Write the Ship • A Journal of Student Writing 2019-2020 by Shippensburg University

WRITE THE SHIP A Journal of Student Writing 2019-2020

WRITE THE SHIP A Jour nal of St udent Wr it ing

Faculty Advisor: Dr. Laurie J.C. Cella Student Editor: Abigail Kauffman Committee Members: Isabella Brignola Mia Furby Ashleigh Kennedy Cover: "Under the Skin" by Kimberly Braet Media: black ink on book paper

Shippensburg University 2019-2020 Write the Ship is sponsored by the Department of English, the College of Arts and Sciences, and the Office of the Provost and Vice President for Academic Affairs

Student Editor’s Preface Dear Reader, Write the Ship has always prided itself on being able to create a magazine based off the extraordinary writings of the students here at Shippensburg University. For this past edition, my team and I have worked diligently to pick out these pieces that demonstrated the quality of writing were looking for. After looking through over 50+ essays, we were able to narrow it down, but not without some hesitation. It is here, with that hesitation, my team and I started to wonder about highlighting these students instead of picking “the best,” we wanted to show the courage students have in submitting their essays to strangers, and then to be judged for the quality of their work. From experience I know how hard rejection can be; whether this is at school, for a job, or in a relationship rejection can be the most painful thing. Before you in this edition is countless essays that focus on a variety of topics that may be sensitive to the reader. It takes a leap of courage to be willing to pieces like these. I know our time at school was cut short this semester due to COVID-19. Please understand that I want more than anything than to celebrate the accomplishments of our writers in person; but I know that I can only celebrate them here. While reading this edition, think about the writer. If you know someone, congratulate them on their hard work, tell them how awesome it is to be published, or just acknowledge the fact they put themselves out there, and it paid off. To say that I am proud of everyone who has helped, or even contributed in some way to this edition is an understatement. During this trying time, we were able to come together as a whole unit to over come the obstacles that we have faced this year. We did not allow our home isolation to make us falter in growth and not succeed in creating this edition. We are all Write the Ship, from the editors to staff, the professors who push along student’s works, Dr. Cella who is the ultimate back bone of the magazine, the student’s who are brave enough to submit, and to you, the reader. I hope you enjoy what you are about to read. While reading, I hope you find something that inspires you enough to walk into the unknown like these writers. I know I did. Abigail Kauffman Student Editor

Editor’s Board Preface To be published is to have your work read by your peers, accepted, and spread by others into the world. It means that your work is being given notoriety and that it is prepared for public consumption. To be published is for your work to be acknowledged and deemed worthy of praise. Isabella Brignola

My name is Mia Furby and I have been with Write the Ship for two years. My time as being part of the Executive Board has been one of the best experiences I have had since I came to Ship. Getting the chance to be published in a publication such as this is an amazing opportunity as we love to recognize academic talents. With my passion as an English Major, Write the Ship is definitely the place you want to get your hands dirty in literary work. Mia Furby

Write the Ship is an excellent opportunity for students to show their research to the campus community, to take pride in their hard-earned work, and to show others and themselves their great potential. Being part of Write the Ship’s editorial board has shown me that Shippensburg students are consistently writing high-quality essays, that they are invested in their studies, and that they truly deserve their commendation here in this publication. Congrats on being published; we look forward to see what else you accomplish at Shippensburg and beyond. Ashleigh Kennedy

Thank you for reading these wonderful essays! It is my sincere pleasure to be the faculty advisor for Shippensburg University’s undergraduate journal, Write the Ship. Once again, I have been impressed and intrigued by the range of topics, approaches and themes featured in these essays, and as always, I am humbled by the amount of tireless effort that these essays represent. Every year, I am secretly convinced that Write the Ship really can’t get any better,and every year, I am proven wrong. This year was no exception. Abby Kauffman has been an amazing Editor for this journal. Write the Ship is so much stronger under her leadership and creative vision. Special thanks to Ashleigh Kennedy, Isabella Brignola, and Mia Furby for their work on the editorial board. It has been a true pleasure to advice this editorial board, and to see this important journal in print. If you are a student inspired by what you see, please do submit your work next year! Best wishes for a wonderful summer, Dr. Laurie Cella

Contents Provost's Awards Provost's Award: College of Arts and Sciences The Female Identity: Feminism Through the Decades and The Handmaid’s Tale’s Shifting Narrative Anna D’Orazio...................................................................................................................................................................................13

Provost's Award: College of Business Brand Assessment for Hulu Bryan Rottkamp................................................................................................................................................................................22

Provost's Award: College of Education and Human Services Application of Strain Theory to the Opioid Crisis David Helm........................................................................................................................................................................................26

Week of Human Understanding Essay Contest Food Memory Emma Diehl.......................................................................................................................................................................................33

Tastes of Pakistan Dan Graci...........................................................................................................................................................................................34

Friendsgiving Tristen T. Wells...................................................................................................................................................................................35

Celebrating Diverse Traditions and Building New Bridges Samantha Mowen.............................................................................................................................................................................37

Introductory Level Course Writing Editor's Choice First Place Politics and the Roman Colosseum Ashlyn Browning................................................................................................................................................................................41

Editor's Choice Second Place Carcinogens, Cosmetics, and Feminist Issues Elise Hutzell.......................................................................................................................................................................................44

Editor's Choice Third Place Memory and Children’s Books Carson Pennings...............................................................................................................................................................................48

Black History Dianna Davis.....................................................................................................................................................................................51

What it Means to be Arab-American

Emma Tennat....................................................................................................................................................................................53

Representation of Mental Health Megan Holm......................................................................................................................................................................................57

Self-Expression as an American Citizen Rachael Grimm.................................................................................................................................................................................60

The Big Lebowski QDR #3 Ernest Frazier....................................................................................................................................................................................64

“There’s Still Some Mystery Here:” Aesthetics and Action in Station Eleven Ashleigh Kennedy.............................................................................................................................................................................68

The Pharos of Alexandria: Social Structure of Ptolemaic Egypt John Stewart......................................................................................................................................................................................71

Restful, Pastoral, and Communal Work in “Neighbors in October” and “Find Work” Ashleigh Kennedy.............................................................................................................................................................................74

Common Core’s Effects on American Education: Literature Review Madison Cosey..................................................................................................................................................................................76

Depictions of Alexander the Great in the Middle Ages Haley Jordan......................................................................................................................................................................................81

Investigating the Cultural Roots of Lansdale through Landscape Cheyenne Cravener...........................................................................................................................................................................88

The Divided States of America Sadie Walshaw..................................................................................................................................................................................92

Upper Level Course Writing Editor's Choice First Place The Ambivalence-Inducing, Lady-Killing Primal Father in Perfume Luke Hershey.....................................................................................................................................................................................97

Editor's Choice Second Place Gender Reflection Mary Nsangou.................................................................................................................................................................................100

Editor's Choice Third Place The Forgotten Founders of American Diplomacy: John and Sarah Livingston Jay and the Mission to Spain, 1779-1782 Rachael E. Rudis.............................................................................................................................................................................103

The Right to Beauty: Commoditization and Access to Cosmetic Procedures in Brazil Erika Otthofer..................................................................................................................................................................................111

A Universal Lesson Plan Angela Piper ...................................................................................................................................................................................119

Automotive Manufacturers: Electric vs. Hybrid vs. Gasoline Automobiles Maxwell Sommers...........................................................................................................................................................................129

Criminal Justice Problem: Racial Oppression Kalyn Burger....................................................................................................................................................................................134

Incarceration of Veterans with P.T.S.D. and the Social Bond Theory Nicholas Scaricaciottoli .................................................................................................................................................................138

Recidivism and Self-Control Theory Dillon Morgan..................................................................................................................................................................................142

Recidivism in the Criminal Justice System Jessica Braeunle.............................................................................................................................................................................145

Routine Activity Theory Sydney Kunkel.................................................................................................................................................................................149

How Media Influences Stigma Against Those with Mental Illness Brandon Del Valle...........................................................................................................................................................................152

Mental Health and the Criminal Justice System Briana Stouffer................................................................................................................................................................................157

Does Cryotherapy Promote Recovery From Ankle Sprains? Alison Wyland..................................................................................................................................................................................161

How Does Iron Deficiency Anemia Affect Female Distance Runners? Sydney Morgan................................................................................................................................................................................165

Education in the Dominican Republic: Issues and Goals Carson Pennings.............................................................................................................................................................................169

The Hidden Truth About Tourism and the Dominican Republic Kyrsten Mahoney............................................................................................................................................................................172

AMD Ryzen Brand Assessment Evan Kennedy..................................................................................................................................................................................175

Brand Analysis: Spotify Music Cooper Shirey..................................................................................................................................................................................179

Brand Assessment for Frontier Airlines Juho J. Saukko.................................................................................................................................................................................182

Revised Final Research Paper Jaida Oâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Neal-Sloane........................................................................................................................................................................186

Personal Gender Reflection Ty Gulley...........................................................................................................................................................................................190

Where to Invade Next Reaction Paper Zaria Robinson................................................................................................................................................................................193

Provost's Awards

Write the Ship, 2019-2020

Provost's Award: College of Arts and Sciences

The Female Identity: Feminism Through the Decades and The Handmaid’s Tale’s Shifting Narrative Anna D’Orazio ENG 460: Senior Seminar Dr. Erica Galioto Assignment Conduct primary and secondary research on a topic of your choice spanning at least 15-20 pages to fulfill the requirements of the Senior Seminar course.

Introduction: Margaret Atwood’s 1985 novel The Handmaid’s Tale is set with numerous political and religious undertones that are often seen within dystopian fictions, but its operation is undoubtedly a social commentary on the women’s rights movement that rose from the far-right political movements of the 1980s. Abortion, fetocentrism, and controlling women’s bodies have always derived meaning from theological texts, as evident through the novel’s hyper fixation on literal interpretations of the Bible, but it is also found within the historical and cultural conditions surrounding it. A troubling analysis of the novel that most scholarship tends to side by is that this is a feminist text meant to be situated as a story of survival, when in fact it tells a narrative of delineating agency and unescapable victimhood that is correlated to the culture it was created within. The television series, conversely, does the opposite. Created in 2017, the television series exemplifies larger movements of resistance for a contemporary audience where the sociopolitical lens is adapted for the new culture of women watching it. This paper thus aims to situate the novel and the television series together to exemplify that, albeit based around similar concepts and characters, they are telling separate narratives due to the political and social climate they were created within. Atwood’s novel was written in a decade where politicians placed themselves in the middle of sexuality discourses to give rise to the Antiabortion Movement in the wake of the New Right to impose conservative thinking in social contexts and policy-making. The novel therefore aimed to instill fear in readers during the 80s to promote an abandonment of this logic, whereas the television series was created in Post Trump America in the rise of the Me Too movement. Due to this, the series demonstrates overtly rebellious characters who have a more powerful scope to the threat before them. The Handmaids have

a clear motive to survive and persist because the series is created in a decade where audiences expect and need to see survival of that nature. Therefore, the feminist rhetoric had to change, and each narrative was created for its own divergent purpose to examine the specific question of what it means to be a woman within a specific historical setting. Novel Summary: Atwood imagines Gilead as a theocracy based upon Christian fundamentalism and American Puritanism. New social classes are created, and women classified in the group “Handmaid” are expected to “return to traditional values” following the fall of democracy and the implementation of a theocracy (7). These women are forced to be in constant uniformity in their costumes derived from Western religious iconography and have lost the right to work, read, or write, and have no control over their reproductive functions. Instead, they spend their time in a forced assignment with a “Commander,” whom is deemed elite and fertile, to procreate the rapidly deteriorating population. The Commanders maintain their power over the Handmaids by forcing them out of the public sphere and into the domesticated role of child-bearing, with the over-hanging threat of state-sanctioned murders to anyone who attempts to disobey or leave the structure. This controlment of reproduction allegedly stems from concern over high infertility rates caused by nuclear waste, yet the religious undertones also imply the primarily Christian tradition in Western society of outlawing abortion and birth control as reason. Gilead is described to readers through the lens of Offred in her first-person narration in a series of tapes after she leaves her Commander’s house with Nick, who either helps her escape to join the May Day resistance or is a part of the secret police force The Eye, however this information is never clarified. The tapes are listened to at a conference in the novel’s epilogue 13

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titled “Historical Notes,” and the historians listening to them also struggle to provide any clarification to Offred’s life after Gilead. Among their discussion are also various sexist remarks, causing Offred’s identity to still be repressed even in her death. This dystopian society Atwood creates is thus a logical extension of the 1980s American Extreme Right that was based upon the same Christian values Gilead has. Offred is reduced to her biological sex and is reprimanded for the ways she controls it, and she recognizes the social value she carries when her personal freedom is derailed. She claims to her audience listening to the tapes that “…if you happen to be a man…and you’ve made it this far, please remember: you will never be subjected to the temptation or feeling you must forgive, a man, as a woman” (134). Offred succumbs to a conformist attitude that was seen within the ReaganEra politics of the time in the separate social constructions of feminism, therefore, positing her as a victim to the political ideologies in place. Her narration is aimed specifically to the readers, thus presenting her story as a warning to them about the dangers looming over them with the current political climate. The following section will thus briefly discuss the historical background and feminist criticism of the 1980s to situate The Handmaid’s Tale within the specific historical context it was written within to convey these parallels. The Factions of 1980s Feminism in Reagan-Era Politics: Atwood’s novel was published in 1985, and by 1984 the United States began to severely decline in its proactive women movements that began in the 60s and 70s. Throughout Ronald Reagan’s presidency women made up “…an increasing percentage of those in the lowest-paid occupations” because “one-third of all federal budget cuts under Reagan’s presidency came from programs that served mainly women” (Neuman 859860). Reagan’s status as a conservative and his purist ideologies additionally encouraged “…pro-natalists [to bomb] and set fire to abortion clinics and [harass] their staff and patients” and “Medicaid ceased to fund legal abortions, effectively eliminating freedom of choice for most teenage girls and poor women” (860). The Equal Rights Amendment seemingly disappeared and diverging feminist attitudes thus appeared. According to Neuman, “right-wing wives such as best-selling Phyllis Schlafly made a handsome income telling other women to return home, to let their husbands provide, and to use their femininity and feminine wiles as the core of their success and fulfilment as women” (860). The term “femi-Nazi” was coined to look down upon those who disagreed with the principles Schlafly set in place to police the way women behave and think. Therefore, the media began moving into a new era of feminism 14

intended to root female identity into these subjective qualities. The political goal of this decade was to censor the female body and alter the female experience to a culturally specific form of group consciousness, and the question that still appears in the present decade was conceived: Why do we even need feminism? Therefore, it is necessary to look at this novel as a cautionary tale that pushes for the need for a universal feminism. In the mid-1980s the totalitarian decline of women’s rights pushed for varying sectors of feminism, which created the liberal and conservative identifications and paradigms still seen today. One of these feminist titles was “…‘constructionist’ or accepting the idea that gender is made by culture in history” and the other was coined “…‘essentialist,’ more inclined to the idea that gender reflects a natural difference between men and women that is as much psychological, even linguistic, as it is biological” (Rivkin and Ryan 766). These two ideas were created to deny the other, and therefore “feminism was suddenly feminisms” (767). Each perspective derived support from varying theorists, and Luce Irigaray’s 1977 book on phallocentrism The Sex Which Is Not One is a necessary constructionist theoretical to use in a cross-examination of Atwood’s novel to place it within historical context. Irigaray’s chapter “Women on the Market” uses psychoanalysis, Marxism, and feminist criticism to examine literature and culture in the transition from the 70s to the 80s to explore these new factions and the pattern of thinking that essentialists were inserting into their culture. Specifically, “Women on the Market” examines the performativity of women that has generated identities conservative movements use to endorse androcentrism. She claims androcentrism entraps repetitive behaviors and patterns of thinking that ultimately support the subordination of women. Irigaray further claims that within our culture men view women as commodities and “…circulate women amongst themselves” to create extended family structures (799). Ultimately, this exchange stems from “…women’s bodies—through their use, consumption, and circulation” which make “…social life and culture possible” as they become part of the “‘infrastructure’” we rely on to survive (799). Irigaray thus represents the pattern of thinking that is evident within The Handmaid’s Tale: the women within Gileadean society had “something that could be exchanged,” (Atwood 4) which means to say their “breeding purposes,” as they reside in a society that has been overrun with environmental pollution, toxic waste, and the over-arching fear and abandonment of birth-control and abortion (136). The Handmaids are the only existing group of women who have fertile wombs and are thus circulated amongst the group of men who are believed to be able to produce the healthiest and most elite children.

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Irigaray, like Atwood, was aware of the changing perspective of female freedom and the many areas where it was being threatened. The former claims men have the utmost desire to “…have [all the women]” and “to ‘accumulate them, to be able to count off his conquests, seductions, possessions, both sequentially and cumulatively” (Irigaray 801). Similarly, within the novel, once a Handmaid gives a successful birth, she is traded and given to another assignment, where her identity changes with her. The Handmaids lose their birth name and are instead replaced with ‘Of [their Commander’s name].’ Therefore, it is not the actual “…‘women’ that are exchanged, but as women reduced to some feature” (801) meant to demonstrate the “… product of man’s ‘labor’” and for women to be the “… bearers of value” (802). The Handmaids are precisely the marketable enterprise that Irigaray is describing because they are reduced to “two-legged wombs” and there is “…no doubt about who holds the real power” within the patriarchal society (Atwood 136). If a woman is deemed infertile, she is killed or sent away to The Colonies to be deemed an Unwoman because her value is no longer found in comparison to the others who have it. Through this exchange is the division of a caste system of differing female identities meant to elicit the usefulness of specifically stereotyped feminine values to create competition and gender tension among the women. This is ultimately done so the group avoids unity and rebellion, and hence will alleviate blaming the male figures. They police one another so universal feminism is prevented, even though they all have a “… socially valued, exchangeable body” (Irigaray 803) used as a “…mimetic expression of masculine values” the women combat each other so the hierarchical hegemony is kept in place (804). These “values” that Irigaray speaks of is in direct correlation to what is seen in the novel because the women are forced to reside in a re-clothed form in which their value can be established from the other groups, such as the Wives, the Aunts, the Marthas, the Econowives, etc. who all serve varying purposes within Gilead and are forced to return to “traditional values” that are parallel with those seen within conservative and essentialist movements. Irigaray’s 1977 argument is therefore in alignment with Atwood’s use of a cautionary tale and critique of society that yields subversive outcomes. In the 1980s, Difference Feminism was the dominating idea of feminism, which argues that inequality stems from biological difference and it therefore makes little sense to treat men and women as equals, and this is an essentialist way of thinking that the New Right metamorphosized. Throughout the novel it is apparent this ideology is also reigning throughout Gilead with the assertion that the biology, and therefore the valued and exchangeable body that Irigaray speaks

of, is what separates a Handmaid from the duties of a man. Offred is thus posited as a “fictional product of 1970s feminism, [who] finds herself in a situation that is a fictional realization of the backlash against women’s rights that gathered force during the early 1980s” (Neuman 858). Offred is placed in an alienating environment where her physical and psychical sense of self rapidly deteriorates, like the debates of feminism in the 1980s when the definition of what the term encompassed began to change. These gender divisions and the reconstructing of a woman’s position within society has a direct impact on Atwood’s purpose because the novel is a warning about what happens when feminism is repressed and biology becomes the main defensive argument for inequality. In 1984, when Atwood was writing this novel, feminism was in a deep and desperate need of a reconstruction. The reconstruction eventually begun and is currently now known of as third-wave feminism that picked up in the 1990s and is seen throughout the 2017 television series. This specific wave focused on abolishing the gender-role stereotyping that the 1980s hinged on, in addition to the generation of individuals who “…subscribed to a set of moral principles that were abstract and universalist, drawn from the natural rights doctrine of the Enlightenment or from religious faith” (Petchesky 330). These types of ideas that continue to prevail in the present environment are shaped by the cultural climates that came before them and, through the dystopian view of Gilead, Atwood exposes the questions of liberty and autonomy that were notably absent within the transition from the 1970s to the 1980s. This novel is, therefore, a call for reform in fear of what would happen if a reconstruction did not occur. It is vital to understand this history because it allows one to see that a story of survival would have been counterintuitive. Offred struggles to remember what life was like before the rise of Gilead and it is evident that when she thinks back before the change she considers her motivation to survive as foolish because she claims she “…took too much for granted” when she “trusted fate” would fix itself (27). Before the “Historical Notes” epilogue, Offred leaves little detail in her narration about her previous life and what society was like before Gilead. She can only recall small details, but she mentions that “humanity is so adaptable” and it is “truly amazing, what people can get used to” (271). Like many other women throughout the novel, and thus the extension to 1985, there is an inability to recall what ‘normal’ is because ‘normal’ has become the Gileadean society and the domination and repression one faces every day. The detailing of this submission is how Atwood’s novel does not become a story of survival, but a tale warning what the world 15

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will succumb to if change is not activated, especially with the subtle hints that the fall occurred sometime within the 1980s. Civilization fell because of the rise of extreme essentialist and conservative thinking, which is adjacent to a culture succumbing to the rise of the New Right and Difference Feminism. The 2017 Television Series: Television is naturally the dominant way modern culture is able to access stories. In the era of Netflix, Hulu, and other streaming platforms, the ways stories are visually told in their episodic format is just as crucial as understanding the narrative format of a novel. The current three seasons of the television series The Handmaid’s Tale thus creates an interesting dyad worth studying against the novel in terms of its shifting narrative and its roots in the political climate. The series began production in late 2016 and released its first season in 2017, shortly following the inauguration of Donald Trump. The plot features the same dystopian society that Atwood created; however, much of the plot revolves around Offred’s, although known as “June” in the series, plan to escape and reunite with her daughter. The episodes delineate from the novel’s structure quite often, for example, there is an episode where June attempts to escape one of the centers and nearly succeeds in her ploy until she is caught and reprimanded. This event never occurs within the novel, among other plot points such as this, that reference escape and a desire to keep subjectivity intact within a society that demands possession of it. The overall tone of the series is survivorship. Since its release the media has been flooded with editorials comparing the dystopian Gilead to modern day society. Likewise, populist far-right movements are gaining momentum in modern politics, so although the novel was meant to be a warning about the power of patriarchal forces, it is clear these forces are not entirely fictional anymore. In a culture where rape stories, abortion bans, and increasing limitations to birth control are rising, the narrative had to be modified from “This is what will happen” to “This is what you have to do to survive this,” something that viewers in modern culture are desiring the answer to. In the following section I examine the multiple instances of inserting sexual discourses into politics under Trump’s presidency, but more specifically, the rise of Trump supporters in association to the male supremacy and control of female bodies that is attempting to take down thirdwave feminism to revert into the second-wave. I will also briefly historicize the effect politics has had on the third-wave movement and its correlation to the reconstruction of the original Handmaid’s Tale narrative in the television series.

Third-Wave Feminism in Post Trump America: Feminism has changed drastically within the past few decades. This fundamental shift began in the 1990s when a new generation of women emerged to build a dynamic that allowed them to take their gender and sexuality into their own hands. This was a visibly significant change that launched feminism into its third-wave with the radical reconstruction of women’s rights. This is not to say, however, that women were no longer repressed and facing discrimination. What this means is that women embodied liberation and began to share stories that allowed other women to come forward and talk about their own experience that was not as readily available within the 1980s. Additionally, this is seen in the 2010s in the era of the Me Too movement and other political actions such as the Ford v. Kavanaugh trial and the various sexual misconduct allegations held against Donald Trump. Prior to the 1970s, “…rape was predominantly the province of men” (Plummer 66). Under their jurisdiction, rape was thus stereotyped into only pertaining to a specific group of people, such as those who ‘ask for it’ and that the only people who could possibly be rapists are those who are unable to control their sexual impulses. As seen in Irigaray’s article, this is simply untrue because the exchange of women in our culture is an ordinary occurrence that sees no boundaries like race, gender, or social class. Rape involves power and overt abuse, and in the 1990s, third wave feminists fought to reclaim and redefine the ideas the media created within modern culture in regards to the performance of gender and female sexuality. The launch of the third-wave is often accredited to the work of Andrea Dworkin where her essays and speeches were used to combat the war against the silencing and policing of women. Although Dworkin’s work is historically placed within the second-wave movement, I find it significant to situate her within the contemporary era against the politics of Trump due to her noteworthy resurrection following the election. There is one of Dworkin’s speeches that I use to synthesize against these politics and it is titled “I Want A Twenty-Four Hour Truce During Which There Is No Rape” (1983). This speech examines rape culture and warns that women “...do not have time...We don’t have forever” because of the structural system that does not allow liberation from such acts. Dworkin accordingly looks to politicians to examine the type of power exercised and institutionalized that allows rape to enter the political sphere. She claims there is a relationship between the normalization of rape and the political powers controlling the system and those who believe in that system. In her speech she addresses the rise of the Right and what that meant for feminism, and

Write the Ship, 2019-2020

she explains a cartoon she saw of Ronald Reagan as a cowboy with the text underneath stating: “‘A gun in every holster; a pregnant woman in every home. Make America a man again’” (167). I want to first consider the implications of “Make America a man again” and “Make America Great Again” and how Trump-era politics has backpedaled into the Reagan-era. These catchphrases are both used to represent the far-right and are ultimately mythological in their promises. The slogans call for action and end with the assurance that it will be achieved, thus creating a product and selling a solution for some, whereas creating a sense of fear and converting it for others. “Make America Great Again” and “Make America a man again” was never about making the country prosper in ways that it once had, if it ever had been that way before, but it is used as a disguise for multiple separate hidden agendas. Whether that is building a wall to create a border control regime, draining the swamp, or restricting access to safe abortions, the proposal is meant to divide the nation into various factions and situate them against one another, much like how feminism was divided into separate groups in the 1980s. Trump and Reagan’s campaigns both promise “…a successful and homogenous America [is] within reach, in which life would be easier, dignity for the worker achievable, and globalization at least somewhat controllable” (Sonnevend 88). These promises are what sends the country into a state of misguided nostalgia, which is to say the promise that the state of affairs can go back to what it once was in the days of the second-wave. It claims that progression, and therefore the correction of discriminatory behavior, is not necessary and supporters of these agendas can revert into a social world like that of the 80s where they were able to act “under the province of men” once more. Trump’s success in his political campaign is associated to this hope of returning to the “traditional values” of the Reagan-era. Politics encompasses two groups, Republican or Democrat, and some base their entire being around the group they are a part of because it tells them how to behave. These social groups thus force people to “…understand politics in partisan terms” which means how to think of other social groups, like gender or race for example (Kreiss 95). In the grand scheme of things, voters care very little about substantive information regarding policymaking or “rational decision-making,” but about what their political team is doing and aligning it with their identity. For Trump supporters, that meant “[seeing] the potential for American cultural and economic renewal through white nationalism, and [praying] for a return to the day when white Christian Americans could speak as they wished” without the threat of being accused as sexist, racist, etc. (97). It has never been

about information, but about voters with these mindsets intent on ‘taking their country back’ and pushing their own belief system onto others who do not follow the same behavior they wish to set in place. It may not always be the politician who believes in these acts, but supporters use them as a universal maxim to show their view point is superior and, therefore, the correct option. For instance, The Handmaid’s Tale details the use of Christianity and American Puritanism to govern and oppress others. In the era of Trump, biological determinism and the idea that one gender is superior on the basis of sex is the leading motivation for conservative mindsets to act the way they do because they situate it against their religious practices. Trump himself may never use religion, for example, to support the illegalization of abortion, but his supporters do, and it looks good for his own personal brand to just pretend he does as well. This correlates to The Handmaid’s Tale because these ideologies always begin with the citizens. In The Handmaid’s Tale the Democratic government collapsed during a planned ambush and fell into the hands of civilians who rose above it to instill their own political beliefs, and therefore identity, onto everybody living within that society. This was the fear Atwood imagined, and it is what is currently seen today. In the wake of Trump politics, civilians are attempting to roll-back the progress the Obama administration implemented by electing in officials who carry the same potentially dangerous mindsets. The movement for liberation that the third-wave calls for conflicts with the traditional gender ideology the second-wave desires to conserve. As Geraldine Heng claims in her examination of the third-wave, “Third-World feminism is haunted by its historical origins, which continue to overshadow its character and future prospects” (861). So, although the third-wave is met with support, it is still being equally met with tension to resist mobilizing change. This is why during the summer of 2019 there were increasingly high amounts of abortion bans attempting to be signed and put into effect to necessitate repetition from the Reagan-era. For example, as seen in Figure 1 on the following page, Governor Kay Ivy from Alabama signed the Alabama Human Life Protection Act in May 2019 because its “...legislation stands as a powerful testament to Alabamians’ deeply held belief that every life is precious & that every life is a sacred gift from God.” This is the attempt to “Make America Great Again” by enforcing the Reagan mindset of “Make America a man again” that Dworkin warns about with the enforcement of pregnancies. Pregnancies ultimately show the achievement of male desire, and to get rid of that is to get rid of a society built around male-centrism. This is inconceivable to a Gildean-esque society. 17

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Figure 1: https://twitter.com/GovernorKayIvey/ status/1128781312750432262

In the 1980s, as aforementioned, the goal was to create a narrative that posed as a warning to the essentialist societal model. In the 2010s, when currently residing within such a structure, the narrative of The Handmaid’s Tale had to change. Many women potentially see themselves in Offred’s position with political acts such as these continuing and threatening the way women use their agency. The television series uses Dworkin’s methodology and her popularization of “take back the night” in retaliation to Irigaray’s exchange of women, which is to say, the exchange of women is happening and so there is a rebellion against it. This survivorship is not seen within the novel, but it is done for the specific purpose of demonstrating not only the need for the third-wave, but the importance of not succumbing to victimhood in the modern decade. Victim v. Survivor: The final section of this essay will examine the four milestones the show hits that the novel does not to show the shift from victimhood to survivorship. They are as follows: 1.) Offred is given a name, 2.) Offred admits that what her Commander does to her constitutes as rape, 3.) the policing of women is less abundant and is replaced with an understanding female community, and 4.) There is a clear absence of the “Historical Notes” section and Offred’s identity is thus not erased. These differences are drastic in their approach but all aim to create a different picture of Gilead and the women who live within it to represent the one 2010s culture needs to see. 18

The first episode of the first season ends with Offred’s clear motive to survive that far passes the simplicity of novel-Offred’s “[intent] to last” (Atwood 8). In the show, after detailing flashback sequences to June’s detainment, the abduction of her daughter, and the loss of her husband, June’s last lines of the episode are “[My daughter’s] name is Hannah. My husband was Luke. My name is June” (“Offred”). “June” is a name that is not given in the novel and is similar to how the 1990 film gives Offred the name “Kate.” In the era of third-wave feminism, asserting one’s feminine identification is essential. Novel-Offred refuses to give name to her past self as she hopes that one day she can unbury it like “some treasure” (Atwood 84). The “Historical Notes” in the novel eludes to the impossibility of this ever happening and the outcome is always the loss of agency because they could not “…establish an identity for the narrator” (303). Presently, with modern women being victimized and locating themselves in a circle of self-denial due to overwhelming ideologies of the ‘she asked for it’ mindset of the second-wave, the television series had to stress the importance of not suppressing one’s own identity just to accommodate a political process. The series shows the existence of a new woman’s culture where custody of subjectivity and defying the hierarchy that demands her submission is essential for survival. The feminist rhetoric is different here because of the direct challenging of the totalitarian regime; this is not about quiet survival where the characters participate in the patriarchy in the eventual hopes that it will decease, but loud and deviant rebellion with a clear focus on pushing back against the theocracy. To viewers watching the show at home who may relate to Offred’s experience and whose identity has been nearly terminated because they have been unable to reclaim agency, this moment of giving Offred a name is pivotal. Third-wave feminism is about possession of the feminine identity, and the first step to embracing that is to assert it through a name. Just as important is the survivorship given to Offred when she verbalizes her trauma of being raped. Dworkin claims that “...men really believe that they have the right to buy a woman’s body for the purpose of having sex: that that is a right” and it is evident throughout the novel that the Commanders and eventually the Handmaids come to believe this (Dworkin 164). Rape is ultimately about sexual obedience, which is what this story shows with the job description of a Handmaid. They are to be assigned to a Commander and to operate under his commands even though the sex is unwanted on the Handmaids end. However, in the novel, Offred is hesitant to call it as such. She claims “I do not say making love, because this is not what he’s doing. Copulating too would be

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inaccurate, because it would imply two people and only one is involved. Nor does rape cover it: nothing is going on here that I haven’t signed up for” (Atwood 94). Offred’s mindset here is intriguing because she claims she has “signed up for” this type of continuum of sexual violence, yet she was forced into this position. This demonstrates the loss of agency that occurs within Gilead and the victimization that happens when a culture of political resistance places rape and abortion on a political agenda. When this happens, stories of survival are erased and turn back to the stereotyping of the second-wave. This would be dangerous to show in the wake of Me Too. For viewers to see rape and then see it discounted as such would just be contributing to the epidemic of silence that is already occurring on a global scale. Therefore, in the television series June tells Mrs. Castillo, a Mexican ambassador who is considering implementing Handmaids in Mexico, that Gilead is a “brutal place” because “they rape me...whenever I might be fertile.” When Mrs. Castillo can only utter a small apology for the maiming June experiences, June retaliates with “I didn’t choose this...So don’t be sorry...Please do something.” When Mrs. Castillo then tells June that she cannot help her, June pleads with her once more by claiming “We’re human beings. How can you do that?” (“A Woman’s Place”). Unlike novel-Offred, June can work-through the trauma she is experiencing and recognize her position in society is not representative of anything she asked for or was a willing participant in. Combatting the stereotypes around rape is always important because not doing so leads to women blaming themselves and failing to recognize what has actually taken place. Novel-Offred is a victim in her submission to these stereotypes that the second-wave implemented. She blames herself because she “signed up for” this and subsequently denies it is rape, because after all, she is simply trying to “make America a man again.” However, the existence of third-wave culture is putting a stop to this mindset. In the era of third-wave feminism, June has the tools to understand the implications of this backpedaling, and she makes it a point to find her voice of survivorship and to forge a stronger identity so she can eventually escape from the patriarchal structure. Mrs. Castillo, however, was not part of the novel. Her introduction though is detrimental with the show’s thematization of the need for a community of women who can talk and listen about their shared experiences. In the aforementioned scene, June is also asking how a woman can just stand by and allow the subjugation and rape of women to occur in front of her own eyes and not feel the need to intervene. This is not available within the novel, not even within the group of Handmaids. The Handmaids are limited

in their vocabulary with their prescribed sentences within the silenced community of Gilead. Language provides power and identification, so this is a tool that is stripped away from them by the Commanders. In the novel Offred mentions the silencing of women by claiming that “We lived in the blank white spaces at the edges of print…We lived in the gaps between the stories” (Atwood 57). She is a blank slate because she is erased from history and from others due to the silence she is forcibly enduring. She has no name and no voice, and this erases her feminine identification, but just as important, she is unable to properly work through the violence she is undergoing by living in this “blank white space” of prearranged language. The ability to speak about trauma is a necessary component in healing and to gain back any agency that may have been lost during the act itself. This is Dworkin’s testament in what it means to “take back the night”; one must put their pain into language to give meaning to the psychic wound to begin working-through the trauma. Not doing so just increases the risk of permanently embodying and internalizing the experience. Novel-Offred hence shows “…the dangers of a wound: that the self will be subsumed by it (‘personal vanishing point’) or unable to see outside its gravity (‘everything led to it’)” (Jamison 209). She blames herself for being put in this position and is unable to see the prior events that led to it. This is only increased by the lack of verbal communication between the Handmaids to discuss their experience, and their identity is thus limited to their wound/tragedy of being a Handmaid. Submitting to this status is not survivorship, but complete victimhood. Although there is a small glimmer of hope at the novel’s conclusion that she may have made it to the May Day resistance and may have met other survivors there to begin workingthrough what happened, the ending is so ambiguous that one can only assume that she met her demise. In the television series, however, the Handmaids openly speak to one another. As seen with Offred and Mrs. Castillo, they are not afraid to talk about their experiences because they know it is necessary in order to keep their voice and subjectivity alive. Constructing “…a narrative to make sense of the experience” is ultimately what the Handmaids need to do to heal (Plummer 76). Women “…need to be able to talk about their experience” (75) to begin the process of healing, and with externalizing pain through language, there is then the option of “… [building] an identity around either being a victim or a survivor” (76). June chooses to be a survivor by combatting the silence that is expected of her and giving a narrative to what is happening, thus encouraging viewers to do the same despite the ongoing battle within contemporary society that attempts to strip women of their voices. 19

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Lastly, although the series is ongoing in its third season, there is currently no “Historical Notes” episode and it is unlikely June will succumb to the same fate her novel counterpart has. At the end of season one, for example, June inspires hope to her fellow Handmaids and viewers that the revolution they keep discussing will happen with June’s proclamation that “They should never have given us uniforms if they didn’t want us to be an army” (“Night”). This quote does parallel Aunt Lydia’s declaration to Offred in the novel that she should just “think of it as being in the army,” but this quote serves a different purpose (Atwood 8). Aunt Lydia is telling Offred to succumb to the uniformity and discipline required for military practices in alignment with the duties of a Handmaid, whereas June is referencing the survival and combat skills needed to fight against a common enemy. The series examines the “take back the night” mantra that modern women need to see. Dworkin claims that women know to hide from the night, but even when they do, it threatens to come in and destroy them just as much. Eventually, the only thing left to do is submit and once that happens “...the night holds no more terror, because the victim is dead. She is very lovely, very feminine, and very dead” (Dworkin 14). The night is a fascinating symbol to use to describe the totalitarian regime of Gilead because of its overpowering threat to the Handmaids that push for their submission to the feminine role supporters of the far-right want her to be. Eventually, novel-Offred’s only way to survive is to accept her position as a Handmaid and carry on in a restricted domestic sphere. She was unable to fight the night because of the described qualities above: she lacked the qualities to assert her feminine identification by submitting to the identity given to her, she was unable to articulate what she was experiencing was rape and risked internalizing that trauma, she lacked a system of women who were able to be unified in their female pain and to properly work through the experience together, and so she thus lacks the ability to come out as a survivor as she is forever a victim lost within the patriarchy of Gilead which is what the “Historical Notes” ends up showing. On the other hand, June is the polar opposite. She holds onto all of the qualities that novel-Offred could not and she is rebellious in her movements for the future as she inspires others to follow her lead. For example, in the penultimate episode of the first season, when June finds her friend Moira working in forcedprostitution at the Jezebel sex club, Moira tells June to “…go home and do what they say.” This causes June to react by saying “Do not let them grind you down. Get your shit together. You will fight” (“The Bridge”). The women have changed their course of action: they will not submit to a society that thrives on their subjuga20

tion, and the narration techniques imply the women banding together to fight back openly. Dworkin claims that in order to “take back the night,” one must “cry ‘Enough’” but also women must “...use our collective strength and passion and endurance to take back the night and every night so that life will be worth living and so that human dignity will be a reality” (Dworkin 17). June and the fellow Handmaids plan to fight alongside one another to rebel against the Gileadean forces, and they can therefore never be lost in history because they are doing everything that requires them to survive. There can thus never be a “Historical Notes” chapter within this series. Ultimately, this is the type of narrative that contemporary women want to see when they are living in similar circumstances, and they watch with hope that they too can work together and resist any movements meant to take away their subjectivity. It is evident that the ideologies of third-wave feminism are reigning within this series due to the backpedaling of a nation that insists on reverting to the traditional second-wave in Post Trump America. The feminist rhetoric had to change because to imply that women cannot exist in this fictional realm thereby implies that women cannot survive their similar Handmaid experience in the real world. This would destabilize a viewer’s ego and, therefore, the narrative had to change due to the cultural context it was created within. Conclusion: Kenneth Plummer claims in his book Telling Sexual Stories: Power, Change and Social Worlds, “Stories are a never-ending stream. And a story told in the 1970s may need drastic revision for the 1990s” and one can see this is the case for The Handmaid’s Tale with the culture’s ever-shifting political structure and criticisms of feminism (79). In this essay I have briefly summarized the events within The Handmaid’s Tale novel and synthesized it against the television series in addition to anchoring it between two feminists to demonstrate the shifting ideologies of what it means to be a woman. It is clear through these changes that each story serves opposing aims: one is meant to show a victim to elicit immediate change in 1980s culture, whereas the other depicts a survivor to inspire hope in 2010s culture. Each narrative is catered to fit the time, the wave of feminism, and political climate it was created within. This is why the novel erases Offred’s identity and demonstrates the need for universal change. The television series, on the other hand, molds the characters to embody the mindset of contemporary women who are put in situations that seem uncontrollable, and through the bold and powerful characters learn how to control their own physicality in a resistive “army” of other women who support one another in a period

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where bodily autonomy is often questioned. Although the narratives have shifted, they remain ultimately the same because both works open avenues for conversations on what it means to be a woman, why feminism is required, and what it means to live in a world that requires action. Works Cited Atwood, Margaret. The Handmaid’s Tale. First Anchor Books, 1986. “The Bridge.” The Handmaid’s Tale, season 1, episode 9, Hulu, 07 June 2017, Hulu, https://www.hulu.com/ series/the-handmaids-tale-565d8976-9d26-4e63-866c40f8a137ce5f. Dworkin, Andrea. “I Want A Twenty-Four Hour Truce During Which There Is No Rape: 1983.” Letters from a War Zone: Writings 1976-1989. E.P. Dutton, 1988, pp. 162-171. Dworkin, Andrea. “The Night and Danger: 1979.” Letters from a War Zone: Writings 1976-1989. E.P. Dutton, 1988, pp. 13-17. @GovernorKayIvy. “Today, I signed into law the Alabama Human Life Protection Act. To this bill’s many supporters, this legislation stands as a powerful testament to Alabamians’ deeply held belief that every life is precious & that every life is a sacred gift from God.” Twitter, 15 May 2019, 5:56 p.m., https://twitter. com/GovernorKayIvey/status/1128781312750432262. Heng, Geraldine. “‘A Great Way to Fly’: Nationalism, the State, and the Varieties of Third-World Feminism.” Literary Theory: An Anthology, edited by Julie Rivkin and Michael Ryan, 2nd ed., Blackwell Publishing, 2004, pp. 861-881. Irigaray, Luce. “Women on the Market.” Literary Theory: An Anthology, edited by Julie Rivkin and Michael Ryan, 2nd ed., Blackwell Publishing, 2004, pp. 799-811.

Jamison, Leslie. “Grand Unified Theory of Female Pain.” The Empathy Exams: Essays. Graywolf Press, 2014, pp. 185-218. Kreiss, Daniel. “The Media Are about Identity, Not Information.” Trump and the Media, edited by Pablo J. Boczkowski and Zizi Papacharissi, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 2018, pp. 93-99. Neuman, Shirley. “‘Just a Backlash’: Margaret Atwood, Feminism, and The Handmaid’s Tale.” University of Toronto Press, vol. 75, no. 3, 2006, pp.857-868. Project Muse, doi: 10.1353/utq.2006.0260 “Night.” The Handmaid’s Tale, season 1, episode 10, Hulu, 14 June 2017, Hulu, https://www.hulu.com/series/ the-handmaids-tale-565d8976-9d26-4e63-866c40f8a137ce5f “Offred.” The Handmaid’s Tale, season 1, episode 1, Hulu, 26 April 2017. Hulu, https://www.hulu.com/series/ the-handmaids-tale-565d8976-9d26-4e63-866c40f8a137ce5f Petchesky, Rosalin Pollack. Abortion and Woman’s Choice: The State, Sexuality,& Reproductive Freedom. Northeastern University Press, 1984. Plummer, Ken. “Women’s Culture and Rape Stories.” Telling Sexual Stories: Power, Change and Social Worlds. Routledge, 1995, pp. 62-80. Rivkin, Julie, and Michael Ryan. “Introduction: Feminist Paradigms.” Literary Theory: An Anthology, edited by Julie Rivkin and Michael Ryan, 2nd ed., Blackwell Publishing, 2004, pp. 765-769. Sonnevend, Julia. “Fact (Almost) Never Win Over Myths.” Trump and the Media, edited by Pablo J. Boczkowski and Zizi Papacharissi, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 2018, pp.87-92. “A Woman’s Place.” The Handmaid’s Tale, season 1, episode 6, Hulu, 17 May 2017. Hulu, https://www.hulu.com/ series/the-handmaids-tale-565d8976-9d26-4e63-866c40f8a137ce5f.

Student Reflection: The research and scholarship I have conducted in the English major throughout my time at Shippensburg has often aligned with feminist texts that situate themselves to answer a seemingly simple question: What does it mean to embody the female identity? The answer is often more complex than we may imagine, and this question has pushed me to pursue a thesis in my Senior Seminar course this fall semester on the social, political, and cultural concepts in Margaret Atwood’s novel The Handmaid’s Tale (1985) and its respective television series under the same name (2017). My research examines how the novel is situated as a cautionary tale to those who read it in the 1980s to demonstrate what would occur within society if a reconstruction of the reigning second-wave conservative feminism did not happen, and the shifting narrative within the television series operates under a similar premise to match the current sociopolitical conditions. The television series has made Atwood’s classic novel a cultural icon, and through this shifting narrative we can engage in larger conversations about what it means to be a woman and how this definition has changed (or lack thereof ) within the last thirty years.

Shippensburg University

Provost's Award: College of Business

Brand Assessment for Hulu Bryan Rottkamp MGT 305: Principles of Marketing Dr. Adam Powell Assignment This is an in-depth brand assessment for the company Hulu. The work discusses Hulu’s strengths, competitors, and market. Furthermore, a recommendation is then provided for Hulu moving forward.

Introduction Hulu is a subscription-based video on demand service. Hulu was started in 2007 by News Corporation, NBC Universal, Providence Equity Partners, and Walt Disney and only featured recent shows from these networks (Hosch 2018). In 2010, Hulu began to offer full seasons of programs from these networks and other sponsors (Hosch 2018). Most recently in 2017, Hulu offered live television which gave subscribers access to linear television channels (Hosch 2018). The brand name Hulu came from the meaning of the term in Mandarin. Hulu in this language means the “holder of precious things” and “interactive recording” both of which the creators of the brand saw appropriate to their mission (Hulu’s Great Brand Experience 2013). Hulu’s tagline promotes subscribers’ ability to watch shows and movies whenever and wherever they are located. The Brand In order to discover what consumers thought about Hulu, I conducted research on social media. I asked my followers “When I say Hulu what comes to mind?” and “In what ways does Hulu differ from its competitors?”. The most common responses for the first question were the words advertisements, cheap, and variety. The most common responses for the second question commented on their partnership with Spotify for college students, Hulu’s low price, and their live television option. All in all, consumers have four main associations about Hulu. First, consumers associate Hulu with its products such as live television and streaming. Also, consumers associate Hulu with its accessibility as they can watch their shows or movies on their smartphone, computer, tablet, and television. Next, Hulu is associated with its value like its cheap prices and promotional deals. Finally, consumers associate Hulu with its competitors often naming brands like Netflix and Prime Video. 22

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Furthermore, Hulu’s accessibility, promotions, price, and quality of selection are central to the brand’s identity and it what they do well. Hulu offers a wide range of accessibility to its consumers as well as promotional deals for consumers, low prices, and a competitive quality of selection in its movies and television shows. Hulu does okay at live television as other brands have more selection of channels for less, and content selection as they rank third among competitors. Next, Hulu has various strengths and weaknesses as a company. A major strength is that Hulu is able to offer current shows just twenty-four hours after they appear on television. Also, Hulu offers exclusive series and a variety of Hulu originals. Another major strength is their ability to offer a cheap pricing option that includes watching commercials, which none of their competitors offer. More of Hulu’s strengths include its offering of over sixty channels with live television, its bundle with Spotify where college students can access both for just five dollars per month, and its ability to expand internationally as shown by their expansion to Japan. One weakness of Hulu is that their base plan users can only stream from one device at a time (The Pros and Cons of Hulu – Should You Subscribe? 2018). The Industry and Competitors Hulu is a part of the video streaming industry, the main competitors for Hulu in this industry are Netflix, Amazon Prime Video, and HBO Now. Starting to stream in 2007, Netflix dominates the video streaming

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industry in the United States as they have approximately 60.2 million subscribers (Number of Netflix Subscribers 2019). Starting to stream in 2008, Amazon Prime Video has approximately 26 million subscribers in the United States (How Does Amazon Prime Compare to Netflix? 2019). Created in 2015, HBO Now has approximately 5 million subscribers in the United States (Watson 2019). Finally, Hulu currently has approximately 29 million subscribers which ranks it second in the industry (Raghunath 2019). In the video streaming industry Hulu ranks high relative to its competitors. Currently Hulu’s biggest appeal is its low price compared to competitors. Hulu’s cheapest plan begins at $5.99 per month while both Amazon Prime and Netflix start at $8.99 per month (Levenson 2019). HBO Now has a high price point in the industry costing $14.99 per month (Schafer 2019). Hulu is in the middle of its competitors in the amount of selection that they offer. Hulu contains 1,650 shows and 2,500 movies, while Amazon Prime offers 1,981 shows and 18,405 movies, Netflix offers 1,609 shows and 6,494 movies, and HBO Now offers just 75+ shows and a limited selection of movies (Spangler 2016). Furthermore, Hulu is at the top of its competitors, tied with Netflix, in the quality of selection offered (Clark 2019). Netflix is currently dominating the video streaming market, as they are the only streaming service available in many different countries. This creates an opportunity for other brands to penetrate the market with lower prices and competitive selection, allowing them to capture a share of the market. The biggest threat to disrupt Hulu’s position within the video streaming industry is new streaming services. Disney +

is set to release November 12th, 2019 and is a big threat to Hulu. Two of Hulu’s most popular streamed movie series, Star Wars and Marvel, will be removed and can only be accessed through Disney +. Disney + will be priced at $6.99 per month which is close to Hulu’s industry low price (Sorrentino 2018). Also, companies including Apple and Time Warner have been rumored to be soon releasing their own streaming services which will further take market share away from Hulu. Recommendation My recommendation for Hulu is that they expand their services outside of the United States to the United Kingdom in order to capture some of video streaming market share that is dominated by Netflix. The United Kingdom has a strong desire for Hulu as there are countless articles on the internet explaining how to watch Hulu in the United Kingdom with a virtual private network. Currently Netflix has approximately 151 million subscribers in 190 countries compared

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to Hulu’s 29 million in just 2 countries (Janes 2019). The United Kingdom has a population of 65.64 million and Netflix only has 33.8% user penetration there (Lynch 2018). This gives Hulu the chance to capture a large portion of the UK and take away some of Netflix’s share. Recently Hulu has begun to surpass Netflix in growth in the United States, so Hulu’s next challenge should be attempting to surpass Netflix in growth internationally and close the gap in number of subscribers. Conclusion Hulu is a subscription video on demand and live television service that was created in 2007. Hulu is the second most popular video streaming service in the United States but has recently doubled Netflix in number of subscribers added during the first quarter of 2019. The biggest threat to Hulu are companies like Disney + and Time Warner that are soon to release their own video streaming services and will likely pull their shows from Hulu. My recommendation to combat these threats and the potential loss of revenue would be to expand its services outside the United States, to the United Kingdom, in order to capture a portion of the video streaming market that is dominated by Netflix. References Clark, T. (2019, September 6). We compared Netflix, Hulu, Amazon, and HBO to find the best service for every kind of viewer. Retrieved November 12, 2019, from https://www.businessinsider.com/netflix-vs-hulu-vsamazon-vs-hbo-which-is-better-2019-9#here-are-thekey-takeaways-for-each-service-6. Hosch, W. L. (2018, March 16). Hulu. Retrieved November 11, 2019, from https://www.britannica.com/topic/ Hulu. How Does Amazon Prime Compare to Netflix? (2019, June 24). Retrieved November 12, 2019, from https://marketrealist.com/2019/06/ how-does-amazon-prime-compare-to-netflix/.

Hulu’s Great Brand Experience. (2013, May 30). Retrieved November 10, 2019, from https://brandfolder.com/ blog/hulu. Janes, D. A. (2019, October 18). Looking to Quit Cable for Good? These Are the Very Best Streaming Services Now. Retrieved November 12, 2019, from https://www. oprahmag.com/entertainment/tv-movies/a28955582/ best-tv-streaming-service-guide/. Levenson, J., & Waniata, R. (2019, October 17). Netflix vs. Hulu vs. Amazon Prime: Battle of the streaming giants. Retrieved November 12, 2019, from https://www.digitaltrends.com/home-theater/ best-on-demand-streaming-services/. Lynch, J. (2018, July 18). The 10 countries where Netflix is the most popular. Retrieved November 11, 2019, from https://www.businessinsider.com/ netflix-countries-most-popular-user-penetration-2018-7. Number of Netflix subscribers 2019. (2019, October 18). Retrieved November 11, 2019, from https://www. statista.com/statistics/250934/quarterly-number-ofnetflix-streaming-subscribers-worldwide/. Raghunath, A. (2019, June 24). Hulu’s Subscriber Base Rises to 28 Million-How Netflix Compares. Retrieved November 11, 2019, from https://marketrealist. com/2019/06/hulus-subscriber-base-rises-to-28-millionhow-netflix-compares/. Schafer, D. (2019, November 5). HBO GO vs. HBO NOW: Which One Should You Get? Retrieved November 12, 2019, from https://www.highspeedinternet.com/ resources/hbo-go-vs-hbo-now. Sorrentino, M. (2019, November 11). Disney Plus: Get ready for launch at midnight PT. Retrieved November 11, 2019, from https://www.cnet.com/news/disneyplus-streaming-service-launch-timing-dates-pricesshows-movies-mandalorian/. Spangler, T. (2016, April 25). Amazon Prime Video Has 4 Times Netflix’s Movie Lineup, But Size Isn’t Everything. Retrieved November 11, 2019, from https://variety. com/2016/digital/news/netflix-amazon-prime-videomovies-tv-comparison-1201759030/. The Pros and Cons of Hulu – Should You Subscribe? (2018, December 5). Retrieved November 11, 2019, from https://www.techjunkie.com/pros-and-cons-of-hulu/. Watson, A. (2019, September 17). U.S. number of HBO subscribers. Retrieved November 11, 2019, from https://www.statista.com/statistics/329288/ number-of-hbo-domestic-subscribers/.

Student Reflection: Writing this brand assessment for Hulu required a lot of time, work, and focus. I first needed to understand Hulu as a brand and how the company was attempting to portray itself to potential consumers. The first step was determining Hulu’s associative network. In this step, I performed primary research on social media where I asked my followers question about the brand. After this, I needed to determine the strengths and weaknesses relative to its competitors. Finally, I needed to research the entire streaming industry, including primary competitors. At the end, I needed to piece all of the information together to provide a recommendation going forward. Overall, this project was extremely worth-wile and educational. I got to research and understand the true makings of a brand, and through my analysis create a recommendation based on data.

Shippensburg University

Provost's Award: College of Education and Human Services

Application of Strain Theory to the Opioid Crisis David Helm CRJ 309: Theories of Crime and Crime Control Dr. Laura Beckman Assignment The student was instructed to select a criminal justice topic of importance and give a background of why the topic is significant. They were also instructed to choose an applicable criminological theory, thoroughly define it, and apply it to the chosen topic.

Introduction The opioid crisis is believed to have started in the 1990’s when pharmaceutical companies convinced healthcare providers to start prescribing opioids in greater amounts under the assumption that patients would not become addicted to them (DHS, 2018). This assumption was gravely wrong, and the increased prescription of these opioid medications led to chronic misuse of the prescribed and street opioids. By the time it was realized that these prescribed opioids were, in fact, highly addictive, the misuse was already widespread throughout most of the country. The HHS declared the opioid crisis a public health emergency in 2017. To put the crisis into perspective, according to the DHS, 10.3 million people in 2018 misused prescribed opioids with 2 million of those misusing them for the first time. In addition, over 47,000 people died from overdosing on opioids, both prescription and non-prescription. The most infamous opiate is heroin - 808,000 people reportedly used heroin in 2018 and 81,000 for the first time (DHS, 2018). These numbers are only reported values and are likely much higher. There are also other synthetic opioids which are much more potent and deadly being introduced into society, such as fentanyl. These are typically used as cutting agents and are actively fueling the opioid crisis since they are cheap to produce (Saferstein, 2018). Since fentanyl is so potent and lethal in small amounts, it is becoming an increasingly large cause for overdose deaths. By applying criminological theories to drug addictions, perhaps an underlying cause for addictions can be identified and addressed, potentially preventing future addictions from occurring and curbing the opioid epidemic. Classic strain theory, developed by Merton in 1938, has attempted to draw a relationship between the retreatism adaptation to strain and drug addiction (Fazey, 1973). This was before classic strain theory 26

was expanded upon by Robert Agnew in 1992 with his development of general strain theory. After Agnew expanded on Merton’s classic strain theory, additional sources of strain were studied for their potential role in crime. In this report, both classic and general strain theories will be explained, then applied, to the opioid epidemic to identify underlying causes of drug addictions with emphasis placed on prescription opiate abuse/misuse. Then, potential solutions will be extrapolated from the causes that could potentially slow down the opioid epidemic to, hopefully, a manageable level where more preventative methods could be effectively implemented. Overview of Strain Theory (Classic) Strain theory was first devised by Robert Merton in 1938. In his article, Social Structure and Anomie, Merton blamed American society for the high prevalence of crime. He defined strain as essentially the “extreme pressure to succeed” (Merton, 1938). He described how strain is more heavily prevalent for the lower class who have less opportunities to achieve the American Dream but still feel the pressure to achieve that success. Additionally, Merton categorized societies’ adaptations to strain into five categories according to their conformity to culture goals and institutionalized means (Merton, 1938). Adaption I is conforming to the existing system, meaning that these individuals accept the cultural goals of success and the means of attaining that success. Typical college students are an example of people who fall under adaptation I. Adaptation II are the innovators, which accept the cultural goals of success but reject the institutionalized means of attaining that success. Individuals in this category desire to attain success but will typically resort to illegal means of attaining it, such as drug dealers. Adaptation III is ritualism. These individuals have dropped the cultural goal of success but have maintained the institutionalized means of attaining it; such

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as someone who maintains a job but has no aspirations for a promotion, and in doing so, has fallen into a “ritual”. Adaptation IV is retreatism. These individuals have removed themselves from conventional society by dropping both the cultural goals of success and the institutional means of attaining it. These tend to be the individuals who succumb to drug addictions or homelessness, or both in most cases. Lastly, Adaptation V is rebellion. These individuals reject the existing system of goals and means and want to replace it with a new system of goals and means. Activists who want to overhaul capitalism and instill socialism and/ or communism in its place would fall under this adaptation. Merton stated in his 1938 article that in every stable society, adaptation I is the most common, and adaptation IV is the least common. Evidence for Merton’s classic strain theory is mixed. However, it is still a popular theory nonetheless and is commonly cited in studies. Overview of Strain Theory (General) Merton’s classic strain theory, since its conception, was the most prominent theory applied in deviance research up until the 1970’s when it was subject to heavy scrutiny by other theorists such as Travis Hirschi and Michael Gottfredson; among others (Agnew, 1992). Classic strain persisted through the attacks from these other theorists, but its credibility and influence were severely questioned. Then, in 1992, Robert Agnew argued that strain theory was still a very relevant theory to explain delinquency and crime, however it needed to be heavily revised to regain its influence (Agnew, 1992). This led to Agnew’s general strain theory. In his 1992 expansion of classic strain, Agnew redefined strain from the extreme pressure to achieve success to disliked and unwanted events and conditions that make people feel bad/angry (Turanovic & Pratt, 2013). Most notably, Agnew expanded on Merton’s classic strain by including strains that were outside the pressure to achieve economic success (Agnew, 1992). He did so by proposing that there were three sources of strain: (1) actual or anticipated failure to achieve positively valued goals, (2) actual or anticipated removal of positively valued stimuli, and (3), actual or anticipated presentation of negatively valued stimuli (Agnew, 1992). Agnew acknowledged that not everyone who feels strain from one of those sources will commit a crime or pursue a criminal adaptation. So, because of this, Agnew defined four factors that increase the likelihood of a criminal adaptation in a 2001 study. Firstly, if the strain is seen as unjust, such as a boss promoting an unqualified close friend instead of a qualified employee, this could increase the likelihood of the strain experienced by the qualified employee resulting in a criminal adaptation. Secondly, if the strain is

large in magnitude, such as a death of a highly-viewed individual, that could result in the criminal adaptation of that strain (Agnew, 2001). Thirdly, if the strain is caused by or associated with low self-control, it increases the likelihood of resulting in criminal adaptation. Low self-control itself has been proven to lead to increased criminal adaptations (Gottfredson, Hirschi, 2005). Lastly, if the strain creates pressure or incentive to engage in criminal coping, then, obviously, it will increase the likelihood that the strain will result in criminal adaptation (Agnew, 2001). One last argument that Agnew makes is that crime is a form of maladaptive coping to strain (Agnew, 1992). Not everyone who experiences strain and negative emotions will commit a crime, but individuals with certain predispositions will be more likely to pursue maladaptive coping. Agnew’s general strain theory has consistent evidence that exposure to strain increases crime. There is also evidence that supports the claim that strain and negative emotions (primarily anger) combined lead to crime. Summary of Studies To consider prescription drug misuse that contributes directly to the opioid crisis, a study was conducted looking into trends in abuse of OxyContin and other opioid analgesics in the U.S. (Cicero, Inciardi, Munoz, 2005). This study surveyed zip codes to probe into trends where prescription opioid misuse was more prevalent or less prevalent. The findings of the study reported that there was considerable increase in prescription drug misuse in all surveyed zip codes, with OxyContin and hydrocodone being the most frequently abused (Cicero et.al., 2005). The study concluded that steps needed to be taken to curb the misuse of the prescriptions, but caution needed to be taken that the steps taken did not impede on the access to prescription opioids of users who use the drugs appropriately and do not abuse them. Recently (within the past 10 or so years) there has been increased interest in surveying non-medical prescription drug usage among college populations (Ford, Schroeder, 2009; Pedalono, Frailing, 2018). Over the course of roughly a decade from 1989-2002, the amount of non-medical prescription drug use increased substantially from 7% to 22% with little evidence of slowing and/or reversing (Ford, Schroeder, 2009). Ford and Schroeder in the same 2009 study revealed that academic strain to succeed was strongly linked to the increased non-medical usage of prescription drugs. Other reasons the prescriptions were being misused were experimentation, getting high, relaxation, sleep-aids, and pain control. Most prevalent was to enhance mental alertness and intellectual performance (Ford, Schroeder, 2009). These findings were mirrored 27

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in Pedalono and Frailing’s 2018 study of prescription drug misuse among honors students. One additional observation from Pedalono’s 2018 study was that students with low self-expectations were more likely to misuse prescription stimulants. One fact to consider with Pedalono’s study, however, was that the study was conducted around Mardi Gras, where alcohol and drug use is substantially elevated. So, it was noted that the data itself may have had inflated figures (Pedalono, Frailing, 2018). Another limitation of the studies is that, within the three types of strain defined by Agnew’s 1992 general strain theory, there are hundreds if not thousands of strains that can lead to elevated prescription drug misuse among college and honors students. With that, it would be very difficult to survey what all specific strains could be leading to the misuse, only the most prominent contributors would be asked about/noted. One of the most prominent strains among college students, particularly honors students, was academic strain to achieve the high expectations that themselves and family had set. Agnew’s 2001 addition to general strain theory also mentioned that negative school experiences, the inability to achieve selected goals, and peer abuse could be significant contributing factors to criminal adaptations, or prescription drug misuse in this case. The elevated misuse of prescription opioids, particularly among college students, can be partially explained by the classic definition of strain, being the extreme pressure to succeed (Merton, 1938). This extreme pressure can stem from trying to meet their parents’ and/or relatives’ high expectations of them, or high expectations from within themselves or from professors. College students typically fall under adaptation I, as discussed previously. However, if the pressure to succeed becomes too large in magnitude, and the individual feels they cannot meet the expectations through their own power, they may look to opiates or prescription opiates to help them relieve the strain. Explaining the elevated misuse of prescription opioids using Agnew’s general definition of strain gets a bit more challenging. Academic strains would likely fall under actual or anticipated failure to achieve positively valued goals. This strain could push students and honors students to misuse and/or abuse prescription opiates to relieve this strain or to give them a feeling that they could overcome this strain and enhance their academic performance. Building on that, most college students view their academic performance during their college career very seriously. Because of this, a strain that could jeopardize their performance, and in turn, their college career, could be described as high in magnitude. This would increase the likelihood of a criminal adaptation to the strain (Agnew, 2001). In this case, the strain would be primarily academic strain due to the pressure to perform well academically. 28

Proposition of Potential Solutions The opioid epidemic is ravaging mostly the younger population (~20-40-years old) and is showing no signs of stopping. Greater awareness of the consequences of opioid abuse to the younger generation (<18 years old) could be a good start to aiding the problem. Many schools have drug education classes in some capacity, but perhaps a greater focus towards opiates could be beneficial. This is because if the students, after taking those classes, are more educated about the potential dangers of taking opiates, they may look for more healthy coping mechanisms to deal with the academic and social strains that they may face. Another solution would be to provide greater funding into medical research for pain relievers that are not derived from opiate plants and are non-addictive. This would aid in preventing misuse and abuse of prescription drugs because if they are not addictive, it could discourage continued abuse of those substances. If the medical/prescription aspect of the opiate crisis is handled to a manageable state, then, if possible, funding could be invested into added national security which could be placed into drug detection at the nation’s borders. This could aid in slowing the flow of opioids into the nation and could slow the crisis even more. A more rehabilitative approach would be to increase local funding or provide government subsidies to highly affected areas to construct rehabilitation centers aimed at treating people with opiate additions by breaking their habits, by teaching and educating them on healthier ways to cope and deal with strain, and becoming functioning members of society once more. With the knowledge that they would then have on healthier coping methods, they could then spread that knowledge and potentially support other people with addictions with their strains. Concerning prescription abuse in college settings, a potential solution that could be relatively easy to implement would be to install mentor programs where incoming students are paired with responsible upper-class students who could encourage them and potentially keep them from abusing prescription or non-prescription medications. They could do this by encouraging good study techniques and constructing peer-support networks that would alleviate the magnitude of academic strain felt by the incoming students, thus removing the need for them to turn to opiates. This would be an important step to curbing prescription misuse in college settings because it is an inexpensive program that would be beneficial to all parties involved. Also, colleges could be more proactive in advertising options on campus if a student is experiencing excessive academic strain that could be pressuring them into abusing prescription or non-prescription opiates and/or considering doing so. This could also

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relieve the amount of strain felt by the student and make them feel supported so that they will not feel the need to turn to opiates to gain an academic advantage. Conclusion The purpose of this report was to apply strain theory to the opiate crisis with an emphasis on prescription opiate abuse/misuse. This is important because it is believed that the increased frequency of opioid prescriptions was what sparked the epidemic in the 1990’s (DHS, 2018). So, if the frequency of opioid prescriptions is drastically slowed, or if there are alternatives, stopped altogether, then the opioid crisis could be slowed to a point where more rational measures could be implemented which could possibly end it. It’s an optimistic view, but if the correct steps are implemented correctly, then even a small step could make a huge difference. References Agnew, R. (1992). Foundation for a general strain theory of crime and delinquency. Criminology, 30(1), 47-87. Agnew, R. (2001). Building on the foundation of general strain theory: Specifying the types of strain most likely to lead to crime and delinquency. Research in Crime and Delinquency, 38(4), 319-361. Cicero, T.J., Inciardi, J. A., Munoz, A. (2005). Trends in abuse of OxyContin and other opioid analgesics in the United States. Journal of Pain, 6, 662-672.

DHS. (2018). About the U.S. opioid epidemic. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Retrieved from: https://www.hhs.gov/opioids/about-the-epidemic. Fazey, C. (1973). Merton, retreatism and drug addiction: The testing of a theory. Sociological Review, 21, 417-436 Ford, J. A., Schroeder, R. D. (2009). Academic strain and non-medical use of prescription stimulants among college students. Deviant Behavior, 30, 26-53. Gottfredson, M. R., Hirschi, T. (2005). A general theory of crime. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. Merton, R. (1938). Social structure and anomie. American Sociological Review, 3, 672-682 NIDA. (2017). Overdose death rates. Retrieved from: https:// www.drugabuse.gov/related-topics/trends-statistics/ overdose-death-rates. Pedalono, J., Frailing, K. (2018). General strain theory and prescription drug misuse among honors students. Journal of the National Collegiate Honors Council, 19, 85-103 Saferstein, R. (2018). Criminalistics: an introduction to forensic science (12th ed.). New York City, NY: Pearson Education. Schroeder, R., Ford, J. (2012). Prescription drug misuse: A test of three competing criminological theories. Journal of Drug Issues, 42, 4-27. Turanovic, J., Pratt, T. (2013). The consequences of maladaptive coping: Integrating general strain and self-control theories to specify a causal pathway between victimization and offending. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 29, 321-345.

Student Reflection: This assignment gave me a lot of insight into a side of the opioid epidemic that is not covered very much in the mainstream media. It was fun and very interesting to dive into relevant academic research on the opioid epidemic and it also presented me with a great opportunity to display my understanding of a concept learned in lecture.

