Write the Ship • A Journal of Student Writing 2020-2021 by Shippensburg University

WRITE THE SHIP A Journal of Student Writing 2020-2021

WRITE THE SHIP A Jour nal of St udent Wr it ing

Faculty Advisor: Dr. Laurie J.C. Cella Student Editor: Megan Gardenhour Committee Members: Nell Behta Isabella Brignola Grace Gilfert Cover: "What the World Has Come To" by Carlos Mora-Fallas Acrylic paint on canvas.

Shippensburg University 2020-2021 Write the Ship is sponsored by the Department of English, the College of Arts and Sciences, and the Office of the Provost and Vice President for Academic Affairs

Student Editor's Preface Reader, I wish to congratulate you for completing your first (and hopefully, last) year of distanced learning. Education is valuable and precious, and I have never been more impressed than by your progress and accomplishments from this past year. Without direct interaction, you have managed to pull off a big step in your life. For that, I am forever in awe. Thank you from the bottom of my heart. Write the Ship is a literary publication focused on student accomplishment and prestige, especially within this past year. The editorial board wanted to highlight not only Shippensburg University’s best essays and research, but also the students working virtually behind them. The ability to write in the midst of a global pandemic is not a common talent to possess, but the students of Shippensburg pull it off with dexterity. COVID-19 is an obstacle no one expected, and even when it persists, writing and creativity overshadow its effect. There is nothing more important than student voices and writing in a secluded time like this. The effort and dedication to this publication is exemplary and I want to take the time to address all who have poured their hearts into it. Dr. Cella and Dr. Horner, you are the building foundations of Write the Ship. You provided me guidance and support along every step of the way, and I can not thank you enough. Without both of you, this journal would not be what it is today. Jessica Kline, your hard work and expert eye provide the professionalism and grace that Write the Ship continuously strives for. Thank you for stepping into the role as our wonderful editor; your talent is like no other. As for my editorial board, thank you for your shared visions and creative support. Grace, Bella, and Nell, you are wonderful editors, writers, and colleagues. I hope to continue working with you in the future and I am excited to see where your hearts take you. I would also like to thank Dr. Bibby, Patty Hooper, Pamela Bucher, and the many other professors and staff that provided their individual contributions for this publication. Your presence and enthusiasm for more is appreciated and bigger than you know. Finally, to the readers and writers, thank you for your continued desire to learn and share your work with the world from your computers. It was an honor to read your passions, and I encourage you to keep pursuing them. Sincerely, Megan Gardenhour Student Editor

Committee Members' Prefaces Isabella Brignola: Congratulations to the students who were published. Even as professors and students are separated by screens and distance, each writer in this book has shown that distanced learning is possible, even if difficult. Readers, whether on a computer screen or on a page, take pride in surviving the past year, and join us in praising the students who managed to grow and learn six feet apart. Nell Behta: It’s a truly wonderful thing to see scholars from all different areas of expertise come together to share their knowledge in a comprehensive way. Despite the unique challenges posed by Covid-19 this semester, or perhaps because of them, Write the Ship stands out as a testament to student dedication, courage, and will. It provides a sense of connection spanning academic disciplines and individuals alike, which is vital during a time when it’s so easy to feel distant. Because of this, I want to acknowledge the tireless effort put forth by Megan, my fellow committee members, Dr. Cella, and everyone who took the time to craft and submit these essays. Your work strengthens our community even as it fights to weather the current storm. Grace Gilfert: I’ve been writing for a long time, but this was my first time editing. I want to thank everyone who submitted their work to Write the Ship and encourage them to keep trying until they succeed. If there’s one thing I’ve learned as a writer and as a person, it’s that failing isn’t a bad thing. It’s just a way to change your course of direction. Try and fail enough, and no doubt that you’ll be successful. To those of you who were published, thank you for helping the editors team put together such a lovely and educational journal. I enjoyed learning about new subject matter and being challenged by your writing, so thanks to all of our published writers for putting your voices out there for others to hear. I want to say a special thank you to Megan Gardenhour for her patience and diligence in putting this journal together. And of course, a big thanks to my co-editors Nell Behta and Isabella Brignola--I have no doubt you all did great work in creating this year’s Write the Ship journal. Editors and writers alike, you’ll go great places so long as you never give up.

Contents College of Arts & Sciences The Disney Era That Changed It All Debbie Bates.....................................................................................................................................................................................11

The Significance of Pennsylvania Hall Ashlyn Browning................................................................................................................................................................................20

Comparing Ideologies: The Liberal Phase and the Reign of Terror Ashlyn Browning................................................................................................................................................................................24

A Comparative Analysis of the Boy Scouts of America and the CCC Abigail Long.......................................................................................................................................................................................30

Music’s Impact on Memory and Advertising Kyrsten Mahoney..............................................................................................................................................................................36

Examining 9/11 and its Impact on Personal and Collective Memory Maria Maresca..................................................................................................................................................................................40

From Bethlehem Steel to Bethlehem Town Paige Smith.......................................................................................................................................................................................44

The Sight in the Rearview Mirror Keegan Fonder..................................................................................................................................................................................47

A Marathon Not a Sprint Isabella Weikert ................................................................................................................................................................................49

What is it About the Boy Next Door? A Case Study of Sally Rooney’s Normal People Ryley Flanagan .................................................................................................................................................................................52

Intersectional Female Identity Emily Hahr.........................................................................................................................................................................................58

On Our Own Laura Zemban ..................................................................................................................................................................................67

Shippensburg University’s Switch to Solar Energy: A Rewarding Endeavor Brianna Feaser .................................................................................................................................................................................69

La expresión de temas existenciales dentro de obras argentinas, “Casa tomada” y “Perfumada noche" Madison Gardenhour .......................................................................................................................................................................72

The Relationship Between Writers and Tutors Jay Harnish .......................................................................................................................................................................................76

Applying Effective Academic Strategies to College-Level Coursework Abigail Holenchik...............................................................................................................................................................................80

College of Education & Human Services Eating Disorder Research Paper Megan Herigan..................................................................................................................................................................................84

Eating Disorder and College Students Edith Odubo.......................................................................................................................................................................................90

Eating Disorder and College Students Lizzie Nee...........................................................................................................................................................................................96

Eating Disorders among Gender, Race/Ethnicity, and Age Marissa Riedy..................................................................................................................................................................................102

School Shooting Prevention: Are We Headed in the Right Direction? Alexia Laughlin................................................................................................................................................................................108

Social Policy Paper Maggie Cramer ...............................................................................................................................................................................111

Research Project 3 Jahniya Crawford ..........................................................................................................................................................................114

Generic Criticism: President Obama Eulogizes Congressman Lewis Cirsten Kelly.....................................................................................................................................................................................118

Intimate Partner Violence Sydney Kunkel.................................................................................................................................................................................124

The Effects of Rehabilitative Programs on Juvenile Delinquents’ Recidivism Jarod Smith.....................................................................................................................................................................................128

Systemic Racism in America: Police Violence, the Matter of Black Lives, and Our National Conscience Sydney Mesaros .............................................................................................................................................................................132

Color Is Only Skin Deep: America’s Promise, Systemic Racism, My Active Citizenship and “Freedom’s Song” Brianna Fry......................................................................................................................................................................................137

The Need to Restore Faith in Politics Steve Fares......................................................................................................................................................................................141

Do Athletes Who Bbuse EPO and Blood Transfusions increase Their Cardiovascular Risks? Molly Herigan..................................................................................................................................................................................145

How Does Altitude Sickness Affect Athletic Performance? Alexis Estep.....................................................................................................................................................................................149

Determination of Oxygen Uptake and Running Economy Brooks Bear.....................................................................................................................................................................................153

John L. Grove College of Business Dr. Squatch Chase Carpenter.............................................................................................................................................................................162

Ben & Jerry’s Brand Assessment Kyrsten Mahoney ...........................................................................................................................................................................167

Pura Vida Brand Assessment Morgan Landma .............................................................................................................................................................................171

Ethical Issues on Social Network Sites within Business Ashley Wagner ................................................................................................................................................................................175

College of Arts and Sciences

Write the Ship, 2020-2021

The Disney Era That Changed It All Debbie Bates HIS 203: Theory and Practice of History Dr. Brian Ulrich Assignment This assignment was meant to focus on the use of primary sources while conducting research on a historical topic of the student’s choice.

Introduction The 1990s were known for many things, such as Tamagotchi’s, AOL, Blockbuster, the Spice Girls, and wondering if Rachel and Ross from Friends would ever get together. However, to Disney, this decade changed everything. From 1989 to 1999, Disney Animation Studios put forth a series of ten movies that were all unprecedentedly successful. These movies included: The Little Mermaid (1989), The Rescuers Down Under (1990), Beauty and the Beast (1991), Aladdin (1992), The Lion King (1994), Pocahontas (1995), The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1996), Hercules (1997), Mulan (1998), and Tarzan (1999). Today, when asked about a favorite Disney villain, the usual response is Scar, Ursula, Hades, Jafar, or Gaston. The original Big Bads of Disney movies came out swinging and the audience knew exactly who they were, what they wanted, and how they planned to get it. They were bold, loud, and right in the audience’s faces about it. The style and archetype of villains is just one aspect that defines this era of Disney Animation. The era of the 90s was truly a rebirth in Disney Animation Studios that saved the studio from bankruptcy, thus giving it the name: the Disney Renaissance. In Chris Pallent’s Demystifying Disney: A History of Disney Feature Animation, he discussed two main points in regard to the Disney Renaissance. First, he goes through the economic side of the success of the Renaissance. He addressed how the movies’ successes allowed for more innovation in computer animation because more money could be spent developing technology like CGI and how it was combined with the

classic Disney “Cartooning” style of Walt Disney.1 The second point argued was about how the animation field was changed drastically by Robin Williams’ portrayal of the Genie in Aladdin as movies began to use big name stars to draw interest and then animated the character to the voice actor instead of the actor voicing to the animation.2 Pallent, however, did not discuss the changes in music, style, and story that impacted the Renaissance, nor did he bring into the fold how Disney is still profiting off of these films today. This paper will answer these questions of how these new music choices, the style of the movies, and the stories themselves impacted the Renaissance and added to its success that is still being profited off of today. To do this, we will begin our journey at the beginning. Just like every animated film, we begin with how these stories came to life from the concept, to the art, on to the animation, then the music and beyond. Next, we will move onto how what the movies final products were, how they are connected to one another through style and scope. Finally, we will end with how the Disney corporation is still profiting from the Renaissance by looking at the live action movies recently made and Disney on Broadway. I: Michael Eisner Enters the Scene Before there was Michael Eisner, there was chaos. The position of Chairman and CEO was constantly being tossed around to different men who were trying to make power grabs at the company. It was not until Eisner took over that there was cohesion within the organization. Eisner was an up-and-comer in the industry; people thought he was a clever man with a

1 Chris Pallant. Demystifying Disney: A History of Disney Feature Animation. (London: Continuum, 2011). http://search.ebscohost.com/login. aspx?direct=true&AuthType=ip, sso&db=e000xna&AN=399752&site=ehost-live&scope=site. 2 Chris Pallant. Demystifying Disney: A History of Disney Feature Animation. (London: Continuum, 2011). http://search.ebscohost.com/login. aspx?direct=true&AuthType=ip, sso&db=e000xna&AN=399752&site=ehost-live&scope=site.

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mind for the big picture. He was able to work his way up from an assistant at ABC to become the President of Paramount Pictures. Since Eisner’s childhood, he admired Disney and grew up loving Disney. He loved the Saturday morning cartoons for the simplicity of the animation but the complexity of the process. He was well-known for his ability to make “rapid decisions” and for having a “child-like energy” that helped him move up from assistant to President.3 In the early 1980s the power struggle began once Roy Disney stepped down. Then, Eisner threw his hat into the ring but wanted to be able to control both the Walt Disney Company’s movies and the parks that were being formed, but he was not given the job originally. However, once Disney agreed to let Eisner run both the movies and the parks, he took over as Chairman and CEO in 1984. This is when Eisner really began to make his mark on the Disney Company’s future. He remembered how much he adored Saturday morning cartoons as a child and began adding regularly scheduled programs back on Disney Channel, as well as a block of limited animated shows in the mornings.4 During the turmoil of different CEO’s, the Disney Company’s stock had fallen and the company feared going bankrupt, but Eisner was determined to keep the animation studio alive.5 Eisner just had to find the magic that he knew Walt was able to capture. He heard stories from different artists who worked with Walt and he found the system that made the stories as amazing as they had been under him that they had lost in the “Dark Ages”: Walt would tell a story and it was written down as he spoke as a way to fully flesh out the story aspect of the process. This is how the process of movie making began for the Disney Renaissance. Those with ideas for movies had to be able to tell the story well enough for Eisner to agree to it, as he didn’t want to make something “he could only sell once.”6 This meant that he wanted to be able to sell the same material in a different form, whether it be at the parks, on tv, or on merchandise. In 1989, kicking off the decade for the Renaissance, the team directors for the movie that would become The Little Mermaid wrote the screenplay as well as directed to ensure cohesion from the story all the way through to the end. Through the Renaissance in the 90s, Eisner got a reputation in the industry as the “McDonald’s of film” for how quickly he was able to release movies.7 This re-imagining of what Disney Animation could do is what began differentiating this era apart from all of the rest. The company had one

guy in charge who had a vision much like Walt did when he was running the studio. This vision would help to create the most important era of Disney Animation. II: Conceptualizing a New Era Concept is what built the Renaissance. It is what set the stories of this era apart from those of the Dark Ages that came after Walt’s death, and even the movies made while Walt was alive. They are so drastically, thematically different than those that came before. They all started as stories that were further developed and they all had an overarching theme for the viewers to gain an understanding. A lot of the movies that came before this era, such as The Black Cauldron (1985), for example, were too plot-oriented, leaving no time for character development. However, when it came to these new movies the creators wanted to make sure that all the characters had depth, so that the audience could be in favor of them while watching. The best example of conceptualizing is Beauty and the Beast. In this movie, the challenge was for the writers and story artists to find a way to make the Beast look like a protagonist who the audience roots for throughout the movie. Even though, he does malicious things like kidnap Belle’s father and then Belle, keeping her captive in his castle. All these acts in any other film would make him look like an antagonist, but in this one he was a protagonist. It was not until they recognized that the Beast was the one with the struggles to overcome more so than Belle, the rest of the story began to unfold. They were able to put in dialogue between Cogsworth and Lumiere about him growing as a person and the artists were able to convey in Beast’s body language, even subtly, the changes he was making as a character from start to finish. For Belle, her story was plot driven mostly as things happened to her. She only really took control of this situation twice: once when she traded places of captivity for her father, and then when she went back to help save the Beast from the mob. For the Beast, or Adam as he becomes, it is his growth as a character that gets the focus. This is something new that appeared in the Renaissance; giving characters real development to guide the audience through the story. In the Black Cauldron, the whole movie was the plot, there was no time left for the audience to really meet the characters on a personal level that would connect them to the protagonist and be willing to experience the journey with them.

3 Joe Flower, in Prince of the Magic Kingdom: Michael Eisner and the Re-Making of Disney (New York, New York: J. Wiley, 1991), 69. 4 Flower, Prince of the Magic Kingdom, 180. 5 Flower, Prince of the Magic Kingdom, 174. 6 Joe Flower, in Prince of the Magic Kingdom: Michael Eisner and the Re-Making of Disney (New York, New York: J. Wiley, 1991), 150. 7 Joe Flower, in Prince of the Magic Kingdom, 274.

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Figure 1: Scott Caple, Layout ArtFigure

Artistic Teams Another aspect of creating the proper concept came from the artistic teams. When it came to the realism portrayed in animation the story artists wanted to make sure they were making something authentic. To make sure this authenticity was present, artists would travel to places that inspired the movie. In, The Lion King, the team traveled to the African Savannah for a safari and observed how the animals acted in their natural environment. While there, the team even picked up the phrase, “Hakuna Matata, ” from their tour guide. This phrase became one of the best-known Disney songs ever made.8 For Tarzan, the team traveled to the African jungles to observe gorillas to inspire artists on the actions of the animals for detail. It is also where Phil Collins recognized sounds of tribes that were very raw and were the inspiration for what became the song “Trashin’ the Camp.”9 During the making of The Hunchback of Notre Dame, the creative team visited France for inspiration of medieval architecture.

1.2: Production Still, Mulan

The most important location, the artistic team visited was for Mulan. The team traveled all around China for inspiration. Locations throughout the movie, especially the Great Wall, and the village from which Mulan comes from were inspired by the many villages they visited. The drum in the tower at the beginning of Mulan, to announce the arrival of the Emperor’s messengers, was an identical copy of a real one seen in Jiayuguan by one of the artists.10 When they visited the Museum of the Qin and Mausoleum of Qin Shi Huang, the team saw the vast amount of life-sized soldier statues that had been buried there and they became the inspiration behind the characters’ outfits in the movie. All the soldiers had the gowns, leggings, belts, and soft shoes which is what they wore in the movie as well. The weapons found on these soldiers, including spears, bows and arrows, and swords can all be seen being used in Mulan during the battle scene as well as during the montage for the song “Make a Man Out of You.”11

Figure 2: Mausoleum of Qin Shi Huang and sketches of soldiers based on findings in mausoleum.

8 9 10 11

Jeff Kurtti, The Art of Mulan (New York, New York: Hyperion, 1998), 16. Howard Green, The Tarzan Chronicles (New York, New York: Hyperion, 1999), 161. Jeff Kurtti, The Art of Mulan (New York, New York: Hyperion, 1998), 58. Kurtti, The Art of Mulan (New York, New York: Hyperion, 1998), 57.

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These details add a sense of authenticity to the movies that could be accused of “cultural meddling.”12 Eisner, the directors, writers, and artists knew that when adapting something they had to respect the culture from which it came, while also being truthful to the spirit of a Disney movie. As Thomas Schumacher, the Vice President of Disney Animation, puts it, “Storytellers for all time have taken core story material and adapted and changed it for their audience, their era, and their point of view.”13 With Mulan, especially, the creators did just that. They recognized their limitations to the story as an outsider, respected the material they were working with, did their background work, and were able to liberate a new story from the original for a new generation. Adaptation Another perception that Disney animation used in creating new ideas was adapting works of others. This came in the form of Hans Christian Anderson’s fairytales (The Little Mermaid), the Arabian Nights fable (Aladdin), Greek mythology (Hercules), historical figures (Mulan, Pocahontas), novels (Hunchback of Notre Dame, Tarzan, Beauty and the Beast), and even William Shakespeare’s plays (The Lion King). Each of these adaptions, however, came with their own struggles for the writers and artists to overcome. The first movie made in this era, The Little Mermaid, was still trying to be adapted to a movie by directing/ writing team John Musker and Ron Clements when they realized they had a problem. The original source material they were using had a melancholy ending, which was not very Disney at all. They knew they could not have their main heroine turn into sea foam when she realizes the man she loves, does not love her back, so they had to make adaptions and some changes to the overall plot. They added Ursula, the first of many memorable villains, who at the time was unnamed. They started with a ten-page story that was then expanded to twenty pages when Eisner began to like the new concept they developed. Musker and Clements knew they had a story that could be truly cinematic and fixed the plot to the overall story until it was perfect and more Disney-esque.14 The story behind how director Mike Gabriel came up with the idea to adapt Pocahontas was a pretty simple one: he was at Thanksgiving dinner and thought about the Native Americans and the story of Pocahontas as a historical legend came to his mind 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

and he ran with it.15 Adding Eric Goldberg to his director team, they set off and pitched the movie to Peter Schneider, the President of Feature Animation, and he was sold on the different possibilities the story could take as there was no singular source about the relationship between Pocahontas and John Smith.16 The struggle they found themselves facing with this movie was that the story did not fit into what director Eric Goldberg calls the “Disney soufflé, ” meaning it did not fit with the mold of the other movies that came before it. It did not have the “cartoony” feel that usually came with a Disney movie with “some serious stuff, and some light and frothy stuff.”17 It stood on a ground of its own and once the directors realized that they did not have to fit the mold, they can create their own, the story flowed more easily. The creative team realized they had a story about topics more complex than star-crossed lovers; they had a complicated story about race and intolerance. The plan then shifted to how to tell that story in a “Disney way, ” appropriate for young children as well as adults to help them “gain a greater understanding of themselves and the world around them.”18 This is the reason the concept part of the creative process is one of the most crucial to a film. It sets the course for where the rest of the film will go. If the concept is not there, the rest of the film will not be strong. All of these concepts go back to the Walt Disney idea of storytelling. All directors, writers, and artists are forming a story and the way they tell it changes with each movie, but the basis behind all of them is that these creative teams developed a concept into a full-fledged story that took a vast amount of teamwork to make happen. Movies begin with concept, but they are not complete until they become what Disney was known for in this era: movie musicals. III: Menken the Music Before the head honcho of the music behind the Disney Renaissance is discussed, let us first start with some honorable mentions to the era. Beginning with the men behind the music for the highest grossing movie of the Renaissance, The Lion King: Elton John, Hans Zimmer, and Tim Rice. Zimmer was chosen to write the score for the movie because of his previous work on movies set in Africa. Elton John was chosen as composer by lyricist Tim Rice for this project. Tim Rice’s lyrics were modified throughout the process to

Kurtti, Art of Mulan, 23. Kurtti, Art of Mulan, 23. John Culhane, Aladdin, The Making of an Animated Film (New York, New York: Hyperion, 1992), 30. Stephen Rebello, The Art of Pocahontas (New York, New York: Hyperion, 1995), 15. Rebello, Art of Pocahontas, 16. Stephen Rebello, The Art of Pocahontas (New York, New York: Hyperion, 1995), 52. Rebello, Art of Pocahontas, 57.

