DUAL LANGUAGE LEARNER RESEARCH COLLECTION
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DUAL LANGUAGE LEARNER RESEARCH COLLECTION BACKGROUND The National Center on Early Childhood Development, Teaching, and Learning has developed the Dual Language Learner (DLL) Research Collection for use across the Head Start Training and Technical Assistance Network. This interactive document provides a curated list of relevant and up-to-date evidence selected and reviewed by leading experts in the field. All entries report research published since 2011 that specifically address dual language learners birth to five. The DLL Research Collection supports your work and the work of those you support to enhance experiences for the growing number of young children who are learning their home languages and English by providing up-to-date and relevant research to inform effective practices. GETTING STARTED This interactive document is designed to navigate in two ways. First, you can review the table of contents, listed by title, and click on that title to review the article. Additionally, you can review the keywords associated with the collection and use the search feature on page 3 to enter the keyword. A navigation pane will open and you can see which articles are associated with keywords. Finally, we have identified these five articles as great places to start and get familiar with this evidence base and document: 1. California’s DLL Research Overview Papers, 2013 2. Spanish instruction in Head Start and dual language learners’ academic achievement, 2017 3. Building vocabulary in two languages: An examination of Spanish-speaking Dual Language Learners in Head Start, 2015 4. Preschool teachers’ language and literacy practices with dual language learners, 2016 5. Dual language learning, inhibitory control, and math achievement in Head Start and kindergarten, 2017 DLL RESEARCH COLLECTION DISSEMINATION This collection will be updated and disseminated periodically to incorporate new evidence related to supporting children who are dual language learners through the OHS TTA Network. Dissemination of this collection will be through the TTA system at trainings, shared on the workspace, through communities of practice on MyPeers, and shared in relevant newsletters and communications. QUESTIONS If you have questions or suggested additions for this document, please contact Karen Nemeth. LAST UPDATED August 13, 2018
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CONTENTS The Development and Home Environments of Low-Income Hispanic Children: Kindergarten to Third Grade . . . . . . . . . . 6
Joint Policy Statement on Supporting the Development of Children Who are DLLs in Early Childhood Programs . . . . . . 12
Dual Language Learners: A National Demographic and Policy Profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Identifying Young Dual Language Learners: State Policies, Home Language Surveys, and Language Proficiency Assessments . 12
Promoting the Educational Success of Children and Youth Learning English: Promising Futures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Bilingual and Home Language Interventions With Young Dual Language Learners: A Research Synthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
A Framework for the Dual Language Assessment of Young Dual Language Learners in the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Child Care Enrollment Decisions Among Dual Language Learner Families: The Role of Spanish Language Instruction in the Child Care Setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Adverse Childhood Experiences Among Hispanic Children in Immigrant Families Versus US-Native Families . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Bilingual and Monolingual Adults Learning an Additional Language: ERPs Reveal Differences in Syntactic Processing . . . 7 Bilingual Baby: Foreign Language Intervention in Madrid’s Infant Education Centers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Bilingual Cortical Control of Between- and Within-Language Competition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Bilingual Infants Control Their Languages as They Listen . . . . . 8 Child Care Experiences Among Dual Language Learners in the United States: Analyses of the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Birth Cohort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Cross-Language Associations and Changes in Spanish-Speaking Preschoolers’ English and Spanish Academic Abilities . . . . . . 9
Development and Transfer of Vocabulary Knowledge in SpanishSpeaking Language Minority Preschool Children . . . . . . . . 13 Effects of a Culturally Responsive Interactive Book-Reading Intervention on the Language Abilities of Preschool Dual Language Learners: A Pilot Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Enhanced Music Sensitivity in 9-Month-Old Bilingual Infants . 14 Preschool Teachers’ Language and Literacy Practices with Dual Language Learners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Relationships Between Proficiency with Grammatical Morphemes and Emotion Regulation: A Study of Mandarin– English Preschoolers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Self-Regulation Abilities and Spanish-Speaking Preschoolers’ Vocabulary and Letter-Word Skills in Spanish and English . . 14
Developmental Associations Between Bilingual Experience and Inhibitory Control Trajectories in Head Start Children . . . . . . . 9
The Relative Importance of English Versus Spanish Language Skills for Low-Income Latino English Language Learners’ Early Language and Literacy Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
DLLs and the Development of Self-Regulation in Early Childhood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
A Culturally and Linguistically Responsive Vocabulary Approach for Young Latino Dual Language Learners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Dual Language Learning, Inhibitory Control, and Math Achievement in Head Start and Kindergarten . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Bilingualism Modulates Infants’ Selective Attention to the Mouth of a Talking Face . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Exploring English and Spanish Rhyme Awareness and Beginning Sound Segmentation Skills in Prekindergarten Spanish-Speaking English Learners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Building Vocabulary in Two Languages: An Examination of Spanish-Speaking Dual Language Learners in Head Start . . 16
How Spanish is used in Head Start: Observational Evidence from Four Classrooms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Promoting the Contributions of Multilingual Preschoolers . . . 10 Sequential Congruency Effects Reveal Differences in Disengagement of Attention for Monolingual and Bilingual Young Adults . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Spanish Instruction in Head Start and Dual Language Learners’ Academic Achievement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 The Relationship Between Vocabulary and Word Reading Among Head Start Spanish–English Bilingual Children . . . . . 11 What Explains the Correlation Between Growth in Vocabulary and Grammar? New Evidence from Latent Change Score Analyses of Simultaneous Bilingual Development . . . . . . . . . . 11
Differences in Language Exposure and its Effects on Memory Flexibility in Monolingual, Bilingual, and Trilingual Infants . . 16 Enhancing Young Hispanic Dual Language Learners’ Achievement: Exploring Strategies and Addressing Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 High-Quality Early Education: Age of Entry and Time in Care Differences in Student Outcomes for English-Only and Dual Language Learners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Look at the Gato! Code-Switching in Speech to Toddlers . . . 17 Preschool Language Interventions for Latino Dual Language Learners with Language Disorders: What, in What Language, and How . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Social Interaction in Infants’ Learning of Second-Language Phonetics: An Exploration of Brain–Behavior Relations . . . . . 17 3
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The Exposure Advantage: Early Exposure to a Multilingual Environment Promotes Effective Communication . . . . . . . . . 18
The Development of Associative Word Learning in Monolingual and Bilingual Infants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Through the Lens of Teachers in Two Bilingual Programmes: A Look at Early Bilingual Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
The Efficacy of a Vocabulary Intervention for Dual-Language Learners With Language Impairment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
What Clinicians Need to Know about Bilingual Development 18
Training to Screen Young English Language Learners and Dual Language Learners for Disabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Who Can Communicate with Whom? Language Experience Affects Infants’ Evaluation of Others as Monolingual or Multilingual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Back to Basics: A Bilingual Advantage in Infant Visual Habituation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Bilingualism Changes Children’s Beliefs about What is Innate 19 Examining Similarities and Differences Among Parent–Teacher Reports of Spanish–English Productive Vocabulary . . . . . . . 20 Family Learning Environment and Early Literacy: A Comparison of Bilingual and Monolingual Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Mandarin-English Bilingual Vocabulary Development in an English-Immersion Preschool: How Does it Compare with Monolingual Development? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Phonological Awareness and Vocabulary Performance of Monolingual and Bilingual Preschool Children with Hearing Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Social Competence of Mandarin-Speaking Immigrant Children in Childcare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
California’s Best Practices for Young Dual Language Learners 25 Assessing the Phonological Skills of Bilingual Children From Preschool Through Kindergarten: Developmental Progression and Cross-Language Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Can Explicit Instruction in Social and Emotional Learning Skills Benefit the Social-Emotional Development, Well-being, and Academic Achievement of Young Children? . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Chinese Immigrant Families and Bilingualism Among Young Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 Do Bilingual Children Possess Better Phonological Awareness? Investigation of Korean Monolingual and Korean-English Bilingual Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 Immigrant Parents’ and Teachers’ Views on Bilingual Preschool Language Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 Oral Language Skills of Spanish-Speaking English Language Learners: The Impact of High-Quality Native Language Exposure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
The Impact of the First Language First Model on Vocabulary Development Among Preschool Bilingual Children . . . . . . . . 21
Effective Early Literacy Skill Development for Young SpanishSpeaking English Language Learners: An Experimental Study of Two Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
The Role of Positive Peer Interactions and English Exposure in Spanish-Speaking Preschoolers’ English Vocabulary and LetterWord Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
The Language of the Classroom: Dual Language Learners in Head Start, Public Pre-K, and Private Preschool Programs . . . 27
The Social–Emotional Development of Dual Language Learners: Looking Back at Existing Research and Moving Forward with Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Effects of early education programs and practices on the development and learning of dual language learners: A review of the literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
You Sound like Mommy: Bilingual and Monolingual Infants Learn Words Best from Speakers Typical of Their Language Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Hispanic Children’s Participation in Early Care and Education: Amount and Timing of Hours by Household Nativity Status, Race/Ethnicity, and Child Age . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Promoting Early Language and Literacy Development in Young Dual/English Language Learners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Supporting Parent Engagement in Linguistically Diverse Families to Promote Young Children’s Learning: Implications for Early Care and Education Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Bilingual and Biliteracy Skills in Young Spanish-Speaking LowSES Children: Impact of Instructional Language and Primary Language Proficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 Development of Early English Language and Literacy Skills Among Spanish-Speaking Children: Does Preschool Make a Difference? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Do Early Literacy Skills in Children’s First Language Promote Development of Skills in their Second Language? An Experimental Evaluation of Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 English Exposure in the Home and Classroom: Predictions to Spanish-Speaking Preschoolers’ English Vocabulary Skills . . 23 Parental Language Mixing: Its Measurement and the Relation of Mixed Input to Young Bilingual Children’s Vocabulary Size . 24
Top Languages Spoken by English Language Learners Nationally and by State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 Vocabulary of 2‐Year‐Olds Learning English and an Additional Language: Norms and Effects of Linguistic Distance . . . . . . . 28 Prediction of English and Spanish kindergarten mathematics from English and Spanish cognitive and linguistic abilities in Hispanic dual language learners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Examining language and early numeracy skills in young Latino dual language learners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 The classroom language context and English and Spanish vocabulary development among dual language learners attending Head Start . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 4
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Language and literacy instruction in preschool classes that serve Latino dual language learners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
There is no coherent evidence for a bilingual advantage in executive processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Wordless picture books boost preschoolers’ language production during shared reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Effects and noneffects of input in bilingual environments on dual language skills in 2 ½-year-olds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Linguistic and social cues for vocabulary learning in Dual Language Learners and their English-only peers . . . . . . . . . 30
Segmenting words from fluent speech during infancy – challenges and opportunities in a bilingual context . . . . . . . 36
Early education of dual language learners: An efficacy study of the Nuestros Niños School Readiness professional development program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Lexical access and vocabulary development in very young bilinguals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Impacts of a literacy-focused preschool curriculum on the early literacy skills of language-minority children . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Growth in inhibitory control among low-income, ethnic-minority preschoolers: A group-based modeling approach . . . . . . . . 30 Variations in Classroom Language Environments of Preschool Children Who Are Low Income and Linguistically Diverse . . . 31 Designing for diverse classrooms: Using iPads and digital cameras to compose eBooks with emergent bilingual/biliterate four-year-olds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
A robust demonstration of the cognate facilitation effect in firstlanguage and second-language naming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 Talking to Children Matters: Early Language Experience Strengthens Processing and Builds Vocabulary . . . . . . . . . . 37 How Do Infants Become Experts at Native-Speech Perception? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Navigating Hybridized Language Learning Spaces Through Translanguaging Pedagogy: Dual Language Preschool Teachers’ Languaging Practices in Support of Emergent Bilingual Children’s Performance of Academic Discourse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Peer Effects on Children’s Expressive Vocabulary Development Using Conceptual Scoring in Linguistically Diverse Preschools 31
Interpreting the early language trajectories of children from low-SES and language minority homes: Implications for closing achievement gaps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Development of first- and second-language vocabulary knowledge among language-minority children: evidence from single language and conceptual scores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Support for Extended Discourse in Teacher Talk With Linguistically Diverse Preschoolers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Total and Conceptual Vocabulary in Spanish–English Bilinguals From 22 to 30 Months: Implications for Assessment . . . . . . . 32
Keywords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Developmental trajectories of preschool early literacy skills: A comparison of language-minority and monolingual-English children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 Growth in toddlers’ Spanish, English, and conceptual vocabulary knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 Academic development of Head Start children: Role of dual language learning status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 First translation equivalents in bilingual toddlers’ expressive vocabulary: Does form similarity matter? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 Older sibling influences on the language environment and language development of toddlers in bilingual homes . . . . . 33 Independent effects of bilingualism and socioeconomic status on language ability and executive functioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 Bilingual vocabulary production in young children receiving Maltese-dominant exposure: individual differences and the influence of demographic and language exposure factors . . 34 Predicting Spanish–English Bilingual Children’s Language Abilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 Parent Reports of Young Spanish–English Bilingual Children’s Productive Vocabulary: A Development and Validation Study 35 Parent report of early lexical production in bilingual children: a cross-linguistic CDI comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 5
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RESEARCH SUPPORTING DUAL LANGUAGE LEARNERS BRIEF 2017
The Development and Home Environments of Low-Income Hispanic Children: Kindergarten to Third Grade Christina Padilla, Natasha Cabrera, and Jerry West http://www.hispanicresearchcenter.org/publications/the-development-and-home-environments-of-low-income-hispanic-childrenkindergarten-to-third-grade/ statistics; home environment; social and emotional development; educational outcomes; parents; school readiness; language and literacy; cognitive development; early intervention
A brief from the National Research Center on Hispanic Children & Families looked at the home and school environment of low-income Latino kids. It found that they have the social skills needed to succeed in their early elementary years, yet struggle to overcome other challenges (e.g., less engagement in cognitively stimulating activities at home, low income and levels of parental education) to develop academic skills on par with their white peers. This new research helps pinpoint where interventions might effectively promote academic success. FACT SHEETS 2017
Dual Language Learners: A National Demographic and Policy Profile Maki Park, Anna O’Toole, and Caitlin Katsiaficas https://www.migrationpolicy.org/research/dual-language-learners-national-demographic-and-policy-profile policy; home language; early childhood education; statistics
The fact sheets in this series offer a sociodemographic sketch of the DLL population (and comparison to non-DLL peers) at both the national level and in the 30 states with the most DLLs. It provides data on age and enrollment, race/ethnicity, income and poverty levels, parental English proficiency and educational attainment, and top home languages spoken in DLL households. The fact sheets also offer an overview of the policies states have introduced to support DLLs and their families in accessing quality ECE programs, drawing from an MPI survey of state ECE agencies. FEDERAL REPORT 2017
Promoting the Educational Success of Children and Youth Learning English: Promising Futures National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine http://www.nationalacademies.org/hmd/Reports/2017/promoting-the-educational-success-of-children-and-youth-learning-English. aspx policy; educational outcomes; teaching practices
A committee of the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine examined how evidence relevant to the development of English learners can inform policies and practices that can result in better educational outcomes for these young people. The committee’s report, “Promoting the Educational Success of Children and Youth Learning English: Promising Futures” examines what research evidence reveals about learning English from early childhood through high school, identifies effective practices for educators to use, and recommends steps policy makers can take to support highquality educational outcomes for children and youth who are learning English.
