Shelley Russell September 14, 2009
Book Synthesis: An Introduction to Interactive Media Theory
Whereas content was once placed on the Web out of mere convenience in the late 90’s, it is now being written specifically for the online environment. Newspapers are hiring separate online staffs to handle content and companies are looking for ways to condense information for the Web —tailoring it to clever designs and trying to maintain a strong following. While it was once acceptable for businesses to engage in one‐way communications with consumers, interactivity is changing the face of this communication. Most companies are recognizing that in order to remain competitive and successful long‐term, they will have to embrace more direct consumer feedback and consequently work to break down barriers that have historically been long‐ standing. Defining interactivity is difficult, as there is no universal definition. Interactivity can refer to anything. Technically speaking, opening a door is interactive: A person engages with the doorknob, turning it to get a response—an open door. But more modern forms of interactivity are occurring online. Many experts have developed definitions of interactivity based off of personal opinion and research. • Steur defined interactivity as “the extent to which users can participate in modifying the form and content of a mediated environment in real time” (p.2) • Rheingold said that listservs, newsgroups and e‐mail represented interactivity (p.2) • Koolstra and Bos define interactivity as “the degree to which two or more communication parties [human or computer] act on each other in an interrelated manner. • Downes and McMillan completed a more in‐depth study regarding different levels of interactivity. They created two categories in order to assess interactivity: “Message Dimensions” (time, place and direction), and “Participant Dimensions” (control, responsiveness and perceived goals) (p.2). Downes and McMillan’s definition of interactivity seems like the most complete and thorough definition because it is the most flexible. This is appropriate because interactive content must be flexible in order to be truly interactive. Downes and McMillan’s categories are useful because they accept different levels of interactivity: “Low‐values” and “high values.” Sites with more control and responsiveness rank higher than sites with navigation buttons that do not give the user much freedom. Interactive sites do not necessarily need to be complex; a simple site can be more intuitive and interactive than a complicated site that drives away users and is difficult to use. Interactive features will not be appreciated unless they are easy to access and appeal most users—including those with lower levels of online experience. In order to identify more specific elements of interactivity, Koolstra and Bos developed an interactivity scorecard, which identified areas on a site that expressed synchronicity, timing flexibility, control over content and use of sight, among several
other categories. Control is one of the most frequently mentioned aspects of interactivity in Koolstra and Bos’ model—it is present in timing flexibility and control over content on the scorecard. Control is arguably the most important aspect of interactivity. Each of the above‐mentioned definitions of interactivity involves the participation of users, including user control in the click path or specific message of the site. Interactivity is a way to describe the two‐way interaction between a user and, in this case, a computer or a particular Web site. Web sites that gain the most page views from users and maintain a large user base are those that provide unique and useful interactive tools to Web users. Successful interactive Web sites do not happen off chance. There are specific guidelines for effective interactive design strategies. According to interaction designer Patrick Jordan, “Good design goes past usability and looks at how people’s values, aspirations, hopes, fears and dreams can be implemented” (p.10). Jordan refers to these elements as “human factors.” Human factors are a key component to successful interaction design because interactivity is centered on the needs and goals of the user. Don Norman developed the “emotional Visceral Behavioral Re/lective design model,” which looks at the idea that aesthetically pleasing Web sites and products are viewed in a positive light. The model includes three dimensions: Visceral, behavioral and reflective. These dimensions deal with the way the objects are perceived; out of instinct and in relation to behavior and thoughts. According to Norman, an effective design addresses all three dimensions. Interaction design is a complex process. It is described as: “the discipline of defining the behavior of products and systems that a user can interact with” (p.6). Effective design emerges after research, sketching and multiple revisions. There are two key aspects of interactive design: Social and affective. • Involves the interactions among users, as well as between users and their electronic Social devices (i.e. cell phone or computer) ritical factors of SxD: "interpersonal interaction • Ccommunication, speech and writing, the pragmatics of talk and interaction" (p.7) design • This is more of the emotional response in interaction design. s described in Don Norman's model, there Affective • Ais a need for products to ignite positive response emotions in consumers. The use of icons, sound, dynamic color schemes and animations are a useful way to do this (p.8). These two aspects of interactive design are equally important in terms of user experience. Not only must users be able to have the freedom to explore, self‐learn and interact with one another, but it is also crucial that they feel positive emotions while doing so. These feelings can often occur sub‐consciously. Oftentimes the first