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fit the plot and dialogue changes.19 For this movie, the music team traveled with the rest of the creative team to visit Africa. It is here where Zimmer, John, and Rice got a better sense of Africa through choruses and different instruments that were used in the recording of the score and soundtrack.20 Both Rice’s lyrics and Zimmer’s score were used to set the tone and to emphasize drama happening in a scene.21 The second honorable mention in the Renaissance is Phil Collins who served as the main songwriter for the film Tarzan. It was the first film in the Renaissance (and the last) to not have the main characters sing (other than a short lullaby sung by Tarzan’s mother). Phil Collins sang all of the songs at the request of the directors, Kevin Lima and Chris Buck, and in this way, served as a form of a narrator for the story.22 Collins was asked to do the music for this film because of his skills in percussion and rhythm to set the scene for the film that takes place in a jungle with fast paced scenes and action shots. This skill in percussion came in handy during the song, “Trashin’ the Camp, ” where the scene shows the animals trying to figure out what the creatures are that look like Tarzan by using the human objects as instruments in a chaotic moment of accidental music making and absolute destruction of the camp. Collins expresses in his notes that he had to synthesize a lot of the songs for film because they were shorter in length and had to serve the overall story.23 Collins also wrote how the songs had come out of improvisational sessions after reading the source material, reading where the creators wanted the songs in the screenplay, and the emotion the directors wanted out of the scene.24 Phil Collins, however, just like the trio that worked on The Lion King, each only worked on one film out of the ten in the Renaissance. Rescuers Down Under, served as Disney’s first ever theatrically released sequel, and much like its precursor released in the 1980s did not contain any songs in the film. The music for Mulan was done by Matthew Wilder with lyrics by David Zippel, who also only did music for one movie. Together, these composers and lyricists only make up four of the ten movies in the Renaissance. The other six came from the man who played one of the biggest roles in establishing this era apart from the ones that came before it, Alan Menken. Alan Menken composed and wrote the lyrics for The Little

Figure 3: Phil Collins and music producers, Tarzan

Mermaid, Beauty and the Beast, Aladdin, Pocahontas, The Hunchback of Notre Dame, and Hercules. Before writing for Disney, Menken worked on Broadway writing music and lyrics for different shows. He was called in for the first film, The Little Mermaid, and he completely changed the way music was used in film. Up to this point in Disney movies, songs were used alongside the plot, not contributing to the plot. This can be seen in the first ever fully animated movie, Snow White and the Seven Dwarves. However, Menken, when writing songs for this movie, came at it from a theatrical perspective, and in theatre, songs need to advance the plot, which is exactly what all the songs he wrote did. They show the characters longing for something or someone, it helps characters fall in love, it gives the villain a chance to share about themselves to the audience, and it can be used as a way to reduce dialogue needed in a scene while building character. This strategy can be seen through all of the films he worked with in Disney and in the four he did not. They followed his lead with how to handle music in films. In The Little Mermaid and Hunchback of Notre Dame, the audience is introduced to two characters who are both longing to see the world and instead of telling the audience that outright, Menken keeps the plot moving by portraying this yearning in the songs “Part of Your World”25 and “Out There”26. Instead of telling the audience that Aladdin is a skilled thief and likes taunting the palace guards, the audience learns this through the second song in the film “One Jump Ahead, ” which then easily introduces the character of

19 20 21 22 23 24 25

Christopher Finch, The Art of The Lion King (New York, New York: Hyperion, 1994), 193. Finch, Art of The Lion King, 193. Finch, Art of The Lion King, 193. Howard Green, The Tarzan Chronicles (New York, New York: Hyperion, 1999), 163. Howard Green, The Tarzan Chronicles (New York, New York: Hyperion, 1999), 169. Green, Tarzan Chronicles, 174. The Little Mermaid, directed by John Musker & Ron Clements, featuring Jodi Benson, Pat Carrol, and Samuel E. Wright, (Walt Disney Pictures, 1989), disneyplus.com. 26 The Hunchback of Notre Dame, directed by Gary Trousdale & Kirk Wise, featuring Demi Moore, Tom Hulce, and Jason Alexander, (Walt Disney Pictures, 1996), disneyplus.com

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Jasmine at the end and thus the plot never stops while the audience is told background information.27 In Beauty and the Beast, the song “Something There” was used to show the passage of time and the relationship between Belle and the Beast maturing.28 In Hercules, Menken uses the Muses to direct the audience through the victories of Hercules in “Zero to Hero.”29 Menken was able to use music in the movies to impact the story as well. For example, the entirety of Pocahontas was reworked around the song “Colors of the Wind” Menken had written because it moved all the creators so much and they felt it truly defined the character and their story.30 Menken’s music during this era was always cohesive within the story being told and that allowed all the music to be woven so beautifully to help the musical develop a consistent flow. Music and movies have the ability to change the world and people. In movies such as Hunchback of Notre Dame and Pocahontas there are overarching mature themes; listening to the songs or watching the films can help someone understand or question previous misconceptions. Also, music can spread past different mediums. Someone may have never seen The Lion King, but they probably have heard of the phrase “Hakuna Matata” or know the song. It is the same for all of the songs, “Under the Sea, ” “Beauty and the Beast, ” and “A Whole New World.” All can be seen in popular culture and all spring from the same source of Alan Menken and other composers in this era. IV: Defining an Era Another aspect that connects the era together more than just the music and the creation process is the content found in the movies themselves. Similar tropes were used through the era, so audiences knew what they were getting before they got it and people prefer familiar concepts. All Disney movies in this era have a “hero and heroine, both helpers and harmers, and usually a pantomime character.”31 Let’s look at Mulan, for example, there is, Mulan, as the heroine, Shang fills

the role of hero, Mushu is the over-charismatic helper to Mulan, the Huns and Shan Yu are the harmers and then there is Cri-Kee who is the lucky cricket who pantomimes through the movie to the audience, though Mushu is able to translate for the audience.32 Another example of this formula being used can be seen in Aladdin. In this movie, Aladdin is the hero with Jasmine as the heroine, the Genie takes on the role of helper against Jafar and Iago as the harmers. The pantomime characters in this movie are Abu and Carpet.33 Once is an accident, two is a coincidence, and three is a pattern, so here is a final example of this: In Hercules, Hercules is the hero and Megara is the femme fatal heroine, Hades takes on the role of the harmer while Phil takes the role of helper, and Pegasus, in this movie, is the pantomime character.34 There are also artistic connections. The settings and scope of what is on the screen at one time is drastically different than before. In this era, the screen is wide and there are shots of wide-ranging landscapes and waterfalls and rocks. In Mulan, the scene on the mountain with the Huns coming over the hill is such an iconic shot in that movie and the audience gets to see how huge the opposing army is compared to the one being led by Shang. Also, in the same movie, the audience gets a view of the Imperial Palace and all of the people there for the celebration and when they all bow to Mulan, it is not only a beautifully aesthetically pleasing scene, but it gives the scope of just how many people were actually present in the moment.35 In Rescuers Down Under, the audience sees the main character jump off a really tall rock on the back of an eagle and glide through shot after shot of the sky and wilderness below of the Australian outback.36 In Lion King, there are many scenes of the landscape with the animals acting as animals within it. There is also a central focus on Pride Rock and the Pride Lands that Mufasa and then Simba rule over that is shown and is always larger than the characters to show its vastness.37

27 Aladdin, directed by John Musker & Ron Clements, featuring Robin Williams, Scott Weinger, and Linda Larkin, (Walt Disney Pictures, 1992), disneyplus.com 28 Beauty and the Beast, directed by Gary Trousdale & Kirk Wise, featuring Paige O’Hara, Angela Landsbury, and Jerry Orbach, (Walt Disney Pictures, 1991), disneyplus.com 29 Hercules, directed by John Musker & Ron Clements, featuring Susan Egan, Danny DeVito, and Tate Donovan, (Walt Disney Pictures, 1997), disneyplus.com 30 Stephen Rebello, The Art of Pocahontas (New York, New York: Hyperion, 1995), 56. 31 John Culhane, Aladdin, The Making of an Animated Film (New York, New York: Hyperion, 1992), 11. 32 Mulan, directed by Tony Bancroft & Barry Cook, featuring Ming-Na Wen, Eddie Murphy, and BD Wong, (Walt Disney Pictures, 1998), disneyplus.com 33 Aladdin, directed by John Musker & Ron Clements, featuring Robin Williams, Scott Weinger, and Linda Larkin, (Walt Disney Pictures, 1992), disneyplus.com 34 Hercules, directed by John Musker & Ron Clements, featuring Susan Egan, Danny DeVito, and Tate Donovan, (Walt Disney Pictures, 1997), disneyplus.com 35 Mulan, directed by Tony Bancroft & Barry Cook, featuring Ming-Na Wen, Eddie Murphy, and BD Wong, (Walt Disney Pictures, 1998), disneyplus.com 36 Rescuers Down Under, directed by Mike Gabriel, featuring Bob Newhart, John Candy, and George C. Scott, (Walt Disney Pictures, 1990), disneyplus.com 37 The Lion King, directed by Rob Minkoff & Roger Allers, featuring James Earl Jones, Nathan Lane, Jeremy Irons, and Mathew Broderick, (Walt Disney Pictures, 1994), disneyplus.com

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Quasimodo, in Hunchback of Notre Dame, is seen as small in contrast to the enormous bells he rings in the Notre Dame Church, as well as against the view of the city of Paris he longs to be a part of and experience from the ground with all of the other people.38 A third trope that is constantly at play during the Disney Renaissance is the idea of having characters portrayed as outcasts. In Hercules, Hercules was always the awkward kid who was getting into trouble even though he had good intentions. The people in his village did not give him the time of day because all Figure 4: Production Still, The Lion King

they saw was the destruction he caused, not caring if it was an accident or not.39 In Beauty and the Beast, the Beast is an outcast because he is seen as a monster and lives in a castle and the village people are afraid of him. Belle is an outcast because she is an intelligent woman in an era where women were not expected to be smart.40 In Hunchback of Notre Dame, there is an entire musical number sung by a gypsy named Esmerelda called “God Help the Outcasts.” Quasimodo is an outcast of society because of his deformities, he is seen as ugly by society, and the soldier Phoebus is an outcast as he refuses to follow the orders of the church to burn homes and ends up running from law enforcement as an outlaw with Esmerelda and Quasimodo.41 These similarities and connections through each movie can even be seen in the ways that Disney is still profiting off of the Renaissance today. V: Happily, Ever After The Renaissance was Disney’s saving grace. Because of the success Eisner found with The Little Mermaid in 1989, the foundation was set for the future. First, by looking at the tropes mentioned above, these can be seen in movies even today. Take Frozen, for example, the third highest grossing animated film, only surpassed by Frozen II, and the 2019 live-action remake of The Lion King which sits at number one.42 It also holds this place on the list for highest grossing movie musicals only behind Frozen II, and the remake of

The Lion King.43 In the case of this 2013 movie and its 2019 sequel, the audience is introduced to the heroines of Ana and Elsa, the hero Kristoff, the helper Olaf, the harmers (but with new surprise twists) Hans in the first movie and in the sequel their grandfather, with Sven the reindeer in the role of the pantomiming character. We also get wide scopes in the scenes as Elsa is running away from Arendelle, the view of the fiord surrounding it, and the huge ocean that swallows Elsa multiple times. Elsa also represents an outcast as she is seen as a monster to the people, and then feels like one when she hears a voice calling no one else can and leaves. Ana is an outcast to society from being locked up for all those years and not knowing how to interact with people, while Kristof lives in the wilderness, so he is an outcast to everyone when the movie begins.44 In 2010’s Tangled there is the heroine of Rapunzel, the hero of Flynn Rider, the harmer of Mother Gothel, the helper takes the form of the many ruffians at the Snuggly Duckling, and Pascal the chameleon and Maximus the royal guard’s horse takes on the role of the pantomimers. Rapunzel finds herself an outcast as she has lived in a tower for eighteen years with no contact with anyone else until she meets Flynn. Flynn is an outcast by nature, as he is also an outlaw and a wanted man by the royal guard. This movie also shows traits of the wide landscape, especially during the lantern scene and when Rapunzel leaves her tower for the first time.45 The success of these new age Disney movies comes directly from those that came before it in the Renaissance. The music in these films also moves the plot and does not leave the scene stagnant of meaning; it builds characters, so they do not have to do it through obvious dialogue. Everything that makes these movies so great and entertaining comes from years of perfecting the original formula and even then, the remake of the Renaissance movie in 2019 for The Lion King is the highest grossing animated film ever and the highest grossing movie musical ever.46 Even when it comes to the live action remakes Disney has made, Beauty and the Beast, The Lion King, Aladdin, Mulan, and the already announced live action version of The Little Mermaid are all movies straight from the

38 The Hunchback of Notre Dame, directed by Gary Trousdale & Kirk Wise, featuring Demi Moore, Tom Hulce, and Jason Alexander, (Walt Disney Pictures, 1996), disneyplus.com 39 Hercules, directed by John Musker & Ron Clements, featuring Susan Egan, Danny DeVito, and Tate Donovan, (Walt Disney Pictures, 1997), disneyplus.com 40 Beauty and the Beast, directed by Gary Trousdale & Kirk Wise, featuring Paige O’Hara, Angela Landsbury, and Jerry Orbach, (Walt Disney Pictures, 1991), disneyplus.com 41 The Hunchback of Notre Dame, directed by Gary Trousdale & Kirk Wise, disneyplus.com 42 “Highest Grossing Animated Films, ” Box Office Mojo (IMDb), (accessed Oct 24, 2020), https://www.boxofficemojo.com. 43 “Highest Grossing Movie Musicals, ” Box office Mojo (IMDb), (accessed Oct 24, 2020), https://www.boxofficemojo.com. 44 Frozen, Frozen II, directed by Jennifer Lee & Chris Buck, featuring Idina Menzel, Kristen Bell, Jonathan Groff, and Josh Gad (Walt Disney Pictures, 2013&2019), disneyplus.com 45 Tangled, directed by Byron Howard & Nathan Greno, featuring Mandy Moore, Zachary Levi, and Donna Murphy, (Walt Disney Pictures, 2010), disneyplus.com 46 “Highest Grossing Animated Films, ” Box Office Mojo (IMDb), (accessed Oct 24, 2020). https://www.boxofficemojo.com.

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Broadway since 2014. The other shows can be seen on national tours or at international theatres around the world. Most, like The Little Mermaid and Hunchback of Notre Dame, can have the rights bought for local and school productions. These stories were chosen for a reason to represent the very best of Disney. They still resonate with audiences through the creative plot, memorable characters, infamous villains, and ingenious songs. The work done in the 1990s to ensure the stories will last long after they were out of theatres and to establish the legacy it has now, stemmed from the hustle that Michael Eisner placed in his animators to make certain the products created could be sold more than once in different forms. Conclusion

Figure 5: Production Stills, The Lion King, on Broadway

Renaissance. They are the movies people remember the most because of how memorable they were in creating the Disney Animation known today. Disney is copying their own movies but with live actors (or in The Lion King’s case, all Computer-Generated-Imagery) and profiting off of them again, selling older movies to a newer generation and feeding off people’s nostalgia for them. A second field of entertainment which the success of the Renaissance can be seen in is Disney on Broadway. Disney on Broadway’s catalogue includes adaptations from live action movie musicals like Mary Poppins in 2004, and Newsies in 2012. However, the animated adaptations can be considered the most successful. These modified versions include: Beauty and the Beast, The Lion King, Tarzan, The Little Mermaid, Aladdin, Frozen, Hercules, and The Hunchback of Notre Dame. All but one of these Broadway and currently off-Broadway musicals came from an adaptation from the Renaissance and most of them include music by Alan Menken. The Lion King has been on Broadway since 1997, becoming the third longest running Broadway show in history. Aladdin, too, has been performing consistently on

The Disney Renaissance is the most important era in Disney history since its beginning with Walt. This era set the stage for future feature films made by Disney by giving them a mold to follow that was guaranteed to be successful. From the way the story’s overall concept comes together, the music that changed the format of ways to tell the story, to the cohesion and structure that glued them all together—these movies changed the movie industry for Disney. With Michael Eisner pulling for reforms in the animation studio and making the necessary changes, the animation studio picked back up and was able to start funding new technologies like CGI. This CGI opened the door to the future 3D animation that is recognizable today as the primary form of animation as opposed to the 2D animation that was used in the Renaissance and early 2000s. Future research can be done on this switch from 2D to 3D and how it was impacted by the Disney Renaissance and adapted to the new century to become a field of animation all of its own. Future research can even go beyond animation into the concepts that built this era. The character tropes that are present, while they remain similar, the next generation of Disney movies have expanded upon it and made it something completely new that can be sifted through to find and establish a new era in Disney Animation. The Renaissance matters simply because it was this new form of storytelling that had never been done before, and Disney during this period, was able to get it right ten times with each of the Renaissance movies performing very well with audiences and in earnings. The stories that children and adults love today simply would not have been possible without this era changing it all. Bibliography

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Primary Sources: Aladdin, directed by John Musker & Ron Clements, featuring Robin Williams, Scott Weinger, and Linda Larkin, (Walt Disney Pictures, 1992), disneyplus.com Beauty and the Beast, directed by Gary Trousdale & Kirk Wise, featuring Paige O’Hara, Angela Landsbury, and Jerry Orbach, (Walt Disney Pictures, 1991), disneyplus. com Frozen, Frozen II, directed by Jennifer Lee & Chris Buck, featuring Idina Menzel, Kristen Bell, Jonathan Groff, and Josh Gad (Walt Disney Pictures, 2013&2019), disneyplus.com Hercules, directed by John Musker & Ron Clements, featuring Susan Egan, Danny DeVito, and Tate Donovan, (Walt Disney Pictures, 1997), disneyplus. com The Hunchback of Notre Dame, directed by Gary Trousdale & Kirk Wise, featuring Demi Moore, Tom Hulce, and Jason Alexander, (Walt Disney Pictures, 1996), disneyplus.com The Little Mermaid, directed by John Musker & Ron Clements, featuring Jodi Benson, Pat Carrol, and Samuel E. Wright, (Walt Disney Pictures, 1989), disneyplus.com. The Lion King, directed by Rob Minkoff & Roger Allers, featuring James Earl Jones, Nathan Lane, Jeremy Irons, and Mathew Broderick, (Walt Disney Pictures, 1994), disneyplus.com Mulan, directed by Tony Bancroft & Barry Cook, featuring Ming-Na Wen, Eddie Murphy, and BD Wong, (Walt Disney Pictures, 1998), disneyplus.com Rescuers Down Under, directed by Mike Gabriel, featuring Bob Newhart, John Candy, and George C. Scott, (Walt Disney Pictures, 1990), disneyplus.com Tangled, directed by Byron Howard & Nathan Greno, featuring Mandy Moore, Zachary Levi, and Donna Murphy, (Walt Disney Pictures, 2010), disneyplus.com

Bob Thomas, Art of Animation: From Mickey Mouse to Beauty and the Beast. New York, New York: Hyperion, 1991. Culhane, John. Aladdin, The Making of an Animated Film. New York, New York: Hyperion, 1992. Finch, Christopher. The Art of The Lion King. New York, New York: Hyperion, 1994. Flower, Joe. Essay. In Prince of the Magic Kingdom: Michael Eisner and the Re-Making of Disney. New York, New York: J. Wiley, 1991. Green, Howard. The Tarzan Chronicles. New York, New York: Hyperion, 1999. “Highest Grossing Animated Films.” Box Office Mojo. IMDb, (accessed Oct 24, 2020). https://www. boxofficemojo.com/. Kurtti, Jeff. The Art of Mulan. New York, New York: Hyperion, 1998. Pallent, Chris. Demystifying Disney: A History of Disney Feature Animation. London: Continuum, 2011. http://search.ebscohost.com/login. aspx?direct=true&AuthType=ip, sso&db=e000xna&AN =399752&site=ehost-live&scope=site. Rebello, Stephen. The Art of Pocahontas. New York, New York: Hyperion, 1995. Figures: 1.1: Caple, Scott. Layout Art, 1996. Sketch. The Art of Mulan, 1998. 1.2: Production Still, Mulan, 1998, Disneyplus.com 2: Mausoleum of Qin Shi Huang photo and sketch of soldiers, The Art of Mulan, 1998. 3: Phil Collins, Photo, Tarzan Chronicles, 1999. 4: Production Still, The Lion King, 1994, Disneyplus.com 5: Production Stills, The Lion King on Broadway, (accessed Oct 24, 2020) playbill.com.

Secondary Sources:

Student Reflection: This research paper was by far the most fun I have ever had working on a paper. I have always had a love of Disney movies growing up and have been noticing a common trend amongst these films that I was very excited to be able to flesh out properly. I began the research at the source, by marathoning the series of the ten movies I was going to be using as primary sources in the paper. Then I was able to get in contact with the Disney Archives and access to their collection of primary sources that detailed the process of making each movie and the Walt Disney Company. These sources allowed me to really delve into the “magical world of Disney” and pick apart the development of creating a movie and the outcome of the movies in the Renaissance being as successful as they were. These sources also helped in understanding why the films are important in cinema history, both in the 1990’s and today.

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The Significance of Pennsylvania Hall Ashlyn Browning HIS 201: Early History of the United States Dr. Allen Dieterich-Ward Assignment This assignment was primarily based on Beverly C. Tomek’s Pennsylvania Hall: A “Legal Lynching” in the Shadow of the Liberty Bell. After reading this book, students had to create an essay in which the significance of the burning of Pennsylvania Hall reflected the broader issues between pro and anti-slavery supporters in the lead up to the Civil War in America. In addition to using material from Tomek’s book, the essay had to feature material from the class textbook and various primary sources studied throughout the semester.

In the period from 1800 to 1850, America dealt with increasing tensions over the institution of slavery that ultimately led to the Civil War. On Monday, May 14, 1838, the doors to the newly constructed Pennsylvania Hall opened wide to host anti-slavery activities and a variety of abolitionists, including William Lloyd Garrison, Angelina Grimké, and David Paul Brown.1 Outside the Hall, however, an angry mob gathered, and on Thursday, May 17, 1838, the Hall went up in flames.2 Although anti-abolitionists believed they had secured a victory over the abolitionists, in actuality, the burning of Pennsylvania Hall increased the strength of the abolitionist movement. Conflicts such as Pennsylvania Hall occurred from 1800 to 1850 and escalated the tensions between pro and anti-slavery supporters. These smaller conflicts highlighted the broader issues surrounding the debate about slavery. In particular, the 1838 burning of Pennsylvania Hall reflected the broader conflicts between pro and antislavery supporters over the issues of slave emancipation, biracial societies, and citizen rights. The central conflict between pro and anti-slavery supporters centered on the question of slave emancipation. By 1850, the question over slavery, specifically the expansion of slavery, had become a sectional issue with clear divisions falling between the North and the South.3 However, although slavery was debated in terms of morality, the central argument focused on ideologies of labor. While the South defended its usage of forced labor, the North promoted the idea of a free labor system in which a person possessed the freedom of choosing to work.4 Abolitionists adopted the idea 1 2 3 4 5 6

of free labor and utilized economic boycotts, such as the free produce movement, to promote their ideology. Within the abolitionist movement, tension arose between the supporters of gradualism, immediatism, and colonization. Known as the radical side of abolition, immediatism called for the immediate emancipation of slaves and drew support from people such as Garrison. In contrast, gradualism supporters, including John Woolman, believed slavery should slowly be ended, while colonization sought to relocate slaves to the African colony of Liberia and was argued for by the American Colonization Society.5 Anti-abolitionist supporters, however, refused to believe slaves should be emancipated. Southerners, the primary opposers to abolition, saw slavery as the key to a peaceful, wealthy, and equal society. George Fitzhugh, a Southern slave owner, defended slavery through his portrayal of the differences between the North and the South. Fitzhugh claimed the South was “exempt from the torrent of pauperism, crime, agrarianism, and infidelity which Europe is pouring from her jails and alms houses on the already crowded North.”6 Thus, Southerners defended their position of pro-slavery through attacks on the Northern system of free labor, believing that emancipation and the abandonment of forced labor would corrupt the Southern way of life as it had done in the North. Although anti-abolitionists resided mainly in the South, the North still housed pro-slavery supporters, as evident through the tensions that arose in Philadelphia. Pennsylvania Hall reflected the growing tensions over the emancipation of slaves. Before the burning,

Beverly C. Tomek, Pennsylvania Hall: A “Legal Lynching” in the Shadow of the Liberty Bell (New York: Oxford University Press, 2014), 91. Tomek, 132. Mary Beth Norton, A People and A Nation: A History of the United States, Volume 1: To 1877 (Stamford: Cengage Learning, 2015), 396. Norton, 304. Tomek, 5, 22. George Fitzhugh, Sociology for the South or the Failure of Free Society, 1854.

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abolitionists of all forms utilized the Hall. Throughout the opening week festivities, prominent abolitionists gave speeches to fellow supporters. However, these speeches, specifically those given by Brown and Garrison, drew both support and hatred from abolitionists and anti-abolitionists. Brown’s speech directly attacked the South and the colonization movement; however, Garrison believed Brown did not argue strongly enough for the immediate emancipation of slaves and countered with his own speech.7 Thus, tensions arose between various supporters over emancipation in Pennsylvania Hall. Likewise, these activities agitated the anti-abolitionists into forming a mob, many of whom were white, working-class men. This mob feared that abolition threatened economic relations with the South and believed free African Americans threatened job opportunities.8 Thus, Pennsylvania Hall reflected the broader conflict over slave emancipation between pro and anti-slavery supporters, as the activities occurring in the Hall focused on debates over if and how slavery should be ended, which in turn agitated pro-slavery supporters. Another conflict between pro and anti-slavery supporters involved the idea of biracial societies. Although not all abolitionists believed in the creation of biracial societies, such as the supporters of the colonization movement, various abolitionists, including Garrison, fought to gain equal rights for African Americans. Additionally, white abolitionists treated black abolitionists as inferior, as even though these whites saw slavery as morally wrong, they still held the same racial opinions as anti-abolitionists.9 The tensions over the creation of biracial societies increased in prominence as America expanded westward. People argued not only over whether or not slavery could expand, but also over if blacks should be allowed into these new territories. Those who opposed the expansion of slavery wanted to guarantee land for free white men by keeping out blacks; thus, according to Mary Beth Norton, “fear of the Slave Power…united abolitionists and antiblack voters.”10 John L. O’Sullivan’s argument for the annexation of Texas represented this conflict, as he urged Americans to put aside the tensions arising over slavery and instead choose the path of “checking the fulfillment of our manifest destiny to overspread the continent.”11 However, whenever new states joined the Union, the question of slavery always arose. 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

The opposition to biracial societies in which whites and blacks enjoyed the same rights was felt strongly in the city of Philadelphia. During the opening of Pennsylvania Hall, whites and blacks, including women, joined together to attend meetings and give speeches. At the same time, abolitionists of both races celebrated and attended a wedding of amalgamation between Angelina Grimké and Theodore Dwight Weld.12 Thus, the opening of Pennsylvania Hall gave the city of Philadelphia and anti-abolitionists a glimpse into life in a biracial society. The occurring amalgamation received intense backlash from the city, as the idea of whites and blacks mixing disgusted those opposed to racial equality. This drove the mob to the destruction of the Hall. Despite the violence occurring in Philadelphia, abolitionists continued to meet and face the mob, as according to Beverly C. Tomek, “the white women protected the black women by taking them by the arm and walking out in pairs.”13 Thus, despite opposition to amalgamation, abolitionists stood strong in their beliefs. The burning of Pennsylvania Hall over the anger with amalgamation demonstrated the national tensions in America over the possible creation of biracial societies and highlighted just one struggle for racial equality between 1800 and 1850. Finally, although Pennsylvania Hall represented mainly the struggle for emancipation and biracial societies, it also highlighted the issues surrounding the rights of citizens. Issues regarding the rights of citizens to free speech and press began with the passing of the Alien and Sedition Acts in 1798 by the Federalist Party.14 While the Alien Act primarily focused on suppressing threats posed by immigrants, the Sedition Act limited the rights of both citizens and immigrants through the imposition of fines and imprisonment if found guilty of , “writing, printing, uttering or publishing any false, scandalous and malicious writing or writings” or “any insurrection, riot, unlawful assembly, or combination.”15 Although the Alien and Sedition Acts eventually ended, the same issues of free speech and press became involved in the abolitionist movement. Abolitionists often published anti-slavery literature that inflamed anti-abolitionists in the North and the South. Anti-abolitionists sought to silence the protests of abolitionists, thus raising the question of whether or not abolitionists were acting within their rights of free speech and press.