This recent federal report cites many of the latest studies since 2010. JOURNAL ARTICLE 2017
A Framework for the Dual Language Assessment of Young Dual Language Learners in the United States Danielle Guzman-Orth, Alexis A. Lopez, and Florencia Tolentino ETS RESEARCH REPORT SERIES http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ets2.12165/full assessment; language and literacy
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Dual language learners (DLLs) and the various educational programs that serve them are increasing in number across the country. This framework lays out a conceptual approach for dual language assessment tasks designed to measure the language and literacy skills of young DLLs entering kindergarten in the United States. Although our examples focus on Spanish–English DLLs, these recommendations could be broadly applied to other language combinations with appropriate adaptations for each language. JOURNAL ARTICLE 2017
Adverse Childhood Experiences Among Hispanic Children in Immigrant Families Versus US-Native Families Tania Maria Caballero, Sara B. Johnson, Cara R. Muñoz Buchanan, and Lisa Ross DeCamp PEDIATRICS http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/early/2017/10/05/peds.2017-0297 home environment; statistics; health
Children in immigrant families had significantly lower odds of ACE exposure despite higher prevalence of poverty. This may not reflect a true health advantage in this population. There may be unmeasured factors that buffer children in immigrant families from ACE exposure, or ACE questions may not capture the adverse experiences specific to immigrant families. JOURNAL ARTICLE 2017
Bilingual and Monolingual Adults Learning an Additional Language: ERPs Reveal Differences in Syntactic Processing Sarah Grey, Cristina Sanz, Kara Morgan-Short, and Michael T. Ullman BILINGUALISM: LANGUAGE AND COGNITION https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/bilingualism-language-and-cognition/article/bilingual-and-monolingual-adultslearning-an-additional-language-erps-reveal-differences-in-syntactic-processing/9ABA529BA57B742DAFB9548990D31 1DE language and literacy; brain development
This study examined behavioral and neural correlates of learning an additional (artificial) language in early Mandarin– English bilingual children, compared to English monolingual children. Following grammar instruction, participants practiced comprehension and production, and judged grammaticality at low and high proficiency while event-related potentials (ERPs) were acquired. Bilinguals and monolinguals did not differ on behavioral measures, but showed distinct ERP patterns. At low proficiency only bilinguals showed a P600, a common ERP correlate of syntactic processing in native speakers of languages. At high proficiency both groups showed P600s, though the monolinguals also evidenced an anterior positivity not typically found in native speakers of languages during syntactic processing. These findings suggest that, even without bilingual/monolingual behavioral differences, bilinguals show ERP patterns for an additional language that are more similar to those of native speakers of languages. JOURNAL ARTICLE 2017
Bilingual Baby: Foreign Language Intervention in Madrid’s Infant Education Centers Naja Ferjan Ramirez and Patricia Kuhl MIND, BRAIN, AND EDUCATION http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/mbe.12144/full curriculum; language and literacy;
This study conducted a foreign language (English) intervention in four public Infant Education Centers in Madrid, Spain. Intervention children (N = 126, ages 7–33.5 months) experienced 18 weeks of daily, hour-long, group English sessions with native-speaking tutors, using a brain-based method of infant language development. Intervention infants were compared to a matched Current Practice Comparison (CPC) group of peers in the same schools. Intervention children outperformed the CPC group, showing rapid gains on measures of English word comprehension and English speech production. Schools’ neighborhood wealth was not a significant factor in learning. Follow-up analyses show that the language gains were fully retained 18 weeks post-intervention. Children’s foreign language skills advance quickly in school using this research-topractice curriculum.
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JOURNAL ARTICLE 2017
Bilingual Cortical Control of Between- and Within-Language Competition Viorica Marian, James Bartolotti, Sirada Rochanavibhata, Kailyn Bradley, and Arturo E. Hernandez SCIENTIFIC REPORTS https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5603581/ brain development; language and literacy; approaches to learning; cognitive development
Authors looked at cortical activation in Spanish-English bilinguals in response to phonological competition either between two languages or within a language. Participants recognized spoken words in a visual world task while their brains were scanned using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Results revealed that between-language competition recruited a larger network of frontal control and basal ganglia regions than within-language competition. Bilinguals also recruited more neural resources to manage between-language competition from the dominant language compared to competition from the less dominant language. Additionally, bilinguals’ activation of the basal ganglia was inversely correlated with their executive function ability, suggesting that bilinguals compensated for lower levels of cognitive control by recruiting a broader neural network to manage more difficult tasks. These results provide evidence for differences in neural responses to linguistic competition between versus within languages, and demonstrate the brain’s remarkable plasticity, where language experience can change neural processing. JOURNAL ARTICLE 2017
Bilingual Infants Control Their Languages as They Listen Krista Byers-Heinlein, Elizabeth Morin-Lessard, and Casey Lew-Williams PROCEEDINGS OF THE NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES http://www.pnas.org/content/114/34/9032 language and literacy; cognitive development
Bilingual infants must manage two languages in a single developing mind. However, the mechanisms that enable young bilinguals to manage their languages over the course of learning remain unclear. This study demonstrated that bilingual infants monitor and control their languages during real-time language listening, and do so similarly to bilingual adults. This ability could help bilinguals’ language learning to keep pace with that of their monolingual peers, and may underpin the cognitive advantages enjoyed by bilinguals in both infancy and adulthood. JOURNAL ARTICLE 2017
Child Care Experiences Among Dual Language Learners in the United States: Analyses of the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Birth Cohort Linda M. Espinosa, Doré R. LaForett, Margaret Burchinal, Adam Winsler, Hsiao-Chuan Tien, Ellen S. Peisner-Feinberg, and Dina C. Castro AERA OPEN http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/2332858417699380 statistics; child care; home environment; bilingual instruction
Using nationally representative data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study–Birth Cohort, this study examined child care experiences with repeated cross-sectional analyses at 9, 24, and 52 months for DLL and non-DLL children. After accounting for demographic and contextual factors, we found few differences in the quality and type of child care experienced by DLL children and children who hear only English in the home. Child care experiences were more related to country of origin, ethnicity, or immigrant status than DLL status. Nonparental caregivers were more likely to speak the child’s home language in home-based care than center care. Findings illustrate the importance of distinguishing among DLL status, socioeconomic status, ethnicity, country of origin, and immigrant status when considering the child care experiences of DLLs.
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JOURNAL ARTICLE 2017
Cross-Language Associations and Changes in Spanish-Speaking Preschoolers’ English and Spanish Academic Abilities Francisco Palermo, Ariana M. Mikulski, Richard A. Fabes, Carol Lynn Martin, and Laura Hanish APPLIED PSYCHOLINGUISTICS https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/applied-psycholinguistics/article/crosslanguage-associations-and-changesin-spanishspeaking-preschoolers-english-and-spanish-academic-abilities/43F593BA8C8C13C8236DDD6D9978 F2C1 language and literacy; mathematics development; home language
The results of this study revealed that children’s Spanish and English vocabulary skills were unassociated across languages, whereas their letter–word and math skills were positively associated. Children exhibited gains in vocabulary, letter–word, and math skills in English, with letter–word and math skills in Spanish at the start of preschool being positively associated with the development of those skills in English. Children also gained math skills in Spanish. However, their Spanish vocabulary and letter–word skills did not appear to change. Vocabulary skills showed positive within-language relations with children’s letter–word and math skills. JOURNAL ARTICLE 2017
Developmental Associations Between Bilingual Experience and Inhibitory Control Trajectories in Head Start Children Jimena Santillán and Atika Khurana DEVELOPMENTAL SCIENCE http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/desc.12624/abstract Head Start; approaches to learning; bilingual instruction; home environment; school readiness
The present study examined the potentially protective role of bilingual experience on the development of inhibitory control (IC) in 1146 Head Start preschoolers who were followed for an 18-month period during the transition to kindergarten as part of the longitudinal Family and Child Experiences Survey (FACES) 2009 study. ... Compared to their English monolingual peers, bilingual children from Spanish-speaking homes showed higher IC performance at Head Start entry, as well as steeper IC growth over time. Children who were Spanish monolingual at the beginning of Head Start showed the lowest IC performance at baseline. However, their rate of IC growth exceeded that of children who remained English monolingual and did not differ from that of their peers who entered Head Start being bilingual. These results suggest that acquiring bilingualism and continued bilingual experience are associated with more rapid IC development during the transition from preschool to kindergarten in children from lower SES backgrounds. JOURNAL ARTICLE 2017
DLLs and the Development of Self-Regulation in Early Childhood Ruth Guirguis and Kathy Carolina Antigua COGENT EDUCATION https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2017.1355628 approaches to learning; Head Start; policy; teaching practices
This research describes the differences between DLLs’ behavioral and emotional regulation, which are categorized as impulse control and cognitive regulation. This analysis examines the development of cognitive regulation and impulse control in both DLLs and non-DLLs. ... Participants were drawn from a Head Start and Universal Pre-Kindergarten program located in a low SES and culturally diverse district. The result yielded a statistically significant effect, (F(1, 61) = 8.56, p = .005; partial Eta squared = .123) for non-DLLs. ANOVA results suggest differences in cognitive regulation between the two groups. Implications relating to self-regulation, DLLs, culture and classroom practice, as well as policy are further discussed.
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Dual Language Learning, Inhibitory Control, and Math Achievement in Head Start and Kindergarten Ji Young Choi, Shinyoung Jeon, and Christine Lippard EARLY CHILDHOOD RESEARCH QUARTERLY http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0885200617302430 mathematics development; school readiness; Head Start; approaches to learning
Inhibitory control and math skills were compared among bilinguals, dual language learners with limited English skills (DLLs-LES), and monolinguals. Bilingual children showed higher inhibitory control and math skills than other groups of children in kindergarten. DLLs-LES showed lower inhibitory control and math skills than other groups of children during the period between Head Start entry to kindergarten. The achievement gaps in kindergarten math among the three groups were explained by relative differences in their inhibitory control development. JOURNAL ARTICLE 2017
Exploring English and Spanish Rhyme Awareness and Beginning Sound Segmentation Skills in Prekindergarten Spanish-Speaking English Learners Laura B. Raynolds, Angela López-Velásquez, and Laura E. Olivo Valentín READING AND WRITING https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs11145-016-9696-y language and literacy
Twenty-five 4- and 5-year-old Spanish-speaking English Learners (ELs) were tested to compare their English and Spanish performance in two phonological awareness skills: rhyme awareness (RA) and beginning sound segmentation (BSS). The results showed that the children scored higher on the English BSS than on the English RA tests (p < .001), even though RA is generally considered to be an earlier developing skill than BSS among English-monolingual children. No significant difference was found between the English BSS and Spanish BSS tests despite the fact that the children had received English-only instruction in these phonological awareness skills for 1 year. JOURNAL ARTICLE 2017
How Spanish is used in Head Start: Observational Evidence from Four Classrooms Elizabeth B. Miller NHSA DIALOG: THE RESEARCH-TO-PRACTICE JOURNAL FOR THE EARLY CHILDHOOD FIELD https://journals.uncc.edu/dialog/article/download/539/618 school readiness; Head Start; early childhood education; bilingual instruction; home language; social and emotional development; health
In four local Head Start centers in a predominantly Spanish-speaking DLL county, classroom observations helped shed light on when the home language of Spanish was used and how it may have contributed to DLL children’s school readiness skills. The observations revealed that Spanish was used to promote certain academic as well as planning and recall skills; to provide emotional caregiving; and to communicate with parents as well as during daily health routines. JOURNAL ARTICLE 2017
Promoting the Contributions of Multilingual Preschoolers E. Brook Chapman de Sousa LINGUISTICS AND EDUCATION https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0898589817301432 teaching practices; language and literacy
Educators co-participating in activities promotes contributions of multilinguals. Translanguaging facilitates contributions of multilinguals to conversations. Responsive educators increase the contributions of multilingual children. Instructional conversations with multilingual children are infrequently implemented.