impression of a Web site; the color scheme, layout and font choice are the only elements necessary to instill positive feelings in the user. Many times, a user will ignore valuable content and resources due to a poor design or a Web site that evokes negative feelings. This analysis is further supported by Nathan Shedroff’s “Information Interaction Design book, in which Shedroff emphasizes the importance of creating “valuable, compelling and empowering information and experiences for others” (p.4). In order to create a design that includes all or most of the elements discussed in the above paragraphs, interaction designers follow a six‐step process (illustrated in diagram below). Each of these steps is equally important in creating an effective design. Depending on the size of the product, feedback from users and the purpose of the design, Prototyping and Design Research designers can go through this cycle multiple usability testing times until they settle on the final product. Shedroff is also credited with creating the Research “Continuum of Interactivity,” in which he Analysis and Implementation concept emphasizes feedback, control, creativity/co‐ generation creativity, productivity, communications and adaptivity as important interactive components Alternative (p.4). System testing design and Web design can be a time‐consuming evaluation process, but it is important to get into the mind‐ set that a design is never really completed. Especially today with developing technology and an incredibly fast flow of information, Web sites should be continuously monitored and updated—in terms of content and appearance. Robert Reimann, author of “So you want to be an Interaction Designer,” asserts that interaction designers must “have empathy with users and the ability to conceptualize working solutions (and then refine them ruthlessly” (p.11). These skills are not always inherent traits and can be difficult to acquire. It is interesting to think about the different roles of individuals in design firms and companies. Sometimes the most creative mind may be in the wrong department. It is admirable for companies to outsource certain design jobs, seek help from internal departments or hire experts for Web design because those companies not only understand their weaknesses but also appreciate the importance of a solid design that will benefit consumers. An interaction designer must be comfortable with conceptualizing and refining solutions. It is interesting to think about this because a designer must, in other words, be able to do the same thing that users expect to be able to do with content that is truly interactive (i.e. discuss, suggest and improve). This idea can be expressed in the example of electronic artist Imogen Heap, who made all of her music available online at www.flickr.com. Users were then able to comment on the songs and suggest improvements. Interactivity occurs here on two levels: One in the aspect of the Web site’s technical components, and the other in terms of the willingness of the artist to openly communicate and use her listeners as a primary influence in the final product. If interactive design is genuine, the viewers are the true central focus of any
project. Everything is done with the purpose of appealing to the site’s audience and ultimately providing a unique enough experience to bring them back to the page in the future. Interaction designers not only work with producers, consumers and interfaces, but they also study cognitive psychology theories in order to better assess the needs of site visitors. The theories described below have been divided into three main categories: 1) Theories that relate to the actions of producers and creators 2) Theories that relate to the actions of the audience 3) Theories that relate to the effect of the media on its audience Robert Craig’s “7 Traditions of Communications Theory” is not included in the explanations of these theories because it encompasses aspects from so many of them. Craig’s seven traditions include: 7 Traditions of Communications Theory Rhetorical The practical art of Each of these traditions was identified discourse following Craig’s observation of other Semiotic Communication scholars’ approaches to studying through signs communications theory and its Phenomenological Dialogue, or the effects. Understanding the experience of otherness importance of these means of Cybernetic Information systems communications is crucial to creating approach, or content and design that has information processing interactive appeal. Sociopsychological Expression, interaction Quantitative and qualitative and influence research is used throughout Sociocultural Reflection of social communications theories to gain order valuable data. Quantitative research Critical Discursive reflection, involves gathering numerical data and analytical reasoning the use of mathematical models or Rhetorical The practical art of hypotheses. Qualitative research discourse involves the process of looking at the Semiotic Communication meanings behind the numbers. Focus through signs groups and interviews are common Phenomenological Dialogue, or the experience of otherness forms of this research. Cybernetic Information systems The theories outlined in the approach, or next few pages are separated information processing according to their focus. The analysis Sociopsychological Expression, interaction in this paper will be focused mainly on and influence the middle column, “actions of the Sociocultural Reflection of social audience,” because these are the order theories that will be most important in Critical Discursive reflection, terms of the future and interactivity. analytical reasoning The idea of being interactive involves placing control, creativity and feedback in the hands of the consumer (or, the audience). The Shannon‐Weaver model of communication, for instance, involves the sending of a
message via a signal to the receiver (p.17). This model is a popular communications model but it fails to include multi‐directional communication. Interactivity is based on real‐time, two‐way conversation. This model could better be updated to express this by illustrating a return of information from the receiver to the transmitter. This update would better convey the idea of a conversation, rather than a one‐way communication of information. However; a true interactive model should do more than this—it should illustrate a cycle. The two‐way conversation should not stop after the consumer returns a message to the producer. Instead, the producer should communicate back, and so forth. Many businesses are working toward this goal after adopting the mindset that consumers are quickly transitioning into active participants.