Tomek, 93. Tomek, 76. Norton, 340. Norton, 395. John L. O’Sullivan, “Annexation, ” 1845. Tomek, 98. Tomek, 126. Norton, 216. U.S. Congress, Alien Act, Alien Enemies Act and Sedition Act, 1798.

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Additionally, another source of controversy for pro and anti-slavery supporters included the extension of citizen rights, specifically to women and African Americans. The start of the women’s rights movement, which sought to increase the economic and political rights of women, attracted much controversy. Women, such as Lucretia Mott and the Grimké sisters, became increasingly prominent in the abolitionist movement and used their position to also argue for women’s equality; however, women, especially African Americans, felt backlash from men and women both within and outside of the abolitionist movement for speaking to audiences of both sexes.16 Catherine Beecher, a supporter of the colonization movement, urged women to stay within the traditional sphere and abandon the radical ways of the women who argued for immediate emancipation; this drew intense backlash from the Grimké sisters and Mott, who published rebuttals to Beecher in Enquirer in 1838.17 Thus, the debate over slavery focused not only on emancipation and biracial equality, but also the rights citizens possessed. Pennsylvania Hall emphasized the struggle for citizen rights, both inside and outside of the abolitionist movement. Both immediate and gradual abolitionists ran several newspapers outlining their beliefs, including Garrison’s Liberator and John Greenleaf Whittier’s Pennsylvania Freeman (previously Benjamin Lundy’s National Enquire and General Register).18 These newspapers, especially Garrison’s, angered anti-abolitionists and drove the mob to burning the Hall. However, the burning of Pennsylvania Hall helped gain support for abolitionists, as people joined the movement not necessarily because they believed in emancipation, but rather “because the violence of the opposers had identified that cause with the question of freedom of speech, freedom of the press, and civil liberty.”19 Abolitionists gathered and sold relics, such as canes and picture frames, from the Hall that stood as symbols for the fight to exercise one’s rights as a citizen.20 Finally, abolitionists of all beliefs joined together and identified the burning as a “legal lynching” to highlight the atrocities committed against the building, African Americans, and abolitionists. Pennsylvania Hall also represented the struggle to extend these rights to African Americans and women. Just as construction finished on the Hall, African Americans in Pennsylvania lost the right to vote while 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23

Norton, 388. Tomek, 50 Tomek, 13, 90. Tomek, 177. Tomek, 172. Tomek, 82. William Lloyd Garrison, Reviews of Uncle Tom’s Cabin, 1852. Tomek, 158.

women continued to fight for suffrage.21 Immediate abolitionists, such as Garrison, saw the law applying equally to African Americans and whites, and argued that when blacks were stripped of their rights, they cannot “return blow for blow, or conspire for the destruction of their oppressors.”22 However, following the burning of Pennsylvania Hall, both blacks and whites questioned the approach of nonresistance when their rights were violated.23 Likewise, women also encountered encouragement to abandon their fight for rights, as anti-abolitionists and abolitionists grew angry over the speeches of women, including Angelina Grimké, to mixed audiences in Pennsylvania Hall. Overall, the burning of Pennsylvania Hall highlighted the tensions over the exercise and expansion of citizens’ rights, as well as what would happen when people act outside of their believed rights. Although Pennsylvania Hall was only one conflict over slavery leading up to the Civil War from 1800 to 1850, the burning represented the broader conflicts that plagued America over the issue of slavery. The actions of the mob not only attacked the fight to emancipate slaves, but also fought to prohibit the creation of biracial societies and limit the extension of citizens’ rights to African Americans, women, and those who opposed slavery. However, like numerous other attempts to silence abolitionists, the 1838 burning of Pennsylvania Hall only resulted in a louder voice for abolitionists. Overall, Pennsylvania Hall inflamed tensions between pro and anti-slavery supporters and increased the tensions over the question of slavery. Bibliography Fitzhugh, George. Sociology for the South or the Failure of Free Society. 1854. Garrison, William Lloyd. Reviews of Uncle Tom’s Cabin. 1852. Norton, Mary Beth. A People and A Nation: A History of the United States, Volume 1: To 1877. (Stamford: Cengage Learning, 2015). Tomek, Beverly C. Pennsylvania Hall: A “Legal Lynching” in the Shadow of the Liberty Bell. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2014). O’Sullivan, John L. “Annexation.” 1845 U.S. Congress. Alien Act, Alien Enemies Act and Sedition Act. 1798.

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Student Reflection: I struggled greatly in writing this essay, as I could not seem to develop a clear outline for my paper. When first reading the assignment, I had trouble figuring out how to organize my paper and my thesis statement. However, after much thinking and outlining, I eventually developed a plan for my paper. Although I finally developed a paper outline, writing the actual paper did not go well. While I was writing, I constantly felt overwhelmed by my ideas and meeting the requirements for source usage (I needed to use a variety of material from various sources, including Beverly C. Tomek’s Pennsylvania Hall: A “Legal Lynching” in the Shadow of the Liberty Bell, the class textbook, and primary sources studied throughout the semester). Despite my struggles, I eventually produced a rough copy of my paper. After doing extensive proofreading and editing, I called the paper finished. Even though I struggled with this assignment, I still feel happy with the work I produced!

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Provost's Award College of Arts and Sciences

Comparing Ideologies: The Liberal Phase and the Reign of Terror Ashlyn Browning HIS 203: Theory and Practice of History Dr. Brian Ulrich Assignment This paper was written in the Fall 2020 semester as my research paper for my HIS 203 class. For this research paper, the topic was chosen by each individual student; personally, I chose to research and compare ideologies present during the Liberal Phase and Reign of Terror, as I am greatly interested in the French Revolution. Certain requirements for this paper included that research had to be based in primary sources and that the research should attempt to add to the existing historiography surrounding the chosen topic.

For the typical French citizen residing in France from 1793 to 1794, the sound of the guillotine dropping down to end the life of a Frenchman was nothing unordinary. This violence filling France resulted from the rule of Maximilien Robespierre and the Committee of Public Safety. Robespierre exercised power during the Reign of Terror, the period of the French Revolution preceded by the Liberal Phase. Together, the Liberal Phase and the Reign of Terror form the first two periods of the French Revolution. Previous studies surrounding the French Revolution focus on the various ideologies held as the revolution unfolded. For example, in Ronald Schechter’s “The Holy Mountain and the French Revolution, ” the idea that the Reign of Terror featured a religious ideology is examined. The Reign of Terror’s religious ideology centered on the existence of the “Holy Mountain;” this was based on the Mountain, a radical political party that contributed to the Reign of Terror.1 The “Holy Mountain” was celebrated for passing the “Holy Constitution” whose holy laws could not be questioned due to the holiness of the body itself.2 Despite this consideration of a religious ideology held during the Reign of Terror, the historiography fails to consider and compare other nonreligious ideologies held during the various phases of the French Revolution, including those of the Liberal Phase and the Reign of Terror. In order to fulfill the lacking historiography, this paper questions the way Robespierre’s ideologies (which were held during the Reign of Terror) compare to the ideologies of the Liberal Phase. By answering this question, the historiography will no longer focus

simply on the religious ideology present during the Reign of Terror. New research will also examine the Reign of Terror in connection to the other phases of the French Revolution and move beyond the examining of ideologies solely in one period of the French Revolution. Instead, a greater focus will be placed on the role of and change in ideologies throughout the French Revolution. This paper argues that the ideologies held by Robespierre during the Reign of Terror resulted from the ideologies formed during the Liberal Phase. Robespierre’s ideologies on virtue and terror originate in the ideologies on liberty and law developed in the Liberal Phase through the creation of The Declaration of the Rights of Man in 1789. However, in the case of the ideology of terror, this paper argues that Robespierre radicalized and pushed this ideology to the extreme far beyond its roots in the Liberal Phase. In order to highlight the ways Robespierre’s ideologies on virtue and terror expanded and even radicalized the Liberal Phase ideologies on liberty and law, this paper will be broken into two sections. The first section will examine the formation of ideology during the Liberal Phase of the French Revolution. The original ideas of liberty and law will be studied using primary sources, including The Declaration of the Rights of Man, from this first phase. Following this study, the second section will then present the ideologies formed during the Reign of Terror. Robespierre’s ideas on virtue and terror will be studied through the examination of his original writings created near or during the Reign of Terror. Additionally, the proposed research question

1 Ronald Schechter, “The Holy Mountain and the French Revolution, ” in “Religion(s) and the Enlightenment, ” special issue, Historical Reflections/Réflexions Historiques 40, no. 2 (Summer 2014): 79-85, https://www.jstor.org/stable/24720586. 2 Schechter, “The Holy Mountain and the French Revolution, ” 85-87.

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will be answered by analyzing the relationship between the ideologies developed during the Liberal Phase and the Reign of Terror though explanations of the ways Robespierre’s ideologies expanded on and at times radicalized those of the Liberal Phase. Before Robespierre’s ideologies can be discussed, the original ideologies of the Liberal Phase must first be presented. The Liberal Phase, which began in 1789 and ended in 1792, represents the first phase of the French Revolution.3 Unrest plagued France from 1787 to 1789 due to a variety of factors, including severe economic problems stemming from bankruptcy and foreign wars.4 Other issues developed from discontent with the absolute monarchy of King Louis XVI and his unpopular Austrian wife, Queen Marie Antoinette. 5 Thus, unrest existed in all aspects of French society. This led to the gathering of the nobility (the First Estate), the clergy (the Second Estate), and the rest of the population (the Third Estate) in the Estates General.6 However, the Estates General failed to resolve France’s unrest due to disagreements on the process of conducting voting.7 Frustrated at the other two Estates, the Third Estate declared themselves the National Assembly and seized power in France; King Louis XVI was forced into a constitutional monarchy and a new French Constitution emerged.8 The National Assembly’s new French Constitution, The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen, materialized in 1789 and presented the main ideologies of the Liberal Phase.9 These ideologies in The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen draw heavily on the idea of natural rights that must be upheld and protected by political organizations.10 According to Article Two of The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen, these natural rights include liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression.11 Article Four further defines the right liberty as “the freedom to do everything which injures no one else.”12 This article further claims that the law can only place limits on

the exercise of natural rights when actions infringe on other citizens’ rights to exercise natural rights.13 It is this natural right to liberty that forms the basis of the Liberal Phase’s ideology on liberty. Arguably, the ideology on liberty and the maintaining of the right to liberty was heavily expanded upon by Robespierre during the Reign of Terror. Thus, the Liberal Phase’s ideology on liberty was based on the natural right to liberty that Robespierre would eventually expand upon. In addition to the ideology regarding the right to liberty, The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen also presents an ideology regarding the role of law in society. Together, Articles Four, Five, and Six form the basis of this ideology. Article Five proclaims that law is established to determine the necessary limitations on the actions of citizens; in doing so, this allows all citizens to exercise natural rights without harming others.14 Since the right to liberty is defined as the freedom to do anything that does not harm anyone else, these limits on the exercising of natural rights are needed to ensure all citizens maintain the natural right to liberty.15 Thus, law is an institution needed to protect the right to liberty. Despite the necessity of law, limitations are placed on its nature, as Article Five claims that law can only prohibit actions that harm society.16 Article Six further limits the nature of law, asserting that law must apply equally to all citizens.17 The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen also outlines the process for law creation, claiming in Article Six that law is to be an expression of the will of the people; thus, people are integral to the formation of the law, either through personal involvement or through the involvement of representatives.18 Through these definitions of law in The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen, it is evident that the ideology on law established during the Liberal Phase is designed to uphold the ideologies regarding natural rights, especially that of liberty. The original ideologies on liberty and law appeared to advocate a view opposing violence. This opposition

3 William Doyle, The French Revolution: A Very Short Introduction (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001), 109-110. http://search. ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=ip, sso&db=e000bna&AN=100296&site=eds-live&scope=site&custid=s3915936&ebv=E B&ppid=pp_Cover. 4 Doyle, The French Revolution, 19-21. 5 Doyle, 21-26. 6 Ibid, 37-39. 7 Ibid. 8 Ibid, 39-44. 9 Ibid, 44-45. 10 National Assembly of France, “Declaration of the Rights of Man, 1789, ” The Avalon Project, Lillian Goldman Law Library, 2008, https:// avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/rightsof.asp. 11 National Assembly of France. “Declaration of the Rights of Man, 1789.” 12 Ibid. 13 Ibid. 14 Ibid. 15 Ibid. 16 Ibid. 17 Ibid. 18 Ibid.

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to violent actions is evident in Article Five of The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen, as this article states that actions harmful to society are to be prohibited by the laws established.19 Violence is further discouraged in the ideology on liberty, as all citizens are entitled to exercise the natural right to liberty as long as this exercising does not infringe on other citizens’ right to liberty. However, this does not mean the Liberal Phase was absent of violence (although this part of the French Revolution contained significantly less violence than the Reign of Terror). For example, an artwork presumed to be created in 1790 depicts French citizens destroying Marie Antoinette’s bedroom using pitchforks and swords in search of her.20 Based on the ideologies of law and liberty, these acts would be deemed as a violation of both ideologies. Since the law is created to prohibit actions harmful to society, the ideology on law is violated. Additionally, the right to liberty is violated, as liberty is defined as the freedom to do anything that does not harm other members of society. In this sense, the Liberal Phase did include violence, although unlike Robespierre, the encouragement of the usage of violence was not included in the ideologies of the Liberal Phase. Now that the ideologies developed during the Liberal Phase have been identified and discussed, the second part of this paper will examine the ideologies Robespierre developed during the Reign of Terror. Additionally, the relationship between Robespierre’s ideologies and those established in the Liberal Phase will be discussed. Robespierre’s ideologies developed throughout his exercising of power in France during the Reign of Terror, which lasted from 1793 to 1794.21 The path to Reign of Terror began with the invasion of the royal palace by the sans-culottes (a group of Frenchmen) on June 20, 1792.22 This led to the overthrow of the monarchy on August 10, 1792, when the Legislative Assembly (the replacement of the National Assembly resulting from the 1791 Constitution) voted to suspend the monarchy and create a new body, the Convention.23 This Convention met on September 21, 1792, and declared the creation of a new Republic on September 22, 1792.24 On July 27, 1793, Robespierre

began his climb to power by joining the Committee of Public Safety (created on April 6, 1793). 25 The Reign of Terror officially began on September 5, 1793, when the sans-culottes had the Convention declare terror the order of the day.26 Once the Reign of Terror began, the ideologies governing this period of the French Revolution drew from those established in the Liberal Phase. Robespierre’s writings, specifically Justification of the Use of Terror and On the Principles of Political Morality, take the ideologies regarding liberty and law and expand them. At times, Robespierre even radicalizes these Liberal Phase ideologies. To begin, Robespierre’s ideologies on virtue and terror must first be identified. Robespierre’s Justification on the Use of Terror claims that in order to establish a democracy (which was his ultimate goal), constitutional laws must be established to govern society.27 However, establishing constitutional laws is only possible once the war between liberty and tyranny is ended; this is because Robespierre identifies tyranny as the enemy of liberty. 28 Continuing on the importance of establishing law, Robespierre then connects his ideology of virtue to democracy and law. According to Robespierre, virtue is “the love of country and of its laws;” thus, he claims that virtue can only exist in democracy, as this form of government relies on the establishment of law.29 In this way, Robespierre uses the Liberal Phase ideology on law to develop his ideology on virtue, as law is needed for virtue to exist. Furthermore, the Liberal Phase developed the ideology on law based on the ideology on liberty, as law was seen as a function of upholding the right to liberty; however, Robespierre sees law as a function of maintaining virtue. Likewise, Robespierre develops his ideology on terror from his ideology on virtue, which is based on the Liberal Phase ideology of liberty. Robespierre argues that law, and thus democracy, can only be established once the conflict between liberty and tyranny is ended. Once liberty prevails over tyranny, law and democracy will reign, and thus so will virtue. In this regard, Robespierre’s ideology is based on the ideology of liberty, as Robespierre asserts that liberty

19 Ibid. 20 Isaac Cruikshank, Dr Richard Price kneeling on a large crown (with a demon on his back) to look through a peep-hole at a group of ruffians ransacking Marie Antoinette’s bedroom; representing a speech by Price which allegedly advocated the French Revolution, ca. 1790, Wellcome Collection, https://library.artstor.org/#/asset/24835898;prevRouteTS=1604020584918. 21 Doyle, 111-112. 22 Ibid, 50-51, 110. 23 Ibid, 45, 49-51, 111. 24 Ibid, 52, 111. 25 Ibid, 111. 26 Ibid. 27 Maximilien Robespierre, “Justification of the Use of Terror, ” Modern History Sourcebook, Fordham University, Last modified on January 2-1, 2020. 28 Maximilien Robespierre, “Justification of the Use of Terror.” 29 Ibid.

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is a precondition for virtue to exist. Additionally, The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen declares liberty as the freedom to anything that does no harm to others.30 Thus, according to Robespierre, tyranny is the enemy to liberty as well as virtue; this is because tyranny not only harms members of society (and thus violates a citizen’s right to liberty), but also prevents the establishment of law and the formation of democracy, which is where virtue resides. Robespierre further believes that once virtue is lost in the members of society, liberty is likewise gone.31 Once liberty is lost in society, democracy too fails, and society will return to the rule of a monarchy, which France had fought against in the Liberal Phase of the French Revolution.32 From Robespierre’s ideology on virtue arises his ideology on terror. According to Robespierre, terror “is nothing other than justice, prompt, severe, inflexible; it is therefore an emulation of virtue.”33 Robespierre thus believes that terror is a natural consequence of democracy because terror is a part of virtue.34 Since terror is a consequence of democracy as well as a manifestation of virtue and because virtue is also needed for the establishment of laws to create democracy (which can only be done through the triumph of liberty over tyranny), terror is thus also grounded in the Liberal ideologies of law and liberty. Terror is a method to uphold the right to liberty, as terror prevents citizens from infringing on others’ right to liberty, which is the freedom to do anything that does not harm others; thus, terror is used to defeat tyranny, as tyranny causes harm to citizens through its violation of the right to liberty. Following the initial development of the ideology on terror, Robespierre radicalizes his ideology in his writing, On the Principles of Political Morality. Although Robespierre sees terror as a way of protecting the right to liberty, and thus the laws needed to establish democracy and virtue, he links his ideology on terror to despotism; however, Robespierre does not view despotism in a negative light since he connects it to democracy, even though despotism is traditionally seen as the opposite of democracy. 35 Thus, in this respect, by integrating despotism into his ideology on terror and his implementation of democracy, Robespierre has radicalized his ideology on terror, and thus the Liberal

Phase ideologies of law and liberty (since his ideology on terror was developed from these Liberal Phase ideologies). Robespierre argues that the despot of the government must utilize terror to conquer tyranny, and thus the enemies of liberty; in this way, Robespierre argues that it is acceptable for a government to defend its citizens’ right to liberty through terror.36 Thus, Robespierre has radicalized the Liberal Phase ideologies, as although The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen believed government should uphold the natural rights of citizens (including the right to liberty), this document did not encourage violence as a means to do so (since it did not encourage acts that were harmful to society).37 Additionally, Robespierre’s radical ideology on terror contradicts the notion of the right to liberty itself. Since liberty is the freedom to do anything that does not harm others, Robespierre’s use of terror violates the right to liberty. Robespierre especially performed acts of terror during the Reign of Terror by utilizing the guillotine. During the Reign of Terror, French citizens were commonly sentenced to death by guillotine, including King Louis XVI. Two artworks highlight the violent and gruesome nature of the guillotine by depicting the execution of King Louis XVI. The first artwork demonstrates the leadup to the execution, as King Louis XVI is shown in front of a restless crowd with his hands tied behind his back while in the background, the blade of the guillotine gleams as a Frenchmen stands nearby in preparation to carry out the execution.38 The second artwork reveals the gruesome aftermath of the execution, as the second artwork features King Louis XVI laying under the guillotine with his head and body separated.39 Thus, Robespierre’s ideology on terror is formed from his ideology on virtue and the Liberal Phase ideologies of liberty and law, but takes on a radical and violent manifestation through its encouragement of violent actions, such as the usage of the guillotine. Overall, the ideologies of virtue and terror developed by Robespierre during the Reign of Terror are rooted in the ideologies of law and liberty formed throughout the Liberal Phase of the French Revolution. Although Robespierre’s ideologies are an expansion

30 National Assembly of France, “Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen.” 31 Maximilien Robespierre, “Justification of the Use of Terror.” 32 Ibid. 33 Ibid. 34 Ibid. 35 Maximilien Robespierre, “On the Principles of Political Morality, February 1794, ” Modern History Sourcebook, Fordham University, Last modified January 21, 2020, https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/mod/1794robespierre.asp. 36 Maximilien Robespierre, “On the Principles of Political Morality, February 1794.” 37 National Assembly of France, “Declaration of the Rights of Man, 1789.” 38 Execution de Louis XVI, January 21, 1793, Cornell: Images from the Rare Book and Manuscript Collections, https://library.artstor.org/#/ public/SS35197_35197_19447225. 39 James Gillray, The head of King Louis XVI being cut off by a guillotine, ” February 16, 1793, Wellcome Collection, https://library.artstor.org/#/ asset/24885285;prevRouteTS=1604020354139.

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of those developed in the Liberal Phase, Robespierre also radicalized the Liberal Phase ideology of liberty through his ideology on terror. After examining both Liberal Phase ideologies and Robespierre’s ideologies, it can be concluded that Robespierre’s ideologies on virtue and terror cannot exist without the ideologies of law and liberty developed in the Liberal Phase. This is because Robespierre’s ideology on virtue is based on the idea that this aspect of democracy can only be established through the creation of law in society, although laws cannot be established unless liberty triumphs over tyranny, which threatens a citizen’s right to liberty. Thus, the ideology of virtue is an expansion of the ideologies of law and liberty. Likewise, the ideology of terror is also an expansion on the ideologies of law and liberty, as terror is a method utilized by the despotic government of democracy to defend liberty from tyranny, thus allowing the laws needed for a democracy to be maintained and virtue to survive. However, the ideology of terror is a radicalized form of the ideologies of law and liberty due to its violent manifestation in the use of the guillotine during the Reign of Terror. Due to the research presented in this paper, the lacking historiography first identified in the beginning of this paper is now filled. By identifying the ways in which Robespierre’s ideologies on virtue and terror expanded on the Liberal Phase ideologies on liberty and law, new research is presented to the historiography that moves beyond the traditional research of studying French Revolution phase ideologies both in seclusion and from a religious standpoint. The research presented in this paper, however, adds to the historiography a study on the ideologies of the Reign of Terror and

analyzes this period’s relationship to the other phases of the French Revolution. Thus, this research is not just a study examining the Liberal Phase or the Reign of Terror alone and from a religious viewpoint, which the traditional historiography would have done. Additionally, this paper’s research reinforces the idea of the interconnectivity of the discipline of history. Although historical events should be studied in a way that retains individual characteristics, it is impossible to study a historical event completely alone from other historical events. By conducting research on the interconnectivity of the Liberal Phase and Reign of Terror, new avenues for research are now open. One of these new research avenues is the examination of the interconnectivity present between various other periods of the French Revolution. For example, research can be conducted to determine the relationship between the ideologies present during Reign of Terror and the ideologies held by Napoleon Bonaparte during his era of conquest. Likewise, by examining ideologies from a nonreligious viewpoint, the ideologies developed and held during the French Revolution no longer have to be studied through a religious lens. New studies can be conducted that examine the political, social, and even economic ideologies held in the various phases of the French Revolution. These nonreligious ideologies can then further be expanded upon by comparing them to other French Revolution phases, such as how this paper did. Thus, the possibilities for research do not end with this paper, but rather are now more plentiful through its creation.

