APPENDIX A: COMFORT A.3 INPUT DATA FOR PET CALCULATIONS POINT DATE TIME Ta HR W TS G 1 30.07.2015 11:40 29.8 38.6 0.5 29.4 830.64 2 30.07.2015 11:43 31.2 33.6 0.5 33.8 830.64 3 30.07.2015 11:45 32.8 32.1 0.4 47.4 830.64 4 30.07.2015 11:48 32.7 34.8 0.9 29.3 830.64 5 30.07.2015 11:49 33.1 37.7 0.4 29.3 830.64 6 30.07.2015 11:50 33.1 35.1 0.6 45.7 843.96 7 30.07.2015 11:53 33.7 35.5 0.4 33.2 843.96 8 30.07.2015 12:00 34.9 33.3 0.6 31.5 843.96 9 30.07.2015 12:10 36.7 32.2 0.6 36.7 843.96 10 30.07.2015 12:12 35.3 32.7 0.8 35.3 843.96 11 30.07.2015 12:14 33.9 36.8 0.4 33.9 869.55 12 30.07.2015 12:16 33.2 36.8 1 33.2 869.55 12 30.07.2015 12:16 32.3 38.6 2 32.3 869.55 13 30.07.2015 12:18 33 38.8 0.6 33 869.55 14 30.07.2015 12:20 33.7 35.5 0 33.7 887.12 16 30.07.2015 12:03 34 35.8 1 34 872.6 17 30.07.2015 12:05 34.6 33.5 0.5 34.6 872.6 18 30.07.2015 11:58 34.8 33.1 0.5 34.8 843.96 19 30.07.2015 12:03 34.3 35.1 0.5 34.3 872.6 20 30.07.2015 12:25 33.6 36.6 0.6 33.6 887.12 21 30.07.2015 12:30 34.4 33.2 0 34.4 887.12 1 30.07.2015 15:29 31.8 34.9 0 45.2 939.96 1 30.07.2015 15:32 31.1 36.4 1 46.7 943.67 2 30.07.2015 15:36 32 34.4 0.8 32.3 943.67 3 30.07.2015 15:40 31.7 35.3 1.6 52.1 954.02 4 30.07.2015 15:42 33.2 31.9 1.1 47.6 954.02 5 30.07.2015 15:45 33.8 32 0.8 47.4 954.02 6 30.07.2015 15:48 34.6 30.8 0.7 52.6 954.02 7 30.07.2015 15:50 34 30.7 0.8 37.6 925.81 8 30.07.2015 15:55 33 35.6 1.2 41.2 925.81 9 30.07.2015 16:00 33.6 37.1 1.1 52.8 920.27 10 30.07.2015 16:02 36.3 32.7 1.1 48 920.27 11 30.07.2015 16:04 34.8 31.7 1.4 40 920.27 12 30.07.2015 16:06 33.2 32 2.2 56.7 920.27 12 30.07.2015 16:08 33 33 3.1 28 920.27 13 30.07.2015 16:10 32.7 34 1.6 54.6 920.27 14 30.07.2015 16:12 33.2 33 1.1 33.9 920.27 15 30.07.2015 16:15 32.4 37.2 0.7 52.8 915.13 16 30.07.2015 15:55 34.8 31.4 0.7 58.5 925.81 17 30.07.2015 16:00 32.5 36.7 1.2 60.9 925.81 17 30.07.2015 15:55 33.2 34.8 1 69.6 925.81 18 30.07.2015 15:50 33.4 34.3 0.6 60.3 925.81 19 30.07.2015 15:50 31.9 37.2 1.7 36 925.81 20 30.07.2015 15:40 32.5 33 1.5 55.7 954.02 21 30.07.2015 15:40 31.8 34.6 1.6 56 954.02 1 30.07.2015 19:35 27.4 62.3 0.5 32.9 491.8 2 30.07.2015 19:36 27.5 60.5 0.7 28.8 491.8 3 30.07.2015 19:37 27.5 61 0.9 36.6 491.8 4 30.07.2015 19:40 28.1 59.5 0.5 39.7 491.8 5 30.07.2015 19:47 29.5 56 0.6 43.8 454.31 6 30.07.2015 19:50 30 50.9 1.9 42.5 408.66 7 30.07.2015 19:55 29.4 53.7 1.1 29.4 408.66 8 30.07.2015 20:00 28.7 56.1 1.5 39.1 357.84 9 30.07.2015 20:00 28.8 58.8 0.6 37 357.84 10 30.07.2015 20:02 29.3 55.6 1.6 40.7 357.84 11 30.07.2015 20:03 29.6 54.9 0 32.6 357.84 12 30.07.2015 20:05 29.4 54.5 0.6 42.5 357.84 12 30.07.2015 20:05 29.7 54.2 0.5 30.3 357.84 13 30.07.2015 20:13 29.9 53.8 0.4 39.7 305.43 14 30.07.2015 20:13 29.4 53.2 0.5 28.6 305.43 15 30.07.2015 20:15 29.2 54.4 0 37.7 305.43 16 30.07.2015 19:55 29.4 54.3 0.5 40.4 408.66 17 30.07.2015 19:55 29.3 54.7 0.6 32.7 408.66 18 30.07.2015 19:52 29.6 53.7 0.9 42.6 408.66