Communications theories:
Actions of producers
Harold Lasswell – who says what to whom in what channel with what effect.
Actions of audience
Activity Theory – Kant, Hegel, Marx and Engels. It is based on the idea that people are active beings who improve and achieve their personal goals by their own actions. Shannon‐Weaver Symbolic Interactionism – Model/Information Theory – a Herbert Blumer coined the term. mathematical representation that George Herbert Mead and includes an information source, Charles Cooley argue that encoder, channel, decoder and “people’s selves are social destination. Noise is also a factor. products and these selves are purposive and creative.” Propaganda Theory – a technique Online Communities Theory – in which human actions are Peter Kollock. These communities manipulated due to varying existed before social networks representations of content. Roger and represent online groups. Brown defines information as People are motivated to propaganda “when the goal of contribute to these communities persuasive effort is to benefit the for various reasons, including persuader” (not the consumer). anticipated reciprocity and a sense of efficacy. Percussion Theories – Cooper Uses and Gratifications Theory – and Jahoda. This includes fear this theory looks at the reasons appeal (the use of threat to instill that people communicate, as well concern or fear in the audience), as what they gain from their and functional approach to experiences. The theory delves attitude change (where humans into the question of how people are irrational and rational— are motivated to use certain tools depending on time and place). to meet their specific needs. Media richness theory – Richard Spiral of Silence – Elisabeth
Effect of media on audience Knowledge Gap Theory – Tichenor, Donohue and Olien. With each new medium, the gap between the information‐rich and information‐poor becomes larger. The goal is digital inclusion. Cultivation Theory – George Gerbner. This is included in the social construction of reality. If the audience is over‐exposed to a certain message, this can cause them to obtain a common worldview or role. Technological Determinism – Marshall McLuhan: “the medium is the message” (p.40). Technological factors are responsible for driving social change.
Powerful Effects Theory – centered around the idea that media effects are most powerful if they are able to reach multiple people on many different levels. This theory involves campaigning and specific ways to target and secure a following. Agenda Setting/Media Framing –
Daft and Robert Lengel. Richer media, i.e. videos and interactive multimedia packages, are a more effective and personal means of communication
Noelle‐Neumann. People will speak out about something if the majority agrees with them. Otherwise, they are likely to remain silent about the issue. Perception theory – Berelson and Steiner. Message interpretation is a complex process where people selectively “choose, analyze and interpret messages” into something that has meaning. Schema – Graber, Fiske and Kinder. A cognitive structure developed based on previous experiences and knowledge. People retain story conclusions rather than details about the actual story itself. Image Perception Theory – Linda Scott. “Theory of visual rhetoric to help in understanding of how people process pictures.” Social Network Theory – Granovetter, Wellman, Boyd. Attempts to look at social network ties, how and why they develop, and the ways in which these ties affect norms. Every human is somehow connected to another. Social Construction of Reality – Adoni and Mane. Social factors and features of technology combine to influence the user.
Max McCombs and Donald Shaw. The media dictate important messages and tell us which issues we should think about, as well as how we should think about them. Media Ecology – Neil Postman et al. This theory looks at the varying effects of media as related to the perception, understanding, feeling, values and survival of an audience.
Social construction of reality – Adoni and Mane. Attempts to look at social network ties, how and why they develop, and the ways in which these ties affect norms. Every human is somehow connected to another. Diffusion of Innovations Theory – Everett Rogers. Looking at the ways that innovations become popular throughout a social system. Human Action Cycle model – Don Norman’s model. Analyzes the steps people take to achieve a goal.