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Bibliography Primary Sources: Cruikshank, Isaac. Dr Richard Price kneeling on a large crown (with a demon on his back) to look through a peep-hole at a group of ruffians ransacking Marie Antoinette’s bedroom; representing a speech by Price which allegedly advocated the French Revolution. ca. 1790. Wellcome Collection. https://library.artstor.org/#/asset/24835898;prevRoute TS=1604020584918. Execution de Louis XVI. January 21, 1793. Cornell: Images from the Rare Book and Manuscript Collections. https://library.artstor.org/#/public/ SS35197_35197_19447225. Gillray, James. The head of King Louis XVI being cut off by a guillotine.” February 16, 1793. Wellcome Collection. https://library.artstor.org/#/asset/24885285;prevRoute TS=1604020354139. National Assembly of France. “Declaration of the Rights of Man, 1789.” The Avalon Project. Lillian Goldman Law Library. 2008. https://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_ century/rightsof.asp. Robespierre, Maximilien. “Justification of the Use of Terror.” Modern History Sourcebook. Fordham University. Last modified on January 21, 2020. https://sourcebooks. fordham.edu/mod/robespierre-terror.asp. Robespierre, Maximilien. “On the Principles of Political Morality, February 1794.” Modern History Sourcebook. Fordham University. Last modified January 21, 2020 https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/mod/1794robespierre. asp.

Secondary Sources: Doyle, William. The French Revolution: A Very Short Introduction. New York: Oxford University Press, 2001. http://search.ebscohost.com/login. aspx?direct=true&AuthType=ip, sso&db=e000bna&AN =100296&site=eds-live&scope=site&custid=s3915936 &ebv=EB&ppid=pp_vii. Schechter, Ronald. “The Holy Mountain and the French Revolution.” In “Religion(s) and the Enlightenment.” Special issue, Historical Reflections/Réflexions Historiques 40, no. 2 (Summer 2014): 78-107. https://www.jstor. org/stable/24720586.

Student Reflection: All in all, I enjoyed the process of researching and writing this paper. It was fun being able to choose my own topic to research, as this allowed me to dive deeper into a topic I was already interested in. Originally, I struggled to narrow down the topic I wanted to write about, as I only knew I wanted to write something in regard to the French Revolution. Luckily, as I began to explore the primary sources from the French Revolution, I was able to further narrow down my topic to focus more specifically on the ideologies of the Liberal Phase and the Reign of Terror. Overall, I enjoyed reading the primary sources from the French Revolution, even though I had trouble understanding these sources at times. Luckily, I did not struggle too much in actually writing the paper. Overall, I enjoyed creating my research paper and was able to produce something I am proud of!

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A Comparative Analysis of the Boy Scouts of America and the CCC Abigail Long HIS 203: Theory and Practice of History Dr. Robert Shaffer Assignment Produce a 12-15 page research paper, using original primary sources located by the student, that adds to historians’ knowledge of the activities and achievements of the Civilian Conservation Corps in the 1930s. The paper should indicate how this primary source research adds to the account of the CCC as presented in a secondary source, "Nature’s New Deal," by Neil Maher, which had been read and discussed in class.

In Nature’s New Deal, Neil Maher referred to the Boy Scouts of America as one of the “foremost promoters” of the youth movement during the Progressive Era.1 Franklin Roosevelt’s heavy involvement with the organization helped promote an environmentalist agenda while also emphasizing the importance of nature in shaping the youth. Maher went further by suggesting the Boy Scouts of America and the Civilian Conservation Corps were similar in the ways that they shaped young boys and relied on the influence of conservation.2 With that being said, Maher only grazed the surface of the comparisons between the Boy Scouts and the CCC. In fact, the Boy Scouts and the CCC were deeply connected through their similar motives and goals, which supported one another throughout the New Deal era. Furthermore, the aspects of the Boy Scouts that Maher chose to focus on did not reveal the complexity of the organization. It can be argued that the Boy Scouts of America was just as complex and debated over as the Civilian Conservation Corps during the New Deal years. The successes and failures of both the Boy Scouts and the CCC influenced, and one of them continues to influence, nearly every aspect of society. This ranged from educating the youth and environmental conservation to economic prosperity. Therefore, it is important to consider the influences each of these programs had, which can be done by comparing them to one another. This paper will demonstrate the importance of nature and conservation, character building, manhood, brotherhood, and positive relationships with commu-

nities and the general public within both the Civilian Conservation Corps and the Boy Scouts of America. Additionally, it will reveal that although these programs often contradicted one another regarding their use of religion and militarization, their overall similarities are unassailable. The Boy Scouts of America is currently made up of approximately 2.2 million youth members between the ages of five and twenty one. There are about 800, 000 volunteers in local councils throughout the United States and more than 35 million adult volunteers have helped to carry out the missions of the organization. Since the Boy Scouts’ inception in 1910, more than 130 million boys have participated in the variety of youth programs. Some of the different programs include cub scouting, venturing and sea scouting, and exploring programs. The Boy Scouts are dependent on religious institutions, clubs, civic and educational associations, and volunteers that implement the program within communities.3 The Civilian Conservation Corps was established in 1933 and remained in operation until it was abolished by Congress in 1942. The CCC was a New Deal program that provided work, vocational training, and education for single unemployed men, usually between the ages of eighteen and twenty five. In 1935, the program reached its peak with over 2, 600 camps around the United States and more than 500, 000 members.4 More than 3 million men joined the CCC between 1933 and 1942 and they took part in a wide range of transformative work. This included the planting of 2

1 Neil Maher, Nature’s New Deal: The Civilian Conservation Corps and the Roots of the American Environment Movement (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008), 33. 2 Maher, Nature’s New Deal, 37. 3 “About the BSA, ” Boy Scouts of America, 2020, https://www.scouting.org/about/. 4 “Civilian Conservation Corps.” Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th Edition, 2020, p. 1, Accessed from Academic Search Ultimate.

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billion trees, slowing soil erosion, and developing 800 new state parks. Additionally, President Roosevelt’s involvement in the CCC was crucial to the program’s success. John Salmond, a historian and professor in Australia, wrote a book on the CCC in which he stated, “...it nevertheless remains true that more than any other New Deal agency it bore the personal stamp of President Roosevelt.”5 Roosevelt’s passion turned relief work into a program rather than it remaining an idea, which shifted the American landscape physically and politically. One of the most notable similarities between the Boy Scouts and the CCC was undoubtedly their use of nature and conservation. A majority of the work done by the Boy Scouts revolved around conservation, which members of the organization were often rewarded for. For example, numerous scouts received awards for their conservation efforts. Harold K. Whitford and Arnold Tayton were presented with awards in 1930 from the Wild Life Protection Fund as a symbol of their hard work. Some of their conservation efforts included preventing harm to bird nests, maintaining a wildlife museum, posting notices for the protection of wildlife, and building trout dams.6 Additionally, numerous scouting leaders attended important conferences such as the North American Wild Life Conference, which was held in Washington D.C. This was a conference called in 1936 by President Roosevelt that considered ways in which conservation could be implemented into protecting wildlife.7 Furthermore, there were frequent attempts made by scouts to link the country to the city through nature work. In one instance, a group of Manhattan scouts planted and grew flowers in areas that were previously cement.8 The tree planting craze discussed by Neil Maher revealed a similar level of importance of nature and conservation work within the Civilian Conservation Corps. The tree planting craze swept across America after the public became enamored with the work done by the CCC, especially their forestry projects.9 Additionally, media and political advancement played a role in the ways the CCC was promoted. The largest contributor to widespread support for the program was President Roosevelt’s heavy involvement, which led to his frequently expressed admiration of it. The praise of the CCC was apparent in Roosevelt’s speeches and they resembled some of the celebration speeches

he gave regarding the Boy Scouts. An example of this was when Roosevelt gave a speech at the dedication of Shenandoah National Park on July 3, 1936. He emphasized that the work done by the CCC allowed for another beautiful recreational space to be available to the public. Roosevelt also spoke of the “tragedy of waste” that was damaging America until idle men were put to work and the land was improved. To further this applause, Roosevelt made the argument that all of the recreational work done by the CCC were acts of conservation.10 Many of Roosevelt’s statements about conservation are connected to Neil Maher’s discussion of the great conservation debate. The great conservation debate was a national debate sparked by the CCC about the program as a whole, the type of work enrollees were doing, and four different types of conservation. In this case, Roosevelt argued that recreational work along with all of the other projects done by the CCC were acts of conservation, which would have aligned with Maher’s description of broader conservation. Broader conservation supported recreational spaces for the state of human welfare and it was popularized by the CCC in order to gain more political support for the New Deal.11 The conservation work done by the Boy Scouts and the CCC was not only seen as a way to promote political support and improve the environment, but also as a pathway to manhood. Both of the programs placed a great deal of importance on building good character among the youth along with assisting their transitions from boys to men. Some of the indications that this was being done successfully were physical strength and mental development, which were often considered to be self-transformative. The movement behind the Boy Scouts encouraged organizations to create strong, decent citizens. In this particular case, that included providing scouts with work and an atmosphere that would not only physically strengthen them, but also allow them to experience a personal self-transformation. One article even states, “Every boy loves to play at being a man, and it is well worthwhile to encourage him to be a useful and decent man.”12 In another source, E.S. Martin suggested the emphasis on good citizenship and manhood in the line, “What it has accomplished for the boy is a triumph for the Boy Scout Movement. What it has accomplished for the man is an achievement.”13 Both of these quotes

5 John A . Salmond, The Civilian Conservation Corps, 1933-1942: A New Deal Case Study, (North Carolina: Duke University Press, 1967), 2. 6 “Two Boy Scouts Win Medal For Wild Life Conservation, ” New York Times, 14 Dec 1930, p. 18 7 “Scouts Aid In Conservation.” New York Times, 2 Feb 1936, p. 8. 8 “Manhattan Boy Scout Troops Find Time For Nature Work.” New York Times, 19 Oct 1930, p. 128. 9 Maher, Nature’s New Deal, 159. 10 “Roosevelt Speech at Park.” New York Times, 4 July 1936, p. 3. 11 Maher, Nature’s New Deal, 163-164. 12 “Boy Scouts and Character Building, ” Philadelphia Inquirer, 8 Feb 1926, p. 8. 13 E. S. Martin, “A Double-Barrelled Social Agency: The Boy Scouts of America, ” Social Forces, vol. 4, no. 1 (Sep 1925), 94-97, 97.

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revealed how significant self-development and the concept of manhood were within the organization and the characteristics of the CCC were nearly identical. Enrollees experienced a great deal of change throughout their time in the program, especially regarding self-transformation. Robert Miller, a CCC enrollee in California, shared his own experiences with the program in an essay from 1937. He shared that the CCC allowed him to become a man, which is what he desired his whole life but could never seem to achieve. Additionally, the CCC helped him stand on his own two feet and gave him the opportunity to make his own way in the world, which would have never been possible otherwise.14 This was comparable to Maher’s discussion of the mental and physical transformations enrollees underwent despite their weaknesses and insecurities when first enrolling. More specifically, the CCC sought to alleviate the “threats” to enrollee manhood by building strong, physically fit men. These intentions provided insight on a broader gender role crisis that was present during the Great Depression as most men felt emasculated.15 The CCC attempted to revive the traditional definition of masculinity that had been lost during times of economic hardship. Additionally, Maher connected these transformations to the communities and politics through the term “body politic.” The establishment of positive relationships with surrounding communities was critical for both the Boy Scouts and the Civilian Conservation Corps. More specifically, the Boy Scouts of America recognized the importance of developing strong relationships with surrounding communities in a similar way that the CCC camps hoped to do. Lorne Barclay, an author of a book on the Boy Scouts, gave a speech in 1921 before the National Conference of Social Work that emphasized the importance of developing relationships with the community. Barclay also explained that scouts intended to assist communities throughout America as they worked their way through boyhood. The statement, “Scouting trains boys to serve the community but, equally as important, it trains the community to serve its boyhood, ” served as an example of how important positive relationships with communities were.16 The Boy Scouts helped local communities and were simultaneously dependent on them to continue their success. Ultimately, it was a two sided relationship that required public support in order to accomplish nearly anything.

A similar argument was presented in Nature’s New Deal regarding the relationships between CCC camps and surrounding communities. In order to gain public support for an idea or program, people need to feel as though they can benefit from it. With the understanding that widespread support was necessary for sustaining the CCC, it became apparent that gaining political support was crucial. The main way this was accomplished was by developing strong relationships between individual CCC camps and their local communities. For example, in Coon Valley, the CCC educated local community members on conservation and were able to portray their labor on private property within soil demonstration areas as being done in the interest of the general public.17 Another example of communities benefiting from CCC work was in the Great Smokies when the arrival of camps helped to funnel federal funds back into local communities.18The direct benefits enrollee work had on their surrounding communities resulted in increased public support. Therefore, CCC enrollees were not only benefiting their neighbors, but were given the support necessary for continued operation. Overall, communities were trained to serve the program in the same exact way they were taught to serve the Boy Scouts. The relationships that were built with communities were not the only significant connections within the Civilian Conservation Corps. A sense of brotherhood developed among enrollees, which created a sense of community and belonging and these inner connections were just as apparent in the Boy Scouts. President Roosevelt argued that the Boy Scouts were based on a wide range of goals, two of which included training on activities of outdoor life and promotion of a world brotherhood among the youth in interest of mutual understanding and peace.19 This suggested that homosocial bonds in the Boy Scouts were seen as beneficial and necessary for the success of both the organization and its members. The companionship between scouts was also addressed by President Roosevelt during a few of his speeches. During a presidential address in 1940, Roosevelt referred to the Boy Scouts as a “family group, ” which extended the spirit of the family to alternative activities for boys.20 Similarly, CCC enrollees often partook in activities, like games and recreational sports, after the work day came to an end.21 With the understanding that these activities became habitual, it is arguable that they helped to develop a sense of brotherhood and community by providing enrollees

14 Robert M. Miller, “It’s A Great Life, ” 1937, p. 1, https://web.archive.org/web/20050414164513/http://newdeal.feri.org/ccc/ccc009.htm. 15 Maher, Nature’s New Deal, 95. 16 Lorne Barclay, “The Boy Scout Program and Building the Community, ” The Journal of Education, vol. 93, no. 5 (Feb 1921), 119-121, 119. 17 Maher, Nature’s New Deal, 125. 18 Maher, Nature’s New Deal, 136. 19 “A Mobilization of Youth.” New York Times, 10 Feb 1934, p. 14. 20 Felix Belair Jr., “Roosevelt Hails Boy Scout ‘Family’, ” New York Times, 9 Feb 1940, 23. 21 Guy D. McKinney, “CCC Carries On: The Record and Program, ” New York Times, 28 Oct 1934, 2.

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with a way to bond. The familial bonds that could be found in both the Boy Scouts and the CCC represented a broader family nation that was idolized by many Americans. Religion also played an important role in the Boy Scouts and the CCC, but it tended to be debated more regarding the morals of enrollees compared to the praise of religious scouts. The Boy Scouts of America was consistently praised for their use of religion, which came to be seen as a major contributor to the organization’s success. For example, a New York Times article written in 1934, included the idea that religion was the key to achievement in the Boy Scouts, which was supported with evidence from survey responses. At the third annual Scouters’ conference of the Queens Council Boy Scouts of America, Dr. Ray Wyland shared numerous survey results that dealt with scouting and education. These results shared that religion was the main response given as the chief influence behind the achievements of the Boy Scouts movement.22 Additionally, The Philadelphia Inquirer published an article that shared a significant quote by Roosevelt, the honorary president of the Boy Scouts, that stated, “...the Scouts emphasized the necessity of respect for the convictions of other people and thus upheld religious freedom, a tradition upon which this country was founded.”23 This example reaffirmed that the Boy Scouts embodied American ideals and religious freedom, which contributed to the success of the organization and the nation as a whole. With that being said, in 1935, Renwick Kennedy shared a contrasting opinion on religion in the Civilian Conservation Corps that was rather negative compared to the articles on religion in the Boy Scouts. Kennedy argued that there was an absence of morals among enrollees despite religious involvement. One of the suggested reasons for this was because leaders and chaplains in the camps cared more about their own financial gain than implementing religious practices and teaching morals.24 Kennedy’s critique of a lack of religious focus in the CCC was far from the only one. In fact, religion, or lack of it, and the impact that had on enrollees’ morals were two of the main debates and criticisms about the program throughout its existence. In a letter to the editor of the New York Times, Richard Jones Jr. discussed the need for missionaries to be sent to CCC camps to protect the morals of 470, 000

young men. He also suggested there was a wide range of opinion regarding what Sunday school age is because in this case, enrollees were over seventeen years old, which made them closer to manhood than boyhood.25 Therefore, the religious needs varied for men and reform was required within the program. Additionally, Jones ended his letter with the statement, “Incidentally, there is more militarism in a high school fire drill than can be found in the entire CCC, ” revealing how critical he truly was of the program.26 This addressed the issue of militarization, which was often accompanied by patriotism, and was a complex topic surrounding the Boy Scouts and the CCC. The militarization of the CCC was strongly supported by a majority of Americans during its operation. In fact, a lack of militarization was often perceived to be negative, which can be seen in Jones’s statement. With that being said, the Boy Scouts experienced feedback that was entirely different regarding militarization. Despite the fact that the Boy Scouts began as a highly militarized organization, there was a great deal of people who critiqued it for its militaristic structure and thought it should embody characteristics opposite of militarism.27 This was frequently seen in comparisons between the nature of the Boy Scouts of America to alternative youth programs in Communist and Fascist countries. For example, during a radio address as a part of Scout Anniversary week in 1939, former President Herbert Hoover and President Franklin Roosevelt spoke about the organization. Hoover emphasized the differences between the Boy Scouts and Communist and Fascist youth programs by explaining how their goals contrasted one another. He argued Communist and Fascist youth programs were built on regimentation, submission, and mental or moral subjection to their masters, while the Boy Scouts embodied a structure opposite from the militarism they emphasized. Furthermore, Hoover stated that America sought to build individual character, educate, and create the “free man.”28 Similarly, an illustrated brochure on Americanism in the Boy Scouts that contrasted the organization to Communism and Fascism was produced in 1939. An article written about the brochure addressed the fears of Communism and Fascism entering the country and corrupting the youth. The Boy Scouts were said to be a safeguard for American democracy as over one million boys dedicated themselves to the

22 “Scouts’ Religion Held Main Asset, ” New York Times, 16 Dec 1934, p. 36. 23 “Roosevelt Hails Scouts’ 30th Year.” The Philadelphia Inquirer, 9 Feb 1940, p. 3. 24 Renwick Kennedy, “Quality in the Reserve Corps, ” 1934, 274. 25 Richard W. Jones Jr., “Religious Needs Supplied, ” New York Times, 27 Nov 1935, 20. 26 Ibid. 27 Saul Scheidlinger. “A Comparative Study of the Boy Scout Movement in Different National and Social Groups, ” American Sociological Review, vol. 13, no. 6 (Dec 1948), 739-750, 740. 28 “Boy Scouts’ Aims Lauded By Hoover.” New York Times, 15 Feb 1939, p. 8.

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rights and responsibilities of American citizens.29 Therefore, the Boy Scout movement was viewed as a way to protect Americanism and democracy while saving the country from Communist and Fascist control. Additionally, as stated before, the militarization of the CCC was supported by most people, but nonetheless, there were some critiques and concerns. Raymond Moley, former Assistant Secretary of State in Franklin Roosevelt’s administration, addressed some of these concerns. Although Moley’s statement about people opposing the CCC due to fears of militarization was brief, he attempted to reassure those who were skeptical that the program was not militarized and was beneficial for America as a whole. Furthermore, Moley discussed the mobilization of the CCC and the work it would accomplish in building good character and exploiting America’s beauty with the motivation to convince critics to overcome their fears about the program.30 Although this source presented a level of bias because Moley was a part of FDR’s administration and was encouraged to defend the program, it revealed that opposition to the CCC due to militarization was threatening to the program and required people, like Moley, to defend it. Another article published in 1939 attempted to defend the CCC regarding militarism in a similar manner that Moley did. In the newspaper article, it was made clear that reserve officers did not acquire certain military service rights, like pensions, by serving in CCC camps. It also stated that personnel would be retrained, but as civilians rather than in their reserve army status.31 Therefore, the camps would only have a semi-military discipline, which was understandable, rather than training the enrollees in a strictly militaristic way. The demilitarization of the CCC explained in this article was an attempt to calm the public’s fears of militarization in the program, which was nearly identical to Moley’s argument.

In conclusion, the Boy Scouts of America and the Civilian Conservation Corps were programs complex in nature that shared similar characteristics and influenced the country as a whole. Conservation and nature was emphasized by each of the programs, which allowed for conservation work to spread throughout the United States. The media often emphasized the importance of conservation work along with what the programs did for young men. The Boy Scouts and the CCC provided boys with resources to enter manhood and develop strong relationships with other young men. These familial relationships were an important aspect of each of the program’s daily operations, but also impacted their relationships with surrounding communities. Gaining support from the general public was crucial for the Boy Scouts and the CCC to continue their operations. With that being said, communities began to rely on the programs’ work as well, which helped their economies prosper. Additionally, the topic of religion was often discussed regarding each program to assess the morals and character of their members. The Boy Scouts were regularly praised for their religious efforts while the CCC tended to be criticized for a lack of religion, which was paired with the assumption that enrollees lacked good morals. Finally, the militarization of the Boy Scouts and the CCC was heavily debated throughout America. A great deal of Americans supported a militaristic structure within the CCC while others opposed it. With that being said, both the Boy Scouts and the CCC gained an increased amount of political support by proving that they were demilitarized. Neil Maher fell short with his comparisons of the Boy Scouts and the CCC and it is important to acknowledge that the programs were comparable beyond measure and each played a monumental role in shaping society and the political landscape during the New Deal era.

29 “Boy Scouts to Open Patriotic Program.” New York Times, 28 Jan 1939, p. 9. 30 Moley, Raymond. “State of the Nation As Seen By Moley.” Philadelphia Inquirer, 27 Aug 1933, p. 15. 31 “A Move to De-Militarize the C.C.C.” The Philadelphia Inquirer, 1939, p. 6.

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Student Reflection: In Dr. Shaffer’s HIS 203 course, we read "Nature’s New Deal" by Neil Maher, which sparked my interest in the Civilian Conservation Corps. Prior to this class, I had never heard of the CCC, which was one of Franklin D. Roosevelt’s most successful New Deal programs. Throughout the class, Maher’s book was accompanied by numerous readings on the CCC from a variety of perspectives and time periods. When I began the researching process, one of the first newspapers I came across had articles about the CCC and the Boy Scouts of America placed next to each other, and I couldn’t help but notice similarities between the two. One of my most interesting findings was the emphasis that both programs put on good citizenship and manhood. Both the Boy Scouts and the CCC viewed members as boys who would be transformed into capable men. Conducting extensive research for this essay and organizing my findings was one of the most challenging and rewarding things I have ever done. I believe this essay is revealing of my growth as a researcher and writer and I hope to expand upon my work regarding the CCC and the Boy Scouts in the future.

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Music’s Impact on Memory and Advertising Kyrsten Mahoney HON 249: Honors Introduction to Literature Dr. Crochunis Assignment For this project we had to pick a topic related to memory in a broader humanities context and complete in-depth research to compile a complete analysis of the topic. We could then choose whether to present our topic as a scholarly paper or an informational video.