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Sequential Congruency Effects Reveal Differences in Disengagement of Attention for Monolingual and Bilingual Young Adults John G. Grundy, Ashley Chung-Fat-Yim, Deanna C. Friesen, Lorinda Mak, and Ellen Bialystok COGNITION http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0010027717300501 cognitive development
Three studies examined the hypothesis that bilinguals can more rapidly disengage attention from irrelevant information than monolinguals by investigating the impact of previous trial congruency on performance in a simple flanker task. Together, these studies demonstrate that bilinguals experience less influence from previous trial congruency and have greater ability to disengage attention from the previous trial in order to focus attention on the current trial than is found for monolinguals. JOURNAL ARTICLE 2017
Spanish Instruction in Head Start and Dual Language Learners’ Academic Achievement Elizabeth B. Miller JOURNAL OF APPLIED DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0193397317302010 Head Start; school readiness; bilingual instruction; early childhood education; language and literacy; mathematics development
Head Start data were used to determine program impacts for Spanish-speaking DLLs. The association between Spanish instruction and English outcomes was examined. Instructing DLL children in Spanish improved English receptive vocabulary. Instructing DLL children in Spanish did not improve other outcome domains. JOURNAL ARTICLE 2017
The Relationship Between Vocabulary and Word Reading Among Head Start Spanish–English Bilingual Children Jing Zhao, L. Quentin Dixon, Blanca Quiroz, and Si Chen EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION JOURNAL https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs10643-015-0764-8 Head Start; language and literacy
One hundred and seventeen 4- to 5-year-old Spanish–English bilingual children attending Head Start programs in the United States were tested for their Spanish and English word reading twice, 5 months apart. We also tested the children’s Spanish and English vocabulary and phonological awareness at Time 1. Authors used multiple regression models to examine the predictive value of vocabulary to word reading cross-linguistically and longitudinally. Results showed that within (Spanish or English) language and concurrent predictions were stronger than cross-language and longitudinal predictions. However, Spanish vocabulary was a significant and unique predictor of English word reading longitudinally. Spanish phonological awareness also played an important role in the relationship between vocabulary and word reading. Results suggest that helping Spanish-speaking children build their Spanish vocabulary can also improve their English word reading ability. JOURNAL ARTICLE 2017
What Explains the Correlation Between Growth in Vocabulary and Grammar? New Evidence from Latent Change Score Analyses of Simultaneous Bilingual Development Erika Hoff, Jamie M. Quinn, and David Giguere DEVELOPMENTAL SCIENCE http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/desc.12536/abstract language and literacy; home language
The present study used latent change score modeling to examine the dynamic relationships between vocabulary and grammar growth within and across languages in longitudinal data from 90 simultaneous Spanish–English bilingual children who were assessed at 6-month intervals between 30 and 48 months. Slopes of vocabulary and grammar growth 11
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were strongly correlated within each language and showed moderate or nonsignificant relationships across languages. There was no evidence that vocabulary level predicted subsequent grammar growth or that the level of grammatical development predicted subsequent vocabulary growth. The study proposes that a common influence of properties of input on vocabulary and grammatical development is the source of their correlated but uncoupled growth. An unanticipated across-language finding was a negative relationship between level of English skill and subsequent Spanish growth. The study proposes that the cultural context of Spanish–English bilingualism in the US is the reason that strong English skills jeopardize Spanish language growth, while Spanish skills do not affect English growth. POLICY STATEMENT 2017
Joint Policy Statement on Supporting the Development of Children Who are DLLs in Early Childhood Programs U.S. Department of Health and Human Services and U.S. Department of Education https://www.acf.hhs.gov/sites/default/files/ecd/dll_policy_statement_final.pdf policy; early childhood education; Head Start; child care; home language; teaching practices; tribal language preservation and revitalization
This joint HHS and ED policy statement sets an expectation for high-quality and appropriate supports and services specifically designed for young children who are DLLs; increases awareness about the benefits of bilingualism and the important role of home language development; reviews the research on the unique strengths of and challenges faced by this population, and strategies that are effective in promoting their learning and development; provides recommendations to early childhood programs, tribes, and states on establishing policies and implementing practices that support the learning and development of children who are DLLs; provides considerations for tribal communities engaged in Native language revitalization, maintenance, restoration, or preservation efforts within their early childhood programs; and identifies free resources to support states, tribal communities, programs, teachers, providers and families in supporting the development and learning of children who are DLLs.
Also includes many citations of relevant recent research. STATE TA REPORT 2017
Identifying Young Dual Language Learners: State Policies, Home Language Surveys, and Language Proficiency Assessments Manuela Fonseca https://pdg.grads360.org/services/PDCService.svc/GetPDCDocumentFile?fileId=26981 home language; statistics; policy; assessment
The growing diversity of populations with greater access to publicly funded Pre-K increases the need to accurately identify young children as dual language learners (DLLs) prior to kindergarten. Determining children’s home languages and level of proficiency in English and their home languages early in the enrollment process, enables teachers and administrators to make better decisions regarding children’s language strengths, and appropriate developmental and instructional goals (Wright, 2014). This brief addresses the following questions: How are states identifying and assessing young DLLs? What policies and practices are in place? What assessment measures are appropriate and effective? It examines state policies requiring the identification of DLLs in Pre-K, and current practices in home language surveys and language proficiency assessments. JOURNAL ARTICLE 2016
Bilingual and Home Language Interventions With Young Dual Language Learners: A Research Synthesis Lillian K. Durán, Daphne Hartzheim, Emily M. Lund, Vicki Simonsmeier, and Theresa L. Kohlmeier LANGUAGE, SPEECH, AND HEARING SERVICES IN SCHOOLS http://lshss.pubs.asha.org/article.aspx?articleid=2564469 early intervention; home language; children with disabilities
The purpose of this systematic review was to determine what bilingual or home language interventions have been found to be effective for 2- to 6-year-old dual language learners who have language impairment (LI) or are at risk for LI.
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Child Care Enrollment Decisions Among Dual Language Learner Families: The Role of Spanish Language Instruction in the Child Care Setting Elizabeth B. Miller EARLY CHILDHOOD RESEARCH QUARTERLY http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0885200616300035 child care; policy; Head Start; home language
Head Start data were used to describe Spanish-speaking DLLs’ child care enrollment. Various potential factors influencing enrollment decisions were examined--for example, whether the child’s first language was exclusively Spanish influenced enrollment or whether other DLL families attended the child care setting influenced enrollment. JOURNAL ARTICLE 2016
Development and Transfer of Vocabulary Knowledge in Spanish-Speaking Language Minority Preschool Children J. Marc Goodrich, Christopher J. Lonigan, Cherie G. Kleuver, and Joann M. Farver JOURNAL OF CHILD LANGUAGE https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-child-language/article/development-and-transfer-of-vocabularyknowledge-in-spanishspeaking-language-minority-preschool-children/5F6B6D4A3D88ECF0937509C99A 34F829 language and literacy; home language
This study evaluated the predictive validity of conceptual scoring. Two independent samples of Spanish-speaking language minority preschoolers (Sample 1: N = 96, mean age = 54·51 months, 54·3% male; Sample 2: N = 116, mean age = 60·70 months, 56·0% male) completed measures of receptive, expressive, and definitional vocabulary in their first (L1) and second (L2) languages at two time points approximately 9–12 months apart. We examined whether unique L1 and L2 vocabulary at time 1 predicted later L2 and L1 vocabulary, respectively. Results indicated that unique L1 vocabulary did not predict later L2 vocabulary after controlling for initial L2 vocabulary. An identical pattern of results emerged for L1 vocabulary outcomes. We also examined whether children acquired translational equivalents for words known in one language but not the other. Results indicated that children acquired translational equivalents, providing partial support for the transfer of vocabulary knowledge across languages. JOURNAL ARTICLE 2016
Effects of a Culturally Responsive Interactive Book-Reading Intervention on the Language Abilities of Preschool Dual Language Learners: A Pilot Study Carol Scheffner Hammer and Brook Sawyer NHSA DIALOG: THE RESEARCH-TO-PRACTICE JOURNAL FOR THE EARLY CHILDHOOD FIELD https://journals.uncc.edu/dialog/article/view/421 early intervention; language and literacy; assessment; parents; culturally responsive practices
The aims of this pilot study were to (a) examine the effects of participation in a culturally responsive interactive bookreading intervention on the language abilities of preschool DLLs and (b) investigate the social and cultural validity of the intervention. With 73 mother-child dyads (35 intervention and 38 control), we examined the effectiveness of the intervention on children’s language skills, as measured by standardized assessment and language samples. Children in the intervention group made significantly greater gains in number of different words and mean length of utterance in words than children in the control group. No intervention effects were found for the standardized language measures. Mothers reported the intervention had strong social and culturally validity. Future directions for refinement and further testing of this intervention are discussed.
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Enhanced Music Sensitivity in 9-Month-Old Bilingual Infants Liquan Liu and René Kager COGNITIVE PROCESSING http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10339-016-0780-7 cognitive development; music; brain development
This study explores the influence of bilingualism on the cognitive processing of language and music. Specifically, it investigates how infants learning a non-tone language perceive linguistic and musical pitch and how bilingualism affects cross-domain pitch perception. It attributes bilingual infants’ heightened sensitivity in the musical domain to the enhanced acoustic sensitivity stemming from a bilingual environment. The distinct perceptual patterns between language and music and the influence of acoustic salience on perception suggest processing diversion and association in the first year of life. Results indicate that the perception of music may entail both shared neural network with language processing, and unique neural network that is distinct from other cognitive functions. JOURNAL ARTICLE 2016
Preschool Teachers’ Language and Literacy Practices with Dual Language Learners Brook E. Sawyer, Carol Scheffner Hammer, Lauren M. Cycyk, Lisa López, Clancy Blair, Lia Sandilos, and Eugene Komaroff BILINGUAL RESEARCH JOURNAL http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/15235882.2016.1138904 teaching practices; language and literacy; bilingual instruction; professional development; culturally responsive practices
The purposes of this study were to (a) examine the degree to which teachers used linguistically responsive practices to support the language and literacy development of Spanish-speaking dual language learners (DLL) and (b) to investigate the associations between these practices and select teacher-level factors. The sample consisted of 72 preschool teachers. Observational data were collected on practices. Teachers self-reported on language and culture beliefs, Spanish-speaking ability, and classroom composition. Results indicated that teachers, including those who spoke Spanish, used few linguistically responsive practices to support preschool DLLs. Only Spanish-speaking ability was related to practices. Implications for targeted professional development are discussed. JOURNAL ARTICLE 2016
Relationships Between Proficiency with Grammatical Morphemes and Emotion Regulation: A Study of Mandarin– English Preschoolers Yonggang Ren, Nan Xu Rattanasone, Katherine Demuth, Fabia Andronos, and Shirley Wyver EARLY CHILD DEVELOPMENT AND CARE http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/03004430.2016.1245189 language and literacy; approaches to learning
This study examined how Mandarin-English bilingual preschoolers performed on three grammatical morphemes of plurals, past tense, present tense and whether the performance on the three morphemes was associated with emotion regulation. An elicitation task was used to assess proficiency in the three morphemes, and the Emotion Regulation Checklist (ERC) and the Disappointing Gift task were used to assess emotion regulation. The results indicate that Mandarin-English bilingual preschoolers had difficulties with all the three morphemes but they had a higher proficiency level on plurals than on past and present tense. Their proficiency in past and present tense was positively correlated with emotion regulation as measured by the ERC. JOURNAL ARTICLE 2016
Self-Regulation Abilities and Spanish-Speaking Preschoolers’ Vocabulary and Letter-Word Skills in Spanish and English Francisco Palermo, Ariana M. Mikulski, and L. Diego Conejo EARLY EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10409289.2016.1197670 home language; language and literacy; approaches to learning 14
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Three distinct profiles of Spanish-speaking preschoolers were identified using cluster analysis. One group exhibited high levels of Spanish and English vocabulary and letter-word skills (a.k.a. high-balanced bilinguals). The other two groups exhibited predominantly Spanish or English vocabulary and letter-word skills (a.k.a. Spanish- or English-dominant). Multinomial logistic regression analyses (controlling for children’s nonverbal cognitive ability) revealed that effortful control skills enhanced children’s probability of being classified as high-balanced bilinguals versus Spanish-dominant; however, this was evident only for the children whose parents reported speaking exclusively Spanish at home. Executive function abilities appeared to be unrelated to preschoolers’ bilingual classification, and thus their English vocabulary and letter-word skills. JOURNAL ARTICLE 2016
The Relative Importance of English Versus Spanish Language Skills for Low-Income Latino English Language Learners’ Early Language and Literacy Development Susan Sonnenschein, Shari R. Metzger, Rebecca Dowling, and Linda Baker EARLY CHILD DEVELOPMENT AND CARE http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/03004430.2016.1219854 language and literacy; home language; home environment; assessment; teaching practices
This study examined language predictors of preschool, low-income Latino English language learners’ (N = 112) spring vocabulary and literacy skills. Only children’s English language skills at the start of preschool, not Spanish or conceptual vocabulary (child received credit for knowledge of word in either English or Spanish), were significant predictors of subsequent vocabulary and literacy scores. In addition, vocabulary and language comprehension together accounted for more variance in spring performance than vocabulary alone. Finally, data from a small subset of parents (N = 21) suggested that the children’s Spanish skills were being maintained through activities at home. Discussion focuses on the application of findings to assessment and practice in the preschool classrooms. JOURNAL ARTICLE 2015
A Culturally and Linguistically Responsive Vocabulary Approach for Young Latino Dual Language Learners Lucía I. Méndez, Elizabeth R. Crais, Dina C. Castro, and Kirsten Kainz JOURNAL OF SPEECH, LANGUAGE, AND HEARING RESEARCH http://jslhr.pubs.asha.org/article.aspx?articleid=2022052 bilingual instruction; language and literacy
Children receiving instruction in the CLR bilingual modality had significantly higher posttest scores (than those receiving the ECR English-only instruction) on Spanish and English vocabulary assessments at instruction end and on the Spanish vocabulary assessment at follow-up, even after controlling for pre instruction scores. JOURNAL ARTICLE 2015
Bilingualism Modulates Infants’ Selective Attention to the Mouth of a Talking Face Ferran Pons, Laura Bosch, and David J. Lewkowicz PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0956797614568320 perceptual, motor, and physical development; attention
Bilingual infants may take greater advantage of the redundancy of the audiovisual speech that they usually experience during social interactions. Thus, this study investigated whether bilingual infants’ need to keep languages apart increases their attention to the mouth as a source of redundant and reliable speech cues. We measured selective attention to talking faces in 4-, 8-, and 12-month-old Catalan and Spanish monolingual and bilingual infants. Monolinguals looked more at the eyes than the mouth at 4 months and more at the mouth than the eyes at 8 months in response to both native and nonnative speech, but they looked more at the mouth than the eyes at 12 months only in response to nonnative speech. In contrast, bilinguals looked equally at the eyes and mouth at 4 months, more at the mouth than the eyes at 8 months, and more at the mouth than the eyes at 12 months, and these patterns of responses were found for both native and nonnative speech at all ages. Thus, to support their dual-language acquisition processes, bilingual infants exploit the greater perceptual salience of redundant audiovisual speech cues at an earlier age and for a longer time than monolingual infants.