Week of Human Understanding Essay Contest

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Food Memory Emma Diehl UNIV 101: First-Year Seminar Professor Heather Wadas

My best food memory takes place when my senior class and I traveled to San José, Costa Rica for our senior class missions trip. Coming from the United States, I knew that the food would be an altogether different experience there in comparison to the United States. The culture would be unlike anything I had experienced before, and while we had been prepared for the change, the food was still one thing that we knew we would all have to get accustomed to. While on the trip, we worked in a part of Costa Rica that was deeper in poverty than the rest of the country. The streets in this desolate part of Costa Rica were narrow dirt paths with shacks lining both sides. The shacks were decrepit and falling to pieces. It was hard to understand how living was possible in such a poverty-stricken area where it seemed things were just falling apart, since my class and I all had beautiful homes to live in back in the United States. We spent time with the children of the area and played games with them, while the children loved every bit of the attention and adoration we gave them. After participating in activities with some of the local children, the Costa Ricans who worked in the community kitchen cooked us some traditional Costa Rican cuisine. It was chicken and rice with some carrots and corn mixed in. I thought at the time that it did not look like much and was unsure of how it would taste. After all, it was a more desolate place of the country; the food could not be that good, could it? But after trying the meal, it was one of the best meals I have ever had. The chicken and rice had such a savory chicken flavor and was seasoned so well that my class and I all found ourselves going back for second helpings and maybe even third helpings. I complimented the cooks on the delicious meal and learned more

about the food and the people who made it. I enjoyed being able to learn about those who made the meal and how their lives and culture differed from the United States. I was able to empathize more deeply with them and understand what it was like to live in the more desolate places of Costa Rica, as well as admire their positivity in life despite their living situations. The cooks and my class had a chance to bond and build relationships that we still treasure and hold on to. This memory of my time in Costa Rica as well as the food there reminded me that you “shouldn’t knock it until you try it” and that food can bring people together, no matter where you are from. I use this experience from Costa Rica to show others that no matter where you are from or no matter how different your culture can be from someone else’s, there is always something that you can agree on or that can bring you together. Experiences like mine can open your mind to others’ cultures as well as just be able to understand people on a deeper level. By engaging with people of other social circles or other cultures, you are able to meet new people and open your mind to new relationships and ways of thinking. I had been unsure of how I would understand the Costa Rican culture or build relationships with people who seemed so different from me in many ways. But after spending time with the Costa Ricans and learning more about their culture, and even taking part in different aspects of it, I was able to build relationships with them as well as fall in love with a culture that was unlike my own. I learned that people from different cultures can not only teach you things about them and their culture but can also teach you things about yourself that you may not otherwise have learned.

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Tastes of Pakistan Dan Graci UNIV 101: First-Year Seminar Dr. Laurie Cella

The first time I tasted this sensational dish was a mistake. It was 8 years ago; I remember the day being cold and I had a basketball game to attend, but I hadn’t eaten lunch yet. My father just happened to bring home some left-over Tikka Masala from a restaurant called Zahra. Being the curious child, I was, I wanted to try this meal, I had never heard of. This is where I made my mistake. I was young and not yet accustomed to spicy food like I am now. So, eating Tikka Masala right before a basketball game was not a good idea. You can imagine I didn’t spend much time on the court that day. But regardless of the intestinal pain this meal caused me, it didn’t change the fact that I absolutely loved it. Tikka Masala is tender boneless pieces of chicken that are broiled in a day oven, then cooked in a butter sauce with tomatoes and unions. This was a taste I had never experienced, and from my first bite, I was hooked. The flavor was fantastic, and the consistency of the paste and quality of the chicken was perfect. Looking back on the dish, it wasn’t very spicy at all, but 10-year-old me would have to disagree. After eating it for the first time, I knew I had to have it again, so it wasn’t long before I dragged my father and brother out of the house, to eat Tikka Marsala at Zahra once more. Then once more became about a hundred times more. I couldn’t get enough of this new taste, and Zahra quickly became my favorite restaurant. Zahra’s cuisine is Middle Eastern and Pakistani food. I hadn’t before known what Pakistani food consisted of, but it didn’t take long for it to become, in my opinion,

the best cuisine. With dishes such as Chicken Jalfrezi, Butter Chicken, and Lamb Saag, I was opening my taste buds to new experiences, and I enjoyed every bite. After years of eating spicy food, I have built a tolerance that most people would be impressed with. I believe that there is no better sensation than eating a spicy dish with a great flavor. Overtime, my passion for this restaurant had grew, and I started to get to know the people behind the restaurant. We shared interests and desires for food and in sharing these thoughts, I got to learn more about Middle East culture and what shaped the flavors. I also gained a new appreciation for trying things I wouldn’t typically have tried, such as lamb or falafel. The father who owns the restaurant, was always kind, and would treat his customers with much respect. Coincidently, my mother is a kindergarten teacher, and she had his daughter in her class. After knowing this, the father was even more kind than before, and it was always a true pleasure eating at his restaurant. I have never even come close to liking a dish as much as I liked Tikka Masala. I very much enjoy Thai food, and Italian food, but they do not have any dish that is as tasty as Tikka Masala. I am fonder of my basketball story now, than at the time, and I am happy that I have been given the opportunity to experience such tasty foods. Eating foods that I wouldn’t typically eat at a young age, has helped me grow as a person. Being at Shippensburg keeps me about 45 minutes away from Zahra, but every time I go home, you can guess what I’m getting for lunch.

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Friendsgiving Tristen T. Wells UNIV 101: First-Year Seminar Professor John Bloom

Friendsgiving is a tradition everyone should experience at least once. As the name suggests “Friendsgiving” is similar to Thanksgiving but is reserved for only your pals. Nothing is better than sitting down with good friends and enjoying a meal together. It’s a ritual we’ve been practicing since the beginning of human history. Eating together has a social and profoundly spiritual meaning. It’s a time for connecting to one another. Some of us aren’t fortunate enough to have families to come home to on the holidays. Many of us would sadly prefer to not come home at all. Having a place where you feel welcomed and accepted is important. Sometimes the Thanksgiving table at Grandma’s just isn’t a place you feel wanted. Its sad but for many of us it’s true. Not everyone has a healthy family dynamic. Sometimes holiday get togethers feel more like a verbal UFC match, rather than a quaint little gathering. This makes many of us view the calander with a sense of dread. That’s why Friendsgiving is so important. You can pick your friends, but you can’t pick your family. Some of us need a place to call home and some of us need a home, away from home. That’s just the experience Friendsgiving can provide. It has the power to warm the hearts of everyone, while providing those you care for with a safe place. The kind of place where judgment is left at the door. Despite our reason for celebrating, the tradition of Friendsgiving grows stronger every year. I remember my first Friendsgiving well. On the day before Thanksgiving, one of my closet friends, David, called me asking if I could video chat him for Thanksgiving. Confused I pried for more information. Apparently, his family left for a vacation a week prior, and due to being unable to get off work, he was left with no choice but to stay behind in his apartment and somberly eat a turkey tv dinner. It was his first holiday alone and as an extrovert, it really seemed to bother him. Hearing this, I decided he should come over to my house, the day after thanksgiving. I proposed that we gather all of our friends, as well as our leftovers, so that we could celebrate our own version of Thanksgiving. I told everyone to dress nice and arrive for dinner by 7pm. Everyone took quickly to the idea and got to work. The following night I put on a simple button up shirt and a pair of kakis. I then proceeded to

make sure everything went according to plan. Once the guests arrived, to my amusement everyone was dressed very different. We had the woman in cardigans, and all sorts of dresses. Then the men wearing sweater vests, polos, and 3-piece suits. Then of course there is always that one person in jeans and a t-shirt. This mishap aside, it did make the occasion have an air of childish fun. We all laughed as we feasted on various reheated Thanksgiving leftovers. We also ate a homemade dish, which came courtesy of my mother. It was genuinely a good time. It made me happy to see my friends enjoy themselves. They appreciated it. I remember David’s gratitude specifically. He stood up wearing his ridiculous red velvet suit, grasping onto his drink, being careful not to clink his rings against the delicate crystal glassware, before calling all to attention. Everyone was enthralled in their own conversations of course. The room was too lively, so I shouted profanity, as you do, until they all saw realized what was happening. The room grew quiet, as the floor was his. He raised his glass and offered a toast. He thanked us all for being there and coming together for one another. It wasn’t his house so that part of the toast kind of stole my thunder but hey, he was excited. Regardless, he thanked those who cooked and gave praise to the food. Then told us how despite not being blood, we are all brothers and sisters. We were family. He was proud to say that no matter the struggles we faced, we always have each other. He expressed how thankful he was to have friends like us. We then went around raising our glasses and instinctively sharing what we were thankful for, all of us. This of course ensued with some goofiness and mild teasing. Some of us jested with response like “alcohol!” or “women!” but most of those statements were followed with meaningful statements. I could tell that what was happening, was something meaningful to all of us. I think having the chance to experience Friendsgiving is something most people would appreciate and enjoy. The gesture may touch others and give them a chance to belong to something greater than themselves. To take part in something special. That’s why if you haven’t had a “Friendsgiving” I urge you, give it shot. It might be just the kind of tradition you need in your life. 35

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Friendsgiving Left Over Casserole Ingredients • 3 1/2 cups shredded turkey • 2 cups turkey gravy • 1 ½ cups corn • 4 cups stuffing

• 4 cups mash potatoes • 1 ½ cups cranberry sauce • 1/3 cup milk • ¼ cup chicken broth

Directions • Set oven to 400 degrees • Combine cranberry and turkey sauce and spread evenly into a glass baking dish. • Next add layer of mash potatoes • Sprinkle corn over mash potatoes • Mix milk and gravy together add evenly over corn and mash potato layer • Add Stuffing as final layer • Use chicken broth to baste stuffing (keeps the stuffing from drying out) • Cover with foil • Bake for 35-40mins

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Celebrating Diverse Traditions and Building New Bridges Samantha Mowen UNIV 101: First-Year Seminar Dr. David F. Godshalk

Traditions often start from first time trials. Thinking back now, I had no idea this event would become so prevalent in my life. I was a fresh faced eighteen-year-old, full of anxiety and questions. My Aunt Carol, a short woman with as much charm as sass, who can be caught speaking tinged with a Mississippi accent, came to me with an invitation. The church I regularly attend has a sort of member club, the ‘Prayer Shawl Ministry.’ Off the bat, I’m sure your mind immediately drifts to a bunch of old women wrapped up in knitted shawls sitting in a dreadful nursing home. I don’t blame you for thinking that way. This was my thought process too. I can’t explain what my internal debate was to convince myself to go. It was a decision I made very last minute, maybe an hour before the event, and knew virtually nothing about the entire thing. I was picked up around six o’clock, accompanied by my Aunt and Cousin, Sharyan. Sharyan is often my partner in crime and a listening ear, with an offbeat sense of humor and motherly understanding. We drove for a while. I don’t remember how far, to pull off into a twisted path-beaten road lined with tall, forest level trees. It was misty that day, fresh rain rising off the field of the meadow. We were on a farm in the middle surrounded by mountains in South-Central Pennsylvania. Seldom had I seen a farm as serene as this. In the home on the property, a beautiful rendered and well-kept cabin-esque building, I was greeted by the Prayer Shawl Ministry. Yes, it was mostly elderly women. My cousin and I were the only two there under fifty. Kathy, the homeowner with long brown hair and glasses and a gentle presence, greeted us and dazzled us with her wisdom and serenity. I sat on a couch feeling horribly awkward while I was taught quite painstakingly how to crochet. Casual chatter flitted around the room, and I was to my horror put under some occasional questioning. How was my father? Good, normal. Am I going to school? What do I want to go for? What do I do for work? These questions are similar to the ones I ask myself almost every day. I had no clue. The homeowner eventually went around the room and

asked us, if we would like tea or coffee and offered us a homemade peach blackberry cobbler, the typical friendly host thing to do. I have never, in my life, felt as down to earth and truly wholesome as I did the last hour of the Prayer Shawl Ministry. Sitting with my hands wrapped around a homemade mug, black coffee inside that had been delivered on a delicate tray, with a pathetic crochet attempt at a shawl on my lap, I took in my surroundings. The house smelled wonderful; you can’t even imagine. Picture if cinnamon was a feeling. That warm, kind of rich sensation. That was my experience. I was surrounded by a bunch of women that I was convinced I would never get along with. We ate the cobbler, made with fresh fruit from a garden and spiced in a homestyle way. Vanilla ice cream was also offered to us all. A dangerous combination. You can picture it now, I imagine, the mental image leaving a toasty feeling in your stomach. My inhibitions had been melted away by food and friendliness. I no longer felt out of place. These women didn’t care. I wasn’t allowing myself to feel comfortable. I was stopping myself from having a good time. I was selling myself short. I would realize later that was my problem with growing into the next stage of my life. Suddenly, I had gotten over the embarrassment of hanging out with people who are not traditionally ‘cool’. Outside had turned to sundown, and the soft glazing of color filled the sky with gentle oranges and pinks. We had to go. Leaving that day, bellies full and grins broad, we returned to the car feeling an indescribable way. Was it humbleness? Gracefulness? To this day, I still can’t say for certain. So often our heads are not acknowledging the world our feet are standing on. As somebody in a quite volatile position in my life at the time, I had never before felt that my feet stood firmer on the ground of the gravel drive than right then and there. This is now a once a month occurrence. Always different food, always different people, different conversation, and different locations. My first attendance, however, will stick with me now forever. Wholesome isn’t a feeling you seek out alone. Wholesome is a com37

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munity, a tradition, an experience. Meant to be shared. I see these women constantly, once a week, but I doubt they know the impact on my life they have had. I’m grateful for the enlightenment. And the cobbler. Corrections Many of my corrections were about elaboration in the piece. Referencing my ‘inhibitions’, but what made it fully developed as a feeling and idea in the text was

elaborating on it more so, something I did repeatedly throughout the piece. Other than that, mostly the basic type of correction. A different word here, forgotten spelling there. I’m glad there wasn’t too much I needed to correct. I was worried about the 800 word limit, but you seemed to encourage me to write more, so I surpassed that number. Hopefully I won’t be affected negatively.

Introductory Level Course Writing

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Editor's Choice First Place, Lower Level Writing

Politics and the Roman Colosseum Ashlyn Browning HIS 105: Historical Foundation of Global Cultures Dr. Gretchen Pierce Assignment This assignment focused on a piece of architecture in history; the architectural work was then connected to a historical theme, such as politics, religion, or society. For me, my architecture piece was the Roman Colosseum and I connected it to the politics of the Roman Empire. In addition to writing a paper individually, there was also a group aspect of the assignment in creating a model of the architectural work and a presentation.

During the time of the Roman Empire, Roman engineers were constantly developing and building various architectural structures around the Roman Empire. These engineers were responsible for the construction of practical works, such as aqueducts, bridges, and roads, as well as entertainment structures, most notably the Roman Colosseum. Construction of this famous amphitheater began around 72 CE by Emperor Vespasian (“Colosseum” 860). At the same time, the Roman Empire was re-centering on the control of one emperor, as following the death of Emperor Nero, Rome became engaged in a civil war between four men claiming to be emperor (Evans 304). The creation and physical characteristics of the Roman Colosseum provide insight into the shift in Roman politics following the Year of the Four Emperors, as seen specifically in the change in the attitudes and behaviors of the succeeding Roman emperors. The Roman Colosseum, located in Rome, Italy, was an incredible architectural achievement during the Roman Empire. Not only were Roman engineers able to construct practical structures, such as aqueducts to provide water, these architectural masterminds were also able to develop structures that enhanced the empire. Following the conclusion of the Year of the Four Emperors, the victorious Titus Flavius Vespasianus, also known as Emperor Vespasian, began construction of the Flavian Amphitheater in 72 CE at the current location of Emperor Nero’s Golden House (“Colosseum” 860). Work continued until the completion of the Colosseum in 80 CE under Vespasian’s son, Titus; in the end, this massive elliptical structure measured 159 feet high with a circumference of 1,719 feet (“Colosseum” 860). Designed to hold around 50,000 spectators, the Roman Colosseum was centered around a giant sand arena with four levels of seating; on the exterior, the use of Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian columns showcase Greek influence, while awnings installed on the top tier provided shade during events

(“Roman Architecture” 35). To enter the Colosseum, Romans used one of the seventy arches corresponding to the number on their ticket; once inside, Romans faced six tiers of seating (the lowest being only for the elite) each divided by stairways (“The Roman Colosseum” 703). Additionally, the primary function of the Colosseum was to provide entertainment for the Roman people. Events in the Colosseum included gladiator battles, wild animal fights, and even possibly naval battles, as structures, such as drainage systems, found below the area floor indicate that it was possible to flood the Colosseum (“Colosseum” 860); the Colosseum also had a network of cages and storerooms used to hold the prisoners and wild animals (“Roman Architecture” 35). To build a structure this massive, a wide variety of resources were needed. First of all, money was needed to fund the designing, planning, and constructing of the Colosseum. In order to do so, Rome drew on funds gained from conquests; in 70 CE, the Romans successfully conquered Jerusalem, which provided a large source of money for this architectural project (“The Roman Colosseum” 703). Additionally, a revolt in Judea was ended by Titus in the same year; this helped provide the labor for building the Colosseum, as many Jews were brought in as slaves to work on the construction (Evans 306). To build the Colosseum, concrete was used as the base; from there, travertine piers were placed on top, with the seating being made of marble (the top tier was of wood due to weight) (“The Roman Colosseum” 703). Although the Roman Colosseum still stands today, damage by earthquakes, excavations, and usage as a stone quarry has occurred (“Colosseum” 860). Before the Year of the Four Emperors, Roman politics were drastically different. Although Rome was an empire before and after this civil war, the nature of the reigning emperors was altered. Rome transitioned from the Rome Republic to the Rome Empire once 41

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Octavian, Julius Caesar’s nephew, emerged victorious in the civil war after Caesar’s assassination. The following family line and ruling emperors after the civil war are known as the Julio-Claudians; this line ended with the death of Emperor Nero in 68 CE, which plunged Rome into a bitter civil war (Evans 303-304). Since Emperor Nero had not named a successor, the question of who should rule arose. In 68 CE, four men, Galba, Otho, Vitellius, and Vespasian, each backed by various sections of the army, fought one another for control of the Roman Empire; at the conclusion of the war in 69 CE, Vespasian not only won the throne, but also acquired a myriad of problems (“Vespasian” 476). First of all, Emperor Vespasian needed to restore the Roman Empire in order to prevent the empire from splintering apart. To do so, Vespasian became a strong leader who reestablished order in Roman politics. Some of his problems included the ruined army, as it had fragmented during the war, as well as defining his relationships with both the Roman people and governing bodies. Vespasian did not attempt to restore the previous relationship emperors held with the Senate; instead, he placed his own men into the Senate, thus creating a respectful nature, but not a partnership (“Vespasian” 476). Additionally, the finances of the Roman empire were ruined. To solve his money problem, Vespasian imposed strict taxes (even creating new ones) and raised tributes, which he then used the money from to commission public works, including the Colosseum (“Vespasian” 476). Finally, internal and external threats were also present, including the constant fear of a slave revolt (Evans 307) and vulnerability from weak borders; to strengthen the empire’s borders, Vespasian established permanent military posts and shortened the Rhine-Daube frontier in Germany (“Vespasian” 476). Not only were Roman politics changing in terms of power and structure, but the behaviors of the emperors and the relationship with the Roman people was changing as well. Also occurring at this time was the Pax Romana, a time of overall peace in the Roman Empire. During this time, the Julio-Claudian emperors focused on themselves instead of the Roman people. For example, emperors would devote massive amounts of money to building public works devoted to enhancing themselves and the glory of Rome (Evans 305). However, at the same time, poverty was incredibly high throughout the empire, with eighty to ninety percent of the population being under the poverty line. This broken relationship between the emperor and his people is exemplified through Emperor Nero and the construction of his Golden House. Not only did Nero use money from the Roman treasury for his house, but he also used three hundred acres of city land for construction (Rhodes 175-176). This angered 42

the Roman people, as they did not appreciate Nero for using public land for personal use (“The Roman Colosseum” 702). However, once Vespasian assumed control, he sought to better his relationship with the Roman people, although he was never considered to be extremely popular in any of the social classes (“Vespasian” 476). In order to restore good standing with the Roman people, Vespasian decided to construct the Roman Colosseum, thus highlighting the shift in the attitudes of the Roman emperors following the Year of the Four Emperors. Unlike his predecessors, Vespasian was not using Roman money for his own personal gain; this helped improve his relationship with the Roman people, especially when compared to the actions of Nero. By choosing to locate the Colosseum over Nero’s Golden House, Vespasian further showed his people that he cared more about the needs of the people of the empire than the personal matters of himself and other emperors. Thus, the lake on Nero’s property was drained, and the concrete foundation of the Colosseum was laid (“The Roman Colosseum” 702-703). Once construction was complete, the Roman people not only received a public entertainment center, but they also regained the land Nero had used for himself. The name of the Colosseum itself also reflected Vespasian’s correction of the selfish history of Nero, as the name originates from “the colossal statue of Nero that once stood beside the lake” (“The Roman Colosseum” 702). This serves as a reminder of Vespasian’s kindness to his people, as he could have chosen a different location, or have kept Nero’s Golden House altogether. With his creation of the Colosseum, Vespasian helped better his relationship with the Roman people and made them more receptive to the Flavian Dynasty. The shift in Roman politics following the Year of the Four Emperors is also reflected in the physical characteristics of the Colosseum. The Romans were highly influenced by Greek culture; in fact, many aspects of Greek culture blended into various aspects of Roman life, including religion and architecture styles. The Julio-Claudian emperors in particular were captivated by Greek culture, employing Greek styles in both artworks of themselves and the architecture works they created to glorify themselves (Rhodes 175). Vespasian, however, diverged from this pattern and instead returned to traditional Roman techniques (Rhodes 175). For example, Vespasian focused on the usage of concrete for construction, as this was purely a Roman building material (Rhodes 175). Thus, when building the Colosseum, concrete was used to show his return to Roman style, as well as his refocus on the Roman people. Unlike his predecessors, Vespasian sought to highlight the Roman people and culture by limiting Greek influences.

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The Year of the Four Emperors clearly marks a change in Roman politics, as seen particularly in the change in the attitudes and behaviors of the Roman emperors. This shift in politics is highly resembled in the creation and physical characteristics of the Roman Colosseum. Although the Colosseum was primarily a form of entertainment for the Roman people, it also served as a way for emperors, specifically Vespasian, to better relations with their people, as well as reinforce the political powers an emperor held. Vespasian used the Colosseum to correct and change the selfish nature of the Julio-Claudian emperors before him, especially that of Nero, by refocusing on the needs and desires of the Roman people rather than himself. Thus, the Roman Colosseum was not only an impressive architectural masterpiece, but also a bold and powerful political move. Works Cited Evans, J. A. S. “Roman Empire.” New Catholic Encyclopedia, 2nd ed., vol. 12, Gale, 2003, pp. 303-307. Gale eBooks, https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/ CX3407709652/GVRL?u=pl2833&sid=GVRL&xid= 7a851704. Accessed 21 Oct. 2019.

Rhodes, Robin F. “Art—Ancient Greece and Rome.” Berkshire Encyclopedia of World History, edited by William H. McNeill, et al., 2nd ed., vol. 1, Berkshire Publishing, 2010, pp. 170-177. Gale eBooks, https:// link.gale.com/apps/doc/CX1923800053/GVRL?u=pl 2833&sid=GVRL&xid=d65bb80b. Accessed 22 Oct. 2019. “Colosseum.” New Catholic Encyclopedia, 2nd ed., vol. 3, Gale, 2003, p. 860. Gale eBooks, https://link.gale.com/ apps/doc/CX3407702585/GVRL?u=pl2833&sid=GVR L&xid=140e7bfa. Accessed 21 Oct. 2019. “Roman Architecture.” Arts and Humanities Through the Eras, edited by Edward I. Bleiberg, et al., vol. 2: Ancient Greece and Rome 1200 B.C.E.-476 C.E. Gale, 2005, pp. 25-37. Gale eBooks, https://link.gale.com/apps/ doc/CX3427400194/GVRL?u=pl2833&sid=GVRL&xi d=b20fb1df. Accessed 22 Oct. 2019. “The Roman Colosseum.” World History Encyclopedia, edited by Alfred J. Andrea and Carolyn Neel, vol. 6: Era 3: Classical Traditions, 1000 BCE-300 CE, ABCCLIO, 2011, pp. 702-703. Gale eBooks, https://link. gale.com/apps/doc/CX2458801268/GVRL?u=pl2833& sid=GVRL&xid=8968625e. Accessed 22 Oct. 2019. “Vespasian.” Encyclopedia of World Biography, 2nd ed., vol. 15, Gale, 2004, pp. 475-476. Gale eBooks, https://link. gale.com/apps/doc/CX3404706607/GVRL?u=pl2833& sid=GVRL&xid=f42eeb00. Accessed 22 Oct. 2019.

Student Reflection: Overall, I enjoyed researching and writing this paper, as it allowed me to explore a topic I was already interested in. Completing this assignment gave me an opportunity to learn more about the Roman Colosseum and Roman politics. Additionally, I also learned how architecture can reflect the politics of a civilization, as before completing this paper, I did not realize how closely the Roman Colosseum reflected Roman politics. As a history major, I also enjoyed researching more into the politics of the Roman Empire, as I learned an incredible amount of information I never would have discovered without this assignment. Not only did I enjoy writing this paper because of personal interest, this assignment also helped me strengthen my writing. This is the first major academic paper I wrote while in college, so it gave me a sense of the writing level I need to have. Finally, I also learned how to research through this assignment, as once again, this is the first major research paper I have ever written. Overall, I am happy with the paper I created and look forward to writing more research papers.

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Editor's Choice Second Place, Lower Level Writing

Carcinogens, Cosmetics, and Feminist Issues Elise Hutzell HON 102: Introduction to Women's Studies Dr. Shari Horner Assignment This is a research paper is based on the use of chemicals and potentially deadly carcinogens in everyday cosmetic products. Additionally, this research expresses the correlation to carcinogens in cosmetics as well as their application to modern Women’s and Gender Studies issues/ feminist issues.

Beauty standards have coincided with women’s purchasing and use of cosmetics for centuries in order to obtain a societal driven notion of ideal beauty. Within the 19th century, many cosmetic manufacturers incorporated deadly carcinogens into makeup products to enhance colored pigments and lighten or brighten complexion through lead, mercury, or unregulated substances. The Food and Drug Administration has since intervened in regulating beauty products by instituting the Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act of 1938, as well as the Safe Cosmetics and Personal Care Products Act of 2013. Despite efforts to regulate chemical inclusion within feminine cosmetic products, modern carcinogens, such as formaldehyde, benzene, and heavy metals like aluminum and lead are still used by a select few cosmetic manufacturing companies. Likewise, fragrances and anti-perspirants have shown a distinct correlation to breast cancer, and ‘Trade Secret’ status applied throughout certain cosmetic companies deny public disclosure of such carcinogenic ingredients. Today, the American beauty standard propagates modern contradiction of buying carcinogenic cosmetics to achieve physical perfection. Personal care products have contained toxic chemical substances since the time period of Ancient Egyptians (3100 B.C.). People of Ancient Egypt established exaggerated eye-makeup, wearing heavily applied chemical compounds on their upper and lower eye-lids such as green copper ore, antimony, manganese, and lead sulfide (Mapes 1). Women as well as men in Ancient Greece upheld desired beauty expectations of white, blemish free complexions, by lathering their faces with lead-based masks. Throughout the Victorian Era, mimicking the practices of Ancient Greeks, women and men alike used lead to whiten their faces and remove blemishes, causing serve scaring and inflammation. As stated by Fashion Institute of Design and Merchandising of Los Angles, curator, Kevin Jones, “ ‘People would put whitening on their 44

skin and over time, it would eat the skin away, causing all sorts of scarring…the way they covered that up was to apply thicker amounts of the makeup, which would then exacerbate the situation’”(Mapes 2). During the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, popular balms, powders and ointments included Berry’s Freckle Ointment, Milk of Roses, Snow White Enamel and Flake White, all of which contained mercury, lead and carbolic acid (Mapes 2). In the 1920’s, societal introduction of the Flapper promoted use of makeup, such as lead based lipstick and rouge, synthetic hair dyes, and mercury-based mascara (“Cosmetics in the 1920’s – The Beginning of the Fashion Revolution” 1). Since the emergence of humanity, people, especially women, have been encouraged to fulfill beauty roles within society, regardless of their detrimental, physical outcomes. Throughout the course of American history, despite countless regulations instituted to ensure minimal use of toxins within feminine cosmetic products, prominent threats still exist for women today. Published in 1869, a research article entitled “Three Cases of Lead Palsy from the Use of a Cosmetic Called ‘Laird’s Bloom of Youth,’” authored by the American Medical Association, listed symptoms such as nausea, muscle atrophy, and paralysis brought on by habitual use of skin whitening cream containing lead acetate and carbonate (Mapes 1). Gaining little notoriety by the public, the first incident regarding cosmetic toxins was presented in the 1925 Journal of the American Medical Association where physicians who researched cosmetic use claimed: “ ‘… Aniline dye used as coloring matter in the bizarre tints of face powder, rouge and lip stick may cause a definite dermatitis… removal of wrinkles by applying phenol to large areas of the skin surface may cause considerable facial deformity and even death…’ ” (Tetteh 3). Public knowledge of facial deformation via deadly chemicals within heavily used makeup synthetics resulted in President Franklin

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D. Roosevelt’s institution of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act law of 1938. This law allows the FDA to oversee cosmetic production prior to shelf distribution. Despite derivation of chemicals such as aniline, a colorless liquid present in dyes, and phenol, a white crystalline solid extracted from coal tar, to form safer products, concerns regarding carcinogenic ingredients within makeup still exist today. Recently, the Environmental Working Group, a non-profit organization empowering people to live healthier lives through funded research development and consumer choice, has notably identified 120 products sold including shampoos, lotions, foundations, and lip balms that contain probable carcinogens certified by the U.S. government: “ ‘One of every 13 women and one of every 23 men are exposed to ingredients that are known or probable human carcinogens every day through their use of personal care products’ ” (“The Ugly Side of Cosmetics” 2). Upon the EWG creation of a cosmetic database ranking products based on safety via their listed ingredients, the United States House of Representatives initiated the H.R. 1385: Safe Cosmetics and Personal Care Products Act of 2013, which presents labeling regulations and safety guidelines, as well as manufacturing standards. Although strides have been taken to ensure the safety of women consumers, societal beauty paradigms remain highly unattainable. Although many health regulations regarding cosmetics and cosmetic treatments have been instituted in U.S. policies, modern carcinogens continue to appear in a large majority of circulated feminine products. Formaldehyde, a colorless compound, is intentionally added to keratin hair straighteners. Additionally, forms of formaldehyde, such as formaldehyde releasing preservatives, are applied in personal care products: “…including nail polish, eye shadow, mascara, nail treatment, shampoo, and blush for prevention of bacteria growth” (“Carcinogens in Cosmetics” 1). According to the National Toxicology Program (NTP) and California’s EPA Proposition 65, formaldehyde is classified as a human carcinogen causing irritation to the eyes, nose, throat, and lungs (“Carcinogens in Cosmetics” 1). Furthermore, benzene, a product of coal tar, is applied in the composition of detergents as well as hair conditioners and styling lotions. Identified as a human carcinogen, exposure to benzene has been linked to leukemia and “…target(s) organs including eyes, skin, respiratory system, blood, central nervous system and bone marrow” (“Carcinogens in Cosmetics” 1). Additionally, industrial chemicals linked to birth defects, known as phthalates, are commonly used in nail polish and deodorants. Statistics released from the Campaign for Safe Cosmetics (CSC) note that in 2018, two-thirds of health and beauty cosmetics

evaluated by the FDA contained phthalates (“The Ugly Side of Cosmetics” 3). From pressure of the CSC, top cosmetic companies such as L’Oréal, Revlon, and Unilever have recently pledged to remove phthalates DBP and DEHP, colorless and odorless liquids often found in fragrances, from all manufactured products. Likewise, large cosmetic companies including Avon, Procter & Gamble, and Estée Lauder pledged to remove all phthalates from their manufactured products in 2004 (“The Ugly Side of Cosmetics” 3). Despite banning complex chemical substances from products marketed by well-known beauty corporations, perpetuated beauty standards encourage ritualized behaviors of body maintenance, producing a culture of consumerist values and unattainable images. While highly marketed products are sold in large quantities, “fix-all” beauty corporations shelve extensive amounts of deodorants and anti-perspirant fragrances that have shown a link to breast cancer. With current cultural pressures encouraging the use of body sprays, lotions, and moisturizing creams, recent chemical studies report increasing numbers of female breast cancer cases from epithelial tissue exposure to underarm cosmetic products. Women, containing certain cells within the breast region, create estrogen (oestrogen) receptor coactivator systems, which biologically mediate estrogen-induced gene responses (Coleman 1). Upon application of any acid-based cosmetics, DNA modifications occur, causing abnormal breast cell growth, which potentially lead to malignant tumors: “…chemicals may involve an ability to interact with DNA, resulting in genotoxic activity or an ability to interfere with oestrogen action” (Darbre 3). Additionally, topical application of chemicals appearing in widely distributed anti-perspirant products present an exposure route for developing breast cancer. In a study conducted by K.G. McGrath, female breast cancer patients who documented daily use of deodorants immediately following underarm shaving experienced an earlier age of diagnosis than those who shaved their underarms less often (Dabre 3). Furthermore, throughout McGrath’s study, a prevalent “dose-response” relationship to chemical exposure and reactiveness appeared at a younger age, signifying a distinct correlation between cosmetic use in young women (Dabre 3). Parabens, a commonly used preservative in cosmetics, are also ingredients in body lotions, moisturizers, and perfumes, which catalyze estrogen production and therefore increase risk factors of breast cancer (Coleman 3). As expressed through Susan M. Shaw and Janet Lee’s “Gendered Voices Feminist Visions: Classic and Contemporary Readings,” body maintenance such as underarm hair removal and topical fragrance use involves taken-forgranted behaviors: “…shaving legs, applying makeup, 45

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or curling/straightening/coloring hair…they involve social control” (Shaw and Lee 166). In spending time and money through regulated, self-disciplinary beauty practices such as fragrance/anti-perspirant use, women are jeopardizing themselves biologically via chemically based products to comply with societal norms. Given that United States culture relies on billion-dollar cosmetic industries to institute beauty production and consumption in order to propagate economic growth, select cosmetic companies refuse to disclose toxic ingredients with consumers. According to Women’s Voices For the Earth (WE) nonprofit organization, advocating for the prevention of toxic chemicals in household and cosmetic products, “Twenty-two companies have requested trade secret status to avoid telling the public about toxic chemicals found in nearly 1,500 cosmetic products included in the new California Safe Cosmetics Program Database” (“Cosmetics Companies File For ‘Trade Secret’ Status” 1). As a part of California’s Safe Cosmetics database, companies are required to report ingredients considered to be carcinogenic or reproductive toxins under the state’s Proposition 65. However, a recent analysis conducted by Women’s Voices For the Earth depicts more than twenty companies, such as Nexxus, Tresemme, Gold Bond, and Selsum Blue, attempting to avoid stipulations listed under California’s Safe Cosmetics Act (“Cosmetics Companies File For ‘Trade Secret’ Status” 2). According to Erin Switalski, the Executive Director of WE, Shiseido skincare manufacturer, producing fragrances and make-up sold at popular retailers such as Macy’s and Sephora, “…filed for trade secret status on ingredients in nearly 400 products they reported to the state” (“Cosmetics Companies File For ‘Trade Secret’ Status” 2). Increasing numbers of large cosmetic companies filing for ‘Trade Secret’ status serve as a means of American production and consumption linked to disciplinary beauty practices, proliferating ideal beauty standards at the possible expense of American women. The concept of ideal beauty, focusing around nineteenth century, white privileged women, and societal beauty standards has since translated to twentyfirst century societal beauty values via production and consumption of carcinogenic cosmetics. From Ancient Egyptian practices of sporting cooper ore, to lead based facial masks and mercury-based mascara, carcinogenic cosmetics have since resonated throughout history. Intervening regulation from the Food and Drug Administration, the Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act of 1938, as well as the Safe Cosmetics and Personal Care Products Act of 2013, have since spearheaded cosmetic regularity standards/conditions throughout the United States. Regarding modern carcinogenic use, formaldehyde and benzene have recently shown links to leukemia, central nervous system and respiratory dam46

age. DNA mutilation caused by estrogen producing chemicals, through recent scientific studies conducted by McGrath, suggest that parabens in anti-perspirants and deodorants cause breast cancer. Moreover, cosmetic corporations applying for ‘Trade Secret’ status refuse public disclosure of over 1,500 cosmetic products. In trying to obtain culturally ingrained beauty standards, women face the possibility of bodily mutilation at the expense of capitalistic gains, and yet, knowingly or unknowingly capitulate to death by beauty. Works Cited “Carcinogens in Cosmetics.” Campaign for Safe Cosmetics. 2019. Web. 11/13/19. http://www.

safecosmetics.org/get-the-facts/chemicals-of-concern/ known-carcinogens/ Coleman, James W. “Cosmetics and Fragranced Products Pose High Risks For Breast Cancer and Other Illnesses.” Cancer Research Center of America, Inc. 2003. Web. 11/14/2019. http://www.breastcanceroptions.org/ “Cosmetics Companies File For ‘Trade Secret’ Status.” Women’s Voices For the Earth. January 2014. Web. 11/15/2019. http://www.historyofcosmetics.net/ cosmetic-history/cosmetics-1920s-1930s/ Darbre, Philippa D. “Underarm Antiperspirants/Deodorants and Breast Cancer.” Breast Cancer Research, vol. 11, no. S3, 2009, doi:10.1186/bcr2424. Mapes, Diane. “Suffering for Beauty has Ancient Roots.” NBCNews. January 2008. Web. 11/14/2019. http:// www.nbcnews.com/id/22546056/ns/health/t/sufferingbeauty-has-ancient-roots/#.Xe8EqXdFxPa Shaw, Susan M., and Janet Lee. Gendered Voices, Feminist Visions: Classic and Contemporary Readings. Oxford University Press, 2020. Tetteh, Myra. “What’s In Your Makeup Bag?” Mind the Science Gap. October 2013. Web. 11/15/2019. http://www.mindthesciencegap.org/2013/10/14/ whats-makeup-bag/ “The Ugly Side of Cosmetics.” Green American Magazine. 2007. Web. 11/12/19. https://www.greenamerica.org/ green-living/ugly-side-cosmetics

Works Consulted “Cosmetics in the 1920s - The Beginning of the Fashion Revolution.” Cosmetics in the 1920s – Cosmetics from Early 20th Century. n.d., http://www.historyofcosmetics. net/cosmetic-history/cosmetics-1920s-1930s/.

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Student Reflection: Upon writing this paper as a final submission for the previous fall semesterâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s and Gender Studies 102, I tried to center the thesis of my aspired work around an issue which not only applied to people of modern American society, but also to prominent Womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s and Gender Studies topics. This research paper presented an opportunity for the exploration of my personalized interest in feminist issues coupled with my current field of interest, Chemistry. Having conducted research of female breast cancer cases as well as historical applications of copper ore and lead-based beauty practices, overall, this paper allowed me to expand my limited knowledge of carcinogens used in care products, as well as their effect on societal beauty practices.

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Editor's Choice Third Place, Lower Level Writing

Memory and Children’s Books Carson Pennings HON 249: Introduction to Literature Dr. Thomas Crochunis Assignment This is a research essay that looks at how the complex concept of memory is portrayed and discussed in children’s books. Evidence and conclusions are drawn from analyzing examples of children’s texts.

The human mind is undoubtedly one of the most intricate topics in modern day existence. Perhaps even more intriguing than the brain itself are the processes and functions that stem from it. The phenomenon of human memory, including the process of creating memories, recalling them, and even reflecting upon them, is nonetheless a notable and extensive concept. Although fields of study such as psychology and neuroscience have delved into the mysteries of the brain in order to contribute to what is known and understood about memory, the concept of memory still creates a variety of different questions in less science-devoted areas of study. In the field of literature, memory appears through several different mediums. Memory is sometimes evident in literature through variations of overarching themes, lessons to be derived from the work, or even as an element of a specific scene. As readers contemplate these aspects, questions inevitably arise and lead to further discussion and understanding of the works at hand. However, memory is nonetheless more discussed in certain regions of literature than others. Perhaps one of the least discussed tangents of memory in literature is how it is represented and the role that it plays in literary works aimed at children. There is no doubt that most children are usually only able to comprehend simple subjects as young individuals, so one may question how children’s books are able to include and discuss a concept as complex and extensive as human memory. However, examining samples of children’s books shows that the difficult concept of memory is indeed able to be discussed and portrayed in a way that is suited for readers of young ages. In the children’s books Wilfrid Gordon McDonald Partridge by Mem Fox, The Memory Box: A Book About Griefby Joanna Rowland, and The Memory Stringby Eve Bunting, memory is portrayed in ways that can be understood easily but interpreted profoundly. Memory plays a substantial role in Mem Fox’s children’s book, Wilfrid Gordon McDonald Partridge . In the story, Wilfrid Gordon Mcdonald Partridge is a 48

young boy who lives next door to a retirement home, and he knows all of the elderly people who live there (Fox 2). Out of all of the individuals in the home, Wilfrid Gordon’s favorite person is Miss Nancy Alison Delacourt Cooper, whom he builds a friendship with (Fox 5). It is revealed to the reader that Miss Nancy has dementia when Wilfrid Gordon’s father states that “she’s lost her memory” (Fox 7). While readers may easily interpret this line as a characteristic of Miss Nancy, the quote itself sends a deeper message. This line creates the idea that memory is something that can be lost, which contributes to the overall concept of memory that this book makes. However, memory is continually discussed as the book progresses. Since Wilfrid Gordon is a young child, it is fitting that he develops a curiosity in response to this new information about his friend Miss Nancy. Wilfrid Gordon asks his father, “What’s a memory?” to which his father answers, “It’s something you remember” (Fox 7). In this simple response from Wilfrid Gordon’s father, the book defines memory in a way that children can easily understand. The book further defines memory as Wilfrid Gordon asks more characters what memory is. As he inquires, Wilfrid Gordon is told that memory is “something warm,” “something from long ago,” “something that makes you cry,” “something that makes you laugh,” and “something as precious as gold” (Fox 8-13). In these responses, memory is defined in ways that both children and older, more advanced readers can interpret. By describing memory as something that is warm and able to make individuals cry and laugh, the book portrays the emotional aspect of memory that older readers are able to identify and understand. However, children that do not yet understand this association can interpret these definitions of memory in a more literal way. This is reflected in how Wilfrid Gordon responds to the answers of what memory is. As a young child, Wilfrid Gordon interprets the definitions of memory in a style he can comprehend. In order to help Miss Nancy “find” her memory, Wilfrid Gordon looks for objects that fit

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the criteria of what he was told, and constitutes each of the objects he finds as memories; for example, Wilfrid Gordon gathers seashells he had found the past summer to fulfill the “from long ago” aspect of memories (Fox 17). Through Wilfrid Gordon’s actions in this scene, the book shows how young children obviously cannot interpret the difficult concept of memory as an adult does, but instead can understand it in a literal way. The book portrays memory as a tangible entity that can be “lost” and “found,” which is communicated through Miss Nancy’s dementia, the items Wilfrid Gordon collects and the meaning he associates with each. Although memory is represented in simple definitions and objects in Mem Fox’s Wilfrid Gordon McDonald Partridge, the meaning of memory is communicated to readers subjectively. The concept of memory is further defined and explored in an elementary fashion in the children’s book The Memory Box: A Book About Grief by Joanna Rowland. Unlike the straightforward, enunciated conclusions reached about memory in Wilfrid Gordon McDonald Partridge, the definitions and portrayals of memory in Rowland’s story require deeper consideration and interpretation. This book discusses memory in the context of remembering a loved one who has passed away, and readers can draw conclusions about memory based on this aspect. For example, the speaker of the book expresses concern about the possibility of forgetting the person who has died (Rowland 8). In this way, the book illustrates the connection between memory and the concepts of forgetting and remembering. To a child learning about memory, this connection could help further his or her understanding. As the story moves along, the speaker states “I’m making a box so I won’t forget you, with our memories like sand from the beach where we played and left footprints as we ran from crashing waves” (Rowland 11, 12). By creating a box full of objects in order to remember the loved one, the speaker shows that memory can be associated with places and things. This idea is furthered when the speaker states, “I go to places that help me think of you” (Rowland 15). In this way, the speaker reveals to readers that the physical world around them can carry the psychological concept of memory. The audience this book is intended for, which is young children, can easily understand this idea through how the book portrays it despite the more advanced layers of metaphorical meaning attached with it. The book also shows readers that memory is subjective and personal when the speaker asks other members of her family what their favorite memory is of the loved one in question (Rowland 19). Readers can conclude that since each person has a different favorite memory of the deceased family member, they each have different experiences that ultimately shape their memory of

the person. This communicates the personal aspect of memory that older readers may understand at a deeper level than the younger audience. Furthermore, the speaker of the story shares that she was once afraid that she would forget the lost loved one, but eventually understands that she will not (Rowland 26). This understanding communicates to young readers that memories can be maintained by recalling them often, perhaps through associated objects like those of the speaker’s memory box. Evidently, the simple words and actions of the speaker in Joanna Rowland’s The Memory Box: A Book About Grief present and define memory in ways that children can easily understand, without stripping the more in-depth aspects of the concept. Memory is also an evident factor in the children’s book The Memory Stringby Eve Bunting. In this story, the main character is a little girl named Laura who has a ‘memory string,’ which is essentially a long string of various buttons fashioned into a necklace-like loop (Bunting 7). Laura explains that the memory string was her great-grandmother’s, but was passed down to her grandmother, then to her mother, and now to Laura (Bunting 8). Laura also articulates the fact that during her great-grandmother’s time, some people could not read or keep diaries, so memory strings were their way to remember important events (Bunting 8). In this way, the memory string communicates to readers that memory is tangible in essence since it can be carried through material objects. This idea is supported when Laura’s step-mother describes the buttons as “true moments” on the string (Bunting 25). The concept of memory’s tangibility presented through these scenes is similar to the idea that Fox’s Wilfrid Gordon McDonald Partridge creates when Wilfrid Gordon collects memory items, as well as the notion Rowland’s The Memory Box: A Book About Griefcommunicates when the speaker uses material objects to remember a lost loved one. Furthermore, when Laura describes some of the buttons on the memory string, she mentions how one of the buttons belonged to her great-aunt and notes that all of the buttons are part of her family history (Bunting 11). In this scene, the book shows readers that the memory held in the buttons contributes to the remembrance of Laura’s family history. This is again similar to aspects of Rowland’s The Memory Box: A Book About Griefas the memory box within it aims to keep the memory of a loved one accessible. Moreover, Laura’s memory string demonstrates other factors of memory to the audience. For example, the memory string includes a plethora of different buttons commemorating a variety of different occasions (Bunting 12). This shows readers that memory is not just one specific occurence, but is instead made up of several different experiences and moments. Like other 49

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examples of children’s books that discuss memory, Eve Bunting’s The Memory Stringdemonstrates and communicates concepts of memory through the actions and words of the main character. Evidently, in the children’s books Wilfrid Gordon McDonald Partridge , The Memory Box: A Book About Grief, and The Memory String, the complex concept of memory is discussed in somewhat superficial ways that still communicate deeper meaning. These books define memory through methods that children are able to comprehend in order to further their understanding of the concept. Through symbolic items, these children’s books show their audience that memory can be represented in material objects. Various scenes in these stories also show the connection between emotions and memories as well as links between family history and memory. Although memory may be a difficult subject for young minds to interpret, literature in the form of children’s books is clearly able to dilute this gap in comprehension.

Works Cited Bunting, Eve. The Memory String. Illus. Ted Rand. Clarion Books, 2000. Fox, Mem. Wilfrid Gordon McDonald Partridge. Illus. Julie Vivas. Omnibus Books, 1984. Rowland, Joanna. The Memory Box: A Book About Grief . Illus. Thea Baker. Sparkhouse Family, 2017.

Student Reflection: Through the duration of Dr. Crochunis’ literature class, we explored several literary works related to memory. Through our exploration, many different themes arose for us to analyze. One of the recurring themes, childhood memory, piqued my interest for further exploration. My main curiosity was based on how a text that is written for children can describe a concept as profound as memory. I chose to go deeper into this question for my final project for the course, which resulted in my essay on memory and children’s books.

Write the Ship, 2019-2020

Black History Dianna Davis ENG 113: Introduction to Academic Writing Dr. Erica Galioto Assignment Students were asked to analyze an aspect of their own educational histories in relation to one of three published authors.

Black history is far more important than it was portrayed to be when I was in grade school. In “A Homemade Education” Malcolm X argues how important it is to know that history goes beyond the white man. He expresses how black history was not of much importance when he was attending school before he dropped out. I myself was not truly taught about black history until I was in the eleventh grade. Each of my history teachers talked about the white man and everything he accomplished throughout history. I had two African American teachers but neither of them was a history teacher. Almost all my teachers skipped over how important black history is, almost as if they were as ignorant to black history as I was. Both X and I took interest in black history once finally truly introduced. School districts fail at teaching students just how much black people went through, and how important black history is in general. Only when I reached eleventh grade was I finally introduced to black history in school; X never got this privilege. When I finally learned the background of the people I call my own, I took great interest. It was such a rare occasion when a teacher wanted to talk about black history so when I got a teacher that was willing to talk, I was all too willing to listen. It was fascinating to learn about all the things black people overcame throughout history. How these events did not weaken anyone but only made the people whose skin color matched mine much stronger inside and out. It was also heartbreaking to know that human beings had to go through such things just because they looked slightly different. The first time Malcolm X learned about it he was also captured by the information as well: “It made such an impact upon me that it later became one of my favorite subjects…” (X 230). I always engaged in conversation about history when it came up. Many teachers would avoid the topic as if they were scared and uneducated. Black people went through a lot of hardships and those oppressions carry on to this very day, but school districts fail at teaching this. Malcolm X explains

how bad black people actually had it during the time of slavery; “Over 115 million African blacks… were murdered or enslaved during the slave trade” (X 230). Many people don’t know the basics of black history because they believe it was only slavery, as I did at one point in time. Today there are black men being accused of false crimes just so they can be incarcerated and be legally enslaved. Not much has changed since black people were freed and people don’t realize this fact. The color of skin still intimidates people of non-color and we still must fight twice as hard as everyone else. Everyone brushes off the brutality that black people still must go through, such as police brutality. Both X and I went through an experience when the importance of black history was downplayed in school teachings. Almost all throughout grade school history taught me that black people were good for nothing and the “white man” is the reason for all things good. I was taught by my own race that lots of things got done because of black people. Before X dropped out of school, he experienced a time where black history was belittled and then joked about: “... the history of the Negro had been covered in one paragraph, and the teacher had gotten a big laugh…” (X 228). Black history was never made as important as the white man’s history and school districts prove this when they distributed the books we got our information from. To people like Malcolm X and me, black history is extremely important and applies to us naturally. We stand in the shoes of those who went through hardships in the past because of our melanin. In “A Homemade Education” Malcolm X calls out white and black men pertaining to the black man’s role in history saying, “You can hardly show me a black adult… or a white one… who knows from the history books… the truth about the black man’s role” (X 228). School books made people like Christopher Columbus look good when in actuality he colonized others and was praised for it. Not until eleventh grade did I get a teacher who was willing to introduce to me non-recycled information about black history. However, X had to teach 51

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himself the topics altogether on his own. When thinking of black history, I originally thought slavery was all black history contained but it’s much more than that. It contains discrimination, segregation, and blatant degradation leading up to the present day. Before eleventh grade I would occasionally hear stories about Malcolm X and MLK but all that stuff I already knew. When I reached eleventh grade, I learned certain things I found very shocking; at one point in time I wouldn’t have been considered a human. Only later in the future would I have gained the privilege of calling myself three-fifths of a person; of course, to benefit the “white man.” Malcolm X teaches himself all about how deep black history really is and how much pain and suffering black people had to endure: “I will never forget how shocked I was when I began reading about slavery’s total horror” (X 230). This applied to me as well because of the time I started learning about it. Unending oppression was something I would have never guessed had happened although I knew about slavery. The things that would happen and continue to happen to black people is horrendous.

Not too many people know their history when speaking on black history. Lots of people stick to what they were taught in school, although most of the information written in the white man’s book was made to glorify the “white man.” Malcolm X had to search for books that talk specifically on this topic; books that are not in classrooms being taught to children. Most things I knew while growing up were from the streets, and when I finally came across black history in school it was sadly in the final years of my school education; it took eleven years of schooling before I got a teacher who was willing to call out the lies in the schools’ history books. He was the only reason I knew not to solely rely on my school history book. It only scratched the truth. Works Cited X, Malcolm. “A Homemade Education.” The Seagull Reader: Essays, edited by Joseph Kelly, 2 ed., Norton, 2008, pp. 224-34.

Student Reflection: This assignment was a great way for me to express how important the study of black history is for me being an African American. I found it very interesting to learn that both Malcolm X and I had a lot of things in common when learning about black history. The subject, being a very touchy one, is often brushed over and lots of people are left ignorant to facts behind it. This paper even allowed me to shed light on these things and even taught me a few things about Malcolm X.

Write the Ship, 2019-2020

What it Means to be Arab-American Emma Tennat ENG 114: Writing Intensive First-Year Seminar Professor Mark Erwin Assignment The assignment was to write about what it is like to be an American. Students were to find important aspects of being an American and to define what being an American means, and incorporate that into the essay.

For years, people have been calling out a minority group, Arab-Americans, for not being “American” enough. Those Arab-Americans who identify as Muslim have been tied to the terms, “terrorism” and “oppression”. The actions that the majority and even other minority groups are making towards this small population, such as using racist language towards them, is not benefiting them. American culture today, including the viewpoints that many Americans, makes it harder for Arabs, specifically Muslims, to assimilate and to feel welcomed in the United States. Though, it is important to identify what “ArabAmerican” means. The term “Arab-American,” defined by the Encyclopedia of Social Work, is a “pan-ethnic term meant to capture a diverse group of people who differ with respect to national origins, religion, and historical experiences of migration to the United States.” The Encyclopedia of Social Work also states that there are at least three and a half million Americans that are of Arab descent. Also, around two-thirds belong to the Christian faith, and approximately one-fourth belong to Islam (Ajrouch). In terms of their immigration history, the Arab population came to the United States in three waves. The first wave of immigration lasted between the 1880s and 1920s, and these immigrants were mainly Syrian, Palestinian, and Lebanese. They came to the United States to escape from the Ottoman rule. The second wave of immigration existed during the 1940s and 1960s, when the Palestine and Israel war was occurring, as well as many other revolutions in countries such as Iraq and Egypt. Around half of the immigrants in the second wave were Muslim and many of them tended to be more educated. The third wave, lasting from the 1970s to present day, consist of immigrants that fled violence and is in search of economic opportunities as well as religious and ethnic freedom (Foad 2). Despite people of Arab descent living in the United States since the 1880s, they are continued to be treated as strangers.

How much ethnic freedom are they getting in the United States? Many Americans hold ethnocentric views, and by that, compare the culture of ArabAmericans to their own and then call them “not American.” Additionally, there have been statements about the Muslim community being a threat to the United States. President Trump himself issued Executive Order 13769 in response to this viewpoint. The order was issued on January 27, 2017, and was titled “Protecting the Nation from Foreign Terrorist Entry into the United States” (The Muslim Bans). It was also referred to as “Muslim Ban 1.0” and today, “Muslim Ban 3.0” exists and is currently blocking people from Muslim-majority countries such as Libya and Syria from entering the United States. Previously there have been terrorist acts, such as the four terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001, which is also known as 9/11, as well as groups that have been linked to Muslims such as ISIS and al-Qaeda. “Muslim Ban 3.0” can be seen by some to keep Americans safe. On the other hand, The Muslim Ban can be viewed as a very damaging law for thousands of individuals, and it can also be viewed as an act of discrimination. Ultimately, that makes it harder for Arab-Americans and Muslims to feel welcomed into the United States. Continuing on about the Muslim Ban, it is important to note specific issues that this order brings up. Between December 2017 and March 2019, only 3,074 of 60,275 applicants for entry to the United States, yet were subjected to the Muslim Ban, were issued a visa waiver. This brings up many concerns, such as family separation occurring and the fact that applicants may have had to put their education on hold. A study of 549 entries show that 15.3% were siblings who were separated from each other, 26% were children were separated from their parents, and 12.5% of individuals reported experiencing anxiety, depression, and distress in result of the Ban. The Trump Administration has said that the waiver process is transparent or timely, but research debunks their claims. 53

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Additional statistics show that currently, The Trump Administration is making applicants for visas wait for years. “Out of 248 applicants for visa or waivers in the database, 82 applicants are currently experiencing at least two years of wait time since their initial visa application and/or their initial visa interview.” That is approximately 1 in 3 applicants that have to wait for that amount of time (The Muslim Bans). No immigrant, regardless of where they are coming from, should have to wait that long for their visa application or interview to be approved. A Washington Post article depicts that U.S. Muslims are patriotic. It points out that President Trump has been targeting Representatives Ilhan Omar and Rashida Talib, and implying that they are not fully “American.” However, his and similar comments have been proven to be damaging. For example, it is a possibility that “framing Muslim and American identities as separate may reduce Muslim Americans’ willingness to engage in politics.” (Calfano and Lajevardi). Additionally, majority of the American Muslim population have chosen to keep a low or apolitical profile (Locke and Bailey 254). Viewing them as a threat and singling them out from other ethnic groups, affects how welcomed they feel, and reduces their chances in voting and engaging in other political activities. Part of the American identity is democracy, and to keep that identity, it is important to be an active participant in politics. However, it is difficult for Arab-Americans to participate in political activities. Comments from President Trump and likeminded individuals upholds the perception that the ArabAmerican and Muslim groups are deeply misunderstood, despite them becoming a more prominent group since the 1970s. Kulczycki and Arun Peter Lobo notes that today, the image of Arab-Americans within American culture has been associated through international politics and through U.S. policies directed towards the Middle East (460). Adding to that, whereas specific Islamic groups have been affiliated with terrorism acts does not mean that people can justifiably stereotype the entire Muslim population. However, Americans do have a fixation of race, and Dirk Philipsen acknowledges that the “supremacist norm” in the United States “continues to be White” (194). On top of that, people of different races are “talked about in America as if they were somehow inherently different, born different” and that Americans “tend to take experiences that are a product of living in a racist, White supremacist society and view them as prima facie evidence of inherent difference, as evidence that difference in experience and social reality is caused by race” (197). However, it is important the dictionary definition of American, as many seems to dismiss it for their own definition. 54

The general definition in the Cambridge English Dictionary of American is “a native or citizen in the United States.” Though, there are several misconceptions of race that are instilled into American culture, and that can be seen by several Americans believing in the stereotypes that are created against minorities. Essentially, the trend that has been emerged is that if someone is not white, people have the tendency to question how “American” they are. The trend where people, primarily White Americans, believes these misconceptions and stereotypes can justify why many people look at Arab-Americans and the Muslim population negatively. With all of the negative stereotypes and misconceptions of those of Arab descent and of Muslims, it is hard to place them squarely with the American mainstream. However, it is also hard to place them with the American mainstream when the Arab culture and Islamic faith clashes with American culture. Whereas it is important to note that some Arab immigrants do not want to acculturate into the American culture in some aspects, it is something that inevitably occurs in about three generations (Nagel and Staeheli 14). However, Arab culture does clash with American culture, as each group has differing family structure, child-rearing practices, among other things, that can make it hard for immigrants to assimilate. For example, the Islamic calendar imposes challenges for Muslims in public institutions. The day of communal worship takes place on Fridays, and some students may skip school to attend worship. Another example is that Muslim practice may impact something like counseling and communication with others, because those practicing may experience things such as an avoidance of confrontation or limited discussion of opinions (Locke and Bailey 269). Ultimately, their culture conflicting with American’s culture can make them feel unwelcomed and drive them away because of the unwillingness Americans may have when being embracing other cultures. That can be seen when Americans force immigrants of other cultures to act and think like the ideal American. A trend that has been established by Nagel and Staeheli when it comes to Arabs acculturating is that there was a movement that attempted to “train immigrants to behave and think like ‘good’ Americans.” This includes language training, as well as lessons on cooking, public behavior, and housekeeping (6). Though, at the same time, institutions were put in place for immigrants to help them assimilate and to normalize some ethnic differences. The institutions “introduced a new narrative of immigrants transforming American society through the normalization of (at least some) ethnic differences” (7). The practice of having immigrants acculturate through this movement can be harmful, because some of the practices that they

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may have had to get rid of could have been important to them. In response to the assimilation practices, many American Muslims are working to defend their Islamic identity against assimilation, and are working to develop intellectual and political resources that will have the capability to make social and political changes (Locke and Bailey 253). However, despite efforts to normalize cultural and ethnic differences, it may be looked down upon by others, and ever since 9/11, tensions have increased. Ever since the events of September 11, 2001, Muslims report a high level of discrimination. This is possibly due to them being classified as a “physically visible religious minority.” Additionally, in terms of United States’ societal action against the minority, there have been an abundance of hate crimes. An FBI report from 2002 states the hate crimes against Muslims have raised by 1,600% since 9/11. It is given that they make up less than 1% of the population, but make up almost 13% of victims in religious-based hate crimes, as of 2010. Societal actions and mood towards the Muslim population ties into the stereotypes mentioned before, and it is arguable that media portrayals result in strengthening those stereotypes (Locke and Bailey 256). Furthermore, many Arab-Americans claim they are the subject of racial profiling through government actions. In 2003, the United States government “required all men between the ages of 18 and 45 from Middle Eastern countries except Israel to register, and many were arrested and deported following those registrations.” There has been an increase in fear in the minority group, to the point where over one-third of Arabs changed their travel plans due to fears over what would happen if they were to board a plane (Nagel and Staeheli 12). Fear over boarding a plane is justifiable after noticing that Muslims are also reporting attacks from the government, such as being targeted at airport screenings and increased surveillance in Mosques (Calfano and Lajevardi). Many other groups of Americans of different backgrounds do not have to worry about getting on a plane or worshipping their religion. These government actions that target a small group of people play a role in having people distrust the government. Also, it plays a role in having the Arab-Americans question their American identity. For Muslims and those who are of Arab descent who are able to get into the United States, their expectations of the “Land of the Free” might be very different from reality. Muslims who do immigrate to America may be unaware of how their culture is different from the culture of American-born Muslims. For example, “Muslims in Phoenix perceive that the Islam practiced in America is “more authentic” than that practiced in

Muslim-majority countries.” (Muna). Additionally, individuals who identify as Muslim in America are held at a much higher religious standard, and many immigrants seemingly fail to meet those standards. It is understood that immigrants who come to the United States seek a better lifestyle, but go to mosques and try to control what is “real Islam” in front of Muslims who were born in America (Muna). They, as well as other immigrants, have differing views, and American culture may be impacting their outlook of what “real Islam” is, and essentially, the differences are making it harder for immigrants to adjust to American culture. American culture today makes it harder for Arabs, specifically Muslims, to assimilate and to feel welcomed in the United States. Many Americans view Arab-Americans as “not American” enough, and view Muslims as a threat to the United States. Whereas previous terrorist attacks have been linked to small groups who identify as Islamic, it is not justifiable to believe that the entire race is a threat. Since the attacks of 9/11, members of the Muslim community are continuing to pay for what terrorist groups did all those years ago, and are being victims of several religious-based hate crimes, subjected to discriminatory government policies such as the Muslim Ban, and is facing several unfair stereotypes. Additionally, immigrants from Muslim-majority countries have differing viewpoints as Muslims in the United States, especially on religion, and can affect how welcomed an immigrant feels. Just because the Arab-American population only makes up 1% of the United States, and that Muslims preach a different religion, does not mean that they have to continuously face prejudice from citizens, the government, and even other Muslims. Works Cited Ali, Muna. “Muslim American/American Muslim Identity: Authoring Self in Post-9/11 America.” Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs, vol. 31, no. 3, Sept. 2019, pp. 355381. doi:10.1080/13602004.2011.599543. Accessed 25 Oct. 2019. “American.” Cambridge English Dictionary, https://dictionary. cambridge.org/us/dictionary/english/american. Accessed 17 Nov. 2019. Calfano, Brian, and Nazita Lajevardi. “Analysis | Most U.S. Muslims Are Patriots. Asking Them to Choose between Faith and Nation Has a Pernicious Consequence.” The Washington Post, 23 Aug. 2019, https://www. washingtonpost.com/politics/2019/08/22/most-usmuslims-are-patriots-asking-them-choose-betweenfaith-nation-has-pernicious-consequence/. Accessed 25 Oct. 2019. Foad, Hisham S. “Waves of Immigration from the Middle East to the United States.” SSRN Electronic Journal, 2013, doi:10.2139/ssrn.2383505. Accessed 16 Nov 2019.

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Kulczycki, Andrzej, and Arun Peter Lobo. “Deepening the Melting Pot: Arab-Americans at the Turn of the Century.” Middle East Journal, vol. 55, no. 3, Summer 2001, p. 459-473. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/ stable/4329652. Accessed 25 Oct. 2019. “The Muslim Bans.” Bridge Initiative, https://bridge. georgetown.edu/research-publications/reports/ muslimban/. Accessed 17 Nov 2019.

Nagel, Caroline R., and Lynn A. Staeheli. “‘Were Just Like the Irish’: Narratives of Assimilation, Belonging and Citizenship Amongst Arab-American Activists.” Citizenship Studies, vol. 9, no. 5, 2005, doi:10.1080/13621020500301262. Accessed 17 Nov 2019. Philipsen, Dirk. “Investment, Obsession, and Denial: The Ideology of Race in the American Mind.” The Journal of Negro Education, vol. 72, no. 2, 2003, pp. 193– 207. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/3211169. Accessed 17 Nov 2019.

Student Reflection: Being a social work major, I wanted to reflect what it is like to be an American for a minority group. One of the first groups that came into mind when I was thinking of topics was Arab Americans, and extended the essay to the Muslim population as well. Arabs and Muslims both face prejudice and racism in the United States, and are subjected to harsh stereotypes. I grew up with and was close to a few Arab-Americans when I lived in Maryland, and I wanted to understand what it is like to live in the United States through their eyes. Through research for this paper, I found statistics and information that was eye opening and at times, hard to believe. I made sure to include past and current issues for the minority, as to show that what Arab-Americans have been subjected to has been going on for years.

Write the Ship, 2019-2020

Representation of Mental Health Megan Holm ENG 114: Writing Intensive First-Year Seminar Dr. Shannon R. Mortimore-Smith Assignment In this Problem/Solution Research paper you will identify a social issue that is important to you. Through compelling academic research, you will become an advocate arguing for meaningful action and change.

Trigger Warning: This paper discusses topics including suicide, depression, self harm, and other harmful coping mechanisms.