19 30.07.2015 19:53 28.4 56.1 0.9 20 30.07.2015 19:45 28.3 59.6 1.2 21 30.07.2015 19:44 28.3 56.8 0.6 22 30.07.2015 12:38 33.4 35.2 0.6 23 30.07.2015 12:40 35.1 32.2 0 24 30.07.2015 12:42 32.7 37.7 0.6 25 30.07.2015 12:45 33.9 31.6 2.4 26 30.07.2015 12:55 34 30.6 0.5 27 30.07.2015 12:57 34.4 30.4 1.3 28 30.07.2015 12:50 34.3 30.4 1.3 29 30.07.2015 13:05 33.7 30.2 1.2 30 30.07.2015 13:05 33.3 31.1 0.7 31 30.07.2015 13:00 36.3 27 1.4 31 30.07.2015 13:00 34 29.8 1.1 32 30.07.2015 13:15 33.2 31.5 1.7 33 30.07.2015 13:15 33.5 32.3 1.6 34 30.07.2015 13:10 33.5 31.8 0.8 34.5 30.07.2015 13:08 34.3 30.1 0.6 35 30.07.2015 13:27 33.5 32.4 0.8 36 30.07.2015 13:26 33.5 32.6 0.5 37 30.07.2015 13:25 33.7 33.5 0.4 38 30.07.2015 13:28 33.9 30.8 0.5 39 30.07.2015 13:30 33.4 30.8 0 39.5 30.07.2015 13:20 33.6 29.8 1.4 40 30.07.2015 13:35 33.2 30.8 1 41 30.07.2015 13:17 33.9 31.9 0 22 30.07.2015 16:25 29.6 42.9 1.2 23 30.07.2015 16:35 33.6 35.6 0.6 24 30.07.2015 16:35 32.4 38.1 0.5 25 30.07.2015 16:35 33.4 35.2 1.2 26 30.07.2015 16:38 35.3 32.3 1.4 27 30.07.2015 16:40 31.7 37.4 1.1 28 30.07.2015 16:35 32.4 34.9 1.8 29 30.07.2015 16:41 34 34.9 0.7 30 30.07.2015 16:50 32.8 36.9 0.4 31 30.07.2015 16:50 33.7 36.6 1.3 31 30.07.2015 16:41 31.7 37.2 1.3 32 30.07.2015 17:05 33.4 37.2 2.2 33 30.07.2015 17:00 32.5 40.9 0.8 34 30.07.2015 17:00 34.3 36.4 0.6 34.5 30.07.2015 17:00 34.1 36.2 0.5 35 30.07.2015 17:10 32.1 41.5 1.7 36 30.07.2015 17:10 32 42.1 0.9 37 30.07.2015 17:05 32.4 40.7 0.7 38 30.07.2015 17:15 31.3 45.8 0.8 39 30.07.2015 17:15 30.4 45.4 0.8 39.5 30.07.2015 17.20 32 45.4 0.4 40 30.07.2015 17:20 31.2 44.4 0.7 41 30.07.2015 17:05 32.1 41.6 1.8 22 30.07.2015 20:25 29.1 56.4 0.5 23 30.07.2015 20:30 27.9 58.6 2.7 24 30.07.2015 20:27 29 56.3 0 25 30.07.2015 20:30 28.5 57.4 0.8 26 30.07.2015 20:40 28.5 57.7 0.4 27 30.07.2015 20:43 28.4 58.2 0.5 28 30.07.2015 20:33 28.3 59 0.6 29 30.07.2015 20:48 29 55.2 0 30 30.07.2015 20:50 29.3 55.1 0.5 31 30.07.2015 20:45 28.4 56.8 0.4 32 30.07.2015 20:56 29.1 56 0.6 33 30.07.2015 20:56 28.8 55.3 1.5 34 30.07.2015 20:55 29.2 55.4 0.7 34.5 30.07.2015 20:53 29.5 55 0.5 35 30.07.2015 21:05 28 59.1 1.2 36 30.07.2015 21:01 28.3 58.3 1 37 30.07.2015 21:00 28.5 57.5 0.5 38 30.07.2015 21:05 27 60.5 0 39 30.07.2015 21:13 27.9 60 0.8 39.5 30.07.2015 21:14 28.4 57.9 0.5 40 30.07.2015 21:15 28.1 58.8 1 41 30.07.2015 20:57 28.1 57.6 1.1