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Building Vocabulary in Two Languages: An Examination of Spanish-Speaking Dual Language Learners in Head Start Annemarie H. Hindman and Barbara A. Wasik EARLY CHILDHOOD RESEARCH QUARTERLY http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0885200614001471 Head Start; language and literacy; home language
This study examined English and Spanish vocabulary among Head Start dual language learners. In fall and spring, children knew more about the language they heard most at home. Classroom instruction predicted Spanish and English vocabulary learning in Head Start. For English learning, the role of instruction was strongest for those with low initial skills. JOURNAL ARTICLE 2015
Differences in Language Exposure and its Effects on Memory Flexibility in Monolingual, Bilingual, and Trilingual Infants Natalie H. Brito, Núria Sebastián-Gallés, and Rachel Barr BILINGUALISM: LANGUAGE AND COGNITION https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/bilingualism-language-and-cognition/article/differences-in-languageexposure-and-its-effects-on-memory-flexibility-in-monolingual-bilingual-and-trilingual-infants/E1B6B8CE368348E7CB BCC57083211934 cognitive development
Bilingual advantages in memory flexibility, indexed using a memory generalization task, have been reported (Brito & Barr, 2012; 2014), and the present study examines what factors may influence memory performance. The first experiment examines the role of language similarity; bilingual 18-month-old infants exposed to two similar languages (Spanish– Catalan) or two more different (English–Spanish) languages were tested on a memory generalization task and compared to monolingual 18-month-olds. The second experiment compares performance by trilingual 18-month-olds to monolingual and bilingual infants’ performance from the first experiment. The bilingual advantage in memory flexibility was robust; both bilingual groups outperformed the monolingual groups, with no significant differences between bilingual groups. Interestingly, an advantage was not found for infants exposed to three languages. These findings demonstrate early emerging differences in memory flexibility, and have important implications for our understanding of how early environmental variations shape the trajectory of memory development. JOURNAL ARTICLE 2015
Enhancing Young Hispanic Dual Language Learners’ Achievement: Exploring Strategies and Addressing Challenges Debra J. Ackerman and Zoila Tazi ETS RESEARCH REPORT SERIES http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ets2.12045/abstract policy; school readiness; early childhood education
This policy report examined key factors contributing to young Hispanic DLLs academically at-risk status, as well as the emerging research base on strategies for supporting the learning and development of DLLs in preschool and the early primary grades. Also addressed are the practical, on-the-ground implementation challenges to be addressed if early education programs are to incorporate these strategies.
This report from ETS contains a very thorough list of related research. JOURNAL ARTICLE 2015
High-Quality Early Education: Age of Entry and Time in Care Differences in Student Outcomes for English-Only and Dual Language Learners Noreen Yazejian, Donna Bryant, Karen Freel, Margaret Burchinal, and the Educare Learning Network (ELN) Investigative Team EARLY CHILDHOOD RESEARCH QUARTERLY http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0885200615000113 early childhood education; educational outcomes; social and emotional development
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This study examined links between high-quality early education exposure and outcomes. Earlier entry and more time in care were related to better receptive language skills. Age of entry and time in care were linked equivocally to social–behavioral skills. The positive links between exposure and outcomes were strongest for DLL children. JOURNAL ARTICLE 2015
Look at the Gato! Code-Switching in Speech to Toddlers Amelie Bail, Giovanna Morini, and Rochelle S. Newman JOURNAL OF CHILD LANGUAGE https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-child-language/article/look-at-the-gato-codeswitching-in-speech-to-toddlers/ 730B4BA4AD3CA5D3E92032ACFFA111A7 parents; vocabulary; code switching
This study examined code-switching (CS) in the speech of twenty-four bilingual caregivers when speaking with their 18- to 24-month-old children. All parents CS at least once in a short play session, and some code-switched quite often (over 1/3 of utterances). This CS included both inter-sentential and intra-sentential switches, suggesting that at least some children are frequently exposed to mixed-language sentences. However, authors found no evidence that this exposure to CS had any detrimental effect on children’s word learning: children’s overall vocabulary size did not relate to parental inter-sentential CS behavior, and was positively related to within-sentence CS. Parents often repeated words across their two languages, but this did not appear to increase the likelihood of children having translation equivalents in their vocabulary. In short, parents appear to CS fairly often to young children, even within sentences, but there is no evidence that this delays child lexical acquisition. JOURNAL ARTICLE 2015
Preschool Language Interventions for Latino Dual Language Learners with Language Disorders: What, in What Language, and How Gabriela Simon-Cereijido SEMINARS IN SPEECH AND LANGUAGE https://www.thieme-connect.com/products/ejournals/abstract/10.1055/s-0035-1549110 home language; language and literacy; early intervention; bilingual instruction
About a quarter of young children in the United States are dual language learners. The large majority are Latino children who are exposed to Spanish in their homes. The language needs of Latino dual language preschoolers are different from the needs of monolingual English-speaking children. As a group, they are likely to live in environments that put them at risk of delays in language development. This situation is direr for dual language preschoolers with language impairment. Recent findings from studies on interventions for Spanish–English preschoolers with language impairment suggest that a bilingual approach does not delay English vocabulary and oral language learning and promotes Spanish maintenance. Targets and strategies for different language domains are described. The effects of pullout versus push-in interventions for this population are preliminarily explored. JOURNAL ARTICLE 2015
Social Interaction in Infants’ Learning of Second-Language Phonetics: An Exploration of Brain–Behavior Relations Barbara T. Conboy, Rechele Brooks, Andrew N. Meltzoff, and Patricia K. Kuhl DEVELOPMENTAL NEUROPSYCHOLOGY http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/87565641.2015.1014487 social interactions; attention
Infants learn phonetic information from a second language with live-person presentations, but not television or audio-only recordings. To understand the role of social interaction in learning a second language, we examined infants’ joint attention with live, Spanish-speaking tutors and used a neural measure of phonetic learning. Infants’ eye-gaze behaviors during Spanish sessions at 9.5–10.5 months of age predicted second-language phonetic learning, assessed by an event-related potential measure of Spanish phoneme discrimination at 11 months. These data suggest a powerful role for social interaction at the earliest stages of learning a new language.
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The Exposure Advantage: Early Exposure to a Multilingual Environment Promotes Effective Communication Samantha P. Fan, Zoe Liberman, Boaz Keysar, and Katherine D. Kinzler PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4791950/pdf/nihms661615.pdf approaches to learning; communication
Multilingual exposure may promote effective communication by enhancing perspective taking. We tested children on a task that required perspective taking to interpret a speaker’s intended meaning. Monolingual children failed to interpret the speaker’s meaning dramatically more often than bilingual children and children who were exposed to a multilingual environment but were not bilinguals themselves. Children who were merely exposed to a second language performed as well as bilingual children, despite having lower executive function scores. Thus, communicative advantages may be social in origin, and not due to enhanced executive control. For millennia, multilingual exposure has been the norm. Our study shows that such an environment may facilitate the development of perspective-taking tools that are critical for effective communication. JOURNAL ARTICLE 2015
Through the Lens of Teachers in Two Bilingual Programmes: A Look at Early Bilingual Education Mila Schwartz, Poh Wee Koh, Becky Xi Chen, Mark Sinke, and Esther Geva LANGUAGE, CULTURE AND CURRICULUM http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/07908318.2015.1103250 bilingual instruction; early childhood education; curriculum; teachers
The present study examined the similarities and differences in how the teachers and principals in two different contexts, a Mandarin–English bilingual program in a Canadian kindergarten and elementary school and a Russian–Hebrew bilingual preschool program in Israel, understood their language programs and made curriculum decisions with respect to instructional time for each language. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with five teachers, two principals and a program manager from the two programs. Four main themes emerged from the data analysis: (1) experiences in the search for an ideal language program, (2) challenges arising in realizing the bilingual programs; (3) looking ahead and (4) a flexible and creative approach towards a language separation model. Despite differences in program ideology and student demographics, findings showed that staff in both contexts faced similar challenges. Educational implications are discussed in relation to the findings. JOURNAL ARTICLE 2015
What Clinicians Need to Know about Bilingual Development Erika Hoff and Cynthia Core SEMINARS IN SPEECH AND LANGUAGE https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5021218/ language and literacy; home language
Basic research on bilingual development suggests several conclusions that can inform clinical practice with children from bilingual environments. They include the following: (1) Dual language input does not confuse children. (2) It is not necessary for the two languages to be kept separate in children’s experience to avoid confusion. (3) Learning two languages takes longer than learning one; on average, bilingual children lag behind monolingual children in single language comparisons. (4) A dominant language is not equivalent to an only language. (5) A measure of total vocabulary provides the best indicator of young bilingual children’s language learning capacity. (6) Bilingual children can have different strengths in each language. (7) The quantity and quality of bilingual children’s input in each language influence their rates of development in each language. (8) Immigrant parents should not be discouraged from speaking their native language to their children. (9) Bilingual environments vary enormously in the support they provide for each language, with the result that bilingual children vary enormously in their dual language skills. Empirical findings in support of each conclusion are presented.
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Who Can Communicate with Whom? Language Experience Affects Infants’ Evaluation of Others as Monolingual or Multilingual Casey E. Pitts, Kristine H. Onishi, and Athena Vouloumanos COGNITION http://www.psych.nyu.edu/niccl/publicationlinks/141124_updates/Pitts,Onishi%26Vouloumanos_Cognition_2015.pdf attention; language and literacy; cognitive development
This study examined whether monolingual and bilingual 20-month-olds expect an unfamiliar person to understand one or more than one language. Two speakers told a listener the location of a hidden object using either the same or two different languages. When different languages were spoken, monolinguals looked longer when the listener searched correctly, bilinguals did not. When the same language was spoken, both groups looked longer for incorrect searches. Infants rely on their prior language experience when evaluating the language abilities of a novel individual. Monolingual infants assume others can understand only one language, although not necessarily the infants’ own; bilinguals do not. Infants’ assumptions about which community of conventions people belong to may allow them to recognize effective communicative partners and thus opportunities to acquire language, knowledge, and culture. JOURNAL ARTICLE 2014
Back to Basics: A Bilingual Advantage in Infant Visual Habituation Leher Singh, Charlene S. L. Fu, Aishah A. Rahman, Waseem B. Hameed, Shamini Sanmugam, Pratibha Agarwal, Binyan Jiang, Yap Seng Chong, Michael J. Meaney, and Anne Rifkin-Graboi CHILD DEVELOPMENT http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/cdev.12271/abstract cognitive development
Comparisons of cognitive processing in monolinguals and bilinguals have revealed a bilingual advantage in inhibitory control. Recent studies have demonstrated advantages associated with exposure to two languages in infancy. However, the domain specificity and scope of the infant bilingual advantage in infancy remains unclear. In the present study, 114 monolingual and bilingual infants were compared in a very basic task of information processing—visual habituation—at 6 months of age. Bilingual infants demonstrated greater efficiency in stimulus encoding as well as in improved recognition memory for familiar stimuli as compared to monolinguals. Findings reveal a generalized cognitive advantage in bilingual infants that is broad in scope, early to emerge, and not specific to language. JOURNAL ARTICLE 2014
Bilingualism Changes Children’s Beliefs about What is Innate Krista Byers-Heinlein and Bianca Garcia DEVELOPMENTAL SCIENCE http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/desc.12248/abstract cognitive development
This study investigated whether personal experience with second language acquisition could alter children’s essentialist biases. In a switched-at-birth paradigm, 5- and 6-year-old monolingual and simultaneous bilingual children expected that a baby’s native language, an animal’s vocalizations, and an animal’s physical traits would match those of a birth rather than of an adoptive parent. We predicted that sequential bilingual children, who had been exposed to a new language after age 3, would show greater understanding that languages are learned. Surprisingly, sequential bilinguals showed reduced essentialist beliefs about all traits: they were significantly more likely than other children to believe that human language, animal vocalizations, and animal physical traits would be learned through experience rather than innately endowed. These findings suggest that bilingualism in the preschool years can profoundly change children’s essentialist biases.