In 2017, there were an estimated 1,400,000 suicide attempts. Suicide is the tenth leading cause of death in the United States. On average, there are 129 deaths by suicide per day (CDC). On IMBD a page titled “Most Popular Teen Suicide Movies and TV Shows” lists an average of 160 titles (IMBD). To me, these statistics are appalling. They are scary. They are real and personal. When I was in 7th grade my best friend told me she was going to commit suicide. I was terrified, and I remember panicking and trying to find help. I remember wanting to tell my mom, but being too afraid because from what I had scene on the television, telling adults didn’t do anything. In the end she got the help she needed, and I asked her years later why she had decided so young that she wanted to end it all. She said “I didn’t know there were other options. No one told me there were other options.” We, as young minds, are very moldable. And the thing that shapes us the most is the movies and media that we watch. Because of TV shows and movies, as well as presentation of social media accounts, that show suicide and bad coping mechanisms, teens and viewers are in real and practical danger. They are shown a limited view on mental health that only depicts the tears and pain and relief that comes along with hurting themselves. Producers of these media should create more cautious and purposeful representation of mental health issues and coping mechanisms to be viewed by an aware and mindful audience. In many instances, representation in media is a great and new age experience that helps a lot of people relate to the characters on television. For people such as feminists, men and women of color, and members of the LGBTQ+ community, these depictions are eyeopening and wonderful. Representation can be a very good thing, but it has to be careful. The same way that seeing a African American man threatening someone with a gun creates stereotypes, showing persons with

mental illness acting in a specific and dramatic way creates harmful ideas of what these people are like. The article “Insatiable; An Unhealthy Portrayal of Binge Eating Disorder” discusses how careful representation is important. “Creators of TV shows should come up with useful ways of representing people with mental health disorders,” the article says. “Simply including a character with a given disorder won’t cut it,” (Chami). Along with that, simply showing the disorder correctly and including it with purpose isn’t enough- these creators must also create an impact with these stories. It is crucial, however, that this impact is positive. There are many ways that presentation of mental disorders could have lasting effects on viewers, such as generating ideas of unhealthy coping mechanisms. There are many different coping mechanisms that people with mental health disorders can resort to when struggling to deal with their issues. These are not all bad, however, and many can have a large impact on your mentality and safety. While there are plenty of healthy coping mechanisms out there, more common are the harmful ones. These include examples such as self harm, eating disorders, smoking, drugs, and alcohol. Instead of successfully dealing with and trying to lessen the effect this problem has on your life, these methods increase your risk of more mental health issues and leave you unsatisfied, resulting in you, once again, partaking in these unhealthy methods. Some examples of coping mechanisms that are beneficial instead of harmful are exercising, writing, and investing time and energy in a pet. Unfortunately, these are not the methods that are advertised by television and similar media. While doing research I didn’t even get past the first paragraph on Health Place, which presented an article called “Movies about Self Injury”. I didn’t have to read far for it to present my point in a simple disclaimer; “Please note that television shows and movies about 57

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self-injury may contain images and themes that increase the urge to self injure (much like self-harm pictures and photos can trigger feelings). If you engage in self-harm behaviors, watch with caution and when in a safe place,” (Gluck). Suicide contagion is a popular issue that surrounds media today. It addresses the fact that seeing suicidal behavior on TV makes you more likely to engage in that suicidal behavior yourself. TV shows such as Insatiable and 13 Reasons Why present harmful and dangerous coping mechanisms to susceptible audiences and viewers. Insatiable follows the story of an overweight high school student (Patty) who, due to an injury that forced her to have her jaw wired shut, lost enough weight to achieve model status. While this premise itself is an issue, a bigger issue comes along with the way this show presents eating disorders. Patty, though it’s only actually labelled in the series at the end of season two, frequently binge eats. “Insatiable: an Unhelpful portrayal of Binge Eating Disorder” describes how “people with the condition find it difficult to resist eating a lot of food in a short period (typically less than two hours) and can’t stop eating once they have started, even if they are no longer physically hungry,” (Chami). While this article does not mention it, it has been found that binge eating disorder, along with other eating conditions such as anorexia and bulimia, are coping mechanism to deeper problems going on. This page on Insatiable goes on to say that Netflix, the creators of the show, had a chance to inform viwers of the dangers of this disorder and the prevention of it, but instead made it into a complicated plot line that lays at the foundation of murder and pagent shows. Another, more popular, example of unhealthy coping mechanisms in media is the hit Netflix TV show 13 Reasons Why. Based off a book with the same title, it tells the story of a high school girl named Hannah who struggled with depression that eventually resulted in her suicide. Before she died, however, she recorded tapes for thirteen people who she blamed for her death. While this show has many issues, including the lack of accurate information about blaming others, not getting help, and portraying guidance counselors as unhelpful, the main problem I had was the vivid showing of Hannah’s suicide. The article “13 Reasons Why to be Concerned About 13 Reasons Why” provides useful insight. “The imagery of self-injury and the suicide itself are disturbing and extremely graphic. This is known to increase the risk of imitation. Fortunately, most youth will not become suicidal after being exposed to suicide. That being said, we know that a small subset of more vulnerable teens, especially those struggling with mental health issues, are at increased risk,” (Jacobson). The show graphically depicted suicide in a way that should never be allowed on television. 58

A personal study that I conducted included an anonymous survey that asked 130 viewers who had seen the show and had previously struggled with mental health if this show triggered harmful behavior and bad coping mechanisms. 45% of them answers yes. For me, this is disgusting. The fact that so many people are negatively impacted by a show that is still producing content scares me about the morality of our media and future media. If today we can get away with a show graphically displaying a young girl slitting her wrists, what are we going to get away with in five years? Even more seriously, if we keep producing and viewing content like this, what are suicide rates going to be at in five years? Human safety, and especially teen safety, should be a top priority. Instead, we sacrifice the lives of others in order to create good TV and create step by step instructions on how to take your own life. If, instead of showing these harmful coping mechanisms, we portray different representation I believe we could create a positive impact on viewers who are struggling. Images of people drinking their problems away should be replaced with children going to their parents and being accepted and assisted. Scenes of guidance counselors being imcompetant and unhelpful should be morphed into therapists changing the lives of their patients. Scenes of suicide should be eliminated, and instead represent a girl getting help so that others can see there are options to dealing with hurtful emotions. It is hard, however, to get these messages into the media. Producers today only seem to care about viewsbut that is a way that we can show them we care. When we become mindful viewers to this content we reveal to them that the messages that are produced will not be accepted. We need to stop watching shows and movies that have these harmful images and story lines. We need to say no to feeding into the drama of suicide and self harm. We need to make them understand that we do not want to see the teens of America kill themselves. When we stop watching these shows and their viewer ratings go down, we might just be able to have an impact. Another way we can change the media for the better is by raising awareness. Let your friends and family know that this content can kill. Help your classmates understand that the TV drama is not worth the real life trauma that families face every day after their child commits suicide. And most importantly, reach out to your peers and let them know that the solutions they see on the television are not the only options to stop the pain. You can create an impact on these people. In the end, we all want the same thing. To save lives and to make sure the people we love are safe and happy. By becoming mindful viewers and trying to stop the production of materials that promote unhealthy coping mechanisms, you can do just that.

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Works Cited CDC, and Statistics Fatal Injury Report. “Suicide Statistics.” AFSP, 16 Apr. 2019, afsp.org/about-suicide/ suicide-statistics/. Chami, Rayane. “Insatiable: an Unhelpful Portrayal of Binge-Eating Disorder.” The Conversation, 9 Oct. 2018, theconversation.com/insatiable-an-unhelpful-portrayalof-binge-eating-disorder-101684 Gluck, Samantha. “Movies About Self Injury.” StackPath, 22 June 2019, www.healthyplace.com/abuse/self-injury/ movies-about-self-injury-self-harm.

Jacobson, Sansea L. “Thirteen Reasons to Be Concerned about 13 Reasons Why.” Brown University Child & Adolescent Behavior Letter, vol. 33, no. 6, June 2017, p. 8, doi:10.1002/cbl.30220. “Most Popular Teen Suicide Movies and TV Shows.” IMDb, IMDb.com, 2019, www.imdb.com/search/ keyword/?keywords=teen-suicide.

Student Reflection: This essay shows how passionate I am about the way that mental health is portrayed in both tv shows and movies. It emphasizes the point that media must be careful because our minds as viewers are very easily influenced and seeing unhealthy coping mechanisms invites dangerous ideas into the minds of audiences.

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Self-Expression as an American Citizen Rachael Grimm ENG 114: Writing Intensive First-Year Seminar Professor Mark Erwin Assignment The topic of this assigned argumentative research paper was what students believe it means to an American. Personally, I believe self-expression contributes immensely to the everyday lives of all citizens residing in the United States. Therefore, I chose to write about the topic of self-expression as an American.

As it has been notably stated, “A person without self-expression is a person without personal freedom” (“A Person Without”). Compared to opposing nations, the United States allows a high level of self-expression to be displayed among its residents. This given personal freedom demonstrates significance in the establishment of these powerful social movements: the Civil Rights Movement, the Women’s Suffrage Movement, and the Gay Rights Movement. It is considerable that that these well-known points in American history would have never began without the right of self-expression. Additionally, the ability to express oneself contributes to the growth of our highly developed society; and without it, there would certainly be a lack in the consistency of new ideas and inventions. Importance of this freedom is exhibited not only through these few examples, but through the well-being of the nation as a whole. It is undeniably difficult to contradict that the ideal image of Americans are those possessing the capability to express themselves, in whichever way they please. Self-expression can simply be defined as a person expressing his or her own unique thoughts and feelings. Although this action is most commonly accomplished by speaking, expressing oneself can be performed in a plethora of methods. Courtney A. Ackerman notes, “You can use your words, your facial expressions, your body, your movements, clothing, actions, and possessions to express your authentic inner self.” This is a crucial aspect of life, as it provides the opportunity to share our true selves with those around us and creates diversity within societies. A significant term in the aspect relating to expression is individualism. This can be best defined as “the political and social philosophy that emphasizes the moral worth of the individual” (Lukes). Within this “theory of individualism,” the “individual” is simply the object given the ability to freely share his or her thoughts and feelings. A further approach is to acknowledge the concept of “the self-expressing 60

individual,” which demonstrates high value on personal freedom of expression. According to Lawrence Hazelrigg, the primary focus is that “each person has a unique core of feeling and intuition that should unfold or be expressed if individuality is to be realized, and each person has the right to develop his or her unique capacities of self-expression” (1305). Compared to the other theories of individualism, this particularly promotes one expressing their own interests and passions in order to diversify society and increase personal contentedness. Throughout the several eras in American history, there is a recognizable evolution within freedom based upon personal expression. Considerably, the greatest well-known rights of self-expression are those listed under the First Amendment of the United States Constitution. The founding of these documented freedoms supplied citizens with independence from governmental control and allowed the occurrence of several social movements. The first ten amendments of the United States Constitution are entitled the Bill of Rights. Adopted in 1791, this document was published in purpose to protect the basic rights of civilians under the law of the United States (“First Amendment”). In particularly, the First Amendment confirms the freedoms of speech, religion, and publication as well as the right to peacefully assemble and petition the government. This amendment as its entirety secures the citizens’ right to express themselves in a variety of forms. In “First Amendment,” it is mentioned that “freedom of speech gives Americans the right to express themselves without having to worry about government interference. It’s the most basic component of freedom of expression.” Additionally, the right of petitioning allows the people to protest against the government, which plays an important role in all American social movements. These important crusades, acceptable by the first amendment, are acts in which individuals demonstrate expressive techniques. Not only the first amendment, but the

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constitution as a whole can be considered as a remarkably crucial milestone in the history of our nation. As self-expression is popularly thought to be a main characteristic of residing in “the land of the free,” one may consider that this freedom can create contribution to more disadvantages rather than advantages. In other words, some may strongly believe that the given ability to express freely can result in differing views, values, and opinions, which can produce an outcome of constant feuding and destruction of the unity of our nation. However, the observable advancement of individualism, creation, and personal well-being in our nation can prove that the right of self-expression obtains major benefit, that tremendously outweighs those negative factors. Every American finds a way to present himself or herself in a particular way, which functions as a way to guide those individuals to paths in which they can seek their true happiness in. With the freedom to express personal ideas, America has become a society with one of the largest varieties of occupation categories. The ability to share thoughts with one another allows humans to create new ideas that somehow can be put to use to serve a purpose. However, these new innovations could not exist without some type of work. Therefore, the number of jobs will continue to increase, to perform the growing number of necessary tasks in order to accomplish the new inventions. Self-expression is essential in most types of work today. As the number of different jobs increase, people are more likely to find a career that they are truly passionate about. As it is mentioned in “The Need for Creative Self-Expression,” “The more unique you are the happier you will be and the more you will be paid. This should give each of us great incentive to find whatever it is in us that makes us unique and devote our lives to bringing that aspect out into the world.” The argument that freedom of personal expression improves the job market can be shown by the growing number of unique jobs that allows people to find a working position that they are happy in, which improves overall success in every workplace. Focusing further on the benefits of expression, this freedom enhances well-being in additional aspects, rather than just that of the job industry. Current studies are showing that marriage rates in America are one of the highest and increasing now, more than ever. A reasonable explanation to this statement is that American citizens highly value the sense of individualism, which allows them the absolute capability to end and begin a marriage under no necessary circumstances. Because citizens are not forced to stay in relationships that compromise their well-being, they can freely engage in fulfilling relationships that guide them to acquiring a thorough sense of happiness. Maria Tomás notably concludes that, “Americans are constantly

evaluating their situation and looking to fulfill their desire for self-expression and satisfy their self-esteem.” Above all, Americans are expressing themselves in furtherance of seeking strong marital relationships with spouses, who obtain interests similar to their own. This privilege undeniably develops substantial relationships. Along with creating satisfying marital relationships, the act of personal expression achieves quality fellowship, as well. The thought that self-expression results in degrading of society can respectfully be objected; as the gesture of forcing association within people, that are not fond of each other, can create a higher quantity of toxic relationships. For example, when those of the similar interests are able to associate with one another, they discover a sense of belonging; and it becomes easier to accept themselves. Whereas, if two people possessing completely different personalities would be obligated to befriend each other, they would not feel comfortable expressing their interests, values, and opinions. In the United States, the freedom to portray one’s true identity guides him or her to building meaningful relationships. Contrasting beliefs, values, and interests in a society is a matter of importance that should be recognized for its positive contribution. The American freedom of expressing personal opinions is very much a privilege that can be used to expand diversity. Although slight conflict can transpire from this, self-expression causes far more advantages for citizens. Along with the act of forming relationships and creating a sense of belonging, individualism is responsible for the establishment of several social movements and the continuous growth in the United States’ highly developed society. And most importantly, the freedom of self-expression significantly contributes to the overall levels of well-being within the nation. It is recognizable that Americans are especially familiar with their rights of self-expression, as it is portrayed through historical events. A widely known documented right is the First Amendment, which protects the overall freedom to express oneself. While the freedom of speech is certainly an essential aspect of this amendment, the right of petitioning has progressively become just as important. Without either of these given rights, Americans would be prohibited to express the changes necessary for societal improvement; and modern social movements would never emerge throughout history. A few of these including: the Civil Rights Movement, the Women’s Suffrage Movement, and the Gay Rights Movement. During the time span between the decades of the 1950s and 1960s, the Civil Rights Movement occurred for African Americans “to gain equal rights under the law in the United States” (“Civil Rights Movement”). This historic era includes continuous acts of protesting in attempt to abolish segregation, discrimination, and 61

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overall injustice. This grew to become a huge matter, as those of diverse races joined the demonstration to show their support towards blacks gaining the freedoms that they deserved. Since then, racism still exists; but the issue has certainly improved. The Women’s Suffrage Movement began as early as the 1820s and lasted over 100 years (“Women’s Suffrage”). American women protesting for equality; and, most importantly, the right to vote. Over the decades, these determined women had encountered a plethora of challenges, but the determination remained. The article “Women’s Suffrage” stated that methods of campaigning and protesting “contributed to a new way of thinking about what it meant to be a woman and a citizen of the United States.” Finally, in 1920, women were granted the right to vote. As predicted, over eight million women participated in voting in the elections that same year. (“Women’s Suffrage”). More recently, a crusade that has experienced attention is the Gay Rights Movement. Although this has existed for the last century, it has significantly evolved within the past 20 years. Members of the LBGTQ+ community have achieved a sense of freedom, as most laws against these individuals have diminished. As “Gay Rights” concludes, “lesbian, gay and bisexual individuals are now allowed to serve openly in the military, and same-sex couples can now legally get married and adopt children in all 50 states.” Additionally, transgender rights have also sought improvement within this era. These three modern social movements have exhibited the importance of self-expression. Without the given ability for individuals to express themselves, there would be a lack of development and openness to diversity in society. Americans who are viewed as “different” would be forced to hide their true personalities and pretend to be a person who they are not, which would show a drastic decrease in the overall well-being of these individuals. Self-expression is essentially the central point of all advancement in both social and cultural development in America. Given the freedom to express any personal thoughts or feelings, individuals gain the willingness to an open mind and confidence in sharing their opinions. In fact, individualism is proven to be highly responsible for the constant advancement of technology in the United States. “The Benefits of Self-Expression” asserts that this free range of individuality “elevates our consciousness: our ability to produce a variety of ideas, to see beyond the here and now and create something of substantial value.” Currently, America’s economy is considered to be one of the largest and most developed. The reasoning behind this can evidently be the culture of entrepre62

neurship, that has slowly adapted into society (“10 Reasons Why”). Entrepreneurship requires one who is willing enough to express his or her personal ideas and accept the possibility of failure. And because there is no penalization for this type of failure, Americans become even further attracted to this idea. Additionally, the wealth accumulated in this country provides financial support and encouragement in these acts of individualism, as well. The freedom of personal expression definitely contributes to the nation’s label of “highly developed.” As our economy is considered technologically advanced, above all others, a simple thought is that someone had to think up each original idea and obtain the courage to share their unique proposal. Perhaps, if Americans were unable to fully express themselves, this country would remain underdeveloped and lack innovation. American culture as its entirety would encounter difficulty in the means to thrive without selfexpression. This advanced society entails the significant factors of diverse careers, meaningful relationships, growing equality, and highly evolved technology. All in which contribute to the most vital aspect of a human’s life, that is believed to be personal well-being. Research reveals that various social, economic, and psychological variables make an enormous impact on overall personal well-being. Data acquired from a crossnational study heavily confirms that happiness, in all probability, appears in regions where residents are given the entire freedom to express themselves. The authors of “Happy States of America” note that, “In nations where basic needs are taken care of, where people have the freedom to be themselves, and where differences are tolerated, people appear to be generally happy” (Rentfrow, et al. 1074). Within the same journal, these writers notably state that “well-being is comparatively high in democratic nations where citizens place importance on self-expression, human rights, and equality” (1081). Areas that not only allow but also encourage individuals to openly express themselves significantly increase the overall quality of life for them, as well. This proves the intense value of this privilege to the lives of Americans. Answering the question of what makes a life worth living is a way to extend onto the importance of self-expression. The answer is that a meaningful life does not come from happiness, but from the idea of an individual having his or her own identity and the ability to express it. A personal statement that was found supporting this explanation is “The claim is that it matters a lot that I do what I want to do” (Flanagan 10). The ideal image of a United States citizen portrays the entire freedom of personal expression. Societal improvement stems from the concept of self-expression

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and grows in various aspects including: guiding human connection, creating innovation, and contributing to the well-being of citizens. When one answers the question of what he or she believes it means to be an American, almost any response would undoubtedly fall within the correlation of self-expression. Perhaps, those who remain in disagreement, attempt to imagine the difference that would be noticed within the American society if personal expression was prohibited. Works Cited Ackerman, Courtney E. “What is Self-Expression and How to Foster It?” Positive Psychology, n.d., https:// positivepsychology.com. Accessed 6 Dec. 2019. “A Person Without Self-Expression is A Person Without Personal Freedom.” Good Reads, n.d., https://www. goodreads.com. Accessed 17 Nov. 2019. “Civil Rights Movement.” History, 28 Aug. 2019, https:// www.history.com. Accessed 8 Dec. 2019. “First Amendment.” History, 25 Sept. 2019, https://www. history.com. Accessed 7 Dec. 2019. Flanagan, Owen J. “Introduction: What Makes Life Worth Living?” Self Expressions: Mind, Morals, and the Meaning of Life. Oxford University Press, 1996, pp. 3-11. ProQuest EBook Central, https://ebookcentral.proquest. com/lib/ship/reader. action?docID=272675. Hazelrigg, Lawrence. “Individualism.” Encyclopedia of Sociology, 2nd ed, vol. 2, Macmillan Reference USA, 2001, pp. 1301-1308. Gale eBooks, https://go.gale.com/ps/retrieve.do?tabID=T003 &resultListType=RESULT_LIST&searchResultsType=S ingleTab&searchType=BasicSearchForm&currentPositio n=3&docId=GALE%7CCX3404400172&docType=To pic+overview&sort=Relevance&contentSegment=&pro dId=GVRL&contentSet=GALE%7CCX3404400172& searchId=R5&userGroupName=pl2833&inPS=true.

Lukes, Steven M. “Individualism: Politics and Philosophy.” Encyclopedia Britannica, 19 Feb, 2016, https://www. britannica.com. Accessed 6 Dec. 2019. Pethokoukis, James. “10 Reasons Why America is So Much Richer Than Other Rich Nations.” AEI, 23 Mar. 2017, https://www.aei.org. Accessed 8 Dec. 2019. Rentfrow, Peter J., et al. “Happy States of America: A StateLevel Analysis of Psychological, Economic, and Social Well-Being.” Journal of Research in Personality, vol. 43, no. 6, Dec. 2009, pp. 1073–1082. PsycINFO, http:// dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2009.08.005. Accessed 8 Dec. 2019. “The Benefits of Self-Expression.” Medium, 27 Jan. 2019, https://medium.com. Accessed 8 Dec. 2019. “The Need for Creative Self-Expression.” Money Instructor, 2019, https://www.moneyinstructor.com. Accessed 6 Dec. 2018. Tomás, Maria. “Self-Expression and Family Values: How Are They Related to Marriage, Divorce, and Remarriage?” Associação Brasileira de Estudos Populacionais, vol. 28, no. 1, 2011. Scielo, http:// www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid =S0102-30982011000100014. Accessed 6 Dec. 2019. “Women’s Suffrage.” History, 11 Oct. 2019, https://www. history.com. Accessed 7 Dec. 2019.

Student Reflection: I would easily consider this paper as one of the most time consuming and difficult writing assignments that I have ever had to complete. Aside from these hours of tremendous efforts, I appreciate my growth that this assignment had contributed to. I believe that it improved my writing, as well as strengthening my passion for it. Furthermore, given the ability to choose a topic that I contain much respect for, which is the freedoms of American citizens, made the experience much more enjoyable.

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The Big Lebowski QDR #3 Ernest Frazier ENG 114: Writing Intensive First-Year Seminar Dr. William Harris Assignment Although workloads consisted of reading fairly thick novels and answering questions based around said novels and writing essay based around those novels, our class never had any test. So, when finals seasons came around, our final was yet another, but also final QDR of the course. Our final QDR was based around the Coen brother’s novelization of The Big Lebowski. With such a…for lack of better words, novelization of a movie with no precise direction, I was amazed by the various themes the story presented to. So, similar to QDR #1, my class had to write a well thought out essay based around a theme present within The Big Lebowsk. I chose to discuss how through the Coen brothers portrayals of prominent male characters such as Dude, Walter, and Big Lebowski, Dude was the Coen brother’s preferred version of masculinity that they would recommend other males to follow.

What does it mean to be a man? Back in history, men would typically take position as the bread maker of the family, and rarely expressed any emotions that would not fit well with their tough guy persona. Nowadays, men have taken on roles playing as either the housekeeper, workingman, or both, and have become a lot more expressive and unashamed of projecting vulnerability towards others. With that said, there are still people to this day who still butt heads with one another due to their inability to agree on what truly makes an individual a man. Of course, that brings up the question, “Is there a right definition or set of characteristics needed to deem an individual as being a man?” In the Coen brothers’ novel, The Big Lebowski, readers and viewers are introduced to prominent male leads: Dude, Walter, and Big Lebowski. Each of their characterizations are based off of associated traits that typically come to mind when considering the qualifications to be a man. Those specific traits such as having insecurities about one’s appearance, being mercilessly aggressive towards everyone, or being a passive voice of reason, are represented in each individual character. However, by writing Dude as being a relatable average everyman rather than an archetype like Big Lebowski and Walter, the Coen brothers express how Dude is arguably the best example of what it means to be a man. Big Lebowski, is for a lack of better word, prideful. Stated in the article, “What Makes a Man, Mr. Lebowski?” Lebowski is described as being a millionaire who believes that a man’s competence is based solely on their accomplishments throughout life (“What Makes a Man” 156). It also mentions how Lebowski, holding hard-working men in high regards, loathes the Dude’s

laid-back lifestyle (156). From this, many would ask why Big Lebowski could not be considered as being a relatable character when he is portrayed similarly to a typical individual in the 1% demographic. On top of that, he also values hardworking individuals. How does someone who supports people making a name for themselves, equal a flawed example of masculinity? While these are valid questions, they are quickly debunked when viewers and readers realize that Big Lebowski does not have a dime nor accomplishment to his name. In Ethan and Joel Coen’s novelization of, The Big Lebowski, Maude Lebowski explained to the Dude how Big Lebowski was once given complete control over one of the Foundation’s companies. However, everything began completely going downhill in the end (The Big Lebowski 109). As a result, he was relegated to being an administer of the charity companies, and was given a reasonable allowance for his services (110). Maude Lebowski explained to the Dude how Big Lebowski’s major weakness is his vanity (110). As such, Lebowski would consistently do whatever he could to make his self-image towards others come off as being a man who made something of his life. And, aside from Lebowski’s fraud ownership of his wealth, he also got engaged to a prostitute newly named Bunny Lebowski (110). So to answer both questions, the reason why Big Lebowski would not be considered a relatable characters to wealthy viewers and readers is because as previously stated before, Lebowski is not rich. Even then though, what really kills is relatability to his demographic is the way Big Lebowski is written as. Instead of writing a person with not only the wealthyman clichés, but also having some level of humanity

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to him, Big Lebowski is instead written as if the Coen brothers took those rich-man clichés first, and then tried to make a person out of it. To kill two birds with one stone, the reason why Big Lebowski also could not be considered representing a welcomed interpretation of masculinity like the Dude, is because there is virtually no good in his portrayal. Although having anxieties about one’s self-image is common amongst people of any financial status, it does not excuse Big Lebowski’s actions throughout the novel. He is not only a fraud wealthy person who literally never earned himself any of his high-praised accomplishments nor vast amounts of wealth (109-110), but also feel like he has the right to talk down to the Dude about not being employed not having an achievement to his name as well (18-19). Fortunately, readers and viewers are not subjected to many scenes that are primarily centered on Big Lebowski. Instead, they are left being subjected to multiple, dragged out scenes with an ignorant ball of white flames that degradedly represents the war veterans. Walter Sobchak is the epitome of being the symbolization of what an individual drafted into the military or war would return home as. In J.M. Tyree & Ben Walters’ Film Classics novel, The Big Lebowski, Walter is described as being “violently proactive, anal, and socially crippled” (Tyree & Walters 23). In this instance, many, including myself, would agree that that to some extent, Walter is a realistic and relatable portrayal of war veterans. It would not surprise me that anyone placed in those conditions, would return having a stronger obedience to rules and laws. However, what keeps Walter from being an accurate representation of war vets, is the fact that his characterization is so overly exaggerated that he comes off as parodying war veterans rather than representing war veterans. Take for instance Walter’s bowling incident (The Big Lebowski 25-27). Smokey bowled a foul ball, which earned him a zero on his current bowl. Smokey refusing to accept, Walter points a loaded gun directly at Smokey’s face and forces him to place a zero in his current frame (26). As previously said before, it is likely for individuals drafted into the war or military to have committed obedience to rules and laws. However, for something as meaningless in the long-run as bowling, it is hard to believe that a war vet would willingly shoot someone for not playing fair to the rules of bowling. What about Walter’s coffee shop tantrum (68-70)? After Walter causes a public disturbance in a local coffee shop due to his yelling, the waitress there told him to keep it down of they will both be asked to leave the premises (70). Walter then decides that this current situation called for going on a tangent and remarking comments such as, “The Supreme Court has roundly rejected prior restraints” and “I got buddies who died

face down in the muck so you and I could enjoy this family restaurant” (70). With quips like these towards a simple request to courteous to other patrons in said establishment, to killing a man for being disobedient to the rule of bowling of all things, Walter’s characterization suffers from the same issues that the previously mentioned characterization of Big Lebowski suffered from. However, to be fair, Walter did at least show some level of humanity towards others. After Bunny’s suspected kidnappers are disposed of by Dude, Walter, and Donny (126-132), Donny dies due to a heart attack he got from their battle (132). Walter then delivers a rather bitter-sweet eulogy to Donny which gradually turns into a bashing of the Lord for taking comrades of his during the Vietnam War, and released Donny’s ashes to the Pacific Ocean (136-137). However, I use the word, “humanity” loosely because everything about Walter’s actions previously stated felt un-genuine. Throughout the novel, Walter continuously tells Donny to “shut the fuck up” (36), and never once until now ever shown that he had a natural care for Donny. As such, his single act of kindness throughout the novel comes off as being manipulative rather than genuine. In other words, its inclusion in the narrative not only desperately tries make readers and viewers sympathize with this arrogant hot-head, but poorly acts as the only real obnoxious character’s redemption moment. Therefore, combined with his violence outbreaks that continually puts him, Dude, and Donny in danger, Walter is not only an unrealistic portrayal of war veterans, but also is yet another unsupported style of masculinity. With that out of the way, depending on your ethical and moral views, you may view the Coen brothers’ last prominent male character as being yet another bad interpretation of masculinity. However, in combination with its execution and comparison to the characterizations of Big Lebowski and Walter, he is the only one who is not only given a realistic portrayal, but also a style of masculinity approved by the Coen brothers. Dude’s portrayal in The Big Lebowski is best described as the live-action version of “Rip Van Winkle” (The Really Big Sleep 42). In Ashe’s article, “The Really Big Sleep,” Dude is characterized as a charismatic, bumbling individual who finds himself continuously getting into things despite never putting in the effort needed to get involved in the first place (41). However, according to Rabin’s article, “Once and Future Dude,” Dude is apparently a characterization of Jesus. Aside from the similar hair style, there is the stranger’s remark which read, “Takin’ her easy for all us sinners” (“The Really Big Sleep” 68). As many know, Jesus died on the cross for our sins. Similarly to an extent, Dude’s refusal to do much of anything outside of lying around his house, is his way of dying or com65

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pensating for everyone else’s sins. But I digress. Now I know what many readers and viewers are thinking. Sure, Walter Sobchak was an arrogant hot-head who was easily the epitome of comedic parodying of a relevant sub-group. However, Walter was still a Vietnam veteran, whereas Dude did absolutely nothing of value with his life. As such, why is the communal bum the one readers and viewers are supposed to look up to and become, rather than the Vietnam veteran with war survival underneath his belt? Again, despite Walter doing something of high acclaim with his life, he did not necessarily have the most tolerable nor well-looked upon personality. Dude on the other-hand, despite not doing anything of long-term nor even short-term value with his life, Dude did have his priorities straight. In Billy Ott’s article, “The Dude Abides,” Billy conjures up a definition to the phrase, “The Dude abides” (“The Dude Abides” 1). Taking into consideration the definition of the word “abide” in context with the phrase, essentially the phrasing means that the Dude will endure anything in order to preserve the few things that makes him happy in this world from his friends, drugs, alcohol, and especially his rug (1). This is where the aforementioned “relatability” comes in. For most people, primarily college students and adults, they would rather be like Dude and just enjoy what little happiness they have in their possession. However, just like Dude, they are found being thrown into shenanigans that threatens to not only take away what makes them smile anymore, but also completely disruption their comfortably establish status quo. Take for instance the ransom money delivery scene in Ethan and Joel Coen’s novelization of The Big Lebowski. After Lebowski assigned Dude to deliver the money, Walter accompanies him. From there, Walter schemes up a plan for him and Dude to keep Lebowski’s money (The Big Lebowski 44-45). The plan involves switching the money out with a brief case full of Walter’s dirty underwear. However, Dude barks at Walter about how “this isn’t a fucking game” (45), and continually tries to drill into Walter’s head that they need to complete this task right (45-50). As previously mentioned before, Dude’s first encounter with Big Lebowski was anything but pleasant as Lebowski mercilessly belittled Dude for not having any accomplishments to his name (18-19). The fact that Dude still refuse to take part in Walter’s scheme despite being unjustly chewed out by Big Lebowski, depicts Dude as not only being a trustworthy individual, but a humble one at that. This whole scene in particular perfectly showcases why Dude’s style of masculinity is the Coen Brothers’ preferred definition of what it means to be a man. That reason being because that unlike Big Lebowski or

Walter, Dude not only remains true to his morals and ideal, but also does not add more to the corruption present within his hometown. Big Lebowski is part of a wealthy family, yet has not got a penny nor accomplishment to his name. However, while he is known to value individuals who made something of their lives, he instead plays the hypocritical card and fakes his wealth and achievement in order to preserve his image. Walter Sobchak may have also stayed true to his values and beliefs like Dude, however, in doing so, Walter angered innocent individuals, nearly got arrested for threatening to shoot down one of his own friends for not abiding to the rules of bowling, and brought forth the death of his supposed “friend” Donny. Dude unlike Big Lebowski, embraced who he was and everything he had to his name, even if he was essentially a stoned pacifist with no real highly acclaimed achievements to recall. On top of that, unlike Walter Sobchak, Dude has not only a better grasps on when it is appropriate to snap at someone else, but also has enough will power in him that keeps him from considering about taking part in underhanded scheme even when doing business for people he dislikes or loathes. In short, although each mentioned character’s portrayal is based on actual traits associated with masculinity, due to the Coen brothers’ execution of each character, Dude proved to be both an approved and realistic portrayal of being a man. Works Cited Ashe, Fred. “The Really Big Sleep: Jeffrey Lebowski as the Second Coming of Rip Van WInkle.” D2L, 2009, pp. 41-57. https://d2l.ship.edu/d2l/le/content/2659782/ viewContent/19091269/View. Accessed 5 December 2019. Coen, Ethan, and Joel Coen. The Big Lebowski. Faber and Faber, 1998. Kazecki, Jakub. “‘What Makes a Man, Mr. Lebowski?’: Masculinity Under (Friendly) Fire in Ethan and Joel Coen’s The Big Lebowski.” Atenea, vol. 28, no. 1, June 2008, pp. 147–159. EBSCOhost, search.ebscohost.com/ login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=ip,sso&db=asn&A N=34853837&site=ehost-live&scope=site. Accessed 5 December 2019. Ott, Bill. “The Dude Abides.” American Libraries, vol. 37, no. 4, Apr. 2006, p. 86. EBSCOhost, search.ebscohost. com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=ip,sso&db=asn &AN=20421865&site=ehost-live&scope=site. Accessed 5 December 2019. Rabin, Andrew. “A Once and Future Dude: The Big Lebowski as Medieval Grail Quest.” D2L, 2009, pp. 58-73. https://d2l.ship.edu/d2l/le/content/2659782/ viewContent/1909127 0/View. Accessed 5 December 2019. Tyree, J. M., and Ben Walters. The Big Lebowski. Palgrave, 2007.

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Student Reflection: Despite its lack of direction, or at least lack of identifiable direction, The Big Lebowski was both my favorite reading/ movie. However, what really stood out to me while writing this piece was how out of the male leads, Dude was had the preferred way of living a masculine lifestyle. Donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t get me wrong, I could clearly see why. Even though Walter had military duties underneath his belt and has been continually obedient to rules/law, readers/viewers forget that Walter had a mouthâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;and knew how to pluck a nerve/hurt people with it if he pleases. Although Dude is still blatantly a lazy slob who finds pleasure in being unemployed, he still shows a great deal of maturity/precision lacking in Walter when it comes to resolving a given situation, and genuinely finds himself getting into these shenanigans due to the rather unpredictable ways of life, rather than due his own behavior.

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“There’s Still Some Mystery Here:” Aesthetics and Action in Station Eleven Ashleigh Kennedy ENG 130: Literary Studies for the English Major and Minor Dr. Jordan Windholz Assignment This is an analytical essay on the role art and aesthetics play in Hillary St. John Mandel’s novel, Station Eleven (soon to be a TV series!)

In Mandel’s Station Eleven, almost every character interacts with art, in its several forms, before, during, and after the calamitous Georgian Flu pandemic. The Traveling Symphony, for instance, traverses the area surrounding Lake Michigan performing songs and Shakespeare’s plays in the years after the plague (37). Another character, Arthur Leander, acts in the period before the pandemic, while Miranda, Arthur’s ex-wife, draws and writes her comic book project Dr. Eleven (3; 83). Clark, Arthur’s friend, acts for a brief period in his earlier years and later becomes the curator at the Museum of Civilization, and Elizabeth, another ex-wife of Arthur’s, studies art history in addition to acting (74; 255; 91; 95). Jeevan is a former paparazzo photographer and his brother Frank is a ghostwriter (167; 177). The sheer abundance of the presence of art has led to many critics asserting that Station Eleven argues for, as Mendez-Garcia says, “the importance of art and culture for our species” (1). Feldner, for instance, argues that “Station Eleven presents an unusually optimistic and hopeful vision of an otherwise bleak future.” This “optimistic” perspective, Feldner, writes, is showcased through the many characters who showcase “the importance and value of art and memory even in strained circumstances” (166). After all, the motto of the Traveling Symphony, “survival is insufficient,” Kirsten’s love of Miranda’s Dr. Eleven comics, Clark’s dedication to his Museum, and many other positive interactions the characters in Station have with art support this claim (58). This assertion, though, is an overly simplistic one that minimalizes the nuance with which the text approaches the both positive and negative ways we engage with art. Consider, for instance, that Tyler, the leader of a violent cult community, like Kirsten, also clings to Miranda’s comics after the pandemic. Jeevan uses his skills in photographer to be a paparazzo, and in doing so tricks Miranda into an unglamorous photo opportunity, while Arthur uses his fame that comes 68

from his acting career to draw attention to himself and even acts out his life. These examples coexist in the same book that champions the “moments of transcendent beauty and joy” of the Symphony, Miranda’s comics, and Arthur’s acting career, among other cases (47). Instances like this show that while Station Eleven holds a positive-negative dichotomy concerning art, asserting that treating art positively can lead to personal contentedness while also recognizing the harmful, personal effects of abusing art. This more complex reading of Station Eleven aligns with Maurer, who argues that the novel holds an overly simplistic view of one of the art forms in the novel: Shakespeare’s works. Maurer writes, “Despite what the members of the Travelling Symphony profess, Shakespeare’s works are not a universal force, and the Travelling Symphony’s Shakespearean performances cannot transcend cultural, historical and temporal limitations” (33). “Shakespeare’s imagined universalism,” she writes, “is an invention of our society” that represents not Shakespeare’s “inherent” universality but “‘our desire to make him one of our own’” (35-36). Although Maurer focuses on Station Eleven’s Shakespeare-centric philosophies, her argument can be applied to critics, such as Feldner and MendezGarcia, who, by holding a reductionist, overly positive viewpoint about the art in Station Eleven, fail to see the novel’s complex, positive/negative art dichotomy, which depends on characters’ actions, not the inherent goodness of art itself. Three of the characters (Arthur, Frank, and Kirsten) have positive instances demonstrating the value of art while also having a negative counterpart, whether another character or an event in the same character’s life, that gives warnings about the potential detrimental effects of using art selfishly. One example of this is the difference between how Arthur treats acting pre and post-fame, and how doing so positively or negatively affects his psyche. In the beginning of his

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career, Arthur is extremely passionate about acting. He describes in his letters to Victoria his wish of “going to be an actor and…going to be good,” saying, “I’m like a man in a wheelchair watching other people run. I can see what good acting is but I can’t quite reach it but I’m so close sometimes, V. I’m really trying” (155-156). He feels pride when a dismissive instructor “really [watches]” him and “[says] goodnight to [him] for the first time in weeks” (155). Arthur’s desire revolves around a genuine passion for acting, and, for the most part, his life isn’t bad emotionally. He’s “confident despite the fact that for at least the first six months of acting classes he couldn’t act his way out of a paper bag” and he eventually finds success, becoming whet Jeevan class the “finest actor of his generation” (222; 167). After this success, though, Arthur’s viewpoint towards acting shifts as he instead uses acting for his ego instead of his art. His negative use of art in turn negatively impacts his relationships and happiness. For instance, he takes advantage of his acting skills and fame to draw attention to himself and his dinner with Clark. “[Wanting] to be seen,” he faces the dining room of the restaurant while waiting for Clark’s arrival and doesn’t “[speak] of anything of substance” after he drops the subject of Elizabeth during the dinner (110-111). Arthur even says a line to Clark, his friend, that he also used in Entertainment Weekly earlier, not realizing that Clark has read the piece. As the narrator describes it, “[Arthur] was performing. Clark had thought he was meeting his oldest friend for dinner, but Arthur wasn’t having dinner with a friend, Clark realized, so much as having dinner with an audience” (112). Arthur also “performs” his life when meeting up with Miranda years after his divorce with her. His actions have a methodical air about them, “a studied quality to the movement” that gives Miranda the “impression that he was performing a scene.” While “blurring of borders between performance and life” might seem like the pinnacle of theatre, as the actor becomes the acted and vice versa, Miranda perceives Arthur to be “deeply unhappy” (211). Arthur’s use of acting as a form of self-aggrandization instead of art disrupts his relationships with Clark and Miranda and erases his contentment. By treating his art selfishly, Arthur destroys his former self ’s excitement and passion for acting, demonstrating the texts’ argument that treating art positively or negatively affects how one will thrive. Readers can also see this positive-negative dichotomy between the way Frank and Jeevan treat their arts and how their art, in return, treats them. Frank, a ghostwriter, “[hides] in his project” while the apocalypse rages through Toronto with the excuse

that he signed a contract to write it and that therefore he must continue to do so (178). Frank admits that the philanthropist he’s writing the memoir is in all likelihood dead but continues to write anyway. His excerpts from the memoir, though, point to his reason for writing. He writes, I’ve been thinking lately about immortality…I watch the faces of long-dead actors on the screen, and I think about how they’ll never truly died…they’re all immortal to me. First we only want to be seen, but once we’re seen, that’s not enough anymore. After that, we want to be remembered. (186-187) Writing, as Frank and the text seems to notion, is remembering and being remembered, recording your thoughts for even the sole person who might read them in hopes that you and your reader might become a little less lonely. Frank wants to be remembered; he wants, too, to forget. Writing, his art, provides an avenue for both desires. Frank treats the act of writing with reverence, and as a result, can find comfort amid the surrounding despair. Jeevan’s art, in contrast, is paparazzi work and later entertainment journalism, but he doesn’t seem to enjoy both very much. The reason, after all, that Jeevan switches to entertainment journalism is because “he was sick to death of stalking celebrities from behind sidewalk planters and lying in wait in parked cars” and even entertainment journalism still feels “sleazy but less sleazy than his current profession” (167). Later, years after the incident during the pandemic, Jeevan still regrets his paparazzo job, which he took because “the pay was better” than wedding photography, and his role in taking Miranda’s tabloid picture, thinking of “the way she’d looked at him, stunned and sad with the cigarette in her hand” (175). As Jeevan asks, “What kind of journalism career was this? What kind of life” (168)? Jeevan’s art isn’t art, really, but a job, and not a very satisfying one at that. Jeevan doesn’t feel any passion towards entertainment journalism or being a paparazzo, only regret. His treatment of his “art” as a means of money leaves him guilt-ridden and unfulfilled, a far cry from the peace Frank finds after continuing to write in order to cope with the traumatic Flu. Jeevan and Frank are yet another example of the text’s negative-positive dichotomy argument about art, with Frank being an example of the good that can come from respectfully approaching art and Jeevan, who brings a negative approach, being an example the opposite. Finally, we can also see this positive/negative dichotomy in Kirsten and Tyler’s respective treatment of Miranda’s Dr. Eleven comics. Kirsten treasures the comics, reading them so much that they become 69

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“dog-eared…worn soft at the edges” despite her attempts at taking care of the books, and even fantasizes about living in Station Eleven because she “[thinks] it’s beautiful” (42; 202). Tyler, on the other hand, survives through the pandemic “[keeping] to himself mostly, reading his comic books or Elizabeth’s copy of the New Testament” and “[cherry-picking] verses from the Book of Revelation” (252; 280). When he moves to kill Kirsten, he even quotes Station Eleven as a means of defending him and his cult, saying “[they] are the light moving over the surface of the waters, over the darkness of the undersea.” As he says this, “a look of perfect serenity [comes] over his face” as he looks “through” Kirsten, focusing not on her but on the ideals the comic represents in his mind (302). The two’s viewpoints towards the comics are wildly divergent. Kirsten, after all, hasn’t started a cult on the basis of the comics and the Bible. The difference between them is their use of the books. Kirsten uses the comics as a relic to remember the beautiful elements of civilization, while Tyler uses his to reinforce his violent beliefs. This destructive, disrespectful usage eventually leads to his death, as he would’ve never gotten shot if he hadn’t used the Bible and Miranda’s comics to recruit the cult member who kills him. On the other hand, Kirsten survives after she unintentionally bides her time by returning Tyler’s Dr. Eleven quotations as she peacefully accepts her presumptive death (302). Kirsten and Tyler’s differing treatment of the comics is yet another example of the text’s positive/negative art dichotomy, which this time includes a clear message: misusing art for one’s own good will lead to one’s own downfall in the end.

As we’ve seen, Station Eleven has many examples within the text that show its stark dichotomy, with a positive or negative personal outcome correlating with one’s treatment of art. There is still is room for more examination, though, on the text’s relationship to aesthetics, which will likely prove a birthing ground to continuous discussion, especially considering the scope of which it is mentioned within the text. Let not, however, this scholarship perpetuate an overly positive relationship between the text and art. Art in Station Eleven is not a beacon of all things good, but brings context-based effects. It is up to the characters, and us, to determine how we use art and how art, in return, will use us. Works Cited Feldner, Maximillian. “‘Survival is Insufficient’: The Postapocalyptic Imagination of Emily St. John Mandel’s Station Eleven.” Anglica, vol. 27, no. 1, 2018, pp. 165-179, Research Gate, cejsh.icm.edu.pl/cejsh/ browse/articles.action. Accessed 19 Nov. 2019. Mandel, Emily St. John. Station Eleven. New York, Vintage Books, 2014. Maurer, Margaret. “‘The Undiscovered Country’: Shakespeare, Star Trek and Intertextual Narratives in Station Eleven.” Foundation: The International Review of Science Fiction, vol. 48, no. 134, 2019, pp. 32-44. Mendez-Garcia, Carmen M. “Postapocalyptic Curating: Cultural Crises and The Permanence Of Art in Emily St. John Mandel’s Station Eleven” Studies in the Literary Imagination, vol. 50, no. 1, 2017, pp. 111-130, Literature Resource Center, link.gale.com/apps/doc/ A578273481/GLS?u=pl2833&sid=GLS&xid=be6f3e 1d. Accessed 14 Nov. 2019.

Student Reflection: For this assignment, I wanted to explore the intersections of art and the characters of Station Eleven’s actions and how the two affect the characters’ wellbeing. I think a lot of people who read Station Eleven will read it thinking it’s a book that completely triumphs art as a beautiful means of surviving, and that’s not necessarily true. Just as in real life, art’s goodness depends on the characters’ goodness. It’s a valuable lesson for humanities and art majors; it’s what we do with our ability to create that determines our art’s worth and effects.

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The Pharos of Alexandria: Social Structure of Ptolemaic Egypt John Stewart HIS 105: Historical Foundation of Global Cultures Dr. Gretchen Pierce Assignment A surface level mini research paper that accompanied construction on a model example of a piece of monumental architecture. The paper was to follow a certain topic relating to the piece of monumental architecture, such as gender and social class. The paper was graded as half of the assignment, and a group presentation and model made up the other half of the points.

Lucan, the poet who wrote Pharsalia, the epic of the Roman Civil War, in book eight through nine uses the Pharos of Alexandria as a landmark of the surrounding land and sea because it was a defining characteristic of Ptolemaic Egypt and was famous in its day. Aside from the late Library of Alexandria, the Pharos was one of the most notable pieces of monumental architecture commissioned under the early Ptolemaic Monarchy. Ptolemy the first, secured Egypt and the surrounding region after the fall of the Hellenistic world, in which Ptolemy implemented a racial hierarchy, in which Greeks, who are categorized as Herrenvolk, were able to live in cities and had more financial opportunities then Egyptians (Bell, 1948, pg. 20, 33). The Pharos of Alexandria is a wonderful example of how the Hellenistic Empire and the Ptolemaic Monarchy introduced a new form of ethnic social structure, particularly in how Greek ambassadors enjoyed a higher standard of living in Greek culture areas and the unproportionally spending the monarchy went to benefit the Greeks. The Pharos of Alexandria was commissioned by the Ptolemaic monarchy just off the island pharos, which allowed it to be a useful piece of monumental architecture which supplied light to the thriving harbor of Alexandria. The location and economic activity of Alexandria was the sole reason the pharos was created as the harbor and a latter constructed more allowed for safe commercial activity, which attracted larger numbers of merchants (Bell, 1948, pg.51). Several records show that the Pharos was created at different dates, according to the Byzantine Suda, construction took place in 297 BCE (McKenzie, 2017, pg.41). Despite the youth of the Ptolemaic State, they were quite wealthy, with a store of around 8,000 talents, 800 of which were used to finance the Pharos, equating

to 38,753,224 modern US dollarsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; worth of gold (McKenzie, 2017, pg.42). Laura Zientek researched the appearance of the Pharos, chiefly using the writings of Lucan, who used a Latin word meaning mountain for both the pyramids and the lighthouse (2017, pg.146-150). The island Pharos, which is in the harbor of Alexandria, is the ideal home for the lighthouse, as it is on the outer most point of the harbor which allowed it to be an illuminist beacon (Bell, 1948, pg.53). Greeks under the Ptolemaic monarchy were seen as much more learned, which is the reason why they were imported from Greece for the design of architecture, such as the pharos, land reclamation projects, and the elite districts of Alexandria (Bell, 1948, pg.46). As the Greeks were of a higher class, it is presumable that mainly minorities and lower classes, like the native Egyptians, were the hands and feet which constructed the lighthouse. Society in Ptolemaic Egypt was fractured between those of Greek heritage and Egyptian heritage as Greeks lived concentrated in polies, which allowed for a feeling of superiority to possess the victorious Greeks. In the early years of the Dynasty, Ptolemy was just as dependent on Greek Mercenaries, Scholars, and engineers as Alexander was, and so he founded Greek cities all over Egypt to house them (Bell, 1948, pg.34). Greek mythology and culture were extremely dominant as cities, such as Hermopolis, were named in a traditional Greek fashion, as well as being designed in a very Hellenistic way (Bell, 1948, pg. 34). These cities became havens of Greek culture for the scholars, engineers, and especially soldiers who emigrated from the Hellenistic world, creating a clear distinction between the Greek polies and the rest of Egypt. After a period of separation between Greek and Egyptian, an informal system was implicated, that discriminated 71

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against Egyptians in favor of Greeks. The Greeks are categorized by historians as Herrenvolk or a fortiori Macedonians (Bell, 1948, pg. 34). Herrenvolk is a germen word which is often used to mean â&#x20AC;&#x153;master raceâ&#x20AC;?, especially when they are the only race or ethnic group which participates in government. A fortiori is a latin work that means superior argument, and so it indicates that despite Macedonians not being Southern Greeks, they are much superior to Egyptians. Portrayal of Greeks as superior restricted opportunities for nonGreeks, which formed a strict racial caste system. Land in Ptolemaic Egypt was controlled by the state and Greek institutions, making it difficult for Egyptians to find opportunities because land was awarded mainly from military service, a role Egyptians were barred from due to their race. After the Conquest of Egypt, Ptolemy believed that all of the lands in Egypt belonged to the state by right of conquest, setting the stage for state owned royal lands (Shaw, 2003, pg.404). Ownership of land was categorized in one of two ways, as Royal land, or remitted land, which respectively were owned by the monarch or other organizations, such as temples (Shaw, 2003, pg.404-405). Greeks were much more often to be awarded these positions over Egyptians, and because of their status as seconded class citizens, they felt inferior and became opposed to the administrative class of Greeks. While these was unrest among the Egyptians for the blatant and severe racially based class system, most were passive and learnt Greek so that they could better their position in society (Bell, 1948, pg.36-37). Opportunities to farm on Royal lands were presented to mostly elites, and because soldiers and elites were almost solely Greeks, Egyptians were unable to forge ahead in society. In the city of Alexandria, desirable land and monumental architecture, like the Pharos of Alexandria, was in the Greek parts of the city, suggesting that the state was one for Greeks, by Greeks. The Great Harbor of Alexandria was the defining characteristic of the city, as it allowed for valuable goods to be imported and vast quantities of agricultural goods to be exported. The city was divided into four main districts, the Jewish district, the Royal district, the Egyptian district, and the Necropolis (Shaw, 2003, pg. 399). The Royal district was inhabited by Greeks and was directly on the shores of the Great Harbor, making all of the property there more valuable for craftsmen, merchants, and scholars, as they had direct access to the harbor. As the name implies, this district had closer ties to the government, and saw more public works projects, such as the Pharos, theater, and Royal palace (Shaw, 2003, pg. 399). All of these public works used Greek engineers, which prevented Egyptians from rising in social status. The high concentration of public works 72

in this district shows that political influence was high in this area, and that the government was biases to they type of people living there, who happened to be Greeks. The Lighthouse, at the time of its construction cost one tenth of the net worth of the monarchy, and it was only to service a small population primary made of Greeks (McKenzie, 2017, pg.42). Governments during the classical time period, both republics and monarchies, treated high classes better than lower classes. The biased treatment of the Greeks shows that Greeks are the dominant societal and political force in Ptolemaic Egypt and were bestowed expensive public works. Greeks and Macedonians demanded products and goods not found in Egypt, which is barren of resources except agricultural products, so Foreign trade was stimulated by the Ptolemaic Monarch via infrastructure and economics. Large quantities of roses began to be propagated and pigs began to be bred, as roses were used in Greek head dresses and pigs were seen as unclean animals to the Egyptians (Bell, 1948, pg. 47). Grain grew wonderfully in the fertile fields of the Nile, but things other which Greeks demanded, such as slaves, cheese, and exotic types of fruits had to be imported (Bell, 1948, pg. 47). The high concentration of government funded buildings were found in Greek areas, and so it would seem that the monarchy was eager to spend money to pleasure the Greeks, such as building a lighthouse to enhance trade. Much like the state monopolies and protective tariffs the monarchy implemented, the Pharos was constructed to enhance trade in the Great Harbor (Bell, 1948, pg. 47-51). Trade in the Great Harbor benefited all classes, but the Greek merchants and the pro-Greek monarch were the ones who grew rich off of imports. Concentration of wealth in the Herrenvolk Greeks was largely facilitated by government intervention, which was present in the construction of the Pharos. The Pharos of Alexandria enhanced trade, so high class Greeks were able to exaggerate the fiscal gap growing between Egyptians and Greeks, which presented Greeks with social, political, and economic opportunities unattainable in the social class of the Egyptians. The Ptolemaic Monarchy embraced the technological, cultural, and architectural ideas that were brought to Egypt during the period of Hellenization, which created an inherent biased towards Greek ideas. Alexandria was the Jewel of the world during the middle classical era, reflected by the immense concentration of knowledge and revolutionary architecture. Greek polices all over Egypt flourished under Greek rule, transforming them into large modern-day Egyptian cities, despite their Greek roots. A Greek sense of superiority caused Ptolemy to keep a Greek style army, made up of Greek soldiers, and to create a social hierarchy with allowed only Greeks to hold

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prestigious positions. The Royal district in Alexandria became a Greek power center which had costly architecture constructed, such as the Pharos which acted as a tool elite Greeks used to trade, directly contrasting the Egyptians who were neglected like the lower class in many other societies. Works Cited Bell, H, (1948) Egypt From Alexander The Great To The Arab Conquest. WestPort, CT; GreenWood Press. (found in Library)

Lucan, Fox, M. W., & Adams, E. (2012). Civil War. New York: Penguin Books McKenzie, J. (2011) The Architecture of Alexandrea and Egypt 300 B.C. – 700A.D. New Haven, CT; Yale University Press. Shaw, I. (2003) The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. New York, NY; Oxford University Press. (Found in Library) Zientek, L. (2017) The Pharos of Alexandria: A Man-Made Mountain’ in Lucan’s Bellum Ciuile. Champaign, IL; University of Illinois Press. (found on online Library database)

Student Reflection: In writing my paper, I failed to fully describe the system in which land was distributed among Greeks and non-Greeks. This failure to dive deeper into the remitted and royal land was caused by a desire to remain within the page count restriction for the paper. With this in mind, I decided to make a more generalized mention of the land distribution system, which would also allow the paper to be better understood by laypersons. The next failure in my paper is the lack of historical sources and sources in general. As this assignment was relatively small, I did not feel that it would be adequate to have a large number of sources for such an unserious assignment. I feel as the legitimacy of the paper could have been improved if more historical sources, like the Byzantine Suda were used.

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Restful, Pastoral, and Communal Work in “Neighbors in October” and “Find Work” Ashleigh Kennedy HON 106: Writing Intensive First-Year Seminar Dr. Thomas Crochunis Assignment The assignment invited students to write a 2-4+ page paper analyzing how two texts about work stories or experi ences (films, plays, stories, poems, or essays) represent comparable issues, situations, or characters. This paper analyzes the “ideal” work life as it is represented in two poems: “Neighbors in October” by David Baker and “Find Work” by Rhina P. Espaillat.

“Neighbors in October” by David Baker and “Find Work” by Rhina P. Espaillat are two contemporary, free-verse poems predominantly interested in work and how it impacts our health and happiness. “Neighbors in October” shows the narrators collectively working outdoors during the harvest season while “Find Work” depicts the narrator’s grandmother stuffing her grief away by focusing instead on cleaning her household. While both poems focus on differing types of work, both also have remarkably similar stances toward work, asserting that labor that makes time for rest, is pastoral, and is communal makes for a better working environment and a better psyche. One of the more noticeable differences between the work in “Neighbors in October” and “Find Work” is that the characters in the two poems have wildly different preoccupations surrounding work. Specifically, the characters in “Neighbors in October” rest, while the grandmother in “Find Work” noticeably does not. For instance, while one character in “Neighbors” works with his tractor “all afternoon” taking “bales to the barn” before returning to the “waiting / chopped field,” there are also moments of profound stillness in the poem (1-3). The narrators take time to mention “how like a field is the whole sky now / that the maples have shed their leaves, too” (7-8). The vastness of the field “makes [them] believers” (9). They stand, “looking into space” (10). The narrators acknowledge the physical and time burden of their work, such as “blisters” and the fact they will need to keep doing their work of “bagging gold” during the “the cold days to come” (10, 12). For now, though, they take time to rest, to take in the environment they live and work in. There is no rest, however, for the grandmother in “Find Work.” As the epigraph of the poem alludes, the grandmother does “life’s little duties” as if they “were infinite,” never stopping to breath or relax 74

(ii, iv). Maintaining composure by hiding her grief through her work is a “lifelong practice of despair” for the grandmother (12). She tells herself to “find work” in response to “every grief ” (6, emphasis added). The grandmother even goes further by scrubbing her floors so much that they’re “white as bone,” obsessively cleaned beyond those of any other person’s floors (13). Throughout the poem, there is no mention of repose or tranquility, which makes sense, given the reason the grandmother never stops working is because of her grief after being widowed. This is a far cry from the moments of rest in “Neighbors,” where an extensive amount of the poem is devoted to taking time to simply be. The negativity surrounding constant work in “Find Work” and the consistent mention of rest in “Neighbors” suggests both poems hold the same view of rest, opposed to obsessive labor, being vital for a good work life. Additionally, both poems also look at how work differs when one is working alone or with a group, with both poems sharing a largely positive view of communal, instead of solitary, work. For instance, in “Neighbors in October,” the poem is told with first person plural point of view, as the collective narrators describe themselves as “we.” Phrases like “We bend with the season” and “we rub blisters” indicate that the workers are, in fact, working together (4, 10; emphasis added). The narrators also outright confirm this later, noting that they are “stationed in groups” (9). Evidently, work in “Neighbors” is an inherently communal act. Interestingly, though, towards the end of the poem, the narrators note that they sometimes “stand alone” (11). This solitary work is not associated with the open sky and fields like the communal work is, but with “the cold days to come.” The “gold” that is present (fallen leaves) is “[bagged],” stuffed away (12). The negative connotations surround solitary work in

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“Neighbors,” in addition to the many instances of positive group work, suggest that the poem believes solitary work is less colorful and warm and is more of a burden than shared group work. In contrast to the largely communal work of “Neighbors in October,” the grandmother in “Find Work” works alone. There is no mention of any other helpers or fellow workers in the poem, and her husband is dead. Even if there was an unmentioned workmate in the grandmother’s life, the grandmother “spoke so little,” being “mute / with labor” that the work wouldn’t have been communal anyway, since communal work revolves around community and relationships created by communication (4, 10). Regardless, the grandmother works alone, and is left to her own narrow, unhealthy mindset that becoming a solitary workaholic is a good coping mechanism, a sharp contrast to the abundance of largely peaceful group work in “Neighbors.” The absence of social work in “Find Work,” combined with the overt communal work in “Neighbors” indicates that both poems agree that work is best when it is shared with those you enjoy, not when it is completed alone. Finally, the characters in both poems work in the pastoral world of the country. “Neighbors in October” surrounds the country harvest season, with a neighbors’ tractor pulling bales and raking leaves, while the granddaughter in “Find Work” notes that her grandmother works on “her father’s farm” with a “country tongue / and country heart” (3-4). Strikingly, though, the grandmother in “Find Work,” unlike the characters in “Neighbors,” largely does not interact with the country world she lives and works in. Her country tongue and heart are quickly described as “anaesthetized and mute” (4). The fruits of her labor are not the crops or livestock that readers would typically associate with rural agricultural work, but floors and dishes “scrubbed white as bone…painfully” (13-14). These are internal, household jobs the grandmother uses to erase her grief from being widowed. There is no mention of outdoor work in “Find Work” only internal labor that leaves

the grandmother shut inside, trapped. “Find Work,” by omission of the outdoors, suggests that indoor work, combined with obsessive and solitary work, makes the grandmother’s bad situation worse and is far from “hearty” work of the outdoors. “Neighbors in October” also extends this viewpoint that outdoor work is healthier. The narrators in “Neighbors” elaborate thoroughly on their pastoral work environment. The workers move “with the season” (4). The sky they toil beneath is like the fields they work on, bare “now / that the maples have shed their leaves, too” (7-8). The workers are “looking into space” while they rest; they “bag gold for the cold days to come” (10, 12). There is no mention of the limiting interior in “Neighbors,” only the open sky and golden leaves, a stark contrast to the “white as bone” floors of “Find Work” (13). Both poems show a pastoral view towards the countryside; only the characters in “Neighbors,” though, are able to relish in and gain from outdoor labor, to the “[painful]” detriment to the grandmother in “Find Work” (14). As we’ve seen “Neighbors in October” and “Find Work” largely agree that work that makes room for rest, is shared, and completed outside is best. By respectively showing both the positive traits of work that aligns with this point of view and the negative traits of work that does not, the two poems unintentionally work together to create this philosophy of work. The result is a clear statement: that work with rest, with others, and with the outdoors is not, in fact, work at all. Works Cited Baker, David. “Neighbors in October.” Poetry Foundation, Poetry Foundation, 1998, poetryfoundation.org/ poems/42431/neighbors-in-october. Accessed 26 November 2019. Espaillat, Rhina P. “‘Find Work.’” Poetry Foundation, Poetry Foundation, 1999, poetryfoundation.org/ poetrymagazine/poems/40463/find-work. Accessed 26 November 2019.

Student Reflection: For this assignment, our task was to write an essay comparing what work looks like in two different texts of any genre or medium. As an English major, I wanted to compare two pieces of contemporary poetry, since I already read a lot of work from this genre both as part of my coursework and my downtime. What I found was that in these two poems, “Neighbors in October” and “Find Work,” there’s a deep respect for work that is communal, outdoors, and full of rest; it’s a very pastoral, blue-collar view of work. I think a lot of people view poetry as very pretentious, and oftentimes it is, but even though my essay isn’t about the perception of poetry itself, I hope readers can come away from it knowing that poetry is more than just the lofty, muddled verse they might imagine, but full of people, earth, and roots. I hope they go and look the poems up online and find something new in their reading: that poetry, too, can be work that isn’t work at all. 75

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Common Core’s Effects on American Education: Literature Review Madison Cosey HON 113: First-Year Seminar Dr. Christine Senecal Assignment In 2009 under the administration of President Barack Obama, the Common Core Initiative was introduced with efforts for education reform. It sets standards per state on what students at each grade level should know. A decade after Common Core’s implementation, this literature review explores the success of its efforts and its effects on American education thus far.

In 2008, a study released by the National Governors Association (NGA) and Council of Chief State School Officers (CCSSO) made it apparent that the United States was falling behind in academic performance on the international scale. As a result, NGA and CCSSO requested a draft of state standards designed to raise our country’s performance as a whole to better compete in the global market. A group of academics and assessment specialists, which included U.S. teachers, created the standards known as the Common Core State Standards Initiative. It immediately took off as 46 states originally adopted the plan. On July 24, 2009, President Obama and U.S. Secretary of Education Arne Duncan announced the Race to the Top competitive federal grants as a motivator for education reform. Thus, it was also a motivator for states to adopt the plan and may explain why so many were quick to respond. This happened 10 years ago. With the decade coming to an end, the trending question is “Is Common Core working?” Specifically, has the implementation of the system achieved its goals and improved students’ academic performance. New studies and research have recently been released in assessing this question, but first, let’s look at what the expectations were from the start. Per Common Core’s website, they define the system as “a set of high-quality academic standards in mathematics and English language arts/literacy (ELA)” (Corestandards.org). The website clearly outlines the goal of these standards as to “ensure that all students graduate from high school with the skills and knowledge necessary to succeed in college, career, and life, regardless of where they live” (“About the Standards”). They provide a list of Common Core curriculum characteristics which include: (1) Researchand evidence-based; (2) Clear, understandable, and consistent; (3) Aligned with college and career expecta76

tions; (4) Based on rigorous content and application of knowledge through higher-order thinking skills; (5) Built upon the strengths and lessons of current state standards; (6) Informed by other top performing countries in order to prepare all students for success in our global economy and society. These are the positive attributes for convincing people to support Common Core. To date, 41 states, four territories, the District of Columbia, and the Department of Defense Education Activity (DoDEA) have adopted the plan. The leading reason supporting the implementation of Common Core is that it will help get all states on the same page regarding what students should know at each grade level. The inconsistency of these standards among states is blamed for why the U.S. has fallen behind its international peers. Politicians have backed the plan showing their support for its implementation in their states. Former Delaware Governor Jack Markell is one of these politicians who even co-chaired the initiative to create the standards. In June of 2014, he released a statement defending Common Core explaining the reasoning for its implementation to be that expectations for our students were not high enough to prepare them for life after high school. Speaking on the initiative’s so far success, he stated that although still in the early stages, the standards were already making a difference in classrooms across the country as teachers were finding innovative ways to help their students rise to the new expectations (Hunt-institute.org). Former Florida Governor Jeb Bush and former Ohio Governor John Kasich also back Common Core and are two of the only Republicans left to do so. Another reason for the implementation is disadvantage due to geographic location. Former Secretary of Education for Massach usetts, Professor Paul Reville was instrumental in the Commonwealth›s adoption of the Common Core for this cause. He stated, “What [the Core] is saying is

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that if children’s education is important to our future, then irrespective of where they’re born, we ought to have high expectations for all of them, the kind of expectations that prepare them for 21st century employment and citizenship” (McArdle). It is common for schools in impoverished and small rural areas to receive less accreditation, so the bars may be set lower for them in expectations. Also, government funding can be distributed differently depending on geographic location. Reville is explaining that regardless of a student’s inevitable geographic location, they should equally have the same expectations to meet as other students their age that will enter the workforce at the same time. There have been many concerns and doubts about Common Core from the start. In the Fall 2014 edition of Harvard Ed. Magazine, writer Elaine McArdle clearly outlines these concerns. First, parents are sick of testing culture which is part of what Common Core is promoting. Interestingly enough, this conflicts with the test-free and test-optional routes colleges/ universities are heading towards since Common Core is supposed to better prepare students for these tests. Second, states do not favor the increased time and costs required of these tests. Third, parents find it frustrating, especially the math portion. Most cannot help their children as it is designed differently from what they learned in school and are accustomed to. Fourth, critics complain this significant shift in American education was rushed without any real democratic process or empirical data supporting the value. Fifth, there is worry that corporate interests are at play since they ultimately reap the huge profits from selling new tests and preparation materials. Sixth, the largest political debate over Common Core is a matter of federal versus local government. Those against Common Core for this reason do not appreciate the federal government’s intrusion into the local control of schools. This debate caused many original Republican supporters to back out. In 2013, Louisiana Governor Bobby Jindal praised Common Core, but compared it to Stalinism a year later stating, “Let’s face it: Centralized planning didn’t work in Russia, it’s not working with our health care system, and it won’t work in education” (Freedlander). Former New Jersey Governor Chris Christie also flip-flopped opinions on the initiative. In 2013, he stated, “We’re doing Common Core in New Jersey, and we are going to continue” But by 2015, he switched in stating, “We need to take [education] out of the cubicles of Washington, D.C., where it was placed by the Obama administration, and return it to the neighborhoods of New Jersey” (Freedlander). These opinions display the distaste for Common Core as a means of federal government controlling the education field. Although, the Common Core website notes this can be a common misconception. Something to be

noted is that the system and its extent is determined within individual states as they choose whether or not to adopt the plan and to what degree. Only a few relevant studies have been conducted in the last decade regarding this topic. All aim to essentially answer the question “Is Common Core working?” to some capacity. One that has yet to be fully released is from Joshua Bleiberg, a doctoral student at Vanderbilt University. His study is examining the association of Common Core and NAEP scores. NAEP stands for The National Assessment of Educational Progress. According to its website, it is the only assessment that measures what U.S. students know and can do in various subjects across the nation, states, and in some urban districts. Also known as The Nation’s Report Card, NAEP has provided important information about how students are performing academically since 1969 (“About NAEP”). Bleiberg’s study focuses on student scores from when the new standards hit classrooms and not when states officially adopted them. He also excluded states that ultimately dropped the standards. He shared preliminary findings with Chalkbeat.org which stated that Common Core had small positive effects on NAEP scores through 2013 (Barnum). Upon his findings, Bleiberg commented on the standards saying, “This is not going to be the type of thing that is going to turn around the whole ship really quickly. I would think about [the effects] as quite small.” This means that based upon his research, Bleiberg believes it will take some time until we see significant impacts from the Common Core initiative. His findings cover up to 2013, only showing its impact within the first four years. A second study with hopeful results comes from Zeyu Xu and Kennan Cepa of the National Center for Analysis of Longitudinal Data in Education Research (CALDER). Their 2015 study focuses on three cohorts of students in Kentucky, an early adopter of Common Core, from the end of 8th grade to the end of 11th. The main goal was to track the progress of college and career-readiness with the Common Core State Standards’ (CCSS) early years of implementation. Xu and Cepa approached this using a longitudinal study. Per Wikipedia’s definition, this is a type of observational study that involves repeated observations of the same variables over short or long periods of time. Kentucky is a rather poor state with many impoverished areas along the Appalachia region. As noted previously, Professor Paul Reville stated how one of Common Core’s goals is to set high standards for students everywhere regardless of geographic location. It would be expected that Kentucky shows either significant growth or decline considering the standards and expectations were most likely set way higher than before. Indeed, they found that students exposed to the CCSS—including students in both high- and low77

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poverty schools—made faster progress in learning than similar students who were not exposed to the standards. Students made large gains in proficiency in the years immediately before and after the transition. Also, student performance in subjects that adopted CCSSaligned curriculum framework experienced larger, more immediate improvement than student performance in subjects that carried over last-generation curriculum framework (Xu and Cepa). This study shows positive outcomes following the implementation of CCSS, but only in Kentucky. In this state, it did seem to achieve its goal of improving academic performance regardless of geographic location since both high- and low-poverty schools performed relatively the same. However, the report did mention that it is not conclusive whether cross-cohort improvement was entirely attributable to the standards reform (Xu and Cepa). They may have been other influencing factors to this increased performance not observed. In the following year, 2016, Harvard University’s Center for Education Policy Research released a report from a yearlong study on the higher standards being implemented through Common Core. Researchers surveyed a representative sample of teachers in five states including Delaware, Maryland, Massachusetts, New Mexico, and Nevada. At this time, they were preparing their students to take the new Common Core-aligned assessments in the spring of 2015. They asked teachers and principals about the types and amounts of professional development they received, the textbooks they were using, the online resources they found most helpful, and the alignment between Common Core State Standards (CCSS) and teacher evaluations (Kane et. al). Then, they studied how these variables related to students’ performance on the new assessments. The controls of the study were demographic characteristics and prior achievement on state assessments. Their findings concluded that in all five states, teachers drastically changed their lesson plans and materials to meet the higher standards. Four out of five mathematics teachers (82%) and three out of four English teachers (72%) reported that they have changed more than half of their instructional materials in response to the Common Core. Seven out of eight English teachers (85%) reported having increased writing assignments in which students are expected to use evidence to support their arguments (Kane et. al). This study shows less about the academic performance levels affected by Common Core and rather how the average classroom has evolved to fit the new standards implemented. Professor Thomas J. Kane, the study’s principal investigator, commented on the study stating, “Common standards allow us to measure what may work for teachers invested in meeting those new higher standards. We have an obligation to share the promising and not-so promising practices across the country, 78

so that all students can benefit” (“Harvard Center Releases Report…”). The study accredits the success of Common Core to the teachers and administrators that have found what works best and shared their methods with others. The most recent and prevalent research measures the progress of Common Core over the past decade and suggests opposite outcomes of the studies above. In April of 2019, Mengli Song and her team from the American Institutes for Research released a study that concluded states that changed their standards most dramatically by adopting the Common Core didn’t outpace other states on federal NAEP exams. By 2017 — seven years after most states had adopted them — the standards appear to have led to modest declines in fourth grade reading and eighth grade math scores (Barnum). As noted above, Bleiberg’s preliminary findings concluded Common Core had small positive impacts on NAEP scores through 2013. However, according to Song’s research, these positive impacts did not continue to prosper. Observing the data, Song stated, “It’s rather unexpected. The magnitude of the negative effects tends to increase over time. That’s a little troubling. I don’t have a good hypothesis for why the effects actually grow over time. That’s something I didn’t expect” (Barnum). Song is puzzled by her research as its outcomes do not reflect the high expectations Common Core had from the start. Matt Barnum from Chalbeat.org outlines a list of possible factors for Song’s conclusions. First, teachers in New York City did not receive the new textbooks on time. Second, Massachusetts teachers claimed their training was low-quality, which conflicts with Professor Kane’s led study. Third, many teachers across the country complained that implementing a new set of standards alongside state tests at the same time as new highstakes teacher evaluation systems was unmanageable. Fourth, it was more challenging for states to convert to the new system with very different original standards. Song mentioned, “The statewide transition from old standards to new standards is really a massive undertaking. Maybe the new standards are well designed with good potential, but to realize this potential requires a lot more” (Barnum). This refers back to the Harvard study and how teachers thrived with the program when they found the potential Song speaks of. Perhaps teachers were not prepared for the challenging and demanding effort Common Core brought to evolving the classroom environment and teaching styles. It conflicted with everything teachers had learned in college and forced them to refigure things out. Two critical influencers in this field of study surrounding Common Core include Tom Loveless from the Brookings Institute and Morgan S. Polikoff from the University of Southern California. Both have attempted to answer the million-dollar question to

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the public eye— “Is Common Core working?” In his 2016 report, Loveless analyzed the degree to which the Common Core higher standards have penetrated schools and classrooms. He also considered NAEP scores and their association with the implementation of Common Core. His conclusion found the data collected from teachers and principals on NAEP indicate that these four practices have recently begun trending in the direction recommended by the CCSS: teachers are giving greater emphasis to nonfiction texts at both fourth and eighth grades; data and geometry are receiving less attention in fourth grade math; and at eighth grade, enrollments are falling in advanced math courses and rising in general math courses. Curriculum and instruction are changing at the ground level of schooling (Loveless). As discussed with Professor Kane’s study, Loveless focused on teachers’ influence in the effectiveness of Common Core. He explains how the determining factor is whether they decide to abandon the lesson plans they have spent years on perfecting through trial and error. On the other hand, Polikoff critiques Loveless’s approach. He addresses that the question at hand is difficult to answer and too many have used the 2013-2015 NAEP scores as insufficient evidence to argue the system is “not working.” In response to Loveless’s work, Polikoff states, “The problems with Loveless’s analyses illustrate the general problems with this kind of work and perhaps suggest why few have attempted it” (Polikoff ). He proceeds to dive deeper into research design flaws and why the current studies on Common Core do not best portray its association with academic performance thus far. Polikoff is a co-director of the Institute of Education Sciences’ Center on Standards, Alignment, Instruction, and Learning (C-SAIL) which funded Song’s 2019 study. He expresses his pride in the study’s research design and its accuracy in portrayal of Common Core’s impact since implementation. Looking to the future, there is more research to be done to find Common Core’s true impact on American education. The minimal studies conducted at this point conflict with one another and focus narrowly on specific variables. In answering the million-dollar question, it is hard to tell whether Common Core is “working” per se. What we do know is it has evolved American classrooms and changed teaching styles within the past decade. The implementation of Common Core is restructuring the Education field.