The Activity Theory supports the theme of interactivity because it recognizes the fact that consumers are active, in other words “prosumers,” who enjoy making their own decisions, self‐learning and exploring. Interactive content requires that users engage and participate freely—sometimes on an unlimited basis. This theory was first used in the 1990s and originates from the realm of human‐computer interaction (HCI). It fits well with interactivity because it implements the HCI research concepts of interactive design, participatory design and cognitive modeling. Followers of this theory are accepting the value of a more vocal and influential consumer, and they tailor their content according to these new and freer parameters. The Activity Theory serves three important functions (shown in the diagram to the right). • Reveals the ways in which actions and processes are divided and shaped by a community as it is involved in accomplishing a goal. Symbolic Interactionism also • Shows the importance of involving individuals emphasizes the importance of from a speci/ic community in the act of design. Activity Theory • Shows how knowledge and artifacts are re/ined the audience or consumer. and automated to create a useful and successful Functions end product. However this theory includes the idea that humans are creative beings who are heavily influenced by past experiences. Herbert Blumer coined the term and developed three premises behind this theory that hold true in terms of creating a dynamic, interactive product that will grab and hold viewer attention long‐term (p.22). Blumer’s Three Premises: • Human beings act toward things on the basis of meanings that they ascribe to those things. • The meaning of such objects or events is derived from the social interaction that an individual has with other people, and society as a whole. • Meanings are handled and modified through an interpretative process. These premises further support the importance of research for interactive design and content. Individuals have deep‐seated morals and memories of past experiences that will not easily be swayed. Understanding these morals and beliefs will show through in terms of a solid design and content that will appeal to the target audience. The Online Communities and Social Networking Theories are very much related in that they are focused on the meanings behind the connections that individuals create with one another. “Online communities” was the term used prior to the existence of social networks (i.e. online groups in which online communities revolved around blogs, e‐mail and synthetic online worlds) (p.26). Social networks such as Facebook and MySpace began to appear and rapidly gain popularity just several years ago. Facebook, the most popular social network, was created and launched just five years ago in 2004 and has already achieved more than 250 million active users. According to the Facebook Web site, more than 120 million users log onto the Web site at least once each day. The Online Community Theory looks to address the reasons and motivations behind the
millions of users on the site (and other social networks) each day. Peter Kollock developed a set of motivations for users contributing to online communities (p.27): The Social Network Theory works to Kollock's four motivations for define the meanings behind these contributing to online ties. Mark Granovetter differentiated communities: between strong and weak ties in social networks. According to • Anticipated reciprocity: People are motivated to give valuable inforamtion to online groups Granovetter, oftentimes smaller, because they expect that they will get information closer networks represent weaker back in return. ties due to the fact that they are • Increased recognition: Social network members have a desire for prestige. Even anonymous closed off from outside sources that contributors and hackers often keep their can contribute new material and screennames so they will be recognized‐‐despite resources, as well as creative ideas. the fact that they could be caught and punished. Under this theory, Ithiel de Sola Pool • Sense of Ef/icacy: The feeling that you have a direct in/luence on your environment (i.e. a was the first to propose the “small greater purpose in life) world phenomenon,” (mentioned in • Sense of Community: Interaction in a community the theory chart above). Many encourages more interaction. Positive feedback motivates individuals and further encourages researchers have further developed discussion and feedback in online communities. Pool’s original idea. Watts and Strogatz proved in their research that by adding a small number of random links, a weakly connected network could instantaneously become highly connected. Individuals who are heavily involved in social networking should take advantage of the value in weak‐ties. Sometimes following a professional on Twitter or “friending” an expert in one’s research concentration can lead to a valuable connection down the road. Albert‐Laszlo Barabasi defined these weak connections in online communities as scale‐free networks, in which a few highly connected “super‐nodes” or “hubs” are at the heart of the network with most of the other ties being weak (p.24). Facebook and Twitter have been very useful starting tools in graduate research in terms of seeking out background information and finding well‐connected professionals in the field of communications. Twitter is a good example of the value in weak links; one can “follow” a complete stranger, but if that stranger is highly networked, their Twitter updates with useful resources and links will be frequently available. While these theories are very valuable and useful in terms of modern communications and interactivity, the Uses and Gratifications Theory best encompasses the ultimate focus of interactivity: The needs and personalities of consumers. The Uses and Gratifications Theory “identifies how people are motivated to use particular communications tools to meet particular needs,” by considering the “actions of an active audience” (p.31, 33). The theory rests on the notion that the media can take certain steps to appropriately serve consumers instead of merely dictating information and messages to them in an impersonal matter. Katz, Gurevitch and Haas developed Five Categories of Needs to describe the motivations behind the uses of communications tools (p.32):