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Examining Similarities and Differences Among Parent–Teacher Reports of Spanish–English Productive Vocabulary Virginia L. Dubasik and Dubravka Svetina LANGUAGE, SPEECH, AND HEARING SERVICES IN SCHOOLS https://lshss.pubs.asha.org/article.aspx?articleid=1896748 language and literacy; parents; teachers
Results indicated inconsistent levels of overall agreement across measures and forms. Higher levels of parent–teacher agreement were observed on Spanish forms at either time point using Spearman’s rho coefficient and kappa, whereas percent agreement was higher on English forms. Limited overlap of high agreement between parents and teachers was found on word categories across indices. Unique contributions of reporters were observed. Conclusion This work underscores the utility of multiple informants of bilingual children’s productive vocabulary. Combined and unique contributions of parent and teacher reporters may inform the language development of preschool-age bilingual children as productive vocabulary skills develop and change. JOURNAL ARTICLE 2014
Family Learning Environment and Early Literacy: A Comparison of Bilingual and Monolingual Children Li Feng, Yunwei Gai, and Xiaoning Chen ECONOMICS OF EDUCATION REVIEW http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0272775713001726 language and literacy; music; school readiness; home environment
We investigate the relationship between book reading, singing songs, telling stories from 9-month to 4-year and reading test scores in preschool and kindergarten waves. We examine two distinct groups—English monolingual children and bilingual children. Bilingual children usually have fewer books at home, are not read to as frequently, and have lower test scores. Oaxaca decomposition results show that differences in literacy and language test score can be explained by differential investment in early home learning environment. JOURNAL ARTICLE 2014
Mandarin-English Bilingual Vocabulary Development in an English-Immersion Preschool: How Does it Compare with Monolingual Development? Lu-Chun Lin and Cynthia J Johnson INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF BILINGUALISM http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1367006914547662 language and literacy; language immersion
Findings corroborate previous studies that show relatively smaller receptive and expressive vocabularies in bilinguals’ L1 and L2. Follow-up analyses further suggest the circumstance-specific and distributed nature of bilingual vocabulary. Possible explanations proposed in the literature and the present study provide an insight into the nature of bilingual vocabulary development. JOURNAL ARTICLE 2014
Phonological Awareness and Vocabulary Performance of Monolingual and Bilingual Preschool Children with Hearing Loss Emily Lund, Krystal L Werfel, and C. Melanie Schuele CHILD LANGUAGE TEACHING AND THERAPY http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0265659014531261 language and literacy; health; hearing
On phonological awareness tasks, the performance of bilingual children with hearing loss was significantly higher than bilingual children with normal hearing, but not higher than either monolingual group of children. On norm-referenced vocabulary knowledge measures, the performance of monolingual and bilingual children with hearing loss was significantly
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lower than monolingual and bilingual children with normal hearing. Correlations for phonological awareness and vocabulary knowledge were found for both groups of children with normal hearing, but not children with hearing loss. This study represents preliminary evidence that children with hearing loss may develop phonological awareness differently than children with normal hearing and that language and educational experience are critical to understanding the phonological awareness performance in children with hearing loss. JOURNAL ARTICLE 2014
Social Competence of Mandarin-Speaking Immigrant Children in Childcare Yonggang Ren EARLY CHILD DEVELOPMENT AND CARE http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/03004430.2014.957693 child care; social and emotional development; language and literacy
Chinese children performed well in social competence although the children aged three years had a higher anxiety level than the normative sample. Age, length of attendance in childcare, gender and generational status were associated with some subscales of the social competence measure. English level was associated negatively with hyperactivity, atypicality, withdrawal, somatisation and attention problems but positively with adaptability, social skills and functional communication. Mandarin level was associated positively with somatisation but negatively with withdrawal. Possible explanations of these associations are discussed with the literature. JOURNAL ARTICLE 2014
The Impact of the First Language First Model on Vocabulary Development Among Preschool Bilingual Children Mila Schwartz READING AND WRITING https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs11145-013-9463-2 language and literacy; language immersion; bilingual instruction
Fifty-one Russian/Hebrew-speaking bilinguals (around age four) were selected from bilingual (Russian/Hebrew) preschools, which used the First Language First approach, and monolingual (Hebrew) preschools. The research was designed as a longitudinal study, as the children’s vocabulary was measured at two time-points—near the beginning and the end of the academic year. The children’s vocabulary was measured in both languages by examining its depth dimensions (paradigmatic semantic relations and syntagmatic semantic relations). The results demonstrated that the later immersion in L2 and continuing development of L1 within the First Language First model does not results in retardation in development of bilingual children in L2 in comparison to their bilingual peers from the monolingual (Hebrew) preschools. In addition, this model of early bilingual development enhances the linguistic interdependence of depth of vocabulary knowledge, and, therefore, supports balanced bilingual development. JOURNAL ARTICLE 2014
The Role of Positive Peer Interactions and English Exposure in Spanish-Speaking Preschoolers’ English Vocabulary and Letter-Word Skills Francisco Palermo and Ariana M. Mikulski EARLY CHILDHOOD RESEARCH QUARTERLY http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0885200614000775 language and literacy; social interactions
Positive peer interactions and English exposure from peers in the fall were positively associated with Spanish-speaking preschoolers’ English vocabulary and letter-word skills in the spring. The contributions of peer English exposure to English vocabulary and letter-word skills were mediated by preschoolers’ English oral proficiency in the classroom. The contribution of positive peer interactions to Spanish-speaking preschoolers’ English letter-word skills was mediated by preschoolers’ leaning behaviors in the classroom.
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The Social–Emotional Development of Dual Language Learners: Looking Back at Existing Research and Moving Forward with Purpose Tamara G. Halle, Jessica Vick Whittaker, Marlene Zepeda, Laura Rothenberg, Rachel Anderson, Paula Daneri, Julia Wessel, and Virginia Buysse EARLY CHILDHOOD RESEARCH QUARTERLY http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0885200613001117?via%3Dihub social and emotional development; home language
This review describes the state of existing knowledge with regard to dual language learners’ (DLLs) social and emotional development birth to age 5. The review focuses on several widely recognized dimensions of children’s social and emotional development: self-regulation, social competence, social cognition, and problem behaviors. Results suggest that DLLs have at least equal (if not better) social–emotional outcomes compared to native English speakers. There is also some evidence that the use of the home language in early childhood classrooms can be a positive, moderating factor for DLLs’ social and emotional development. Contextual and individual characteristics are highly correlated with DLL status, making it difficult to develop clear conclusions about the unique influence of DLL status on social and emotional outcomes. We conclude by identifying avenues for future inquiry. JOURNAL ARTICLE 2014
You Sound like Mommy: Bilingual and Monolingual Infants Learn Words Best from Speakers Typical of Their Language Environments Christopher Fennell and Krista Byers-Heinlein INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF BEHAVIORAL DEVELOPMENT http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0165025414530631 vocabulary
Previous research indicates that monolingual infants have difficulty learning minimal pairs (i.e., words differing by one phoneme) produced by a speaker uncharacteristic of their language environment and that bilinguals might share this difficulty. To clearly reveal infants’ underlying phonological representations, we minimized task demands by embedding target words in naming phrases, using a fully crossed, between-subjects experimental design. We tested 17-month-old French-English bilinguals’ (N = 30) and English monolinguals’ (N = 31) learning of a minimal pair (/k∊m/ – /g∊m/) produced by an adult bilingual or monolingual. Infants learned the minimal pair only when the speaker matched their language environment. This vulnerability to subtle changes in word pronunciation reveals that neither monolingual nor bilingual 17-month-olds possess fully generalizable phonological representations. POLICY BRIEF 2014
Promoting Early Language and Literacy Development in Young Dual/English Language Learners Emily Davis, Nicole DellaRocco, Kate Nussenbaum, Leanne Barrett, Stephen Buka, Elizabeth Burke Bryant, and Leslie Gell http://rikidscount.org/Portals/0/Uploads/Documents/Early%20Learning/TRI%20Lab%20ELL.pdf policy; language and literacy; early childhood education; professional development
This brief provides an overview of young dual/English language learners in Rhode Island along with key initiatives, such as the Dual Language Program Standards, designed to guide practices and program development and implementation in the state. Policy recommendations focus on screening and data systems, support and access to quality programs for low-income families, and professional development. JOURNAL ARTICLE 2013
Bilingual and Biliteracy Skills in Young Spanish-Speaking Low-SES Children: Impact of Instructional Language and Primary Language Proficiency Kathryn Lindholm-Leary INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF BILINGUAL EDUCATION AND BILINGUALISM http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13670050.2013.866625 bilingual instruction; language and literacy; school readiness 22
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Children in English vs. bilingual instruction had significantly higher scores in Spanish and English language and literacy skills at preschool entry than children entering bilingual programs, but these differences disappeared by first or second grade entry, and children instructed in English showed deteriorating Spanish language scores. Finally, among children instructed bilingually in the early years, those who were Mostly Proficient in Spanish at entry scored significantly higher on the English language proficiency test than those who were Mostly Limited in Spanish. Results provide evidence for the advantage of bilingual instruction at preschool through first grade levels for low-SES language minority children. JOURNAL ARTICLE 2013
Development of Early English Language and Literacy Skills Among Spanish-Speaking Children: Does Preschool Make a Difference? Myae Han, Luisa Silva, Carol Vukelich, Martha Buell, and Likun Hou EARLY CHILD DEVELOPMENT AND CARE http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/03004430.2013.800052 Head Start; early intervention; language and literacy
Linear growth model analyses show that Spanish-speaking ELLs made significant gains from pre- to post-test after receiving a double dose of an intervention (Head Start and Early Reading First), and there was a significant effect for years enrolled in the programme on Spanish-speaking ELLs. JOURNAL ARTICLE 2013
Do Early Literacy Skills in Children’s First Language Promote Development of Skills in their Second Language? An Experimental Evaluation of Transfer Marc J. Goodrich, Christopher J. Lonigan, and JoAnn M. Farver JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY http://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2Fa0031780 early intervention; bilingual instruction; home language; language and literacy
This study examined whether children’s initial skills in one language moderated the impact of the intervention on those same skills in the other language at posttest. Results demonstrated that for children in the English-only intervention condition, initial Spanish receptive vocabulary and elision skills moderated the impact of the intervention on English receptive vocabulary and elision skills at posttest, respectively. For children in the transitional intervention condition, initial English definitional vocabulary and elision skills moderated the impact of the intervention on Spanish definitional vocabulary and elision skills at posttest, respectively. Results for the vocabulary interactions supported the notion of transfer of specific linguistic information across languages, whereas results for the elision interaction for the Englishonly intervention group comparisons supported language-independent transfer. Results for the elision interaction for the transitional intervention group comparisons supported both language-independent and language-specific transfer. Implications for the theory of cross-language transfer of emergent literacy skills are discussed. JOURNAL ARTICLE 2013
English Exposure in the Home and Classroom: Predictions to Spanish-Speaking Preschoolers’ English Vocabulary Skills Francisco Palermo, Ariana M. Mikulski, Richard A. Fabes, Laura D. Hanish, Carol Lynn Martin, and Lauren E. Stargel APPLIED PSYCHOLINGUISTICS https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/applied-psycholinguistics/article/english-exposure-inthe-home-and-classroom-predictions-to-spanishspeaking-preschoolers-english-vocabulary-skills/ AA46FC108FFE161251CFC867216A8976 language and literacy; home language; social interactions; home environment; teachers
This study examined the combined and unique contributions of home, teacher, and peer English exposure levels on Spanishspeaking preschoolers’ (N = 107) English receptive and expressive vocabulary skills. The combined levels of English exposure during the fall of preschool were positively associated with children’s English receptive and expressive vocabulary skills in the spring. Furthermore, English exposure levels at home were uniquely and positively associated with children’s English receptive and expressive vocabularies, whereas peer English exposure levels were uniquely and positively associated
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with children’s English expressive vocabulary. Teachers’ English exposure levels were not uniquely associated with children’s English vocabulary. The findings highlight the importance of the home environment and peer experiences in the classroom for maximizing Spanish-speaking children’s early English vocabulary skills. JOURNAL ARTICLE 2013
Parental Language Mixing: Its Measurement and the Relation of Mixed Input to Young Bilingual Children’s Vocabulary Size Krista Byers-Heinlein BILINGUALISM: LANGUAGE AND COGNITION https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/bilingualism-language-and-cognition/article/parental-language-mixing-itsmeasurement-and-the-relation-of-mixed-input-to-young-bilingual-childrens-vocabulary-size/0DF66FB5D116CFC58319B5942BB19ACB vocabulary; home environment; parents; code switching
Bilingual parents (who spoke English and another language; n = 181) completed the Language Mixing Scale questionnaire, a new self-report measure that assesses how frequently parents use words from two different languages in the same sentence, such as borrowing words from another language or code switching between two languages in the same sentence. Concurrently, English vocabulary size was measured in the bilingual children of these parents. Most parents reported regular language mixing in interactions with their child. Increased rates of parental language mixing were associated with significantly smaller comprehension vocabularies in 1.5-year-old bilingual infants, and marginally smaller production vocabularies in 2-year-old bilingual children. Exposure to language mixing might obscure cues that facilitate young bilingual children’s separation of their languages and could hinder the functioning of learning mechanisms that support the early growth of their vocabularies. JOURNAL ARTICLE 2013
The Development of Associative Word Learning in Monolingual and Bilingual Infants Krista Byers-Heinlein, Christopher T. Fennell, and Janet F. Werker BILINGUALISM: LANGUAGE AND COGNITION https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/bilingualism-language-and-cognition/article/developmentof-associative-word-learning-in-monolingual-and-bilingual-infants/6FF617831E95773D467D86369DC0 BAD3 vocabulary; language and literacy
The current study investigated whether early bilingual experience influences the developmental trajectory of associative word learning, a foundational mechanism for lexical acquisition. Monolingual and bilingual infants (N = 98) were tested on their ability to learn dissimilar-sounding words (lif and neem) in the Switch task. Twelve-month-olds from both language backgrounds failed to detect a violation of a previously taught word–object pairing. However, both monolinguals and bilinguals succeeded at 14 months, and their performance did not differ. The results indicate that early bilingual experience does not interfere with the development of the fundamental ability to form word–object associations, suggesting that this mechanism is robust across different early language environments. JOURNAL ARTICLE 2013
The Efficacy of a Vocabulary Intervention for Dual-Language Learners With Language Impairment Maria Adelaida Restrepo, Gareth P. Morgan, and Marilyn S. Thompson JOURNAL OF SPEECH, LANGUAGE, AND HEARING RESEARCH http://jslhr.pubs.asha.org/article.aspx?articleid=1795805 bilingual instruction; language and literacy; home language; early intervention; mathematics development
Results indicate that the bilingual vocabulary intervention facilitated receptive and expressive Spanish and conceptual vocabulary gains in DLLs with language impairment compared with the English vocabulary intervention, mathematics intervention, and no-intervention groups. The English-only vocabulary intervention differed significantly from the mathematics condition and no-intervention groups on all measures but did not differ from the bilingual vocabulary intervention. Vocabulary growth rates postintervention slowed considerably. Results support the idea that bilingual interventions support native- and second-language vocabulary development. 24
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Training to Screen Young English Language Learners and Dual Language Learners for Disabilities D. Schilder http://ceelo.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/08/Training-to-Screen-Young-ELLs-and-DLLs-for-Disabilities.pdf screening; children with disabilities
A discussion of considerations for identifying assessment tools for and training approaches to screening young English language learners for disabilities. STATE REPORT, RESEARCH OVERVIEW 2013
California’s Best Practices for Young Dual Language Learners California Governor’s State Advisory Council on Early Learning and Care https://www.cde.ca.gov/sp/cd/ce/documents/dllresearchpapers.pdf early childhood education; brain development; cognitive development; language and literacy; mathematics development; scientific reasoning; social and emotional development; assessment; teaching practices; family engagement
A series of six research overviews on the development of dual language learners and the early childhood program practices and features that support their development: Neuroscience Research: How Experience with One or More Languages Affects the Developing Brain; Cognitive Consequences of Dual Language Learning: Cognitive Function, Language and Literacy, Science and Mathematics, and Social–Emotional Development; Program Elements and Teaching Practices to Support Young Dual Language Learners; Family Engagement in Early Childhood Programs: Serving Families of Dual Language Learners; Assessment of Young Dual Language Learners in Preschool; Early Intervention and Young Dual Language Learners with Special Needs.