Memory is the process of reproducing or recalling what has been learned and retained. Exploration into how the memory works, can provide key information on how outside stimuli affects memory processes. Music can be studied as a stimulus to determine the effect on memory. These studies show that music improves our capacity to remember. Through application of information learned from these studies, we can assist the advertising industry in connecting people to a particular message. The advertising industry uses the memory process of recall to improve brand recognition and consumer behavior. When listening to music, the combination of temporal scaffolding and emotional responses create improvements in memory that can help the advertising field successfully use music to create semantic nodes and engage classical conditioning. In order to understand the depth of the research involving music and memory, it is important to know how memory works. There are three main processes in memory. The processes are encoding, storage and recall or retrieval. The first process, encoding, is the process of learning and understanding information. Information is encoded through our senses. Visual encoding refers to how it looks, acoustic encoding is determined by how it sounds, semantic encoding refers to what it means, and tactile encoding relates to how it feels. Once encoded, the information shifts to the storage stage of memory. This stage determines where, how, and how long the information will is held in the memory system. The two types of memory storage are short term memory and long-term memory. The encoded memories first enter the short-term memory and then some will pass through to long term memory. Short term memory holds information for fifteen to thirty seconds and typically only holds five to nine pieces of information at a time. Long-term memory has a large storage capacity that can store information infinitely. Once the information becomes stored in memory, recall is required to utilize the learned infor38

mation. Recall is the process of accessing the stored information. When recalling information in short-term memory, it is retrieved in the order it was stored, while long-term memory is retrieved through association. For example, short term memory would be a sequential list of numbers whereas an example of long-term memory is remembering where your car is parked by going through the same entrance that you used to access the store (How Memory Works). Within short-term and long-term memory there are different processes involved in storing memories. A temporary memory process in short-term memory is working memory. It is in the prefrontal cortex of the brain. This process allows information from short term memory to become closer to long term memories. An example of using working memory is when people cram for a test. Studying puts the information into working memory by repeating the information multiple times within a small period of time. Then, after the test when the repetition of the material stops, the brain will forget the information. This is due to the lack of connection between the information and the brain (Sprenger 45-56). For information to become permanent in long term memory, it follows five different lanes. These lanes are semantic, episodic, procedural, automatic and emotional. Each of these lanes has the ability to access memories and are in different parts of the brain. Semantic memory deals with getting information from words. This information enters the brain and is directed to the hippocampus, which acts as a filing cabinet for factual memories. The most common method to create semantic memories are from textbooks and lectures. Episodic memories hold information about locations by associating learning the information with a specific location. These are also in the hippocampus. Procedural memory can be referred to as muscle memory because these memories focus on the process of the body. The cerebellum stores procedural

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memories once they become routine. Another lane inside the cerebellum is automatic memory. Automatic memory is when stimuli triggers certain information or memories. Lastly, emotional memories are in the amygdala, which holds all of the experiences that cause emotions. When engaged, the emotional memory lane takes precedence over any other lane of memory. Each of these lanes have either explicit or implicit memories. Explicit memories refer to voluntary memories, which are in the hippocampus. It includes memories of words, facts and places. Episodic and semantic memory lanes hold explicit memories. Implicit memory is involuntary memories that respond to a situation or a stimulus. Procedural, automatic and emotional lanes hold implicit memories (Sprenger 45-56). Within memory there can be many factors for successful encoding and recall of information. The factors can be internal or external. Internal factors include motivation, strategies or any prior knowledge whereas external factors deal with the context of encoding, or material to be learned. When looking at internal factors, a process known as semantic processing leads to better memory performance. Semantic processing refers to a deep level process during the encoding stage of verbal information. External factors take into account the method of presentation as well as the nature of the information. The method of presentation of visual and auditory information strongly influences memory performance. A musical stimulus can fall under the internal or external category but often is a cognitive stimulus that improves memory. The rhythms and melodies within music engage cognitive and neural processes within the encoding process to enhance memory of verbal and visual stimuli. Although it is important to understand how memory works, the continuation of the paper will dive deeper into the effect’s music has on memory. Listening to music creates links between senses and stimuli by using temporal scaffolding and emotional responses that improve the ability to recall memories (Ferreri and Verga 167-182). Music supplies a temporal scaffolding network to encourage sequence learning. This means that the melody and rhythm within music provides a template which causes the creation of an internal rhythm within the learning and memory networks of the outer layer of the cerebellum. This process supports the Dynamic Attending Theory (DAT). When we apply this theory to music, it states that the temporal accents in music incorporate oscillations in attention over time. Oscillations are rhythmic electrical activity that occur in response to stimuli by neural tissue. This means that the electrical activity can aid the connection between the music and points of time. Since temporal means relating to time, the DAT theory is stating that music with normal structures should have better performance

in memory tasks since it directs attention towards relevant points in time or memories. Furthermore, when combining DAT with verbal material, it benefits encoding by alerting participants attention to the relevant information that they should remember. The simpler the musical stimuli, the easier it becomes to link it with information. This means that by listening to music it can create links between information and the musical stimulus. When music acts as temporal scaffolding, it allows for regularities in the stimulus to draw attention, reinforce and facilitate memory (Ferreri and Verga 167-182). Another way to link music and memory is with an emotional response. Parts of the brain that deal with emotions like the amygdala, hippocampus, and hypothalamus are influenced by the presence of music. For example, music triggers the release of dopamine from the hypothalamus. Dopamine secretion helps with learning and memory functions. While listening to music, it is normal to feel some sort of emotions. These emotions create deeper links between memories and the musical stimuli. Once the link is in place, the music can trigger emotions and cause recall of information and unconscious memories. A study published by BMC Neuroscience, tested whether musical pieces that have a high emotional response are remembered better than emotionally neutral pieces. For this experiment, they divided subjects into two sections to mimic the encoding and recall phases. During the encoding phase, the subjects played forty songs for twenty to thirty seconds at a time. Then, a week later during the recall phase, the participants listened to the forty songs again, but these songs were intermixed with forty new songs. The participants then had to determine if it was a song from the first day or a new song and rate the emotional response they felt towards the song. In conclusion, they found that the musical pieces with a high emotional response were recognized significantly better than those that had low emotional response. This response shows that emotions associated with song assist in memory retention (Jäncke). In addition, other studies have been done to test the effectiveness of music in improving memory. In 2014, a study was conducted on patients with dementia. Eighty-nine patients participated and were assigned either a ten-week music listening coaching group, a ten-week singing coaching group or just normal care (Nopanen). When the ten weeks ended, it showed that both listening to music and singing improved their mood, remote episodic memory and general cognition (Nopanen). The patients who had the ten-week singing coaching also had improved short term and working memory abilities (Nopanen). Another study was created to test the links created between senses and stimuli. Other studies have concluded that when listening to 39

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music it can create links between senses and musical stimuli. The links then go to short-term and longterm memory. Professor Janata decided to test this by exposing people to thirty songs that were popular when they were eight to eighteen years old (Greensfelder). He monitored their brains while they listened to these songs. He then discovered that the participants had stronger neural activity in the upper medial pre-frontal cortex while they listened to these songs (Greensfelder). This part of your brain is in charge of long-term memories. This study proves that there is a process of linking emotions, memories, and music that also happens in this part of the brain (Greensfelder). By studying the connections between musical stimuli and memory, it can be applied to other fields of research to elicit positive results. The advertising industry has taken the information about music and memory and applied it to their practice to gain results. In 1990, Scott called for research to understand how music can impact persuasion (North 83-95). In 1993, Kellaris, Cox and Cox proposed that music would enhance message reception when the music aligns with message congruent thoughts (North 83-95). Through the use of semantic nodes and classical conditioning, using music in advertising can increase product recognition and purchase. Semantic networks are pathways that connect nodes together with links. Nodes refer to objects or concepts and the links are the relationships between them. When many nodes and links are combined, it creates a large semantic network. Each node is activated by external stimuli. When a node is activated, the activation spreads to all other linked nodes from that semantic network. This process of activation is part of the recall function within long-term memory. The links that appear between each node do not always have the same strength as other links in the network. The more the traces are activated, the stronger they will become. A stronger link allows for a speedier time of retrieval for the memory. (North 83-95). In order to test the connection with music and advertising, three studies were performed. The goal of the first study was to determine if songs and musical genres prime semantic concepts in memory and if so, do these concepts remain active when the music stops. The activated concepts should then facilitate the encoding and recall of related nodes in memory. Also, they wanted to see whether music can influence people’s choices. The hypothesis was, “participants are more likely to recall a product of a given national origin if the music playing is the same national origin compared to instances when the music is of a different national origin.” This first experiment shows that atmospheric music influenced encoding so that congruent information was recalled easier at a later date. This suggests that music allows for 40

the encoding of semantic material even when it is not associated to the to which their attention was drawn. This can be applied to advertising because when music is used in advertising it can activate semantic networks to improve the recall of a product. Experiments two and three studied how music congruity had effects on judgements of a product’s value. The value was measured by how much people would pay for the product. They found that when music was able to prime concepts associated with the product being expensive, the consumer would pay more money for it. These studies show that by priming subjects and tapping into their semantic networks with music it can impact how a consumer reacts to certain products after seeing an advertisement. This is beneficial to people in advertising because if they can master this technique, then they can produce more effective campaigns with product recognition to direct consumer behavior. (North 83-95). Another technique accepted in the field of advertising is classical conditioning. Classical conditioning is a learning process that occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired (Alpert 369–376). In this situation, the advertised product would be the conditioned stimuli and the background music would be the unconditioned stimuli (Gorn 94-101). By using classical conditioning in advertising, it suggests that positive attitudes for a product could come from its association with musical stimuli (Alpert 369–376). When measuring classical conditioning there are a couple difficulties that come with it. The largest difficulty is determining mere exposure versus classical conditioning. It is important to distinguish whether exposure to the product or classical conditioning causes favorable attitudes. Gorn preformed a study of 244 undergraduate students to test out his theory of classical conditioning. He randomly assigned the students to two different management courses at McGill University. The students were told that an advertising agency needed help selecting music for a commercial about a pen. The four different conditions were liked music and disliked music, and a blue or beige pen. Each student in the classes were assigned to one of the four groups. At the end of the study, it determined that 74 out of 94 subjects picked the color of the pen that was paired with the liked music. These results show that association between a product and another stimulus, music, can affect product choices. Due to the responses on why the student made the color choice they did, and since only minimal product information was provided, it seems as though classical conditioning is a plausible explanation for the results. This helps show that if more research were done to understand the effects of classical conditioning on advertising, it could help achieve increases in product purchase (Gorn 94-101).

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Improvements in memory from music’s temporal scaffolding and emotional responses can aid the advertising industry in how to use music to create semantic nodes and engage classical conditioning. Knowledge of how music’s temporal scaffolding affects memory can determine what music should be used in advertisements and how to create connections in memory. It was found that simpler music with normal structures makes it easier to connect and remember information. Advertisers can build on this concept by using the simpler music and portraying it in a way to connect to the advertising concept of semantic nodes. In addition, advertisers can use the techniques of connecting music to emotional response and memory. This can be applied to classical conditioning because advertisers want to connect certain emotions with their products. By connecting research about music and memory to music in advertising, it can help the industry create more effective campaigns.

Bibliography Alpert, Mark I., et al. “Purchase Occasion Influence on the Role of Music in Advertising.” Journal of Business Research, vol. 58, no. 3, 2005, pp. 369–376., doi:10.1016/s0148-2963(03)00101-2. Ferreri, L., and L. Verga. “Benefits of Music on Verbal Learning and Memory: How and When Does It Work?” Music Perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal, vol. 34, no. 2, 2016, pp. 167–182., doi:10.1525/mp.2016.34.2.167. Gorn, Gerald J. “The Effects of Music in Advertising on Choice Behavior: A Classical Conditioning Approach.” Journal of Marketing, vol. 46, no. 1, 1982, pp. 94–101., doi:10.1177/002224298204600109. Greensfelder, Liese. “Study Finds Brain Hub That Links Music, Memory and Emotion.” UC Davis, 24 Jan. 2016, www. ucdavis.edu/news/study-finds-brain-hub-links-musicmemory-and-emotion/. “How Memory Works.” Derek Bok Center For Teaching and Learning, Harvard University, bokcenter.harvard.edu/ how-memory-works. Jäncke, Lutz. “Music, Memory and Emotion.” Journal of Biology, BioMed Central, 8 Aug. 2008, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/ articles/PMC2776393/. Nopanen, Eric. “The Powerful Effect of Music On the Brain.” The Powerful Effect of Music on the Brain, 1 Feb. 2018, www. thetabernaclechoir.org/articles/the-powerful-effect-of-musicon-the-brain.html. North, Adrian C., et al. “Music Congruity Effects on Product Memory, Perception, and Choice.” Journal of Retailing, vol. 92, no. 1, 2016, pp. 83–95., doi:10.1016/j.jretai.2015.06.001. Sprenger, Marilee. “Strolling Down Memory Lanes: Memory and Storage Systems.” Learning and Memory: The Brain in Action, Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1999, pp. 45-56.

Student Reflection: For this project I chose to do a topic that related to my major and dream job. I am a marketing major and would like to go into the advertising field after I graduate. Why certain advertisements stand out to consumers is something that has always interested me and lead me to choose my career path. Going along with this idea I chose to research music’s impact on memory. By using memory within advertisements, it can produce more effective advertising campaigns because consumers are more likely to remember your product. The research that I learned from completing this paper helped me understand more about my future career field. I will be able to use and build upon this knowledge when I am completing actual advertising campaigns in the future.

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Examining 9/11 and its Impact on Personal and Collective Memory Maria Maresca HON 249: Honors Introduction to Literature Dr. Crochunis Assignment In my paper, I explored how the tragedy of September 11, 2001 connected personal and collective memory through shared experiences and how memory is connected to the implications that followed with terrorism and security measures. Additionally, I delved into how the personal and collective memory effects of 9/11 compare to the crisis of the COVID-19 pandemic and the resulting effects on memory.

The tragedy of September 11, 2001 touched citizens across the United States and has quickly become part of our nation’s lasting history and has remained in the memories of every American. Most Americans have a flood of memories that they are able to immediately recall about who they were talking to and what they were doing when the news of the crisis broke. As part of a study of long-term memory, researchers examined how the intense, distressing events of 9/11 formed flashbulb memories which make a powerful imprint that tends to stay with us for an extended time. Countless individuals have claimed to remember exact events and the emotions and significance attached to those events through fear, PTSD, and PTS, which impacted our national identity as a result. This explains the substantial changes that occurred after the attacks with security and how we approach terrorism. This paper will broadly focus on how 9/11 acts as an example of how personal memory is impacted by collective memory as shown by how 9/11 memories have affected terrorism, security, and how the memory effects of 9/11 compare to the current pandemic we are experiencing. The intense calamity that resulted from the events of 9/11 caused moments of pure chaos and confusion that became cemented in the minds of Americans years after the disaster had first occurred. The reactions that followed characterize a type of memory called a flashbulb memory, which is a form of an autobiographical memory that is especially powerful. These memories typically stay with the person who had the experience long after the event because they relate specifically to the overwhelming shock and disbelief that was suffered in one given moment (Vitelli). Although researchers have observed that flashbulb memories do not always accurately represent the actual details of the events, it is still worth noting that the effect that these memories 42

have on both personal and collective memory is significant to an exceptional degree in the case of 9/11. To illustrate this idea, it is proven that flashbulb memories do not solely relate to personal experiences, but rather, they intertwine the thoughts of the collective public as well (Hirst, William, et al.). Although individual people contain their own, personal memories of 9/11, there has still been one, shared response on a national scale to the retained memories of 9/11 as shown by reactions to terrorism in the modern day. One sentiment in particular that has remained largely intact since the horrors of 9/11 and has not diminished even in the modern day is fear. For example, in 2018, protection against terrorism was the top policy priority and had remained as the policy with the highest consideration since 9/11. Furthermore, an astonishing 73 percent of United States adults claimed that taking measures to support the country against potential terrorist attacks should be the main focus of Congress, which outranked a total of 18 other categories of policy (Mueller and Stewart). To explore the aspect of fear more deeply, a ten-year follow-up study was conducted about 9/11 memories. It concluded that the subjects tended to give carefully detailed accounts of what they remembered on 9/11 and consistently proved to forget a considerable amount of information over the course of one year. However, the consistency levels remained generally stable after the one-year period, as still-remembered memories enter into a “permastore.” This psychological phenomenon reveals and explains why Americans are still demanding more safety precautions 15 to 18 years later (Hirst, William, et al.). In fact, an astounding 40 percent of Americans, both in 2001 and today, greatly fear that “they or a family member might become a victim of terrorism, ” (Mueller and Stewart). Clearly, it is shown that individual memory of fear from 9/11 is able to interact

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on some level with collective memory through the continued concern of potential terrorism playing out in the US. Although terrorism has been a primary issue after 9/11, the way memory has been affected through PTS and PTSD also significantly impacts how security measures are approached in contemporary times. More than 60 percent of Americans were able to watch the 9/11 attacks occur on live television or saw continuous clips of the events repeatedly over the next few days, weeks, and years afterward. Due to the enormous majority of the population that saw and remembered these events, the likelihood of developing post-traumatic distress disorder (PTSD) or post-traumatic stress symptoms (PTS) increased substantially. Both PTSD and PTS are directly linked to both in-person and media-based exposure, which further cements those same, horrific memories in the brain as distressing flashbacks become more common (Garfin). These disorders spark major complications, which was proven through a study that found how “the burden of PTSD among populations exposed to 9/11 has been substantial and enduring, ” (Neria, Yuval, et al.). As individuals kept in mind their own memories of what had occurred on that tragic day, the incentive to create a highly efficient and updated system of security procedures was in the best interests of every American. For example, long queues and excessively thorough security checks were not just uncommon before 9/11, they were nonexistent. This aspect of air travel completely transformed post-9/11 when the Transportation Security Administration (TSA) was formed to enforce new precautions and restrictions. As discussed by Kristina Uldice of Insider.com, “the tight security measures haven’t let up in the almost 17 years since [the TSA’s] conception.” In addition to security formalities, cabin doors on airplanes have been constructed to provide pilots with increased protection and screening measures involve more inspection and size (Udice). Due to the shared memories of trauma across the nation, the necessity of public security heightened more than ever before and the United States Department of Homeland Security (DHS) was founded as a result. The DHS was created a mere eleven days after the terrorist attacks of 9/11 and now comprises a group of individuals that manages national security and national strategy. The purpose of this organization is to prevent another terrorist attack by collecting valuable information and heading department investigations. As it has grown and developed, the DHS has become the third biggest federal cabinet department and accounts for the majority of the security and terrorism prevention in the US. However, although the DHS received widespread attention at the onset of its forming, there have been drastic changes

that have occurred in America’s schools and businesses as well. With that said, it is clear that the collective and personal memories of 9/11 are affecting future generations, as these major security increases continue to be in firm practice in the modern day (Udice). This is illustrated by the fact that “exposure to collective trauma could likely have a longer-term impact” and “exposure to 9/11 and other acts of terrorism has led to fears of perceived threats, ” (Garfin). This idea is reflected particularly in schools and other professional buildings that now have added features such as automatic-locking doors and keypads. Before, it was significantly easier to enter into institutions such as these but now there is a higher demand for keys, codes, and permission. When thinking back, it would be impossible for Americans to return to their former way of life when security was less regulated before effects of 9/11 memories were felt. Undoubtedly, these changes have affected the daily lives of every American which initially stemmed from the shared, terrible experiences of 9/11 that these implementations were designed to prevent (Udice). These collective, negative memories also relate closely with the pandemic of 2020. Collective memory will forever be tainted on a global scale as the infamous coronavirus continues to wreak havoc and cause new, unpleasant memories to form. Researchers have not even begun to scratch the surface when it comes to the detrimental effects that will be produced due to COVID-19. In comparison with 9/11 memories, memories experienced during the mandated quarantine relate closely with the effects and changes that came with 9/11. For example, a poll showed that “45% of adults in the United States reported that their mental health has been negatively impacted due to worry and stress over the virus” in late April 2020. There have also been major surges with anxiety levels across the nation as people continue to worry about their safety and the safety of their loved ones (Panchal, Nirmita, et al.). These statistics show a striking similarity with 9/11 because of negative memories involving fear and the rise of disorders, such as PTSD and PTS, which both led to worries about terrorism and increased security. Just as shared memory helped to shape the response to 9/11 through the formation of the DHS, the coronavirus is also projected to spark major changes that are already underway with transforming the health care system and improving its present-day flaws (“Coronavirus will Change…”). Besides public modifications, collective attitude has also altered as people remember the consequences that other countries, such as Italy and China, faced as the virus forced leaders to change how people went about their daily lives. Americans were able to have a visual idea of the chaos experienced overseas as well as in the US, by viewing 43

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the news and seeing the overrun hospitals, enforced methods of quarantining, and switch to online schooling for students (Leetaru). The images and videos in the media portrayed how severe the virus was becoming which has led to an increase in fear worldwide, as these visual representations became more and more accessible. Given that 60 percent of Americans were able to see the 9/11 attacks via live television back in 2001, this number has only spiked upward with 81 percent of Americans owning smartphones. Although cell phones were largely uncommon in 2001, they still played a key role in shaping how people remember that day with people recalling who they called and who they would never be able to reach again. Similarly, the use of cell phone technology to access the media and news is just one way that Americans have been able to further cement in their memories the traumatic events caused by the coronavirus (“Demographics of Mobile…”). The fear that Americans and all individuals worldwide are experiencing calls to mind the fear that was produced after 9/11 when apprehension towards terrorism was reflected through policy changes and attitudes that caused fear of others because of safety reasons (Mueller and Stewart). Clearly, the effect that negative memories have had on worldwide populations only proves how one, historically impactful event allows collective memory to be influenced by personal memory. Times have forever altered since the horrors of 9/11 were felt across the United States as citizens captured in their memories the consequences that came afterward. Due to personal and collective memory of the costs of terrorism, policy changes were enacted, and increased security measures were taken. This movement triggered a new way of life for Americans that would become the new normal, which is still reflected and not forgotten in current times. The attacks of 9/11 and its connections to the worldwide pandemic of 2020 have proved that crucial times in history require collective memory to be acted upon in order for changes to follow. Taking the experiences that are remembered and learning from them was especially shown after 9/11 as fear became widespread. This reaction is also expected after the COVID-19 pandemic as people increase their concerns with health safety by staying away from others. With that said, when a nation or the entire world undergoes trauma as a whole unit, there will be a massive amount of common ground that is found in terms of memory. When thinking back and using our memories to remember how life was lived before 9/11 and the current pandemic, it is reasonable to say that returning to this way of life would be impossible. Historically pressing matters allow individual people to rise above their own personal memories and apply them on a larger scale, which in turn makes up collective memory.

Works Cited “Coronavirus Will Change the World Permanently. Here’s How.” POLITICO, POLITICO, 13 Mar. 2020, www. politico.com/news/magazine/2020/03/19/coronaviruseffect-economy-life-society-analysis-covid-135579. “Demographics of Mobile Device Ownership and Adoption in the United States.” Pew Research Center: Internet, Science & Tech, Pew Research Center, 5 June 2020, www.pewresearch.org/internet/fact-sheet/mobile/. Garfin, Dana Rose. “How the Pain of 9/11 Still Stays with a Generation.” The Conversation, 31 Oct. 2019, theconversation.com/how-the-pain-of-9-11-still-stayswith-a-generation- 64725. Hirst, William, et al. “A Ten-Year Follow-up of a Study of Memory for the Attack of September 11, 2001: Flashbulb Memories and Memories for Flashbulb Events.” Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, vol. 144, no. 3, 2015, pp. 604–623., doi:10.1037/ xge0000055. Leetaru, Kalev. “Media Coverage and Coronavirus Panic: What the Numbers Show.” RealClearPolitics, 2 Mar. 2020, www.realclearpolitics.com/articles/2020/03/02/ media_coverage_and_coronavirus_panic_ what_the_ numbers_show_142539.html. Stewart, Mark G., and John Mueller. “Analysis | Why Are Americans Still so Afraid of Islamist Terrorism?” The Washington Post, WP Company, 23 Mar. 2018, www.washingtonpost. com/news/monkey-cage/wp/2018/03/23/ why-are-americans-still-so-afraid-of-islamic-terrorism/. Vitelli, Romeo. “Remembering 9/11.” Psychology Today, Sussex Publishers, 23 Mar. 2015, www. psychologytoday.com/us/blog/media-spotlight/201503/ remembering-911. Neria, Yuval, et al. “Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Following the September 11, 2001, Terrorist Attacks: a Review of the Literature among Highly Exposed Populations.” The American Psychologist, U.S. National Library of Medicine, Sept. 2011, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/ articles/PMC3386850/. Panchal, Nirmita, et al. “The Implications of COVID-19 for Mental Health and Substance Use.” The Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation, 21 Apr. 2020, www.kff.org/ health- reform/issue-brief/the-implications-of-covid-19for-mental-health-and-substance-use/. Udice, Kristina. “10 Ways the World Changed after the 9/11 Attacks.” Insider, Insider, 10 Sept. 2018, www.insider. com/world-changed-after-september-11-2018-9#2airport-security- has-gotten-a-lot-stricter-2.

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Student Reflection: The writing that I included for submission was a challenging, but wholly rewarding piece of writing not only because of how 9/11 shook the nation, but also because of my own personal, familial connections to the tragedy. In my paper, I aimed to bridge the gap between 9/11 memories and how they connect, even 20 years later, to how people are being affected by the pandemic and the initial response we had as a nation. I was racking my brain for ideas when I first learned of the prompt options for writing the paper and found an answer at the dinner table one night. My dad, a native of the Big Apple, was talking about 9/11 and how the world had transformed with security and terrorism concerns ever since that fateful day. Just as his memory and the memories of so many others were forever altered, so will the memories of those be changed in the present with the pandemic. Here, some common themes emerge, most notably with security, fear, and not trusting your fellow man. I hoped to bring some light to these connections and emphasize how one, single event can change both personal and collective memory permanently..

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Editor's Choice Third Place, Lower Level

From Bethlehem Steel to Bethlehem Town Paige Smith HON 106: Honors Writing Intensive First-Year Seminar Dr. Thomas Crochunis Assignment The purpose of this assignment was to interview someone whose work was of interest to me and ask questions about how the work has influenced the person, both inside and outside of the workplace, using the answers to construct a coherent paper with a clear theme. This essay was written in the perspective of a woman who spent time serving her community as a police officer before finding what she calls her true calling as a minister for two small churches in Central Pennsylvania.