Cognitive Needs—Needs related to gaining knowledge, insight and an understanding of the environment. Affective Needs – Strengthening aesthetic, pleasurable and emotional experiences. Personal Integrative Needs – Strengthening credibility, confidence, stability and status of an individual. Social Integrative Needs – Strengthening contact with family, friends and the rest of the world. Escapist Needs – Needs related to escape, tension release, desire and diversion. Each of these needs is important in understanding ways to effectively communicate a message. Most users’ motivations cross over multiple categories. In researching a target audience, it is important to include questions about these categories so that the media can better serve its audience. Abraham Maslow developed a similar model to describe the needs of users as related to communications tools: Self‐actualization is a point in which the user feels Self actualization completely in touch with their morality, creativity, acceptance, purpose, meaning and inner potential. Selfesteem Many social network users and Second Life users feel as though they can identify a true‐life Love and belonging purpose through connections and decisions they make online in virtual communities. Safety and security While these motivations are important, Physiological needs users can experience gratifications from any number of areas, including: From a medium’s content, from familiarity of a genre, from general exposure to the medium and from social context in which the medium is used (p.32). According to Lasswell, the media serves the functions of: Surveillance, correlation, entertainment and cultural transmission (p.32). However important changes in modern communications have expanded these functions to include demassification (control by an individual), asynchroneity (ability to access and participate at any convenient time) and interactivity (mutual discourse and an exchange of roles between participants and producers) (p.34). In looking at the wide range of communications theories available, it may be difficult to settle on one theory in particular. Futurists and those looking to create interactive content should read about theories such as Uses and Gratifications, and the Activity Theory—in other words, theories that make the audience the focus. Communications is no longer just about how to get a message to an audience, but also how to get that audience to respond, interact and adopt a genuine interest in the topic at hand. Whether users are classified as assimilators, hoppers or sensors (as identified by Professors Janna Anderson and Byung Lee) (p.36), the message should still be clear and user‐specific (depending on the target audience). Anderson and Lee’s classifications of users are similar to Everett Rogers’ five adopter types (p.42): Innovators, early adopters, early majority, late majority and laggards. Every user has different morals, skill
levels, motivations and opinions. This further emphasizes the need for the “mass audience” to be dissected through research and thoughtful discussion. The term “consumer” should be permanently changed to “individual.” The free and open Web is allowing users to express themselves and develop strong online personalities and reputations. Ha and James identified Five Dimensions of Interactivity: Interaction designers and writers should focus on each of these components when creating Playfulness any products online. A beneficial user experience on the Web should always be a memorable one. Theories that are rigidly structured, or those Reciprocal that only focus on one factor, such as Communciations Choice technological determinism, are ignoring the fact that multiple factors and varying user personalities contribute to the overall experience and producers should address content and design formation on multiple levels. In terms of the timeline at the end of Information Connectedness Collection this book, it was fascinating to read about the numerous changes that have occurred in a relatively short amount of time. For the most part, the media has done a good job in keeping up with technological developments and improvements. The speed at which all of this change took place was very interesting. The Friendster social network was released in 2002 and in less than 10 years social networking sites have grown immensely in popularity. Between 2002 and 2006, three of the most popular networking sites (LinkedIn, Facebook and Twitter) were created. In general, new developments in technology were first for utilitarian purposes, and then were expanded on and developed for personal use and enjoyment. The Adobe Creative Suite changed the face of communications in that it created a new way to present and market information. With each update, Adobe improves the software—making it more intuitive and capable of catering to the specific needs of the user. Technological developments are occurring more rapidly and are becoming more monumental. “The future,” is getting closer to being reality each day. Those individuals and organizations that resist change will only find themselves falling further behind and losing touch with more efficient and effective means of communication. For example, “The Alamance News,” a small local paper based out of Graham, North Carolina, the editor in chief refuses to create a Web site for the paper. As a result, subscriptions are falling because readers are most attracted to online papers where they can better communicate with reporters and get instant story updates. This stubborn mindset is an impediment to businesses. Embracing interactivity is beneficial to both consumers and businesses because a more open communication leads to uninhibited exchange of feedback and creativity.