References “About NAEP.” National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) Home Page, a part of the U.S. Department of Education, May 24, 2018. https://nces.ed.gov/ nationsreportcard/about/. “About the Standards.” Common Core State Standards Initiative. CCSSO & NGA, 2019. http://www. corestandards.org/about-the-standards/. Barnum, Matt. “Nearly a Decade Later, Did the Common Core Work?” Chalkbeat, April 30, 2019. https://chalkbeat.org/posts/us/2019/04/29/ common-core-work-research/. Freedlander, David. “How the GOP Turned on Common Core.” Newsweek Magazine, April 21, 2016. https:// www.newsweek.com/2015/10/09/how-republicansturned-common-core- 377346.html. “Harvard Center Releases Report on First Full Year of Common Core Implementation.” Center for Education Policy Research at Harvard University, February 9, 2016. https://cepr.harvard.edu/news/harvardcenter-releases-report-first-full-year-common- coreimplementation. Kane, Thomas J., Antoniya M. Owens, William H. Marinell, Daniel R. C. Thal, and Douglas O. Staiger. “Teaching Higher: Educators’ Perspectives on Common Core Implementation.” PDF file. Center for Education Policy Research at Harvard University, February 2016. http:// cepr.harvard.edu/files/cepr/files/teaching-higher-report. pdf. Loveless, Tom. “Reading and Math in the Common Core Era.” Brookings. Brookings Institute, August 19, 2016. https://www.brookings.edu/research/ reading-and-math-in-the-common- core-era/. Markell, Jack. “Why We Created Common Core.” The Hunt Institute, June 10, 2014. http://www.hunt-institute. org/resources/2014/06/why-we-created-common-core/. McArdle, Elaine. “What Happened to the Common Core?” Harvard Graduate School of Education. Harvard Ed. Magazine, 2014. https://www.gse.harvard.edu/news/ ed/14/09/what-happened-common-core. Polikoff, Morgan S. “Is Common Core ‘Working’? And Where Does Common Core Research Go From Here?” AERA Open 3, no. 1 (2017): 233285841769174. https://doi. org/10.1177/2332858417691749. Xu, Zeyu, and Kennan Cepa. “Getting College and Career Ready During State Transition Toward the Common Core State Standards.” PDF file. CALDER Center, March 2015. https://caldercenter.org/sites/default/files/ WP 127_0.pdf.

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Student Reflection: As a Middle Level Education major, I want to know what the trending topics are in my field of study and how they are impacting it. The topic of Common Core Curriculum hits on a personal level as I have watched my younger siblings affected by it throughout elementary and middle school. Their learning process on subjects such as math, which I am concentrating in, has completely evolved from that of my experience six years apart. I remember when Common Core was first introduced in my hometownâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s school district just shy of a decade ago. At first, many parents across the country were enraged and fought against the implementation of the curriculum by the government. I have not heard much regarding the topic recently and went into this project wondering what ever happened to Common Core and whether or not it is working. Unfortunately, limited research has been conducted to study the true outcomes thus far, and there is much yet to be discovered about how it has affected the direction of the U.S. education system.

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Depictions of Alexander the Great in the Middle Ages Haley Jordan HON 122: Historical Foundations of Global Cultures Dr. Christine Senecal Assignment The purpose of this assignment was to research and compose a 12-15 page essay on a topic in human history up to the year 1500 C.E. This essay compares medieval depictions of Alexander the Great from different civilizations, and argues that the story of Alexander was written differently to reflect the culture and values of a society.

The legend of Alexander the Great is a unique one, in that its influence reached far greater distances than any other. Despite that Alexander lived during the times of Ancient Greece, his story is still common in households even today. While most sources regarding the life of Alexander were derived from the Greek Alexander Romance, every version of the life of Alexander still differed heavily in terms of content.1 Alexander the Great’s legend was continuously upheld for hundreds and thousands of years after his death, appearing prominently in Ancient Roman, Early Medieval, and Early Islamic sources. When we look at how various societies chose to remember Alexander, however, we see that they did not construct the same man. In fact, our sources from the Central and Late Medieval periods can tell us almost as much about the culture of the Middle Ages as they can about the historical Alexander. This phenomenon can be seen in the way that different civilizations depicted Alexander in their narration of his story, and how certain societies claimed a genealogical connection to Alexander in order to gain political power. Alexander’s nationality is one of the key differences that can be found in different versions of the Alexander

narrative from different areas.2 Historically speaking, the figure of Alexander can be attributed to belonging to multiple nationalities.3 For instance, Alexander was the son of King Philip of Macedon, and therefore can be considered Macedonian.4 In addition, Macedon was a Greek kingdom, and Alexander conquered much of the Greek territory that existed during his lifetime.5 Alexander also spoke Greek as his primary language. For these reasons, Alexander is also often considered to be Greek.6 In many Medieval texts of Alexander, it is unclear as to whether Alexander is being referred to as Greek or Macedonian.7 Moreover, since many Middle English versions of Alexander’s conception story involve the Egyptian Pharaoh and magician Nectanabus as the biological father of Alexander, his lineage can also be tied to Egypt.8 Authors of Medieval Alexander Romance stories were able to change the story by altering the given nationality of Alexander.9 When describing Alexander as a Macedonian, Medieval authors were oftentimes depicting Alexander as the powerful world conqueror.10 When Alexander was described as being Greek, the intended connotation can get slightly more complicated to interpret. While listing Alexander as Greek sometimes commented on his position as

1 Markus Stock. Alexander the Great in the Middle Ages: Transcultural Perspectives. (North York: University of Toronto Press, Scholarly Publishing Division, 2016), 4, EBSCOhost. 2 Markus Stock. Alexander the Great in the Middle Ages: Transcultural Perspectives. (North York: University of Toronto Press, Scholarly Publishing Division, 2016), 30, EBSCOhost. 3 Markus Stock. Alexander the Great in the Middle Ages: Transcultural Perspectives. (North York: University of Toronto Press, Scholarly Publishing Division, 2016), 31, EBSCOhost. 4 Markus Stock. Alexander the Great in the Middle Ages: Transcultural Perspectives. (North York: University of Toronto Press, Scholarly Publishing Division, 2016), 31, EBSCOhost. 5 Markus Stock. Alexander the Great in the Middle Ages: Transcultural Perspectives. (North York: University of Toronto Press, Scholarly Publishing Division, 2016), 31, EBSCOhost. 6 Markus Stock. Alexander the Great in the Middle Ages: Transcultural Perspectives. (North York: University of Toronto Press, Scholarly Publishing Division, 2016), 31, EBSCOhost. 7 Markus Stock. Alexander the Great in the Middle Ages: Transcultural Perspectives. (North York: University of Toronto Press, Scholarly Publishing Division, 2016), 32, EBSCOhost. 8 Jena Al-Fuhaid, “Olympias and Infidelity in the Alexander Romances; a Cross Cultural Study.”, Forum for World Literature Studies, no. 2, (2010): 257, EBSCOhost. 9 Markus Stock. Alexander the Great in the Middle Ages: Transcultural Perspectives. (North York: University of Toronto Press, Scholarly Publishing Division, 2016),33, EBSCOhost. 10 Markus Stock. Alexander the Great in the Middle Ages: Transcultural Perspectives. (North York: University of Toronto Press, Scholarly Publishing Division, 2016), 41, EBSCOhost.

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a scholar due to his relationship with his teacher Aristotle, other times Alexander was described as being Greek in an attempt to connect him with other Greek areas which were not thought of fondly by Medieval European society.11 Alexander is also sometimes attributed to the founding of Troy, which presents its own set of interesting connections.12 When Alexander is depicted as Trojan, this also implies that he is related to various groups of Europeans. Since descendants of the Trojans eventually became the people who founded the Roman and Frank civilizations among many others, this implied that Alexander was related to numerous European societies.13 Therefore, this version of the Alexander story was a way for Europeans to claim a connection or even a genealogical relationship to the legendary figure of Alexander. The benefits of claiming such a relation is essentially that you would be taken seriously as a leader and your authority was less likely to be questioned. Because Alexander was arguably one of the most successful leaders and conquerors in history, rulers and explorers during the Middle Ages believed that a connection to Alexander would bring them success in their own endeavors as well.14 Since many civilizations wanted to claim a genealogical connection to Alexander, aspects of his story such as his conception, were often altered in order to fabricate some sort of relation to him. What is interesting is that many different civilizations altered the story of Alexander in order to create some sort of connection to him. In addition, it was common for specific political leaders to claim that they were related to Alexander in order to justify their right to power. This situation was not limited to simply rulers. It was also a common occurrence for Medieval explorers to claim a relation to Alexander the Great, since he was known for his incredible leadership and conquering skills.15 In medi-

eval versions of the Alexander Romance, Alexander’s nationality plays a key role in how the legend was molded to fit the needs of different areas. It is also a common theme throughout history for historical figures of significance to reflect the core values and beliefs of a civilization. This phenomenon can be seen clearly in depictions of Alexander the Great from different areas, groups, or religions. One aspect of Alexander’s story that differs between regions is how Alexander’s mother, Olympias, is depicted.16 Depictions of Olympias and Alexander’s relationship with her in the Western world of Europe and the Eastern Islamic world differ dramatically, and these differences can be attributed to cultural difference between these two regions.17 In some Medieval European legends, the conception of Olympias is said to have occurred when Olympias was deceived by an Egyptian Pharaoh who disguised himself as a god.18 One of these versions is MS 91, a French version of the Alexander Romance which begins with Alexander discovering that Nectanbus is his true father as he is killing him.19 Because of this, in this version of the Alexander Romance and many others, Olympias is depicted with a negative connotation, and is often accused of committing infidelity since she was married to Phillip of Macedon at the time of Alexander’s conception with Nectanebus.20 This is an attempt of Medieval writers to assert the idea that Alexander was a flawed ruler who was still great.21 The conception of Alexander the Great by the Egyptian king Nectanebus was commonly depicted in Medieval European art. For example, The Conception of Alexander the Great, found in a Flemish version of the Romance of Alexander, is representative of this specific myth and how it was often depicted in art.22 Although this aspect of the Alexander Romance is common throughout European

11 Markus Stock. Alexander the Great in the Middle Ages: Transcultural Perspectives. (North York: University of Toronto Press, Scholarly Publishing Division, 2016), 41, EBSCOhost. 12 Markus Stock. Alexander the Great in the Middle Ages: Transcultural Perspectives. (North York: University of Toronto Press, Scholarly Publishing Division, 2016), 44, EBSCOhost. 13 44 Markus Stock. Alexander the Great in the Middle Ages: Transcultural Perspectives. (North York: University of Toronto Press, Scholarly Publishing Division, 2016), 44, EBSCOhost. 14 Anna Akasoy. “Alexander in the Himalayas: Competing Imperial Legacies in Medieval Islamic History and Literature.”, Journal of the Warburg & Courtauld Institutes, no. 72 (2009): 2, https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/40593762.pdf?refreqid=excelsior%3A8cbf7c3544033a0a4569d3a2 0759484f 15 Anna Akasoy. “Alexander in the Himalayas: Competing Imperial Legacies in Medieval Islamic History and Literature.”, Journal of the Warburg & Courtauld Institutes, no. 72 (2009): 2, https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/40593762.pdf?refreqid=excelsior%3A8cbf7c3544033a0a4569d3a2 0759484f 16 Jena Al-Fuhaid, “Olympias and Infidelity in the Alexander Romances; a Cross Cultural Study.”, Forum for World Literature Studies, no. 2, (2010): 255, EBSCOhost. 17 Jena Al-Fuhaid, “Olympias and Infidelity in the Alexander Romances; a Cross Cultural Study.”, Forum for World Literature Studies, no. 2, (2010): 255, EBSCOhost. 18 Jena Al-Fuhaid, “Olympias and Infidelity in the Alexander Romances; a Cross Cultural Study.”, Forum for World Literature Studies, no. 2, (2010): 254, EBSCOhost. 19 Robert Thornton, “MS 91”, trans. Julie Chappell, (1989), EBSCOhost. 20 Jena Al-Fuhaid, “Olympias and Infidelity in the Alexander Romances; a Cross Cultural Study.”, Forum for World Literature Studies, no. 2, (2010): 254, EBSCOhost. 21 Markus Stock. Alexander the Great in the Middle Ages: Transcultural Perspectives. (North York: University of Toronto Press, Scholarly Publishing Division, 2016), 41, EBSCOhost. 22 See Appendix A

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art and literature, Islamic versions do not depict the conception of Alexander in this way. Instead, in Islamic texts Olympias is illustrated as the perfect Muslim mother.23 As can be seen in MS 91, it was an important feature in Western lore for Alexander to show immense affection towards his mother in order to distract from her infidelity.24 In Islamic literature however, this phenomenon is completely absent.25 This is due to the fact that while virginity was still valued in western society, it was not necessary in order to become an important figure.26 Alexander was able to protect his mother by expressing his love and affection towards her, and thus she was still seen as an important figure to Europeans.27 In contrast, regardless of what actions Alexander took in order to protect his mother, she would still be severely condemned and most likely killed in Islamic society.28 Therefore, instead of illustrating the figure of Alexander, or Dhul-Qarnayn as he is referred to in the Quran, with an impure mother or erasing Olympias from his story entirely, Muslim writers simply chose to alter the story to exclude Olympias’s infidelity.29 Therefore in Islamic texts of Alexander’s legend, Phillip of Macedon is always the biological father of Alexander. The Olympias depicted in Islamic legends was an ideal loving Muslim mother, which reflects the value of mothers in Islamic society.30 These differences in the conception story of Alexander are a fundamental example of how societies changed the legend of Alexander in order for it to fit better with their values and traditions.

Another aspect of the Alexander legend that differed between regions was his position in various religions. The influence of Alexander can be seen in all three of the Abrahamic religions, but the role he played in each varies drastically. Although the Abrahamic religions all worship the same God, their texts, values, and traditions all very drastically from each other. These differences can be easily viewed when looking at how each religion illustrated the life of Alexander the Great during the Middle Ages. Alexander the Great had a tremendous impact on Central Asia during his lifetime, and for this reason his legacy remained important to this area throughout the Middle Ages.31 In the Islamic faith, Alexander was an important figure whose influence could be seen in both Medieval sources and those that were created much earlier.32 What was often understood was that the Dhul-Qarnayn, or “two horned one”, was the historical figure of Alexander the Great.33 In Islam, Alexander is viewed as a prophet due to his presence in the Quranic Surah of the cave.34 In addition, the Islamic Alexander possessed different traits and values than those of the Christian or Jewish Alexander. Instead of Alexander’s values being formed upon the basis of conquering and domination, they were instead rooted in the idea of God’s unlimited knowledge and the enormity of human ignorance.35 This dichotomy between God’s knowledge and human ignorance was a foundational tenet in Islamic culture.36 The figure of Dhul’Qarnayn began his journey as a student, which is reflective of the value Islam places

23 Jena Al-Fuhaid, “Olympias and Infidelity in the Alexander Romances; a Cross Cultural Study.”, Forum for World Literature Studies, no. 2, (2010): 255, EBSCOhost. 24 Robert Thornton, “MS 91”, trans. Julie Chappell, (1989), EBSCOhost. 25 Jena Al-Fuhaid, “Olympias and Infidelity in the Alexander Romances; a Cross Cultural Study.”, Forum for World Literature Studies, no. 2, (2010): 255, EBSCOhost. 26 Jena Al-Fuhaid, “Olympias and Infidelity in the Alexander Romances; a Cross Cultural Study.”, Forum for World Literature Studies, no. 2, (2010): 266, EBSCOhost. 27 Jena Al-Fuhaid, “Olympias and Infidelity in the Alexander Romances; a Cross Cultural Study.”, Forum for World Literature Studies, no. 2, (2010): 256, EBSCOhost. 28 Jena Al-Fuhaid, “Olympias and Infidelity in the Alexander Romances; a Cross Cultural Study.”, Forum for World Literature Studies, no. 2, (2010): 266, EBSCOhost. 29 Jena Al-Fuhaid, “Olympias and Infidelity in the Alexander Romances; a Cross Cultural Study.”, Forum for World Literature Studies, no. 2, (2010): 266, EBSCOhost. 30 Jena Al-Fuhaid, “Olympias and Infidelity in the Alexander Romances; a Cross Cultural Study.”, Forum for World Literature Studies, no. 2, (2010): 266, EBSCOhost. 31 Anna Akasoy. “Alexander in the Himalayas: Competing Imperial Legacies in Medieval Islamic History and Literature.”, Journal of the Warburg & Courtauld Institutes, no. 72 (2009): 2, https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/40593762.pdf?refreqid=excelsior%3A8cbf7c3544033a0a4569d3a2 0759484f 32 Anna Akasoy. “Alexander in the Himalayas: Competing Imperial Legacies in Medieval Islamic History and Literature.”, Journal of the Warburg & Courtauld Institutes, no. 72 (2009): 8, https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/40593762.pdf?refreqid=excelsior%3A8cbf7c3544033a0a4569d3a2 0759484f 33 Anna Akasoy. “Alexander in the Himalayas: Competing Imperial Legacies in Medieval Islamic History and Literature.”, Journal of the Warburg & Courtauld Institutes, no. 72 (2009): 8, https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/40593762.pdf?refreqid=excelsior%3A8cbf7c3544033a0a4569d3a2 0759484f 34 Markus Stock. Alexander the Great in the Middle Ages: Transcultural Perspectives. (North York: University of Toronto Press, Scholarly Publishing Division, 2016), 51, EBSCOhost. 35 Markus Stock. Alexander the Great in the Middle Ages: Transcultural Perspectives. (North York: University of Toronto Press, Scholarly Publishing Division, 2016), 51, EBSCOhost.1 36 Markus Stock. Alexander the Great in the Middle Ages: Transcultural Perspectives. (North York: University of Toronto Press, Scholarly Publishing Division, 2016), 52, EBSCOhost.

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on knowledge and learning.37 In Islam, each individual is responsible for their own journey in their faith, and a vital component of this is their ability to see God’s work in order to make moral choices.38 Despite this value placed on knowledge, humans could never truly understand God’s knowledge. They could only ever strive to recognize its enormity.39 In the Surah of the Cave, Alexander serves as God’s deputy, but he only completes God’s preordained plan, and has no knowledge of the final judgment which he is helping to prepare for.40 Moreover, the Surah of the Cave warns Muslims to wait for God’s guidance before taking action.41 As time progressed throughout the Middle Ages and Islamic knowledge of the Greek Alexander Romance grew, Muslims became increasingly uncomfortable with claiming that Dhul-Qarnayn was in fact Alexander the Great, as the original Greek legend possessed many themes that did not correlate with the Islamic system of beliefs.42 For example, in many stories Alexander is depicted as acting in ways that were contrary to God’s will, which does not align with the Islamic illustration of Alexander as God’s servant.43 The connection between Alexander and Dhul-Qarnayn outlines the important aspect in Medieval Islamic society that placed value on learning and exploration in order to better appreciate the scope of God’s knowledge and power. Stories similar to Alexander’s can be found in many cardinal Jewish texts, and thus Alexander was an important figure for Medieval Jews.44 Despite his inclu-

sion in their historical texts, Medieval Judaism had a complicated relationship with the figure of Alexander the Great. For this reason, it is important to distinguish between legendary works of Jewish Alexander literature and those that are strictly historical.45 In many of the important rabbinical Jewish texts, such as the Talmud, Alexander is depicted as a legendary figure as opposed to a historical figure.46 Historians argue where exactly Jews obtained their information from in order to include Alexander in the Talmud and other important works. While some believe that these were based off of historical sources, others believe that, due to the inclusion of Alexander in Jerusalem which was absent from historical sources, that these stories instead came from an oral tradition passed down through generations.47 Still others believe that a combination of these two events took place in order to construct this narrative.48 Medieval Jewish versions of the Alexander Romance bared some resemblance to these original rabbinical texts, but they are certainly not direct derivatives of them.49 The Medieval retellings of Alexander’s story were often filled with extremely legendary and even mystical elements, and a common motif found in these versions of the Alexander Romance was the inclusion of Alexander’s visit to an earthly paradise.50 Although most would assume that this visit to an earthly paradise would be a positive commentary on the figure of Alexander, it actually served as a way to point out his immense greed.51 While Medieval Jews did admire Alexander’s strength and intelligence, they also used

37 Markus Stock. Alexander the Great in the Middle Ages: Transcultural Perspectives. (North York: University of Toronto Press, Scholarly Publishing Division, 2016), 52, EBSCOhost. 38 Markus Stock. Alexander the Great in the Middle Ages: Transcultural Perspectives. (North York: University of Toronto Press, Scholarly Publishing Division, 2016), 52, EBSCOhost. 39 Markus Stock. Alexander the Great in the Middle Ages: Transcultural Perspectives. (North York: University of Toronto Press, Scholarly Publishing Division, 2016), 54, EBSCOhost. 40 Markus Stock. Alexander the Great in the Middle Ages: Transcultural Perspectives. (North York: University of Toronto Press, Scholarly Publishing Division, 2016), 57, EBSCOhost. 41 Markus Stock. Alexander the Great in the Middle Ages: Transcultural Perspectives. (North York: University of Toronto Press, Scholarly Publishing Division, 2016), 58, EBSCOhost. 42 Markus Stock. Alexander the Great in the Middle Ages: Transcultural Perspectives. (North York: University of Toronto Press, Scholarly Publishing Division, 2016), 61, EBSCOhost. 43 Markus Stock. Alexander the Great in the Middle Ages: Transcultural Perspectives. (North York: University of Toronto Press, Scholarly Publishing Division, 2016), 61, EBSCOhost. 44 Markus Stock. Alexander the Great in the Middle Ages: Transcultural Perspectives. (North York: University of Toronto Press, Scholarly Publishing Division, 2016), 76, EBSCOhost. 45 W. Jac. Van Bekkum, “Alexander the Great in Medieval Hebrew Literature”, Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes 49 (1996): 218, https://www.jstor.org/stable/751298. 46 W. Jac. Van Bekkum, “Alexander the Great in Medieval Hebrew Literature”, Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes 49 (1996): 219, https://www.jstor.org/stable/751298. 47 W. Jac. Van Bekkum, “Alexander the Great in Medieval Hebrew Literature”, Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes 49 (1996): 219, https://www.jstor.org/stable/751298. 48 W. Jac. Van Bekkum, “Alexander the Great in Medieval Hebrew Literature”, Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes 49 (1996): 219, https://www.jstor.org/stable/751298. 49 W. Jac. Van Bekkum, “Alexander the Great in Medieval Hebrew Literature”, Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes 49 (1996): 220, https://www.jstor.org/stable/751298. 50 W. Jac. Van Bekkum, “Alexander the Great in Medieval Hebrew Literature”, Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes 49 (1996): 224, https://www.jstor.org/stable/751298. 51 W. Jac. Van Bekkum, “Alexander the Great in Medieval Hebrew Literature”, Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes 49 (1996): 224, https://www.jstor.org/stable/751298.

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this specific part of his story as a means to warn against insatiable greed like Alexander’s.52 Moreover, the Jewish authors also used this as a symbol to represent the dominance of the the Gentiles.53 Authors of the Medieval Jewish legends of Alexander also connected Alexander with many positive aspects of Medieval Judaism. Due to his historical relationship with Aristotle, who served as Alexander’s mentor and teacher while he was growing up, Alexander can also be linked to the philosophical traditions of Medieval Jews.54 Although most versions of the Alexander Romance mention Aristotle in some way, Hebrew versions of this legend place a heavy emphasis on philosophy and Alexander as a scholar.55 While Medieval Jews did have a complicated relationship with the historical and legendary figure of Alexander, they were able to emphasize certain areas of the Alexander legend and utilize him in order to preach important values in Judaism. Similarly to his inclusion in Judaism, the representation of Alexander the Great in Medieval Christianity is a complicated subject. The figure of Alexander is mentioned briefly in the Old Testament, but he was still seen as controversial to Medieval Christians.56 More so than in the other Abrahamic religions, Medieval Christians feared the inclusion of pagan figures in religious affairs.57 Something that was frequently debated in Medieval Christianity was whether or not it was acceptable to read stories written by pagan authors.58 The widely accepted answer to this question was that it was acceptable to read pagan works with the intention of gaining knowledge which can be used to help interpret the Bible.59 The church did not want Christians to read positive works regarding people who did not believe in their Christian God, such as Alexander. This led many Medieval Christians

to wonder whether or not it was acceptable to read pagan works for their own personal moral gain.60 Medieval Christians believed that reading pagan sources, such as those illustrating the life of Alexander the Great, would help them to understand and interpret the Bible better.61 However, Christian leaders did not want Christians to get the idea that the pagan gods of Alexander were the reason that Alexander saw such success. Many Medieval works criticized Alexander by pointing out his greed and sometimes even his drinking behaviors.62 This was an attempt to devalue Alexander’s accomplishments since he was pagan and did not worship the Christian God. In contrast, some later Medieval works depicted that Alexander was chosen by God to take over Persia, and even linked this with halting the arrival of the Antichrist.63 Alexander was also sometimes viewed by Medieval Christians as an example of what a crusader should be.64 This was a way for Christian’s to claim Alexander as a part of their own story in an attempt to justify his place in Medieval Christian society. Although these two attitudes towards Alexander are essentially opposite, they shared a common goal: to find a way to fit the figure of Alexander into Christianity. Moreover, it was also a common theme to emphasize Alexander’s mortality, and that despite everything he accomplished, he still died so quickly. Christians of the early Medieval period believed that since Alexander was able to have such success without knowing and serving God, then Christians who serve God would be able to accomplish far more.65 A theme that is seen throughout versions of Alexander’s legend throughout both Judaism and Christianity is the idea that Alexander used a flying machine in order to conquer territory through

52 W. Jac. Van Bekkum, “Alexander the Great in Medieval Hebrew Literature”, Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes 49 (1996): 224, https://www.jstor.org/stable/751298. 53 W. Jac. Van Bekkum, “Alexander the Great in Medieval Hebrew Literature”, Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes 49 (1996): 226, https://www.jstor.org/stable/751298. 54 W. Jac. Van Bekkum, “Alexander the Great in Medieval Hebrew Literature”, Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes 49 (1996): 225, https://www.jstor.org/stable/751298. 55 Markus Stock. Alexander the Great in the Middle Ages: Transcultural Perspectives. (North York: University of Toronto Press, Scholarly Publishing Division, 2016), 42, EBSCOhost. 56 Russell Stone, 2016. “Chaucer’s Alexander the Great and the Monk’s Tale”, Medievalia et Humanistica 42 (January 2016): 23, EBSCOhost. 57 Russell Stone, 2016. “Chaucer’s Alexander the Great and the Monk’s Tale”, Medievalia et Humanistica 42 (January 2016): 23, EBSCOhost. 58 Donald Maddox, and Sara Sturm-Maddox, The Medieval French Alexander. (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2002), 21, EBSCOhost. 59 Donald Maddox, and Sara Sturm-Maddox, The Medieval French Alexander. (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2002), 21, EBSCOhost. 60 Donald Maddox, and Sara Sturm-Maddox, The Medieval French Alexander. (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2002), 21, EBSCOhost. 61 Donald Maddox, and Sara Sturm-Maddox, The Medieval French Alexander. (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2002), 21, EBSCOhost. 62 Russell Stone, 2016. “Chaucer’s Alexander the Great and the Monk’s Tale”, Medievalia et Humanistica 42 (January 2016): 23, EBSCOhost. 63 Russell Stone, 2016. “Chaucer’s Alexander the Great and the Monk’s Tale”, Medievalia et Humanistica 42 (January 2016): 30, EBSCOhost. 64 Markus Stock. Alexander the Great in the Middle Ages: Transcultural Perspectives. (North York: University of Toronto Press, Scholarly Publishing Division, 2016), 43, EBSCOhost. 65 Donald Maddox, and Sara Sturm-Maddox, The Medieval French Alexander. (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2002), 24, EBSCOhost.

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air travel.66 The origin of this idea was in a specific Greek version of the Alexander legend, and this flying machine was briefly mentioned in the Jewish text of the Talmud as well.67 This idea was very common throughout the Medieval Alexander texts of Europe. This phenomenon represents the idea that Alexander was beyond the realm of human capabilities.68 In addition, this specific aspect of the Alexander Romance served as a way to explain how Alexander was able to accomplish such greatness without the help of God or a mystical influence. While it is closely related to the depiction of Alexander in Christianity, the influence of Alexander in Medieval Europe is a separate and crucial point of study. Alexander served as the muse for countless works of art and literature during the Middle Ages in Europe. This was somewhat due to his role as one of the nine worthies; who were a group of nine historical and legendary figures who were viewed as models of chivalry during the Middle Ages.69 Although there were Christian, Jewish, and Pagan worthies, The Nine Worthies were valued highly in Medieval society, and were often depicted in the literature of the time. In addition, as can be seen in the tapestry fragment of Alexander the Great or Hector of Troy, the figures of the Nine Worthies were common subject matters in Medieval art.70 Although it is widely assumed that Alexander is depicted in this tapestry, the subject matter of the piece is actually unknown because the worthies were not normally distinguished from one another in works of art. This implies that each of the Nine Worthies were viewed as equal representations of chivalry that transcended the limits of time.71 Interestingly, Alexander as well as Hector and Julius Caesar, the other pagan worthies, were all brutally murdered.72 The death of Alexander is another important aspect of his legend, and the interpretation of his death varies depending on the specific version of

the Romance.73 While some depict Alexander’s death as the loss of a hero who died unjustly, others claim that Alexander used himself as an example to steer others away from the selfish life he led.74 It is made clear that the figure of Alexander was an important one in Medieval Europe by his inclusion in Geoffrey Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales. Although brief, Chaucer’s version of Alexander’s legend told during the Monk’s Tale can tell us a lot about how Alexander was viewed by Medieval European society. In the Monk’s tale, it is clearly stated that Alexander is a figure so well-known during the Middle Ages that virtually everyone is familiar with his story.75 This reflects the widely held belief that Chaucer did not gain his knowledge of Alexander’s life from a particular source, and instead used the common knowledge he already held.76 The story of Alexander told by the monk did not reflect any one specific version of the Alexander Romance, but it did mostly resemble the general view of Alexander by society.77 Although the tone of the Monk’s tale is quite pessimistic and tragic, its depiction of the death of Alexander is a fairly accurate version of how this event was viewed by Medieval society.78 The idea that Alexander lived a strong life and died a tragic death, which further symbolized the death of the Macedonian empire, was commonly found in Medieval versions of the Alexander Romance. It is commonly assumed that the legend of Alexander the Great had a strong influence on Medieval society. His inclusion in various works of literature and art prove that Alexander the Great was an important figure across an enormous amount of diverse areas and cultures. What is often overlooked, however, is the influence these contrasting societies had on the legend of Alexander. The Alexander Romance was often altered and molded in order to fit the values and expectations of a certain area. Whether the desired outcome was to claim some sort of a genealogical connec-

66 Richard Stoneman “That magnificent man in his flying machine: Richard Stoneman investigates the strange but widely held belief in the Middle Ages, that Alexander the Great had conquered more than the land, taking to the air and travelled to the ocean depths”, History Today 58, no. 9 (April 2008): 27, EBSCOhost. 67 Richard Stoneman “That magnificent man in his flying machine: Richard Stoneman investigates the strange but widely held belief in the Middle Ages, that Alexander the Great had conquered more than the land, taking to the air and travelled to the ocean depths”, History Today 58, no. 9 (April 2008): 27, EBSCOhost. 68 Richard Stoneman “That magnificent man in his flying machine: Richard Stoneman investigates the strange but widely held belief in the Middle Ages, that Alexander the Great had conquered more than the land, taking to the air and travelled to the ocean depths”, History Today 58, no. 9 (April 2008): 28, EBSCOhost. 69 Donald Maddox, and Sara Sturm-Maddox, The Medieval French Alexander. (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2002), 2, EBSCOhost. 70 See Appendix B 71 Donald Maddox, and Sara Sturm-Maddox, The Medieval French Alexander. (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2002), 2, EBSCOhost. 72 Russell Stone, 2016. “Chaucer’s Alexander the Great and the Monk’s Tale”, Medievalia et Humanistica 42 (January 2016): 26, EBSCOhost. 73 Russell Stone, 2016. “Chaucer’s Alexander the Great and the Monk’s Tale”, Medievalia et Humanistica 42 (January 2016): 26, EBSCOhost. 74 Russell Stone, 2016. “Chaucer’s Alexander the Great and the Monk’s Tale”, Medievalia et Humanistica 42 (January 2016): 26, EBSCOhost. 75 Geoffrey Chaucer, 1954. The Canterbury Tales, trans. R. M. Lumiansky. (New York: Rinehart Editions,1954), EBSCOhost 76 Russell Stone, 2016. “Chaucer’s Alexander the Great and the Monk’s Tale”, Medievalia et Humanistica 42 (January 2016): 23, EBSCOhost. 3 77 Russell Stone, 2016. “Chaucer’s Alexander the Great and the Monk’s Tale”, Medievalia et Humanistica 42 (January 2016): 23, EBSCOhost. 78 Russell Stone, 2016. “Chaucer’s Alexander the Great and the Monk’s Tale”, Medievalia et Humanistica 42 (January 2016): 23, EBSCOhost.

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tion to the historical figure of Alexander or to have his story better fit the values of a certain group or religion, the diversity of content in versions of the Alexander Romance is astounding. By observing the changing story of Alexander through the Middle Ages, it can show how historical bias can alter our understanding

of history. Although the true story of Alexander has been somewhat lost to history, his impact on different societies and the influence they had on his story are reflective of his true greatness.

Appendix A:

Appendix B:

Artist Unknown, 1475, “The conception of Alexander the Great”, Tempera painting on parchment, J. Paul Getty Museum. http://www.getty.edu/art/collection/ objects/4193/unknown-maker-the-conceptionof-alexander-the-great-flemish-about-1475.

Artist unknown, 1400-1410, “Alexander the Great or Hector of Troy” (from the Nine Heroes Tapestries), textile-tapestry, New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. https://www. metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/468232.

Student Reflection: The process of writing this paper was a taxing yet fulfilling one. When I began collecting research, my original intent was to write a paper simply comparing different versions of the narrative of Alexander. As I deepened my research however, I began connecting the variances in the Alexander Romance to cultural differences from their areas of origin. I was astounded that the story of one man had so many different versions, many of which had starkly contrasting details of his major life events. My research led me to the conclusion that different cultures altered the story of Alexander the Great in order to fit the norms of their society. The experience of writing this paper was an excellent reminder of how history is shaped by those who write it.

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Investigating the Cultural Roots of Lansdale through Landscape Cheyenne Cravener HON 144: Geography of the United States and Canada Dr. George Pomeroy Assignment Field observation – either in the field of cultural geography or in community and land use planning – helps understand what and how current and past economic, social, and other cultural forces and shape the built environment and other tangible landscape features. Typically landscape analysis involves looking at settlement form (i.e., village vs. city), land division patterns (varying survey systems), and architecture (i.e., late 20th century suburban development as compared to older housing in central cities). Students are charged with “reading a cultural landscape” of a neighborhood or district of their choice.

The culture in the town of Lansdale, Pennsylvania developed as a direct result of the construction of the North Penn railroad that drew settlers from different places to live in this area. Lansdale is a suburban town that is approximately 30 miles northwest of Philadelphia in Montgomery County. The town was named after Philip Lansdale Fox, the chief surveyor for the railroad at the time, and he first settled here to begin constructing the railroad (Jennings, 1972). The railroad would connect Doylestown in the northern direction to Philadelphia in the southern direction (Lansdale Historical Society, 1992). With the completion of the railroad, they began building a post-office, a local bank, and eventually its own school district that began to form the landscape and layout of the town (Jennings, 1972). Around the same time, businesses in the agricultural sector provided job opportunities to working class families and led to an increase in population settling in Lansdale. Through an analysis of the layout of town, the evolution of transportation, and residential changes viewers can see elements of the culture of Lansdale within its landscape. The layout of Lansdale can be split into three concentric zones: the center of town located on Main and Broad streets near the railway station, the first area outside of the center, made up of older, high density row homes, shopping areas, and industrial buildings, and the outermost zone with high-end residential housing. The center of town, also known as the “central business district”, was the first place of town established in the late 1800s early 1900s, and by the 1950s, they had a movie theater, a department store, several retail stores, and restaurants for people to visit (Alderfer, 1951). In the 1970s, housing began to move away from the center of town, drawing stores to also move with the 88

people, so the center of town struggled to attract visitors. In the present day, the Lansdale Borough Council has made several attempts to bring people back into town, including First Friday festivals, concerts, and other holiday festivals. Despite these efforts, many of the shops in the center of town are closed and vacant or struggle to stay open, showing the shift in consumer culture. Surrounding the center of town is housing for working-class families as well as industrial and textile buildings, which are reflective of Lansdale’s economy in the past. Most of these older buildings are vacant or have been adapted to other uses such as warehouse conversions and loft apartments. Along the outer rim of Lansdale lies many of the suburban developments, estate homes, and shopping centers. The greater presence of large estate homes and the commonality of large shopping areas reflects a greater wealth of the people in Lansdale and willingness to spend money that leads to the continued popularity of the local shopping. These different concentric zones within Lansdale reflect a changing economy from when the town first developed as an industrial town to emphasizing a more consumerist culture that we see today through the heavy influence of shopping centers as well as other opportunities for these working-class people to seek employment. Another important aspect of the layout of Lansdale is the street configuration. Figure 1 shows a google map screenshot of Lansdale. The streets are laid out in a grid-like pattern, which normally indicates the street design was intentionally developed this way. The railroad runs directly down the middle of Lansdale (north-south) with Main street running perpendicular in the center (east-west), splitting Lansdale into four areas. Because of these features already being split

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Figure 1- Street View of Lansdale to emphasize the grid pattern and boundaries

into corners, companies could make the most of the space by creating a grid-like layout. This design also reflected the emphasis on access to the railroad, as a high concentration of houses were built close to the train station. One can also comment on relevant street names within Lansdale. The name Main Street indicates that it is the central location within town (Jacobs, 1965). There are numbered streets that continue after Main Street from Second all the way up to Tenth Street, indicating that people are getting farther from the center of town. Most of the streets also utilize sidewalks, especially as you get closer to the center of town, indicating Lansdaleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s reliance on walking to important places like the center of town and the railroad in the past (Jacobs, 1965). Even in the beginning of history, transportation was the driving force for Lansdaleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s success as a town. Within Lansdale, there are two train stations, including the Lansdale railroad station at the center of town on Main Street and another one on Broad Street. Improvements in rails allowed Lansdale to bring more raw materials in but also export goods to other areas, increasing the wealth of the town. Despite these updates in the railroad system, much of the architecture of the Lansdale Train Station is the same as it was when the building was first built. The building is made with tan stone bricks, which is not a super common material to use today. Figure 2â&#x20AC;&#x2039;showcases the authentic appearance that has been maintained to the present day. In addition to the railroad, Lansdale gained its own exit on the Northeast Extension of the Pennsylvania Turnpike in

1970. Multiple easy ways to access Lansdale led to the construction of large business parks and large-chain retail shopping centers that boosted the economy for the town. The evolution of residential housing throughout its history is evidence of the changing culture in Lansdale. After industries began developing in Lansdale, working-class people and families began to settle in high-density rowhomes and duplex neighborhoods that were a short commute away from their workplace. These houses were uniform in construction with brick and small properties with small yards. After the opening of several silk and textile factories, houses needed to be built quickly and cheaply so that working-class families could afford to live close to their work. As socioeconomic status changed for some people, the opportunity for them to move into a more suburban area presented itself. They moved farther from the center of town into single-family homes. These homes were more elegant in appearance, with

Figure 2- Lansdale Train Station

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Figure 3

Figure 4

increased living space, larger properties, and more creative in design, appearance and function. Figures 3 and 4shows a comparison between a single-family home from the 1950s-60s versus one that was built more recently. Figures 3 and 4 show the different styles of single-family homes. The left house reflects an older era of housing development versus the right side which shows a modern single-family home. With advances in roadway construction and a growth in the commuting workforce, people were able to live farther away from their jobs. In the 1990s to 2000s, a second wave of suburban advances occurred in Lansdale. This period of residential changes included suburban developments with larger family homes and large estate homes. These houses have high ceilings, large windows, peaks in the design, and varied materials on the outside, including a variety of stones and siding materials. Most of them also have ornamental landscapes that serve to highlight the appearance of the home and are maintained for aesthetic purposes only. The estate homes are located at the outer boundaries of town and are accompanied by open space with ornamental planting beds, athletic fields, and recreational space for parks. The number of houses as well as the types of houses continues to expand at the expense of other buildings and land being taken away from their original purposes. For instance, on Hancock Street, there was a government Superfund Industrial site that is now being converted into modern three-story townhomes. They started by only building one neighborhood of these houses, but now they are beginning to construct additional townhomes on the other half of the land where the industrial building was torn down, reflective of the needs of the population being changed to look out for population growth and housing more people. There has also been the recent development of loft apartments closer to the center of town in what looked like a former factory. Historically, Lansdale’s economy relied heavily on silk and textile industries, but as these companies closed, the large, booming factories would

remain vacant. With an increase in demand for living space, designers converted these factory buildings into luxury apartment buildings to give more people the opportunity to live in Lansdale. There is a large presence of open land around the border of Lansdale and remnants of many farms that are still recognizable today. The landscape reveals the agricultural presence from Lansdale’s past that is also still reflective in today’s landscape. Within Lansdale, there are still two functioning dairy farms- Freddy Hill Farms and Merrymead Farms. These farms were larger in the past, but the families have sold parcels of their property to real estate developers. The dairy farms could not afford the increase in property taxes and large estate homes were now being built on what used to be farmland. For these dairy farms to remain open, they have had to adapt to changing populations by holding seasonal festivals, focusing on specific dairy products like ice-cream, or opening family fun centers. These family-centered events are reflective of the type of people that live in the town of Lansdale, which are typically families with children, and the types of activities that are popular within the town. Despite having large housing developments, Lansdale can utilize much of its land for recreational purposes. Within Lansdale, there are 15 parks protected and maintained by the borough as well as several fields designated for athletic purposes. These parks showcase walking/biking paths, playgrounds for the children, and even ponds or other bodies of water. When traveling around Lansdale, especially near the center of town, there is the presence of many churches. Although these churches are all reflective of Christianity, they represent several different branches of Christianity. On Main Street, there is Trinity Lutheran Church, Saint Stanislaus Catholic Church, Saint John’s United Methodist Church, and Grace Christian Church. The presence of multiple branches of Christianity as well as both European and Asian churches shows the religious diversity of Lansdale’s

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population within Christianity. With multiple Asian churches within Lansdale, one can also see the presence of many Asian families living within Lansdale as well as surrounding areas. Lansdale’s landscape reveals not only the culture that exists during the present day, but also reflects clues of Lansdale’s past. Many of the shops and activities around the town are reflective of the population’s interests, which helps shape the culture of the town. Yet, the historical foundations of the town remain a part of the landscape, creating a blended landscape between historic influences and modern times.

References Alderfer, G.E. (1951). The Montgomery County Story. Norristown, PA: The Commissioners of Montgomery County Pennsylvania. Jacobs, Allen B. (1985). L ooking at Cities. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press. Chapters 3 & 4. Jennings, L. J. (1972). Tracing Lansdale’s Past.Lansdale, PA: Npubl. Lansdale Historical Society. (1992). A Walking Tour of Downtown Lansdale. Lansdale, PA.

Student Reflection: I found this project to be a great opportunity to apply course material that I learned throughout the semester and be able to apply it to an area that is very familiar to me. I have a greater appreciation to the history of my town that I would not have known otherwise, and I learned this history not only through research but hands-on investigation of unique features within my town. Now, whenever I walk the streets of Lansdale, I can identify elements of the town culture from my project and share this information with others, so they too can gain a greater appreciation for the town of Lansdale, Pennsylvania.

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The Divided States of America Sadie Walshaw ENG 114: Writing Intensive First-Year Seminar Dr. Shannon Mortimore-Smith Assignment The following paper illustrates the division within the United States of America due to the polarizing political parties. The paper uses outside sources to support the writer’s ideas.

In his farewell address in 1796, first president, George Washington, spoke of the corruption that would take place regarding the genesis of the two-party system in the United States. He stated: However [political parties] may now and then answer popular ends, they are likely in the course of time and things, to become potent engines, by which cunning, ambitious, and unprincipled men will be enabled to subvert the power of the people and to usurp for themselves the reins of government, destroying afterwards the very engines which have lifted then to unjust dominion. (“Farewell Address – Saturday, September 17, 1796”). For well over two hundred years, the political scene in the United States has been made up of primarily two parties. Though the parties were constructed on the conflicting ideas of different sides of certain issues, it seems that in recent years the two opposing parties have found difficulty in finding compromise on any issue. Disputes today discussing controversial topics like gun control, equal rights, and a plethora of other social and economic topics have increased the ever-growing disagreements between the parties. For a nation that does have a bipartisan system in place, it is normal for there to be discourse within the two parties that do not favor each other. However, somewhere along the timeline of the United States, the constructive communication that took place turned hateful and hostile. People are no longer listening to the ideas of the other side but are instead only paying attention to the label in which a person identifies with. The only way to truly resolve the problems of our country’s conflict is to eliminate the labels that divide us from being one united nation. From the very beginning, the people of the United States have had conflicts with different sides of issues pertaining to the betterment of the country. Jon Fellows, a historic writer for HistoryHit.com discusses, “The political parties of the 1790s emerged because of disagreements over three main issues: the nature of government, the economy and foreign policy” (Fellows). In response to the quarrels, a major 92

two-party system emerged consisting of the Federalists party and the Democratic Republican party. This was the beginning of the political labels that people started placing on one another. The two prominent faces of these parties were Alexander Hamilton of the Federalist party who believed in a strong central government and Thomas Jefferson of the Democratic Republican party who believed in keeping the power within the states (Fellows). The two-party system back then was established on, what some would say, accident. This was not the intended system that the nation was to be run on. As stated previously, George Washington had warned the people that the division of the country would corrupt its unification. This begs to ask the question that if the two-party system was not the intention in the creation of the government, why is it still the system that is in place? After two centuries, shouldn’t the political scene change and grow with the society that is in place now? Our current political system is made up of two major parties, the Democratic party and the Republican party. Similar to the Federalist and Democratic Republican parties, they have opposing views on the most efficient ways to run this country. Having opposing views is healthy in a democracy as it allows for conversation and offers different perspectives on issues that affect the people. The problem occurs when, instead of listening to those with different perspectives, we create a preconceived idea of what we think they believe. If we, for a second, take a step back and remove that label that is placed on a person, would we be more willing to listen to what their ideas are? A problem that tends to occur in our politics is that we are pressured to choose either to agree with the values and ideals of Democrats or Republicans. In a scholarly article written by Hugh P. Williamson, the observation states: “Such persons are invoking the principle of “either or,” that is, that the person qualified to vote should vote either for the Republican nominee or the Democratic, even though he may sincerely believe that neither is a candidate whose position he can endorse” (Williamson 86).

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There is an idea placed on us that if we do identify with one of these major parties, we should also agree with everything the party stands for. The reality is that the general population does not agree with every policy of their political party. During a study done by Pew Research Center, statistics showed that, “while partisans generally agree with their party’s policy positions at least most of the time, just 16% of Republicans and 20% of Democrats say they “almost always” agree with their party’s policy stances” (“Partisanship and Political Animosity in 2016”). This illustrates that there is in fact room for conversation from opposite sides of the aisle if we are willing to listen. A major issue that factors into the division in our politics is that we see extremists on both ends of the spectrum with unrealistic policy plans, causing us to be fearful of the party as a whole. Those extremists who have outlandish ideas and values are then placed as the face of the party by the opposing side and creates a negative connotation in relation to that certain party. An example of this are the two popular news stations CNN and Fox News. Both news stations have biased views, CNN being primarily Democratic in their views and Fox leaning towards the Republican side. The issue with these two stations is that they do not give an unbiased opinion on the news at hand which then highlights the wrongs done by the other side. This then causes the viewers to be fearful of the opposing party. Though the Democratic and Republican parties make up the majority of American voters, it is important to also shed light on the Independents of the United States. These are the people that share the closest ideas of non-labeled political affiliations. Though even then, it still leans on labels, as Jean Twenge, author of “More Polarized but More Independent” writes: “Even when modern-day Americans identify themselves as Independents, they do so in reference to two parties: Republicans or Democrats” (Twenge. et al). It is known for being the moderate or “middle of the road” when compared to the two major parties. The issue with this party and why so many people avoid identifying as an Independent is the voice, or lack thereof, this party has when it comes to elections. Independent voters are only given the chance to vote in primary elections if it is an open election. Some states have open primary elections whereas others have closed elections in which Independent voters are not able to vote (Renner). This turns many people away to the idea of registering as Independent because it feels as if they are unable to exercise their right to vote for our elected officials. It also makes it difficult for people running as an Independent politician to become a serious candidate for an elected position. The lack of support or willingness to hear a candidate speak that does not align with the party that people affiliate with prohibits the opportunity to listen to ideas and policies

that may resonate more to the feelings of voters than the politicians that identify with their party. So, what is the big deal and why is it so important that we take action and change the political system? It is important because not only is it affecting the politicians and their unperturbed ability to bash each other in the media but it is also affecting the American people and their desire to have conversations with others who they do not see eye to eye with. In our society now, more than ever, it is crucial that we are able to discuss, inform, and educate opposing sides on issues that America is facing on a daily basis. We do not have time to fight over frivolous things that we find wrong with someone based on the label that we are told they have. It affects the people’s ability to vote for a candidate that they believe will unify and make this county stronger. “One is the assumption that every American voter, of whom there are potentially some 106,974,000, will find either the Democratic or Republican Party an acceptable vehicle for his political ideals and desires. But the fact is that many people who vote do so on the basis of the ‘lesser of two evils’” (Williamson 86). This idea took shape during the 2016 elections when voters were given the option to elect Hillary Clinton or Donald Trump as the next president of the United States. Many people believed that neither candidate was the best for the job, but many voted for Trump because they believed he was the “less evil” one out of the two. Americans should not have to choose on the basis of which candidate is less evil. This is not what America’s political system was built on. Although we see the clear divide on a national level through politicians and our president, the political division is throughout the entire United States. There are things we can do in our hometown to start a movement and work towards the change in our political landscape. For example, on a personal and local level we can take time and listen to someone with opposing views as us and find why they feel the way they do. We can talk to them and share our ideas and express the concerns we have for this nation. Social media is a huge asset in broadcasting ideas to the general public. We can make hashtags and social media sites that alert people that the issue is hurting the country and we must do something now. Using this resource to get our ideas noticed can be so crucial in the process of changing our politics. On a national level we can call representatives and express our concerns. Organizing campaigns, drawing attention to the problem and advocacy are all ways that we can work towards making change in our nation and once again truly being a united nation. The people of America need to realize that this is a real issue that our country faces. Not only does it clearly affect the politicians that so ferociously attack each other on social media platforms when they 93

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disagree with what someone says but it affects so many other people. Good conversation is important to have as it educates people on certain issue and helps move important actions forward. However, when instead of listening to people based on their ideas, we have been taught the mentality that if we have an opinion, ours is the right opinion and any opposing ideas are very wrong. A big factor associated with this problem is that people refuse to listen to the other side of the aisle when it comes to politics. It is a problem that has been quite clear for hundreds of years but because of social media that surrounds us constantly it is now broadcast for the entire world to see. The attention to this problem now gives us the opportunity to take action and fix it before it progresses and leads to more substantial predicaments. We have the power and resources to take action. It is time to take this nation that is so heavily divided at the moment and once again make it the United Stated of America.

Works Cited “Farewell Address - Saturday, September 17, 1796.” George Washington’s Mount Vernon, www.mountvernon.org. “Partisanship and Political Animosity in 2016.” Pew Research Center for the People and the Press, Pew Research Center for the People and the Press, 14 Dec. 2017, www.peoplepress.org/2016/06/22/ partisanship-and-political-animosity-in-2016/. Fellows, Ben. “The Origins of the United States Two-Party System.” History Hit, 7 Aug. 2018, www.historyhit.com/ the-origins-of-the-united-states-two-party-system/. Renner, Rebecca. “Why Can’t Independents Vote in Primary Elections?” Synonym, 10 Aug. 2018, classroom. synonym.com/cant-independents-vote-primaryelections-5247.html. Twenge, Jean M, et al. “More Polarized but More Independent.” SAGE Journals, Society for Personality and Social Psychology, Inc., 2016, journals.sagepub. com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0146167216660058. Williamson, Hugh P. “The Two-Party System, Its Foibles and Follies.” History Studies International Journal of History, vol. 10, no. 7, 2018, pp. 86–93., doi:10.9737/ hist.2018.658.

Student Reflection: Throughout the process of writing this, I became more educated on the way our country runs. I was able to use this experience to understand more about what the problems of our nation are. Before writing this, I knew there was an issue with how the political parties were divided, however, by writing this I realized our country was never intended to run this way. I hope that by me writing this, it can inspire individuals to take time to listen to someone they may not see eye to eye with and that we, as a nation, can come together.

Upper Level Course Writing

Write the Ship, 2019-2020

Editor's Choice First Place, Upper Level Writing

The Ambivalence-Inducing, Lady-Killing Primal Father in Perfume Luke Hershey ENG 336: Theories and Approaches (The Food Class) Dr. Erica Galioto Assignment This is an analytical essay about the role of cannibalism in Peter Süskind’s Perfume through the lens of Freud’s “The Return of Totemism in Childhood.”

Peter Süskind’s Perfume: The Story of a Murderer would perhaps be more aptly called Perfume: The Story of the Primal Father. The narrative arc of Jean-Baptiste Grenouille corresponds rather closely to the progression of human prehistory that Freud describes in his essay “The Return of Totemism in Childhood.” Süskind’s novel is not, however, merely an allegory about the mutiny of the primal horde and the deification of their father. The story offers some original and provocative implications about how the cultural construction of the primal father affects the psyche, or “collective mind,” of civilization (Freud 511). Grenouille is a new manifestation of the primal father (he might as well be God in the flesh), and he’s the perfect fellow for the job. He exists outside the “nuclear complex” because he never receives physical affection from his mother or father; he’s got a gift for wrecking people’s lives and “taking” all the desirable females from the other men in town; he inspires extreme ambivalence wherever he goes; eventually, his death-by-cannibalism reinforces the unspoken guilt that creates the standards of morality and allows society to function (481). Although Grenouille—the name and the face—is forgotten like the “fleeting realm of scent,” he lives on in the subconscious of those that encounter him forever, just like the original primal father (Süskind 3). Grenouille is positioned as a sort of savior from the very beginning of his life. The world needs him. The Paris, France described in the opening pages of Perfume is a godless and disgusting place filled with whores, heaps of garbage and corpses, and “no manifestation of germinating or decaying life… not accompanied by stench” (4). It makes sense that Grenouille, the new primal father, is born at the center of this physical and metaphysical disorder because the point of the primal father is to create order. The “stench” that hangs over the nation is the olfactory manifestation of a widespread moral “tumult and turmoil” (5). Essentially, France has lost touch with the primal father; it’s

a country no longer “based on complicity in the common crime… [or a] sense of guilt” (Freud 503). The “nuclear complex” (which props up the Oedipal triangle) has collapsed. The traditional family unit is gone. Grenouille’s bastardized birth and subsequent abandonment confirm this claim. Furthermore, the child is unable to create an Oedipal attachment despite breastfeeding with a handful of wet nurses and sucking them “dry down to the bones” (Süskind 8). The nurses all give him up almost as soon as they get him. Even the local priest says “away with it” after realizing that Grenouille has no discernible smell of his own (18). That’s Grenouille—a stenchless baby in a stench-filled world. If the stench of France is a symbol of its moral reprehensibility, then Grenouille’s lack of stench is a symbol of the antidote to that: the primal father. Grenouille also has the supernatural ability to sniff out the moral makeup of a scent, which becomes pivotal in the process of him becoming the primal father. It’s no coincidence that Grenouille is consistently described as a tick in the first three-quarters of the novel. He doesn’t transcend to full primal fatherhood until he dons the perfume made from the twenty-five dead virgins (this will be discussed in depth later), but during his patient ascension, he takes the form of a totem animal, which is, of course, rooted in an adoration of the father and follows Freud’s chronology to a T. Süskind writes, “But the tick, stubborn, sullen, and loathsome, huddles there and lives and waits. Waits, for that most improbable of chances that will bring blood… directly beneath its tree” (22). Blood does end up stopping directly beneath Grenouille’s tree. Several people—Madame Gaillard at the boarding house, Grimal the tanner, and Baldini the perfumer—put their faith in the totem of the tick. As a result, Grenouille is allowed to develop his ability to manipulate “stench,” and in return, he brings his followers moral and monetary fortune— “protection, care, indulgence” (Freud 502). After sniff-testing 97

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Grenouille’s perfume replication, Baldini silently contends, “[The stench] was something completely new, capable of creating a whole new world” (Süskind 87). Grenouille the tick offers, with his perfume, the “filial sense of guilt” that is characteristic of totemic religions; Grenouille the tick offers a reconnection, albeit a limited one, to the primal father and the order that accompanies it (Freud 502). As soon as these three followers expel the totem of the tick and Grenouille exits their lives, they immediately fall back into disorder. Gaillard dies a slow, painful death from cancer and is buried in a mass grave (Süskind 30). Grimal gets drunk, falls into the Seine, and is “dead in an instant” (87). Baldini’s house collapses with him in it (111). Without faith in Grenouille the totemic tick—the link to the primal father—these people are overcome by the reprehensible stench of a fatherless world. Grenouille leaves his disordered tickomites behind and makes like some twisted reincarnation of Jesus. He hibernates in a tunnel in a scent desert of “only peace, olfactory peace” for seven years (120). He leaves this spot after realizing that he’s “incapable of smelling his own genitals not a handspan away” (135). He wishes to smell his scent. Of course, he never does. Although the primal father isn’t sinless (heck, Grenouille is a murderer), the primal father embodies the idea of sinlessness, order, and stenchlessness. These qualities were/ are attributed to the primal father as a result of the guilt that emerged from its mutilation (more on that in a bit). Soon after leaving the scent desert, Grenouille recognizes an opportunity to transcend out of tickdom and into primal fatherhood. He catches a whiff of the “terrifyingly celestial” scent of a young redheaded girl (171). This scent has the rare ability to “inspire love,” to bring about the moral order of the primal father (186). It’s hard to say how large Grenouille’s penis is, but he’s got a great nose, which he uses to “take” all of the desirable females in the area and “[prevent the] sexual promiscuity” of the other men (Freud 490). Simply, he murders twenty-five virgins, gathers their scents, and uses them to make the greatest perfume of all-time. (He’s not a lady-killer, he’s a lady-killer.) This is exactly the metaphorical concoction that the original primal father made to bring about his demise and eventual deification. The two climactic scenes in the novel—the massive orgy in Grasse and the mob murder in Paris—represent the extremes—the ambivalence—felt toward the primal father. Freud notes that the primal horde “showed [their father] both hatred and love to an extravagant degree” (494). Although the primal father snatched up all the women, and thus all the power, his powermoves created a structure that governed society. Few actions embody the opposites of the feelings toward the primal father as well as sex and murder-by-canni98

balism. The “great scent” that Grenouille creates is a symbol of the primal father’s necessary but patriarchal structure. When he steps out in front of the crowd of people whose lives he ruined, the love they have for the father overcomes the hate they have for the lady-killer. Süskind writes, “And they all felt as if he had seen through them at their most vulnerable point….It was if the man had ten thousand invisible hands and had laid a hand on the genitals of the ten thousand people surrounding him and fondled them in just the way that each of them… desired in his or her most secret fantasies” (238). These “secret fantasies” are, of course, the sexual envy that these people have for the primal father. The orgy that breaks out is an acceptance of the subservient harmony the new primal father offers. The next day, the citizens of Grasse don’t acknowledge their “extravagant” act of love, but “they [are] all guilty” (246). In the spring, they “[harvest] roses” (247). They seek to rediscover the transformative scent of the primal father, and from that seeking—they will never truly rediscover it—comes adherence to the primal father’s unspoken rule. In Grenouille’s death, the other side of the ambivalence emerges, and people are equally as altered. The hobo mob in Paris is overcome by hate (or perhaps more appropriately, they hate how much they love Grenouille and his perfume), and they “divide” the “angel” into thirty pieces and “devour” those pieces until Grenouille “[disappears] utterly from the earth” (254-255). This is very obviously the primal horde “[killing] and [devouring]” their father (Freud 501). The “stench” of Paris is pushed to the wayside, and “delightful, bright flutterings” appear in the city’s soul, the city’s “collective mind” (Süskind 255). This communal feeling abounds, but “no one [says] a word” (255). The “filial sense of guilt” over killing and eating the primal father creates the community that Paris so desperately longs for. With this restoration of community comes the restoration of the “nuclear complex” and the reemergence—the re-deification—of the patriarchal god. By cannibalizing the stenchless Grenouille, the horde consumes and absorbs his stenchlessness; they forget the person they killed but deify the idea of the person. The “love” the horde feels after their heinous act is not for each other or Grenouille; it’s all for and because of the primal father (255). Works Cited Freud, Sigmund. “The Return of Totemism in Childhood.” The Freud Reader, edited by Peter Gay, W. W. Norton & Company, 1989, pp. 481-513. Süskind, Patrick. Perfume. New York, Vintage International, 1986.

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Student Reflection: It turns out cannibalism is great fodder for literary analysis! Although I don’t like eating people (I guess I haven’t tried), I do like thinking about eating people, or rather, I like thinking about other people (mainly fictional) eating people. Then again, how bad could it be? It can’t be that bad, right? It’s just the idea that’s bad. We eat meat all of the time—how is it different? If someone legally obtained human meat and cooked it up with spices and whatnot, I might try the stuff. I…yeah, I think I’m going to stop before my parents disown me. I had a lot of fun writing this paper, and it never fails to amaze me just how many ways one book— one element of one book—can be interpreted.

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Editor's Choice Second Place, Upper Level Writing

Gender Reflection Mary Nsangou

SWK 360: Research Techniques for Social Workers Dr. Andrea Barrick Assignment Essay topic - “What does your gender identity mean to you? ” Begin by reflecting on your own response to this question. Then discuss how someone else responds to this question. For this essay, you will be required to interview another person about their gender identity.