Sixty-five-year-old Reverend Crystal M. Lyde grew up in the city of Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. Being born and baptized into Macedonia Baptist Church, her faith has always been a central part of her life. The following is the story of how Lyde found her first profession and then switched career paths entirely to pursue her true calling, going from being a Pennsylvania State Police officer to being a pastor for two small churches in Juniata County, Pennsylvania. I graduated from Harrisburg High School in 1973 and was married that same year. I gave birth to two children from that marriage. Back then, I was employed by the Harrisburg Hospital in dietary. Then, I got transferred to medical records and then emergency room registration. On top of all this, I survived a difficult divorce, and I began to raise my children all alone. I knew I needed greater financial stability for us to survive, so I decided to accept employment as a laborer at Bethlehem Steel in Bethlehem, PA, an hour and a half drive from my home in Harrisburg. It was 1978, and I was still working at Bethlehem Steel when the Harrisburg Police Department began their major recruitment drive. I wanted to give back to my community, and I wanted to try to provide a better environment for my kids. I no longer wanted to sit on the sidelines and do nothing as I watched the news in Harrisburg. Domestic violence, an increase in drug-related incidents, assaults, etc., were just some of the situations that occurred in the city at that time. I wanted to be a calming force in situations that I witnessed. I saw a lot of police brutality, and, although I still don’t like to talk about it very much, I know the terrible, discriminatory behaviors I saw led me to pursue the career. I believed the good officers could use some reinforcements in the form of a more sensitive officer like I hoped I would be. I hoped my children 46

would be witness to my role as well and see the good things police can provide instead of all the bad. So, as a 23-year-old single mother, I attended their preliminary classes and took their exam, and I passed. After this, I went to the Pennsylvania State Police Academy for municipal police officer training. After graduation, I began serving as a Harrisburg police officer. While I was doing this, I also took the Pennsylvania state police exam. The following year, I went back to the academy, but this time as a cadet. I graduated again and became a state trooper. I served in Elk County and Dauphin County in patrol status, in uniform. Later in my career, I went undercover a lot. I found those assignments most interesting, especially as drug issues became more and more prevalent. Most of the time I would go into a place of suspected drug activity posing as an abused woman that had fled her lover’s home. The dealers would feel sorry for me and would help me hide. Once I gained their confidence, they would show me how to cook, making crack. The main drug dealer would never use his own residence, only houses in the city, but once the group trusted me, they had me follow them to the suburbs of the city to the main man’s private home. That’s when I would contact my back-up to follow me in their vehicles, where we would raid and make arrests. The dealers never knew they were being followed by my entire team. I went undercover all over—Chambersburg, Williamsport, Pittsburgh, Philadelphia. I remember one case where I went undercover as a hooker in a dance club. Those wild clothes I wore and the big hairdo I had are things I’ll never forget! When I was in Philly, I was involved with drug interdiction at the Philadelphia International Airport with the TNT [Tactical Narcotics Team], New Jersey State Police, D.E.A. [Drug Enforcement Administration], and the F.B.I. I worked on undercover cases a number of years before I decided it was time for me to leave.

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Even after I retired from the state police, I still felt a need to serve the community. At one time, I had thought nursing would be that avenue, but my years of motherhood when I hated doing even the simplest first aid, like putting peroxide on a cut that would sting or removing Band-Aids that would hurt led me to reconsider. When I worked at the hospital, I hated sending people in pain for what I knew would be a long time in the waiting room, and I especially hated seeing blood. I’d seen plenty of blood in my police days, too, and I had no desire to handle needles and take blood on a daily basis, so those aspirations of a medical career ended. I was and still am “allergic” to pain, and I know I could never inflict it on anyone else, either. While I was searching for this next chapter in my life, a friend of mine invited me to her church. It was nondenominational, and I’d never been exposed to that type of thing before. That day, the Holy Spirit came alive for me. I found it spiritually intoxicating. I was filled with feelings I’d never had before. My heart instantly became full. For the first time in my life, I felt free. My thirst and hunger for Christ moved me into what I call a fire baptism of the Holy Spirit. That experience brought me closer to God, Father, Son, and Holy Ghost. In that moment, God graced me with the spiritual gifts for ministry, and I knew I had found my true calling. I began my journey by receiving an anointing as an intercessor. While serving in that capacity, I survived “church hurts” in a couple different churches, where the congregations didn’t act as Christians towards others and where religious beliefs were not the center of the churches. These were places where the actions towards others were not in any way reflective of Christian values, and I choose not to think about them anymore. Yet, God graced me to continue as an intercessor as a licensed minister. I was led to Capital Presbyterian Church in Harrisburg. Pretty soon I was called to be an elder, and I began my training to be a CLP [commissioned lay pastor] in PC(USA) [Presbyterian Church (USA)] through Dubuque Theological Seminary. By the grace of God, I was able to finish that training during the first month of my seminary education at Lancaster Theological Seminary. I worked for a master’s degree of divinity there, because it was needed for me to be ordained in the Presbyterian denomination. Just like anyone who goes for any type of higher education, there were classes I really enjoyed, but there were also ones that I never thought I’d make it through. My worship and prayer leadership and education courses were my favorite, but learning Hebrew was the worst! While in seminary, I was able to enter a number of churches in the Carlisle Presbytery and preach when their pastors took weeks off. The very last church I covered was Westminster Presbyterian Church in

Mifflintown, Pennsylvania. I was preparing for a call to the Port Royal and Mexico Presbyterian Churches in Juniata County at the time, and I readily accepted. At that point, it was only part-time, but I was hoping a full-time position would be in my future. The love that my family and I received from those two churches from day one made it feel like a match made in Heaven. The color of my skin didn’t make a difference to them. Neither did my gender. It was like we saw the Christ in each other, deep calling to deep, spirit to spirit. Even to this day, I always say that my congregations are ones full of praying people, and I can feel their prayers. I knew then and I know now that I was meant to be in Juniata County. The next year, I became a full-time pastor at the churches while I was still in seminary, and I was officially ordained after my graduation. It’s been 14 years since my ordination, and those two powerful prayer houses still feel like home to me, like family. They are one of the many reasons I always say that I am blessed, no matter what. As I think back on all this, I realize that you never really know how or when God is going to bring back something from your past. It’s crazy, but I drove through Juniata County, where my churches are, to get my first assignment with the P.S.P. in Ridgeway, Elk County. I worked and lived in Elk County for about a year before I got transferred back to Harrisburg. Prior to moving back, I had made many, many stops in Mifflintown to get cases of chicken and turkey from the Empire Poultry store that my family had requested I pick up on my way to visit. Then, years later, I ended up back in Juniata County again, but I’ve stayed much longer than the time it takes to pick up chicken! Coming into an area with a large white population, where African Americans are a definite minority, I had an open mind. I think the things I’d experienced in the past helped me a lot with this. I’ve learned that when we truly serve as mighty men and women of God, there is no racial identity. Instead, there’s only the love of Christ that we show to everyone we meet. It’s taken me many years to see people as God wants us to see others, with spiritual eyes. I believe the churches I’m preaching in now share the same sentiments, and we can all be led to grow closer to God together when we have the same mindset. Another thing I’ve been taught in my years of ministry is that God gives us a gift in allowing us to look to him for help in times of trouble. Looking back, I now thank Him for all the moments he protected me while I was a police officer. When I had to do the swimming test at the academy, He was right alongside me. I was so scared to do it, and I was scolded by my instructor for my reluctance. Somehow, God gave be the bravery and the strength to jump in the pool and swim the laps at a speed I never imagined I could. 47

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Afterwards, the tester asked me how I had done it so fast, and I said it was because I wanted so badly to get it done! When I was undercover, I always had back-up. When I was in uniform helping a disabled motorist, He stopped me from being hit by a passing vehicle. He was with me once when I was put on the stand at a preliminary hearing where the suspect was claiming I had tricked him into selling drugs. I was questioned by the attorney about how I dressed and what name I used during the undercover investigation, and I’ll never forget the suspect’s reaction. He just started shouting, “Aww, that was you…Aww man…that was you!” Needless to say, his case against me didn’t hold up! There’s a passage of scripture that says, “The spirit is willing, but the flesh is weak.” Before I became a pastor, I always thought it was talking about people falling into sinful ways, but since I answered God’s call for my life, I’ve found new meaning in it. Through my years of preaching, I have suffered so many illnesses, from heart and kidney problems and the stents in various parts of my body to my diabetes. Last year, the doctors had given up, and I was put in hospice care. My churches, though, they prayed and prayed for a Christmas miracle. On December 23, 2019, those prayers were answered when I was snatched away from death’s door, and the Holy Spirit breathed life into me, from the crown of my head to the soles of my feet. My legs and arms that had been frozen in twisted positions began to straighten out on New Year’s Eve, and a few months later I was able to return to preaching. Praise God! When God brought me back, He wasn’t just healing me to save me in that moment. He brought me back because He needed me for something else. In May of this year, my husband of 20 years, Bernie, was diagnosed with stage IV pancreatic cancer that was inoperable because it had attached itself to five of his

major organs. This was tough for us, because Bernie had always been the healthy one and would help me through my sicknesses. Now the tables had turned. The cancer became more and more aggressive. He began to pray for God to send His angels to give him wings to fly home to be with the Lord. I watched him take his last breath at 2:00 p.m. on August 16. As he passed, God filled me with peace, and I felt Bernie’s love in my heart. After everything that I’ve gone through, especially in the past year, I live with no “what-ifs.” I know that everything happens for a reason, and I trust God in preparing me for all of the situations I must encounter. I know He will always lead me in the direction I’m meant to go. Years later, I still get asked if I regret leaving the P.S.P., and, honestly, I really don’t, because it allowed me to find my true calling. The time I spent as a police officer affirmed by desire to serve the community, and I realized from having enforced man’s law, that I could also lead others in following God’s law. When I began exploring the ministry avenue, God started working at warp speed, almost like he was making up for lost time, and that’s how I know I’m where I’m meant to be. As I see it, there’s one thing I’ve learned from both my time as a police officer and my calling now, and it’s this: When I achieve something, I give all the glory to God. When I need help, I turn to Him for guidance. When I was searching for my calling in life after retirement from my fulfilling police career, he led me to ministry. The police force was the first job I had where I felt I was doing something I was meant to do, and I now feel the same way about preaching God’s word. It’s been tough sometimes, but I thank God that He has been there through everything. I have absolutely no desire to look to the left or the right, but straight into the arms of Jesus Christ. Glory be to God!

Student Reflection: When I first found out about the interview assignment for HON 106, I immediately knew I wanted to write my essay on my pastor. Prior to this, she had mentioned her police career a number of times in her sermons, but I really wanted to find out what it was that made her make such a vast change in careers. Now that I have interviewed her and learned about some of the details of her life in the past, I feel as though I see her in a new light. I had always had difficulty picturing her as anything but the sweet lady who stood in the pulpit on Sundays, preaching the Word of God. Now, though, I can understand where her strength and determination come from, and I have no trouble envisioning her in uniform. I am so grateful for having done this assignment, because it allowed me to view her and her work in a new way.

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The Sight in the Rearview Mirror Keegan Fonder HON 106: Honors Writing Intensive First-Year Seminar Dr. Thomas Crochunis Assignment The purpose of this assignment was to interview someone about their working life and compose a four-to-six-page paper discussing how their life has changed because of their job. The piece could be written in first person (point of view of the interviewee) or third person (point of view of the interviewer).

I never thought I was going to see the light of day after age 25. After barely graduating high school, I never considered going to college. Having a career was not really on my radar. I became an alcoholic and a drug addict. I hated myself. On a whim, I decided to move to Maryland from Pennsylvania. I was young and stupid, and I had nothing to lose at the time. Upon arrival, I began working various jobs. Whether it was waiting tables or doing manufacturing-type work, I always had some sort of income. My addictions were not much help to my jobs, which created a very unstable work environment. At the age of 26, one year after I thought I was going to be dead, I became pregnant with my oldest child, a daughter. For her sake, I cleaned up and got sober. I remember feeling strange after I stopped using. I could not figure out if my feelings were from my pregnancy, or if they were from withdraw. I gave birth on December 19. Nine days after, I started drinking again. My hormones were all over the place, and I was suffering from postpartum. My way out was to self-medicate. Two and a half years later, I moved back in with my parents in Pennsylvania. Again, I was working various jobs, and in 1999, I just so happened to be working at a bar where I would meet my future son’s father. It was about a year or so into our relationship when I sobered up for good. At first, it was awful, but I soon realized how important it was that I got sober when I did. Our happily ever after was quickly trickling into a disaster. As he built our house, he started drinking more heavily, and everything just seemed to fall apart. The only positive we had to look forward to was the upcoming birth of our son. I gave birth on November 19. When I returned home from the hospital, I quickly started to go through the same stages that I did when I had my daughter, but I did not give in. Instead, I celebrated my first year of sobriety. I did not return to work, as my

son’s father said he would support us. Little did I know how much worse it was going to get. After a while, staying at home with the kids no longer tickled my fancy. I wanted to get a job so badly, but my son’s father shot me down every single time. Essentially, it was a game of manipulation. I could do no right, and I always had to apologize. The loving relationship we once had turned into a mentally and emotionally abusive relationship. He constantly reminded me that I had nothing, and he even turned my parents against me. I felt like I was trapped, and I just needed to get out. In 2003, a friend of mine told me that her work was hiring. I took her up on the opportunity and in that October, I began working as a school bus driver at Coventry Transportation. My son’s father was angry, as he could no longer control my employment status. We broke up nearly a year and a half after I started bus driving, as I discovered that he had cheated on me. All those sleepless nights of wondering when he would come home were finally over. I drove kids with special needs for the first couple of years that I worked at Coventry Transportation. I loved bus driving, and I loved the kids. What I did not like was the school district politics and management. Everything changed on the daily. One minute, you are to act like a robot and only interact with the kids if there’s an issue. Another minute, you should talk to the kids. It was very unnerving. In the seven-and-a-half years that I spent bus driving, I learned a lot from my fellow bus drivers. In particular, two of my coworkers took on parental-like roles and gave me the necessary guidance that would help me make better decisions. Rather than speak down to me like my son’s father did, they spoke to me like I was a grown woman. The amount of support they provided me while I was struggling was unimaginable. Every time I would repeat a self-destructive behavior, they would point it out to help break the cycle. I went from 49

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being a broken single mother of two kids who lived in a two-bedroom trailer to a more confident single mother of two kids who lived in a two-bedroom trailer. Still, there were other issues I continued to struggle with, such as the fact that I was only making $23, 000 a year. I made $8 too much to qualify for food stamps. I was trying to be everything for my kids while also trying to keep a roof over their heads and food on the table. I picked up a few cleaning jobs here and there, but nothing really stuck. I felt like I was failing all over again. Things started to look up in 2011. A friend of mine, who worked at Mack Trucks, told me they were hiring, so I jumped on the opportunity. I was hired, and I began working on the production line on August 1. There were so many positives to working at Mack. For instance, I was making more money, and I started getting really good benefits. I was also introduced to a more diverse work environment. Even though working at Mack feels like a circus, I have gotten to meet people of all different levels, which has been very beneficial to me. The only downside of the job was that I worked second shift. However, I still supported my kids and did my best to make it to all their events. I was, and always will be, a mom first. Of all the things I have learned from working at Mack Trucks, the biggest thing I have taken away is to be more open to change. Each and every day, I am

surrounded by many forward thinkers, which allows me to relate more to others and improve upon my own personal qualities. Being adaptable has taught me that change is okay. My job at Mack has truly been the best job I have ever had. Ultimately, what moves me forward is the support of others. Through all of the jobs I have worked in my lifetime, the common thread that has always stuck with me is my desire for a better life. At first, I worked for survival, trying to secure the necessities I needed. After a while, I started working for my goals. If I wanted something, I had to work. If I wanted to go somewhere, I had to work. I can officially say that I am satisfied with where I am at in my career. As I look back over the last twenty or so years, I can see just how far I have come. I went from being an addict with an unstable job environment, to being a school bus driver, and now I am a materials technician at Mack Trucks, where I have been for almost ten years. My job at Mack has probably been the most stable thing I have had in the recent years. Life is crazy, but work has stuck, and so has my sobriety, twenty years and counting. I would not necessarily call this job my calling, but it definitely called me at the right time. And here I am, still standing, 26 years later.

Student Reflection: For this paper, I chose my mother as my interviewee. Although we already have a strong relationship, this discussion allowed for us to have an even stronger bond, as many of my mother’s personal details associated with her working life came to the forefront. Looking back, I was really proud to be able to write this paper because I believe my mother’s story can help someone else, especially one who is facing an addiction that affects both their job and personal life. In addition, writing from my mother’s point of view as opposed to my own point of view really allowed me to grow my writing skills, which made me very happy. To finish, I would like to thank Dr. Thomas Crochunis for this opportunity, as this paper would be nonexistent if it were not for him, as well as my mother, Carol May, for opening up about her life and letting me share the details with the community.

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A Marathon Not a Sprint Isabella Weikert HON 106: Honors Writing Intensive First-Year Seminar Dr. Thomas Crochunis Assignment Conduct an interview and write an essay surrounding the interviewee’s work story. Focus on how said person ended up in their current career and how they view their job/journey.

Andrea Valasquez is an assistant professor of economics at The University of Colorado and my aunt. Andrea is originally from Bogota, Columbia, and came to the US to attend Duke University and earn her Ph.D. People already told me it was going to be hard. Not only because the first year of a Ph.D. is hard, but also because of all the other things you are thinking. You leave your house. You need to do your laundry. I have never done my laundry in my life. Never. I have never done my bed; in Columbia, it’s not something you do, someone cleans your house. So, trying to keep up with my studies, keep up my house, cook for myself, and make friends with the language barrier was tough. I appreciate more and more what my parents did for me. I was in a very privileged high school. Everybody went to college. Going to college was never a question. It was a privilege that when I was growing up, I never saw. I thought everyone went to college. At that point, it felt like it was granted, but they didn’t need to provide that for me. I was the first one in my family to leave Columbia for higher education. I went to college in Columbia with my high school class. Then after we were done with college, the majority of them found a job and stayed in Columbia. The rest of us did graduate studies in the US or in different countries. College was a great experience, but then I graduated, and I had no idea what to do. So, I stayed as a research assistant on campus. Working with other professors made me want to be a professor. I had no clue what a Ph.D. was. I Googled universities and I talked to mentors and peers. I was up for the challenge. I wanted to leave home, so I headed to Duke. The first year was so hard that if I didn’t make it, I would have probably gone back to Columbia. I didn’t know much English, I missed my family, and the work was challenging. I couldn’t say, “I’ll stay in the US and find something to do.” I was here under this program

and on this visa. If this didn’t work out, I had three months to find a job or I needed to leave the country. For me, the backup plan was always heading back to Columbia. I would have still been an economist, but I would have left the US. I just knew I was using all my energy, being away from my family, trying to make grades. I can’t picture myself going through that again. My family never doubted that I would be capable of achieving anything. I went one year without seeing my family. I think about that now because I text my family all the time. At that time, I didn’t have a smartphone. This was 2008, so I only had a flip phone. The only way of communicating with family was through email or international calls. One weekend I was so exhausted I didn’t pick up for a day. My mom was ready to call the police to the dorm. I was just sleeping. I was so tired, but that tells you about my family. I was in a foreign country and I wasn’t picking up my phone. My family is very supportive and I’m so thankful for that. They had no idea what I was doing, and they still don’t understand what I do. Sometimes they refer to my Ph.D. as my “studies” or my “specialization,” but that’s okay. My first group of friends was all other international students going through the same thing. It was easy to relate to one another and share advice. When you arrive on the first day, you meet everyone. We had a grad lounge where we studied, but it was a little bit ridiculous. We had one room; it was all the American boys; another room had all the American girls doing their homework and the last room was all the international students. It was good because we all had broken English and in addition to going through the program, you had to do many things as internationals. You need to deal with your visa status. You cannot imagine how many times we had to go to the visa office to deal with things like social security. You want to leave the country; you need a special permit. If you want a driver’s license, you need special things. Having those friends

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that first year was super useful. We all had this friend. So friendly, but he’s from Oklahoma. So, he would go to our room and say something, being very friendly and smiley. We could tell he was welcoming and nice, but between his way of speaking and our limited English, we had no idea what he was asking or telling us. We were like, “what did he say? Did someone understand what he said? Did he invite us somewhere?”. Parties were confusing. They didn’t dance at parties; it was just drinking. That was a cultural shock. A party without dancing was not a party for us. Now you can laugh at that, but I just remember at the end of the day you are just so exhausted from using your brain at one hundred percent. Any conversation is just using your brain one hundred percent. The texts and books were only in English. I had to sit with a dictionary and go through them. It was hard, but I cried all my tears and got to work. Everybody was just miserable studying, and we have these three groups. Of course, your uncle was with all the American boys. My first impression of your uncle was that this American boy is so arrogant and why is he just not nice. I would cross him in the hall to the bathroom and he never made eye contact. He wouldn’t even say hi. The first impression was not a good one. I wasn’t really thinking about guys then anyway. Frankly, I was too busy. At the end of the first semester, your uncle and I started to be closer friends. We all had some awful exams, and school became this place with miserable people studying all the time. Ryan and I would talk about music and food. At that point, even my Mom told me I started to talk about Ryan. I was so impressed with his house. My house was a disaster. My first year was just embarrassing. What I was cooking was embarrassing, my laundry was always in the dryer, and I couldn’t fold. Then I got to this boy’s house, and he is so grown up. He had real furniture, and he was cooking real dinner. What I liked about him was he was not just thinking about the program. He taught me that you can be good at what you do, and work is important, but that doesn’t define your life. That was good for me. That first year was really challenging. In the end, I can see that I made it, but I didn’t have that balance of taking care of myself. I stopped running. I stopped running, I had to study (It wasn’t till the second year that I started participating in road races again). I was treading water and if I stopped, I would drown. That’s how I felt, but I was not swimming pretty. I was just trying to survive. With Ryan, he helped organize my life and teach me time management.

I was open to everything when it came to choosing a career. When I think about Martina (my daughter) and how I grew up and how you raise these awesome strong and independent women, I never thought, “Oh, I will get married and have kids”. Getting married and all that was like, “It’s gonna happen”. I wanted a family, but I never thought the reason to stay in the US would be for a man. I was open. I thought I would just graduate from this and try to explore the world, applying to jobs in the US or Europe. I love Europe. I have always dreamed of living there. However, plans change. In the beginning, Ryan and I liked each other, then we loved each other, then we moved in together, but we never talked too far in advance about plans. I was used to thinking for myself. What I want is what I do. I don’t need to negotiate with anyone. I think that is really love, sacrificing for someone. We must have compromises. We had to say, “Where are you willing to go?”. One of his compromises was, yes, if we find jobs we will move to Columbia or at least look into it. We applied to a bunch of jobs all over the world. We applied to Europe, Columbia, and the US. We were open. You have different preferences, and you have worked individually so hard to achieve that degree. It was a compromise, getting to a place we would both be happy. We didn’t get jobs in Columbia. Maybe thankfully, maybe it would have been harder to have had the option. We didn’t have to consider it. I love that either my research or I can have an impact. For me, teaching is definitely not just a job. It’s not something I do “eight to five” and then I’m done. I don’t know if it’s a calling. I see it as a career in the sense that there were so many steps. I started as a research assistant in Columbia. Twenty-something, with no idea about the world, who just ended up by luck doing that. Now I’m this assistant economics professor and I plan to keep advancing. Sometimes there is too much pressure from the outside that I must sacrifice what I love to do. I have had to struggle against that. I really like what I do. With teaching, I complain and get nervous, but I love it. I used to play teacher as a five-year-old. I love it when I can really get to a student and that doesn’t matter to my career at all. You can be a good teacher or not. Good teaching does not guarantee your tenure, but it’s so amazing when you can be a role model for a student. I recently became a US citizen for practical reasons. It’s easier to travel with a US passport and, with the current climate, it is safer. I have friends who couldn’t come back to the country because their visa expired and there are restrictions. It’s heartbreaking. It could have been me. Imagine me as a graduate student: I go

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to visit my family, and something happens, and I can’t get back to the life I have here. When I was a student, they had policies, but it wasn’t as scary for documented immigrants as it is now. I had my visa, and everything was in order. I knew I couldn’t be touched. Now with this new president, even documented immigrants can be in trouble. When he was elected, your Grandma told me, “Apply for citizenship now”. Sadly, that was my main motivation, but once I started it was super emotional. The process brought up what this country means to me, and it changed my perspective. I am proud of being a US citizen. Yea, this is my country too, so I need to fight for what I want to happen in it. I now have the same love and passion for the US that I also have for Columbia. Before I came here, it was whatever happens there happens, but now I have you guys here. You are my family and I care about what happens to you and this country. Knowing people

and raising my children here gives me the feeling that I belong here, even if they want to tell me I don’t. I belong here. I am very proud of coming to the US by myself. Of course, I’m proud of being a mother and all that, but when I talk to Marti, I tell her, “Your mom is an immigrant”. I’m proud of being an immigrant. You never know what’s on the other side of the border. The first years were rough. My best teacher in Columbia used to always say, “It’s a marathon, not a sprint”. I would say to myself, “Keep going, keep persisting, and keep running”. Even now, I still think of that. I hope for my kids that I’m a good example. The world is yours; you must go for it. I had never been alone in my life, and when I think about that, if I thought so much about that, I might not have gone.