27.1 408.66 34.9 454.31 38.3 454.31 31.1 894.95 47.9 894.95 26.5 894.95 47.3 908.9 43.4 923.16 51.3 923.16 45.4 923.16 26.7 928.33 49.6 928.33 50.4 928.33 29.4 928.33 48.3 933.17 37 933.17 32.1 933.17 26.4 933.17 48.2 939.33 29.6 939.33 31.4 939.33 28.3 939.33 28.7 939.33 34.1 939.33 55.1 823.57 49.7 933.17 28 904.46 55.7 893.16 49.5 893.16 50.3 893.16 53.1 893.16 51.5 879.13 49.4 893.16 34.5 879.13 50.6 864.22 33.8 864.22 53.4 879.13 50.6 854.24 33.9 854.24 51.2 854.24 50.1 854.24 32.6 854.24 33.3 854.24 33 854.24 27.4 839.49 28.9 839.49 42.7 813.33 31.3 813.33 50.7 854.24 27.4 251.67 33.7 251.67 32.3 251.67 32.5 251.67 38.4 151.09 34 151.09 35.3 201.94 37.4 151.09 34.4 151.09 39.6 151.09 36.1 109.9 31.2 109.9 37.1 109.9 36 109.9 30.4 109.9 28.6 109.9 31.4 109.9 27.4 109.9 28.1 72.47 31.7 72.47 28.3 72.47 32.9 109.9

APPENDIX B: PREDICTED ACTUAL SENSATION B.1 CALCULATION REGRESSION

AS 7,00 7,00 7,00 5,00 7,00 6,00 6,00 5,00 5,00 6,00 6,00 7,00 7,00 7,00 6,00 5,00 7,00 6,00 6,00 5,00 5,00 6,00 5,00 6,00 6,00 4,00 4,00 7,00 6,00 7,00 6,00 6,00 7,00 5,00 7,00 4,00 4,00 7,00 6,00 5,00 7,00 4,00 5,00 4,00 4,00 5,00 5,00 5,00 5,00 6,00 6,00 7,00 5,00 7,00 6,00 4,00 7,00 7,00 6,00 7,00 7,00 2,00 6,00 4,00