Introduction I will disclose the events that shaped my interviewee's gender identity; I will refer to my interviewee as "T". Additionally, I will be exploring the elements that molded my gender identity while highlighting the women who heard me, who saw me, as calloused as I was. In addition, I will be expanding and exploring the complex pathways in the definition of what it means to be a woman. Establishing Gender Identity “T” is a 50-year old who identifies as a cisgender woman. T’s preferred pronouns are she/her/hers/. “T” is adamant in making me aware that being a woman does not sum up everything that she is. She goes onto state, “Being a woman is only a part of who I am, not everything I am,”. When asked, what does being a woman mean to you? “T” pauses for several moments. Before I have the chance to interject, she pauses and says, “I have yet to figure that out”. When asked what were some of the significant events that resulted in a major impact on gender identity, “T” proudly beams and identifies that her delivery of her children made a crucial impact. She exclaims, “The birth of a child was something that you could share with women”. “T” was never told as a child that as a girl she should adhere to appropriate gender behavior. “T” goes onto admit that gender doesn’t really have an impact on certain experiences. The various life events that resulted in a major impact in my gender identity are rooted in sorrow. I remember yearning, practically for some sum of luck to bestow itself on me to make beautiful. My father played a massive role in altering my gender identity. Every other weekend, we would hop on the metro and go into D.C. This time, we drove into the city. My father casually pointed to a woman who must have been a size zero and stated, “I want Mary to be that size”. My mother quickly glanced over to my father and worryingly said, “She’ll never look like that. She 100

can never be that.” At that moment, I felt as if I had skyrocketed out of the vehicle and landed face first into the asphalt. To my father, a woman was supposed to be independent, fashionable, educated, and most importantly, slim. My father frequently referred to me as “big girl” and would look at me with an expression that wailed with disgust. In time, I began to view myself with disgust. So much so that I began to believe that being a woman was a curse. I felt insulted by the sickly sweet bubblegum campaigns in magazines where models would parade around with “Girls rule!” written in lipstick on the mirror. My sorrow was not profit. My gender identity was built and embedded in pain. I yearned for similar voices who understood. I found Ntozake Shange who wrote for Colored Girls Who Contemplate Suicide When The Rainbow Is Enuf. Shange(1997) writes, “Did you know somebody almost got away wit me? me. a plastic bag under their arm. me. dangling on a string of personal carelessness.” (pg.49) I found myself in The Women Who Run With Wolves by Clarissa Pinkola Estes. Estes (1992) writes, “Women’s issues of the soul cannot be treated by carving her into a more acceptable form as defined by an unconscious culture nor can she be bent into a more intellectually acceptable shape” (pg.12). So, when I asked my hairdresser to cut all my hair off, I watched as my hair swam through the air, kissing the polished floor so sweetly. I then determined that I was not the catalyst for pleasure. The Impact of Gender Identity “T” discloses that her schooling played the biggest impact on her gender identity. She specifically highlighted her courses and activities in high school. While growing up, they admitted that they did not feel the need to join an all-girls club like the girl’s scouts. “Nor did I feel the pressure, “she adds. In high school, “T” was the yearbook editor in her high school. “T” goes onto say that there was no sign of friction or pushback

Write the Ship, 2019-2020

when she was placed as the yearbook editor. In her high school, girls and boys took the same classes. “T” states that home ec and woodshop was taken by boys and girls. There was no determent or judgement made by teacher’s when it came which gender took the course. According to Scott and McCollum, “Teachers should eliminate the assignment of sex-stereotyped tasks and provide opportunities for all children to participate in all activities” (As cited in Blueitt,2018, p.3). What Does It Mean to Be A Woman? I still struggle with the definition of what it means to be a woman. For me, being a woman felt like a curse. Womanhood was not kind to me. I always imagined that walk into womanhood like it was the garden of Eden. I dreamed flowers would nestle among my ankles as I walked. That I would bathe in rosewater and forever have dew placed just above my cupids bow. Instead, I spent my time plucking thorns from between my toes. I become calloused. I found that “T” similarly struggled to define what it meant to be woman. “T” discloses that her own mother was not raised to follow the gender stereotype that is placed on women. For women, the crippling gender stereotype is to be timid, to cook, clean and play house. Eagly Steffen writes, “The typical gender stereotypic attributes consider women to have social and service-oriented traits” (As cited in Wittenberg, Beverung, Ansari, Jacobvitz, Hazen,2017, p.2) “T” states that her mother had no interest in being trapped in the stereotype. Instead, her mother was raised to be strong and independent like the woman before her. Brown shares, “In a US study on conformity to feminine norms, researchers recently listed the most important attribute’s associated with being feminine as being nice and pursuing a thin body ideal” (Brown,2015, p.89). “T” goes onto disclose that her father bore no influence in her gender identity. According to Palkovitz, “Mothers and Fathers may have qualitatively different aspirations for their children based on differences in the gender typed socialization they received” (As cited in Wittenberg, Beverung, Ansari, Jacobvitz, Hazen, 2017, p.2). “T” reflects on the influence and mentions that the toys her parents would provide her and siblings with, they all played with them. There was no argument between her siblings of what boys and girls were supposed to play with. Each child played with the toys, free from the belief that there were toys designated for boys and girls. When “T” entered the work force and climbed the ladder in her field, she found that her ambition and drive was viewed as bossy. So, when she placed the poster of Beyoncé that wrote, I’m not bossy! I’m the boss! She felt as if her presence engulfed the bleak hallways. Learning about different genders outside of

her own was not earth shattering as it was to most. She states, “you are what you are”. “T” shares a moment that felt earth shattering. “I was in a meeting, and I tossed in an idea that got completely ignored. A moment or two later, my male coworker suggested the very same idea I just shared and all at once there is praise. I sat there thinking, “I just said that!” Faith and the Role of Womanhood “T” converted to Islam in her early 20’s. “T” admits that converting to Islam made her feel more universal with women. “Though men and women are separate in the Mosque, the responsibilities and systems are the same,”. “Both men and women take their shoes off. Men look after children if they are with them on the brother’s side and women look after the children if they are with them on the sister’s side she adds. “T” chuckles and mentions that she has yet to meet a Muslim woman who is weak and passive”. When asked where they believe this idea that all Muslim woman are oppressed and passive, “T” reflects on the 1991 film, Not without my daughter. A film shot in 1991, the plot is about an American woman who married to Iranian man. Together the couple have a child. The mother soon realizes that her husband exhibits controlling behaviors. People’s perception and lack of knowledge fueled the savior mentality. Noor AlSibair(2017), writer for Bustle magazine explains that “Islam is as multifaceted, nuanced, and complicated as every other religion. And the preconceived notions built on Western stereotypes of Muslims are almost always wrong” (par.6). Viewers in the west wrongly concluded that every woman wearing a burqa, or a hijab must be oppressed by her husband or faith. “T” beautifully states, “Simply because a woman chooses to cover herself, this is not a cry for help. “People choose different paths. A unique path is not necessarily filled with sin just because it’s different from your own.” Conclusion: The development of what it means to be a woman is a dance that is both complex and gnarled. Each experience is vastly different. The research alone shows that language, the weight of society, our faith and even our parents influence can shift our gender identity. The reflection of one’s gender is crucial. The act of holding the mirror to see one’s reflection can be telling. One can look back fondly, like “T” when she pondered on sharing the experience of the birth of her children with other women. Or, one can look back with sorrow. As I reflected on my gender identity, I felt as if I was gasping for air. There is no defined universal experience for women. What a woman is, cannot be defined without silencing, or diminishing others.

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References Al- Sibai, N.(2017). How to be an ally to Muslim women and truly embrace intersectional feminism. Bustle. Retrieved from: https://www.bustle.com/p/how-to-beally-to-muslim-women-truly-embrace-intersectionalfeminism-49412 Bluiett, T. E. (2018). The language of play and gender-role stereotypes. Education, 139(1), 38–42. Retrieved from http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true& AuthType=ip,sso&db=eric&AN=EJ1191136&site=e ds-live&scope=site Brown, B. (2015). Daring greatly: How the courage to be vulnerable transforms the way we live, love, parent, and lead. New York, NY: Avery.

Estés, C. (1992). Women who run with wolves. New York, NY: Ballentine Books. Shange, N. (1997). For colored girls who have considered suicide / when the rainbow is enuf. New York, NY: Scribner Poetry. Wittenberg, B., Beverung,L.,Ansari, A., Jacobvitz, D.,& Hazen, N.(2017). Gender differences in parent’s parental wishes for their children’s future: a mixed study. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 26(7), 1865-1874. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-017-0713-9

Student Reflection: I have written this reflection at least five times. I have stared into space long enough. Contemplated long enough, cried enough. The truth is… I really do not have a reflection to share with you. As I write this, I’ve got blood orange chocolate on my face that I bought for a dollar. It’s quite possible that I may not be in the best mindset to write a riveting reflection. Or, it could very well be the terrifying feeling of vulnerability that has sunk into my posture and suddenly I’ve evaporated into my mattress. As you read my essay, you will note how quickly I immersed myself into my forgotten wound. I had become so accustomed to carrying it with me. I wish I could say that this wound inspires growth. I do, I desperately do. Instead of lying to you, I’ll tell you honestly. This wound is nuisance. If I’m not careful and don’t care for it, it becomes inflamed and oozes everywhere. As I wrote, I was not delicate. In fact, I was rather careless. I poured myself onto those pages. I’m sure if I read my essay once over, I’ll be there. Swimming mindlessly along the margins.

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Editor's Choice Third Place, Upper Level Writing

The Forgotten Founders of American Diplomacy: John and Sarah Livingston Jay and the Mission to Spain, 1779-1782 Rachael E. Rudis HON 399: Independent Study Professor James R. Greenburg Assignment Create a manuscript length article based on extensive primary source analysis, evaluation and interpretation ofJohn Jay's experience as U.S. Minister to Spain — and the substantive contributions of his wife, Sarah Livingston Jay to that mission. This inqu11Y was designed to answer the thesis question, "Was the American diplomatic mission to Spain, 1779-1782 truly a failure?" as it is generally regarded by existing scholarship. The student was required to frame their examination in the context of the following three themes: • Balancing ideals and principles with diplomacy in the pursuit of national legitimacy and credibility. • The power of precedent in shaping the norms and enduring norms and practice of American diplomacy. • The transcendence of gender expectations and limitations in shaping American diplomacy.

“We did not come to fear the future. We came here to shape it.” —Barack Obama, 44th President, July 27, 2016

Introduction: The Forgotten Founders 240 years ago, two remarkable Americans set sail for Spain, ready to change the course of American history and diplomacy through their influences on United States foreign relations. The story of their mission is little-known, however, left unstudied by historians and the public alike. Despite this fact, these Americans left a significant impact that would create precedent enduring even to the present day. That couple was John Jay and Sarah Livingston Jay. Though John Jay is acknowledged as a Founding Father, he is not typically remembered for his role as a founder of American diplomacy. Sarah Livingston Jay is rarely acknowledged or remembered as a Founding Mother at all. John and Sarah Jay, nevertheless, are the Forgotten Founders of United States Diplomacy. This paper attempts to change this reality, bringing the Jays into the spotlight for their overlooked contributions to American diplomacy. Where diplomacy begins, so too does a nation. This was especially the case during the American War for Independence. Diplomacy was a central factor

for the American colonies in winning independence from Great Britain. “Indeed, the United States was conceived as a creature of foreign relations,” stated University of Pennsylvania professor Walter A. McDougall.1 This statement highlights the essential role of diplomacy in the success of the American Revolution and the establishment of an independent and sovereign United States. That success would not have occurred without the work of John and Sarah Jay. John is best remembered as co-author of the Federalist Papers along with Alexander Hamilton and James Madison, one of the commissioners who negotiated the Treaty of Paris, negotiator of the Jay Treaty, and first Chief Justice of the United States Supreme Court. Seldom considered, however, is his role as minister plenipotentiary to Spain from 1779 to 1782.2 Though often deemed a failure, this mission greatly impacted John and Sarah, who traveled and served with him. The skills and experiences that the Jays gained in Spain would prove to have long-term impacts on the future of United States diplomacy. The literature available on the Jays’ time in Spain reveals them both to be perceptive and adept representatives of their country. Despite both John’s and Sarah’s attempts at achieving their assigned goals, Spain, for reasons well-understood and thoroughly

Walter A. McDougall, Promised Land, Crusader State: The American Encounter with the World since 1776 (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1997), 5. 2 A Minister Plenipotentiary is a person, particularly a diplomat, invested with the full discretionary power of independent decision-making and action on behalf of their government, most often in a foreign country.

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examined, would not budge in its refusal to recognize the United States, provide substantial financial and military assistance, and grant full navigation rights on the Mississippi River to the young nation. John himself took some time to come to terms with the idea of independence, but eventually steadfastly supported the cause, dedicating his life to attaining its ends. American historian Milton M. Klein holds that “Jay and the Revolution represent perfectly the paradox of that singular event in American history which made radicals out of moderates, innovators out of conservators, and republicans out of monarchists. The influence of Jay and the revolution he helped to make remains with us still.”3 This speaks to his often under-appreciated impact on the Revolution and the future of the new nation, thus revealing his importance in shaping the nation’s approach to the larger world. Sarah, too, dedicated much of her life to supporting her husband in his many roles. She often stepped outside the realm of most Revolutionary-era wives to share her political opinions and advice abroad as well as at home. Indeed, a fresh and substantive examination of the historical record suggests that, without her, John would likely not have been able to achieve the small accomplishments that he managed while in Spain or exert his larger influence on American diplomatic norms and practice. This paper seeks to ascertain the true impact that the Jays made on the founding of the United States through the lens of their joint experience in Spain and is intended to broaden current perceptions of the Jays’ long-term impact on American diplomacy. Understanding John and Sarah Jay individually as well as jointly is essential to understanding their contributions to creating and shaping the American approach to diplomacy. John Jay: A “Reluctant Revolutionary” Analyzing John Jay’s background as a revolutionary is important in understanding his time in Spain because it provides a framework for his beliefs and values regarding independence. John was born on December 23, 1745. He was thirty years old when the colonies declared independence in July 1776. A lawyer, he served as New York State delegate to the Continental Congress but did not sign the Declaration of Independence. The literature on John as a revolu-

3 4 5

tionary highlights his conservative attitude towards independence. Jay biographer Walter Stahr calls him “the most conservative of the leading founders” and a “reluctant revolutionary” who eventually felt that independence from the mother country was a necessity when she forced the colonies to war.4 The fact that John was initially hesitant to support independence makes his eventual support for it all the more important. He was not a radical thinker like many of his most notable peers, but once decided, he was fully committed to independence and worked tirelessly to achieve it. In the fall of 1774 while serving as a New York Delegate to the first Continental Congress, John wrote to a friend discussing the growing tension between the Congress and Great Britain, “God knows how the Contest will end. I sincerely wish it may terminate in a lasting Union with Great Britain. I am obliged to be very reserved on this Subject by the Injunction of Secrecy laid on all the Members of the Congress.”5 Although he could not say much about the specific proceedings of the Congress, he did share his hopes for full reconciliation with Britain. This is the only surviving letter that he wrote during this time, and it emphasizes his opposition to independence. John saw both safety and security in a continued union with Great Britain. He wanted to preserve this relationship while also pressing for better treatment of colonial interests and increased domestic political autonomy. His political moderation and pragmatism enhanced the credibility of the revolutionary movement itself. Klein points out that John was prospering under the system of government in place before the American Revolution: “How and why, then, did Jay become a revolutionary? For Jay, the Revolution proved to be a crisis of conscience.”6 In John’s mind, the British treated the colonies poorly and did not listen to their complaints, making reconciliation, his initial hope, impossible. Klein states, “Jay’s step-by-step conversion to independence reflected both a cautious temperament and a conviction that rebellion would not succeed until it had secured the support of a broad consensus of Americans…The Americans were ‘prompted and impelled to independence by necessity, and not by choice.’ John Jay was one such American.”7 Once he deemed independence inevitable, John was all in. He focused all of his energy on supporting the cause, dedi-

Milton M. Klein, “John Jay and the Revolution,” New York History 81, no. 1 (January 2000): 19-30, at 30. Walter Stahr, John Jay: Founding Father (New York: Hambledon and London, 2005), xiii. John Jay, letter to John Vardill, September 24, 1774, in The Making of a Revolutionary, ed. Morris, 137-38, at 137. Vardill, a loyalist, moved to England during the Revolution. 6 Klein, “John Jay and the Revolution,” 20. 7 Klein, “John Jay and the Revolution,” 27. Again, Klein’s assessment of John shows him to be a political moderate amongst the Founders. He assessed the situation rationally and strove to solve the problems with Britain peacefully before jumping into independence. As Klein implies, much of John’s thinking about independence was influenced by his studies and career as a lawyer. He relied upon this rational thinking significantly during his assignment in Spain.

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cating the remainder of his life to the founding of the new nation. In his book on revolutionary diplomacy, American legal writer Francis Wharton explained, “By no one was more surrendered for the advancement of that cause [than John Jay]; by no one was British misrule denounced more sternly, nor British cruelty regarded with a more solemn feeling of reprobation.”8 So, while he was not in favor of independence from the start, he was certainly fully committed and steadfastly loyal to the cause by the time he arrived in Spain. Sarah Livingston Jay: “Ardent American” and Transcendent Partner Equally dedicated to the cause was Sarah Livingston Jay. Not only was Sarah risking her wellbeing by traveling across the Atlantic, but she also left her child and the only life she had ever known behind in America to play her role, in her own right, in the mission. The existing literature on Sarah reflects general admiration and respect. Stahr made sure to point out that she was an anomaly amongst women of her time when he observed, “Sarah was unusual, unique, in deciding to join her husband on his revolutionary diplomatic mission. Other similarly situated wives, including Elizabeth Deane and Abigail Adams, remained at home.”9 Despite the great danger she faced, Sarah travelled with John as a partner. In return, he treated her as such, welcoming her help with his diplomatic duties. She was especially educated and politically opinionated compared to her peers; there is no doubt that she fully understood this undertaking and the risks it involved. Stahr goes on to describe Sarah as “the ardent American, the eager politician, and the lady of fashion, all in one.”10 These are weighty descriptors suggesting that Sarah was not passive and just supportive, but actively engaged as her husband’s partner in life. Cokie Roberts, author of the acclaimed Founding Mothers: The Women Who Raised Our Nation, gives Sarah quite a bit of credit, explaining, “[She] didn’t seem to let anything get her down; instead, she was always ready to make light of the most dire situations.”10 In this way, she is like her husband, similarly described as attempting to remain positive throughout the most challenging circumstances. Although there is agreement within existing scholarship regarding Sarah’s positive attributes and character traits, its examination has been largely cursory and limited to her role as John Jay’s wife. Through her resilient and independent character,

Sarah served in a role that was uncommon at the time. In this way, she paved the way and set precedent for women who would later choose to travel with their own husbands on diplomatic missions or, later still, serve as ambassadors and even Secretaries of State. Even without her husband’s status as a Founding Father, Sarah is important in American history in her own right in that she served as the nation’s first diplomatic spouse. She played this role with commitment, skill, and dignity, proving herself to be worthy of professional respect. Although she is well regarded among colonial historians, Sarah remains relatively little-known. Nevertheless, it was the experience she gained in Spain which prepared her for a role in Paris during the negotiation of the final peace with Great Britain. To celebrate the Definitive Peace, it was Sarah who drafted a toast to American independence. She delivered this toast at a celebration she hosted. Her toast was written as follows: A Toast to America and Her Friends: 1. The United States of America, may they be perpetual; 2. The Congress; 3. The King and Nation of France; 4. General Washington and the American Army; 5. The United Netherlands and all other free States in the world; 6. His Catholic Majesty and all other Princes and Powers who have manifested Friendship to America; 7. The Memory of the Patriots who have fallen for their Country—May kindness be shown to their Widows and Children; 8. The French Officers and Army who served in America; 9. Gratitude to our Friends and Moderation to our Enemies; 10. May all our Citizens be Soldiers, and all our Soldiers Citizens; 11. Concord, Wisdom and Firmness to all American Councils; 12. May our Country be always prepared for War, but disposed to Peace; 13. Liberty and Happiness to all Mankind.11 Though we have analyzed many of Sarah’s private letters to friends and family, this one is among the few surviving documents specific to her meant for public use that is available. Sarah’s toast demonstrates her deep patriotism, as well as her public role as a diplomat’s wife, which she rarely had the opportunity to display officially in Spain. A letter from Benjamin Vaughan to British Prime Minister Lord Shelburne provides an even more explicit view of her influence on diplomacy. Vaughan,

Francis Wharton, The Revolutionary Diplomatic Correspondence of the United States, Vol. 1 (Washington, D.D.: Government Printing Office, 1889), 554. 9 Stahr, John Jay, 117. Stahr notes, “the reasons why wives stayed at home in America are not hard to understand: crossing the Atlantic was dangerous at any time during the eighteenth century, and more dangerous in wartime, when an American ship could legitimately be captured or destroyed by the British.” 10 Ibid, 128. 10 Cokie Roberts, Founding Mothers: The Women Who Raised Our Nation (New York: Harper Collins, 2004, 161. 11 Sarah Livingston Jay, letter, “A Toast to America and Her Friends,” After September 3, 1783, in The Winning of the Peace, ed. Morris, 581.

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“a self-propelled intermediary” during the Paris peace negotiations, offered his opinion on who might be the best candidates to serve in the position of American ambassador to Britain. Though Franklin was his first choice for this position, John Jay was a close second: “‘Mr. Jay,’ he informed Shelburne, ‘is good and manly; can respect and be respected, and has a wife of good sense, who can be received in the best companies, and be made an object of civilities and even of friendship.’”12 Vaughan’s statement not only illustrates that Sarah was well liked in Europe by officials on all sides, but also reveals that her own character made her husband a more favorable choice for potential diplomatic positions. She was her husband’s greatest asset, particularly during their time abroad. Her ability to conduct public diplomacy while remaining within what her contemporaries would define as “appropriate” gender boundaries in order to make the largest and most positive impact possible not only complemented her husband’s official diplomatic goals, but also deserves recognition in its own right. Sarah is one of few American women of her time to have international experience and one of only a small handful to have international political and diplomatic experience. Certainly, she is the first American woman to have such a high level of experience, involvement, and influence in the diplomatic sphere. While there were other women of the Revolutionary Era who transcended gender expectations, few had international implications. In this light, Sarah helped to expand and shift women’s roles for the long-term. She stands at the beginning of a line of women who would inevitably follow, each expanding the role of women in the diplomatic sphere until they had achieved complete and public agency. In this light, both John and Sarah are underrepresented in the history of the American Revolution, especially when it comes to their joint contributions in Spain. Spain: The Reluctant Observer Also underappreciated and underrepresented in Revolutionary War scholarship is Spain itself. As historian Jim McMillen points out: The historical viewpoint of the American Revolution is written, taught, and studied in the context of New England first, followed by the central and southern colonies, with a sprinkle of French assistance thrown in as the struggling nation’s only ally in its fight for independence. Unfortunately, the presented history ignores 12 13 14 15 16

other points of view and even, at times, other valuable contributions and roles played by Spanish soldiers who laid down their lives only to become America’s forgotten partners as the revolution expanded far beyond the American colonies.13 There is much less research on Spanish aid to the colonies than aid from France; nevertheless, Spain did play an important, though hesitant, role in the winning of the American Revolution. The Spanish government indirectly provided necessary military aid by declaring war on Great Britain (though as an ally of France, not the United States), distracting the British forces elsewhere and thus weakening Britain’s efforts against the colonies. The late esteemed diplomatic historian Samuel Flagg Bemis noted that Spain was at first “exultant” about the outbreak of war between the colonies and Britain, as it would weaken both parties and allow Spain to reconstitute its power.14 Though at first happy about the war, Spain’s attitude quickly changed. Wharton asserts that there were three key parts of Spain’s policy towards the colonies: to secretly provide a sum of money in 1776, believing the colonies would ultimately remain a part of Great Britain; to back off when the colonies declared independence, as this could prove a threat to the stability of Spain’s own colonies; and to officially join the war against Britain with France.15 Overall, Spain sought to keep the colonies at arm’s length. This was the policy in place upon the Jays’ arrival in Spain. The Spanish government refused to recognize the colonies and was exceptionally cautious about any aid that it provided; however, they did help the colonies in small ways: “The Spanish were willing to supply some secret aid to the revolutionaries, but they wanted no public connection with them or their views.” Among these were the revolutionary rights of popular sovereignty and self-determination that the American colonists were asserting through armed rebellion. Neither did Spain want any discussion of “the disposition of Spanish colonies in the Mississippi region. Even an offer to waive the American claim of right to navigate the Mississippi River could not persuade Madrid to recognize the young republic.”16 While Spain was certainly helpful during the American Revolution, it was not as helpful as the Revolutionary leaders in the colonies would have liked. The Jays thus entered a climate of polite disregard upon arriving in Spain. It was under these conditions that they worked.

Morris, The Winning of the Peace, 431. Jim McMillen, “America’s Forgotten Partner: Spain and the American Revolution,” Pensacola History Illustrated 1, no. 2 (2011): 2-8, at 2. Samuel Flagg Bemis, The Diplomacy of the American Revolution (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1957), 41. Wharton, Revolutionary Diplomatic Correspondence, 427. Norman A. Graebner, Richard Dean Burns, and Joseph M. Siracusa, “American Diplomats Engage the Barbary Pirates and Spain,” In Foreign Affairs and the Founding Fathers: From Federation to Constitution, 1776-1787, (Santa Barbara: Praeger, 2011), 63-83, at 75.

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The Mission to Spain John was appointed minister plenipotentiary to Spain in September 1779. Though Arthur Lee, the previous American envoy to Spain, had failed, John accepted the assignment. He was asked “to form a commercial treaty similar to that with France, to acquire a port on the Mississippi in Spanish territory, and to obtain a loan, or at least a subsidy, in exchange for the Floridas.”17 He was also charged with obtaining diplomatic recognition of the United States. John knew from the beginning that his mission would not be easy. Given that his predecessor had been prevented from entering the Spanish capital, one must wonder whether the Jays even anticipated being allowed to remain in Spain when they first arrived. With a shrewd eye, according to Stahr, “Jay observed to Washington that the objectives of his mission, ‘however just, will not be easily attained, and therefore its success will be precarious, and probably partial.’ Even these modest expectations were to prove too high.”18 So, while John did understand that he would face difficulties achieving his objectives, Stahr argues that he still did not understand how trying his mission would prove. John was constantly out of money and looking to Spain for help, to little avail. Stahr notes that, while King Charles III approved of John, who was well respected in Spain, he was received not as an official diplomat but as a private citizen, a consequence of Spain’s refusal to recognize the legitimacy of the United States.19 Without formal recognition, the Jays would not be invited to diplomatic social and state events, making their mission all the harder. John and Sarah Jay both struggled personally in Spain, as they endured the death of their newborn child, as well; thus, from the outset, the Jays were confronted by personal as well as professional setbacks in their mission; nevertheless, the pair remained committed to their work. John managed to obtain multiple small loans from Spain to pay bills of credit that the Continental Congress forwarded to him, though he often enlisted the help of Benjamin Franklin in Paris in achieving these feats. When one such loan was exceedingly small and required hasty repayment, “Jay replied that he would let the world know how small the sums involved were.”20 Here, Stahr is showing both Jay’s frustration with Spain’s disinterest in aiding the colonies as well as a shrewd approach to diplomacy, albeit only in the recognized capacity of a private citizen. The Jays ultimately left Spain in 1782 to join Benjamin

Franklin and John Adams in France to negotiate the Treaty of Paris and final recognition of the United States’ independence. Although the Jays’ victories seemed small, their long-term implications make them worthy of further study. The available literature, however, deems the mission to Spain an honorable effort, but a failure. Stahr points out that “Jay’s mission to Spain is generally viewed as a complete failure. He worked hard, and he asked for funds politely, but in the end he obtained only a few thousand dollars. It is difficult to find any real errors in how Jay handled himself in Spain. Perhaps the real error was with Congress, which should have realized that he would not be able to secure recognition or assistance.”21 Nevertheless – and characteristically – John dove into his work, however hard it may have been, with the utmost determination and drive. The circumstances in Spain, however, did not permit the full success of his original goals. That John and Sarah maintained positive attitudes throughout and continued to persevere in their mission speaks to their resilient characters. Such an outlook could not result in total failure, however. Despite the assertions of some historians to the contrary, the Jays’ mission came to a close with multiple lasting achievements. Of course, there were some small loans obtained from Spain, which provided much-needed financial resources for the Revolution. But more than that, the Jays, together, gained valuable diplomatic experience that they would use throughout their future public lives and that paved the way for future United States diplomats by shaping and advancing the young nation’s diplomatic norms and practice: Like other North American representatives during the Revolutionary War, Jay bore personal testimony to the hard-edged core of 18thcentury European diplomacy, which reflected and institutionalized the contemporary practice of power politics, with its relentless, undisguised pursuit of national interest, territorial expansion, and commercial advantage. Jay’s firsthand acquaintance of the complexity and intensity of European rivalries while in Paris and Madrid, together with the revolutionaries’ original set of values, would mark the diplomacy of his generation: avoiding political entanglements in Europe, a preference for commercial to political treaties, and a belief in legitimacy of territorial expansion.22

17 George Pellew, “Minister to Spain: 1779-1782,” In John Jay, 107-28, Edited by John T. Morse, Jr. Vol. 9 of American Statesman (Houghton Mifflin, 1898), at 113-15. 18 Stahr, John Jay, 124. 19 Stahr, John Jay, 128. 20 Ibid, 143. 21 Stahr, John Jay, 144. 22 Graebner, Burns, and Siracusa, “American Diplomats,” 75.

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Diplomatic historians Norman Graebner, Richard Burns, and Joseph Siracusa note the most important aspects of early American diplomacy and connect them with John’s work in Spain. This is vital to our understanding of the mission, as it provides a much different perspective than the one emphasized in existing scholarship. Rather than a failure, the Jays’ mission, regardless of the apparent shortfall in achieving its assigned goals, provided a pathway toward shaping an American approach to diplomacy. John was one of the first diplomats of the new nation, making his actions in Spain not only important, but highly impactful as well. Both John and Sarah Jay set precedent in laying the groundwork for those who would follow. From a broader perspective, the Jays’ mission to Spain can be seen as a microcosm of early American foreign relations. Scholars are in general agreement that the founding generation set the tone for the future of United States diplomacy. Whether the mission was a success or failure in achieving its immediate goals is thus arguably less important than its larger enduring impact in laying the foundation for the country’s diplomatic future. Despite its significance, the Jays’ mission to Spain has been largely overlooked and little researched. There are no existing articles focused solely on the Jays’ time in Spain. This period of their life has been treated as a small chapter, a few short paragraphs, or even a mere footnote in larger biographies and works on diplomacy or the Revolution. Significantly, there is little scholarship on Sarah separate from her relationship to John. One might conclude that the lack of resources available provides its own narrative about the subject: the Jays’ mission was a failure and does not merit further study. Conclusion: Diplomacy and ‘Raising a Nation’s Name’ This research reveals new perspective to existing scholarship on the Jays’ mission to Spain and Sarah’s unique influence as part of that mission in her own right. It reshapes the notion that the Jays’ mission was a failure by focusing on an examination of the following question: was the American diplomatic mission to Spain, 1779-1782, truly a failure? My research reveals that the answer to this question is, definitively, no; it was not a failure. The succeeding 240 years of American diplomacy and societal change have revealed that, through their roles in the mission, John and Sarah Jay had enduring impacts on the creation and practice of a uniquely American approach to diplomacy. A substantive reexamination of this mission places it in a broader context beyond the specific diplomatic objectives assigned to the Jays. Such an examination makes it possible to explore Sarah’s previously unexamined role and impact in the mission, as well as the precedent she set as the first American woman to travel abroad as 108

part of a diplomatic mission. By examining the mission in this broader context, it becomes possible to see how the Jays’ time in Spain helped to shape the norms and evolving practice of United States diplomacy. In shaping our diplomatic norms and practice, the Jays imparted three key themes to our nation’s approach to diplomacy that link it with our larger society – the balancing of ideals and principles with diplomacy in the pursuit of national legitimacy and credibility; the power of precedent in creating, shaping and sustaining a uniquely American approach to diplomacy; and the transcendence of societal gender expectations and limitations in American diplomacy. It is within this third theme that Sarah made her greatest contribution as the Founding Mother of American Diplomacy. Using her example, it becomes clear that existing scholarship has overlooked the significance of her life—as it has arguably overlooked the significance of the impacts of countless women in history. Examination of Sarah Jay’s impact has been limited by traditional methodologies that define her perceived relevance or value of her contributions in the context of her husband’s accomplishments. This reveals the necessity of reevaluating how historians have traditionally studied women’s impacts in history. Women’s achievements have been analyzed through inherently gender-biased methodologies, often based on patriarchal models designed to elevate male accomplishments. It is past time for the creation of new methodologies to substantively evaluate women’s impacts. This research is a step forward in creating new and more inclusive historiographical methodologies to substantively identify, analyze, and evaluate women’s impacts throughout history. Through these lenses, the role of the Jays in shaping United States diplomacy becomes clearer. Understanding John and Sarah Jay’s combined role during John’s service as minister to Spain from 17791782 provides new historical perspective on the importance of this largely overlooked American diplomatic mission. More than providing a history of the mission, this research is important and relevant to the present in that it evaluates the Jays’ mission in a broader context beyond the narrow limits of its immediate diplomatic objectives. In doing so, this study reveals the importance of the Jays’ service in Spain in enabling them to help create the foundation for a uniquely American approach to diplomacy and make enduring contributions that would shape the following 240 years of American diplomacy leading us to the present day. It is worth noting that some of the clearest evidence of the Jays’ enduring impact on the creation and shaping of our nation’s unique approach to diplomacy is often unintentionally revealed in scholarship relating to the United States’ larger engagement with the world.

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In his acclaimed book, The Greater Journey: Americans in Paris, David McCullough examines Americans’ nineteenth-century engagement with the world through travel to France. McCullough develops and explores three key themes that reflect continuity with the Jays’ goals: the collaborative give-and-take relationships between the individual American travelers and their Parisian hosts; the intercultural connections that were created through cultural diffusion (the central theme throughout the book); and the shaping and development of individual selfawareness of the emerging American identity. Possibly one of the greatest examples of cultural diffusion between the United States and another nation is seen through the vast number of Americans who travelled to Paris during the nineteenth century and the cultural exchanges between Americans and Parisians that would eventually contribute to vital changes in culture on both sides of the Atlantic. These cultural exchanges most often took the form of intercultural connections, involved cooperative relationships between both sides, and ultimately led to the revelation of a unique American identity at both the individual and societal levels. The connections born of these relationships were not only a supplement and complement to American diplomacy, but an extension of that diplomacy as well. The themes McCullough explores are thus both individually and collectively logical extensions of the Jays’ task, centering on balance, precedent, and transcendence, over a half century before. Each of McCullough’s themes reveals similarities to the enduring impacts of the Jays’ diplomatic mission to Spain. Specifically, McCullough details the experience of Elihu Washburne, the American Minister to France from 1869 to 1877. Washburne traveled to France with his entire family. His wife Adele Washburne was fluent in French and was of great help to him, much like Sarah was to John.23 Sarah’s influence, however, goes much deeper than Adele’s, as Sarah acted as an unofficial advisor to her husband, as well as hostess, while abroad. Elihu Washburne worked to support republican ideals overseas, most notably when he did not hesitate to support the French republican governments. He realized in France the ideals that the Jays’ worked to legitimize in Spain. As a diplomat, he played a role in shaping the actualization of these values and ideas. He was influential in helping thousands of Americans and Germans in Paris relocate to safer areas during the siege of the city by Prussian forces during the FrancoPrussian War of 1870.24 He later attempted, albeit unsuccessfully, to aid the imprisoned archbishop during the internal chaos that followed the war, leading 23 24 25 26

McCullough to label him “an agent of freedom.”25 We can interpret this role of “agent of freedom” as a continuation of the work that the Founding Fathers undertook to create their own freedom. Elihu and Adele Washburne, like John and Sarah Jay before them, worked to share notions of American freedom abroad. The Washburnes’ story is reflective of the Jays’ mission in that he merged informal and formal diplomacy in Paris. McCullough’s work also has broad implications for our study of the Jays’ mission to Spain. The Jays helped to harmonize revolutionary American values and ideals with Old World interests, and the Americans who traveled to Paris sixty years later aided in further diffusing and popularizing these ideas. In many ways, McCullough’s American examples, who acted as informal cultural diplomats, continued what the Jays began. Samuel Morse traveled to Paris in 1829 aiming to expose America to European art. “My country has the most prominent place n my heart. How shall I raise her name?”26 He was thoughtful about furthering America’s reputation abroad through the sharing of American culture, rather than its proclamation. Cultural change and the acceptance of new ideas takes time. The Jays laid the groundwork that later Americans would continue to build upon. Seeing the Jays’ mission through this broader, longterm transition reveals that it had enduring success in laying the foundation for a uniquely American approach to diplomacy that would advance American interests and influence. The gift of the Statue of Liberty by the people of France, along with the acknowledgement of the legitimacy and influence of the American values and ideals it represents, is substantive proof. The Jays’ roles in their service in Spain had lasting impacts. They set precedent for women in diplomacy, laid the groundwork for the long-term acceptance of American legitimacy and credibility abroad, and shaped the norms and practice of modern American diplomacy. This is especially true of Sarah, who, as the first American woman to travel abroad as part of a diplomatic mission, stands as the first in a long line of women who have become diplomats in their own right. Sarah’s impact lies at the very beginning of this societal change. As of 2016, 415 women had served at the rank of Ambassador as head of American diplomatic missions; of 158 U.S. Ambassadors throughout the world that year, thirty-five percent (fifty-eight) were women. As of 2019, there had been three female Secretaries of State. As the first in this line, Sarah leaves quite a legacy.

David McCullough, The Greater Journey: Americans in Paris (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2011), 269. McCullough, The Greater Journey, 272. Ibid, 315. Ibid, 61-65.

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John and Sarah Jay did not go to Spain “in fear of the future.” They went there to shape the future of a nation by developing new definitions of enduring national interests and a uniquely American approach to the pursuit of those interests in a way that would ‘raise their nation’s name.’ The Jays’ individual and joint roles as pathfinders for the future of United States diplomacy are important – each in their own right. This makes a substantive examination of their experience in Spain essential to a fuller understanding of American diplomacy. Where diplomacy begins, so too does a nation. The diplomacy shaped by John and Sarah Livingston Jay certainly helped to create this one. Bibliography Bemis, Samuel Flagg. The Diplomacy of the American Revolution. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1957. Graebner, Norman A., Richard Dean Burns, and Joseph M. Siracusa. “American Diplomats Engage the Barbary Pirates and Spain.” In Foreign Affairs and the Founding Fathers: From Federation to Constitution, 1776-1787, 63-83. Santa Barbara: Praeger, 2011. Jay, John. Letter to John Vardill, September 24, 1774. In The Making of a Revolutionary, edited by Richard B. Morris, 137-38. Vol. 1 of John Jay. New York: Harper & Row, 1975.

Klein, Milton M. “John Jay and the Revolution.” New York History 81, no. 1 (January 2000): 1930. Livingston Jay, Sarah. Letter, “A Toast to America and Her Friends.” After September 3, 1783. In The Winning of the Peace, edited by Richard B. Morris, 581. Vol. 2 of John Jay. New York: Harper & Row, 1980. McCullough, David. The Greater Journey: Americans in Paris. New York: Simon and Schuster, 2011. McDougall, Walter A. Promised Land, Crusader State: The American Encounter with the World since 1776. New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1997. McMillen, Jim. “America’s Forgotten Partner: Spain and the American Revolution.” Pensacola History Illustrated 1, no. 2 (2011): 2-8. Morris, Ricahrd B. “The Great Peace of 1783.” Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society, 3rd ser., 95 (1983): 29-51. Morris, Richard B., ed. The Making of a Revolutionary. Vol. 1 of John Jay. New York: Harper & Row, 1975. Pellew, George. “Minister to Spain: 1779-1782.” In John Jay, 107-28. Edited by John T. Morse, Jr. Vol. 9 of American Statesman. Houghton Mifflin, 1898. Roberts, Cokie. Founding Mothers: The Women Who Raised Our Nation. New York: HarperCollins, 2004. Stahr, Walter. John Jay: Founding Father. New York: Hambledon and London, 2005. Wharton, Francis. The Revolutionary Diplomatic Correspondence of the United States. Vol. 1. Washington D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1889

Student Reflection: The political, social and women's history of the Revolutionary Era captured my interest in John and Sarah Livingston Jay. The Jays shared a joint role in creating and shaping American diplomatic traditions during their mission to Spain, where Page 76 of 107 John served as Minister Plenipotentiary. Often forgotten among America's Founding Mothers, Sarah Livingston Jay played a role in shaping American diplomacy. Despite its enduring importance, this mission, and Sarah's role, remain largely unexamined. The first American woman to travel abroad on a diplomatic mission, Sarah's fole is inseparable from the mission's long-term Impacts. She was crucial in forging relationships and providing counsel in a challenging envlronment. In a time when women could not enter politics, she set precedent that transcended societal gender expectations and limitations, leading the way for women who would follow in her footsteps. This research adds new insight into the Jays' lasting impact in shaping American diplomatic traditions. It explores how Sarah's contributions led to the mission's long-term success and paved the way for women in American diplomacy. It reveals the need for new Inclusive historiographical methodologies to substantively evaluate women's hidden impacts throughout history. Most importantly, it identifies Sarah Livingston Jay as the Founding Mother of American Diplomacy.

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The Right to Beauty: Commoditization and Access to Cosmetic Procedures in Brazil Erika Otthofer HIS 444: History of Women in Latin America Dr. Gretchen Pierce Assignment My classmates and I were assigned a research paper in which we were asked to examine a women’s issue in Latin America with the inclusion of historical context. Our research had to incorporate primary sources such as interviews, images, historical documents, field study research etc. as well as secondary sources such as academic journal articles. My paper examined the relationship between the commoditization of cosmetic procedures founded on idealized beauty standards of the perfect Brazilian woman and the public accessibility of such procedures to women of all racial, class and age backgrounds.

Brazil has been nicknamed the plastic surgery capital of the world and lives up to this title through the high commodification of cosmetic procedures, known as plástica. Surgeons from reconstructive and plastic surgery departments in Germany and the United States and a researcher from the United Nations Population Fund compiled statistics on the number of plastic surgeries performed per capita and per plastic surgeon in each country in 2014. This data reported that over 1.3 million cosmetic procedures were performed in Brazil, second in rank to the United States by just short of one hundred thousand surgeries. The high instance of plástica in 2014 calculates out to roughly two hundred fifty operations per practitioner. It is projected that the number of plastic surgeries conducted per capita in Brazil has risen in recent years.1 The rationale for such a great number of cosmetic surgeries can be attributed to multiple factors. The origins of plastic surgery to provide publicly funded reconstruction procedures for high need populations has shifted to accommodate Brazilian women that aspire to achieve the perfect body and high self-esteem. The influence of the media and tradition publicizes beauty standards that women wish to embody to become the most modern and toned woman. Access to cosmetic operations are viable for Brazilian women of all classes due to surgeries offered at little to no cost at public hospitals that serve as hospital schools for surgical residents such as Santa Casa de Misercórdia Hospital in Rio de Janeiro. Finally,

Afro-Brazilian and middle-aged women undergo plástica to exude physical qualities associated with the modern, youthful Brazilian woman. Plastic surgery in Brazil has become a popularized phenomenon since the 1960s as a result of women’s deliberate adherence to mainstream idealized beauty standards deemed advantageous for high self-esteem and social success and an originating “right to beauty,” in which cosmetic procedures are made publicly accessible to Brazilian women of all racial, class and age backgrounds. Plastic surgery in Brazil originated as a humanitarian effort to assist those in great need of reconstructive procedures under the scalpel of one prominent doctor, Dr. Ivo Pitanguy. A biographical article by Dr. Surajit Bhattacharya, a professor at the Department of Plastic, Reconstructive and Aesthetic Surgery at the Sahara Hospital in Uttar Pradesh, India explains that Dr. Pitanguy established a plastic surgery department in Rio de Janeiro’s Santa Casa de Misercórdia Public Hospital in 1961 so that he could treat individuals whose bodies were disfigured in traumatic events. He first treated victims of a circus fire in Niteróí that left many children with severe burns and skin grafts.2 An article from The Times discusses Pitanguy’s belief that beyond physical damage to the body, those physically marred would experience long-term psychological suffering if they were not granted the opportunity to undergo facial or body reconstruction that would “heal the psyche.”3 He instantaneously began to train resi-

1 Paul I. Heidekreuger et al. “Global Aesthetic Surgery Statistics: A Closer Look,” Journal of Plastic Surgery and Hand Surgery 51, no. 4 (2017): 271-272. 2 Surajit Bhattacharya, “Dr. Ivo Pitanguy: Strived for a ‘Human Right to Beauty’,” Indian Journal of Plastic Surgery 49, no. 3 (September 2016): 300. 3 “Silicone Nation: How One Man Made Brazil the World Capital of Plastic Surgery,” The Times. May 31, 2014.

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dent plastic surgeons at his institute within the public ward, where aspiring surgeons could apply teachings in performing procedures at no cost to the public. Professor Alvaro Jarrin, an anthropology professor at the University of the Holy Cross in Massachusetts explains the impacts of Pitanguy’s efforts in introducing plastic surgery and “the right to beauty” into the public health agenda, resulting in nearly half a million plastic surgical procedures that are subsidized by the Brazilian government every year via public hospitals such as Santa Casa de Misercórdia. While access to public plastic surgery was originally for those who needed reconstruction due to congenital deformities or burns, after the opening of the cosmetic surgery ward at Santa Casa de Misercórdia Public Hospital in 1961, Jarrin denotes that ninety-five percent of procedures are for aesthetic purposes.4 Thus, the modern patient base has changed to women seeking to boost their physicality and self-esteem. Rationales for plastic surgery among women from various classes and ages can be traced to the notion of psychological treatment through boosting one’s self-esteem in looking younger and more toned to mirror the archetypal Brazilian body. Aysha Mendes, a freelance journalist who specifically writes on the topics of health, psychology and nursing, and Daniela Dorneles de Andrade, a research associate in the Institute of Political Science University of Vienna, define one concept of the Brazilian woman’s ideal body. The typical body, known as a “boa forma”5 or “o violão,” good form or the guitar, serves as a model for women to have a well-formed, curvaceous bust and hip/buttocks area along with a tighter waist.6 Interviews with women confirm their pursuit of cosmetic surgery to achieve psychological well-being along and the most ideal body. Alexander Edmonds, professor of anthropology at the University of Edinburgh, avid researcher of cosmetic surgery practices in Brazil, and author of the book Pretty Modern: Beauty, Sex and Plastic Surgery in Brazil, conducted field study interviews to uncover sociological dynamics behind plastic surgery in Brazil. One of the women he encountered, Tatiana, a publicity director for film and television, embodies the typical socialite in Rio de Janeiro who has experienced multiple plástica procedures via a private plastic surgeon. She effortlessly explains the necessity of her surgeries and the ensuing effects on her life, “I have the flu, so I take medicine. I have a falling breast, so I have a

plástica. To feel better, to work better, to be in a better mood.”7 Tatiana perceives plastic surgery to be a natural treatment for a woman’s psychological discomfort comparable to medicine’s treatment of physiological illness. Her socioeconomic status and professional prominence have allowed her to utilize plastic surgery to remedy natural psychological unrest. Women with modest origins and lifestyles in contrast with Tatiana seek plastic surgery through publicly funded hospitals for similar reasons as she does. Field study interviews by De Andrade in clinics and Santa Casa de Misercórdia Public Hospital in Rio de Janeiro delineate the motivations of women of modest socioeconomic status in seeking cosmetic procedures. Women interviewed from the range of twenty-six to seventy-one years of age went under the knife to modify their breasts, face or abdomen to boost their self-image, get the body they always wanted, or simply to do what all their friends were doing. The common thread among the women was that the surgery was their choice for psychological comfort that was not influenced by a spouse.8 While the main motivation for plástica in Brazil is a woman’s personal desire to boost their self-esteem, there are also external factors at play. The influence of media has established images and popular ideals to represent the Brazilian woman seeking cosmetic surgery to become youthful and beautiful. One such example is the widespread popularity of the magazine Plástica & Belleza. Edmonds interviewed Norberto Busto, head editor and creator of Plástica & Belleza about the rationale of the magazine and its ensuing popularity. While working to create a concept magazine on plastic surgery, Busto intended for the publication to provide general information to the public about plastic surgery. Plástica & Belleza became a great success and integrated frequent celebrity endorsements of the transformational effect of plastic surgery and a popular fan mail sweepstakes to give readers from Rio de Janeiro to rural areas such as Amazonia the chance to win their dream procedure.9 Appendix 1 features covers of Plástica & Belleza featuring Brazilian celebrities that endorse plástica.10 Overall, the magazine combines the intention to bring forth insights to the common Brazilian about plastic surgery with glowing celebrities to popularize cosmetic transformations in an effort to place plástica at the forefront of popular culture.

4 Alvaro Jarrin, “In Brazil, Patients Risk Everything for the ‘Right to Beauty’,” The Conversation, May 2, 2018. https://theconversation.com/ in-brazil-patients-risk-everything-for-the-right-to-beauty-94159. 5 Daniela Dorneles De Andrade, “On Norms and Bodies: Findings from Field Research on Cosmetic Surgery from Rio de Janeiro, Brazil,” Reproductive Health Matters 18, no. 35 (2010): 76. 6 Aysha Mendes. “Plastic Surgery Capital of the World: The Brazilian Woman’s Quest for ‘O Violão’,” Journal of Aesthetic Nursing 4, no. 6 (2015): 291. 7 Alexander Edmonds, Pretty Modern: Beauty, Sex and Plastic Surgery in Brazil (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2010), 8. 8 De Andrade, “On Norms,” 78-79. 9 Ibid, 70-71. 10 Edmonds, Pretty Modern, 90.

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The yearly Carnival celebration in Brazil that takes place prior to Lent provides another outlet for idolization of the most perfect and beautiful Brazilian woman. According to Edmonds, two female figures take prominence in the celebration. The mulata samba dancer represents the traditional, rich AfroBrazilian culture and the embrace of racial mixing. Afro-Brazilian women’s bodies were prized for their prominent buttocks, hips and thighs which made them graceful and voluptuous dancers. In contrast, the integration of the siliconada, a slang term for a white woman with breast implants, idealized beauty queens as the perfect embodiment of the results of plástica in the modern Brazilian woman.11 The siliconada was first introduced as a central figure in the 1999 Carnival parade. Constant media coverage of the parades has exposed Brazilian women of all ages to national beauties that symbolize not just the artificial perfection of plástica but the modern status and sophistication connected with cosmetic surgery.12 Juliana Borges, the beauty queen pictured in Appendix 2 was crowned Miss Siliconada in 2001. She embodies the perfect siliconada, having had nineteen cosmetic surgeries done.13 The coexistence of the mulata and the siliconada expresses Carnival’s intent in unifying tradition and contemporary consumerism, conveying pride in the rich mixed-race heritage of Brazil while commodifying the ability to become the most ideal, well-sculpted woman. Viable access to affordable cosmetic surgery with well-trained, respected surgeons at public hospitals and clinics has turned Brazilian women’s dreams of self-assurance and youth into reality. Women of all backgrounds can receive surgery at little to no cost due to the integration of cosmetic procedures into public health centers via subsidization by the Brazilian government and the resident surgeon training program at the Santa Casa de Misercórdia Public Hospital established by Dr. Pitanguy. Jarrin delineates that public funding for cosmetic procedures originated in 1988, when a new democratic Brazilian constitution declared healthcare as a basic human right, in which the government began to provide free healthcare services to all citizens.14 Edmonds explains that funding for the plastic surgical ward at Santa de Misercórdia is donated charitably by Catholic charities and the state

health system and the women simply cover anesthesia and medical supplies costs. Many public hospitals receive financing from municipal and federal budgets that subsidize surgeries in full.15 However, he explains that because public health funding is diminishing in Brazil and the public system is deteriorating, there are very long wait times to receive free procedures. One surgeon referred to access as being “within the ‘limitations of the queues’.”16 The image in Appendix 3 provides perspective into the long lines of women waiting for examinations and procedures at Santa Casa de Misercórdia.17 Brazilian woman of any socioeconomic background can receive cosmetic surgery without taking on a financial burden, but must endure a long waiting game or engage in clientelism with the government or surgeons that practice at the ward. There is a distinction to be made between the public nature of cosmetic procedures and the expectations for residents and their relationships with their patients. Since the opening of the plastic surgery ward at Santa Casa de Misercórdia Hospital, Pitanguy’s institute for resident plastic surgeons has produced over five hundred practitioners, many of which instruct new generations of surgeons.18 Prospective surgeons come from over forty countries notably in Latin America and Europe travel to participate in Brazil’s residency program. The hospitals, instructing surgeons, and resident surgeons are closely regulated by the federal government, the Brazilian Society of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery and ANVISA (The National Health Surveillance Agency).19 Residents are granted the chance to gain extensive and innovative hands-on experience at the hospital schools. One European resident spoke of performing nearly one hundred procedures in his third year in the program at Santa de Misercórdia Public Hospital. The intense surgical output of the ward forced him into a “disposition to try new treatments” or use of novel techniques due to the lack of equipment. His experience expresses the innovative and hands-on experience that resident gain in the Santa de Misercórdia program.20 However, public hospitals pay very low wages, so once they are practicing surgeons, former residents tend to open private practices in areas such as cities with higher class populations.21 It is fortunate that there is a constant flow of residents practicing their surgical skills in

11 Ibid, 42. 12 Ibid, 4. 13 Ibid. 14 Jarrin. “In Brazil.” 15 Alexander Edmonds, “The Poor Have the Right to Be Beautiful: Cosmetic Surgery in Neoliberal Brazil,” The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 13, no. 2 (2007), 364. 16 Alexander Edmonds, “Almost Invisible Scars: Medical Tourism to Brazil,” Signs 32, no. 2 (2011): 299. 17 Edmonds, “The Poor,” 364. 18 Edmonds, Pretty Modern, 15. 19 Mendes, “Plastic Surgery,” 290. 20 Edmonds, “Almost Invisible,” 299-300. 21 Edmonds, Pretty Modern, 15.

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public hospital wards, but the great influx will lead to an excess of private cosmetic surgery firms throughout Brazil that may take over the plástica market if the Brazilian public health system continues to decline. This would threaten accessibility of surgeries for lowerclass women. While it is significant for practitioners to exude medical expertise, it is equally as vital for them to maintain strong relational skills with their patients. De Andrade emphasizes that women seeking cosmetic surgery seek to establish a companionship with their plastic surgeon. The scope of this relationship involves doctors being constantly available for their patients and taking on a therapist role in providing psychological assurance and comfort before and after the procedure.22 This may be a result of the nature of close relationships in Brazilian culture or may connect back to a woman’s pursuit of plastic surgery for boosting her self-esteem, with the surgeon being “a psychologist with a scalpel in his hand,” according to Dr. Pitanguy.23 It appears that a patient’s pursuit of psychological assurance from a surgeon would be naturally connected to a Brazilian women’s insecurity in her racial identity or age, influencing her decision to undergo surgery to exude whiteness or youth in a society that idealizes the siliconada. In the effort to achieve a white appearance that is favored in Brazilian society, Afro-Brazilian women seek cosmetic procedures to alter facial and body features associated with their mixed-race genes. Jarrin describes a long history of the efforts of eugenic scientists since the 1920s to repair errors that they viewed in AfroBrazilians, particularly lower-class individuals, as a result of too much racial mixing. In other words, they desired to whiten Brazilian society and perceived that mixed-race women did not exhibit faces and bodies that matched with preferred ideals of modern beauty in the Brazilian woman.24 As established in the discussion about Carnival, mixed race women’s bodies were valued for their prominent buttocks, hips and thighs, while the modern Brazilian woman would be more like a siliconada, a white woman with voluptuous breasts.25 Edmonds further emphasizes that modern surgeries in Brazil seek to maintain the rich heritage of Brazilians while presenting ideas for “racial improvement.”26 These distinctions establish that Afro-Brazilian women find it necessary to endure cosmetic surgery to alter 22 De Andrade, “On Norms,” 81. 23 Edmonds, Pretty Modern, 14. 24 Jarrin. “In Brazil.” 25 Edmonds, Pretty Modern, 42. 26 Ibid, 135. 27 Ibid, 141. 28 Edmonds, “The Poor,” 369. 29 Edmonds, Pretty Modern, 145. 30 De Andrade, “On Norms,” 79. 31 Ibid, 80.

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their genetic features to be socially accepted in a preferential white society. Procedures that mixed-race Brazilians seek are directly linked to genetic differences such as an African woman’s predilection to gain weight more easily and exhibit the Negroid nose, which is flatter than the idealized feature of a sharp nose typical of individuals of European descent.27 This means that Afro-Brazilian women seek breast reduction, liposuction, and rhinoplasty to refine their appearance to match the white Brazilian woman. One woman interviewed by Edmonds, Nanci, is a mixed-race woman that sought a rhinoplasty after being let go from her job as a cook due to her flat “Negroid” nose that she desired to make sharper. The doctors that conducted her procedure struggled to define indications for her new nose, markings to guide the shape of the cuts necessary for the surgical modifications, but were eventually able to meet her wishes.28 Appendix 4 features an advertisement for the plastic surgery procedure known as the correction of the Negroid nose and the transformation to mixed-race women’s faces.29 Nanci’s struggles to maintain employment and high self-esteem as a result of her nose exhibits a common grievance of AfroBrazilian women that seek cosmetic modifications to succeed socially in modern Brazilian society. Post-pregnancy middle aged women in Brazil also seek plastic surgery to restore their once youthful, sexually desirable bodies before they had their children. As a result of the physical stresses of childbirth, De Andrade cites the prevalence of female genital cosmetic surgery, particularly the vaginoplasty that aims to tighten the vagina after a woman has given birth. Plastic surgeons saw this as a rational surgery,30 as women can maintain sexual pleasure and a desired aesthetic. A female psychologist delineated the connection between female genital mutilation and the physical strains of childbirth to explain the necessity for women to modify their genital areas, as “both represent a tremendous aggression against one’s own body.”31 The tremendous toll that child-rearing takes on women’s bodies justifies Brazilian middleage women’s priorities to rejuvenate their genitals to vigorous functionality and attractive appearance. To expand on the experiences of aging women, Cecelía, a fifty-three-year-old woman interviewed by Edmonds, shares her insights on her cosmetic surgeries after her

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Caesarean sections for her three children. She explains, “I did it on my belly, which had a very flaccid part due to the cesáreas…it bothered me a lot because when I put on a bikini, there was a little piece of skin hanging above the bikini…so I decided to fix it.”32 Cecelia’s motives in having skin removed on her abdomen was so that she could restore her body confidence to before she had her children, when she could be bold enough to show off a bikini body on the beach. The encounters of Cecelia and other women as mothers encapsulates their rationales to revitalize their bodies to become as attractive and confident as in their younger years. Since the 1960s, plastic surgery in Brazil has remained popular and essential for women of all backgrounds as a result of beauty standards that women seek to uphold in maintaining high self-esteem and gaining advantage socially in modern society, complemented by ideals that cosmetic procedures should be economically feasible for Brazilian women of all races, classes and ages. While the origins of plastic surgery initiated by Dr. Ivo Pitanguy sought to provide publicly funded plastic surgery for those with physical deformations, the common Brazilian female today seeks plástica to achieve the perfect Brazilian body and high self-esteem. Brazilian women are directly influenced by the media and tradition that convey beauty standards to become the most perfect, modern and toned woman modeled after celebrities and beauty queens that embody the siliconada. The attainment of beauty via cosmetic procedures is viable for women of all classes due to surgeries at little to no cost at public hospitals such as Santa Casa de Misercórdia in Rio de Janeiro, that also serve as hospital schools to mold resident surgeons into innovative practitioners. AfroBrazilian and middle-aged women seek to undergo plástica to exhibit or restore physical qualities associated with the modern, youthful woman. As a result of the wide scope of women that are patrons of the Brazilian public health system via cosmetic surgery and the influx of resident surgeons in plastic surgery wards, there is assurance that Brazil will maintain its status as the plastic surgery capital of the world into the future.

Works Cited Primary Sources De Andrade, Daniela Dorneles. “On Norms and Bodies: Findings from Field Research on Cosmetic Surgery from Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.” Reproductive Health Matters 18, no. 35 (2010): 74-83. Interview from Edmonds, Alexander. Pretty Modern: Beauty, Sex and Plastic Surgery in Brazil. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2010, 8. ------. “Advertisement for A Plastic Surgery Procedure Called Correction of the Negroid Nose.” In Pretty Modern: Beauty, Sex and Plastic Surgery in Brazil. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2010, 145. ------. “Juliana Borges, Miss Siliconada.” In Pretty Modern: Beauty, Sex and Plastic Surgery in Brazil. Durham: Duke University Press, 2010, Plate 5. ------. “Plástica and Belleza: The Magazine that Will Change You.” In Pretty Modern: Beauty, Sex and Plastic Surgery in Brazil. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2010, 90. ------. “Patients Waiting to Be Attended at the Plastic Surgery Ward of Santa Casa Hospital, Rio de Janeiro.” In “The Poor Have a Right to Be Beautiful: Cosmetic Surgery in Neoliberal Brazil.” The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 13, no. 2 (2007): 364. Heidekreuger, Paul I., S. Juran, D. Ehrl, T. Aung, N. Tanna, and P. Niclas Broer. “Global Aesthetic Surgery Statistics: A Closer Look.” Journal of Plastic Surgery and Hand Surgery 51, no. 4 (2017): 270-274.

Secondary Sources Bhattacharya, Surajit. “Dr. Ivo Pitanguy: Strived For a ‘Human Right to Beauty’.” Indian Journal of Plastic Surgery 49, no. 3 (September 2016): 300-301. Edmonds, Alexander. “Almost Invisible Scars: Medical Tourism to Brazil.” Signs 32, no. 2 (2011): 297-302. ------. “The Poor Have a Right to Be Beautiful: Cosmetic Surgery in Neoliberal Brazil.” The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 13, no. 2 (2007): 363-381. ------. Pretty Modern: Beauty, Sex and Plastic Surgery in Brazil. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2010. Jarrin, Alvaro. “In Brazil, Patients Risk Everything For ‘The Right to Beauty’.” The Conversation, May 2, 2018. https://theconversation.com/in-brazil-patients-riskeverything-for-the-right-to-beauty-94159 Mendes, Aysha. “Plastic Surgery Capital of the World: The Brazilian Woman’s Quest for ‘O Violão’.” Journal of Aesthetic Nursing 4, no. 6 (2015): 290-291. “Silicone Nation: How One Man Made Brazil the World Capital of Plastic Surgery.” The Times. May 31, 2014.

32 Edmonds, Pretty Modern, 181.

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Appendix 1: Covers of Plรกstica & Belleza featuring Brazilian celebrities

Appendix 2: Juliana Borges, 2001 Miss Siliconada

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Appendix 3: Women waiting for examinations and procedures outside the plastic surgery ward at Santa Casa de Misercรณrdia Hospital in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

Appendix 4: Advertisement for Correction of the Negroid Nose

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Student Reflection: Upon learning that Brazil is the plastic surgery capital of the world, I became curious in understanding why cosmetic surgery has become such an integral part of a Brazilian woman’s pursuit of the right to beauty and high self-esteem. My research led me to discover the origins of cosmetic surgery in Brazil as essential for women to boost their self-esteem and physicality. Women of all class, race and age backgrounds can readily seek cosmetic surgery through public hospital plastic surgery wards that provide affordable surgeries and regulated hands-on experience to resident surgeons in training to bridge the gap between affordability and the achievement of the most ideal female figure. Public influences glamorize cosmetic procedures, as Miss Siliconada conveys the embodiment of the most perfect, voluptuous Brazilian woman and the periodical Plástica y Belleza provides celebrity endorsements and comprehensive education for each Brazilian woman to feel secure in undergoing cosmetic modification. My overall takeaway is that by the virtues of her culture, a Brazilian woman’s intentions in going under the scalpel to feel desirable does not differ from women’s efforts to feel beautiful worldwide, as females deserve to be confident and comfortable in their own skin.

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A Universal Lesson Plan Angela Piper EEC 423: Effective Instructional Strategies for Students with Exceptionalities Dr. Thomas Gibbon Assignment To create a lesson plan that was individually adapted for three specific students’ needs based on their IEP’s. The assignment needed to include the lesson plan, the materials needed for the lesson plan, and reflections as to why this lesson plan would suit the students’ needs.

Name:

Date: Nov. 22, 2019

Unit: Writing an Essay Grade: 10th Length of Class: 90mins Topic: Picking a Topic and Creating a Thesis

LEQ: What career do you want to go into? How do you research a career? How can I argue that this is the best career for me in a five-paragraph essay?

Goals:

Rationale for Teaching:

• To get students thinking about their future • To encourage students to follow their passions • To help students practice writing an argumentative, five paragraph essay • To strengthen students’ writing skills overall • To increase student interest in their writing • To increase student interactions with each other • To foster group discussions Objectives: • Students will come into class and work in their table groups to discuss the Bell Ringer of the day. • Students will break off into new table groups to complete the task on the laptops and write down some beginning research information on their Getting Started worksheet • Students will come back to their original table groups for a lesson on building a thesis statement • Students will engage in open discussion during the Well...What is a Thesis? PowerPoint • Students will move around in the space while thinking about the topics • Students will interact with each other during discussion to foster a stronger classroom community

• By giving students the opportunity to research a future career, they are thinking about their future as well as practicing important writing skills. • By getting students to talk about their future with their classmates, a better classroom environment and community is being created. • Students are learning skills that can be transferred into other classes and have real world implications. • Students are practicing essay writing skills needed for standardized tests. Standards: • Standard - CC.1.2.9-10.L: Read and comprehend literary non-fiction and informational text on grade level, reading independently and proficiently. • Standard - CC.1.3.9-10.B: Cite strong and thorough textual evidence to support analysis of what the text says explicitly as well as inferences and conclusions based on an author’s explicit assumptions and beliefs about a subject. • Standard - CC.1.4.9-10.A: Write informative/ explanatory texts to examine and convey complex ideas, concepts, and information clearly and accurately. • Standard - CC.1.4.9-10.C: Develop and analyze the topic with relevant, well-chosen, and sufficient facts, extended definitions, concrete details, quotations, or other information and examples appropriate to the audience’s knowledge of the topic; include graphics and multimedia when useful to aiding comprehension. • Standard - CC.1.4.9-10.G: Write arguments to support claims in an analysis of substantive topics. 119

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Materials and Preparation: Schedule (See Appendix A) Bell Ringer (See Appendix B) Getting Started Worksheet (See Appendix C) Pick Your Career Table Activity (See Appendix D) Free Career Test Website: https://www.yourfreecareertest.com/ Well...What is a Thesis? (See Appendix E) Motivation Activity: Bell Ringer

Times:

Table Group Discussion: Within your table groups, answer the following questions that are on the board; 1. What are some of your hobbies? (Write 2 or 3 hobbies on a sticky note) 2. Are any of those something you could see yourself doing for the rest of your life? (Openly discuss within your groups) Procedures: • Good morning everyone! As you guys sit at your tables, please get a sticky note from 10mins your group’s supply baskets and write down your two or three of your hobbies, which is question number one on the Bell Ringer for today, and then discuss number two with your tablemates. Don’t forget, today’s schedule is also written on the chalkboard if you want to know what we’re doing today. • Alright, now that you’ve all had some time to discuss amongst yourselves, can I get 10-15mins some volunteers to share some of their answers? Thanks everyone who shared! • This discussion leads in great with what we’re going to be working on today. So, you guys know that we will be starting our argumentative essays this week on why you think a certain career is best suited for you. But in order to do that, we have to actually pick a career to research. • That’s why today we’re going to move into some new table groups and meet some new people while we each take a personality test to see which careers each of you fit into best. There are instructions on your tables that explain the link to the website I want you to go to, called YouFreeCareerTest.com, and while you take this quiz, I’ve made an organizer, called Getting Started on Your Career Research Paper, for you guys to jot your notes/thoughts down on the front page because you’ll be needing that info later on. This doesn’t need to be in complete sentences, but you still need to know a general idea of what you meant by what you write. Also, don’t worry about the back side yet. We’ll look at that later in class today. • Now some of you might have an idea of what career you want to go into based on the hobbies you discussed already and that’s great! But this quiz will give you specific fields of interest that it deems you best fit into and you can then choose careers based on those fields of interests. (I have the website on the board to model as I explain this.) Are there any questions? • Now we are going to count off by fours so we can move to new tables. Once we’ve gone through everyone you can move to your numbered table. Ready? One, two… • Now that everyone has a number, you can move to your new table groups and get 15-20mins started. I’ll be walking around to help answer any questions or problems you might be having. Feel free to talk quietly in your groups as you take the quiz too. • Okay, so it seems like everyone is wrapping up from all the talking I’m hearing so let’s move back to your original seats for another discussion.

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• So, what did you guys think of your results? Were they pretty much what you expected? Did anyone get something totally unexpected? Does everyone have a sense of what career they want to continue to research? Is anyone still totally lost and have no idea what they want to research? • Great, now that everyone’s got some ideas to further research over the next few days, let’s get started on the next part of our research paper, creating a thesis statement. • But what the heck is a thesis statement? Can anybody give me a guess? It’s kind of hard to explain. Those are some really great ideas though. • So, a thesis statement is a sentence typically at the end of your first paragraph that explains exactly what argument you’re trying to make in this paper. Typically, you’ll want to have about three points to support your stance and include them in your thesis. I’ve attached a link to this PowerPoint to Purdue Online Writing Lab (OWL) for us to use later when working with source citations but it also has some helpful tips about writing thesis statements and gives other examples of them. This PowerPoint is attached to our google classroom page for you guys to refer back to at any point. • Let’s work through an example as a class though. So, what if we wanted to make the argument that Spongebob Squarepants is a better TV show than Phineas and Ferb, how could we do that? • Okay, so we’re going to do some more moving around. If you are pro Spongebob, I’d like (when I say to do so) you guys to move to the left side of the room, but not yet! And if you are pro Phineas and Ferb, to move to the right side of the room. Okay, now go! • Alright, so I can clearly see that most of the room is pro Spongebob, which is good because that’s the side I am also on and the example I created. So, what can we say about Spongebob that makes it the better TV show? Can anyone from the Spongebob side give me an example of why they chose that side of the room? • You’re right, he is funny and he’s a great cook. I mean, who doesn’t secretly desire to eat a Krabby Patty some day? As you guys move back to your seats, I’ll reveal the list that I made, which I’m pretty sure we’ve said most of the things up here. • But when creating a thesis statement, we want to kind of spice up our word choices so we’re really clear but also get our reader’s attention. That’s why we also want to pick the strongest claims to be our main arguments of our thesis. • So, out of our list, which of these claims do we think we could find the most textual, or in this case, video evidence when we go to write our pretend paper on Spongebob vs Phineas and Ferb? We want to pick about three or four because each one of the claims we pick will eventually be its own paragraph in our paper. • Are we thinking that he’s funny, he’s a cook, and his show has been on longer is our best claims? Why? That’s great that you guys are thinking about that. • Now that we have our main claims, how could we make them sound a little more interesting? Take five minutes and write down on a piece of scratch paper, (there’s some extra in your table supply bins if you need it) some of the different word choices you would change for “cook”, “funny”, and “he has been on TV longer.” • Would anyone like to share what they wrote? That was really great! Thank you for volunteering. • I want you guys to start thinking about how our word choices matters not only in your thesis statements, but throughout your paper. Some great sources you can use if you can’t think of a better word choices on your own is a Thesaurus.com or if you want to get fancy, RhymeZone.com. You can even ask your peers or friends for suggestions. I ask people all the time, “what’s a better word for good or a more interesting name than John” when I’m writing short stories or something. Your friends can definitely be a great resource.