Student Reflection: This assignment sharpened my skills and promoted my confidence as a writer. It also served as the perfect opportunity to interview my Aunt. Through conducting the interview and writing the paper I developed a new understanding and respect for the obstacles my Aunt faced in order to achieve her goals. I benefited greatly from attending Dr. Crochunis’s office hours and reading my paper aloud to him. His suggestions and feedback helped me shape my paper. I’m proud of the work I accomplished in his class.

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What is it About the Boy Next Door? A Case Study of Sally Rooney’s Normal People Ryley Flanagan ENG 345: Women's Literature Dr. Erica Galioto Assignment This assignment asked students to examine 10 quotes from Sally Rooney’s groundbreaking novel Normal People in the context of one or more assigned academic readings. The result was an examination of how desire is formed and acted out between Rooney’s protagonists, Marianne and Connell.

In her writing “Erotic Blueprints”, Esther Perel proposes that “one aspect of the erotic blueprint that illustrates the irrationality of our desires is that what excites us most often arises from our childhood hurts and frustrations… the experiences that caused us the most pain in childhood sometimes become the greatest sources of pleasure and excitement later on” (109). The erotic blueprints of Connell and Marianne, the protagonists of Sally Rooney’s groundbreaking novel Normal People, seem quite clear. Marianne, who grew up in a household where any minor transgression elicits a violent response from the men in her life, later finds pleasure in male domination and even violence. However, domination through violence is not enough for Marianne, as is made clear through her failed relationships with Jaime and Lukas. Rather, I see a crucial difference in her relationship with Connell that allows him to continually satisfy her; that is, the fact that the power he wields over Marianne originated with her and was willingly given. Connell, whose father has been absent since before his birth and whose mother is, by her own admission, extremely permissive, seeks power over Marianne in order to have a constant in his life, but also pushes her away as a repetition of his psychic abandonment by both parents. In this examination of ten quotes from Normal People, I will map primarily Marianne’s erotic blueprint, illustrating how it is that they come to a mutual understanding of the transference of power within their relationship. Quote #1 “To dress in the same uniform every day, to comply at all times with arbitrary rules, to be scrutinized and monitored for misbehavior, this is normal to [Marianne’s classmates]. They have no sense of the school as an oppressive environment… It seemed so obviously insane 54

to her then that she should have to dress up in a costume every morning and be herded around a huge building all day” (12). Throughout Normal People, Marianne and Connell consider themselves and each other different from their classmates, or “normal people”. The two represent the extremes of familial prohibition, with Marianne’s brother and father setting arbitrary prohibitions and punishing the female members of the household for transgressions that are just as arbitrary. Connell’s mother, on the other hand, is the epitome of permissiveness. “Normal” to Marianne is the acceptance of these arbitrary social and school rules, and she recognizes that her classmates find comfort in conforming to hegemonic norms in a way that Marianne herself never could. For Marianne, transgression of the arbitrary rules set forth by her brother and late father comes with very real consequences for her physical and mental safety. The only way she is able to transgress is at school, where the consequences for transgression are far less severe, so she makes herself abject in the eyes of her classmates, willingly accepting and even inviting social punishment for her refusal to conform. In many ways, these are safe boundaries to cross. While she could never contradict her brother Alan for fear of the long-term physical and emotional consequences, she is able to tell off her teacher, Mr. Kerrigan, when he attempts to prohibit her from looking out a window shortly after the passage quoted above. She is looking for empowerment through transgression, and this desire will manifest itself in her relationships with men, but prior to her relationship with Connell, she seeks this social transgression at school. However, though it is safer than any transgression that she could make against her family, Marianne’s social transgression represents the first in a cycle of unhealthy repetitions in relation to men. Marianne

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remarks later in the novel that the young men with whom she attends high school attempt to subjugate her through “cruelty and disregard” (198), and her relationship with Connell constitutes a transgression for both of them. Marianne transgresses the abject social position of the “other” that has been assigned to her, and is duly punished at the bar, where she is molested and told to ignore it by her more popular peers. Here, Marianne is ironically punished for transgressing her role as the designated transgressor (in many ways, the designated social punching bag). At this point in their relationship, Connell is afraid of transgressing by lowering himself to Marianne’s social position in the school hierarchy by associating with her. He enjoys the thrill of transgression that comes from his relationship to Marianne, though he fears the consequences of his offense being discovered. Thus, when Marianne is being returned to her place in the social hierarchy, Connell has two choices: he can stick up for her and accept his social punishment, or he can join their peers in returning her to her othered position. In the end, while he tells Rachel off, this phase of their relationship ends when Connell chooses not to transgress and instead returns Marianne to her abject and unwelcome state by inviting Rachel to the Debs. This is due to Connell’s inability to deal with the pleasurable shame that an open relationship with Marianne would have. Quote #2 “In total [Connell] had only had sex a small number of times, and always with girls who went on to tell the whole school about it afterward. He’d had to hear his actions repeated back to him later in the locker room: his errors, and, worse, his stupid attempts at tenderness, performed in gigantic pantomime. With Marianne it was different because everything was between them only, even awkward and difficult things. He could do or say anything he wanted with her and no one would find out…. He was thinking about what a secretive, independent-minded person Marianne was, that she could come over to his house and let him have sex with her, and she felt no need to tell anyone about it. She just let things happen, like nothing meant anything to her” (22). To some extent, Connell finds his desire for the relationship in the transgression that comes by the very nature of his being with Marianne. Because his father wasn’t around and his mother rarely laid down any sort of prohibition, Connell finds comfort in the same arbitrary hegemonic codes that Marianne feels compelled to revolt against. Connell’s peers, finding this same comfort in conformity, still seek transgression, but they do so as a means of furthering their own

social status. Their transgression is rather a sanitized performance of transgression; it is transgression for the sake of telling your peers about it and later feeling some embarrassment after the rebuke. This embarrassment does in some ways fill the desire for shameful transgression, but both the transgression itself and the embarrassment are but pale imitations of the transgressions and true shame that Marianne and Connell seek out. Connell’s friend Rob, for example, shows Connell the nude photos of a girl he was involved with, transgressing the bounds of decency and subtlety. On some level, he looks for Connell’s rebuke, but even without the rebuke he gets an affirmation of his behavior that tells him transgression is socially acceptable. Likewise, during their college years, Marianne’s friend Peggy proposes a threesome with Connell and Marianne, but the complete shamelessness on Peggy’s part is a turnoff for the other two, to the point where Connell thinks that he could possibly do something with Peggy in front of Marianne, which would cause him embarrassment, but not do something with Marianne in front of Peggy because it would cause him shame that Peggy would neither understand nor appreciate. Thus, while their peers are mainly concerned with embarrassment, Connell and Marianne are the only two that seek out true shame as a means of inspiring true desire; and they are only able to escape the performative embarrassment with one another. In some ways, neither of them are able to maintain the performance once they’ve encountered the true desire that they are able to build with one another, with Connell getting physically ill after “having anxious, upsetting sex with other girls” (77) and Marianne engaging in relationships with men who dominate her excessively in the bedroom to make up for the fact that they cannot inspire the same type of psychic domination that Connell does. With each other, Connell and Marianne are able to build desire in a way that their classmates cannot. Because of Marianne’s abject nature in the eyes of her classmates, Connell’s involvement with her is necessarily transgressive and abject in and of itself. It is this abjection, the simultaneous attraction and repulsion, that allows them to create true desire. Marianne then creates a power structure based on her abjection, being the one to suggest both beginning the relationship and keeping it a secret. Thus, she creates a situation in which she has the power to expose their transgression, but she gives up the power so completely that he never seriously doubts the fact that she’ll keep their relationship a secret. Of course, every aspect of this dynamic is an illusion. They’re careful not to base their relationship around measurable factors such as class, for example, where Marianne objectively has more power but cannot turn it over to Connell, but instead around this idea of his immense social power 55

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compared to hers when it later becomes clear that the social power difference wouldn’t have mattered in the end. Each time their relationship ends, it is because the illusion of power begins to fall. At the end of their first sexual relationship, Connell does not invite her to the Debs, presumably because he’s still worried about his classmates finding out about their relationship and ridiculing them. However, I believe that this segment of their relationship truly ends because, if Connell were to invite Marianne to the Debs, either their relationship would be brought into the open with no real consequence and their relationship would enter the same performative space as their classmates’ relationships, or the retribution from their classmates would place Connell in the same abject space as Marianne, eliminating the power difference between the two. Either way, the original transgression, their power dynamic, and ultimately their desire, would fail. Quote #3 “For some reason, and he can’t explain it to himself, he thinks maybe he could fuck Peggy in front of Marianne, although it would be awkward, and not necessarily enjoyable. But he could not, he’s immediately certain, ever do anything to Marianne with Peggy watching, or any of her friends watching, or anyone at all. He feels shameful and confused even to think about it. It’s something he doesn’t understand in himself. For the privacy between himself and Marianne to be invaded by Peggy, or by another person, would destroy something inside him, a part of his selfhood, which doesn’t seem to have a name and which he has never tried to identify before” (104). In this second phase of Marianne and Connell’s relationship, Marianne once again has the power. This time, she has the social power, and she could be like any of her female peers, finding liberation in having multiple sexual partners casually over the course of her college years or else through the social status that comes with having an exclusive boyfriend. Instead she chooses to inhabit this sort of relationship limbo, where they are committed to one another and exclusive, but refuse to label their relationship. The result is that their relationship becomes a novelty to people like Peggy, who then feel entitled to the intricacies of the relationship just as much as they do with committed couples, if not more so due to the ambiguous nature of their relationship. This in itself constitutes a new transgression. By denying the label that is usually demanded by society, they’re able to keep people like Peggy on the outside and reintroduce transgression and desire into their relationship by maintaining the same privacy they had in high school without the possibility 56

of spontaneous dissolution as a result of peoples’ reactions to their relationship. In high school, the romance itself was the secret, but in this second phase the secret manifests itself as the desire that, paradoxically, only exists because it is a secret. Once again, Marianne holds the power which she could use to achieve a non-transgressive relationship, and once again she gives this power over to Connell, where it presumably manifests in the bedroom, but by force of their desire rather than by the physical control she will encounter in later relationships. This stage of their relationship ends when they are once again forced to confront the illusory nature of their constructed power dynamic, this time because Marianne’s economic power comes into play; and, because this is a power she cannot give up to Connell, it shatters the illusion that she is able to surrender a hundred percent of her power at any given time. In fact, they seem to purposely ignore their wealth inequality for this reason, with Connell remarking that “they had never talked, for example, about the fact that her mother paid his mother money to scrub their floors and hang their laundry, or about the fact that this money circulated to Connell, who spent it, as often as not, on Marianne” (127). While Marianne is sheltered and has the luxury of ignoring the wealth inequality between them, Connell internalizes this inequality and to an extent resents Marianne for a time, eventually feeling sorry for her when her attempts to introduce desire into her relationships with Jaime and Lukas manifest as bad BDSM. Quote #4 and Quote #5 Marianne on her relationship with Connell: “’I didn’t need to play any games with you’, she says. ‘It was real. With Jaime it’s like I’m acting a part, I just pretend to feel that way, like I’m in his power. But with you that really was the dynamic, I actually had those feelings, I would have done anything you wanted me to’” (139). Marianne on her relationship with Jaime: “When she thinks about how little she respects him, she feels disgusting and begins to hate herself, and these feelings trigger in her an overwhelming desire to be subjugated and in a way broken. When it happens her brain simply goes empty, like a room with the light turned off, and she shudders into orgasm without any perceptible joy” (143). After the end of the second phase of Marianne and Connell’s sexual relationship, Marianne seeks a relationship in which the power structure is tangible and real rather than illusory. She finds this in Jaime, a person who Marianne has no particular social or

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economic power over. Rather than establishing any kind of power as a result of psychic transference over Marianne, Jaime’s power over Marianne is physically violent, verbally abusive, and originates with Jaime’s assumption that he holds power rather than Marianne having power that she then gives up to him. With Jaime, Marianne can still repeat the trauma she suffered as a child living with her father and brother, but the relationship ultimately fails because Marianne doesn’t get the empowerment that comes from giving up power to her partner. Simply put, Connell doesn’t enjoy his male privilege (96), while Jaime dominates Marianne in the way that all of the other men in her life (except Connell) do: through violence and humiliation rather than through inspiring desire in Marianne. In many ways, Jaime dominates through force of the patriarchy and his own ego, while Connell dominates by virtue of his ability to create desire in Marianne. Quote #6 and Quote #7 “’Come here’, he says. ‘Marianne’. She looks at him. He remembers her in school, so bitter and stubborn with everyone. He knew things about her then. They look at each other and the rigidity leaves her and she goes slack like she’s been shot” (185). Later, in the bedroom: “He’s aware that he could have sex with her now if he wanted to. She wouldn’t tell anyone. He finds it strangely comforting, and allows himself to think about what it would be like… What kind of person would he be if it happened now? Someone very different? Or exactly the same person, himself, with no difference at all?” (186). Connell sees that Jaime’s form of “domination” is physically violent and verbally abusive and offers himself as an escape. While he is able to reestablish the power dynamic, something doesn’t feel right to Connell about the situation. The privacy between himself and Marianne still exists, but the power dynamic has been disrupted by the fact that Jaime has completely robbed Marianne of what power she felt she had. In her desperation to repeat her trauma, Marianne engages in her performance of domination and submission with Jaime, but the complete lack of power on her part means that she finds the relationship neither fulfilling, empowering, or pleasurable. Rather than a dynamic constructed around Marianne willingly giving up power, Jaime’s power is based mainly on his own assumptions that he always had and will continue to have power. The result is that rather than having any power to offer to Connell, all Marianne has to offer is the emptiness that originated with her father and brother and reopened with Jaime. Thus, when Connell

considers what it would be like to have sex with her, he feels that he would be no better than someone like Jaime, who takes advantage of power not willingly given. Connell has sensed this emptiness in Marianne before, but he doesn’t put it into language until page 189, where he thinks to himself “but he always thought she was damaged, he thought it anyway. He screws his eyes shut with guilt”. In this moment, Connell recognizes the unfillable void that is Marianne’s desire, but fails to recognize his own emptiness. He sees himself as the first to attempt to fill the void created by her father and brother but does not realize that this also makes him the first to re-traumatize her. He fails to recognize that she was also in a sense filling and re-traumatizing him, essentially ignoring his own subjectivity, and that the key difference between his domination of Marianne and Jaime’s is the intersubjectivity that comes from willful transference of power and desire. Quote #8 At first it was unsettling, the way eyes turned away from her in a room or conversation stopped short when she entered; the sense of having lost her footing in the social world, of being no longer admired and envied, how quickly it had all slipped away from her. But then she found it was easy to get used to. There’s always been something inside her that men have wanted to dominate, and their desire for domination can look so much like attraction, even love. In school the boys had tried to break her with cruelty and disregard, and in college men had tried to do it with sex and popularity, all with the same aim of subjugating some force in her personality” (198). After her relationship with Jaime ends, Marianne largely returns to the same abject social space she inhabited in high school. Her popular friends, always so concerned with social conformity, shunned her as a result of the transgression of giving up such an advantageous relationship as well as Jaime’s exposure of their sexual transgressions. Now that she is older, however, she is able to recognize that her transgressions are a manifestation of her desire to have a male figure or figures lay down some sort of prohibition. However, she is also capable of recognizing her own subjectivity and the fact that her desire cannot possibly be filled by anyone forever, not even Connell. On some level, that is, she recognizes the need to circle her own lack. In her relationship with Lukas, Marianne finds some empowerment in resigning herself to the fact that men want to dominate her and that she wants to be dominated, and she does willingly give up power to Lukas, but the power this time manifests in the absence of desire. 57

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Marianne doesn’t seem to care about what Lukas wants or what she thinks of her, and the most empowerment she can find in the relationship is based on the fact that his domination of her doesn’t seem to psychically drain her as much as her relationship with Jaime had. Some part of her is able to circle her trauma through Lukas’ violent treatment of her, but the empowerment comes from her return to her high school state of transgression for the sake of transgression, not fearing the social rebuke that comes from the cruelty and disregard of men in particular. Eventually, of course, Marianne does decide to leave Lukas, realizing that their relationship and her relationship with Jaime constitute “a ceaseless repetition of the same infinitesimally small mistake” (205) in which her lack is never satisfied even temporarily but rather made bigger through their constant chipping away at her sense of self. At the same time, Connell is having his own crisis of lack as he struggles with his own depression and the death of his friend Rob. After they enter this place where Connell is able to recognize his own lack, they attempt an intersubjective exchange, but Connell is shocked to find that Marianne’s subjectivity has been altered by her relationships with Lukas and Jaime. Quote #9 and Quote #10 Marianne Prior to their Failed BDSM Encounter: “She is an abyss that he can reach into, an empty space for him to fill…. Her body is just an item of property, and though it has been handed around and misused in various ways, it has somehow always belonged to him, and she feels like returning it to him now” (242). Connell After their Failed BDSM Encounter: “He can’t help Marianne, no matter what he does. There’s something frightening about her, some huge emptiness in the pit of her being. It’s like waiting for a lift to arrive and when the doors open nothing is there, just the terrible dark emptiness of the elevator shaft, on and on forever. She’s missing some primal instinct, self-defense or self-preservation, which makes other human beings comprehensible. You lean in expecting resistance, and everything just falls away in front of you. Still, he would lie down and die for her at any minute, which is the only thing he knows about himself that makes him feel like a worthwhile person” (254). Just prior to Marianne’s failed attempt to include BDSM in her physical relationship with Connell, she considers her own lack, endless and insatiable. However, she also knows that Connell is the only one 58

who can achieve even a temporary understanding and fulfillment of that lack, and that the pleasure comes from the surrender of power over her own body. For the first time since their school days, however, this surrender manifests in Marianne asking Connell to hit her in the bedroom. In the years since she and Connell were last together, the original wounds of trauma originally opened by her father and brother have been reopened again and again by Jaime and Lukas, reshaping and compounding her lack. Marianne has forgotten, in a sense, how to have a transference of psychic dominance without the physical dominance that she’s been using to circle her trauma. When she asks Connell to hit her, they are both forced to reconsider Marianne’s subjectivity in relation to Connell, and for a time Connell recognizes that he can never truly fill her lack or even truly comprehend her. Eventually, they do come to the conclusion that their transference is a matter of choice, that he can fill her lack as long as she chooses to transfer power and he chooses to accept it without abusing it. For a time, Marianne understands that “he understood that it wasn’t necessary to hurt her: he could let her submit willingly, without violence” (265) but wonders whether it’s a game he’s playing or a favor he’s doing her. It is not until she realizes the mutual transference of desire and power when he kisses her at the New Years Eve party that she recognizes the transference of power is mutual, that he wants to please her through his “safe” form of domination as much as she wants to please him through submission, remarking that “she was in his power, he had chosen to redeem her, she was redeemed. It was so unlike him to behave like this in public that he must have been doing it on purpose, to please her” (269). Therefore, they both come to accept the nature of their relationship. While Marianne will always choose to give up power to Connell, Connell must always give her the option to do so and receive the power as it is given. This is why, at the end of the novel, he gives her the opportunity to deny him the power of the decision to move to New York. Marianne knows that he gives her this option in order to make her happy, but she also knows that their continued transference is dependent on returning this power to him. If she were to tell him to stay, it would ultimately alter the transference of power in their relationship to the point where it’s unlikely that they would have been able to maintain their relationship for long. Thus, Marianne’s erotic blueprint consists of a repetition of the pain that defined her home life, but only in the absence of Connell, who understood the necessity of wielding desire on Marianne’s terms, not on the terms of physical violence. At various points, the cycle fails, and either Marianne, Connell, or both experience a loss of sense of self, at which point they

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separate (Marianne also separates from Jaime and Lukas at this point in their relationships) until they are able to reenter that essential, mutually agreed upon power dynamic.

Works Cited Perel, Esther. “Erotic Blueprints”. Mating in Captivity, pp. 106-124. HarperCollins, 2006. Rooney, Sally. Normal People. The New York Times Company, 2019.

Student Reflection: Sally Rooney has been called the first millennial author for her novels Normal People and Conversations with Friends. In reading Normal People, I found this to be accurate because the novel’s protagonists Marianne and Connell seem to inspire desire for each other where their classmates cannot. For their peers, social transgression appears to be performative, mere transgression for transgression’s sake. They perform these small acts in hopes of gaining social status, but this requires the complete exposure of all indecencies and transgressions. The result is not true shame, but rather mere embarrassment, a hollow shame that lacks true abject meaning. Marianne and Connell, on the other hand, form a relationship based around privacy, intimacy, and mutual understanding that allows them to sustain desire throughout their adult lives. Normal People, then, examines the question of whether or not true connection and desire is possible in a world where superficial connection and muted desire are becoming more and more common.

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Intersectional Female Identity Emily Hahr ENG 345: Women's Literature Dr. Erica Galioto Assignment Explore Intersectional Female Identity as it is presented in Americanah (2013) by Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie. Contextualize our examination of what it means to be a woman when differences of race, sexuality, class, and nationality are recognized and celebrated.

Hair Portfolio The novel Americanah (2013) by Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie highlights the importance of hair in both representing identity and celebrating differences in race, class, sexuality, and nationality. This is especially evident when considering intersectionality, as well as the treatment of Black women in America. Black women’s hair has been policed and ridiculed by racist oppressors for centuries, continuing today in prevailing stigmas and thinly veiled dress codes.

Box Braids

History of Box Braids -

Box Braids originated from South Africa around 3500 B.C Originally seen as a hairstyle for the wealthy because it was very time consuming to complete. It was assumed that if the woman had time to wait for it to be done she had to be of high ﬁnancial standing. Shells, Jewels, and beads were often used to indicate information about the woman to others.

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Box Braids

Jheri Curl

In 2017, Banana Republic had a racism accusation due to an interaction between a manager and a worker. The worker was a black woman that had box braids. “I thought there was something wrong with my outﬁt, but he sat me down and questioned my hair instead,” "He told me that my braids were not Banana Republic appropriate and that they were too 'urban' and 'unkempt' for their image." The manager has since been ﬁred. However, this is only one instance out of many where black hairstyles have been ridiculed.

This hairstyle became a trend in the 1980’s. The Jheri Curl typically has a glossy natural look. This style was an easier option for African Americans than “relaxers” which were also popular at the time. -Invented by Jheri Redding Relaxers and the damage they cause to hair are mentioned a few times in “Americanah” some examples include: -

Jheri Curl

“Just a little burn,” the hairdresser said. “But look how pretty it is. Wow, girl, you’ve got the white-girl swing!” “Relaxing your hair is like being in prison. You're caged in. Your hair rules you.”

“When the Jheri curl came out I was young and impressionable – I think around 8 or 9. So by that time, like most Black girls, I’d been subjected to nearly a decade of images that said pretty girls had certain types of hair…you know… “good” hair…” “Good hair was deﬁned as hair that has a straighter texture much like the hair of Europeans” These quotes highlight just how much society tries to push black individuals to conform to eurocentric ideals. More speciﬁcally, women are taught that if they don’t conform they are perceived as less beautiful .

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Afro Style -This hairstyle became popular in the late 1950’s when some black musicians broke cultural norms and began wearing unstraightened hair. -Originally referred to as close cropped -Began as a way to express black pride during the civil rights movement. This hairstyle representing black pride later became a sign of activism from females at Howard University.

Afro Style Viola Davis

“It goes back to hiding. It goes into erasure and invisibility and that has its birthplace in systemic racism,”

Straightened Hair

In 2012, Viola Davis was nominated for best actress in The Help and appeared at the Oscars without a wig for the ﬁrst time. “It was projected in culture that [the Black woman] wasn’t pretty, and the darker you were, the uglier you were. And we carry that mentality [as Black women]. We just carry it, even in unforeseen ways. “That’s why I wore my natural hair.” Viola is using her hairstyle as activism and using it to combat systemic racism that is still present today.

- Since the late 1800s, Black women have straightened their hair with hot tools like hair irons and hot combs, as well as chemical perming agents (relaxers). These are both damaging to the hair, as well as have permanent effects on natural curls. - Preferences for straight hair originated during slavery, and continue today in the workplace and in the media. -Black women who do not straighten their hair or wear straight wigs in the workplace are frequently harassed or ﬁred.