These 6 papers have pretty much every important reference up to 2013. JOURNAL ARTICLE 2012
Assessing the Phonological Skills of Bilingual Children From Preschool Through Kindergarten: Developmental Progression and Cross-Language Transfer Lisa M. López JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN CHILDHOOD EDUCATION http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02568543.2012.711800 language and literacy; school readiness; home language
This article addresses three purposes: (1) developing a reliable measure of phonological awareness for bilingual preschool children, (2) testing the developmental progression hypothesis in English and Spanish, and (3) comparing longitudinal performance across language on the measure. Two hundred and forty-one Spanish-English bilingual children were assessed on the author-developed Phonological Awareness Test at three time points (mean age of 4.58, mean age of 4.96, mean age of 5.94). Findings indicate differences in developmental progression by language as well as shifts in performance across language as children go through school. The children in this study transition from a language-specific model of phonological awareness to a more skill specific model of phonological awareness as they progress through school. JOURNAL ARTICLE 2012
Can Explicit Instruction in Social and Emotional Learning Skills Benefit the Social-Emotional Development, Well-being, and Academic Achievement of Young Children? Daniela Maree Ashdown and Michael E. Bernard EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION JOURNAL https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs10643-011-0481-x social and emotional development; educational outcomes; language and literacy
The results indicated that YCDI had a statistically significant positive effect on levels of social-emotional competence and well-being for the preparatory and grade 1 students, a reduction in problem behaviors (externalizing, internalizing,
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and hyperactivity problems) for the grade 1 students, and an increase in reading achievement (decoding text) for the lower achieving grade 1 students. These findings are discussed with regard to issues concerning the role of explicit instruction in social and emotional learning for the early years. JOURNAL ARTICLE 2012
Chinese Immigrant Families and Bilingualism Among Young Children Alice Sterling Honig and Yili Xu NHSA DIALOG: A RESEARCH-TO-PRACTICE JOURNAL FOR THE EARLY CHILDHOOD FIELD http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/15240754.2012.721025 home environment; parents; language and literacy
Maternal English PPVT-R vocabulary (M = 112.9) correlated positively with child PPVT-R scores (r = . 35, p = . 04). The longer the children attended English-only educational facilities, the higher were their English PPVT-R scores (r = .327, p = .059), even when controlling for maternal scores. Children (n = 12) who had spent about 2 years (22 to 26 months) in English-speaking educational facilities had English PPVT-R standardized scores (M = 94.8, range = 71–110) close to the average (M = 100) score of English monolinguals. Chinese receptive language scores increased during the preschool years and were normative with monolingual Chinese children until about age 6, and then they decreased. The younger the children, the higher their Chinese PPVT-R vocabulary (r = −.73, p < .00005). Chinese immigrant families, whose goal is bilingual proficiency, may need to provide special culture/language after-school instruction or make efforts to continue to speak Chinese with their children during daily routines. JOURNAL ARTICLE 2012
Do Bilingual Children Possess Better Phonological Awareness? Investigation of Korean Monolingual and Korean-English Bilingual Children Jennifer Yusun Kang READING AND WRITING https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs11145-010-9277-4 language and literacy; teaching practices
The study participants comprised seventy 5- to 6-year-old Korean-English bilingual children who had attended Englishmedium kindergartens for at least 2 years and fifty-six Korean monolingual children whose age and L1 oral language proficiency were matched to the bilingual participants. They were tested on a range of phonological awareness (PA) and emergent literacy skill measures including decoding skills in both Korean and English. The study findings indicated that (1) the bilingual children had a bilingual advantage in PA tasks in both L1 and L2, (2) there was language transfer in processing L1 and L2 PA for both bilingual and monolingual children, and (3) the PA of the two groups was explained by different factors. The results are discussed in terms of language-specific L1 characteristics and the potential effects of instructional differences in language arts. JOURNAL ARTICLE 2012
Immigrant Parents’ and Teachers’ Views on Bilingual Preschool Language Policy Mila Schwartz LANGUAGE AND EDUCATION http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09500782.2012.673626 bilingual instruction; parents; teachers
This paper aims to examine language policy and models in bilingual preschools from immigrant parents’ and bilingual teachers’ perspectives. The focus was on the following topics: (1) the parents’ views on the language policy of the bilingual preschool education, (2) the teachers’ reflections on their language policy and (3) the negotiation between parents’ and teachers’ views on bilingual preschool language policy. It was important to address both parents’ and teachers’ opinions in order to obtain a deeper understanding of parent–teacher interactions and negotiations of their views. The study was conducted in two bilingual Russian-Hebrew speaking preschools in Israel. I applied methodological triangulation with a combination of qualitative and quantitative research methods. The study revealed that questions regarding input in each language, ratio between L1 and L2, and changes of this ratio in different age groups are central concerns for both the pedagogical staff and parents. 26
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Oral Language Skills of Spanish-Speaking English Language Learners: The Impact of High-Quality Native Language Exposure Perla B. Gamez and Susan C. Levine APPLIED PSYCHOLINGUISTICS https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/applied-psycholinguistics/article/oral-language-skills-of-spanishspeakingenglish-language-learners-the-impact-of-highquality-native-language-exposure/2A2385006E2BF090E86905BB5 CFE2C55 language and literacy; teaching practices
Hierarchical linear modeling revealed that gains in ELLs’ expressive language skills were positively related to the diversity of teachers’ vocabulary and teachers’ syntactic complexity. These findings suggest that the quality of teachers’ language input, not just the quantity of their input, plays a significant role in the language learning trajectories of ELLs. JOURNAL ARTICLE 2009
Effective Early Literacy Skill Development for Young Spanish-Speaking English Language Learners: An Experimental Study of Two Methods Jo Ann M. Farver, Christopher J. Lonigan, and Stefanie Eppe CHILD DEVELOPMENT http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01292.x/abstract home language; language and literacy; early intervention; bilingual instruction
Children in the English-only and transitional groups made significant gains in their emergent literacy skills in both Spanish and English compared to the control group, The English-only and transitional models were equally effective for English language outcomes, but for Spanish-language outcomes, only the transitional model was effective. The results suggest that a targeted early literacy intervention can improve Spanish-speaking preschoolers’ preliteracy skills. REPORT 2018
The Language of the Classroom: Dual Language Learners in Head Start, Public Pre-K, and Private Preschool Programs Migration Policy Institute: Megina Baker and Mariela Páez https://www.migrationpolicy.org/sites/default/files/publications/SuperdiversityClassroomLanguages_Final.pdf Head Start; teachers; teaching practices; home language; language and literacy;
This report examines how teachers in different program types—Head Start, public pre-K, and private preschool—use English and their students’ home languages to support their linguistic, academic, and socioemotional development. It draws on interviews with teachers and program directors, family surveys, and classroom observations to explore when and how educators chose to use these languages, both with DLL children and their families. The report offers recommendations that decisionmakers at all levels can use to better support DLLs. JOURNAL ARTICLE 2014
Effects of early education programs and practices on the development and learning of dual language learners: A review of the literature Virginia Buysse, Ellen Peisner-Feinberg, Mariela Páez, Carol Scheffner Hammer, and Meagan Knowles EARLY CHILDHOOD RESEARCH QUARTERLY https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0885200613000707 educational outcomes; language and literacy; early childhood education; Head Start
This review evaluated the research from 2001 to 2011 to examine the effects of educational practices on DLLs from birth through 5 years of age. The review found at least some evidence for the benefits of attending widely available, well regulated early childhood programs. Very little can be concluded about the separate contributions of language of instruction versus type of intervention on the positive main effects of these interventions.