10mins

35-40mins (total for thesis part of lesson) 5mins

5mins

5-10mins

5mins

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• Here is the thesis statement I created which has some of the word choices you guys suggested as well; “The television show, Spongebob Squarepants, is a better show than Phineas and Ferb, because Spongebob is a comedy genius, he is a professional cook, and he has developed a strong fan base over many years.” • Don’t get discouraged if you don’t have exactly what I’ve written down. That’s the best part about writing, you have the freedom to choose your own words and I encourage you to be different from what I chose. Also, you don’t have to come up with an elaborate word choice for every sentence. It just helps the appeal of your argument if it stands out more or if you mix up your word choices throughout your paper. Is this making sense to everyone? • Okay, for the last 5-10mins of class, I want you guys to look at the back side of your 5-10mins “Getting Started” worksheet from earlier. On the back, you’ll notice there is a line for each part of your thesis statement; your chosen career, each of the three claims you think best support why the career you choose is best suited for you, and then a spot for one clear thesis statement. • Take this time to start filling this part out so tomorrow when you come in, we can individually conference about your thesis statements for our warm up so you can move onto the next step in this paper, actually researching the career you chose! That means if you don’t finish this in class, it will be assigned for homework. • Go ahead and get started and if you have any individual questions, you can ask me now. • There’s the bell everyone, have a great rest of your day! I’ll see you tomorrow! Closure Activity: Working on the back side of their “Getting Started” worksheet to start building a thesis statement. Evaluation of Students: I will know students have grasped the concept from the conferences we have the next day about their thesis statements. I will also look for their participation in their small groups/partner work.

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Differentiation for Individual Students: Andrew

Caroline

Andrew is a 15-year-old 10th grader and is a student with ADHD but takes medication to help him focus. He always had a 504 plan at first but was reevaluated for an IEP because his 504 Plan was not successful. Andrew is very good at memorizing historical dates and facts, he’s a great reader, very communicative, has great social skills, is willing to ask for help, and he’s comfortable speaking publicly. He does really well in classes that require active learning, like gym and ROTC. However, he does struggle with organizational skills, staying on task, note taking skills, study skills, and getting motivated to complete tasks on his own. The classes he seems the most distracted in include ones with note taking, lectures, listening, and independent work, like English, Algebra, Biology, Spanish, and Honors World History, but he does seem to want to do better academically. He just gets easily distracted. Andrew seems like a really bright kid who knows what he likes but has trouble staying focused on topics he doesn’t like or finds challenging. All of his teachers enjoy having him as a student but struggle to try and keep him engaged during classes that require students to sit still. I think he enjoys ROTC and gym class so much because of the strict rules and requirements as well as getting him physically moving. He also has a really factual brain, from what I can tell, so he needs his other teachers to make an effort to have more movement and strict step by step instructions to their lesson plans in order to keep him focused. In my lesson plan, I’ve tried to teach students the skills of writing an argumentative essay in a way that it is broken into chunks, the prompt is based off of their own interests, and I’ve tried to get my students up and moving to keep them on task. From the start of class, Andrew will have a strict, step by step plan posted in the front of the room to keep him on task for every part of the class. I have also added some movement into the class several times because it’s a 90min long period and I want students to interact with each other as they complete the short career quiz and listen to the lecture. Additionally, by getting Andrew thinking about a future career, he will hopefully be motivated to do the research because he will see a real-world application to the prompt. I’m also trying to play off of Andrew’s strong vocabulary strengths by asking students to think about more creative terminology for their thesis statements to capture their reader’s attention. I believe by having that strict schedule to refer Andrew, as well as the rest of the class, he will be able to work independently during the table activity with some supervision as I walk around the classroom.

Caroline is a 15-year-old 10th grader and has a learning disability in math and written languages. She also struggles with behavior when in situations where she is not confident in her abilities. Caroline is very interested in cosmetology, fashion, art, and design. She is very social and had been working in a local beauty shop which she really enjoys. Caroline is proud of the fact that she is reading a grade level, she had fine motor skills including in drawing, she is skilled at soccer, and that she is performing well at work. However, she is frequently embarrassed by her behavior and her friends not wanting to spend time with her anymore. She does very well in art classes but is vocal about not wanting to complete her work in other classes, especially in English classes. She is seeing her school counselor and a community mental health provider about her behavior problems that are possibly stemming from her parents’ recent separation. Caroline really struggles with organizational skills, misplacing items, and completing tasks on time. She needs help expanding her word processing, coping skills when anxious/frustrated, and developing an understanding of her disability. Caroline seems like a student who is going through a lot at home and really needs some extra guiding to stay on task. She also needs a classroom that allows for her to create better bonds with her classmates so she does not become isolated and possibly worsen her behavior problems. In my lesson, I am trying to engage my students, like Caroline, with this research paper by having her research her future career, which Caroline is very interested in. I’m also trying to foster better classmate relationships by asking them to mix up their table groups and encouraging them to talk quietly about their results. By allowing them to chat during designated times, I’m also getting rid of the urge to talk while I’m teaching especially because the class is 90mins. I’ve also given Caroline a graphic organizer and provided materials at each table so she is prepared for class, can clearly organize her thoughts, and hopefully eliminate her frustrations with long writing assignments. I’m also trying to not put a ton of focus on the larger writing assignment that is coming by only focusing on the thesis statement part of the assignment today which will foster more confidence in Caroline’s ability to write this paper. (If I were to continue working with her, I would continue providing an organizer for each step of the paper, so she felt prepared when sitting down to put all the pieces together in one paper.) I believe Caroline would be able to work independently because she could talk with her peers and ask me questions

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individually without feeling embarrassed if she had them. Also, the clear schedule with short writing task would also motivate her to work on her own. Xxxxx Xxxxx is a 17year old student in 11th grade (but I’m pretending he’s in 10th grade for this lesson plan) with autism who also has speech and language problems. He uses assistive technology devices and receives services from a pathologist. He is also enrolled in Transition Skills program for his future career. Xxxxx is very social, has flexible thinking skills, and problemsolving skills. He excels in physics, he’s always respectful/friendly in classrooms, his self-advocacy skills are improving, and he’s very attentive. Xxxxx requires alarms, schedules, planners, and pre-written notes in order to keep him on track but does well when these accommodations are provided for him. Xxxxx seems to have developed age appropriate social skills and will do well in college with some accommodations. He seems very interested in Civil Engineering, Law/Public Safety, and Business Administration. He does struggle in classrooms that do not interest him as much or require more open-ended responses, like English and German. Therefore, will

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probably require a lot of visual and verbal reminders to stay on task and assignments that have clear directions that interest him. Xxxxx also seems to do better with open discussions or in situations that he can us his social skills, so classrooms that allow for talking may be beneficial. In my lesson, I hope that allow for Xxxxx to research his future career and allowing him the time to talk about his results both in large groups and smaller groups will capture his attention enough to keep him focused. However, by walking around while students work, providing direct instructions/organizers, and having that visual schedule will also keep Xxxxx to stay on task. Also, by chunking the amount of writing he does into small graphic organizers will hopefully also benefit him and take the pressure off of having this larger writing assignment. This assignment will also appeal to his more logical side because it will have real world connections not only because he’s researching his future career, but also because this is good practice for skills he’ll need if he wants to go to college, like writing an essay. I believe Xxxx will be able to work independently for the most part because of having his peers and directions to keep him on track, but my close monitoring may also hopefully help that as well.

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Appendices Appendix A

Appendix A

Todayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Game Plan: 1. Bell Ringer 2. New Table Activity a. Pick your Career worksheet/website activity 3. Class discussion a. Thoughts about the career activity? 4. What is a Thesis? Powerpoint a. Spongebob vs Phineas & Ferb 5. Homework a. Practicing your thesis Appendix B

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Appendix C Appendix C

Getting Started on Your Career Research Paper

Building Your Thesis

Directions: Read the instructions on your table activity sheet of the day and complete the tasks it asks you to do. Use this sheet to fill in your answers as you go.

Directions: List your chosen career you wish to research. Then, fill in your three main points you feel are the strongest to show why this career fits you the best. Lastly, put all of those reasons into one coherent thesis statement.

What was your top field of interest? (If you List your thoughts about your results. have a tie, list both.)

Career you chose: _____________________________________

Reason 1: ______________________________________________________________________________

Reason 2: ______________________________________________________________________________

Reason 3: What were some career options you had? Circle your top choice

Why did you choose this option over others? (List 3-4 reasons)

______________________________________________________________________________

Thesis Statement: ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________

Appendix D Appendix D

Table Activity:

Pick Your Career! Step 1: Take the five-minute career quiz on the laptops (https://www.yourfreecareertest.com) and write down your top field of interest on your Getting Started Worksheet. (There are extras in the assignment bin by the windows if you don’t have one.) Step 2: Click on the “careers” tab at the top of the page and choose your top field of interest. Pick and write down a career that is listed under your top field of interest category that you like the most. Step 3: Why did you pick this career over the other options? What is appealing about the career you chose? Write down at least three things about the career you chose that you think you’ll enjoy the most.

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Appendix E

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Appendix E (continued)

Work Cited â&#x20AC;&#x153;Free Career Tests for Students and Adults.â&#x20AC;? YourFreeCareerTest, https://www.yourfreecareertest.com. Accessed 15 Nov. 2019.

Student Reflection: This assignment took me weeks to prepare and plan for. I created all original activities and materials as though I would have used them in a real classroom. I also reflected on how I thought the activities I created would benefit the students with IEPs needs as well as make it enjoyable/universal for all of my students. I hope that some day I can actually use this lesson plan and I hope you accept it into your journal.

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Automotive Manufacturers: Electric vs. Hybrid vs. Gasoline Automobiles Maxwell Sommers ECO 333: Research and Analysis in Economics Dr. Freddy Siahaan Assignment Comparative analysis research paper utilizing data analysis to draw conclusions about the relative usefulness of electric vehicles compared to hybrid and gasoline automobiles. Utilized three test vehicles including the Tesla Model 3, Toyota Prius, and Subaru Impreza.

Abstract The focus of this research is to analyze the economic value of electric cars. This question is examined through the use of comparative analysis between electric, hybrid, and gasoline cars. Tesla Model 3 represents electric cars, Toyota Prius represents hybrid cars, and Subaru Impreza represents gasoline cars. The data used includes charging time, miles per gallon city, miles per gallon highway, miles per gallon combined, annual fuel cost, annual fuel consumption, and electricity consumption. The results from the study have shown that Tesla Model 3â&#x20AC;&#x2122;s are an economically reasonable option for those in metropolitan areas, however, for those in more rural communities will find it inefficient to own and operate a Tesla Model 3. For those in rural communities more viable options would include the Toyota Prius or Subaru Impreza due to the availability of gasoline stations compared to charging stations. Introduction The focus of this research is to examine the introduction of electric vehicles and the impact they have made on society today and whether they are economically cheaper than traditional gasoline vehicles and hybrid vehicles. The recent introduction of electric vehicles has taken the United States automotive market by storm with Tesla leading the charge and being followed by several other large automotive manufactures like Toyota, Nissan, General Motors, and Volkswagen. While still early in their production electric vehicles have become very popular in large metropolitan areas. The importance of this research is to gauge the true economic efficiency of electric vehicles compared to the efficiency of hybrid vehicles and gasoline vehicles. For the purpose of testing efficiency of each vehicle, one route was chosen for each vehicle to travel. The route begins in New York, New York and travels across the northern part of the country until it

reaches the destination of Seattle, Washington. This route will travel through twelve different states all of which contain Tesla Superchargers and have differing average gas prices. The route has both adjusted and unadjusted mileage and time. The adjusted, considers the additional time and mileage needed for the tesla to not only reach its charging station but the time it spends charging. The expected outcome of the research is to have the ability to adequately determine the most efficient means of automotive transportation whether electric, hybrid, or gasoline. The paper will read as follows. The literature review will give the reader a general overview of costs associated with the production of electric vehicles compared to gasoline vehicles. The data and methodology will cover the graphical comparison of charging time, miles per gallon city, miles per gallon highway, miles per gallon combined, annual fuel cost, annual fuel consumption, and electricity consumption. The results and analysis section discusses the test route which was utilized to gauge economic efficiency for the duration of the road trip across the country. Finally ending with the conclusion and final thoughts on the topic of economic efficiency of electric, hybrid, and gasoline vehicles. Literature Review The topic of electric vehicles compared to gasoline and hybrid vehicles has become increasingly talked about within the scholarly community. With more information and technology becoming readily available as electric vehicles have progressed. One major aspect when comparing electric vehicles to hybrid and gasoline vehicles comes from production costs. Production costs vary â&#x2030; greatly between electric, hybrid, and gasoline vehicles. The main cost differentiations come from the components that are necessary when producing each category of vehicle. Lloyd Dixon explains that the additional production cost of electric 129

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vehicles is derived from the need for battery modules, battery auxiliaries (i.e. tray, straps, wiring harness, cooling system), electric motor, electric vehicle transmission, integrated charger (hybrid vehicle specific), electric power steering and brakes (Dixon, L., Porche, I. R., & Kulick, J. 2002). The addition of these necessary components adds a minimum of $1200 to the production cost. With the addition of electric specific components however, a cost savings comes from the unnecessary use of other components consisting of internal combustion engine, emission control system, fuel tank/lines, and a conventional transmission. The battery module itself is relatively cheap in comparison to the auxiliary components needed. Battery modules range in price from $225 to $350 depending on battery make up (i.e. lead/acid-based batteries or nickel cadmium-based batteries) (Lutsey, N., & Nicholas, M. 2019, June). The auxiliary components which include the electric wiring harness and thermal management systems cost a minimum of $1200. Dixon argues that as newer technology is released and advancements in the field are made the overall cost of electric vehicle components is likely to decrease substantially. This decrease could be the result of a higher, more efficient production rate. Repair and maintenance of electric vehicles is also another key aspect of the cost of ownership. With the release and production of electric vehicles still being relatively new it is possible they may require to be repaired more frequently or at a minimum serviced more. This has the potential to create a cost deficiency due to the high cost of maintenance and in some cases replacements of battery packs and modules. The repair and maintenance are quite time consuming and must be done by specifically certified technicians. When it comes to charging electric vehicles most companies provide an off-board charger when an electric vehicle is purchased. The issue with the off-board chargers is the installation cost associated with them. Many timeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s significant adaptations must be made to the structure in which it is being placed. Several of the chargers require the need for 220volt lines while the average house runs on 110volt lines (Dixon, L., Porche, I. R., & Kulick, J. 2002). Companies, however, produce chargers that run off of 110volt lines with the only issue being the amount of time it takes to charge expanding to an average of 8 hours to fully charge a vehicle. This is almost double the amount of time it would take to charge the vehicle while utilizing 220volt lines. Given the high cost of producing and maintaining electric vehicle battery packs and modules the lifecycle cost of electric vehicles remains substantially higher than gasoline vehicles which do not require expensive maintenance and production. According to AAA, the average yearly cost of ownership of a small sedan 130

Figure 1: Highway Miles per Gallon Comparison

Figure 2 : City Miles per Gallon Comparison

Figure 3 : Combined Miles per Gallon Comparison

like the Subaru Impreza is $8,185 which is the lowest in comparison to a hybrid (Toyota Prius-$8,694) as well as an electric vehicle (Tesla Model 3- $9,170) (AAA, Your Driving Costs). This disparity between average cost of ownership could simply be due to the amount of technology and research that has been made for gasoline vehicles. Scholars expect that with the emergence of new technological advancements that the average cost of ownership for both hybrid vehicles and electric vehicles should decrease. Data and Methodology The data utilized in this study was retrieved from the United States Environmental Protection Agency website. This data consisted of all vehicles produced within the United States beginning in the year 1984 and ending in the year 2019. This was a large list that consisted of 83 variables and around 43,000 individual

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Figure 4: Annual Fuel Cost Compaison

data points. Given the time frame this study took place in the list of data was limited to three focus vehicles including the Subaru Impreza, Tesla Model 3, and the Toyota Prius. Several of the variables were considered and the final variables chosen were charging time, miles per gallon city, miles per gallon highway, miles per gallon combined, annual fuel cost, annual fuel consumption, and electricity consumption. This allowed to gain a good comparison between the three differing vehicle types and the level of consumption for each vehicle. The following graphs will depict each of the vehicles and the differences between the three. Beginning with the miles per gallon, we can notice that the Tesla averages consistently higher average miles per charge compared to Subaru and Toyota’s average miles per gallon. Figures 1, 2, and 3 depicts this difference for both city and highway miles per gallon as well as combined miles per gallon. The combined miles per gallon for Tesla averages out to 123.636 miles per gallon, this is substantially more than both the Subaru Impreza’s 23.625mpg and the Toyota Prius’ 52mpg average. Yet, this drastic difference could be due to the ideology that Tesla operates on a per charge basis rather than by a gallon of gas that Subaru and Toyota do. Tesla proclaims that Tesla’s model three can average around 272.5 miles running from a fully charged battery to a completely dead battery. Moving to annual fuel cost consumption (Figure 4), Tesla should theoretically be the cheapest option considering they do not consume any fuel. Though, Tesla does not allow for completely free charging when away from the household. Therefore, it is surprisingly close in cost comparison with the Toyota Prius, while the Subaru Impreza is the least cost efficient in annual fuel costs. As shown by Figure 4, the Subaru Impreza is the highest of annual fuel cost averaging at $1,637. While Toyota comes in second at an average of $725 annual fuel cost. Unsurprisingly Tesla averaged an annual fuel cost of $527.27 making it the most cost friendly for consumers.

Figures 5 and 6 depict two different portions of data, however they contain similarities between the results. Figure 5 compares the total charging time for all vehicles within the study. Given that the Subaru Impreza does not contain an electric battery source and only requires that it be filled with gasoline, the charging time is zero minutes. The Toyota Prius, which operates with both gasoline and an electric battery source has an average charging time of 1.75 hours. Tesla Model 3 has the longest average charging time of 10 hours. Tesla operates strictly on an electric battery and does not utilize gasoline as a power source.

Figure 5: Charging Time Comparison

Figure 6: Electricity Consumption in kw/hrs/100 miles Comparison

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Results and Analysis To gain an accurate gauge of each vehicleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s efficiency, a hypothetical route was created for the vehicles to travel. Starting in New York City, New York and traveling across the continental United States to the destination of Seattle, Washington (see figure 7). The total mileage traveled that is unadjusted is 2,841 miles and will take an estimated 43 hours to travel. The adjusted mileage traveled, which accounts for Tesla specific charging stations, is 2,914 miles and will take an estimated 57 hours for completion. The reasoning behind the adjusted and unadjusted mileage and time is due to the Subaru Impreza and Toyota Prius not necessitating a specific charging station. Tesla Model 3â&#x20AC;&#x2122;s however must utilize a specific charger that creates the need to adjust the route. Driving a Tesla Model 3 will create a time deficiency and mileage deficiency, adding 14 hours to the total trip-time as well as 73 extra miles that the Subaru Impreza and Toyota Prius do not need to travel (see figure 8).

Not only will the Tesla Model 3 route take more time and add more miles, but it will create the need for more stops, around 23 total stops are necessary for the Tesla Model 3 to make the trip. Compare this to driving a Subaru Impreza, which only requires 11 stops to refuel, and the Toyota Prius which only necessitates 6 stops to refuel. The Tesla charging stations are extremely accessible in urban areas, however, in rural areas charging stations are fewer. Within the route, there are two sections with a larger average mileage that lie within the rural areas. From Falls Creek, PA to Strongsville, OH the mileage between is 176 miles. The second large mileage span is from Superior, MT to Ritzville, WA which spans 199 miles. Drivers may have the idea that driving a Tesla Model 3 opposed to a hybrid, Toyota Prius, or gasoline vehicle, Subaru Impreza, will create a cost savings due to the cost of gas prices. This is in fact true, however the savings from driving a Tesla Model 3 only saves the driver a total of $51.00 for the entirety of the trip.

Figure 7: Markers on the map denote Tesla charging stations

Figure 8

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Average gas prices also fluctuate from state to state creating inconsistencies with the total price to fill up the tank of a vehicle utilizing gasoline. Given the small amount saved and the additional length and time added to the total trip drivers need to consider what is most efficient for traveling. Is the minimal cost savings worth the 14 added hours and 73 extra miles? For most, the answer is no. The additional time and mileage make it more efficient to drive a Subaru Impreza or Toyota Prius. The best option of the three vehicles being the Toyota Prius due to its high gas mileage and hybrid capabilities.

vehicle. This plays into gasoline and hybrid vehicles favor in terms of longer road trips. Overall, Tesla Model 3 is a highly efficient vehicle for metropolitan areas but lacks in efficiency for rural areas. Whereas, Toyota Prius and Subaru Impreza are more viable options for those in rural communities. Automobiles have made huge leaps in technological advancements, and without a doubt in the future the expansion of electric vehicles to rural areas is inevitable when the issue of battery life and charging locations is solved.

Conclusion

AAA. (2019, September). State Gas Price Averages. Retrieved from AAA Gas Prices: https://gasprices.aaa.com/ state-gas-price-averages/ AAA. (2019, September). Your Driving Costs: How Much Are You Really Paying to Drive. AAA Association Communication. Retrieved from AAA.com. Dixon, L., Porche, I. R., & Kulick, J. (2002). Driving Emissions to Zero: Are the Benefits of Californiaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Zero Emission Vehicle Program Worth the Costs? Rand Corporation, 31-69. Economy.gov, F. (2019, November 8). Datasets for All Model Years (1984-2020). Us Department of Energy. Lutsey, N., & Nicholas, M. (2019, June). Update on Electric Vehicle Costs in the United States through 2030. The international Council on Clean Transportation, 1-12. Tesla, Inc. . (2019, October). Electric Cars, Solar Panels & Clean Energy: Tesla. Retrieved from www.tesla.com: https://www.tesla.com/

Throughout the duration of this study we have analyzed the economic efficiency of driving electric, hybrid, and gasoline vehicles. Through the use of comparative analysis we discovered that all three vehicle types have their strengths when it comes to certain criteria. When it comes to the Tesla Model 3, its strength lies in its electric motor and not needing gasoline. This makes the Tesla Model 3 great for metropolitan areas with short commuting distances, however in longer road trips strategic planning will be need to insure you do not find yourself stranded with a dead battery. As for the Toyota Prius and Subaru Impreza, the rural areas are where they show their efficiency. Having the ability to refuel at every gas station in short amounts of time allows the driver to save time and not worry about having to find a designated charging station for their

References

Student Reflection: The focus of this research is to analyze the economic value of electric cars. This question is examined through the use of comparative analysis between electric, hybrid, and gasoline cars. Tesla Model 3 represents electric cars, Toyota Prius represents hybrid cars, and Subaru Impreza represents gasoline cars. The data used includes charging time, miles per gallon city, miles per gallon highway, miles per gallon combined, annual fuel cost, annual fuel consumption, and electricity consumption. The results from the study have shown that Tesla Model 3â&#x20AC;&#x2122;s are an economically reasonable option for those in metropolitan areas, however, for those in more rural communities will find it inefficient to own and operate a Tesla Model 3. For those in rural communities more viable options would include the Toyota Prius or Subaru Impreza due to the availability of gasoline stations compared to charging stations.

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Criminal Justice Problem: Racial Oppression Kalyn Burger CRJ 309: Theories of Crime and Crime Control Dr. Laura Beckman Assignment For this assignment I was to pick a criminal justice problem and choose a theory we learned in class to address this issue. I had to explain the problem as well as the theory and all of the parts/propositions that are a part of the theory. I had to then analyze this problem on why it occurs based off of the theory I chose and also explain how this theory could be used in order to correct the problem.

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individual, that could result in the criminal adaptation of that strain (Agnew, 2001). Thirdly, if the strain is caused by or associated with low self-control, it increases the likelihood of resulting in criminal adaptation. Low self-control itself has been proven to lead to increased criminal adaptations (Gottfredson, Hirschi, 2005). Lastly, if the strain creates pressure or incentive to engage in criminal coping, then, obviously, it will increase the likelihood that the strain will result in criminal adaptation (Agnew, 2001). One last argument that Agnew makes is that crime is a form of maladaptive coping to strain (Agnew, 1992). Not everyone who experiences strain and negative emotions will commit a crime, but individuals with certain predispositions will be more likely to pursue maladaptive coping. Agnew’s general strain theory has consistent evidence that exposure to strain increases crime. There is also evidence that supports the claim that strain and negative emotions (primarily anger) combined lead to crime. Summary of Studies To consider prescription drug misuse that contributes directly to the opioid crisis, a study was conducted looking into trends in abuse of OxyContin and other opioid analgesics in the U.S. (Cicero, Inciardi, Munoz, 2005). This study surveyed zip codes to probe into trends where prescription opioid misuse was more prevalent or less prevalent. The findings of the study reported that there was considerable increase in prescription drug misuse in all surveyed zip codes, with OxyContin and hydrocodone being the most frequently abused (Cicero et.al., 2005). The study concluded that steps needed to be taken to curb the misuse of the prescriptions, but caution needed to be taken that the steps taken did not impede on the access to prescription opioids of users who use the drugs appropriately and do not abuse them. Recently (within the past 10 or so years) there has been increased interest in surveying non-medical prescription drug usage among college populations (Ford, Schroeder, 2009; Pedalono, Frailing, 2018). Over the course of roughly a decade from 1989-2002, the amount of non-medical prescription drug use increased substantially from 7% to 22% with little evidence of slowing and/or reversing (Ford, Schroeder, 2009). Ford and Schroeder in the same 2009 study revealed that academic strain to succeed was strongly linked to the increased non-medical usage of prescription drugs. Other reasons the prescriptions were being misused were experimentation, getting high, relaxation, sleep-aids, and pain control. Most prevalent was to enhance mental alertness and intellectual performance (Ford, Schroeder, 2009). These findings were mirrored in Pedalono and Frailing’s 2018 study of prescription drug misuse among honors students. One additional 135

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observation from Pedalono’s 2018 study was that students with low self-expectations were more likely to misuse prescription stimulants. One fact to consider with Pedalono’s study, however, was that the study was conducted around Mardi Gras, where alcohol and drug use is substantially elevated. So, it was noted that the data itself may have had inflated figures (Pedalono, Frailing, 2018). Another limitation of the studies is that, within the three types of strain defined by Agnew’s 1992 general strain theory, there are hundreds if not thousands of strains that can lead to elevated prescription drug misuse among college and honors students. With that, it would be very difficult to survey what all specific strains could be leading to the misuse, only the most prominent contributors would be asked about/noted. One of the most prominent strains among college students, particularly honors students, was academic strain to achieve the high expectations that themselves and family had set. Agnew’s 2001 addition to general strain theory also mentioned that negative school experiences, the inability to achieve selected goals, and peer abuse could be significant contributing factors to criminal adaptations, or prescription drug misuse in this case. The elevated misuse of prescription opioids, particularly among college students, can be partially explained by the classic definition of strain, being the extreme pressure to succeed (Merton, 1938). This extreme pressure can stem from trying to meet their parents’ and/or relatives’ high expectations of them, or high expectations from within themselves or from professors. College students typically fall under adaptation I, as discussed previously. However, if the pressure to succeed becomes too large in magnitude, and the individual feels they cannot meet the expectations through their own power, they may look to opiates or prescription opiates to help them relieve the strain. Explaining the elevated misuse of prescription opioids using Agnew’s general definition of strain gets a bit more challenging. Academic strains would likely fall under actual or anticipated failure to achieve positively valued goals. This strain could push students and honors students to misuse and/or abuse prescription opiates to relieve this strain or to give them a feeling that they could overcome this strain and enhance their academic performance. Building on that, most college students view their academic performance during their college career very seriously. Because of this, a strain that could jeopardize their performance, and in turn, their college career, could be described as high in magnitude. This would increase the likelihood of a criminal adaptation to the strain (Agnew, 2001). In this case, the strain would be primarily academic strain due to the pressure to perform well academically.

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opiates and/or considering doing so. This could also relieve the amount of strain felt by the student and make them feel supported so that they will not feel the need to turn to opiates to gain an academic advantage. Conclusion The purpose of this report was to apply strain theory to the opiate crisis with an emphasis on prescription opiate abuse/misuse. This is important because it is believed that the increased frequency of opioid prescriptions was what sparked the epidemic in the 1990’s (DHS, 2018). So, if the frequency of opioid prescriptions is drastically slowed, or if there are alternatives, stopped altogether, then the opioid crisis could be slowed to a point where more rational measures could be implemented which could possibly end it. It’s an optimistic view, but if the correct steps are implemented correctly, then even a small step could make a huge difference. References Agnew, R. (1992). Foundation for a general strain theory of crime and delinquency. Criminology, 30(1), 47-87. Agnew, R. (2001). Building on the foundation of general strain theory: Specifying the types of strain most likely to lead to crime and delinquency. Research in Crime and Delinquency, 38(4), 319-361. Cicero, T.J., Inciardi, J. A., Munoz, A. (2005). Trends in abuse of OxyContin and other opioid analgesics in the United States. Journal of Pain, 6, 662-672.

Student Reflection: This assignment helped me to take a deeper look into real world problems we face in the criminal justice system today, specifically racial oppression. It helped me to understand why this occurs by looking at it from a specific theoretical view known as Social Learning Theory. I was able to see the impact that racial oppression has on individuals, society, and how the criminal justice system is viewed as a whole. Not only was I able to understand why racial oppression/ disparities occur because of Social Learning Theory, but it also allowed me to come up with ways that we could help solve this issue using the same theory that it can be explained by, in order to correct it.

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Incarceration of Veterans with P.T.S.D. and the Social Bond Theory Nicholas Scaricaciottoli CRJ 309: Theories of Crime and Crime Control Dr. Laura Beckman Assignment This assignment will cover the Veteran offender's unique issues in the Criminal Justice system. The paper uses statistics from criminal justice and veteran affairs sources alike to support the growing issue.

Imagine yourself as a young man at the age of 20, you attend your training and pass all your physical and mental examinations, and in your life, you’ve always been a little wayward, but you’ve at least had a few family members to help you along the way to where you are at now. After you have passed your infantry training in Fort Benning, Georgia, and your airborne school in Fort Bragg, North Carolina, you feel ready to take on the world. The first nine-month rotation in Kandahar providence left you with the best worst time of your life. You have finally found the friends you would do anything for. You’ve been a misfit and a social outcast just like them all your life. You and your fellow squad mates are one big happy dysfunctional family. Now imagine losing more than half of your beloved family you have grown with to IEDs, small arms fire, and even friendly fire in just a year. All the ambushes and constant shelling from enemy artillery and loss of brethren have left you battle-hardened and cold. Before you knew it, your bags were packed, and you boarded the aircraft that had you back from a living hell to normal civilization in less than one day. When you return home on post-deployment leave to your house that you bought with your girlfriend, you see it has been foreclosed, and your family members are on the other side of the country. After the loss of a relationship and a home, you turn to what little of society you remember, but everything is changed. You are lost, and you are afraid. There are constant flashbacks to all the chaos that you have endured for the past year playing repeatedly in your head. You try to go to the VA, but the next available appointment for a psychologist is not for weeks. So, you resort to the bottom of a bottle at a bar and some questionable drugs. All it took was one bad night of being drunk, and one guy bumping you the wrong way to blackout in a rage of violence that led you to be incarcerated within a moment’s notice, and you are now facing a drug and assault charge that 138

leads to several years of jail time and separation from the military. This is one of many examples demonstrating why combat veterans with PTSD are at a high risk of being incarcerated upon re-integration back into society. In recent decades, there has been a dramatic increase in incarceration in the United States. According to the National Survey of Veterans, “Having mental health problems in addition to such sociodemographic characteristics as being a member of a minority group, not being married, having less education, and being younger are risk factors for incarceration among veterans, as they are for the general population. Recent experiences in Iraq and Afghanistan may significantly increase the risk of incarceration more so than the average person.” (Greenberg, Rosenheck. 2009, p. 41). This issue is extremely important to address and just now in recent years has finally been given more attention. These men and women are not criminals, they are leaders and ordinary people that are capable of extraordinary deeds. Society often turns them away because they have anger issues, violent tendencies, and are often reckless with dark personalities. Thus, the combat veteran turns to unconventional means of coping because society has ousted them. Maladaptive coping has underlying issues that can be addressed and tailored more specifically to each combat veteran. The problems not only lie from the PTSD itself, but the lack of social bonds upon each serviceman/woman’s return. Accordingly, the issue needs to be addressed immediately after the serviceman/woman’s return home. Thus, intervening early, especially for those at risk of incarceration can mitigate that risk thereafter. According to the Bureau of Justice Statistics, approximately 64% percent of veterans are violent offenders compared to 48% of non-veteran offenders. Also, an estimated number of 43% of veterans have

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had four or more prior arrests after the first offense. Overall in 2011 and 2012, there have been about 181,500 incarcerated veterans. From this evidence, one can see that there is a common trait of violent tendencies among veterans compared to their non-veteran counterparts. Veteran offending can be mitigated with re-integration programs. The underlying issue of the lack of social bonds needs to be addressed to reduce the possibility of crime happening resulting in their incarceration. Since the Vietnam War, there has been a rise in concern about the impact of PTSD and other related issues, such as unexplained physical illness, unemployment, divorce, suicide, homelessness, and incarceration on returning combat veterans. Male veterans are said to pose a higher risk of incarceration than men in the general population due to PTSD but also difficulties with reintegrating into society after a combat deployment and extensive time away from civilian employment. Studies performed have suggested that mental health issues, substance abuse, and other psychiatric disorders subject a veteran to a greater risk of imprisonment (Greenberg, Rosenheck, & Desai, 2007). A recent study in 2014 further stresses the need for a reintegration program. A sizable minority of combat veterans return from deployment with psychiatric and physical injuries that warrant medical attention. These issues impede a complete integration back into civilian life. Despite the acknowledgment from medical professionals of these mental and physical health concerns, veterans struggling with reintegration may not receive the help they need. Sayer, Carlson, and Fraizer argue that a comprehensive approach to reintegration should include a partnership between government, private, and public industries. From these studies, one can see that the combat veteran needs collaboration of different agencies to address, diagnose, and efficiently reintegrate them into society. Thus, the collaboration of these agencies to produce effective programs may decrease the possibility of combat veterans committing a violent crime and may even mitigate the possibility of re-entry into prison for the incarcerated veteran once released. Hirschiâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Social Bonds Theory is arguably one of the better criminological theories that can be applied to this criminal justice problem. While Hirschi may have originally applied the theory to juvenile delinquents, the four main bonds are all part of the underlying issues of returning combat veterans and veteran offenders. The social bonds are attachment, commitment, involvement, and belief. Attachment refers to the emotional closeness to others, more directly, family. Commitment is the stake in which one is invested in society or their occupation. Involvement is when the individual participates in activities within

conventional society. Lastly, belief is the idea of valuing morals of conventional norms and abiding by laws and regulations. (Lilly, Cullen, & Ball, 2019, p. 110). Belief and commitment are instilled within veteransâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; minds when they go through the rigorous training process in becoming a soldier, sailor, airman, or marine. Combat veterans who served on the front lines have an extreme level of commitment to what they do. When the combat veteran is overseas and engaged in the harsh environment of warfare, it is the stake in their commitment that drives them forward to take the next objective that lies before them. When they return home, it is no surprise that there is a void present. They have no direct objective; they have no direct guidance from a squad leader or commander. Thus, they immediately are lacking in commitment to their occupational aspirations, thus jeopardizing their sense of duty and purpose and resulting in a feeling of being lost and hopeless, which can later lead to frustration and anger. This frustration and anger may then lead to the violent behavior that puts the combat veteran at risk of imprisonment. The second social bond that is instilled in the veteran is belief. The typical combat veteran has a strong sense of belief. Most believe what they are doing is right in some way, whether it be glorious or not, they genuinely believe what they are doing serves a greater purpose. They not only believe in what they do, but they believe in the military environment they work in and the command structure they serve under. They believe that the United States as a whole needs to be preserved and protected from enemies both foreign and domestic, and each serviceman/woman swears an oath of allegiance to their country until their dying day. When they are put back into conventional society, their very beliefs and moral values are subject to question. What are they supposed to do when the society they fought so hard to preserve and protect casts them aside? How do they hold on to the moral values that are instilled in their minds when they are neglected and not adequately provided for? These are all questions that the coalition of government, private, and public agencies need to take into consideration when addressing issues surrounding combat veterans in society. The catalyst to many of these combat veteran offendersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; engagement in violent criminal behavior and involvement in unconventional society is the lack of attachment and involvement these returning heroes face. As one can see from the research provided previously, there are high rates of divorce and loss of close family ties after being gone for so long. Even if they are not married, the time away from home can cause excessive strain on any previous relationship. Thus, often resulting in a breakup or gap that leaves a void in the attachment social bond. If the relationships in the family or 139

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the romantic relationship are still in-tact, they are soon emotionally taxed by the horrors of PTSD and other mental and physical illnesses. These can often add an astronomical emptiness in the once healthy attachment bond that the combat veteran had previously. The lack of a healthy attachment or the lack of attachment at all will give the veteran every reason to resort to unconventional coping methods to temporarily fill the void they have. An example of an unconventional coping method is substance abuse. This abuse will give way for hatred and anger to engulf their already mentally damaged minds which leads down a path of reckless deviant behavior and violence. These negative traits from lack of attachment will then put the combat veteran at a higher risk of imprisonment if they are not already incarcerated. Involvement in conventional society is perhaps the greatest social bond that would help the reintegration process of both the returning combat veteran and the combat veteran offender. When a combat veteran is in their military environment they feel adequately involved, and it gives each one of them a task and purpose. There is structure in their military day to day tasks, and they are given a reason and purpose as to why they need to get done whatever the mission is for that time. When the mission is complete, they will usually see the fruits of their hard work and sacrifice pay off in some way shape or form. This gives the serviceman a sense of belonging and involvement to a purpose bigger than themselves. A soldier loves nothing more than doing the job that they trained to do and even more so if that soldier is in a combat job. Without a task and purpose, a serviceman may struggle to find adequate direction. When a combat veteran is no longer in the military and cannot adjust to the new foreign civilian life, they have no sense of involvement in conventional society anymore. Thus, they are more inclined to turn to unconventional society, danger, and violence that they once thrived in. Most resort to this method of coping because in this environment everything is far simpler to comprehend, and everything makes sense. This is an extremely dangerous way of thinking and will not only get the veteran offender incarcerated, but they will be more likely to become a career criminal or resort to gang affiliation and other violent means of crime. From Hirschi’s Social bond theory we can identify the void that the combat veteran faces from the lack of social bonds and hopefully provide a solid foundation for them in which they can begin reintegrating into society again. The foundation would fulfill their needs of attachment, by providing them with the relationships they need to carry on in their everyday life. It would give them the sense of commitment they once held dear and thereafter reaffirm their once-proud beliefs in 140

conventional society that they sacrificed so much for. This foundation would then reinforce mental health treatment and mitigate the possibility of offending or re-offending, as well as work to prevent combat veterans from engaging in violent criminal behavior. According to the VA’s Office of Public and Intergovernmental Affairs, there are currently treatment programs that are driven by a recovery orientation which include a focus on the veteran’s individual needs and preferences to fill their own goals and adjust back into society. According to the state of PA’s Department of Corrections (DOC) official website, there are programs and living areas that are tailored to the exclusive needs of the veteran offender. According to PA’s DOC website, at the end of 2013, there was an estimated number of 700,000 veterans incarcerated nationwide in prisons or jails, encompassing veterans from several different eras. In these programs, the veteran’s needs are identified, and they are implemented into a treatment program specifically tailored to them. The commonality among all these programs in PA and other states is the unique environment they are put into and various workshops and tasks to aid in the reintegration process. Activities and daily duties as simple as a color guard raising and lowering the flag to as complex as tailored therapy groups are just some of what these new programs have to offer. Regarding the social bond theory, these programs appeal to every one of the social bonds in their unique way. First and foremost, it surrounds the incarcerated veteran with others like them and allows them to establish relationships that appeal to the attachment social bond. Not only are they introduced to new relationships within the penal system, they are also allowed to work on previously damaged or lost relationships in the outside world to aid in transition upon release. This provides the combat veteran with the vital role attachment has to offer in regard to preventing crime. The programs appeal to commitment because they are given tasks that each combat veteran can use to cope with civilian life and establish a stake in conventional society that they had previously lost. Lastly, involvement and belief are then gradually restored to the incarcerated combat veteran in specifically tailored ways, which can be seen through the willingness to volunteer in daily tasks that appeal to the structure of the military life. Tasks like color guard and memorial services allow the use of the discipline skills that were previously learned to be reinstated and thus restores the commitment that they once had in their military duties. In conclusion, the combat veteran is at a high risk of becoming a violent offender. Statistically, this is an important issue that needs to be addressed. It is important because the majority of veterans imprisoned are not hardened criminals, they are simply neglected and

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misunderstood. They have served their country and sacrificed their time, relationships, physical health, and mental health. It is our duty as a society to take care of those who were brave enough to volunteer so that others do not have to. The combat veteran offender is a leader and an extraordinary individual who has unique needs that need to be addressed individually. These needs can be much more easily identified through Hirschiâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s theory of the social bond. The current use of veteranâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s programs should acknowledge the need for these social bonds to be fulfilled. With the hard work and collaboration of government, private, and local agencies, the underlying issues rooted in Social Bond Theory can be identified efficiently and effectively to reintegrate the veteran offender back into society.

Works Cited Department of Veterans Affairs, & Veterans Benefits Administration. (n.d.). VA.gov: Veterans Affairs Retrieved November 24, 2019, from https://www. benefits.va.gov/persona/veteran-incarcerated.asp. Greenberg, G. A., & Rosenheck, R. A. (2009). Mental health and other risk factors for jail incarceration among male veterans. Psychiatric Quarterly, 80(1), 41-53. Greenberg, G. A., Rosenheck, R. A., & Desai, R. A. (2007). Risk of incarceration among male veterans and nonveterans: Are veterans of the all-volunteer force at greater risk? Armed Forces & Society, 33(3), 337-350. Sayer, N. A., Carlson, K. F., & Frazier, P. A. (2014). Reintegration challenges in US service members and veterans following combat deployment. Social Issues and Policy Review, 8(1), 33-73. Lilly, J. R. Criminological Theory. [Chegg]. Retrieved from https://ereader.chegg.com/#/books/9781506387284. Lilly, J.R. Cullen, F.T. & Ball, R.A. (2019). Criminological theory: Context and consequences (7th ed.). Los Angeles: Sage. Office of Public and Intergovernmental Affairs. (n.d.). Office of Public and Intergovernmental Affairs Retrieved November 24, 2019, from https://www.va.gov/opa/ issues/ptsd.asp. Veterans in Prison and Jail, 201112. (n.d.). Retrieved November 24, 2019, from https://www.bjs.gov/index. cfm?ty=pbdetail&iid=5479. Veterans Services. (n.d.). Retrieved November 25, 2019, from https://www.cor.pa.gov/communityreentry/Pages/ Veterans-Services.aspx.

Student Reflection: After writing this paper and conducting my research on the matter I feel my eyes have been opened to the issue in our justice system. The war on terror is beginning to turn into a peacekeeping and policing action. Thus, we can see the nation has a growing rate of retiring combat veterans. It is my hope that this paper enlightens any reader into the unique issues the combat veteran faces in order to help them, instead of criminalizing them and neglecting them. The paper is designed to make the reader feel uncomfortable with the harsh reality the combat veteran faces and bring needed attention to the issue.

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Recidivism and Self-Control Theory Dillon Morgan CRJ 309: Theories of Crime and Crime Control Dr. Laura Beckman Assignment The assignment was for us to relate a current criminal justice topic or problem in the United States and to relate that topic to a theory learned in class and from the text. I chose to say how Self-Control Theory has a direct impact on crime and recidivism in the U.S. and I believe that my findings support that argument.

Introduction A criminal reoffending is generally known as recidivism, which can be defined further as “… the reversion of an individual to criminal behavior after he or she has been convicted of a prior offense, sentenced, and (presumably) corrected,” (Maltz, 1984). Recidivism is a serious criminal justice problem in the U.S. right now which is why a solution needs to be put in place to help people make better choices after being incarcerated. Recidivism in the U.S. is not only a problem for the criminal justice system, but society as well. Recidivism can lead to many problems such as prison overcrowding and wasting of resources. However, what people do not realize is that recidivism is associated with a person’s level of self-control. Even still, the correctional system in criminal justice could be better in providing treatment for inmates to learn how to control their emotions and behaviors before they do reenter society. If the criminal justice system was more helpful in the rehabilitation process of inmates, the problems that stem from recidivism may be reduced. Recidivism can be addressed in many ways, but I believe that Travis Hirschi and Michael Gottfredson’s Self-Control Theory addresses it the best. Self-Control Theory is all about one’s ability to maintain control over emotions and behavior, specifically repetitive criminal behavior. If a person can learn to use different, non-criminal mechanisms to express their emotions, then they may reduce their likelihood to commit crime. Also, someone can learn to displace themselves to another area that does not entice them to act criminally. Treatment can be done through the correctional system. If self-control theory is applied to recidivism, there can be many interventions put in place to prevent this problem. Recidivism in the United States Recidivism is a recurring problem for criminal justice officials. Recidivism is again defined as a person who has already been incarcerated and released and 142

chooses to act criminally once more. This problem in the U.S. is shown in many different forms. The National Institute of Justice (NIJ) indicates that between 2005-2014 an estimated 68% of prisoners released were rearrested within 3 years, 79% were rearrested within 6 years, and 83% were rearrested within the 9-year period they were studying (Measuring Recidivism). These statistics indicate that most U.S. prisoners will recidivate early in their departure from incarceration. The problem can be further examined by looking at the different types of crimes criminals choose to commit when they are released from prison. It is frequently assumed that offenders specialize in specific types of offenses. According to the Bureau of Justice Statistics (BJS), this is not true in all cases. In fact, 77% of all released drug offenders were rearrested for non-drug crimes (Alper, Durose, & Markman, 2018). Besides, the BJS study also suggests that violent offenders who were incarcerated will more than likely not re-offend upon being released. Alper, et al. indicate that released property offenders are more likely to be arrested than released violent offenders (2018) and that 60% of arrests made were during years four through nine of their longitudinal study that went on for a total of nine years (2018). This again proves that recidivism must be intervened with early to prevent recidivism. Looking at this data, it is easy to conclude that the recidivism rates grew each year during the study. Only 24% of released prisoners were arrested during the first year of the study compared to the other percentages which are far higher (Alper, et al., 2018). Although any criminal has the will to re-offend, it is obvious that not every criminal does. Recidivism does not depend on the type or severity of the offense. Recidivism stems from past behaviors that have become habits. Getting involved early in an offender’s life before being released is integral to preparing them for a stable life outside of incarceration. Without assistance, these people will belong to a never-ending cycle of crime.

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Self-Control Theory Self-control can be defined as differences in the extent to which people are constrained from criminal acts. Travis Hirschi and Michael Gottfredsonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s SelfControl Theory is used to explain crime in a general manner. Hirschi and Gottfredson do this by saying that people with high self-control will be less likely to commit crime (Akers, 1991, p. 202). Therefore, self-control must be instilled in children at a young age. Poor self-control is caused by ineffective socialization as well as incomplete child-rearing (Akers, 1991, p. 203). General socialization can occur throughout our lives but if proper formal socialization is formed in childhood, self-control may remain stable through the life course. People are born with poor self-control, but the correct parenting practices can assist in forming high self-control. Low self-control is what is stated to lead to crime. Hirschi and Gottfredson define crime by saying that crimes are â&#x20AC;&#x153;acts of force or fraud undertaken in the pursuit of self-interestâ&#x20AC;? (Geis, 2000, p. 38). The nature of these crimes has five elements: immediate gratification, easy gratification, exciting or thrilling, requires little skill, and they often result in pain for the victim (Akers, 1991, p. 203). In addition, individuals with low self-control carry six personality characteristics that form one trait. These personality characteristics consist of lack of empathy, lack of future orientation, lack of diligence, lack of tolerance for frustration, physically rather than cognitively inclined, and thrill-seeking (Arneklev, Grasmick, Tittle, & Bursik, 1993, p. 228). These characteristics form the trait of low self-control. The source of self-control stems from their parental guidance. To foster self-control in a child a parent must monitor their child, recognize deviance, and punish deviant behavior. The main proposition of self-control theory is that low self-control is the direct cause of crime. How Self-Control Theory Addresses Recidivism Self-control theory and recidivism are more closely related than people may think. The fact is, self-control theory explains why crime happens. Recidivism is the act of a released criminal reoffending and being put back into the penal system. If individuals go through life with low self-control, then they will most likely commit crime and end up incarcerated. As previously stated, self-control is fostered more efficiently at an early age. So, if an individual is taught to have high self-control, they will most likely not commit crime. Therefore, they will not end up in the penal system and cannot recidivate. Self-control theory looks at recidivism from the beginning before a person commits their first crime. Without self-control, people would commit crime,

and then recidivate until they are constrained from being able to do so. With that being said, introducing self-control at a young age still proves to be the best option to prevent recidivism. Without having committed a crime at all, there is no possible way to recidivate. People who recidivate have poor self-control, but it may still be possible for them to learn to have high self-control. Although self-control is learned better at a young age, adults who have low self-control can rehabilitate themselves into beings with high self-control. Rehabilitation programs specifically designed to combat low self-control would be a good start. These programs should offer therapy, specific activities that teach self-control, and assist with developing better coping mechanisms for these released offenders. In addition, discipline classes, if taken seriously, could easily promote high self-control. Because low self-control leads to crime, recidivism is directly related to its concepts. Recidivism in the U.S. is too serious a problem to ignore. That is why self-control theory needs to be studied more seriously in relation to recidivism to provide more interventions and preventions for this criminal justice problem in the U.S. Conclusion In totality, self-control theory provides a general explanation of crime. In addition, it provides a solution to the problem criminal justice officials deal with every day: recidivism. Teaching a child self-control can lead them to be law-abiding citizens throughout life. If this remains true, then there will be no opportunity for recidivism. Self-control theory can also inform treatment to prevent recidivism upon release. References Akers, R. L. (1991). Self-control as a general theory of crime. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 7(2), 201-211. Alper, M., Durose, M. R., & Markman, J. (2018). 2018 Update on Prisoner Recidivism: A 9-Year Follow-up Period (2005-2014). Retrieved from https://www.bjs. gov/index.cfm?ty=pbdetail&iid=6266. Arneklev, B. J., Grasmick, H. G., Tittle, C. R., & Bursik, R. J. (1993). Low self-control and imprudent behavior. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 9(3), 225-247. Geis, G. (2000). On the absence of self-control as the basis for a general theory of crime: A critique. Theoretical Criminology, 4(1), 35-53. Maltz, M. D. (1984). Recidivism. Orlando: Academic Press. Measuring Recidivism. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://nij.ojp. gov/topics/articles/measuring-recidivism.

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Student Reflection: Finding a topic for this paper was not difficult at all. What was difficult for me was how to present my facts and findings in a way so that I could not only theorize that self-control theory relates to crime and recidivism but prove that it has direct impact on them. I always start writing a paper by finding my topic, then finding sources that support my findings. In addition, I also tend to look up things that may argue the contrary to my beliefs so that I can argue against those as well. I try my best to start with a broad explanation of both topics then I try to state more specifically the relation between the two in certain aspects of a personâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s life. Mostly, I analyzed scholarly documents on each topic, but I also found many useful federal documents and websites to help support my research. I felt that this paper was one of the best I have written, but only since I transferred here last semester.

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Recidivism in the Criminal Justice System Jessica Braeunle CRJ 309: Theories of Crime and Crime Control Dr. Laura Beckman Assignment The assignment was to state a problem in the Criminal Justice System, and to use a theory learned throughout the course to support the problem. By developing examples, statistics, and background information on both the theory and the criminal justice problem, we were to write our final paper using at least 7 different scholarly sources.

Introduction Taking a look at the Criminal Justice System from an outsider’s perspective, a common thought is that the defendant learns from their mistakes inside an institution once they are sentenced there. However, a vast problem in the United States is that after being released from a correctional institution, people often relapse back into a life of crime. A person who may think rationally would turn away from crime after serving some type of sentence; however, some do just the opposite for various reasons. This idea is coined as recidivism, where a criminal who completed a sentence in jail, rehabilitation facility, or any other correctional facility, reengages in criminal behavior when released. Once released, a criminal may have various obstacles or issues that steer them in the direction of crime again. These issues may involve struggles with family life, drug addictions, homelessness, finding a job, or a lack of education that may delineate a strain or stress on their life. Due to this strain, they resort back to a life of crime, and fall under the category of recidivism. Recidivism today is arguably one of the greatest challenges in the Criminal Justice System (Johnson, 2017). Criminologist Robert Agnew developed a theory based on the effects of strain. He described three types of strains as sources for negative emotions that lead to crime. Using this theory can help explain why criminals may recidivate and resort to crime again once they finish serving their time. Insufficient programs in prison or correctional facilities like rehabilitation and education, poor socialization with society and job preparation techniques, as well as refusal to accept help inside the facilities ultimately cause strain for the individual once released. These strains may lead to negative emotions in the individual, which in turn, may lead a person to recidivate and end up back in the correctional system.

Body The tendency for someone to relapse and repeat a previous criminal behavior once entering the real world again occurs more often than people may think. When measuring recidivism, statistics often look at the amount of “rearrests, reconvictions, and returns to incarceration” (Johnson, 2017), where the Bureau of Justice Services (BJS) specifically stated for prison institutions, that 68 percent of prisoners are re-incarcerated within three years of their release from the institution (Tegeng & Abadi, 2018). An article on The Comparison of Recidivism Studies stated that BJS reported within the first year of starting supervision outside of a correctional facility, 18.2 percent of offenders were rearrested for a serious offense (Johnson, 2017). The numbers suggest that offenders who have recently re-entered the community are one of the most vulnerable and the most likely to recidivate. Most federal offenders receive 36-60 months of community supervision, and after three years of supervision, BJS reported that 35 percent of offenders then reoffend. A significant number of studies examined contributing factors to recidivism for released offenders. The most likely reasons for the high recidivism rate were said “to be centered on the offenders’ educational illiteracy, lack of vocational job skills, lack of interpersonal skills…” (Latessa, 2012). Subsequently, the United States Sentencing Commission said youth are more likely to reoffend than older adults, where the recidivism rate is 35.5 percent for offenders under 21 years of age. Thus, institutional psychological stress, the inability to attain employment, and having criminal histories all accumulate to disadvantages and stress outside of prison, leading to reoffending. Explaining why criminals may recidivate, Robert Agnew’s General Strain Theory argues that different strains or stressors increase the likelihood of negative

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emotions, such as anger or frustration. These negative emotions then create pressures on an individual to resort to a corrective action, where crime is often the chosen response. The theory in particular is defined by three types of strains; the loss of a positive stimulus, the presence of a negative stimulus, and the failure to achieve a positively-valued goal (Agnew, 2001). Agnew (2001) further argued that some strains are more likely to result in crime than others, because of how they influence negative emotions and the ability to cope. Agnew’s theory states that these types of strains have four distinct qualities that include the strain being seen as either unjust or high in magnitude, being associated with low social control, or creating a pressure or incentive to engage in crime (Agnew, 2001). Agnew (2001) indicated that there is a strong connection between unjust treatment and negative emotions. People are more likely to believe their strain is undeserved if it is the result of a negatively valued behavior on their part, for instance refusing to cooperate with parole rules. The fact that treatment is perceived as disrespectful, aggressive, or inconsiderate falls under the idea that the strain of a release program like parole is unjust, leading to recidivism. Additionally, the belief that a strain is high in magnitude is enough to resort to criminal behavior. When stress is so severe, it influences coping in a criminal manner. The more difficult it is to cognitively minimize the impact of severe strain, the more difficult it may be to normally and non-criminally cope (Agnew, 2001). This severity of a strain generates then more negative emotions, and therefore influences the perceived benefits of crime and the decision to engage in it. Also contributing to the magnitude, increased duration and frequency of a strain evokes greater negative emotions. When a strain is associated with low social control, it is often caused by low attachment to others, working in a low secondary job, or homelessness (Agnew, 2001). These factors reflect the lack of social supports and resources that facilitate non-criminal coping, and therefore would increase engagement in crime. Lastly, when a strain causes pressures for criminal coping like being a part of a friend group who engages in drugs when they are together, it is likely that they will partake as well. The three types of strains Agnew proposed can be applied to the causes of recidivism. Examples of these strains in the correctional system can further define when strains are more likely to lead to recidivism (Agnew, 2001). Firstly, the loss of a positive stimuli is supported through the idea that offenders often re-enter society lacking all or almost all positive support systems they entered with. Obtaining a routine in a facility, they are then thrown into society without 146

a job, some type of degree, housing, or family. The National Re-Entry Resource Center stated that people may have a home and family before entering a correctional facility. After being released, “some percentage of those who leave prison are homeless for some period of time after release” (CSG Justice Center, 2019). Another positive stimuli prior to incarceration could be the fact that they may have had the opportunity to be a voting member of society. However, when released, the stigma of a criminal record often results in convicted felons being “prohibited from voting due to laws restricting voting rights for those convicted of felony-level crimes” (CSG Justice Center, 2019). Finally, correctional facilities have lessened visitation hours for offenders over the years. Resulting in further psychological isolation in prison from the surrounding community, the positive aspect of familial support is removed. The Criminal Justice System further contributes to this when their correctional centers diminish prison visitation programs. The already scarce resources for offenders in prison that had been used for communication between prisoners and their families only further causes more stress for them when their sentence commences (Haney, 2001). All of these situations involve positive aspects to life that are taken away once someone enters the system and is released. This ultimately causes a strain on the offender, and they are more likely to reoffend. Regarding Agnew’s second strain, the presence of a negative stimulus, the correctional system not only presents several negative aspects itself, but many difficulties are encountered upon release. A review written on the psychological impact of incarceration states that for prisoners, incarceration is so tense and mentally destroying that the experience itself represents a form of traumatic stress (Haney, 2001). Thus, presenting a negative stimuli for the offender, it causes a psychological strain that once they are released is severe enough to produce post-traumatic stress reactions. The longer someone is incarcerated, the more institutionalized they become. The deprivation of privacy and freedom becomes “stressful and unpleasant” (Haney, 2001). As a response to the overwhelming trauma of a correctional facility, this could induce negative emotions, and the possibility of reoffending. Other possible negative stimuli from incarceration and release from incarceration include the struggle of obtaining a job. Not gaining successful job-building techniques while incarcerated makes it extremely difficult to apply and get a job after being released. Contact with criminal justice correctional facilities influence the possibility of committing crimes after their first conviction (Tegeng et al., 2018). The negative presence of not having a job leads to stress for that person, and then they are more likely to resort to criminal behavior and sneaking

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around the system. Much of their behaviors can be linked to substance abuse and addictions when they do not have a job post-release (Tegeng et al., 2018). Similar to some negative stimuli, the correctional system hardly prepares offenders for success when they are released. The failure to achieve a positively-valued goal is the final type of stress proposed by Agnew. For instance, prison income is low and after being released, prisoners cannot contribute financially to society in terms of purchasing goods and services and raising children (RED Inc., 2019). Once their sentence ends, they will likely go back into society “without marketable skills or education, and gaining employment is extremely low” (RED Inc., 2019). They will have fewer opportunities to live successfully and attain the goals they want in life, causing strain, which will likely lead them to commit another crime. For youth in the system, they are significantly more likely to have lower academic skills well below their grade level, and either drop out of school, or become expelled (CSG Justice Center, 2019). Trying to go to college or trade school after incarceration may become extremely difficult, leading to failure and then the probability of recidivism. Overall, the abandonment of the once-valued goal of rehabilitation and successful living, offenders become overwhelmed or give up. Using these three types of stressors caused by the correctional system, the Criminal Justice System can aim to improve recidivism rates. Reducing the stress of not being able to attain a job after release, the Rehabilitation Enables Dreams program is dedicated to keeping people out of the Criminal Justice System for good. They are working to better correctional programs to ensure that prisoners leave prison with a useful associate’s degree, and with decent behavior. Hopefully offenders can move from prisons to halfway houses and gain employment, where they can work and build skills to become a better-productive member of society (RED Inc., 2019). Without the stress of failing to achieve goals, offenders will be less likely to recidivate. Additionally, lessening negative stimuli and engaging positive stimuli both in facilities and after release, the Second Chance Act, federally implemented in 2002, hopes to improve reentry outcomes. Trying to better health, housing, education and rehabilitation, the Second Chance Act placed 89 SVORI programs offering services of life skills, dental and medical care, treatment plans, and job placement (Ames, 2019). Bringing back positive aspects of life and diminishing the negatives would hopefully lessen an offender’s stress

tremendously. Consequently, they will not have as much of a temptation to recidivate. Conclusion In sum, the recidivism of offenders is obviously a dilemma in the Criminal Justice System. Having an overall 68 percent re-incarceration rate within three years of release is due to stress both inside and outside the institution. The negative emotions resulting from stress caused by the whole correctional process may lead to a relapse through criminal coping where offenders end back up in the system, defeating the purpose of corrections. References Agnew, R. (2001). Building on the Foundation of General Strain Theory: Specifying the Types of Strain Most Likely to Lead to Crime and Delinquency. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 38(4), 319–361. doi: 10.1177/0022427801038004001 Ames, B. (2019, October 7). NIJ-Funded Research Examines What Works for Successful Reentry. Retrieved from https://nij.ojp.gov/topics/articles/nij-funded-researchexamines-what-works-successful-reentry. CSG Justice Center. (n.d.). NRRC Facts & Trends. Retrieved 2019, from https://csgjusticecenter.org/nrrc/ facts-and-trends/. Haney, C. (2001). From Prison to Home: The Effect of Incarceration and Reentry on Children, Families, and Communities. Journal on The Psychological Impact of Incarceration: Implications for Post-Prison Adjustment. Retrieved from https://aspe.hhs.gov/basic-report/ psychological-impact-incarceration-implications-postprison-adjustment Johnson, J. L. (2017). Comparison of Recidivism Studies: AOUSC, USSC, and BJS. Federal Probation, 81(1), 52–54. Retrieved from http://search.ebscohost.com/ login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=ip,sso&db=i3h&AN =124743827&site=ehost-live&scope=site Latessa, E. (2012). Why Work Is Important, and How to Improve the Effectiveness of Correctional Reentry Programs that Target Employment. Criminology & Public Policy, 11(1), 87–91. doi: 10.1111/j.1745-9133.2012.00790.x RED Inc. (2019, March 20). What Is Recidivism? Retrieved from https://stoprecidivism.org/what-is-recidivism/? gclid=Cj0KCQiA5dPuBRCrARIsAJL7oei3ABAwP2 nbwVHHdwOOK-vo1Lq6yKBm5-EK1qCkL0k-WlYB_zXaoAaAkqeEALw_wcB. Tegeng, G., & Abadi, H. (2018). Exploring Factors Contributing to Recidivism: The Case of Dessie and Woldiya Correctional Centers. Arts and Social Sciences Journal, 09(04). doi: 10.4172/2151-6200.1000384

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Student Reflection: Upon writing this paper, I have personally seen recidivism through the Criminal Justice System within my own family. Seeing close family members exit and reenter the correctional system, or partake in illegal drug intake, has placed a great impact on my character. When prompted with the proposal of a criminal justice problem, my immediate first thought was recidivism and reentry into the Criminal Justice System. I can easily relate to these various examples throughout my paper, as I have watched several of them develop in society as well. I am so passionate about the law and specifically forensic science, that I thoroughly enjoyed writing this paper. Hoping to work in a criminal forensic laboratory as a forensic biologist in the near future, I will continue to think about why problems remain in the system, and how to work towards changing them for the better. Thank you to Dr. Beckman for allowing me to write this paper, and appreciating my dedication and interest in the topic.

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Routine Activity Theory Sydney Kunkel CRJ 309: Theories of Crime and Crime Control Dr. Laura Beckman Assignment This assignment was the final paper of Theories of Crime and Crime Control. We had to focus our attention to an issue within the criminal justice system, and expand upon ways to fix that issue by applying a criminological theory.

Introduction to the Topic of Victimization Victimization is a growing problem in today’s society. The problem of victimization is important because there are many consequences for the victims themselves. A victim can endure emotional and psychological trauma due to their victimization. After being victimized, a victim has a higher likelihood of leading a life of crime (Macmillan, 2001, p. 7-8). This paper will explain victimization by giving details on who is victimized and how they are victimized. It will then go on to explain the importance of victimization and the impact being a victim has on an individual. Last, the reader will get an in depth and thorough understanding of Routine Activity Theory and some ways it helps reduce victimization within societies. The Problem - Victimization Who is a victim? A victim is defined as any person who is threatened with or endures physical, emotional, or financial pain or harm brought on by someone else. There are many different types of victimization. Some examples include sexual misconduct, rape, sexual harassment and/or touching, stalking, assault and battery, and domestic violence (“University of the PACIFIC”). Victimization can happen at any time in any place to anyone. Any individual can be victimized, no matter the age, race, gender, or ethnicity. Victimization could happen to a single person, family, group, or community. The crime itself that causes the victimization could be to a person or property. Impacts of victimization go beyond just committing crime. Being victimized has emotional, psychological, physical, financial, and social concerns (“CrimeSolutions.gov”). Victimization is sort of like a paradox. There has been research that concluded older people are more afraid of being victimized than younger people. The reality of victimization is the opposite. Younger generations are more likely to be victimized than older generations, contradicting the fear of victimization within

both generations (Ferraro, 1995, p. 67-8). However, no matter who is being victimized, that victimization is real, and the consequences are real and potentially severe. Crime can be seen and is often viewed as a social issue because of what the consequences lead to. The consequences may lead to lessened social incorporation, out-migration, activity restrictions, increased security and cost, and behaviors that coincide with avoidance (Ferraro, 1995, p. 3). Being victimized has many consequences for the life of the victim. An individual can endure emotional distress from being victimized. Research has been done in attempt to pinpoint life events that lead to constant distress in someone’s life, and violent victimization has been shown to be one of those events. Being victimized at a young age has been known to increase chances for anxiety disorders, depression, and post-traumatic stress disorder. A study done by Boney-McCoy and Finkelhor in 1995 concluded that one who is victimized by a non-family member has a higher risk of post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms (Macmillan, 2001, p. 7). There has also been research to support the link between early victimization and later criminal activity. Arguments have stated that victimization plays a key role in learning favorable definitions of crime. Studies show that victimization is a forerunner for crime. An example of this would be children who were abused later leading a life of crime or becoming abusers themselves (Macmillan, 2001, p. 8). There have been many studies drawn from victimization surveys that have determined how routine activities affect who is more likely to be victimized within a society. The “lifestyle model” has been used to explain why some individuals are more likely to be victimized than others based on how risky their lifestyle, or routine activities, are in comparison to others. For example, “people who go to bars, drink, stay out late, and walk home alone are more likely to be victimized than people who spend their evenings at home with family members,” (Lilly, Cullen, & Ball, 2019, p. 351). 149

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The Theory – Routine Activity Theory Marcus Felson and Lawrence Cohen created Routine Activity Theory in 1979. Their theory of criminology is seen as the “chemistry of crime.” Felson had no intention of becoming a criminologist. He was a professor at the University of Illinois, but he became involved in a project correlating social indicators and various outcomes; he was assigned crime. At the time of his study, crime rates were high and rising. Traditional criminological theories would link criminal offending with disadvantages in a community, which did not seem to work. This led Felson to move outside the realm of criminology for an explanation on crime. He re-read books and referenced other works in an attempt to determine the main cause of crime. That is where he started to develop Routine Activity Theory. This theory focuses more on the opportunity of crime than the criminological theories that came before it. The focus on opportunity is a pragmatic approach to prevent crime that focuses on how the decrease of opportunity for offending leads to crime being reduced. This theory avoids structural and political issues, which makes it more attractive to present-day society (Lilly, Cullen, & Ball, 2019, p. 347). Routine Activity Theory has been used to explain the increased likelihood of victimization among individuals. There are three main components that are necessary for crime to occur: a motivated offender, suitable target, and the lack of a capable guardian. The motivated offender is one who simply has the opportunity to carry out his motivations, and opportunity itself encompasses the other two components of crime which are linked. Specifically, there must be a person or object that is suitable for the offender with the absence of a guardian who could prevent the interaction. A suitable victim may be a person or property, something that the offender wants to have or take control over and that is attractive to the offender in some sense. A guardian can be viewed as anyone or anything that protects the suitable victim, whether it be a friend, family, security, or a dog (Lilly, Cullen, & Ball, 2019, p. 349). All three elements make up the crime triangle and the main proposition of Routine Activity Theory. The crime triangle was developed by John Eck. This model is comprised of two triangles, meant to differentiate the components necessary for crime to occur from other elements that have the ability to prevent it. The inner triangle’s three sides are offender, target, and place. These three components are surrounded by controllers for each on the outer triangle. Controllers can be anything that limits the opportunity to commit crime (i.e. a guardians, managers, and handlers). Felson determined the success of the controllers to be based on their degree of responsibility. He developed four levels of responsibility: personal, assigned, diffuse, 150

and general. An example of someone with personal responsibility would be a family member or a friend. Someone with assigned responsibility would be an employee with a specific task they are responsible for; diffused responsibility would be generic responsibility among employees; and general responsibility is the responsibility of any person (Miró, 2014). How to Solve the Problem In order to reduce victimization, societies need to generate ways to limit criminal opportunity to the motivated offenders. There must be a way to make targets less suitable and attractive to offenders, as well as introducing more capable guardians. Reducing the likelihood that an offender has the opportunity to commit a crime can be done through situational crime prevention. Ronald Clarke defined situational crime prevention as a focus on specific crimes that involve the permanent manipulation of an environment that would increase the effort needed to commit said crimes. Clarke explained three different types of situational crime prevention: increased effort, increased risk, and reduced rewards. An example of increasing the effort to commit a crime could be simply installing higher fences around one’s yard or getting better locks for household doors. Increasing the risk of getting caught could be something as easy as installing an alarm system or increasing security in a store. A way to reduce the rewards for offenders could be limiting the amount of cash had on hand, in a store, or in a household. (Lilly, Cullen, & Ball, 2019, p. 353). These three types of situational crime prevention add barriers for offenders which make a target less attractive because more work needs to be done in order to achieve the same results. The crime triangle also gives examples of how to decrease the likelihood of victimization. Increasing the responsibility of guardians would greatly reduce the chance of victimization. People are targeted most frequently when they are alone. Therefore, improving the guardianship of individuals throughout their days will help limit the chance for a motivated offender to see them as a suitable target. Guardians are there to protect the potential target. A guardian can be a police officer engaging in security measures, but can also be a parent or friend. The personal responsibility of a guardian is that of a family member or friend watching over and being protective of the likely target (Miró, 2014). Increasing a guardian’s presence would limit the opportunity for an offender to victimize, consequently reducing victimization as a whole. Hot spots policing could be another way for local law enforcement to help reduce victimization. This strategy of policing has been supported by evidence on its effectiveness. Hot spots policing is done as an at-

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tempt to weaken criminal opportunity in concentrated areas. The purpose behind this policing approach is to increase police presence in an area where crime has a higher likelihood of occurring, which, in turn, means victimization will occur. There have been many studies performed based on this policing method to determine its effectiveness. One study was performed by Sherman and Weisburd in 1995. Their study was achieved by doubling police presence in high crime areas to determine whether that presence would decrease crime. There was a decrease in crime calls by six and thirteen percent. Another review on hot spots policing was done in 2012 by Braga, Papachristos, and Heureau. They summarized the results of twenty-five different tests of hot spots policing, where all but five had substantial evidence of reduced crime (Nagin, Solow, & Lum, 2015). Synthesis Through reading this paper, the reader now has a deeper understanding for the societal issue of victimization and the theory that goes with it, Routine Activity Theory. Victimization is an ongoing problem in today’s society. More people, objects, and places are being looked at as suitable targets for motivated offenders. They are suitable targets because they are lacking a capable guardian, of which could be a friend or family member, or even a dog. In accordance to the crime triangle, all three components must be prevalent in order for a crime to occur. If one component is missing, a criminal event cannot happen. Routine Activity Theory focuses on an offender’s opportunity to commit crimes. That opportunity puts emphasis on the lifestyle of the suitable target. Policies that can reduce criminal opportunity include situational crime prevention, increased guardianship, and hot spots policing.