PET 40,60 40,70 42,00 41,30 41,30 38,60 37,50 39,60 46,90 47,70 48,80 42,90 41,20 41,90 41,70 35,90 37,90 38,30 39,30 37,80 35,80 36,30 39,10 41,00 38,00 39,60 37,10 37,60 42,80 39,30 40,40 40,50 41,40 41,40 39,50 41,30 37,80 43,50 47,60 49,70 42,10 42,80 42,60 42,60 41,30 43,30 47,10 43,30 45,50 49,10 47,40 46,60 39,60 41,70 44,20 43,10 38,40 40,30 44,10 42,40 39,30 35,70 36,40 35,00

ASD 3,00 5,00 5,00 3,00 5,00 5,00 3,00 4,00 4,00 4,00 5,00 3,00 3,00 3,00 5,00 2,00 4,00 6,00 5,00 3,00 4,00 3,00 3,00 4,00 3,00 4,00 4,00 3,00 3,00 3,00 4,00 5,00 3,00 3,00 2,00 4,00 3,00 3,00 3,00 3,00 4,00 3,00 3,00 4,00 3,00 3,00 4,00 3,00 3,00 3,00 3,00 3,00 4,00 3,00 4,00 4,00 6,00 3,00 4,00 5,00 3,00 3,00 3,00 4,00

VISUAL COM 5,00 7,00 6,00 6,00 7,00 7,00 6,00 7,00 5,00 7,00 6,00 1,00 6,00 7,00 6,00 6,00 4,00 4,00 6,00 4,00 7,00 4,00 4,00 7,00 7,00 7,00 6,00 2,00 7,00 7,00 6,00 4,00 1,00 6,00 7,00 6,00 6,00 4,00 6,00 6,00 5,00 1,00 4,00 5,00 4,00 3,00 4,00 4,00 4,00 4,00 5,00 4,00 4,00 6,00 7,00 4,00 7,00 1,00 5,00 7,00 7,00 7,00 7,00 7,00

NOISE 4,00 5,00 3,00 4,00 4,00 5,00 4,00 5,00 4,00 4,00 5,00 4,00 4,00 7,00 4,00 7,00 6,00 6,00 4,00 4,00 5,00 7,00 3,00 3,00 4,00 6,00 6,00 7,00 2,00 4,00 4,00 4,00 6,00 4,00 6,00 3,00 5,00 7,00 4,00 5,00 5,00 4,00 5,00 4,00 4,00 3,00 5,00 4,00 4,00 4,00 6,00 2,00 7,00 4,00 6,00 3,00 2,00 4,00 4,00 6,00 4,00 2,00 2,00 2,00

ACTIVITY DISLIKETIME EXPOSED 50,00 30,00 100,00 30,00 25,00 60,00 50,00 30,00 25,00 60,00 100,00 60,00 100,00 30,00 25,00 60,00 25,00 30,00 50,00 60,00 25,00 60,00 100,00 60,00 100,00 60,00 25,00 30,00 50,00 60,00 50,00 30,00 100,00 60,00 25,00 60,00 50,00 30,00 50,00 60,00 50,00 60,00 100,00 60,00 50,00 60,00 50,00 30,00 25,00 30,00 50,00 60,00 100,00 30,00 100,00 60,00 25,00 60,00 50,00 60,00 25,00 60,00 50,00 30,00 100,00 60,00 100,00 60,00 100,00 60,00 25,00 30,00 100,00 60,00 50,00 60,00 25,00 60,00 25,00 60,00 50,00 30,00 50,00 30,00 50,00 30,00 50,00 30,00 50,00 30,00 50,00 30,00 50,00 30,00 25,00 60,00 25,00 30,00 50,00 60,00 50,00 60,00 50,00 60,00 50,00 30,00 50,00 30,00 25,00 60,00 25,00 60,00 50,00 60,00 25,00 60,00 100,00 60,00 50,00 30,00 25,00 30,00 25,00 60,00 50,00 30,00 50,00 30,00

APPENDIX C: MICROCLIMATES C.1 ENVIMET BASE CASE SIMULATION

APPENDIX C: MICROCLIMATES C.2 ENVIMET ALL IMPROVEMENTS SIMULATION