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BRIEF 2016
Hispanic Children’s Participation in Early Care and Education: Amount and Timing of Hours by Household Nativity Status, Race/Ethnicity, and Child Age National Research Center on Hispanic Children & Families: Danielle Crosby and Julia Mendez http://www.hispanicresearchcenter.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/2016-58HispECEHoursAmtTiming1.pdf early childhood education;
One aspect of ECE utilization that is relevant for child and family well-being is the amount and timing of hours that young children spend in different ECE settings. This brief from the National Research Center on Hispanic Children & Families uses publicly available data from the 2012 National Survey of Early Care and Education (NSECE) to describe the amount and timing of hours that young Hispanic children from low-income households spend in ECE settings, distinguishing care that takes place during standard weekday hours from care that occurs during nonstandard times (i.e., evening, nighttime, and weekend hours). It focuses on low-income households because the challenges of coordinating parental employment and the care of young children are most acute for families with limited economic resources. BRIEF 2015
Supporting Parent Engagement in Linguistically Diverse Families to Promote Young Children’s Learning: Implications for Early Care and Education Policy Child Care & Early Education Research Connections: Sandra Barrueco, Sheila Smith, and Samuel A. Stephens https://www.researchconnections.org/childcare/resources/30185/pdf policy; family engagement; parents; early childhood education; home language; culturally responsive practices;
This brief highlights research that can inform policies to expand the capacity of early care and education programs to promote parent engagement in linguistically diverse families with young children. Policy initiatives that could strengthen the capacity of early care and education programs to support parent engagement in these families include: establishing program requirements and quality standards that specifically address the needs and interests of families whose home language is not English; providing educational opportunities to individuals who can increase the linguistic diversity and cultural competency of the early care and education workforce; providing resources to support programs’ use of parent engagement practices and activities that are most promising for linguistically diverse families; and using data to understand the participation of linguistically diverse families in parent engagement activities and inform efforts to strengthen programs’ capacity to engage diverse families. FACT SHEET 2015
Top Languages Spoken by English Language Learners Nationally and by State Migration Policy Institute: Ariel G. Ruiz Soto, Sarah Hooker, and Jeanne Batalova https://www.migrationpolicy.org/research/top-languages-spoken-english-language-learners-nationally-and-state home language; statistics;
This fact sheet, drawing upon data from the U.S. Census Bureau’s 2013 American Community Survey (ACS) and the U.S. Department of Education, describes the home languages spoken by ELL students at national and state levels. An accompanying spreadsheet provides the top five languages of ELLs by state, as well as their number and share by language. JOURNAL ISSUE 2018
Vocabulary of 2‐Year‐Olds Learning English and an Additional Language: Norms and Effects of Linguistic Distance Caroline Floccia, Thomas D. Sambrook, Claire Delle Luche, Rosa Kwok, Jeremy Goslin, Laurence White, Allegra Cattani, Emily Sullivan, Kirsten Abbot‐Smith, Andrea Krott, Debbie Mills, Caroline Rowland, Judit Gervain, and Kim Plunkett MONOGRAPHS OF THE SOCIETY FOR RESEARCH IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/toc/15405834/83/1 assessment; vocabulary; cognitive development;
We measured vocabulary with Communicative Development Inventories for 372 24-month-old toddlers learning British English and one Additional Language. We furthered theoretical understanding of bilingual development by showing, for the first time, that linguistic distance between the child’s two languages predicts vocabulary outcome, with phonological overlap related to expressive vocabulary, and word order typology and morphological complexity related to receptive vocabulary, 28
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in the Additional Language. ... The resulting UKBTAT tool was able to accurately predict the English vocabulary of an additional group of 58 bilinguals learning an Additional Language outside our target range. This offers a pragmatic method for the assessment of children in the majority language when no tool exists in the Additional Language. Our findings also suggest that the effect of linguistic distance might extend beyond bilinguals’ acquisition of early vocabulary to encompass broader cognitive processes, and could constitute a key factor in the study of the debated bilingual advantage. JOURNAL ARTICLE 2018
Prediction of English and Spanish kindergarten mathematics from English and Spanish cognitive and linguistic abilities in Hispanic dual language learners Matthew E. Foster, Jason L. Anthony, Tricia A. Zucker, and Lee Branum-Martin EARLY CHILDHOOD RESEARCH QUARTERLY https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0885200617301333 mathematics development; vocabulary; cognitive development; language and literacy;
One of the first studies to explore across domain links in U.S. Hispanic DLLs. First study to explore links across English and Spanish skills in Hispanic DLLs. Results provided evidence of strong within language relations. English and Spanish abilities were similarly predictive of English mathematics. Numeracy, IQ , STM, and vocabulary were strongest predictors of mathematics. JOURNAL ARTICLE 2018
Examining language and early numeracy skills in young Latino dual language learners Lucía I. Méndez, Carol Scheffner Hammer, Lisa M. Lopez, and Clancy Blair EARLY CHILDHOOD RESEARCH QUARTERLY https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0885200617302247 mathematics development; language and literacy;
This research examines cross-language associations for early numeracy skills in Latino preschool dual language learners (DLLs). A strong relation was found between oral language abilities and early numeracy in the same but not across languages in the sample examined. This study uniquely documents cross-language relations between DLL preschoolers’ performance in early numeracy skills between their two languages. JOURNAL ARTICLE 2018
The classroom language context and English and Spanish vocabulary development among dual language learners attending Head Start Elisa B. Garcia EARLY CHILDHOOD RESEARCH QUARTERLY https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0885200616301454 vocabulary; language and literacy; bilingual instruction; Head Start;
Examined associations between the classroom language context and vocabulary skill. Analyzed the language of instruction and the proportion of dual language learners. Bilingual instruction was the same for English vocabulary skill as English only. Mostly Spanish instruction related to higher Spanish, lower English vocabulary skill. Higher proportion of DLLs related to lower English but unrelated to Spanish scores. JOURNAL ARTICLE 2017
Language and literacy instruction in preschool classes that serve Latino dual language learners Jennifer Wallace Jacoby and Nonie K. Lesaux EARLY CHILDHOOD RESEARCH QUARTERLY https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0885200616301259 language and literacy; teaching practices;
We observed instruction in classes that enrolled large numbers of Latino DLLs. High-quality language and literacy instruction was relatively limited. Frequency and duration of instruction was variable. Instruction was most frequently delivered in a whole class format. High-quality instruction was predicted by features of the lessons not of the class. 29
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Wordless picture books boost preschoolers’ language production during shared reading Leydi Johana Chaparro-Moreno, Florencia Reali, and Carolina Maldonado-Carreño EARLY CHILDHOOD RESEARCH QUARTERLY https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0885200617301114 language and literacy; teaching practices;
Reading wordless picture books fosters preschooler’s language production. Instructional support is higher when reading wordless books vs. books with text. Quality of feedback predicts children’s language production during shared book reading. JOURNAL ARTICLE 2017
Linguistic and social cues for vocabulary learning in Dual Language Learners and their English-only peers Perla B. Gámez, Sabina Rak Neugebauer, Michael D. Coyne, D. Betsy McCoach, and Sharon Ware EARLY CHILDHOOD RESEARCH QUARTERLY https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0885200617300297 vocabulary; language and literacy; teaching practices; teachers;
Examined Dual Language Learners and English-only students vocabulary skills. Described teachers linguistic (syntax) and social (gesture) cues for learning. Teacher syntax predicted vocabulary in DLLs and EOs. Teacher gesture use predicted students vocabulary. Results suggest responsive language support, based on student needs, aids learning. JOURNAL ARTICLE 2017
Early education of dual language learners: An efficacy study of the Nuestros Niños School Readiness professional development program Dina C. Castro, Cristina Gillanders, Ximena Franco, Donna M. Bryant, Marlene Zepeda, Michael T. Willoughby, and Lucía I. Méndez EARLY CHILDHOOD RESEARCH QUARTERLY https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0885200617301151 language and literacy; teaching practices; social interactions; vocabulary; mathematics development;
There were positive changes on general classroom practices and those targeting DLLs. Language interactions between DLLs and their teachers and peers increased. Positive changes were observed in expressive language when assessed in English. Positive changes in receptive language were found when assessed in Spanish. Positive changes were found on Spanish alphabet knowledge & writing. There were gains in DLLs’ mathematical abilities when assessed in Spanish. Gains in receptive conceptual vocabulary were found when assessed bilingually. JOURNAL ARTICLE 2017
Impacts of a literacy-focused preschool curriculum on the early literacy skills of language-minority children J. Marc Goodrich, Christopher J. Lonigan, and Jo Ann M. Farver EARLY CHILDHOOD RESEARCH QUARTERLY https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0885200617300509 language and literacy; curriculum; professional development; early intervention;
An early literacy curriculum (with professional development) improved the code-related English skills of language-minority children. The intervention was similarly effective for language-minority and monolingual children. The intervention did not have a significant impact on language-minority children’s Spanish early literacy skills. JOURNAL ARTICLE 2018
Growth in inhibitory control among low-income, ethnic-minority preschoolers: A group-based modeling approach Daniel Pacheco, Margaret Owen, and Margaret Caughy EARLY CHILDHOOD RESEARCH QUARTERLY https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0885200616300928 30
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approaches to learning;
A 3-group solution of inhibitory control was analyzed for relations to cumulative risk and externalizing behavior. The normative and low-stable groups differed in terms of cumulative risk and externalizing behavior. Mothers reported more externalizing behaviors for children in the low-stable group while controlling for the effect of cumulative risk. JOURNAL ARTICLE 2018
Variations in Classroom Language Environments of Preschool Children Who Are Low Income and Linguistically Diverse Brook Sawyer, Sally Atkins-Burnett, Lia Sandilos, Carol Scheffner Hammer, Lisa Lopez, and Clancy Blair EARLY EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10409289.2017.1408373 teaching practices; language and literacy; teaching practices;
This study aimed to (a) provide an in-depth description of the frequency and type of language interactions that children who are low income and/or dual language learners (DLLs) experience in their classrooms and (b) examine whether differences exist in children’s language experiences based on children’s DLL status and level of English proficiency. ... Findings indicated that both lead and assistant teachers predominantly spoke in English and implemented few evidence-based language practices. Children spoke more often to peers than to teachers. Little variation was noted in the quality of the language environment for children based on their DLL status or language proficiency. JOURNAL ARTICLE 2015
Designing for diverse classrooms: Using iPads and digital cameras to compose eBooks with emergent bilingual/ biliterate four-year-olds Deborah Wells Rowe and Mary E Miller JOURNAL OF EARLY CHILDHOOD LITERACY http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/1468798415593622 language and literacy; use of technology; home language;
This paper reports the findings of a two-year design study exploring instructional conditions supporting emerging, bilingual/biliterate, four-year-olds’ digital composing. With adult support, children used child-friendly, digital cameras and iPads equipped with writing, drawing and bookmaking apps to compose multimodal, multilingual eBooks containing photos, child-produced drawings, writing and voice recordings. Children took digital cameras home, and home photos were loaded onto the iPads for bookmaking. ... We concluded that: (a) the ability to integrate photos and voice recordings with print and drawings provided new opportunities for learning and teaching not available in page-based composing; (b) the affordances of iPads for children’s learning were shaped by local language and literacy practices. JOURNAL ARTICLE 2017
Peer Effects on Children’s Expressive Vocabulary Development Using Conceptual Scoring in Linguistically Diverse Preschools Sally Atkins-Burnett, Yange Xue, and Nikki Aikens EARLY EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10409289.2017.1295585 vocabulary;
This study examined associations between the expressive vocabulary of classroom peers and children’s own vocabulary knowledge using conceptual scoring in a linguistically diverse sample of 4-year-olds who attended universal preschool programs in a metropolitan area. Higher peer conceptually scored expressive vocabulary was associated with higher conceptually scored expressive vocabulary for all children. The association was stronger for children who were dual language learners (DLLs), such that higher peer ability was associated with stronger growth in conceptually scored expressive vocabulary for DLLs across languages than for children fluent in English.
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Development of first- and second-language vocabulary knowledge among language-minority children: evidence from single language and conceptual scores J. Marc Goodrich and Christopher J. Lonigan JOURNAL OF CHILD LANGUAGE https://doi.org/10.1017/S0305000917000538 vocabulary; assessment;
This study evaluated the development of vocabulary knowledge over the course of two academic years, beginning in preschool, in a large sample (N = 944) of language-minority children using scores from single-language vocabulary assessments and conceptual scores. Results indicated that although children began the study with higher raw scores for Spanish vocabulary knowledge than for English vocabulary knowledge, this was reversed by the end of the first year of the study. Similarly, at the beginning of the study unique Spanish vocabulary scores were larger than unique English or shared Spanish–English vocabulary scores; however, by the end of the first year of the study children’s shared Spanish–English vocabulary scores were larger than unique English vocabulary scores, which were larger than unique Spanish vocabulary scores. These trends continued through the second year of the study. These results suggest that conceptual scoring is a useful assessment technique for children with limited exposure to their second language. Implications for assessment and instruction are discussed. JOURNAL ARTICLE 2013
Total and Conceptual Vocabulary in Spanish–English Bilinguals From 22 to 30 Months: Implications for Assessment Cynthia Core, Erika Hoff, Rosario Rumiche, and Melissa Señor JOURNAL OF SPEECH, LANGUAGE, AND HEARING RESEARCH https://jslhr.pubs.asha.org/article.aspx?articleid=1797298 vocabulary; assessment;
This study compares 2 measures of vocabulary in a group of young Spanish–English bilingual children to a single-language measure used with monolingual children. The total vocabulary measure resulted in mean vocabulary scores and average rate of growth similar to monolingual growth, whereas conceptual vocabulary scores were significantly smaller and grew at a slower rate than total vocabulary scores. Total vocabulary identified the same proportion of bilingual children below the 25th percentile on monolingual norms as the CDI did for monolingual children. These results support the use of total vocabulary as a means of assessing early language development in young bilingual Spanish–English speaking children. JOURNAL ARTICLE 2013
Developmental trajectories of preschool early literacy skills: A comparison of language-minority and monolingualEnglish children Christopher J. Lonigan, JoAnn M. Farver, Jonathan Nakamoto, and Stefanie Eppe DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY http://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2Fa0031408 language and literacy; Head Start;
This study utilized latent growth-curve analyses to determine if the early literacy skills of children who were Spanishspeaking language-minority (LM) followed a similar quantitative growth profile over a preschool year as that of a group of children from a comparable socioeconomic (SES) background but who were not LM. Participants, who ranged in age from 37 to 60 months (M = 50.73; SD = 5.04), included 540 Spanish-speaking LM and 408 non-LM children (47% girls) who were enrolled in 30 Head Start classrooms. ... The inclusion of child (i.e., initial language scores, age, nonverbal cognitive ability) and family (i.e., maternal/paternal education, 2-parent household, father employment) variables eliminated initial differences between LM and non-LM children on the code-related variables, and the effect was due primarily to children’s initial oral language skills. These results indicate that the early risk for reading-related problems experienced by Spanish-speaking LM children is due both to low SES and to their LM status, and they highlight the critical need for the development, evaluation, and deployment of early instructional programs for LM children with limited English oral language proficiency.