References CrimeSolutions.gov. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www. crimesolutions.gov/TopicDetails.as px?ID=94. Ferraro, K. F. (1995). Fear of crime: interpreting victimization risk. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. Lilly, J. R., Cullen, F. T., & Ball, R. A. (2019). Chapter 13: Choosing Crime in Everyday Life. In J. R. Lilly, F. T. Cullen, & R. A. Ball, Criminological Theory. SAGE Publications. Macmillan, R. (2001). Violence and the Life Course: The Consequences of Victimization for Personal and Social Development. Annual Review of Sociology, 27(1), 1–22. doi: 10.1146/annurev.soc.27.1.1 Miró, F. (2014). Routine Activity Theory. The Encyclopedia of Theoretical Criminology, 1–7. doi: 10.1002/9781118517390.wbetc198 Nagin, D. S., Solow, R. M., & Lum, C. (2015). Deterrence, Criminal Opportunities, And Police. Criminology, 53(1), 74–100. doi: 10.1111/1745-9125.12057 University of the PACIFIC. (n.d.). Retrieved from https:// www.pacific.edu/campus-life/safety- and-conduct/ victim-advocacy-program/types-of-victimization.html.

Student Reflection: I chose this topic based on my interest in victimization. Researching this topic and its relation to Routine Activity Theory was interesting and gave me a deeper insight on how a motivated offender chooses their target and why. This paper took me a lot of time to write because I wanted it to be perfect. I wanted to showcase my abilities and my passion for the topic and the criminal justice system. I believe I am a good writer, but there are always challenges. This assignment brought those challenges. I had to do extensive research and read countless scholarly articles to find exactly what I wanted. My goal with this paper is to educate people on Routine Activity Theory and its relation to criminal events, as well as ways to prevent those criminal events. I hope, after reading, my audience gains a deeper understanding and different perspective on the topic of victimization.

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How Media Influences Stigma Against Those with Mental Illness Brandon Del Valle CRJ 381: Mental Health in Mental Health in the Criminal Justice System Dr. Laura Beckman Assignment The assignment was open ended, however the main drive was to research mental illness and find a specific idea to nail down and related it to. It consisted of background information, literature reviews, and proposed solutions to the issue of mental illness as it pertained to the research topic.

Abstract Stigma directed at those with mental illness exists through person to person interaction as well as media consumption. Media plays an especially large role in that it has the largest reach in current society of producing norms, for better or worse. The data used to conduct this research was both qualitative and quantitative with synthesized observations and points drawn to bridge the gap. The broad conclusion of the research points to a lack of due diligence and concern from many media outlets and producers. This lax has resulted in the perpetuation and encroachment of stigma to those with mental illness. There are ways to address this growing concern which are outlined towards the end of the research and were influenced by the nature of the literature reviews. Keywords: stereotype, CIT, violent, language Introduction Throughout history, the understanding of mental illness has evolved greatly. From the idea that the shape of a face and or head could be the cause to the better understanding of how the brain works and how the environment can impact an individual. There have been great strides in only the past 100 to 200 years. There is one aspect of mental illness that is holding back societal progress â&#x20AC;&#x201C; actual understanding and education about mental illness. Stigma levied toward those with mental illness is staggering, especially across the spectrum of all media which portrays mental illness in a negative light nearly half of the time. Stigma links negative social stereotypes to individuals with mental illness. Given the alarming rate at which individuals with mental illness are stigmatized and essentially discriminated against makes social stigma an important topic because it is key in society that all members feel represented and upon equal footing, thus reducing suffering. 152

There have been large strides in civil liberties for many groups, such as women and African Americans. Since these strides, the country has improved, so it logically follows that any other groups of individuals struggling to have proper representation and a chance in society should be given the help they need. This is the case with those suffering from mental illness. A world where the term crazy is not immediately associated with someone in a strait jacket will help individuals with mental illness receive the benefit of the doubt more often and ultimately not be feared. There will be many topics covered throughout this paper, ranging from a historical context of how older generations viewed mental illness to a more in-depth discussion on how stigma is formed. There will also be inspection of how current society is fairing with this issue. Specifically, there will be a discussion on how individuals with mental illness are poorly treated in todayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s prison system and how it can be addressed. Afterwards there will be three literature reviews that will discuss: priming, how children form stigma from a young age, and how the issue of stigma is a global issue and not just a Western issue. Finally, there will be suggestions and examples of practices that can improve this issue. Background and Broad Overview of the Topic Stigmatization has four steps. The first step is labeling differences; this refers to categorizing individuals based on shared traits. For example, someone observing an individual with schizophrenia dealing with voices in their head will see their mannerisms and begin to make a list, conscious or unconscious, as to why that person is different than what is perceived to be normal. The next step involves how that individual processes the information. An educated person will then hopefully realize this person is suffering from a mental illness of some sort and not treat them in a demeaning or stig-

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matizing fashion. Unfortunately, there will be people who are not up to speed with such information and will take that list of differences and begin to link them with stereotypes, which is the second step. This would manifest in the example above as linking observed behaviors with ideas they have read, seen, or heard of, especially in the media. Instead of having understanding or empathy, the observer is now remembering how the most recent scary movie depicted a mentally unstable individual muttering to themselves before committing murder. This is an unfortunate stereotype that impacts those with mental illness. The third step is where the stigmatization takes place in full effect. The observer now has new or reinforced beliefs about individuals with mental illness. This leads to the last part of the cycle, status loss (Slate, 2013). If enough people have this chain of events occur, the individual with mental illness may begin to experience status loss in their community. People will avoid interacting with them because of negative stereotypes. This in turn makes the first step of the cycle easier, then it repeats. This is not a new phenomenon, this stigmatization loop has existed throughout history. Even as far back as 1859, there was a desire to understand and illustrate mental illness. For example, the imagery from “Allgemeine Zeitschrift fur Psychiatre” displays different types of “madness” in comparison with different breeds of horse heads (Eisenhauer, 2008). This comparison is presumably looking at the shape of the head and face to try and draw conclusions about psychiatric truths. That seems to be a common motif in the historical depiction of individuals with mental illness, the size and shape of certain facial features. Another grouping of physical features are messy hair, large gaps in teeth as well as rotting teeth, pronounced nose, and heavy or arched brows (Eisenhauer, 2008). This can be easily related to today, although it could be argued that the facial features are not as much of a focus, but many attributes of individuals of mental illness now seem to involve being unkept or unclean. This feeds into the previous discussion of the four steps of stigmatization. In short, it can be demonstrated that stigmatization of mental illness is not a new issue, and it has evolved over time regarding what features are considered when identifying mental illness, but the cycle of steps has likely remained the same. The current state of stigmatization has made strides since the human horse comparison, but it is still harmful to the community of individuals with mental illness who continue to have myths and negative stereotypes perpetuated about them. Looking at a UK study tells this tale quite clearly. Over a four-week period, articles were combed over in nine daily newspapers. There were a total of 963 articles about health, 200 of those were about mental health. Of those 200, over half were

written in a negative tone. The most prominent statistic here is that 18.5 percent of those negative articles linked mental illness with violence. These numbers may not seem large, but considering the amount of people digesting this content, the ramifications can be exponentially larger. One example from the study was a headline that cast a negative shadow on mental illness in its title, ‘Mentally ill man in bus knife attack’. This headline is meant to grab a reader’s attention, but also serves to quickly relate mental illness and violent acts as if mental illness was the cause of violence. Even if it were the cause, it is not representative of the whole. In fact, it is representative of the minority of individuals with mental illness (Chen, 2017). In all, it can be clearly demonstrated that there seems to be a skewing of information in the media toward a negative tone about those with mental illness that contributes to the harmful stigmatization of mental illness. This stigma and altered view of reality can have measurable impacts on individuals with mental illness, especially within the criminal justice system, most notably, prisons. In a video about how individuals with mental illness are treated in prisons, it is clearly shown how traditional means of dealing with inmates is counterproductive to the end goal of calming a situation or apprehending an individual with mental illness. In the video, there were canisters of gas and pepper spray deployed with no reason other than to make an individual calm down. These practices are questionable at best on a person without a mental illness, but to those with it, the experience can be confusing and dangerous. Instead of a “by the book” response, there clearly needs to be a more humane way, to dealing with these crisis situations for those with mental illness in prison (Callous and Cruel, 2016). Perhaps if the individuals in charge of such inmates were better educated and more aware of their personal prejudices, they would be more inclined to question such practices. An important reason why CIT training works for police officers is the fact that it is taken seriously and made a priority by ranking officials within that body. A similar approach needs to be taken in prisons, and this starts with the basics, training and workshops. In a peer reviewed article published in March of 2016, there was an attempt to put prison officers through workshops to help curve stigmatization that may be occurring. The officers in this study attended a six-day workshop that aimed to address and fix publicly expressed stigma and the cognitive mechanisms that lead to it. The results found that there was “increased perceived knowledge and decreased stigmatizing attitudes.” This practice is one that, if used on scale, could better serve those with mental illness in prison systems and set the proper foundation for mental health services and strategies to be implemented in the future (Melnikov, 2017). 153

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Literature Review Priming Priming is a concept within psychology that explains how information or observations can influence the notion of someone or something before it has been experienced. In particular, priming is a key contributing factor to how stigma can be formed, especially in relation to mental health. In an interesting study done on priming and media stigma there was material given to a control and experimental group. This material was an article talking about a violent act. In the control group, the line “Mr. John Doe has a history of schizophrenia,” was left out while in the experimental group it was left in. This study then had the individuals read a more neutral article afterwards. After a week they were tasked with answering recollection-based questions about the article they had read. The difference in the responses by the control and experimental group were astonishing. About 43 percent of those from the experimental group answered questions in such a fashion that they believed mental illness was the cause of the violent incident. This compared to the two percent of individuals who believed it was due to mental illness from the control group (Chan, 2018). This finding alone shows just how influential a single statement can be in media to sway the memory and overall notions of the public about mental health. It can be understood how given the prevalence of media in today’s world, and the rates at which it is consumed, how news articles such as the one mentioned in the study can heavily sway public opinion with very few words. It can be reasonably assumed that some percentage of personnel working in the criminal justice system consume such media and do not understand how it can negatively impact the way in which they think, and ultimately carry out their job. This includes judges, prosecutors, probation officers, first responders, the list goes on. All of these public professions are susceptible to such priming of mental health stigma. To summarize, priming can take place through many mediums of communication, and it seems to be relevant today due to the amount of circulated media, and the people across all professions that consume it. Stigma Development in Children Although stigma is typically thought of as an adult issue, it can manifest quite early in life, primarily through media. Television is a popular activity for children, especially as it has become more accessible over time. While this might be a great tool or leisurely activity, it also starts the stigmatization process early in life. A study published in 2015 built on previous research by demonstrating how priming affects those of nearly all ages, just in different ways. The goal of 154

the study was to find the sources of stigma in children. This study also included peer to peer interactions and child to parent interactions, but for the sake of relevancy, the linkage to media will be discussed. Given how priming is such a prevalent matter, it should be no surprise that any form of it will affect young children. Most of the media covered was from the United States; however, there was one statistic from New Zealand. In 128 episodes of shows geared toward children, 46 percent of episodes had one or more references to mental illness. Of the 46 percent of episodes that referenced mental illness, mental illness was associated with traits, such as being evil or “comically stupid.” One source for children films in the United States had a staggering 34 out of 40 films have some sort of depiction of mental illness (Mueller, 2016). While the depiction of mental illness on its own may not be inherently negative, without proper education and understanding, there can be certain behaviors that are exhibited by these characters that may relate to people in the real world who have such characteristics. This is where unconscious stigma can propagate. With the effects of priming well known and understood, it can be seen how these television shows or movies are the priming material for children. A simple scenario can be theorized where a child growing up with such material may then relate an individual with mental illness to a film or show that they remember seeing from their childhood, and because of this association, they may treat this individual differently. A child growing up in New Zealand may see traits of mental illness that were associated with being evil and now have a degree of fear or apprehension towards those individuals. A glaring issue can be spotted in the legal system if that child were to be growing up and living in the United States. This individual may serve on a jury for a case involving someone who has a mental illness. Those shows from their childhood may now directly be affecting the life of someone. To conclude, the effects of both priming and harmful depictions within film and television directed at children show a strong propensity for children to stigmatize those with mental illness early and later in life. Stigma as a Global issue Stigma is not an issue affecting only specific demographics or countries, it is a global issue. While the two studies discussed previously were mainly from Western cultures, the next one to be evaluated was from South America, specifically Brazil. This study, published in 2017, looks specifically at Brazilian Media and the use of the word schizophrenia in all of its grammatical forms. As expected, there were uses of these words that were completely health and science based. Unfortunately, in the years 2008 and 2011

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when the study was conducted, medically appropriate terms accounted for about 37 percent of uses. The other two categories received the most use, associations with crime and violence at 30 percent and as a negative metaphor at 32 percent. Nearly double the number of uses from this analysis would likely result in the reinforcement of stigmatizing behavior, thoughts, or the forging of new ones. In one celebrated case called Realengo Massacre the wording of “diabolical criminal mind” was used, as well as speculation about the mental wellbeing of the perpetrator by expressing, “it is not yet known if it is the product of an illness like schizophrenia.” These characterizations and strong language certainly have prompted stigmatizing thoughts (Bevilacqua, 2017). A common vein running through this discussion is the idea that stigma is not just a time and place issue, it occurs everywhere and at any time. Whether media is affecting youth or the general public through priming content or reckless language like the study in Brazil, research shows that a movement away from damaging language and harmful innuendoes is needed while improving the medical way in which mental illness is treated. Program Intervention to Address the Issue or Problem This section will serve to discuss the ways in which this issue of stigmatization can be addressed. There will be general suggestions that can be applied across all mediums of media. There will also be a suggestion for the further study of this topic. Then finally, a specific issue with current national news media and how to diminish its impact on stigma will be discussed. First, there is the general way to help this issue – more education, better use of language, and better qualifying depictions of those with mental illness. The first is very basic, education has been known to be the great equalizer in society, the more the better. The second refers to the issue found within the Brazilian study discussed previously. The usage of the word schizophrenic was only medically accurate about 30 percent of the time. The remaining times, it was associated with crime or used as a negative metaphor. If a greater effort was made to use less socially loaded language, an immediate benefit would be making individuals with mental illness feel as though they are no longer a pariah to society. The long-term benefit would be that society would hopefully become more conscious of individuals with mental illness and how to prevent them from being stigmatized in the future. Lastly, within this list is the way in which individuals with mental illness are characterized and depicted within media. As shown in the study about children and stigma, there are a great deal of ways television for young children can

impact their view of mental illness within society. Any suggestion about this topic will result in some form of discomfort or lack of desired outcome for one party involved. On the one side, it can be argued that these shows and movies are art and should have some form of immunity from such criticism and alteration. One the other side, it can be argued that since this media is directed at younger audiences who will typically be less educated and more impressionable than older audiences that there is an obligation to keep this in mind. There is a fine line to walk here, but it seems reasonable that with better education and word choice used throughout the rest of media that this branch of media may also follow accordingly. To summarize, there are general steps, as outlined here, that can go a long way in addressing the perception of mental illness by the broader public, from young to old. A much more concise point to advocate for would be further research. While many of the topics scoured during this research talked about word choice and audience, it seemed difficult to find qualitative data on how individuals perceive mental illness solely due to media. To clarify, a study with this information would ask some amount of questions about how an individual views mental illness if they were to only use information from media they have consumed. The goal would be to get a better idea for how conscious, or unconscious individuals perceive themselves to be about this issue of stigma and how it is influenced by media. The results from this type of a study could be used to further understand how education levels affect the results. All of this information would further knowledge on what type of people may engage in stigma and how to reduce it. In short, this type of qualitative method into perceptions of individuals could be key in isolating variables that affect stigma of those with mental illness. Lastly, one specific gripe regarding media that has negatively affected those with mental illness has been the constant celebrated coverage of mass shootings and school shootings for the past decade or so. From Las Vegas to Florida, there have many atrocities in recent history at concerts and schools. Unfortunately, instead of concise coverage of fact and a swift transition, there tends to be weeks of repeated coverage motivated by ratings and views. This glaring disservice to the public aside, there is another consequence, which is the constant link to mental illness. While this is a valid concern, the instant default to it is unsettling. Imagine how an individual with mental illness feels tuning into a news outlet to see such an atrocity and to see that it is deeming a whole community as incredibly dangerous. The dismay and feeling of being the other would be indescribable. This is not helpful. This media practice has cast a very bad light on those with mental illness and has likely influenced a generation. One possible 155

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way of addressing this would be to require a mental health professional when discussing such issues on national television. It would also be best to make it punishable by fine, or other means of deterrence, to speculate on the mental health of an individual before it is known and to what degree it impacted the crime or action. In short, a focus on more accurate reporting and responsible journalism would greatly help curve stigma against those with mental illness. Conclusion Through the analysis of the issues discussed here it can be seen how there are ways in which individuals with mental illness are stigmatized in media and how it can have real world consequences. The linking of negative stereotypes to these individuals has slowed down their climb towards social equality. With better education, word choice, and more conscious efforts for appropriate representation in media, there stands a solid chance of social progress and less stigma levied towards individuals with mental illness. This issue is not localized in one particular part of the world, it is a global problem. This issue is not perpetuated by only adults, it is also relevant to children. These truths point to the fact that stigma is a difficult notion to address, but there are ways to work towards alleviating it.

Works Cited Bevilacqua Guarniero, F., Bellinghini, R. H., & Gattaz, W. F. (2017). The schizophrenia stigma and mass media: a search for news published by wide circulation media in Brazil. International Review of Psychiatry, 29(3), 241–247. https://doi-org.proxy-ship.klnpa.org/10.1080 /09540261.2017.1285976 Callous and Cruel: Use of Force against Inmates with Mental Disabilities in US Jails and Prisons. (2016, June 9). Retrieved from https://www.hrw.org/ report/2015/05/12/callous-and-cruel/use-force-againstinmates-mental-disabilities-us-jails-and. Chan, G., & Yanos, P. T. (2018). Media depictions and the priming of mental illness stigma. Stigma and Health, 3(3), 253–264. https://doi-org.proxy-ship.klnpa. org/10.1037/sah0000095.supp (Supplemental) Chen, M., & Lawrie, S. (2017, December). Newspaper depictions of mental and physical health. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/ PMC5709678/ Eisenhauer J. A Visual Culture of Stigma: Critically Examining Representations of Mental Illness. Art Education. 2008;61(5):13-18. http://search.ebscohost. com.proxy-ship.klnpa.org/login.aspx?direct=true&Au thType=ip,sso&db=eue&AN=505335650&site=edslive&scope=site. Accessed November 13, 2019. Melnikov, S., Elyan, A. T., Schor, R., Kigli, S. R., & Kagan, I. (2017). Nurses Teaching Prison Officers: A Workshop to Reduce the Stigmatization of Prison Inmates With Mental Illness. Perspectives in Psychiatric Care, 53(4), 251–258. https://doi-org.proxy-ship.klnpa. org/10.1111/ppc.12165 Mueller, J., Callanan, M. M., & Greenwood, K. (2016). Communications to children about mental illness and their role in stigma development: an integrative review. Journal of Mental Health, 25(1), 62–70. https://doiorg.proxy-ship.klnpa.org/10.3109/09638237.2015.10 21899 Slate, R. N., Buffington-Vollum, J. K., & Johnson, W. W. (2013). The criminalization of mental illness crisis and opportunity for the justice system. Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press.

Student Reflection: Research is always a time for learning and perspective shift. I went into this paper thinking I had a decent grasp on how media may impact those with mental illness, but it turns out there was much more information that helped me refine my view. The assignment outline that was given was highly conducive to a learning process as well. Foraging through the general information then diving into specifics helped with overall knowledge. This followed by the last segment of suggestion and policy observations really hit home the notion of applying what was learned. Overall the assignment was a pleasure to complete and equipped me with knowledge that will help me throughout any future career, schooling, or social interactions.

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Mental Health and the Criminal Justice System Briana Stouffer CRJ 381: Mental Health in Mental Health in the Criminal Justice System Dr. Laura Beckman Assignment The assignment was a seven-to-ten-page paper where the students were able to chose a topic that was discussed and learned about in class pertaining to persons with mental illness within the correction system. The purpose of the assignment was to expand the mind of the students in what they thought was most interesting when it came to persons with a mental illness and the criminal justice system in hopes to also help the students understand more about the topic that they choose.

Abstract The criminalization of mental illness has become a newer phenomenon within jails and prisons. The concept of criminalization of mental illness was coined in order to explain the process of incarcerating persons with mental illness due to deinstitutionalization. Through research and statistical analysis, researchers have discovered the prevalence of mental illness inside jails and prisons. Within this paper there will be three different research articles that will be discussed and reviewed to expand the knowledge about the mentally ill that have been incarcerated. Along with the research articles, programming and prevention will be discussed. Furthermore, an interview that was conducted by myself with a Sergeant from the Cumberland County Prison will also be reviewed. Introduction Mental illness is defined as “conditions that affect your thinking, feeling, mood, and behavior. They may be occasional or long lasting (chronic). These disorders can affect your ability to relate to others and function each day.” (“Mental Disorders,” 2013). Mental illness has been highly stigmatized over the years by the criminal justice system, and society. Although, it is becoming more common to hear and know about mental illness; the prevalence of mental illness is increasing in jails. The criminalization of persons with a mental illness has only increased over the last few decades primarily due to the deinstitutionalization movement that has happened across the United States (Slate, Buffington-Vollum, & Johnson, 2013). The criminalization of mental illness is a major problem in our society today as police officers and corrections officers who are meant to handle criminals are now handling persons with mental illness as well. Corrections officers and staff working inside the jails are trained to deal with inmates and the tactics that

may be needed in a worst-case scenario. But are the correction officers trained and ready to deal with the criminals who are coming in with a mental illness? What exactly are the officers and the institutions doing to help these people? These are questions that will be addressed within this paper by the use of statistical analysis and other research methods. Background and Overview Before the criminalization of mental illness can fully be understood, we need to first understand where it has all started. Deinstitutionalization was a term coined to describe removing state psychiatric hospitals and putting in place three different steps for reintroducing patients into society (Slate et al., 2013). The first step was to introduce community treatment for persons with mental illness by implementing specialized buildings that would help connect persons with mental illness with counseling, services, and health care (Slate et al., 2013). The second step was to start moving people out of the state hospitals and into the community treatment services, and lastly the third step was to divert future patients from hospitals to community treatment centers (Slate et al., 2013). This would have been a successful plan if the first step would have happened, but sadly, step one was never fully put into place; therefore, people with mental illness were being left out of the state hospitals with no help or anywhere to go (Slate et al., 2013). As more and more state hospitals closed down this led to persons with mental illness flooding the streets with no help or understanding of how to function within society, which led to what is now called criminalization of mental illness (Slate et al., 2013). This means that people who suffer from a mental illness enter the criminal justice system and become incarcerated due to a combination of society not wanting them on the streets, not having specialized state institutions, and engagement in minor 157

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criminal activities. The criminal justice system was not designed to properly take care of the mentally ill (Slate et al., 2013). In the 1970’s, the number of people with mental illness that were being incarcerated began to rise. For example, a county in California called Santa Clara had a state hospital called Agnew’s State Hospital that closed which led to persons with mental illness falling into the criminal justice system (Chaimowitz, 2011). Santa Clara County saw a three-hundred percent rise of persons with mental illness incarcerated in their local jails (Chaimowitz, 2011). Currently, there are not enough state hospital beds available to those in need, primarily due to the state hospitals closing. The number of available beds has dropped dramatically over the years. In 1955, the population was 164 million people, and there were 559,000 state hospital beds available (Chaimowitz, 2011). In 1994, the population rose to 250 million people, and the number of state hospital beds available dropped to 72,000 (Chaimowitz, 2011). The Epidemiologic Catchment Area Survey has shown that the prevalence of schizophrenia and other major mental illness’ was three to six times higher in the jail community compared to the general population (Chaimowitz, 2011). According to the U.S Department of Justice in 1999, the percentage of prisoners in jails and prisons that were suffering from the three big mental illnesses, which are schizophrenia, major depression, and bipolar disorder was sixteen percent (Chaimowitz, 2011). Numbers have also shown that on a given day there is an estimated 283,000 people suffering from a mental illness in jails and prisons, this is a major contrast in numbers to the estimated 70,000 people who are suffering from a mental illness in the psychiatric systems on a given day (Chaimowitz, 2011). Those numbers have only risen over the years; data show that an estimated ten to nineteen percent of inmates incarcerated in 2004 are suffering from one of the three major mental illnesses (Chaimowitz, 2011). As shown, the numbers of persons with a mental illness has only risen over the years since the beginning of deinstitutionalization. This causes a lot of problems for those who are suffering from mental illness due to the fact that they cannot properly get the care needed without adequate community services. Without the necessary care, persons with mental illness are suffering and possibly do not know what to do, which can lead to committing crimes like stealing to get food or money. Persons with mental illness may be disruptive to the community and reported to the police, which also leads to them being in the criminal justice system. This causes problems then for the criminal justice system because the system was not designed to treat mental illness. There needs to be programs and train158

ing for police officers as well as the correctional officers inside the jails and prisons in order to treat and handle persons with mental illness. Literature Review Review One The purpose of the first study was to measure the prevalence of mental illness inside jails and prisons and to see if there are more persons with mentall illness inside jails or inside prisons. The researchers sampled 213 inmates from a Northeastern state – 118 of the inmates were from a state prison, while the remaining 95 were from a jail (Thomas, John, & Karen, 1997). The survey consisted of all males, nine percent identified as Native American, eighty-one percent identified as white, six percent identified as African American and the remaining four percent identified as other (Thomas et al., 1997). The Diagnostic Interview Schedule was used to interview the inmates (Thomas et al., 1997). The authors found that schizophrenia was high with a 2.8 – 6.6 percent prevalence rate. They also found that eighteen percent of all inmates surveyed met some type of criteria for mental illness, and thirty percent met criteria to have some type of an anxiety disorder as well (Thomas et al., 1997). The study determined that the prison had a higher rate of mental illness compared to jails (Thomas et al., 1997) Review Two The purpose of the second study was to determine the prevalence of major mental illness’ among jail inmates who were recently admitted. The study was conducted in two jails located in Maryland, and three jails located in New York (Steadman, Osher, Robbins, Case, & Samuels, 2009). The Brief Jail Mental Health Screen (BJMHS) was used to screen the inmates who had just been admitted to the jail, typically within twenty-four hours after their court appearance (Steadman et al., 2009). The study found that the overall rate of mental illness in male inmates was 17.5 percent, which dropped to an overall rate of 11.1 percent during the second phase of the study (Steadman et al., 2009). By contrast, there was an overall rate of major mental illness in 38.3 percent of females, which also decreased in the second phase of the study to 24.4 percent (Steadman et al., 2009). Review Three The third study that was conducted focused more on the consumer, families, and jail personnel. The purpose of the study was to interview inmates who had a mental illness and understand their experience with jails, specifically a jail in North Carolina (Floyd, Scheyett, Vaughn, 2010). They conducted the study by using qualitative interviews. (Floyd et al., 2010). Their

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findings showed that the jail personnel felt worried about overcrowding when it came to the mental health of inmates. They also felt that the people who were there to help like Mental Health Centers were not willing to assist them (Floyd et al., 2010). Families felt that the whole process from arrest to release was not handled correctly. They also felt that it was difficult to get their family members who were incarcerated with a mental illness needs met (Floyd et al., 2010). Those who had a mental illness voiced that there was not a proper intake at the beginning of the process, that they did not receive proper medical attention, and lastly there was no release program to help them when they were released back into society (Floyd et al., 2010). Addressing the Problem There are multiple programs that have been implemented to help prevent persons with mental illness from crossing paths with the criminal justice system. Specifically, a program called jail diversion attempts to divert persons with mental illness from the jails and prisons (Beckman, 2019). The first government agency to support and fund jail diversion was the United States Department of Health and Human Services in 1997 (Case, Steadman, Dupuis, Morris 2009). This program has been shown to help prevent arrests and jail stays, but it has done little to help achieve a better life for those suffering from a mental illness (Case et al., 2009). When another study was done to look closer at the effectiveness of jail diversion, they found that persons with mental illness who were diverted were more likely to take their medication and spend more time in the community rather than those who were not diverted (Case et al., 2009). This policy does a decent job helping divert the mentally ill from the criminal justice system but needs to implement other ways to help persons with mental illness rather than making sure they take their prescribed medications. The program needs to help with finding a job, finding health care, and even finding a place to live. People who suffer from a mental illness may find it difficult to do these things that other people find easy. The research that has been done currently on this program and other programs is great because the world can see progress on how persons with mental illness are handled, but there needs to be more research on current programs so the world and the United States can continue their progress when handling those with a mental illness inside and outside of jails and prisons. Interview While writing this paper, I had the pleasure to interview Craig Stouffer who is a sergeant at Cumberland County Prison. I was able to ask him a multitude of questions during this thirty-minute interview. When

asked what types of training the officers go through to better understand and help inmates with mental illness, he answered “mental health first aid which is an eight hour class once a year” (Stouffer, 2019). The Cumberland county jail currently has no staffed doctors for persons with mental illness, but they have a hired outsourced medical staff from Prime Care Medical that places two psychologists on site Monday through Friday (Stouffer, 2019). Everyone is screened coming into the jail to determine if they are considered mentally ill or have any other problems which the jail may need to address (Stouffer, 2019). If a person with mental illness is incarcerated and is suicidal there are three different types of suicide watch that the jail provides. The three types of suicide watch are: constant, risk, and active. Constant is someone who attempted suicide prior to coming into the jail or immediately after incarceration (Stouffer, 2019). This type of watch is considered “one-on-one where we sit in front of their jail cell and we watch them twenty-four hours a day” (Stouffer, 2019). The longest constant watch that Sergeant Stouffer has witnessed was a total of three weeks long. Active is when someone is in what is known as a suicide smock where they are only allowed a blanket and can only use their toiletries when someone is watching them, and they are checked on every fifteen minute. Lastly, risk is similar to active where there are fifteen minute checks on the person, but they are allowed more of their toiletries such as toilet paper and regular clothes (Stouffer, 2019). There are therapy groups available to inmates with mental illness, but most of the inmates that are diagnosed with a mental illness are given a psychotropic medicine (Stouffer, 2019). When asked about where inmates with mental illness are housed inside the jail, he said “they are either in classification unit or D block which is considered the mentally ill and geriatrics block so the general population cannot get to them” (Stouffer, 2019). Roughly ninety percent of inmates with mental illness recidivate within thirty days according to Stouffer. Prime Care Medical is allowed to give persons with mental illness seventy-two hours or three days’ worth of medicine when they are released from the jail, but after those seventy two hours are up, it is the person’s responsibility to get the help that they need (Stouffer, 2019). There is only one state mental hospital that Cumberland County Prison can utilize, which is classified as a state prison, and all Pennsylvania county jails and state prisons request that their inmates with mental illness be transferred there (Stouffer, 2019). This State facility is called Torrance; and less than one percent of the applications that are submitted to Torrance are accepted (Stouffer, 2019). The only way to get into Torrance is to be in jail or prison and to have 159

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attempted to commit suicide or severely hurt someone else. Even if it was suggested that an inmate go to Torrance, they still may not be admitted if Torrance does not provide a bed (Stouffer, 2019). Stouffer said that currently there are six people inside Cumberland County Prison that have schizophrenia (Stouffer, 2019). I was curious to find out what the numbers inside the jail looked like when it came to how many people were diagnosed with a mental illness. “There are currently four inmates inside the jail that are not on any medication that act out, and around thirty percent of the jail population are on some type of medication for some type of mental illness” (Stouffer, 2019). There have been four attempted suicides and four successful suicides where Sergeant Stouffer has had to cut the person down himself; and within those eight, all of them were diagnosed with some type of a mental illness (Stouffer, 2019). As Sergeant Stouffer said “I don’t think the mentally ill should be in the jail, we’re not programmed for that, I didn’t get into corrections to help the mentally ill. They need mental health help, they need a facility opened for them to get twenty-four hour help.” (Stouffer, 2019). Conclusion The criminal justice system was not programmed to deal with mental illness, but throughout the years, primarily due to deinstitutionalization, the jails and prisons have started to have a constant flow of those suffering from a mental illness coming in and out. Through research that has been done, we have found that a good percentage of the jail populations are diagnosed with some type of a mental illness. We have also found that many of the jails and prisons do not

have any programs to help persons with mental illness transition from being incarcerated to being released back out into the community. Although there are programs that are implemented to help divert persons with mental illness from coming into contact with the criminal justice system, there needs to be more programs for them inside the jails, and more research needs to be conducted so more progress can be made to better help persons with mental illness. References Beckman. (2019). In class notes. Case, B., Steadman, H. J., Dupuis, S. A., & Morris, L. S. (2009). Who succeeds in jail diversion programs for persons with mental illness: A multi-site study. Behavioral Sciences & the Law, (Issue 5), 661. Chaimowitz, G. (2011). The criminalization of people with a mental illness. Canadian Psychiatric Assoiciation, 2 Floyd, M. R., Scheyett, A., & Vaughn, J. (2010). Experiences of consumers with mental illnesses and their families during and after incarceration in county jails: Lessons for policy change. Journal of Policy Practice, 9(1), 54–64. Mental Disorders [Text]. (2013). Retrieved November 10, 2019, from https://medlineplus.gov/mentaldisorders. html Slate, R., Buffington-Vollum, J., & Johnson, W. (2013). The criminalization of mental iIllness (Second Edition). Carolina Academic Press. Steadman, H. J., Osher, F. C., Robbins, P. C., Case, B., & Samuels, S. (2009). Prevalence of serious mental illness among jail inmates. Psychiatric Services, 60(6), 761–765. https://doi.org/10.1176/ps.2009.60.6.761 Stouffer, C. (2019). Interview with Craig Stouffer. Thomas, P., John, H., & Karen, F. (1997). The prevelance of mental ilness among inmates in rural state. Lawn and Human Behavior, 21.

Student Reflection: The reason I decided to write about the mentally ill within the corrections system is because I do not feel that society is aware of the amount of people that are incarcerated have some type of a mental illness. Society has gotten rid of hospitals that would have been used to house these people, and due to the de-institutionalization of the states mental hospitals, the mentally ill are forced to be housed within the correction system. I hope this paper is able to help people realize that something needs to be done about those who are incarcerated with a mental illness.

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Does Cryotherapy Promote Recovery From Ankle Sprains? Alison Wyland ESC 321: Exercise Physiology Dr. Turi Braun Assignment The research assignment intended to answer a question involving exercise physiology that was constructed by the student on a topic of choice. Literature reviews on the specific topic were conducted and study findings were analyzed to develop an answer to the research question.

Introduction Ankle sprains are a very common injury in athletics. Although they are extremely common, the optimal method of therapy to manage an ankle sprain is still being disputed (Bleakley et al., 2006). Ankle sprains are an injury to the ligaments where the leg and the foot meet. They occur with accidental twisting or an awkward turning of the foot. Ankle sprains are classified into different grades: grade I, II, and III, the third grade being the most severe. Inadequate treatment can cause ligaments to become loose and unsupportive, as well as decreasing the strength of the ankle and surrounding muscles (Wilkerson and Horn-Kingery, 1993). RICE (Rest, Ice Compression and Elevation) is usually used as treatment for ankle sprains. A combination of these therapeutic methods helps to reduce swelling and pain. Icing, or cryotherapy, is used for almost every injury. It is used to decrease inflammation and reduce pain, as well as helping with other factors (Ambardekar, 2019). Cryotherapy can be performed in a targeted or immersion technique. Icing athletic injuries is accepted in the clinical setting, but evidence on the effects of it are limited (Bleakley et al., 2006). Targeted cryotherapy is a strategy used to create positive effects on the rehabilitation of ankle sprains by speeding up the recovery, reducing symptoms, and promoting return of full function/range of motion. In this paper, the physiological effects of icing strategies will be evaluated to gauge whether there is strong evidence for using cryotherapy to promote recovery from ankle sprains. Modes of Application and Ankle Sprains The recovery rate of an ankle sprain can be determined by the effectiveness of edema control. Swelling can cause many problems and can reduce recovery time. There are different ways to treat and

control edema that include icing, compression, and elevation. Wilkerson and Horn-Kingery (1993) conducted a study that compared different modes of application of cold and compression and how they affected the rate of recovery and function. Thirty-four individuals, cadets and military personnel, 18-28 years old, were studied. They were to use severity scales to rate their ankle sprains. The first group was only put into a brace with elastic tape. The second group used a brace as well as a liquid-filled device that was stored at room temperature. The third and final group had the same liquid filled device as the second, but the device was frozen. Group III was to replace the frozen device every four hours throughout the day, which is not the typical way to ice injuries. When icing, the typical clinical standard is to do 20 minutes on for every two hours (Wilkerson and Horn-Kingery, 1993). Wilkerson and Horn-Kingery studied these subjects in different groups to determine which group recovered the fastest and had a faster increase toward a higher functional level. They found that there was a strong linear relationship between days of recovery and function. Ankle function was rated on a scale of 0-100, every 10 being a different level of function and 100 being full function. Groups II and III recovered the fastest at the end of the experiment and reached a high functional level faster. The groups were almost identical when it came to the total days of recovery from the ankle sprain, which was considered the time it took to reach the high functional level. Between days 5 and 7, each group was at a functional level of 10-30, which meant they were partially weight bearing or could walk with a normal gait. Groups II and III were very similar when comparing the means for the levels of function (Group II= 5.94, Group III= 6.01). It took approximately 31 days for groups II and III to recover. On the other hand, group I participants took longer to reach the level (7.89 mean) that the other 161

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groups were at; and, they were feeling recovered after approximately 40 days, concluding that the liquid filled device, frozen or not, made a significant difference on recovery and function rates. Group III did not use the typical clinical icing protocols of 20-minute intervals, but still managed to recover well (Wilkerson and Horn-Kingery, 1993). The results of this study raise the question of whether different cryotherapy exposure intervals have an effect on the recovery and function of the ankle after an ankle sprain. Intermittent vs. Standard Cryotherapy Protocols Bleakley et al. (2006) conducted a study that sought to determine the effectiveness of cryotherapy when comparing intermittent cryotherapy treatment protocols with the standard protocol for ankle sprains. This was the first controlled study that aimed to compare the effectiveness of these two approaches. Seventy subjects were studied, although 89 were recruited, and were all around 30 years of age. The standard cryotherapy protocol group consisted of 20 minutes of continuous ice application every two hours. The intermittent cryotherapy protocol group applied ice for 10 minutes, followed by 10 minutes off, then ice application for another 10 minutes. This sequence was repeated every two hours. Both protocols were applied over a 72-h period. Ankle mobility, proprioceptive exercises, and calf stretching were also incorporated with both protocols (Bleakley et al., 2006) Pain, ankle function, and swelling were measured. Baseline data showed that there were no significant differences between the two protocol groups in these particular areas. After the study was conducted over the course of a year, there were significant differences in the end. A visual analogue scale (VAS) was used to rate pain over the course of 6 weeks. Participants in the intermittent cryotherapy group had less pain during activity than the standard cryotherapy group after the first week, rating the pain at a 2.7 rather than a 4.0. For the intermittent cryotherapy group, a functional score of approximately 48 out of 100 was given, but for the standard group, a functional score of approximately 42 was given after completion of the first week. There is scientific evidence that the tissues reach peak temperatures after about 10 minutes of cooling. By maintaining the muscle tissues at optimal levels of 10-15 degrees Celsius in the intermittent group, the cells, tissues and fibers are more likely to heal faster and more efficiently than using the standard method of icing. Pain during activity over the course of 6 weeks decreased faster in the intermittent group than the standard group. By week 3, the intermittent group was at a 1.5 on the pain scale, whereas the standard group was at a 2.0. By the end of 6 weeks, pain was rated at a 0.5 with activity (Bleakley et al., 2006). Cryotherapy 162

was shown to reduce recovery time and the painful symptoms of ankle sprains by physiologically altering muscle cells and their tissues. In the Bleakley et al. (2006) study on the difference between the effects of the standard and intermittent cryotherapy protocols, the intermittent condition was also shown to reduce cell metabolism to optimal levels for a longer period of time. Cold induced analgesia, or the inability to feel pain, is short term. The study showed that intermittent protocols provide more efficient analgesia, allowing for early mobilization. The analgesia also provides and allows for early therapeutic exercises to be done in order to recover from the injury, leading to a faster recovery. This mobilization helps to heal the soft tissues and enhance collagen fiber growth and realignment. There can then be less soft tissue fibrosis, the formation of excess fibrous tissue, and decreased pain. Bleakley and colleaguesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; study shows that the ankle sprains resulted in chronic disability. Swelling causes loss of range of motion and pain. Cryotherapy causes vasoconstriction and reduces hemorrhage after an ankle sprain or any athletic injury. Lower levels of edema, or swelling, enable a greater range of motion and better ankle function. Cryotherapy and Static Calf Stretching Miners and Bougie (2011) studied the effects of different therapy methods when treating Chronic Achilles Tendinopathy. This injury is defined as pain due to the thickening of the Achilles tendon. It is also described as tendinosis, or the degeneration of the tendon in response to overuse, or tendonitis, the inflammation of the tendon. Ankle sprains can be related to these conditions, although it is usually described as an overuse injury. Achilles discomfort, pain, and function were all recorded a the 40-year-old male case study who had been having pain and loss of function for the past 3 and a half years before and after the eightweek period of nine sessions. The case study was put through many different therapeutic strategies, including cryotherapy and stretching of the calf muscle. By the sixth session, the subject rated his pain to be a 3-4 out of 10, which was considered to be a 50% improvement. After the nine sessions over the course of eight weeks, the subject had no pain (rated 0-1 out of 10 on a pain scale) and had full function and control when performing daily activities. When following up almost 7 months later, there was even more improvement. Ice was used as a therapeutic modality. The application of cryotherapy on the manâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s ankle reduced cell metabolism, blood flow, and decreased muscle spindle activity. Pairing the cryotherapy with stretching techniques decreased secondary cell injury, lowered pain levels, decreased the occurrence of muscle spasms, and improved range of motion. It was mentioned that the

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subject was using intermittent cryotherapy protocols, 10 minutes of icing and 10 minutes off, when applying the therapeutic method (Miners and Bougie, 2011). This was mentioned in Bleakley’s et al. study and was the most efficient icing protocol (Bleakley et al., 2006). Although targeted cryotherapy is shown to have positive effects when it comes to levels of function, immersion cryotherapy effects may differ. Stability and Immersion Cryotherapy Decreased postural sway and stability can cause ankle sprains and injuries. Kernozek et al. (2008) studied the effects of immersion cryotherapy on postural sway and stability. Postural sway was assessed on the injured leg after ice immersion during the baseline and posttests. Fifteen 18-29-year-old males with ankle sprains were assessed. Each of the participants was given immersion cryotherapy treatment for 20 minutes, immersed 5-7 cm below the tibial tuberosity at 0-4 degrees Celsius, in order to create numbness and analgesia for the postural sway tests. If the individual was treated for over 45 minutes with immersion cryotherapy, studies show that nerve and tissue damage could occur. After icing, the sway tests were performed immediately post-cryotherapy, 10 minutes after, and 20 minutes after. Individuals would stand on the injured leg with their arms crossed at their chest and perform a balance test to determine functional levels. Results showed that the mediolateral sway when standing on the injured ankle was higher immediately after immersion cryotherapy and decreased as time increased. The mean postural sway (± standard deviation) in the immediate group was recorded as 4.25±0.27 newtons. The means for 10 minutes after and 20 minutes after were 4.11±0.26 newtons and 3.91±0.33 newtons. A baseline mean of 3.76 newtons showed that the postural sway increased with immersion cryotherapy. The increase in postural sway and decrease in balance can be explained by the cooling and numbing of all other parts of the foot and lower leg. Numbness and cooling of these body parts rather than just the ankle can cause lack of control due to reduced sensory input from the lower extremity. As the body warmed up, postural sway decreased, improving balance over time. There was no controlled or targeted cryotherapy to the ankle specifically. Targeting cryotherapy to specific joints and areas of the ankle rather than immersion cryotherapy was found to be more beneficial and a more efficient way to aid in the healing and recovery process. In this case, immersion cryotherapy did not improve functional levels, but rather decreased balance and increased postural sway (Kernozek et al., 2008). This type of treatment could temporarily raise the risk of re-injury until sensory input is fully re-established in the affected extremity.

Further Research Therapeutic rehabilitation for ankle sprains focuses on improving postural sway and balance, as well as other functional factors. Immersion cryotherapy, which can include ice baths, was proven to have a negative effect on the function of the ankle and balance. Further research should include the risk of injury after immersion cryotherapy (Kernozek et al., 2008). If immersion cryotherapy decreases balance and increases postural sway after an ankle sprain, wouldn’t there be a higher risk for injury? Some athletes take ice baths at practice. Does an ice bath have negative or positive effects on the athlete? These questions are important when it comes to dealing with injures, specifically ankle sprains. Ankle sprains occur frequently in sports, and ice is usually used as therapy. If studies prove that immersion cryotherapy has a negative effect on the recovery of ankle sprains, athletic trainers can make sure that the athletes are using the most efficient therapeutic modalities in order to return to play faster and safer. Additionally, researchers should study the physiological effects of cryotherapy in more depth. The debate on icing injuries revolves around the belief that there are no physiological benefits to cryotherapy. Research is limited and should be studied in more depth to support the fact that the limited studies that are available have found that icing injuries decrease secondary cell injuries and muscle spindle activity, reduce cell metabolism, and decrease nerve conduction velocity, as well as many more physiological effects (Miners and Bougie, 2011). Although the studies reviewed supported targeted cryotherapy, not immersion cryotherapy, conclusions were made based on the results of the studies. Limitations including the samples themselves, working with different grades of ankle sprains, and using other therapeutic modalities along with the cryotherapy can affect the research results and conclusions. Limitations Randomization of the samples is important because the investigators do not want to create bias when studying the subjects. Bleakley et al. (2006) randomized their subjects, as well as blinding the primary investigators. Randomization reduces bias risk in an experiment. Wilkerson and Horn-Kingery (1993) randomized their subjects into three groups as well, creating results that showed significant differences in cold compression, compression with a liquid device, and bracing and taping only. The subjects were all considered to have grade II ankle sprains, which was defined as a moderate ankle sprain. This does not allow any conclusions to be made on the effects of the different modes of application on grades I and III 163

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ankle sprains, but only grade II (Wilkerson and HornKingery, 1993). Miners and Bougie only studied one individual over the course of the eight-week period. This does not allow the researchers to compare results and effects with others. The same study used different therapeutic modalities, such as thermotherapy, active release, and eccentric exercise with the cryotherapy to help the single subject recover and improve functional levels (Miners and Bougie, 2011). Wilkerson and Horn-Kingery also paired icing with compression and stated that the compression could have more of an effect on recovery of ankle sprains (Wilkerson and Horn-Kingery, 1993). This can confound the effects of cryotherapy on the individual by itself. Conclusion In conclusion, targeted cryotherapy for ankle sprains is beneficial to the individual in order to decrease the time it takes to recover, reduce symptoms and pain, and improve functional levels. Physiological effects of cryotherapy were defined as the reduction in cell metabolism, decreasing secondary cell injury, vasoconstriction, and many more (Bleakley et al., 2006). Immersion cryotherapy was proven to have a negative effect on postural sway and balance. Positive effects were found with intermittent cryotherapy protocols rather than using the standard ones (Kernozek et al. 2008). Samples, grades of ankle sprains, and the use of different therapeutic modalities were defined as limitations to the studies, which could have an effect on the results and conclusions. Further research is needed to support the physiological effects of cryotherapy and the negative, or possibly even positive, effects of immersion cryotherapy in athletes with ankle sprains or other ath-

letic injuries. Icing is an accepted therapeutic modality in the clinical setting and is used with most injuries. Ankle sprains are an extremely frequent injury in sports and learning to take care of them with the correct form of cryotherapy can help make recovery and maintenance extremely effective and efficient. Cryotherapy was proven to have a positive effect on the recovery process and overall symptoms of ankle sprains, improving functional levels by using the correct protocols. References Ambardekar, N. (2019, April 30). RICE Method for Injuries (Rest, Ice, Compression, Elevation). Retrieved from https://www.webmd.com/first-aid/rice-method-injuries. Bleakley, McDonough, & MacAuley. (2006, August 1). Cryotherapy for acute ankle sprains: a randomised controlled study of two different icing protocols. Retrieved from https://bjsm.bmj.com/ content/40/8/700. Kernozek, T. W., Greany, J. F., Anderson, D. R., Heel, D. V., Youngdahl, R. L., Benesh, B. G., & Durall, C. J. (2008, January 30). The effect of immersion cryotherapy on medialâ&#x20AC;?lateral postural sway variability in individuals with a lateral ankle sprain. Retrieved from https:// onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/pri.393. Miners, A. L., & Bougie, T. L. (2011, December). Chronic Achilles tendinopathy: a case study of treatment incorporating active and passive tissue warm-up, Graston Technique, ART, eccentric exercise, and cryotherapy. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih. gov/pmc/articles/PMC3222702/. Wilkerson, G. B., & Horn-Kingery, H. M. (1993, May). Treatment of the inversion ankle sprain: comparison of different modes of compression and cryotherapy. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ pubmed/8343781.

Student Reflection: My research paper on cryotherapy and the recovery of ankle sprains was supported by literature reviews that I analyzed throughout my writing. I found it very interesting that immersion cryotherapy was not very beneficial for ankle function and balance, whereas other icing protocols were. Being an athlete here at the university, ice bathing is something that many athletes do. Ankle sprains are also a very common injury in athletics. Knowing the types of recovery protocols and what to incorporate with the specific icing methods, such as stretching, is important for individuals to recover properly and efficiently. I was also very interested in the topic and formulated the particular research question because I am looking into Physical Therapy as a possible profession when I graduate from college.

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How Does Iron Deficiency Anemia Affect Female Distance Runners? Sydney Morgan ESC 321: Exercise Physiology Dr. Turi Braun Assignment The assignment was to write a six to eight-page research paper addressing a question in the realm of exercise physiology. The question I developed explored the effects of iron deficiency anemia on female distance runners. It covers multiple studies that look at the effects of different treatments for iron deficiency anemia and the response to those treatments.

Iron deficiency anemia is when the body lacks adequate red blood cells that carry oxygen throughout the body (Alaunyte et al., 2014). For aerobic athletes such as distance runners, iron deficiency anemia can have severe impacts on their athletic performance, since it is so important that oxygen be carried adequately throughout the body. Female athletes are at a greater risk for low ferritin and iron levels due to menstruation on top of loss by the gastrointestinal tract, sweat, and increased hemolysis during endurance training (Nickerson and Tripp, 1983). This puts female distance runners at the top of the list to be at risk of being iron deficient or having iron deficiency anemia. While many studies have been conducted for athletes of all types regarding iron deficiency anemia, this paper deals exclusively with female distance runners. The first study to be discussed was performed by Pate et al. (1993) and it looked at how iron status of female runners compared or differentiated from that of sedentary females. The participants for this study consisted of 111 active women from running clubs and road races in South Carolina and 65 sedentary women solicited by womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s organizations and employee groups. The participants fasted for 12 hours prior to their first appointment, where they then had their blood drawn and basic measurements such as height, weight, and skinfold thickness taken. The blood samples were tested for hemoglobin concentration, hematocrit, red cell protoporphyrin concentration, red blood cell count; and, from the serum, serum iron, total iron binding capacity, ferritin concentration (an indicator of iron storage capacity) and serum ferritin were assayed. Along with these procedures, all participants also filled out questionnaires regarding physical activity, dietary practices, menstrual history and demographics (Pate et al., 1993).

Pate et al. (1993) then categorized each participant into one of three groups â&#x20AC;&#x201C; normal, iron depletion, or iron depletion with anemia. The results showed that serum ferritin concentration was significantly lower statistically in the female runner group at 25.60 ng/ ml compared to the female sedentary group at 35.40 ng/ml. The low serum ferritin clarifies why there is a higher prevalence of iron depletion in the runners. Fifty percent of the female runners were categorized as iron depleted, which is more than twice as many compared to the inactive females. When analyzing the results, the data showed that the runners had a much higher percentage of carbohydrate and fiber in their diets, whereas the sedentary group consumed more meat products per week. Knowing that meat products contain larger amounts of iron helps to explain why runners may have a lower serum ferritin level, and this is one explanation for why the female runners had a lower serum ferritin level than inactive females. A conclusion was drawn that female runners are at a higher risk for developing iron deficiency anemia compared to the sedentary females, as seen in their results. The active femalesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; serum ferritin levels averaged 25.6 ng/ ml, while the inactive females averaged 35.4 ng/ml. (Pate et al., 1993). There is significant evidence to support that distance running may be associated with lower serum ferritin concentrations and that female runners will have a lower serum ferritin level than inactive women. Pate et al. also collected data that were consistent with previous studies done showing that diet can play an important role in predisposing a female to having low iron levels. Specifically, coffee and tea contain tannins that are known to inhibit the absorption of iron, and females who consume high volumes of these beverages could then be put at a greater risk for iron-deficiency related disorders. 165

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The second study to be analyzed was executed by Alaunyte et al. (2014), and it looked at how blood ferritin levels respond to the addition of iron-rich bread in the diet of recreational female runners. This was a dietary intervention study, meaning something was changed in the participants’ food consumption for a set period and changes in certain variables were examined after the intervention was completed. For this study, 11 female runners recruited from leisure and running clubs were put on a 6-week dietary intervention in which their regular bread was swapped out with an iron-rich bread developed by the research team. The iron-rich bread was called “Teff bread” and it had 5.6 mg of iron per 100g of bread. Height and weight were measured during baseline, midpoint and end as well as diet, exercise levels and blood iron levels. Upon completion of the dietary intervention period, the data were analyzed to see if there were any changes to their iron status. For many of these female athletes, at baseline their iron stores were low to the point where they were iron deficient borderline anemic (Alaunyte et al., 2014). Alaunyte et al. (2014) saw that as a result of the iron-rich bread substitution, the daily iron intake of the female participants rose from an average of 10.7 to 18.5 mg a day. This contributed to almost 50% of the daily recommendation of daily dietary iron during the study period. The results of this study showed that total daily iron intakes increased significantly, which improved iron tissue supply but did not increase iron stores themselves. The Teff bread was the main cause of the increased iron uptake, which translated into a higher iron tissue supply in the study participants. Some participants were initially iron deficient, so this dietary intervention helped with incorporating more iron during daily consumption. An increase in iron stores would allow the females to have increased production of hemoglobin and myoglobin, which are used for oxygen transport and storage in the blood and muscles, respectively. Due to small sample size and research design, the conclusion was drawn that the study showed improvements with iron status as a result of the dietary intervention; but, they are modest. Nevertheless, the Teff bread offered an effective alternative to solely taking iron supplements in the form of ferrous sulfate liquid or another iron pill (Alaunyte et al., 2014). The third study to be discussed was carried out by Nickerson and Tripp (1983) and it examined how treatment with ferrous sulfate (an iron supplement) affected hemoglobin, mean corpuscular volume, and ferritin levels in adolescent female cross-country runners. This study explained that adolescent females are at a slightly higher risk than the average person to develop or be iron deficient or anemic due to fast 166

growth during puberty, lack of iron in the diet, and a significant amount of blood loss during menstrual periods. The participants for this study consisted of 18 female adolescent runners that ranged in age from 14 to 17. They were all screened for iron deficiency after one month of training for cross country, and all the girls that tested for ferritin below 20 ng/ml were prescribed 200 mg of ferrous sulfate per day. The participants that tested below 20 ng/ml were then tested again after four weeks of taking the iron supplementation to see if there was an improvement in ferritin levels post treatment (Nickerson and Tripp, 1983). Nickerson and Tripp (1983) saw in the results of their study that the mean hemoglobin and ferritin values of those that were initially iron deficient or anemic had significantly increased after treatment. The average ferritin levels for the participants rose from about 10.3 ng/ml to 18.6 ng/ml post treatment. When considering studies that had been previously conducted, they found that a higher percentage of the participants in their study were either iron deficient or anemic (about 50%) compared to the other studies (8.8%). While the iron deficiency could have been due to training, it also could have been impacted by unbalanced diets, since it is not uncommon to see that in adolescent years. Two examples of poor diet that came to light when screening the participants were that one had skipped several meals and the other participant’s diet was based around not much more than potatoes, some vegetables, and fish. Hemoglobin increased after treatment on average by 0.5 gm/100ml and mean corpuscular volume increased by 1.1 µm3 on average after treatment. Overall, both mean corpuscular volume and hemoglobin increased in the participants that took the iron supplement, but neither of these changes were as significant as the change in ferritin levels (Nickerson and Tripp, 1983). The last study to be analyzed was conducted by Pedlar et al. (2013) and it was a case study done on the impacts of low serum ferritin on physiological tests done to assess performance. Previous studies are few and far between; but, it was hypothesized that low serum ferritin levels would yield suboptimal aerobic performance. There was only one participant, as it was a case study, and she was a female Olympic 1500m runner; so, she was considered an elite athlete. Over the course of four race seasons and an Olympic games, 25 venous blood samples were analyzed for serum ferritin, hemoglobin, and blood lactate. VO2max and running economy were measured every 8-10 months. Also, throughout the experiment, 65 threshold training runs were completed on the treadmill to monitor blood lactate and heart rate so that training could be changed and prescribed differently as her body adapted to different intensities (Pedlar et al., 2013).

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When interpreting the results, Pedlar et al. (2013) noted that the two highest serum ferritin levels (37 ng/ ml and 38 ng/ml) were taken right before championship races when an intravenous iron injection was implemented. This spiked the athlete’s serum ferritin, resulting in a level much higher than the rest of the data. For the rest of the data points, they averaged serum ferritin levels around 24.5 ng/ml, but a slight decrease was seen leading up to championship meets when the training intensity and volume increased. Higher intensity is associated with increased footstrike hemolysis and greater utilization of iron for metabolic demands and thermoregulation; therefore, it was speculated that these were all reasons why the participant had lower serum ferritin levels at the time leading up to championship meets. The participant for the study never reached iron deficiency anemia, but she was slightly iron deficient. The data also showed that personal best times for the 1500m run decreased each year (4:12.8, 4:06.7, 4:05.8, 4:03.5), meaning her best time for that given racing season got faster each year. The data showed that there was an increase in velocity at lactate threshold for the participant over the span of a few months (from 14 km/h to 15.5 km/h), but changes to VO2max and running economy were more sporadic and did not show a trend. Based on the results, it can be concluded that, although the participant exhibited low levels of serum ferritin, she was able to improve her performance in velocity at lactate threshold and her personal best times each year in the 1500m run (Pedlar et al., 2013). For each of the studies, there are some limitations that make it difficult to fully compare the collected data to what happens in real life. Many of the sample sizes for these studies were small and only contained participants from one area or region, so it was difficult to truly tell if the results from the research are accurate. For example, in the study conducted by Pate et al. (1993), all the participants were from running clubs, road races, women’s organizations and employee groups in South Carolina specifically. For the study completed by Nickerson and Tripp (1983), the sample size only consisted of 18 girls, of which only 11 were iron deficient. These limitations to sample size make it hard to be able to relate the data to the average person. Another limitation was noted in the study done by Alaunyte et al. (2014) where they were unable to fully regulate how much iron was consumed. Participants were asked to complete a food log, regarding their daily intake of Teff bread; but, this did not account for other consumed foods that may have contained varying amounts of iron (Alaunyte et al., 2014). Participants can be forgetful and therefore invalidate questionnaires or logs used to collect data for these studies. For future research in the area of iron deficiency

anemia in female distance runners, it would be great to see more studies done. Also, an interesting approach to this topic might be to split females based on age group to assess if they are more likely to be or become iron deficient at a certain age versus another. Many of the studies previously conducted have small sample sizes, so an increased sample size for another study would give a better understanding of what is truly changing with serum ferritin levels in the body. In the case study done by Pedlar et al. (2013), intravenous ferritin injections were mentioned. It would spark my curiosity to see how much of an impact these injections have on performance, and whether they run the risk of violating any ethical principles. In conclusion, iron deficiency anemia, or low serum ferritin levels, do influence female distance runners. Whether it be significant or not, there is still an effect that low iron has on performance. Through dietary intervention, supplementation, or intravenous injection, serum ferritin can be increased so that an athlete is no longer anemic or iron deficient. With the information gathered in this paper, I hope this gives insight to female distance runners how important it is to make sure they are getting the proper dose of iron. Works Cited Alaunyte, Ieva, et al. “Dietary Iron Intervention Using a Staple Food Product for Improvement of Iron Status in Female Runners.” Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, vol. 11, no. 1, Nov. 2014, pp. 1–16. EBSCOhost, search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?dire ct=true&AuthType=ip,sso&db=s3h&AN=99363532&s ite=ehost-live&scope=site. Nickerson, H. J., and A. D. Tripp. “Iron Deficiency in Adolescent Cross-Country Runners.” Physician & Sports Medicine, vol. 11, no. 6, June 1983, pp. 60–62. EBSCOhost, search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?di rect=true&AuthType=ip,sso&db=s3h&AN=SPH12800 6&site=ehost-live&scope=site. Pate, R. R., et al. “Iron Status of Female Runners.” International Journal of Sport Nutrition, vol. 3, no. 2, June 1993, pp. 222–231. EBSCOhost, search.ebscohost. com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=ip,sso&db=s3h &AN=SPH319888&site=ehost-live&scope=site. Pedlar, Charles R., et al. “A Case Study of an Iron-Deficient Female Olympic 1500-m Runner.” International Journal Of Sports Physiology And Performance, vol. 8, no. 6, Nov. 2013, pp. 695–698. EBSCOhost, search.ebscohost.com/ login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=ip,sso&db=mdc&A N=23436684&site=ehost-live&scope=site.

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Education in the Dominican Republic: Issues and Goals Carson Pennings HON 397: Selected Topics Dr. Gretchen Pierce Assignment This is a research essay that discusses the problems that face the pre-university education system in the Dominican Republic. This essay analyzes the shortcomings of the education system, but also describes goals and initiatives that are being implemented to combat the present issues.

In the words of Desiderius Erasmus Roterodamus, a famous scholar of the European Renaissance, “the main hope of a nation lies in the proper education of its youth.”1 Despite this piece of insight originating several centuries ago, it still holds true in the modern day. It is a generally accepted notion that proper education holds value and importance in the success of both individuals and nations. However, a proper education relies on an education system with the means to provide pathways to success. Unfortunately, these strong systems are not found in every country. This is the adverse case of education in the Dominican Republic. Despite improvements made over the past century, the quality of the pre-university education system of the Dominican Republic has unfortunately remained one of the shortcomings of the modern world due to deficiencies in its structure, a lack of teacher preparation, and problems with physical infrastructure. However, present day initiatives aim to shift this trend for the better. Despite the persisting issues facing the Dominican education system currently, the future for learners in the Dominican Republic seems to hold promise. Of the areas in need of improvement, perhaps one of the most apparent lies in the structure of the Dominican education system. In the Dominican Republic, the pre-university system of education is divided into three levels: pre-primary, primary, and secondary.2 These levels are divided into cycles, and

then divided further into grades: similar to the common orientation of education in the United States.3 Each level is intended for a certain age group, with the pre-primary level covering ages up to six, the primary level covering ages six to fourteen, and the secondary level covering ages fourteen to eighteen.4 Although this structure gives organization to the education system, a problem results when considering the levels that are required to be completed by law. According to the Review of National Policies for Education conducted in the Dominican Republic, only the primary level of education is “compulsory and universal, and therefore the State has the constitutional responsibility to ensure that all children have access to eight years of primary education.”5 Since the primary level is the only level that is mandatory to complete, with the exception of the last year of the pre-primary level, children are not required to complete the entire pre-primary level or secondary level of education. For this reason, children in the Dominican Republic can essentially “miss out” on five years or more of free education, which can be considered damaging to the development of skills and knowledge necessary for success. Furthermore, the requirements to advance between levels can create a problem for some students. For example, “upon completing the primary level, students take the national examinations as a prerequisite for access to secondary education.”6 Moreover, it has been found that the average scores of grade eight pupils on these

1 Eric MacPhail, “Desiderius Erasmus (1468?—1536),” Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Accessed November 19, 2019, https://www.iep. utm.edu/erasmus /. 2 Reviews of National Policies for Education: Dominican Republic 2008(Paris: Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development, 2008), 29. 3 Reviews of National Policies, 29. 4 Reviews of National Policies, 29. 5 Reviews of National Policies, 30 6 Reviews of National Policies, 30

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national examinations generally fall below the passing grade.7With this trend in mind, some students may experience a lack of confidence in their skills or a feeling of inadequate preparation, making the task of taking the national examinations a deterrent from pursuing secondary education. This is a dangerous fact to consider when paired with the statistic that “according to a cohort analysis, of 100 students entering formal education… only 52 complete the 8-year primary level.”88 A drop from one-hundred students to fifty-two students is already significant, but that number could drop even lower with the exams that are set in place. With only one full level of education being compulsory and exams that can hinder the desire for secondary education, it is apparent that the structure of education in the Dominican Republic can use improvements. At the backbone of every successful education system is a qualified teaching staff. However, in addition to the deficiencies in structure, the Dominican education system falls short in this area as well. In terms of certification and qualification, the teaching force in the Dominican Republic does not necessarily meet expectations. For example, over fourteen percent of teachers in the Dominican Republic are non-qualified.9 This may have serious ramifications on the quality of teaching that is provided in Dominican schools. Furthermore, crossing the line between “qualified” to teach and “non-qualified” to teach in the Dominican Republic is a more difficult task than one would anticipate. According to a PREAL Policy Brief, which evaluated teacher policies in the Dominican Republic and different Central American countries, “the Dominican Republic has twenty-five institutions offering teacher training programs, [but] does not have a structured system of accreditation and certification.”10In other words, there is not a concrete path to certification for individuals who want to become teachers, which only fuels the issue of non-qualified teachers in schools. In addition to these issues, there are also problems associated with the teachers that are certified to teach. In the Dominican Republic, the systems set in place to evaluate teacher effectiveness and quality are weak; they suffer from poor credibility, do not consider student learning, and are usually not systematic or regular.11 This means that teachers essentially do not have a proper basis of evaluation to reflect on the quality of 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

their teaching. As a result, it makes sense that teacher effectiveness and quality in the Dominican Republic are not quite up to par. Overall, the teaching force in the Dominican Republic poses more of a problem than a solution for the quality of the education system as a whole. Perhaps the most long-lived issue facing the Dominican education system is that of its physical infrastructure. In fact, it is agreed that this area of the education system has experienced large deficits for decades.12 For example, between 1996 and 2004, the number of available classrooms in the Dominican Republic increased from 19,000 to 29,000.13 That equates to only 10,000 classrooms over an eight year period, which is not enough to support a successful and growing education system. Additionally, even if the State wanted to improve its educational infrastructure, the support for such an undertaking does not seem to be present. Government administrations struggle to produce effort to tackle the problem, and a lack of financial resources and clear planning make this issue nearly impossible to directly face.13 In terms of finance, it is also estimated that nearly 1.5 million USD would have to be shelled out to properly renovate and rebuild schools so that they are up to standard.14 This would be hard to attain from government administrations that already struggle to rally enough support to make a change in this sector. Consequently, the issue of struggling physical infrastructure is one that has persisted for many years and prohibits the proper growth and development of the Dominican education system. Although the current state of the Dominican education system seems bleak, there are improvements being made to help eradicate the main issues. These improvements are being made in several areas of the education system. For example, to help tackle the issue of non-qualified educators, “The Dominican Republic is establishing a system of teacher certification and promotion that intends to improve the competencies of educators, professionalize their work in the classroom, and dignify their work conditions.”15 Not only will this certification system improve the quality of teachers in classrooms, but it will indirectly raise the level of quality of education as a whole. Furthermore, this issue is also being faced with help from outside sources. According to a press release from the World

Reviews of National Policies, 40 Reviews of National Policies, 40 Reviews of National Policies, 42 Federico Sucre and Ariel Fizbein, “The State of Teacher Policies in Central America and the Dominican Republic,” PREAL Policy Brief (Washington, DC: Inter-American Dialogue, 2015): 4. Sucre and Fizbein, “The State of Teacher Policies,” 6. Reviews of National Policies, 46 Reviews of National Policies, 46 Reviews of National Policies, 47 Sucre and Fizbein, “The State of Teacher Policies,” 6

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Bank in 2015, “the World Bank approved 50 million USD in financing to support the Government of the Dominican Republic’s efforts to improve the quality of pre-university education.”16 This initiative will help improve the Dominican education system in several ways through recruiting and training primary and secondary school teachers, assessing student learning in both primary and secondary schools, and decentralizing public school management.17 In addition to aid from the World Bank, the Dominican Republic has implemented vigorous goals on its own. One of these goals is the second Millenium Goal, which aims for all children to be able to complete nine full years of quality primary education.18 This initiative directly tries to combat the problems of drop-outs and lack of access to education, which will ensure that more than 52 of 100 students complete primary school. Although it will take numerous innovative goals to entirely change the quality of education in the Dominican Republic, the current objectives provide a valuable starting point and plan for success.

In conclusion, although the quality of the pre-university education system of the Dominican Republic has remained one of the flaws of the modern world due to issues in its structure, a lack of teacher preparation, and deficiencies in physical infrastructure, present day initiatives have been able to shift this trend for the better and will continue to do so in the future. Without a doubt, the youth of the Dominican Republic are on their way to becoming the hope of their advancing nation. Bibliography “Dominican Republic’s Efforts to Improve Quality of Education Receive a New Boost.” The World Bank, September 30, 2015. https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2015/09/30/ dominican-republic-impro ve-quality-education. MacPhail, Eric. “Desiderius Erasmus (1468?—1536).” Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Accessed November 19, 2019. https://www.iep.utm.edu/ erasmus. Reviews of National Policies for Education: Dominican Republic 2008. Paris: Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development, 2008. Sucre, Federico, and Ariel Fizbein. “The State of Teacher Policies in Central America and the Dominican Republic.” PREAL Policy Brief. Washington, DC: Inter-American Dialogue, 2015.

Student Reflection: During our discussions in Dr. Pierce’s HON 397 class, we focused on several aspects of Dominican history and culture. While I was interested in the topics we were learning, I wanted to get a better understanding of one of the topics we weren’t able to cover in depth: education in the Dominican Republic. Through my research, I discovered more about Dominican education than I had ever known before and was surprised by much of the evidence I was encountering. This paper is the result of my interest in the topic and the findings of my research on education in the Dominican Republic.

16 “Dominican Republic’s Efforts to Improve Quality of Education Receive a New Boost,” The World Bank, September 30, 2015, https://www. worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2015/09/30/dominican-republic-improve-quality-education. 17 “Dominican Republic’s Efforts,” The World Bank, 2015. 18 Reviews of National Policies, 53.

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The Hidden Truth About Tourism and the Dominican Republic Kyrsten Mahoney HON 397: Selected Topics Dr. Gretchen Pierce Assignment For this assignment I had to write a research paper about a topic of my choice that related to the Dominican Republic. It had to be 5-7 pages double spaced with at least 3 sources. After writing the paper we had to present our findings to the class.

As Mamdouh El Beltagui, Minister of Tourism, says, “Tourism accounts for one third of the global trade in services and has been expanding at twice the growth rate of world output.”1 With facts like this it is easy to see why people put their hope in tourism to contribute to the development of their economy. In reality, tourism is just like the sugar plantations from a century ago in that tourism is controlled by foreign multi-national corporations and elites that push the agenda of global capitalism.2 The introduction of tourism into the Dominican coastal community from the 1950’s until present has brought improvements in infrastructure as well as more employment opportunities. With this being said, the tourism industry is designed to favor multi-national corporations and has not been a successful form of development for the county itself. Although tourism is benefiting upper-class individuals, it is not helping the lower class because it is not a longterm solution for the Dominican poor, the issue of economic leakage, and environmental destruction. At the expense of the Dominican community, the multinational corporations have found a way to become successful with tourism. The improvements in infrastructure due to tourism are causing the country to increase their debt because of the building costs that are imposed on them by the companies. When multi-national companies bring their fancy resorts into these poor countries, the burden of paying for infrastructure improvements is put on the host country.3 This not only diverts funds 1 2 3 4 5 6

from other industries but requires them to take out loans from international lending banks.4 Polly Pattullo, a Dominican researcher says “However impoverished the living conditions of the local population, investors need ‘modern,’ western-style amenities to attract the tourists.”5 By putting the cost on the host country, the multi-national companies are helping themselves by getting the modern style that they need but are decreasing the development of the Dominican Republic by increasing their debt. Infrastructure is not the only apparent benefit that turns out to be harmful for the Dominican people and their economy. Tourism helps produce employment opportunities within the country which should help solve unemployment throughout the country, but instead the jobs given to Dominicans are unskilled, give low wages, and have no room for advancement.6 When tourism first entered the Dominican Republic, the hope was that it would raise the standard of living of the local population and increase the nation’s revenue.7 In order for this to be accomplished, the locals must be offered fair jobs with fair wages but this is not the case in the Dominican Republic. The common practice of the resort enclaves in the Caribbean region of recruiting top management and skilled labor from Western Europe and the United States means that Dominicans seldom work in positions of management- they are even excluded from retail operations.8

Amalia L. Cabezas, “Tourism and Social Exclusion in the Dominican Republic,” Latin American Perspectives 35, no. 3 (May 2008): 21. Cabezas, “Tourism and Social Exclusion,” 21. Tamar Diana Wilson, “The Impacts of Tourism in Latin America,” Latin American Perspectives 35, no. 3 (May 2008): 6. Wilson, “The Impacts of Tourism,” 6. Polly Pattullo, Last Resorts: The Cost of Tourism in the Caribbean (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1996), 30. Tilman G. Freitag, “Tourism and The Transformation of a Dominican Coastal Community,” Urban Anthropology and Studies of Cultural Systems and World Economic Development 25, no. 3 (Fall, 1996): 230-231. 7 Freitag, “Tourism and the Transformation,” 230-231. 8 Ibid.

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This practice of hiring European or American workers to hold higher positions marginalizes the local population and reduces Dominicans to service labor, which is the low-paying unskilled jobs. For example, women are essential to the tourist industry due to them commonly working as maids and waitresses, but they get paid significantly low amounts.9 It is extremely difficult to make a living off of this salary even when combined with a spouse’s. Tourism has become the second largest source of employment in the country only followed by agriculture, but without proper employment options for the Dominicans, there is no way for them to improve their living situation.10 Once again, this results in the multi-national corporations thriving while the local population is left struggling. The lack of well-paying jobs for local people in the tourism industry causes the multi-national corporations to get richer while the Dominicans remain in poverty. Due to the inability for the Dominican people to hold high-ranking jobs in the tourism industry, there has been no ability to solve the problem of the Dominican poor. Tourism has opened social divisions that have not previously existed and exaggerated previously existing ones.11 These newly-opened divisions are typically between those benefitting from tourism and those that are excluded from it. Tourist shops have sprung up around the resorts, but the middle- and upper-class control all of these business establishments and are the ones that make the money off of it.12 The poor are not the major economic beneficiaries of tourism. The local elite and middle-class control all the town’s secondary tourist business establishments. The majority of the local smallscale producers rely on traditional marketing patterns that put them at a disadvantage when bargaining with the elite, who are the ones that actually benefit from the demand for fresh produce.13 Jobs in the tourism labor industry do not allow the Dominican people to sustain themselves or adequately use their skills, so it is common for them to try running tourist shops. In reality, the middle and upper class control the retail shop space which leaves the Dominican poor with no way to improve their eco9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19

nomic standing. Since tourism failed to provide for the poor, there are hardly any jobs within the Dominican Republic that allow for them to get out of their current lifestyle. This situation then results in a cycle of staying poor that cannot be broken. The failure of tourism to provide for the Dominican poor can also relate to the failure of the tourist industry to increase the country’s revenue. The Dominican Republic’s dependence on imports for the tourist industry allows for the economic leakage that prohibits them from generating revenue. Economic leakage occurs when revenue generated by tourism is lost to other countries’ economies. Most of the tourists that travel to high end resorts in the Dominican Republic expect the same foreign goods that they receive at home instead of local foods. In order to meet these tourists’ expectations, the Dominican Republic has become dependent on importing food and beverages from other countries.14 The economic leakage in the Dominican Republic is relatively high, which results in less money becoming revenue for their country. In an article by the Organization of the American States it states that “As long as economic leakage related to tourism remains in the range of 45% gross receipts, the ability of tourism to generate revenue for further economic diversification will be seriously hampered.”15 By needing to import food and beverages from other countries it takes a huge portion of the revenue gained from tourism. It is estimated that only 15% of tourist revenue ever passes through to the Central Bank.16 Although money is a large factor within tourism, it is not the only thing that the tourist industry has an effect on. The building of tourist empires has caused destruction of the coastal environment which has caused mass changes in the Dominicans’ way of life. A study from the town of Luperón, Dominican Republic, shows the effects that tourism has on the overall environment and the locals’ way of life.17 The majority of the people who live on the coast in Luperón are poor and rely on the coast to survive.18 The coastal area provides resources to these people such as being able to find mangrove oysters, coconuts, almonds, and sea grapes from trees.19 It also provided them with offshore fishing spots since most did not have boats.

Ibid. Ibid. Ibid, 253. Ibid. Ibid. Ibid, 227. Ibid. Ibid. Ibid, 250. Ibid. Ibid.

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When the Luperón Beach Resort was built, many of the coconut palm trees and sea grape trees along the beach were cut down. Stone jetties were built out from the shore which direct the wave flow in such a way that sand is being carried out into the coral reefs and smothering the formerly healthy coral. If soil erosion from the construction project occurs, or if pollution from the project enters the bay, a vital link of the local marine environment’s reproductive cycle may be destroyed.20 The multi-national corporations are prioritizing the building of their resorts over the possibility of changing the ecosystem of the island forever. This is shown by their disregard for cutting down trees that help sustain the population and smothering the healthy coral reefs. They are not only ruining ways that Dominican people find food and carry out their lives, but they are in the process of hurting environmental cycles so they can make a profit from tourism, Improvements to infrastructure and more employment opportunities have been brought to the Dominican Republic’s costal community from the 1950’s until present. Even though these seem like great benefits, the tourism industry favors the multi-national

corporations and has not provided a great form of development for the country like it promised. Tourism is benefitting the upper-class individuals but not the lower class due to the inability of the industry to help the Dominican poor, decrease the economic leakage and minimize environmental destruction. Overall, the impact of tourism in the Dominican Republic has allowed for the multi-national corporations to thrive at the expense of the poor Dominican class. Bibliography Cabezas, Amalia, L. “Tourism and Social Exclusion in the Dominican Republic.” Latin American Perspectives 35, no. 3 (May 2008): 21-36. Freitag, Tilman G. “Tourism and the Transformation of a Dominican Coastal Community.” Urban Anthropology and Studies of Cultural Systems and World Economic Development 25, no. 3 (Fall 1996): 225-258. Pattullo, Polly. Last Resorts: The Cost of Tourism in the Caribbean. New York: Monthly Review Press, 1996. Wilson, Tamar Diana. “The Impacts of Tourism in Latin America.” Latin American Perspectives 35, no. 3 (May 2008): 3-20.

Student Reflection: Before this class I had already been involved in Reach Out. This year I am the fundraising/finance co-chair and going on the trip with the club to the Dominican Republic. While being in the club I gained interest in the Dominican Republic which is why I chose to take this class. Something that I find is not discussed enough is the impact on the Dominican Republic people from the growing tourism industry. I chose to do this topic based off of a piece that I read in my geography class which talked about the downsides to tourism. While writing this paper it became clear to me that the tourism industry provides false hope of improvements when in reality it helps cause a decline for the people who live there. By writing this paper it helped me expand my knowledge on this topic and become aware of the issues around tourism. As someone who enjoys traveling it is important for me to stay informed about these types of issues. The first step in fixing problems is to become aware which this assignment has helped me accomplish.

20 Ibid.

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AMD Ryzen Brand Assessment Evan Kennedy MKT 305: Principles of Marketing Dr. Mohammad Rahman Assignment This essay is an analysis as to how Advance Micro Devices, Inc. (AMD) applies marketing concepts to effectively drive sales of its Ryzen branded desktop computer processors. These concepts being to create value for AMD’s customers by designing a Value-Driven Marketing Strategy and to engage those consumers by enabling Internet Influencers.

Introduction: Companies today are realizing the needs of their consumers and are designing products to best satisfy those needs. With many firms producing similar products of greater and greater value to the customer, highly competitive markets are formed. Through competition, the diversity of products and services is expanding, and with that expansion more effective marketing strategies are required for companies to survive. Among those surviving companies is Advanced Micro Devices, Inc. Brand Overview: Advanced Micro Devices (AMD) is a company that produces semiconductor products for computer processing and is currently located in Sunnyvale, California (Advanced Micro Systems, Inc). It was founded in 1969 by Jerry Sanders, Jack Gilfford, Edwin Turney, Larry Stenger, John Carey, Frank Botte, Sven Simonsen and Jim Giles (Quindara, 2017). Jerry Sanders was previously an Executive of Fairchild Semiconductor (Advanced Micro Devices, Inc). Starting as a second-source manufacturer, AMD developed microchips designed by other firms, such as Fairchild, National Semiconductor, and Intel (Quindara, 2017). AMD also “placed a great emphasis on quality” which attributed to its growth and even introduced the INT.STD.1000 in 1984; regarded as the “highest manufacturing standards in the industry” at the time (Advanced Micro Devices, Inc; Quindara, 2017). In year 2000, AMD released the Athlon processor and became the first chip manufacturer to develop a 1-GHz processor after stepping away from developing Intel chips a few years before (Advanced Micro Devices, Inc). The Athlon helped solidify AMD’s position in the processor manufacturing market and AMD became a capable competitor (Advanced Micro Devices, Inc).

Today, AMD continues to manufacture computer processing products specifically for “high-performance computing and graphics solutions” (About AMD). To compete against Intel in the desktop processor market, AMD has developed the Ryzen product lineup of processors. Ryzen processors range from $80 to $750 and can be purchased in a variety of stores such as Amazon, Walmart, and Best Buy (Alcorn, 2019). With strategic marketing concepts such as Designing a Value-Driven Marketing Strategy and using Internet Influencers to engage its consumers, AMD Ryzen is proving to be a competitive rival to Intel. Designing a Value-Driven Marketing Strategy: One important concept in marketing is designing a Value-Driven Marketing Strategy. However, before designing a strategy, a firm must learn all they can about the market they choose to serve and understand what the customer needs or wants (Armstrong & Kotler, 2017). Without knowing the needs or wants of consumers, it’s difficult to design a product that offers any value to them. After gaining all the necessary market and customer insight, a value-driven marketing strategy can be developed with the first step being to segment the market (Armstrong & Kotler, 2017). This is referred to as market segmentation and is the process of breaking down the whole market into groups (segments) of consumers with similar behaviors or characteristics (Armstrong & Kotler, 2017). The next step is then to select one or more of those segments that are the most appealing, referred to as target marketing (Armstrong & Kotler, 2017). According to an article by Elrod and Fortenberry (2018), while an offering can be designed to offer value to everyone, an offering that is designed for specific consumers with like characteristics will often provide better results. The AMD Ryzen brand knows its customers and can thank a lot of its success due to that knowledge. In an article by AMD titled “Why Your Customers 175

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Are Buying Ryzen,” AMD claims that consumers want processors that “offers them the freedom to perform various tasks, often at the same time.” These tasks being high-performance gaming, multimedia content creating, and workstation tasks such as photo editing or video editing (Why Your Customers Are Buying Ryzen). With that knowledge, the article further states that “The product has been created around consumer demands for how a CPU should perform, and what consumers need from their systems (Why Your Customers Are Buying Ryzen).” This indicates that AMD did its research on the needs of consumers and designed a product based on those needs. Further, AMD does not target the whole computer processing market. Instead, AMD focuses on creating a product tailored specifically to gamers, content creators, and online streamers (Why Your Customers Are Buying Ryzen). A processor that is designed for the whole market is unlikely to deliver the amount of value as the Ryzen processors do for AMD’s targeted segments. The final step in designing a Value-Driven Marketing Strategy is Differentiation and Positioning. Differentiation is the idea of creating a product with a “unique bundle of benefits” for when it’s compared to competing products (Armstrong & Kotler, 2017). This allows a consumer to better differentiate each firm’s products and purchase the one that best suits their needs (Armstrong & Kotler, 2017). Positioning

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is arranging the features or benefits of the product or brand in a distinctive place in consumers’ minds (Armstrong & Kotler, 2017). An example is to compare Olive Garden to McDonalds regarding quality and price. Customers tend to think of Oliver Garden with higher quality and higher prices while McDonalds is the opposite. In the desktop processor market, AMD offers its Ryzen processors against its primary competitor, Intel (Smith, 2019). While AMD and Intel processors are very similar in many areas, there are a few minor differences that can give one an advantage over another. According to an article by Smith (2019), AMD Ryzen processors tend to differ from Intel’s processors by offering more cores or threads, while Intel’s processors offer higher clock speeds (Smith, 2019). The more cores or threads a computer processor has, the more tasks it can perform at once and the higher the clock speed, the faster a task can be performed. However, AMD is still a close competitor regarding performance (Smith, 2019). While AMD Ryzen processors are not as fast as Intel’s processors, AMD is still distinguishing its products for its target markets, who demanded a processor that can handle multiple high-performance tasks at the same time (Why Your Customers Are Buying Ryzen). When it comes to one distinguishing factor that gives AMD Ryzen a competitive advantage over Intel,

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it’s price to performance. According to an article from Smith (2019), an article from Alcorn (2019), and many other articles on the web, AMD Ryzen processors outmatch Intel when considering price to performance. As of November 10, 2019, cpubenchmark. net (2019) has ranked many AMD processors at the top of the chart for being the most valuable processors for the buck. This is a strong indicator that AMD has positioned its processors with relative performance to Intel, however at a lower cost. Now, when consumers think of AMD’s Ryzen processors they think of highly capable and more affordable products when compared to Intel’s processors. The article from Alcorn (2019) has stated that Intel is “Obviously feeling some heat from AMD” and Intel has responded to be working on more affordable desktop processors in the future. User Engagement: Another important marketing concept is user engagement. User engagement is the idea of getting a brand, company or organization involved in the lives of the consumers they are targeting to either seek out potential customers, gain customer insight, promote their products, or maintain customer relationships (Armstrong & Kotler, 2017). Among the many methods for companies to engage their target consumers, there is a growing trend for these firms to include Internet Influencers into their marketing efforts. According to an article from Stubb and Colliander (2019), roughly 58% of brands plan on using Internet Influencers in their marketing. These Internet Influencers are the popular channels on YouTube, the highly followed accounts on Twitter, the Facebook pages with many “Likes” and many other online personalities on a variety of Social Media Networks. Metrics such as Like or Dislike, number of subscribers or followers, and number of comments are ways companies can measure engagement. More specifically, firms are interested in online personalities that have certain talents, are knowledgeable, or have a persona that can influence their audiences, including target consumers (Armstrong & Kotler, 2017). Further, these Internet Influencers already have large audiences who trust their opinions and with that trust the ability to “influence” consumer purchasing decisions (Stubb & Colliander, 2019). In support of Internet Influencers, Stubb and Colliander (2019) stated that “Using influential people in social media to recommend products and brands is more effective in persuading consumers than using traditional advertising formats.” AMD Ryzen embraces Internet Influencers by enabling them to review and compare its processors against Intel’s processors (Linus Tech Tips, 2019). For example, Linus Tech Tips (2019) posted a video titled “I had given up on AMD… until today - Ryzen 9

3900X & Ryzen 7 3700X Review” and gave a fairly positive review of AMD’s higher-end Ryzen 7 and Ryzen 9 processors when compared to Intel processors. The video reached 3.2 million views as of November 6, 2019, and its audience gave very positive feedback with 121 thousand thumbs up compared to 2500 thumbs down (Linus Tech Tips, 2019). Given that Linus Tech Tips has a reputation of 9.4 million subscribers, AMD Ryzen can engage potentially millions of consumers from a single video created by an Internet Influencer (Linus Tech Tips, 2019). Even further, other popular channels on YouTube are creating videos that involve AMD Ryzen processors for reasons other than informational. One channel being JayzTwoCents who created a video titled “The Custom AMD Gaming Build is DONE... and it looks AWESOME!!!” that racked up 579 thousand views as of November 6, 2019, and the audience responded positively with 22 thousand thumbs up compared to 300 thumbs down (JayzTwoCents, 2019). JayzTwoCents’s video of building a custom PC is different from Linus Tech Tips more informational video which allows AMD Ryzen to engage consumers at a different angle and possibly a different consumer segment altogether. With multiple Internet Influencers, AMD can indirectly engage even more potential customers. AMD not only indirectly engages users, but it also directly engages them with its Internet Influencers referred to as “Brand Ambassadors” (Armstrong & Kotler, 2017). Through AMD’s YouTube channel with 277 thousand subscribers, a mini-series called “The Bring Up” showcased pc builds using AMD Ryzen processors in a video titled “TWO Small Form Factor PC Builds! The Bring Up: Episode 12.” The video received 124 thousand views as of November 6, 2019, and has received positive feedback with 984 thumbs up compared to 28 thumbs down (AMD, 2019). While not as popular as Linus Tech Tips or JaysTwoCents, AMD can still explore ways to grow its YouTube channel and find effective ways to engage consumers to spread information regarding its products (Armstrong & Kotler, 2017). Conclusion: With strategic marketing, AMD has been able to become a well-established competitor to Intel. By designing a Value-Driven Marketing strategy, AMD has taken a stance of focusing on the needs of its customers and offering the best value possible. Through Market Segmentation and Target Marketing, AMD has chosen a segment of consumers that it can best serve. Through diversification and positioning, AMD’s customers can clearly distinguish the value that Ryzen processors have to offer compared to the value that Intel processors have to offer. Also, by enabling 177

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Internet Influencers AMD can effectively reach out and engage its target market. With these marketing concepts, AMD hopes to “tackle the next 50 years with high-performance computing and graphics solutions that transform all of our lives” (About AMD). References About AMD. (n.d.). Retrieved November 14, 2019, from https://www.amd.com/en/corporate/about-amd. Advanced Micro Devices, Inc. (n.d.). Retrieved October 29, 2019, from https://www.britannica.com/topic/ Advanced-Micro-Devices-Inc. Alcorn, P. (2019, October 24). Best Gaming CPUs for 2019. Retrieved October 27, 2019, from https://www. tomshardware.com/reviews/best-cpus,3986.html. AMD. (2019, October 9). TWO Small Form Factor PC Builds! The Bring Up: Episode 12 [VideoFile]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=ndFjnaoYUG0&t=71s. Armstrong, G., & Kotler, P. (2017). Marketing: an introduction (13th ed.). Pearson. Elrod, J. K., & Fortenberry, J. L. (2018). Target marketing in the health services industry: the value of journeying off the beaten path. BMC Health Services Research, 18(S3). doi: 10.1186/s12913-018-3678-5 JayzTwoCents. (2019, August 24). The Custom AMD Gaming Build is DONE... and it looks AWESOME!!! [VideoFile]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=Ma-uJm-UQNs.

Linus Tech Tips. (2019, July 7). I had given up on AMD… until today - Ryzen 9 3900X & Ryzen 7 3700X Review [VideoFile]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=z3aEv3EzMyQ&t=. Price Performance Currently Available. (n.d.). Retrieved November 10, 2019, from https://www.cpubenchmark. net/cpu_value_available.html. Quindara, H. (2017, December 4). History of AMD — Advanced Micro Devices, Inc. Retrieved October 29, 2019, from https://medium.com/dotmachines/historyof-amd-advanced-micro-devices-inc-C4e6bfa35a24. Smith, M. S. (2019, November 7). AMD or Intel? We take a look at the pros and cons of both processors. Retrieved November 10, 2019, from https://www.digitaltrends. com/computing/amd-vs-intel/. Stubb, C., & Colliander, J. (2019, May 4). “This is not sponsored content” – The effects of impartiality disclosure and e-commerce landing pages on consumer responses to social media influencer posts. Retrieved October 31, 2019, from https://www.sciencedirect.com/ science/article/pii/S0747563219301724. Why Your Customers Are Buying Ryzen. (n.d.). Retrieved October 27, 2019, from https://www.amd.com/en/ partner/why-customers-are-buying-ryzen.

Student Reflection: The essay analysis was a rewarding challenge that revealed a real-world perspective as to how companies use marketing theory to achieve their goals. The challenge for me was identifying the marketing concepts that AMD could be using. It’s not like companies were posting their marketing strategies on the Internet for all to see. Therefore, to identify what AMD was doing, I really had to expand my knowledge on a variety of marketing topics from creating value for consumers, to differentiating and positioning a product, to creating a product mix, to pricing strategies, and more. It was a rewarding experience for me in identifying AMD’s unique approach to reaching out to its customers and it really opened me up to the unlimited number of ways in which companies can use marketing to their advantage. I look forward to seeing how marketing evolves over time in this digital age.

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Brand Analysis: Spotify Music Cooper Shirey MKT 305: Principles of Marketing Dr. Mohammad Rahman Assignment This is an analytical essay regarding the use of consumer marketing strategies in the music streaming industry. More specifically, this essay focuses on how Spotify emphasizes the concepts of consumer value and consumer engagement to maintain relevance in the digital age.

Brand Overview Spotify is an audio streaming service that originated in Sweden in 2008. Over the past decade, the service has amassed a library of over 50 million individual songs, as well as over 500 thousand podcast titles. Currently, the service has over 248 million total monthly users in 79 countries throughout the world, with around 113 million of those users subscribed to one of Spotify’s paid subscriptions (Spotify Company Info, 2019). These subscriptions offer a plethora of premium features for a variety of prices that fit the budget of any potential consumer. For example, Spotify offers low-price subscriptions to enrolled students, and a family plan that costs more than the normal subscription, but unlocks premium access for up to six people (Guinness). That being said, Spotify offers more than just streaming. The service employs algorithms that analyze each consumer’s personal music taste, and provides them with curated playlists each day, for a truly individualized experience (Levenson). This paper will take a deeper look into that experience, focusing on how Spotify manages to create and capture customer value, while also ensuring that consumers remain engaged in the service itself. Relevant Concepts and Theories: Creating Customer Value Customer value means more than just the ratio of product to price. It’s an ongoing process that requires a business or brand to constantly find ways to improve their product in a way that the consumer base finds beneficial (Brodie et al.). This can be done in many ways. In Spotify’s case, the brand focuses on making their service accessible and worthwhile to as much of the market as they can, creating a specialized offering for different market segments, and nurturing the cocreative aspect of customer value (Kothari). As far as accessibility goes, Spotify creates value in a few ways. Their service is accessible through nearly

any smart device available. This includes the Spotify desktop and Spotify mobile clients, which make up the majority of streaming outlets, but also includes smart televisions, smart watches, and even home gaming consoles. That is to say that, as long as the consumer has a smart device and an internet connection, they’re almost guaranteed to have some sort of access to the service (Wilson). This means that users are free to stream music almost anywhere, and receive the same quality of service whether they’re listening at home or at the top of a mountain. Then, when the consumer has access to the service, there are a variety of different price levels to fulfill the needs of a variety of different market segments. The introduction of segmented offerings is an important step in creating value, due to the fact that the creation of customer value starts with the brand or business itself, but ultimately derives into a process that is dominated by the consumer. That is to say that the brand and the consumer maintain a certain level of collaboration in defining the value of the service, because each individual consumer will use the service differently, and therefore have a different perception of the value of the service (Brodie et al.). With the knowledge that they must cater to different segments with different offers, Spotify has introduced a range of prices that are sure to cover the needs of all sorts of customers in different segments. As a basis, Spotify charges $9.99 per month for an individual consumer. This price point is similar across the market, with competitors such as Amazon Music, Apple Music, Google Play Music, and Tidal charging the same amount for an individual user. Spotify also aims to capture value from families with their $14.99 per month family price, which allows up to six people to access Spotify Premium. Additionally, if an individual can prove they are an enrolled student, they get a discounted Premium subscription fee at $4.99 per month, as well as free access to the Hulu television streaming platform. However, what sets Spotify apart from the competition is the availability of a free version 179

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of their service. Whereas competitors require consumers to be fully subscribed to their service in order to use it in any capacity, Spotify offers a free tier of their service that allows 30 minutes of uninterrupted music for every 30-second ad the consumer listens to. This free service feeds into a market penetration tactic that offers free users their first three months of Spotify Premium for only a dollar a month (Wilson). After three months of access to offline music, unlimited skips, unhindered track selection, and high-resolution, ad-free streaming, most users believe the service has demonstrated a level of value that supersedes the regular subscription price (Guinness). The customer captures value from the service, and Spotify then captures value from the customer. Finally, Spotify creates value for the customer by promoting the cooperative nature of co-creation. As noted earlier, co-creation is the essential meeting ground of value creation, where the producer of the product or service cooperates with the consumer’s personal needs and values. In the case of Spotify, the service itself is an infrastructure of algorithms whose purpose is to recommend new songs, artists, albums and playlists to the consumer. Additionally, Spotify’s algorithms analyze each user’s individual music preferences, then use that data to curate individualized daily and weekly playlists containing songs similar to what the user likes. These curated playlists are the essence of the free version of the service, and allow instant song selection and unlimited skips, which has the added benefit of showing off some of the features of the premium service without compromising the added value premium subscribers pay for. This gives Spotify an opportunity to universally add value to the consumer’s experience, while also personalizing the brand’s contributions to fit the consumer’s tastes (Levenson). That being said, if the consumer doesn’t find Spotify’s recommendations useful, they have at their disposal the technical assets required to create their own listening experience. The platform itself is streamlined and simple for consumers whose focus is specifically to listen to music, while also containing enough advanced features to appeal to users who want to collaborate and create their own experience. Whether the user wants a playlist for any mood, access to a variety of podcasts for their daily commute, a constant stream of workout songs, or something entirely different, Spotify provides the means for them to do so. This ensures that each individual customer can find something worthwhile in the service itself, which then improves the co-creative aspect of value (Brodie et al.). In total, Spotify has shown their ability to create and capture value from customers in a few ways. They use different channels to access their service and promote its value to potential buyers, tailor their service so that it’s useful for many different market segments, and 180

ultimately understand and promote the collaboration between the brand and the customer. As a whole, these factors create a service that customers value more than those of the competitors, which is arguably one of the most important factors to the success of Spotify, or any brand, as a whole (Payne, Holt). Engagement in the Digital Age Customer engagement is defined as “customers’ behavioral manifestations that have a brand- or firmfocus, beyond purchase, resulting from motivational drivers.” These motivational drivers include, but are not limited to, word-of-mouth influence, customer to customer activity, and social media sharing (Van Doorn et al.). In regards to Spotify, these general drivers could be specified as sharing songs, collaborating on playlists, following friends and artists, and more. Spotify facilitates engagement through social media features within the streaming service itself, but also by offering unique features that promote sharing the service’s content. Spotify stands out from the competition once again when it comes to the integration of social media into their platform. When a user signs up for a Spotify account, they may also link their Facebook and Twitter accounts. This allows the user to search through their Facebook friends and Twitter followers in order to follow other Spotify users through the app (Spotify: The New Social Network). In this sense, Spotify acts as an extension of preexisting social media platforms, with over half of the user base connected to at least one social media account (Smith). Following friends allows the user to keep up with their friends’ playlists, and see their friends’ recently played songs. On the other hand, following artists has a few benefits for the user. For one, any new releases from followed artists will show up in the user’s weekly ‘Release Radar’ playlist. Some artists also work with Spotify in order to give their followers early access to concert tickets, merchandise, and other opportunities that they likely wouldn’t have access to if they used a different service (Spotify: The New Social Network). The combination of all of these features makes the user value the service as more than just a music streaming service; given these amenities, the user is more likely to share songs, albums, and artists they enjoy with friends, and vice versa. Spotify has also tested certain live features, which add to the service and are only active at certain points in the year. One notable example is the ‘Spotify Wrapped’ feature, which lets the user access a compilation of their listening stats over the year. Users see the collective number of minutes listened, as well as their favorite genre, top 5 artists, and top 5 songs for the year. Spotify then prompts the user to share their personal Wrapped stats on social media, and users can even opt to have their Wrapped stats shown on

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Spotify’s digital billboards in places like New York City, or London’s Piccadilly Circus. This gives listeners a chance to share their individual tastes in a way that makes them feel accomplished, while the brand sees a spike in social media engagement during the duration of the event (Spotify Wrapped 2018). That being said, Spotify’s in-app ‘share’ button isn’t as easy to find as it could be, and live features don’t come around very often. If the brand were to make these features a more essential part of their service, they would likely see an increase in engagement due to increased activity regarding the motivational drivers described in the aforementioned definition of customer engagement. The service has demonstrated a strong level of engagement, with 232 million active users, millions of playlists created every day, and a collective yearly average of over 20 billion hours of music streamed (Smith), but the brand will likely have to adapt in order to maintain and increase that engagement in the future. References Brodie, R. J., Hollebeek, L. D., Jurić, B., & Ilić, A. (2011). Customer Engagement: Conceptual Domain, Fundamental Propositions, and Implications for Research. Journal of Service Research, 14(3), 252–271. https://doi.org/10.1177/1094670511411703 Company Info: http://newsroom.spotify.com/company-info/ Company Info. (n.d.). Retrieved October 31, 2019, from http://newsroom.spotify.com/company-info/. Creators, C. (n.d.). Spotify: The New Social Network. Retrieved November 14, 2019, from https://www. campaigncreators.com/blog/spotify-the-social-network/.

Guinness, H. (2018, April 27). Spotify Free vs. Premium: Is it Worth Upgrading? Retrieved from https://www.howtogeek.com/350288/ spotify-free-vs-premium-is-it-worth-upgrading/. Kothari, A. (2018, May 10). Customer Value: What it Means and How to Create It [5 Ideas]. Retrieved from https:// tallyfy.com/customer-value/. Levenson, J. (2019, October 11). Apple Music vs. Spotify: Which Service Is the Streaming King? Retrieved October 31, 2019, from https://www.digitaltrends.com/ music/apple-music-vs-spotify/. Payne, A. and Holt, S. (2001), Diagnosing Customer Value: Integrating the Value Process and Relationship Marketing. British Journal of Management, 12: 159182. doi:10.1111/1467-8551.00192 Relive Your Year in Music With Spotify Wrapped 2018. (2018, December 6). Retrieved from https://newsroom.spotify.com/2018-12-06/ relive-your-year-in-music-with-spotify-wrapped-2018/ Smith, C., Smith, C., Disney, Dmr, & Disney. (2019, September 23). 72 Interesting Spotify Statistics. Retrieved November 14, 2019, from https:// expandedramblings.com/index.php/spotify-statistics/. Van Doorn, J., Lemon, K. N., Mittal, V., Nass, S., Pick, D., Pirner, P., & Verhoef, P. C. (2010). Customer Engagement Behavior: Theoretical Foundations and Research Directions. Journal of Service Research, 13(3), 253–266. https://doi.org/10.1177/1094670510375599 What subscriptions do you offer? (n.d.). Retrieved November 1, 2019, from https://support.spotify.com/ us/account_payment_help/subscription_information/ subscription-levels/. Wilson, J. L. (2019, October 11). Spotify Review and Rating. Retrieved from https://www.pcmag.com/ review/253023/spotify.

Student Reflection: This assignment was a perfect opportunity for the class to enhance their understanding of particular marketing concepts by researching their applications in a real market. I chose to focus on Spotify because of my familiarity with the service itself, but more so because I wanted to learn how Spotify gained such a strong foothold in the music streaming industry. That being said, the research process behind the assignment proved useful in a few ways. On one hand, my research helped to broaden and solidify my understanding of key marketing concepts, such as consumer value, social media marketing, and the differences in marketing a service over a product. On the other hand, the research required to write a properly objective essay was intense, but going through the process enlightened me to many new resources that I likely wouldn’t have used for other types of writing. In total, this assignment was a great opportunity to learn more about a service I enjoy, better my understanding of marketing concepts, and become a stronger student as a whole.

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Brand Assessment for Frontier Airlines Juho J. Saukko MKT 305: Principles of Marketing Dr. Adam Powell Assignment This is complete brand assessment of Frontier Airlines focusing on the company’s strengths and weaknesses in their operations and marketing. The research also investigated the state of the market and the industry opportunities.

Introduction Frontier Airlines based in Denver, Colorado, offers ultra-low-cost flights to 111 destination in North America (Frontier Airlines, 2019). Frontier was founded in 1994 and is the 8th largest airline in the U.S. with a fleet of 96 aircrafts and over 3,000 employees (Frontier Airlines, 2019). They collected a revenue of $2.156 billion in 2018, generating a net income of $83 million (IBISWorld, 2019). Frontier is a subsidiary of Indigo Partners LLC. and cooperates some flights to Caribbean with Mexican carrier Volaris (TravelPulse, 2018). Frontier’s slogan is “Low Fares Done Right”. The Brand According to the primary and secondary research conducted, consumers find Frontier Airlines a cheap airline with nothing but the ticket included (Saukko, 2019). The company focuses on “No-Frills” -approach, meaning that all the non-essential extras are not included in the service or the price, decreasing the cost

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of tickets. Frontier wants to offer “Travel for everyone” and “Travel more often” with competitive prices (Frontier Airlines, 2019). They also market themselves as “Connecting family and loved ones”, emphasizing their focus on offering services for everybody and not just the wealthy elite (Frontier Airlines, 2019). Some consumers recognized Frontier for inconsistent performance, uncomfortable travelling, and being understaffed (TripAdvisor, 2019). The inconsistency was mostly visible in many delays, lost luggage, and poor communication in case of problems. Customers described Frontier’s planes as “flying Greyhound buses” and many were not satisfied with the seat comfort and leg space (TripAdvisor, 2019). Customers described the staff at the airports rude and unfriendly, even though the in-flight staff was found very helpful and great with customer service (KellyTM1, 2019). Another one of

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Frontier’s weaknesses is their low customer loyalty. It seems like a large portion of customers are unlikely to return due to bad experiences (TripAdvisor, 2019). Some of the more positive associations customers have with Frontier are tailored service, fuel efficiency and the overall cheap price of tickets. Frontier’s booking system lets the customers pick all the services they need and tailor their service on their own, bringing down the cost for people who just want to get from point A to point B (Frontier Airlines, 2019). The International Council on Clean Transportation assessed the fuel efficiency of U.S. airlines and found out that Frontier was the most fuel-efficient U.S. domestic airline in 2018, which is absolutely is a strength in today’s environmental climate (ICCT, 2019). With their new fleet, Frontier used 7% less fuel on comparable flights than the second fuel efficient companies Spirit and Southwest (ICCT, 2019).

a market share of 22.7%, American 21.1%, United 18.5% and Southwest 15.2% (IBISWorld, 2019). Environmental factors are adding pressure for governments to reduce carbon emissions and aviation is one of the areas that has experienced this already. European Union is planning to make flying so expensive with taxation that people would prefer trains and this taxation policy might spread all over the world. World has been running out of oil as long as people can remember but even though new oil resources are found all the time, companies are developing renewable fuels for transportation. For example, Airbus is currently working on a hybrid-electric passenger plane that is set to fly in 2021 (Bowler, 2019). World’s concerns about climate crisis is also an opportunity to Frontier as eco-friendly customers could choose their services over similar competitors just because of the green status, if promoted well enough. Recommendation

The Industry and Competitors The U.S. passenger airlines industry is a huge $1.5 trillion industry creating over 10 million jobs (Airlines For America, 2019). Domestic airlines (flights within the U.S.) had a combined revenue of $146.6 billion and international airlines (end or origin of a flight internationally) $52.9 billion (IBISWorld, 2019). Domestic growth between 2014-19 was 1.9% and expected growth until 2024 is 2.4%, however less people are projected to fly domestically in the future. International growth between 2014-19 was -1.7% but future growth is expected to be 1.9% until 2024 (IBISWorld, 2019). Biggest competitors for Frontier include American Airlines, United-, Spirit-, Southwest-, Delta-, Alaska-, and Jet Blue. There are many very similar companies in this market who offer the same basic product: transportation. Competitive prices, included services, prompt delivery of services, well developed internal processes, availability of direct flights and overall customer experience determine the success and position in the market (IBISWorld, 2019). United Airlines holds 31.1% market share of the international flights, American Airlines 25.9% and Delta 24.1%. Domestic flight market is more evenly structured as Delta has

Frontier should maintain their fuel-efficiency and use that and their other green initiatives even more in their marketing. Eco-friendliness is an aspect that attracts customers and affects the consumer decision making process when comparing different companies in the industry. According to marketing research, 88% of American consumers will be more loyal to and 92% more likely to trust a company that supports social or environmental issues (Cone Communications, 2017). Environmental sustainability is affecting consumers’ shopping trends more and more nowadays, especially in the increasing market segment of environmentally aware millennials. In addition to that, fuel costs take as much as 17.7% of the average operating budget of U.S. airlines so paying attention to fuel usage is a serious way to decrease total costs (Airlines for America, 2019). Conclusion Passenger airlines in the U.S. is an enormous industry with millions of jobs and the competition is quite tough. Frontier Airlines can be a successful company and increase their market share if they focus on their strengths and at the same time work on their weaknesses. Focusing on the green, eco-friendly status should be used even more aggressively in marketing while also working to increase the consistency of their performance with customer service. Regardless of the environmental pressures, the airline industry expects to keep growing in the future as more and more people want, and can afford, to travel. That is why Frontier’s “Travel for everyone, travel more often” -statement is very valid and important in today’s market.

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References Airlines for America (2019). Annual Financial Results: U.S. Passenger Airlines. Retrieved from: airlines.org/dataset/ annual-results-u-s-passenger-airlines/ Bowler, T. (2019). Why the age of electric flight is finally upon us. BBC News. Retrieved from: bbc.com/news/ business-48630656 Cone Communications (2017). Corporate Social Responsibility Study. Retrieved from: conecomm. com/2017-cone-communications-csr-study-pdf Frontier Airlines (2019). About US. Retrieved from: flyfrontier.com/about-us/ IBISWorld (2019). Domestic Airlines in The US. Retrieved from: clients1.ibisworld. com/reports/us/industry/default.aspx?entid=1125 KellyTM1 (2019). #frontierairlines Orlando airport. Your service is atrocious at baggage claim.n[Twitter post]. Retrieved from: twitter.com/KellyTM1/statuses.

Saukko, J. J. (2019). Marketing Research Survey: Frontier Airlines. Unpublished research manuscript, Shippensburg University. The International Council on Clean Transportation (2019). U.S. domestic airline fuel-efficiency ranking 2017-2018. Retrieved from: theicct.org/publications/ us-domestic-airline-fuelefficiency-ranking-2017-18 TravelPulse (2018). Volaris Now Selling Codeshare Flights with Frontier. TravelPulse. 8/2018. Retrieved from: travelpulse.com/news/airlines/volaris-now-sellingcodeshare-flightswith-frontier.html TripAdvisor (2019). Frontier Airlines. Retrieved from: tripadvisor.com/Airline_Reviewd8729213-ReviewsFrontier-Airlines

Student Reflection: This assignment was the major research project of Dr. Powellâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Principles of Marketing class during the 2019 Fall semester. Students were expected to use the knowledge and skills learned in class throughout the semester for an actual marketing research. Students were required to gain a full view of a companyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s operations and use critical thinking when coming up with tentative recommendations. It was very interesting to see what kind of research and recommendations marketing professionals get to do in real life jobs. The project also gave an opportunity to conduct primary and secondary research and use the broad resources of Lehman Library.

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Revised Final Research Paper Jaida O’Neal-Sloane SWK 360: Research Techniques for Social Workers Dr. Andrea Barrick Assignment This paper takes a topic chosen by the class and prepares students how to conduct empirical research.

Problem Statement The topic is kneeling during the national anthem. This is important because kneeling during the national anthem has become a major concern in the United States. This topic is valuable because it will allow people can understand the attitudes regarding kneeling during the national anthem. This study is needed because the issue of kneeling during the national anthem is a new phenomenon and there is hardly any research on the topic. Overall, the purpose of this study is to understand college student’s attitudes regarding kneeling during the national anthem. Literature Review Attitudes and kneeling in sports By focusing on patriotism, free speech, and race, researcher Kathryn Casteel (2017), was able to conclude that most Americans do not agree with any protest involving the flag or national anthem. It is clear to see that even though Americans disagree with racism, they are less likely to agree with the NFL protest because they feel as though it disrespects the country. Based on their data Olsson (2018) found that there are a lot of loyalty towards the armed forces and the flag, so when it comes to protesting of the flag, people directly relate that to disrespecting the military. Political differences and kneeling in sports (Attitudes) Casteel (2017) and authors Davidson and Lin (2018), also found a poll that showed 67% of democrats approve of the NFL protest, while only 11% of Republicans approve of the protest. This fact shows how polarized opinions regarding the NFL are. Race differences and kneeling in sports (Attitudes) Another way the issue of the NFL protest is polarized is through race, 65% of white people disapproved of the NFL protest while 74% of black people approved of the protest (Casteel, 2017; Murty, Holyfield-Moss, Vyas, & Roebuck, 2018). The results from Intravia, Piquero, and Piquero (2017) also shows data reflecting how race correlates with a person’s 186

opinion regarding NFL protesting. The numbers were very differential in their study, 90% of black people agreed with prosing while kneeling and only 37% of people who were not black agreed with kneeling as a protest. Then when discussing punishment, 100% of black people disagreed with a potential NFL punishment for kneeling, while 24% of people who were not black disagreed. Gender differences and kneeling in sports (Attitudes) There was limited research regarding gender differences regarding the NFL protest. A study conducted by Murty, Holyfield-Moss, Vyas, and Roebuck (2018) showed that 67% of females, compared to 57% of males, disagreed with the President’s opinions and views on how the NFL protest is disrespectful. Athletes attitudes and kneeling in sports Pena (2017) found that most college students, including athletes attempt to bring change to campus by protesting, this includes political and social movements. Many college athletes took in the protest many different protests, especially because the NACC has a code where they can punish a student for voicing their opinions. Regardless, it will take a while for African Americans on college and university sport teams to protest the national anthem for the Black Lives Matter Movement because they feel as though they do not have the resources and support needed to do so. Even though that is he truth in most cases, African American college students still agree with the protest of the national anthem (Murty, Holyfield-Moss, Vyas, & Roebuck, 2018). Methods The researched question during this study was “What are college student’s attitudes about kneeling during the national anthem at sporting events?”. The independent variables used were gender, race, political affiliation, and college athletics while the dependent variable was the attitudes about kneeling during the national anthem during sporting events.

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Research Design A quantitative approach was used int his study. Surveys were given to college students at Shippensburg University in a social work class. Given the smaller sample size, surveys were appropriate to give to get quick results. Quantitative approach was important to use in this exploratory study to gain more knowledge on people’s opinions regarding kneeling during the national anthem. By having multiple independent variables, the hope is to figure out the deductive reasonings as to what groups of people agreed or disagreed with the idea of kneeling. This phenomenon is a new topic that has come up more since the first time it happened in 2016. This topic has been researched, but there is not a lot. Participation The participants in this research participated in a non-random convenience sample. They were readily available and easily accessible because there were in the same social work class, so they were picked out of convenience. The students in the classroom were female, male, and non-binary between the ages of 18 and 30. The college students were Caucasian, African American, and Bi-Racial social work majors, some of which plays sports in college. The student’s anonymity was protected throughout the entire study and will continue to be protected. Participants were not obligated to write their name on the study. All information will be kept in a locked location in which only the researcher has access to the data. There was no foreseen risk, but if the topic were triggering to the participant, contact information for Shippensburg University’s counseling center and the director of the athletics through the informed consent form.

Frequency

Percentage

Caucasian

71.4%

African American

19.1%

Bi-Racial

9.5%

Male

14.2%

Female

81%

Non-Binary

4.8%

Yes

4.8%

95.2%

Republican

14.3%

Democrat

61.9%

Independent

4.8%

Libertarian

19%

Race

Gender

Athlete

Political Affiliation

Table 1. Descriptive Statistics of Independent Variables

Data Collection The data for the survey were collected personally by the researcher through paper questionnaire. This method was used because the selection of the participants was out of the selection of the participants were out of convenience. Since the students were already in class, it was easy to ask them to do the survey. The participants took the test once. The questionnaire was valid because the participants were able to understand the questions, complete it quickly, and get the same result the second time. Instrument The questionnaire used for this study had six questions. The questions focused more on demographics to see the relationship between the independent (demographics) and the dependent variables. The Likert scale was used for the dependent variables because it would allow the participants to measure their opinions easily. An even number of answer choices were used because

Figure 1

Kneeling

Male

Strongly Agree

Agree

Disagree

Strongly Disagree

Female Non-Binary

Table 2. Attitude towards Kneeling by Gender (Frequency)

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the researchers wanted the participants to pick a side. The other questions, that focused on the independent variable, were either multiple choice or yes or no questions. The measurement tool is highly reliable and valid. Test retest was used because the study was a pallet study. The results were reliable because they were consistent. The content validity was high because the constructs were clearly defined. The face validity was high because enough choices under each question were being measured properly. Data Analysis Procedure The questions in the questionnaire were mostly nominal with one ordinal question. The results from the nominal questions were shown through frequencies and percentages. The ordinal questions were measured and analyzed through the mean and standard deviation. Results Sample Demographics Listed below in Table 1 are the demographics of the participants who participated in the study. The total number of participants were 21. The participants were a majority Caucasian (71%), female (81%), Democrats (61.9%), and are not athletes (95.2%). The minority of participants are Bi-Racial (9.5%), Non- Binary (9.5%), Independent (4.8%), and is an athlete (4.8%). As for the rest of the participants, 19.1% were African American, 14.2% were male, 14.3% were Republicans, and 19% were Libertarians. Figure 1 shows a more detailed image about the participant’s political affiliation. Out of 21 participants there was 1 person who identified as Independent

Kneeling

(5%), 3 who are Republicans (14 %), 4 Libertarians (19%), and 13 Democrats (62%). Kneeling Data The following tables and information show detailed descriptions about the frequency of the independent variables and the participant’s attitudes regarding kneeling during the National Anthem. Table 2, listed below, shows the participant’s attitudes towards kneeling during the national anthem, based on gender. Seven people strongly agreed with kneeling, one was male, five were female, and one was non-binary. Eleven people agreed with kneeling during the national anthem, one male and ten females. Two participants disagreed with kneeling, one male and one female. Lastly, one female strongly disagreed with kneeling during the national anthem. Table 3, listed below, shows the race of the participants and what their attitudes towards kneeling during the national anthem. Two African Americans, two bi-radicals, and three Caucasian participants strongly agreed with kneeling. Two African Americans and nine Caucasian participants agreed with kneeling during the national anthem. While two Caucasian participants disagreed, one participant strongly disagreed with kneeling. Table 4 shows participants attitudes towards kneeling during the national anthem and their political affiliation. Out of all 21 of the participants six Democrats and one Independent strongly agreed. One Republican, six Democrats, and four Libertarians agreed with kneeling. One Republican and one Democrat disagreed with kneeling and one Republican strongly disagreed with kneeling during the national anthem.

African American

Caucasian

Bi-Racial

Strongly Agree

Agree

Disagree

Strongly Disagree

Table 3. Attitude towards Kneeling by Race (Frequency)

Kneeling

Republicans

Democrats

Independents

Libertarians

Strongly Agree

Agree

Disagree

Strongly Disagree

Table 4. Attitude towards Kneeling by Political Affiliation (Frequency)

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Discussion Based on the results of this study, it can be concluded that the majority of college students agreed with kneeling during the national anthem while a minority strongly disagreed. This differs from what Kathryn Casteel (2017) and Olsson (2018), found in their research. They figured that although people support the reasoning behind kneeling during the national anthem, they do not agree with the action of kneeling because it can be disrespectful. The findings attitudes towards kneeling based on political affiliation partially differed with the literature review. Based on the literature review, Casteel (2017) and authors Davidson and Lin (2018) showed that a majority democrat approved of the protest and a minority of republicans disapproved. Their research was limited, the researchers in this study found out that a majority people who agreed with the national anthem were democrats and libertarians, while and equal number of republicans agreed, disagreed, and strongly disagreed. Like the research found by Casteel (2017), Murty, Holyfield-Moss, Vyas, and Roebuck (2018) stated, the majority of African Americans agreed with kneeling during the national anthem. Contrary to their study, it was found during this research that most Caucasian people agree with kneeling and only a small amount disagreed. Unlike their study, this study also took in consideration of other races, bi-racial people identified more with agreeing to kneeling during the national anthem. While there was limited research on gender differences in attitudes towards kneeling during the national anthem, this research differed compared to Murty, Holyfield-Moss, and Roevuck’s (2018) research. In this study, while, more female participants agreed with kneeling, there were more females than males who disagreed with kneeling. Also, this study included nonbinary people, which was not seen in past research. These findings are important to the social work profession. It allows for social workers to understand which group of people are more likely to agree or disagree towards protest methods like this one. This could also allow social workers to better understand which methods of protesting would work during different scenarios. It is encouraged that social workers take this information and attempt to find the best way to not only support the cause, but to demand change.

There were a few limitations during this study. The sample size was too small to accurately assume how the county feels about this topic. Also, the study was limited to social work majors, who’s values mostly agree with kneeling during the national anthem, and there were more females who participated in the study than males. One last limitation was that there was only one college athlete who participated in the study. That group of people were not accurately represented during the study. In the future, it would be suggested to increase the sample size of the participants. Also, rather than find participants out of convivence, it would be best to have a random study. References Casteel, K. (2017, October 9). How do Americans feel about the NFL protests? It depends on how you ask. Retrieved from http://www.captainmath.net/ HowDoAmericansFeelAboutTheNFLProtests_ ItDependsOnHowYouAsk.pdf Davidson, B. & Lin, T. T. C. (2018). To knee or not to knee: An examination of Twitter visual content during the 2017 NFL national anthem protests in the United States. Econstor. Retrieved from https://www.econstor. eu/bitstream/10419/190368/1/C3_3_Davidson-andLin.pdf Intravia, J., Piquero, A. R., & Piquero, N. L. (2017). The racial divide surrounding United States of America National Anthem protests in the National Football League. Deviant Behavior. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01 639625.2017.1399745 Murty, K. S., Holyfield-Moss, B., Vyas, A. G., & Roebuck, J. B. (2018). African American students’ perceptions toward NFL kneeling and Trump’s reaction: Racial justice v. patriotism. Journal of Law and Judicial System, 1(4), 45-46. Retrieved from https://www. sryahwapublications.com/journal-of-law-and-judicialsystem/pdf/v1-i4/7.pdf Olsson, J. (2018). Kneeling heroes, standing heroes: The role of identity discourses in the national anthem controversy. Lund University. Retrieved from http://lup. lub.lu.se/luur/download?func=downloadFile&recordOI d=8942644&fileOId=8942679 Pena, V. (2017). Taking a stand by kneeling: An analysis of National Anthem protest coverage. Thesis from the College of Journalism and Mass Communications, 49. https://doi-org.proxy-ship.klnpa. org/10.1007/s10896-010-9338-0

Student Reflection: Doing this assignment gave me the foundations and knowledge needed to do other research papers. The literature review done in this class especially assisted me in my Assessing Organizations and Community social work class taken Fall 2019. I am very thankful for this research class. It has allowed me to gain a better understanding of research and make me enjoy research a little bit more. 189

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Personal Gender Reflection Ty Gulley SWK 420: Gender Issues in the Helping Profession Dr. Andrea Barrick Assignment Essay topic - “What does your gender identity mean to you? ” Begin by reflecting on your own response to this question. Then discuss how someone else responds to this question. For this essay, you will be required to interview another person about their gender identity. Explain to the interviewee that participation is voluntary and it is for a class assignment, but do not give details about why you are asking

Introduction

Male Social Norm

From the beginning of time, gender has been a key component of human life that has led to an estimated 7 billion living people on earth today, Bavel (2013). Since there are so many people in the world that have different opinions, viewpoints, and even cultural beliefs, the noun, “gender” can mean several things to individual people. What does the word gender identity mean to me? After a lot of thought and consideration about learning the different genders in my Social Work Genders class at Shippensburg University, gender to me means whatever the individual person identifies themselves as according to their personal decision, beliefs, and biological features. Even though some may not agree with my opinion on what gender identity means, everyone has their own beliefs which ties in with description stated above of how I view the topic.

Additionally, relating to my personal gender of choice, male, I have learned and had personal experiences through the social norm that males face. According to McLeod (2008), a social norm is the acceptable way society expects certain people or a group of people to behave. As a kid, I would always be playing outside in the woods, getting bruised and cut up from playing football, and loved to play video games with friends, who were also all boys as well. By having a very close relationship with the childhood friends I grew up with, I did not know any better of what it meant to be a boy or not. In other words, I just did what my friends did because I had a very fun time, I had a close connection, and it kept myself from being bored. This ties in with what I stated before about experiencing the social norm. I experienced a social norm pertaining to the belief of young boys because I played outside, played video games, got dirty, and had a bunch of friends who were boys as well. In addition to looking back and finding myself within the social norm of being a young boy, I have personally broken out of the social norm of what it means to be a male in today’s society in a couple different ways. Even though there are still parts of me that could still be considered to be a social norm pertaining to being a male, I have grown up, learned about myself, and have started my own belief system that has led me to where I am today. For instance, there is a social norm in society that men are supposed to be loud, obnoxious, and rowdy. In all honesty, this is the complete opposite of myself as I prefer things to be quiet and peaceful. Another social norm that society places on men is that they are always out to get after girls and just want to sleep with them. For me, respect is one of the biggest aspects in relationships but also just living life in general around anyone and everyone. This relates to myself because I have so much respect for women because of the hard work I see in my mom,

Personal Gender and Family Furthermore, from growing up in a five person household with a mom, dad, a brother, and a sister, I was raised through male and female identified family members. Since a young kid, my mom and dad taught me several ways in which relate to being a male. My dad taught me how to mow the grass, wash the car, mulch, and shovel snow in the winter. My mom on the other hand taught me the appropriate attire to where for different occasions, how to keep up with my personal hygiene, and also made sure I ate well enough to keep a healthy and balanced body. Through learning these different variations of growing up as an identified male, the type of household I grew up in could be considered as a traditional family. According to Williams (2019), a traditional family has a man and woman who are married that are primarily the head and caretakers of the house and family. This relates to the family I grew up with because of the fact I had a mom and a dad who made the rules, were married, and taught the children how to properly behave and act. 190

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my sister, and my girlfriend. Their actions have led me to breaking out of the social norm and having full respect for the female gender. Interview After interviewing Jerry about what gender identity meant to him, I had a clear idea of the individual and how they almost identically related to myself in the sense of their beliefs. Before asking Jerry about what gender identity meant to him, I made sure to explain to him that his answers would not be recorded and it was just for a class assignment so I would get a more clearer understanding of what his opinion was. When it came to Jerry’s beliefs about what gender identity meant to him, he made it clear to me that everyone has their own opinions and feelings, and as long as it does not bother him, he has no problem with peoples decisions. After listening to what Jerry spoke to me about, I realized that Jerry and I related in ways that I would have never imagined happening. Since Jerry is from a different and older generation than I am, I quickly thought before the interview that Jerry was going to say, “there’s only two genders in the world, male and female and that’s it.” As stated before, I had the tendency in my mind and fell for the social norm that society puts on the older generation that all elder people are stuck up, up tight, and have very broad opinions about gender roles and identities. Jerry and I related according to our beliefs and opinions about what gender identity means to us because we both have respect for others opinions. We both spoke about the idea of agreeing to disagree, and how sometimes even if we do not think it, our opinions could actually be wrong. Having this mindset is very important in today’s day and age because of the vast variety of cultural beliefs, political affiliations, and decisions that relate with the quality of human life. No matter what the opinion, belief, or value that one may consider, respecting others choices can lead people through a more positive track in life.

and how people view myself and gender. Another finding according to Butler- Mokoro (2018, p. 18), is the fact that males have so much dominated power within society, they are able to create several rules and also imprison any kind of gender, including males because of their dominated figure. Conclusion Due to the fact that the noun “gender” has several meanings throughout people’s opinions, viewpoints, and even cultural beliefs, there are several components that fall within the category. With the given factual information, there is enough proof that the dominated gender in society is male. After reflecting my own gender, I have come across the reasons behind the way I act through my parents, siblings, and also the friends I grew up with as a young male. Like I stated before, no matter what gender means to different people, I believe it as the personal decision, belief, and biological features that the individual feels comfortable with identifying as. References Bavel, V. (2013). The world background explosion: causes, backgrounds and the projections for the future. NCBI. Retrieved from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/ articles/PMC3987379/ Butler- Mokoro, S. & Grant, L. (Eds.) (2018). Feminist perspectives on social work practice: The intersecting lives of women in the 21st century. New York, NY: Oxford University Press McLeod, S. (2008). Social roles. Simply Psychology. Retrieved from: https://www.simplypsychology.org/social-roles. html Williams, Y. (2019). Traditional family: Definition & concept video. Study.com. Retrieved from:https://study. com/academy/lesson/traditional-family-definitionlesson-quiz.html World O Meters Website (2019): https:// www.worldometers.info/geography/ how-many-countries-are-there-in-the-world

Text Relations to Gender According to Butler- Mokoro (2018, p. 1), there are 22 nations in the world that have female leaders with the United States having a close election of one in 2016. This is a relevant point to make in terms of the dominant figure in society being males. According to the World O’ Meters (2019), there is a total of 195 countries in the world. In terms of the male gender being the dominant figure in society, this is very clear that even within nations, presidents, and leaders, there are only 22 nations out of 195 nations that have female leaders. This is a staggering ratio in terms of understanding how males are viewed not just in the United States, but the entire world. This relates to my gender reflection because of my personal gender being male, 191

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Student Reflection: After completing my Genders Social Work class, I was able to reflect on my own gender with the pros and cons that come with it. Through writing and completing my Personal Gender Reflection, I had the opportunity to ultimately think about myself and how I grew up, the differences of my gender compared to others, and the diverse views, stories, and life lessons that have shaped me to who I am today. With that being said, I was happy to reflect in the paper how my parents shaped me to be who I have become by pushing, accepting, and guiding myself. Overall, I learned a lot about myself by writing the paper and also thought in ways that I have never thought of before, until I completed the Personal Gender Reflection paper.

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Where to Invade Next Reaction Paper Zaria Robinson SWK 450: Social Welfare Policies Services Dr. Andrea Barrick Assignment Students will select one movie that is watched in class and write a reaction incorporating material discussed in lectures.

Movie Description This movie was about a man named Michael Moore who visited various countries in the world. The reason for his visit to these different countries was to compare how they view and handle certain policy issues to how the United States views and handles them. He also wanted to see what some effective ideas were he could take back to the United States regarding policy issues to make change. Moore went to several countries such as Italy, France, Finland, Slovenia, Germany, Portugal, Norway, Tunisia, and Iceland. Some of the policy issues that were discussed in the movie were education, drugs, the prison system, the workforce, and women’s rights. Movie Rationale The rationale for this movie was for people to examine how policy issues in the United States are different than those in other parts of the world. The movie causes audiences to question whether the policies in the United States are effective enough to deal with different issues. It also brings to light that there are different ways to handle certain policies. Some of those ways which were mentioned in the movie, people would not have thought of. The movie also helps to see that there are some things in policies that can be changed in the United States to better help certain issues. The intended audience for this movie was the public which could possibly include policymakers. The public can be the ones to push for changes to happen and policymakers can actually make that change. Movie Thesis Liked mentioned in the rationale, the main idea of the movie was to see what the United States can learn from the rest of the world when it comes to policy issues. By shedding light on some of the biggest policy issues such as women’s rights and taxes, people can see the effectiveness of what their policies bring versus what the United States brings. The main idea also includes looking at how the United States can

bring back the American Dream it once had. It relates to social welfare policy issues because policies are what makes and regulates America, so having the policies the United States has now, stops it from having that American Dream. Changing policies to fix these issues in an effective manner will make the United States better than what it is compared to other countries. Social Welfare Policy Points One of the policy points that was highlighted in the movie is Government-funded women’s clinics and legal abortions. This was seen in the country of Tunisia. In this country, Moore talked with women activists about how they are able to get abortions and go to clinics. They also talked about the role women had in the Tunisian revolution. Moore thought this would be something the United States could incorporate in their policies. For many years’ women have been fighting to have rights like this but because of inequality and discrimination, they cannot have social justice. An example of this would be women’s fight for voting rights as mentioned in the textbook. Another social welfare policy point that was mentioned is taxes. When Moore visited France, he learned that they pay more taxes than America, but they get more free services like free healthcare. Since they get more free services, the people do not mind paying more taxes. In the United States according to the textbook, many people do not like paying more taxes and sometimes this is because the government spending does not reflect what the majority wants (Segal, 2016). The movie stated that the United States could learn something from France in this aspect so it can get things like free healthcare as well. Movie Relevance This movie would help me as a helping person and in my professional practice in a few ways. One is that it has made me more aware of how important policies are. It has shown me that policies have a real impact on people’s lives. This is important to know because many 193

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clients I will have will be affected by these policies. For example, my client might have problems with getting healthcare and this could be because of certain policies. This movie has also shown me how important it is to advocate for clients who are affected by certain policies. Just like the women in Tunisia and Iceland had advocated for their rights. Lastly, it also made me more aware of how much I should learn more about policies since it is a big aspect of life. Opinion of Movie My opinion of the movie is that it was a really good movie. I enjoyed watching every minute of it. It was very interesting to learn about different places around

the world. I have learned a lot of things I never knew about before. I also liked how there was a comical aspect to the movie. I did not gain any new awareness about myself, but I have gained a new awareness of the United States and other countries. I gained a new awareness of how much each place differs from one another when it comes to the affairs of its citizens and country. In conclusion, this movie was really eyeopening and something that others can definitely learn from. Reference Segal, E. (2016). Empowerment Series: Social Welfare Policy and Social Programs. Cengage Education. (4th Edition)

Student Reflection: I really enjoyed writing this assignment after watching the movie Where to Invade Next. Reflecting on this movie through this assignment has made me open my eyes to the world just like the movie did. This writing assignment helped me to analyze what I saw and what I have learned. This paper has also helped to me to look at things from a social work perspective. I will now be more competent in an area of social work I never was before because of this. I will also be more prepared for my social work career in this area because of the paper. This has been one writing assignment I have enjoyed writing in my class.

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How do I submit to Write the Ship? Write the Ship is Shippensburg University’s Undergraduate Academic Journal. The Write the Ship staff is seeking fiction, non-fiction, essays, feature writing, reports and scholarly research of outstanding quality; there are no restrictions on genre, style or subject matter. The journal welcomes submissions from all departments and colleges across campus, from introductory level to upper level courses. We are now seeking student work for the 2020-2021 issue! Students who wish to have their work published must be sponsored by a professor and are encouraged to seek sponsorship for papers they feel are of excellent quality. The application for submissions must be completed and turned in with a copy of the work to be considered by the due date. Visit ship.edu/English/Write_the_Ship for a submission form, or contact our editor at writetheship@ship.edu with any questions.

Write the Ship would like to thank the following in support and help with putting this year’s edition together: • Jessica Kline for all of her hard work in creating this edition, and past editions as well. • The Provost Office at Shippensburg University for providing funding for those students who have excelled in their written work • The English Department for continuous support over the past years. • The faculty at Shippensburg University for pushing their students to submit to Write the Ship.