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Growth in toddlers’ Spanish, English, and conceptual vocabulary knowledge Jeannette Mancilla-Martinez and Shaher Banu Vagh EARLY CHILDHOOD RESEARCH QUARTERLY https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0885200613000318 vocabulary;
We document toddlers’ vocabulary growth in Spanish, English and conceptual knowledge. A linear growth trajectory was found. Vocabulary levels in both languages remained below monolingual national norms. Growth in English vocabulary outpaced growth in Spanish vocabulary. Attention to the conceptual score resulted in a less pronounced vocabulary gap. JOURNAL ARTICLE 2018
Academic development of Head Start children: Role of dual language learning status Ji Young Choi, Heather Rouse, and Dahyung Ryu JOURNAL OF APPLIED DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0193397317302721 Head Start; vocabulary; mathematics development;
Using a large longitudinal dataset including children who attended Head Start over two years, this study examined academic growth trajectories during the period between Head Start entry and kindergarten (2.5 years), and whether those growth trajectories differ by children’s dual language learning status. Analyses comparing three groups of children (i.e., SpanishEnglish bilinguals, Spanish-English emergent bilinguals [EBs], and English monolinguals) showed three noteworthy findings. First, bilinguals entering Head Start with English proficiency showed similar developmental trajectories in vocabulary and math to those of monolinguals. Second, EBs entering Head Start with limited English proficiency presented the lowest baseline skills in vocabulary and math. Whereas the initial vocabulary gaps generally persisted over time, gaps in math between EBs and monolinguals narrowed by kindergarten. Third, no difference was found between bilinguals and EBs in their Spanish vocabulary development. Results highlight needs for additional instructional support and resources for EBs especially in their vocabulary development. JOURNAL ARTICLE 2014
First translation equivalents in bilingual toddlers’ expressive vocabulary: Does form similarity matter? Laura Bosch and Marta Ramon-Casas THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF BEHAVIORAL DEVELOPMENT http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0165025414532559 language and literacy; vocabulary;
This research explores the emergence of TEs in Spanish-Catalan bilinguals who are acquiring two languages with many cognate words and thus languages with many cross-language synonyms with identical or similar phonological forms. ... Bilinguals were found comparable to monolinguals in every measure except for Total Vocabulary Size (Spanish + Catalan words) in which they outscored monolinguals due to the high number of form-identical cross-language elements in their expressive vocabularies. Form-similar and dissimilar TEs accounted for less than 2% of the words produced and were only present in infants with larger vocabularies. Results support the hypothesis that phonological form proximity between words across bilinguals’ two languages facilitates early lexical acquisition. JOURNAL ARTICLE 2014
Older sibling influences on the language environment and language development of toddlers in bilingual homes Kelly Bridges and Erika Hoff APPLIED PSYCHOLINGUISTICS https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/applied-psycholinguistics/article/older-sibling-influences-on-the-languageenvironment-and-language-development-of-toddlers-in-bilingual-homes/1DE8FCDA620FFF2E01EA745A56489 14D home environment; home language; language and literacy; parents; 33
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Two separate studies examined older siblings’ influence on the language exposure and language development of US-born toddlers who were being raised in bilingual homes. ... Both studies found that older siblings used English more in talking to the toddlers than did other household members and that toddlers with older siblings were more advanced in English language development. Study 2 also found that the presence of a school-aged older sibling increased mothers’ use of English with their toddlers and that toddlers without a school-aged older sibling were more advanced in Spanish than the toddlers with a school-aged older sibling. These findings contribute to a picture of the complex processes that shape language use in bilingual homes and cause variability in young children’s bilingual development. JOURNAL ARTICLE 2014
Independent effects of bilingualism and socioeconomic status on language ability and executive functioning Alejandra Calvo and Ellen Bialystok COGNITION https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0010027713002333 language and literacy; approaches to learning;
Socioeconomic status and bilingualism examined together in a factorial design. High SES associated with better performance in language and executive function tasks. Bilingualism associated with poorer performance on language tasks. Bilingualism associated with better performance on executive function tasks. Results isolate independent non-interacting contribution of each to development. JOURNAL ARTICLE 2017
Bilingual vocabulary production in young children receiving Maltese-dominant exposure: individual differences and the influence of demographic and language exposure factors Daniela Gatt INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF BILINGUAL EDUCATION AND BILINGUALISM https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13670050.2016.1179255 vocabulary; parents;
This study explored individual variability in the bilingual vocabularies of 65 Maltese children aged 23–27 months (N = 33) and 30–34 months (N = 32). ... Proportionally adjusted single-language scores showed 61.54% of children to use fewer Maltese words than expected. Maternal education level emerged as a significant predictor of Total Vocabulary and Maltese word scores, but explained very little of the variance for each. Frequency of English language exposure in main caregiver input and age group emerged as factors explaining 30.5% of the variance in English vocabulary scores. Maternal education level and frequency of English exposure may therefore act as protective factors in the vocabulary development of children receiving Maltese-dominant exposure. JOURNAL ARTICLE 2012
Predicting Spanish–English Bilingual Children’s Language Abilities Carol Scheffner Hammer, Eugene Komaroff, Barbara L. Rodriguez, Lisa M. Lopez, Shelley E. Scarpino, and Brian Goldstein JOURNAL OF SPEECH, LANGUAGE, AND HEARING RESEARCH https://jslhr.pubs.asha.org/article.aspx?articleid=1782665 vocabulary; language and literacy; parents;
In this study, the authors investigated factors that affect bilingual children’s vocabulary and story recall abilities in their 2 languages. ... Children’s exposure to and usage of their two languages as well as maternal characteristics play significant roles in bilingual individuals’ language development. The results highlight the importance of gathering detailed sociolinguistic information about bilingual children when these children are involved in research and when they enter the educational system.
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Parent Reports of Young Spanish–English Bilingual Children’s Productive Vocabulary: A Development and Validation Study Jeannette Mancilla-Martinez, Perla B. Gámez, Shaher Banu Vagh, and Nonie K. Lesaux LANGUAGE, SPEECH AND HEARING SERVICES IN SCHOOLS https://lshss.pubs.asha.org/article.aspx?articleid=2471592 vocabulary; assessment; parents; home language; Head Start;
This 2-phase study aims to extend research on parent report measures of children’s productive vocabulary by investigating the development (n = 38) of the Spanish Vocabulary Extension and validity (n = 194) of the 100-item Spanish and English MacArthur-Bates Communicative Development Inventories Toddler Short Forms and Upward Extension and the Spanish Vocabulary Extension for use with parents from low-income homes and their 24- to 48-month-old Spanish–English bilingual children. ... These findings suggest that parent reports, including our researcher-designed form, represent a valid, cost-effective mechanism for vocabulary monitoring purposes in early childhood education settings. JOURNAL ARTICLE 2017
Parent report of early lexical production in bilingual children: a cross-linguistic CDI comparison Ciara O’Toole, Daniela Gatt, Tina M. Hickey, Aneta Miekisz, Ewa Haman, Sharon Armon-Lotem, Tanja Rinker, Odelya Ohana, Christophe dos Santos, and Sophie Kern INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF BILINGUAL EDUCATION AND BILINGUALISM https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13670050.2016.1179258 vocabulary; parents; home environment; language and literacy;
This paper compared the vocabulary size of a group of 250 bilinguals aged 24–36 months acquiring six different language pairs using an analogous tool, and attempted to identify factors that influence vocabulary sizes and ultimately place children at risk for language delay. ... The results showed a wide range in vocabulary development which could be somewhat attributed to mothers’ education status, parental concerns about language development and amount of exposure to the second language. We looked at those children performing below the 10th and above the 90th percentile to determine what factors were related to their vocabulary size. Features of the entire group of lower performing children were fewer than 50 words and the absence of two-word combinations by 24 months, lower levels of parental education and parental concerns about language development. JOURNAL ARTICLE 2013
There is no coherent evidence for a bilingual advantage in executive processing Kenneth R. Paap and Zachary I. Greenberg COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0010028513000029 approaches to learning; cognition;
Bilinguals are compared to monolinguals on 19 indicators of executive processing. We report no bilingual advantages and one bilingual disadvantage. Indicators of the same component of executive processing show no convergent validity. Bilingualism does not enhance a domain-independent ability to engage in executive processing. JOURNAL ARTICLE 2015
Effects and noneffects of input in bilingual environments on dual language skills in 2 ½-year-olds Silvia Place and Erika Hoff BILINGUALISM: LANGUAGE AND COGNITION https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728915000322 language and literacy;
The present study sought additional evidence regarding three quality indicators: the percent of input provided by native speakers, the number of different speakers providing input, and the frequency of language mixing. Participants were 90 thirty-month-olds exposed to Spanish and English. Using the Language Diary method to assess input and using multiple 35
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measures of children’s bilingual skills, results replicated previous findings that the percent of input provided by native speakers is a positive quality indicator and found suggestive evidence that the number of speakers is also a positive quality indicator. There was little evidence that the frequency of language mixing is a negative indicator. JOURNAL ARTICLE 2016
Segmenting words from fluent speech during infancy – challenges and opportunities in a bilingual context Linda Polka, Adriel John Orena, Megha Sundara, and Jennifer Worrall DEVELOPMENTAL SCIENCE https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/desc.12419 language and literacy; cognition;
Previous research shows that word segmentation is a language‐specific skill. Here, we tested segmentation of bi‐syllabic words in two languages (French; English) within the same infants in a single test session. ... These findings show that segmenting words in both their native languages in the dual‐language task poses a distinct challenge for bilingual 8‐month‐ olds acquiring French and English. Further research exploring early word segmentation will advance our understanding of bilingual acquisition and expand our fundamental knowledge of language and cognitive development. JOURNAL ARTICLE 2012
Lexical access and vocabulary development in very young bilinguals Diane Poulin-Dubois, Ellen Bialystok, Agnes Blaye, Alexandra Polonia, and Jessica Yott INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF BILINGUALISM http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1367006911431198 vocabulary; language and literacy;
This study compares lexical access and expressive and receptive vocabulary development in monolingual and bilingual toddlers. ... The results revealed significant differences between monolingual and bilinguals’ expressive vocabulary size in L1 but similar total vocabularies. Performance on the Computerized Comprehension Task revealed no differences between the two groups on measures of both reaction time and accuracy, and a strong convergent validity of the Computerized Comprehension Task with the Communicative Development Inventories was observed for both groups. Bilinguals with a higher proportion of translation equivalents in their expressive vocabulary showed faster access to words in the Computerized Comprehension Task. JOURNAL ARTICLE 2016
A robust demonstration of the cognate facilitation effect in first-language and second-language naming Li Sheng, Boji Pak Wing Lam, Diana Cruz, and Aislynn Fulton JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL CHILD PSYCHOLOGY https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022096515002118 vocabulary; language and literacy;
The cognate facilitation effect refers to the phenomenon that in bilinguals performance on various vocabulary tasks is enhanced for cross-linguistic cognates as opposed to noncognates. ... The current study addressed these methodological problems by examining performance in picture naming tasks in 34 4- to 7-year-old Spanish–English bilinguals and 52 Mandarin–English bilinguals as well as 37 English-speaking monolinguals who served as controls. Stimuli were controlled for phonology, word frequency, and length. The Spanish–English bilinguals performed better for cognates than for noncognates and exhibited a greater number of doublet responses (i.e., providing correct responses in both languages) in naming cognate targets than in naming noncognates. The control groups did not show differences in performance between the two sets of words. These findings provide compelling evidence that cross-linguistic similarities at the phonological level allow bootstrapping of vocabulary learning.
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Talking to Children Matters: Early Language Experience Strengthens Processing and Builds Vocabulary Adriana Weisleder and Anne Fernald PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0956797613488145 language and literacy; vocabulary; home environment;
In this study, we explored how the amount of speech directed to infants in Spanish-speaking families low in socioeconomic status influenced the development of children’s skill in real-time language processing and vocabulary learning. ... Infants who experienced more child-directed speech became more efficient in processing familiar words in real time and had larger expressive vocabularies by the age of 24 months, although speech simply overheard by the child was unrelated to vocabulary outcomes. Mediation analyses showed that the effect of child-directed speech on expressive vocabulary was explained by infants’ language-processing efficiency, which suggests that richer language experience strengthens processing skills that facilitate language growth. JOURNAL ARTICLE 2012
How Do Infants Become Experts at Native-Speech Perception? Janet F. Werker, H. Henny Yeung, and Katherine A. Yoshida CURRENT DIRECTIONS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0963721412449459 language and literacy;
In this article, we provide an in-depth review of one learning mechanism: distributional learning (DL), which has been shown to be important in phonetic category learning. DL is a domain-general statistical learning mechanism that involves tracking the relative frequency of phonetic tokens in speech input. Although DL is powerful, recent research has identified limitations to it as well. We conclude with a discussion of possible supplementary phonetic-learning mechanisms, which focuses on the surrounding context in which infants hear phonetic tokens and how it can augment DL and highlight important linguistic differences between perceptually similar stimuli. JOURNAL ARTICLE 2014
Navigating Hybridized Language Learning Spaces Through Translanguaging Pedagogy: Dual Language Preschool Teachers’ Languaging Practices in Support of Emergent Bilingual Children’s Performance of Academic Discourse Mileidis Gort and Sabrina Francesca Sembiante INTERNATIONAL MULTILINGUAL RESEARCH JOURNAL https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/19313152.2014.981775 bilingual instruction; teachers; language and literacy; code switching; culturally responsive practices;
In this article, we describe how one dual language preschool teacher, in partnership with two co-teachers, navigated the tensions between language separation ideology and its practical realization in early bilingual education by co-constructing and enacting flexible bilingual pedagogic practices in support of Spanish-English emergent bilingual children’s participation in language and literary activities and performance of academic discourse. Teachers’ translanguaging practices of codeswitching, translation, bilingual recasting, and language brokering drew on children’s linguistic and cultural funds of knowledge, supported experimentation with new language forms, and integrated various languages and language varieties, while recognizing, validating, and expressing their shared bilingual identities. JOURNAL ARTICLE 2013
Interpreting the early language trajectories of children from low-SES and language minority homes: Implications for closing achievement gaps Erika Hoff DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY http://psycnet.apa.org/record/2012-03328-001 language and literacy; school readiness; educational outcomes; 37
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Children from low-SES and language minority homes have unique linguistic strengths, but many reach school age with lower levels of English language skill than do middle-class, monolingual children. Because early differences in English oral language skill have consequences for academic achievement, low levels of English language skill constitute a deficit for children about to enter school in the United States. Declaring all developmental trajectories to be equally valid would not change the robust relation between English oral language skills and academic achievement and would not help children with poor English skills to be successful in school. Remedies aimed at supporting the development of the English skills required for academic success need not and should not entail devaluing or diminishing children’s other language skills. JOURNAL ARTICLE 2014
Support for Extended Discourse in Teacher Talk With Linguistically Diverse Preschoolers Jennifer Wallace Jacoby and Nonie K. Lesaux EARLY EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10409289.2014.907695 Head Start; teachers; teaching practices; language and literacy; professional development;
By observing 147 literacy-based lessons in 6 classrooms and surveying 167 teachers throughout the organization, we investigated the amount of teachers’ use of extended discourse during literacy-based lessons, and when and how Spanish and/or English was used as the medium of communication. Research Findings: Only 22% of the 147 literacy-based lessons observed fostered extended discourse; the most commonly implemented lesson was characterized by a routine format of the teacher talking and the children listening. English was regarded as the language of instruction, whereas Spanish was used mostly to regulate behavior and emotions. By fitting multilevel models to the data, we found that teaching practice was relatively stable across the classrooms. KEYWORDS
approaches to learning, assessment, attention, bilingual instruction, brain development, child care, children with disabilities, code switching cognitive development, communication, culturally responsive practices, curriculum, early childhood education, early intervention,
educational outcomes, family engagement, Head Start, health, hearing, home environment, home language, language and literacy, language immersion, mathematics development, music, parents, perceptual, motor and physical development,
policy, professional development, school readiness, scientific reasoning, screening, social and emotional development, social interactions, statistics, teachers, teaching practices, tribal language preservation and revitalization, use of technology, vocabulary.
This document was developed with funds from Grant #90HC0012 for the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families, Office of Head Start, and the Office of Child Care by the National Center for Early Childhood Development, Teaching, and Learning. This resource may be duplicated for noncommercial uses without permission. 38