“Today, as Black women in America spend half a trillion dollars a year on weaves, wigs, braids, and relaxers, that 1950s fantasy lives on for new generations of Black women”-Marita Golden

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Straightened Hair

In the article My black hair: a tangled story of race

I spent countless hours alone in front of that mirror, hypnotized by what I wished for and what my imagination had made real. To have a White girl’s hair.

and politics in America, Marita Golden discusses the daily struggle black women go through with the style of their hair. Throughout the article, Golden highlights lhow black women are encouraged to style their hair more similarly to white women to “fit in”. Golden also identifies the many ways black women would tame their hair (even though these techniques had harmful effects on their hair.) For example she says “The result of this laborious and often, for me, degrading ritual was straight hair but burned ears, neckline, forehead and scalp—all in the quest for what we called then, and many still call, “good hair.”

Afro Puffs -

Afro puffs are a simple hairstyle for many black women where they use an elastic to bunch their hair into the form of a ball at the top of their head.

This is similar to the original Afro in that it is a way to go against older beauty standards and wear Unstraightened hair.

Tashara Parker was ridiculed on social media for wearing afro puffs while newscasting. Many people felt that her hair was “unprofessional”. She then responded on ABC’s Perspectives, where she argued that natural black hairstyles should no longer be a debate, as they are too often considered “unprofessional” while similar styles are accepted on others. Additionally, she pointed out that regular people more often feel inclined to give opinions on which hairstyles are “professional” when it comes to unstraightened Black styles.

Afro Puffs Tashara Parker

“Who determines what's professional these days and why do some people feel like natural Black hair and hairstyles are a debatable topic?"

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Dreadlocks

The ﬁrst known mention of this hairstyle dates back to about 2,500 years ago and has indian origins. It was originally named “JaTaa” which translated means “wearing twisted locks of hair”. To achieve this look the wearer sections his or her hair into squares and back combs the hair into sections. While back combing the hair the wearer twists the section that he or she is working on.

Dreadlocks Deandre Arnold

Intricate Braids

Deandre Arnold, as well as one other student, were suspended and were banned from walking at graduation due to the length of their hair. On July 24, 2020, this was ruled to be race and sex discrimination, as he elected to keep his dreadlocks because of his Trinidadian background.

This hair style originated in West Africa and was originally symbolic of the wearers weath, religion, marriage status, etc. The pattern that the wearer chose was extremely important and signiﬁed information about them. For example, a style named kohin-sorogun was used by Nigerian woman that were in polyamourus relationships. The pattern used was easily identifiable by the back so that men knew that the woman was polyamorous.

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Intricate Braids Cultural Appropriation

In recent years, braids like this have become a trend and many white individuals have begun wearing their hair this way. This has been a controversial a highly debated subject. In the article, A Brief History Of Black Hair Braiding And Why Our Hair Will Never Be A Pop Culture Trend Gina Conteh writes about why white people who wear their hair in these ways is insulting to black history. Conteh talks about the history and meanings of these braids and also mentions the racism these hairstyles have faced through the years. “Black hair has been ridiculed, mocked, discriminated against, and policed since the first colonizers arrived on the continent of Africa.”- Gina Conteh

Bantu Knots

Bantu knots originated in Africa over 100 years ago. The name Bantu is a reference to the ethnic tribes in Africa that speak the Bantu language. The knots themselves are called Zulu knots in reference to the Zulu people. Some also call this hairstyle “Nubian Knots”.

Bantu Knots -

The women in this online forum clearly demonstrate how hairstyles that differ from the eurocentric norm can jeopardize their jobs or inﬂuence how others treat and view them. It is common that natural hairstyles for Black women are considered “unprofessional” because it doesn’t ﬁt the status quo.

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Cornrows

The name “cornrows” originally came from the hairstyle’s visual similarities to cornrows. In the past, this hairstyle was often used for convenience to slaves who often worked extremely long hours in the hot sun. In the article A Visual History of Iconic Black Hairstyles, Madison Horne writes “Hair also played a role in the way enslaved workers were treated; if the texture and kink of one’s hair more closely resembled European hair, they would receive better treatment.”

Cornrows

In 2009, a teenager referred to as “G” was denied entry into St. Gregory’s Catholic Science College due to his hair being in cornrows. The school argued that they had an “anti-gang ban” and these hairstyles were often signals that students were involved in gangs. The schools policy was determined unlawful. This case is a direct example of racism still present in the 21’st century. Would the school make the same ban with a traditionally white hair style? Would the school declare a white hairstyle symbolic of gang membership?

Long Braids

Native American men and women from various backgrounds take pride in keeping their hair long and healthy. For many, hair is sacred and represents one’s connection to the earth. It should only be cut while mourning. Braids are used to protect the hair, and many believe that the energy one emulates while braiding stays within the braids, which is while many meditate or pray while braiding.

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Long Braids

Adriel Arocha

In 2008, Adriel Arocha was died admission to a school in Texas because of his long hair. He is Lipan Apache, and kept his hair long due to religious beliefs. A two year long court case ruled that the school’s denial violated his constitutional religious freedoms, and was discriminatory.

Conclusion It is important to understand the origin and meaning behind these black hair styles because the media and prevailing societal norms inﬂuence us to believe that these hairstyles are “unkempt” or “unprofessional”. However, when white women like Kim Kardashian and Adele attempt these hairstyles, they are celebrated for it. This is ignorant of the struggles that black men and women have faced when wearing the same hairstyles. This is an example of a concept that Audre Lorde brings up in the article Age, Race,Class and Sex: Woman Rediﬁning Difference where she says “white women ignore their built in privlege of whiteness”. In Americanah, Ifemelu tries to conform to eurocentric ideals by using hair relaxers, which ultimately cause her hair to fall out due to the chemicals. This is a great example of how black women are expected to abandon their natural hair no matter the harm it may cause. In conclusion, the way that black women are discriminated against due to their traditional hairstyles is unfair and blatantly racist. This racism needs to be halted in every aspect of our current world.

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Sources: Fashion Magazine, 2020, https://fashionmagazine.com/ face-body/hair/texture-talk-viola-davis-dives-intothe-complicated-politicsof- black-womens-hair/. Conteh, Gina. "A Brief History Of Black Hair Braiding And Why Our Hair Will Never Be A Pop Culture Trend". BET United Kingdom, 2019, https://www.bet.com/news/features/1619/thehistory-of-hair-braiding-in-black-america.html. Donaldson, Chanel. "Hair Alteration Practices Amongst Black Women And The Assumption Of Self-Hatred". Applied Psychology Opus, 2021, https://wp.nyu.edu/steinhardt-appsych_opus/ hair-alteration-practices-amongst-black-womenand-the-as sumption-of-self-hatred/. Golden, Marita. "My Black Hair: A Tangled Story Of Race And Politics In America". Quartz, 2015, https://qz.com/432098/my-black-hair-a-tangledstory-of-race-and-politics-in-america/. Horne, Madison. "A Visual History Of Iconic Black Hairstyles". HISTORY, 2018, https://www.history.com/news/ black-hairstyles-visual-history-in-photos.

Leon, Arnie. image. 2016, https://i.cbc. ca/1.3463838.1456439200!/fileImage/httpImage/ image.jpg_gen/derivatives/original_1180/arnieleon.jpg. Monkman, Lenard. "Why Indigenous Boys And Men Wear Braids | CBC News". CBC, 2016, https:// www.cbc.ca/news/indigenous/why-indigenousboys-and-men-wear-braids-1.3463817. "School's Refusal To Let Boy Wear Cornrow Braids Is Ruled Racial Discrimination". The Guardian, 2011, https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2011/ jun/17/school-ban-cornrow-braids-discrimination. Taylor, Brittany. "Judge Rules Barbers Hill ISD’S Dress Code Discriminatory After 2 Black Students Suspended Over Length Of Dreadlocks". Click2houston, 2020, https://www.click2houston. com/news/local/2020/08/18/judge-rules-barbershill-isds-dress-code-discrim inatory-after-2-blackstudents-suspended-over-length-of-dreadlocks/.

Student Reflection: I used this project to highlight the way that black women’s hairstyles are often considered “nonprofessional” in the work force and in other professional environments. This is important to recognize as a society so that we can continue to dismantle the racism still present in our society.

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On Our Own Laura Zemba ENG 113: Introduction to Academic Writing Dr. Erica Galioto Assignment The assignment for the class was to show how non-traditional classrooms can allow an opportunity to get an education. In the paper, we had to explain how Malcom X received an education in his prison cell. Before entering college, I came from a cyber school, so I was able to compare and contrast traditional and non-traditional classrooms.

Non-traditional spaces such as prison cells or home offices can be turned into learning centers for education. In the article “Homemade Education” by Malcom X, the author argues that anywhere can become a place of learning, not just inside a school setting. When I was in my home office, I also learned outside the classroom in a cyber school setting. Malcom X learned by copying and reading his own handwriting on a tablet from a dictionary. I learned on my own by writing notes during online courses, and then re-writing the notes after class, which is how we both used non-traditional ways of traditional learning. Similarly, we both read many books that furthered our education outside the traditional style of learning. At Commonwealth Charter Academy during twelfth grade, my education experience was similar to Malcom X’s “Homemade Education” environment. Malcolm X and I learned mostly on our own; his experience was with books, and mine was with a cyber school setting. This leads to an understanding that any situation can be turned into an educational opportunity such as a prison cell or a home office. Staying motivated was difficult at first for Malcolm X and I, as we learned that motivation is different in non-traditional schoolrooms compared to the motivation for students in traditional classrooms. At times, we both would not have deadlines to complete our work, which is why the motivation of not having the pressure such as in a regular school would have caused some tasks, such as reading, to be a little more difficult. To help motivate me, I would set goals at the beginning of every week to know what I needed to accomplish such as all the tests, homework, and projects written out on a whiteboard with the days of the week on it. As Malcolm X wrote, “Pretty soon, I would have quit even these motions, unless I had received the motivation that I did” (225). I also found it difficult at first to find the motivation I needed to complete my schoolwork. This is when I began looking

at numerous novels and stories that made me motivated to expand my knowledge of the world. Reading with books for Malcolm X or online in my situation is difficult when on your own, as reading out loud with classmates can be easier to understand. Growing up in schools that had us read together and not on our own was a big change that I needed to adjust to. Such as Malcolm X had to adjust to reading on his own as well, he found that, “Any college library would have been lucky to get that collection” (227). Malcolm X read numerous amounts of stories and history books as a way to learn how to read. Being able to read about the upsetting events we did not know about until we were introduced to them in the books, was eye opening. It was unbelievable how much books could describe things we never thought possible. This is how I integrated reading on my own and starting a new life at Ship. When entering college, I never realized how many stories we read at my school. Coming from another school, I would have never been able to gain the knowledge of the struggles and triumphs of the people around me. As I kept reading, I realized that rewriting notes was easier for me to learn the content better. Malcolm X wrote down every single word from the dictionary to perfect his writing skills as did I with re-writing my notes after every class was finished. Many times, I would re-write or type up all my notes from every class even if it took a long time. As did Malcolm X, “In my slow, painstaking, ragged handwriting, I copied into my tablet everything printed on that first page, down to the punctuation marks” (226). Every class, I would write down more information that what was required from the teacher but learning new ways to write a sentence interested me so much that I kept going the entire year of my senior year with this fascination. My friends viewed this in a confused manner, as I would explain the importance of individualism with learning how to study. Every student is different with how they learn how to write. 69

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Some may see this action of copying and rewriting notes has too much time spent on a tiny task, but this tiny task allowed both of us to learn and create a safe space for us to grow our knowledge in. As I learned in my home office, Malcolm X learned also that his prison cell could turn into a learning opportunity. Before entering into this new cyber school setting, I would have never imagined that a spare room in our medium sized house, that had difficulty controlling the temperatures of the room, could be turned into an opportunity that allowed me to receive a high school diploma. Without this space, just as Malcolm X’s small quarters, allowed me to understand that any space that you dedicate to study and learn can be turned into learning center. My home office had four walls just as Malcolm X’s four walls of his prison cell. His cell was much smaller than the large room I was granted, but this did not inhibit his educational abilities. He explained that, “I never had been so truly free in my life” (X 227). Before creating the safe space in moving to an online situation, I felt truly free after moving to this new school because I learned so many new things that would have not been possible in my previous school. For me, I felt truly free

and with the shift of moving to online school for many this year. I sympathized with the struggle of having this new setting, but anywhere can be a school setting. The idea of education can be found within the outer walls of a traditional learning complex. Not every student has the opportunity to learn within a brick and mortar school, which allows for a safe space to be made into a learning center. This prohibits them from understanding that an education does not need to be taught with a teacher in an actual classroom. Rather it is the education you create for yourself that matters the most in the end and how you practice this strategy of learning will matter in the challenges ahead. No matter the space, from a home office to a prison cell, is a learning opportunity waiting to happen. Works Cited X,

Malcom. “A Homemade Education.” The Seagull Reader: Essays, edited by Joseph Kelly, 2nd ed., Norton, 2008, pp. 225–34.

Student Reflection: This assignment allowed me the confidence to be able to talk about my online education experience. Students throughout the world are learning how to adapt to online education, and I was able to relate the struggles of getting adjusted to this new environment. Before learning about Malcom X, I would have not known that an education could be accomplished from a prison cell. This has made me understand that any place can be an educational opportunity waiting to happen, as long as the individual is ready to put work towards the goal.

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Shippensburg University’s Switch to Solar Energy: A Rewarding Endeavor Brianna Feaser ENG 114: Writing Intensive First-Year Seminar Dr. Sharon Harrow Assignment Take a stance on one of the controversial topics provided, and then, write an argument that includes a thesis and evidence in support of your position. Be sure to address counter arguments, and use a balance of rhetorical strategies in order to formulate a solid, defensible position, and in order to convince your readers that they ought to credit your position. Topic chosen: Should Shippensburg University switch to using entirely green, renewable energy sources?

Universities across the United States are continually experimenting with and looking for new ways to acquire energy in a manner that is more environmentally friendly. In doing so, a popular solution is switching to using solar panels as a source of energy. Using solar energy can benefit a school in a number of ways, such as cheaper prices compared to other renewable energy sources, additional ways for the students to learn and experiment, increased credibility for the school, a decreased carbon footprint, and a greater attraction for potential students. Because using solar energy could offer tremendous benefits, I claim that Shippensburg University should switch to using mostly solar energy. However, I realize that solar panels are considerably expensive, and as a result, I also believe that they should do so in a way that is financially wise, such as hiring a company to install and manage the system from whom they can then buy the electricity. Taking a step toward stewarding environmental responsibility would give Shippensburg University positive attention and reveal to others that it is willing to discuss and confront real and imperative issues that our world is facing. It is no secret that Pennsylvania is not an innovative leader when it comes to using renewable energy sources. Citizens, especially parents, are starting to become more vocal about the lack of progress in this area. Mother of two, Darcie Milazzo, expresses her concern when she says, “I think I’ve always cared about climate, but I think I feel it more deeply in my bones now than before I became a mother” (McDevitt), and she is not the only one with this opinion. Many parents are anxious about what their children’s future is going to look like. Although this information may be discouraging, it provides Pennsylvanian businesses and universities with the opportunity to become an innovative leader, attracting positive attention and

setting an example for others to follow. Therefore, I would advocate for Shippensburg University to take advantage of this opportunity by powering its operations, or at least as much as possible, with solar energy. Logically, parents worried about the environment will likely encourage their children to attend a school that is environmentally conscious, which means that switching to solar energy will increase Shippensburg’s attractiveness to potential students. A study done by the Yale Program on Climate Change Communication within the Yale School of the Environment found that “63 percent of Pennsylvanians are worried about global warming” and “85 percent support funding research into renewable energy sources” (McDevitt). As you can see, the environment is an issue that many Pennsylvanians are concerned about, even though it may not be talked about as much as it should be. Although many may contend that going solar is unnecessary, considering other more financially rewarding goals the university could work toward, climate change is a rapidly expanding issue that is not going away. Indubitably, using solar energy to power its operations is a compelling solution to its necessity of becoming more environmentally conscious. Because making the decision to switch to solar energy is a progressive step, it is imperative to analyze the benefits and methods of this conversion, considering it is a timely and costly process. An important part of considering Shippensburg University switching to solar energy is evaluating what the University has done and is doing in using renewable energy thus far. According to the University’s website, in 2006, Ship purchased approximately 4% of their energy from wind farms in Pennsylvania (“Environmental Stewardship”). In addition, it is important to acknowledge their attempt to save energy by adopting data server virtualization, 71

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“which consolidates multiple physical servers into one virtual server” (“Environmental Stewardship”). By doing this, the University reduces carbon dioxide emissions by four tons for each server virtualized (“Environmental Stewardship”). While these attempts at energy sustainability and reduction are notable, there is undoubtedly much more energy to be accounted for in reducing its carbon footprint, which refers to carbon emissions that are harmful to the climate and environment. Furthermore, there are many more benefits of using solar energy besides the popular benefit of reducing its carbon footprint. Environment America, a nonprofit organization of experts working toward a more sustainable future, emphasizes how switching to solar is benefiting campuses. Firstly, they pointed out that “solar installations dropped in price by 70 percent between 2010 and 2018, ” often making solar less costly than fossil fuel (“On-Campus Solar Energy”). Additionally, going solar provides increased opportunities for students to experiment and learn, and creates an attraction for potential students (“On-Campus Solar Energy”). Lastly, it draws positive attention to the University as it takes an innovative lead in the area of using renewable energy sources. An example of a local university that is leading in clean energy is Dickinson College. Ken Shultes, associate vice president for sustainability and facilities planning at Dickinson College, reinforced, “Dickinson has made a commitment to be carbon neutral by 2020, so this is a very big part of that, ” when discussing its newest step towards switching to renewable energy sources (“Tesla”). In a nearby field, Tesla created and installed 12, 000 solar panels that they will maintain for 25 years while selling the energy to Dickinson College; the college will also earn the carbon renewable energy credits (“Tesla”). Because Shippensburg University is located in a rural area, it has access to fields where it could follow a procedure similar to Dickinson, which would decrease cost. As I have illustrated, switching to solar energy is so much more than merely decreasing the university’s carbon footprint; it also increases its credibility in renewable energy, increases its attractiveness to other students, and increases the learning opportunities and experimentations of its current students. The benefits of switching to solar energy are very substantial, but it is a timely process that requires serious consideration of the methodology used. Undeniably, switching to using solar energy can initially be very expensive, and many would argue that such an endeavor would not be worth it, considering the cost. However, evaluating the different methods that can be employed reveals that expenses can be decreased when planned carefully. Implementing a method of using solar energy on a campus causes consideration of surrounding areas and buildings, as 72

Dickinson College’s Tesla Solar Farm I previously pointed out when referring to Dickinson College. For example, a campus in Lisbon, Portugal, created an “energy-hub, ” which the analysis, written by four experts, defined as “an interface between consumers, producers, and storage devices: directly or via conversion equipment, handling one or several carriers” (Rech et. al., 2020). The Lisbon university uses the solar energy that remains from surrounding residential buildings to help power its operations (Rech et. al., 2020). Shippensburg University, like the university in Lisbon, could create an “energy hub” in its area. Because the University is set in a rural area, it has great advantage over other urban universities that do not have ample room to install solar panels. The article analyzing the Lisbon university’s usage of solar energy discusses the need to determine “the number and type of solar equipment that maximize the reduction of annual energy costs of both residents and campus, where the campus is seen as a virtual storage” (Rech et. al., 2020). In my opinion, this is an aspect that students at Shippensburg studying the environment could be a part of. It would be a tremendously valuable event of their college career and would be a first-hand experience that they could get from very few other sources. Furthermore, a simulation study that focuses on the sustainability of a university in India points out that “higher educational institutes with a lot of free areas can play a vital role in reducing the conventional energy consumption and carbon footprint” (Baitule & Sudhakar, 2017). Shippensburg could create an interface with surrounding businesses, who could financially endorse the purchase of any necessary land and solar energy installation and in return, use some of the solar energy produced. Doing this would strengthen Shippensburg’s networking within its community while providing a more efficient and financially competent method of transferring to clean energy. Switching to solar energy can be done in different ways and is a terrific opportunity to work with the community and the University’s students.

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As you can see, switching to solar energy would not be merely another draining expense for Shippensburg University; rather, it would be a rewarding effort for its students, the community, the environment, and the University itself. As the issue of being environmentally responsible continually waxes and parents’ concerns for their children’s futures grow, it is important that Shippensburg University considers what it is contributing now and how it can improve its contributions to a more sustainable future. If Pennsylvanian universities take the initiative of going green, it could create a ripple effect of becoming environmentally responsible throughout the state’s businesses and government. Even though it has previously taken steps toward green energy, there is still much more energy to be accounted for. A major change in its energy operations would build its credibility considerably and make it a leading example to other universities and the state of Pennsylvania, in general. Its decision to switch to using mostly solar energy would not only benefit the environment by decreasing the University’s carbon footprint, but it would also tremendously benefit the University by increasing its credibility in environmental responsibility, providing more experiential and leadership opportunities for its students, and creating another attraction for potential students; this switch would give the University an edge that few others have. Even though this transaction may be initially financially daunting, there are many different methods available that could decrease expenses, such as creating an “energy-hub” or creating an interface within the community, and the University’s students could aid in evaluating which method would be best for the university. Quite evidently, Shippensburg University’s switch to solar energy would be a valuable and rewarding endeavor with rich experiences that could be extracted from few other sources.

Works Cited Baitule, Akshay Suhas and Sudhakar, K. “Solar Powered Green Campus: a Simulation Study.” International Journal of Low Carbon Technologies, Vol. 12, Issue 4, Dec 2017, p400-410, eds.a.ebscohost.com/eds/detail/ detail?vid=0&sid=bdd45f70-813a-42f8-9f77-b37205cd b8f3%40sessionmgr4006&bdata=JkF1dGhUeXBlPWl wLHNzbyZzaXRlPWVkcy1saXZlJnNjb3BlPXNpdGU %3d#AN=126235174&db=aci. Accessed 9 Nov. 2020. “Environmental Stewardship.” Shippensburg University, http://www.ship.edu/about/sustainability/esc/ environmental_stewardship/. Accessed 9 Nov. 2020. Field, Kyle. “Dickinson College Farms Sunshine with New 12-Acre Tesla Solar Farm.” CleanTechnicia, www.bing. com/images/search?view=detailV2&ccid=MNXcDl0N &id=1E5B3C96C96D1D09FBB49806B72204058C 45207B&thid=OIP.MNXcDl0NaCPf9UpAz89e2wHa E7&mediaurl=https%3a%2f%2fcleantechnica.com%2 ffiles%2f2018%2f06%2fdickinson-solar-farm-12acretesla-04.jpg&exph=1365&expw=2048&q=dickinson+ college+solar+&simid=608011075864955372&ck=A 86D793AFC98BCFE6CDC380CE54D7433&selecte dIndex=5&FORM=IRPRST&ajaxhist=0. Accessed 11 Jan. 2021. McDevitt, Rachel. “Pennsylvanians Want a Lot from Their Lawmakers When It Comes to Climate Change.” StateImpact Pennsylvania, 19 Oct. 2020, stateimpact. npr.org/pennsylvania/2020/10/19/pennsylvanianswant-a-lot-from-their-lawmakers-when-it-comes-toclimate-change/. Accessed 9 Nov. 2020. “On-Campus Solar Energy.” Environment America. Public Interest Network, 2007, environmentamerica.org/ energy-101/campus-solar-energy. Accessed 9 Nov. 2020. Rech, Sergio, et. al. “University Campus and Surrounding Residential Complexes as Energy-Hub: A MILP Optimization Approach for a Smart Exchange of Solar Energy.” Energies (19961073), Vol. 13, Issue 11, Jun. 2020, p2919, eds.a.ebscohost.com/eds/detail/ detail?vid=0&sid=63840008-e818-45b8-99d6-5f0694 b11bbd%40sessionmgr4008&bdata=JkF1dGhUeXBlP WlwLHNzbyZzaXRlPWVkcy1saXZlJnNjb3BlPXNp dGU%3d#AN=144301602&db=asn. Accessed 9 Nov. 2020. “Tesla Solar Array Installed at Dickinson College.” Dickinson, 7 Aug. 2018, www.dickinson.edu/news/article/3328/ tesla_solar_array_installed_at_dickinson_college. Accessed 9 Nov. 2020.

Student Reflection: Although solar energy has always fascinated me, I knew very little about it prior to writing this paper. This assignment not only taught me how to write a professional, thought-provoking argument, but it also taught me a lot about the issue of climate change. Reading about other schools’ efforts to implement cleaner energy into their operations inspired me to ponder Shippensburg University doing the same thing. When discussing the methodology, I had to consider Shippensburg’s surrounding area, and it required me to take the articles and information I was reading and actually apply them to the university. This challenged me to fully comprehend the material and how the need for cleaner energy can be fulfilled. I am grateful for the opportunity to learn and grow through this assignment and for Dr. Harrow’s encouragement and support through it all.

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La expresión de temas existenciales dentro de obras argentinas, “Casa tomada” y “Perfumada noche" Madison Gardenhour SPN 361: Masterpieces of Spanish American Literature Dr. Ana Moraña Assignment Students in the course were required to write an analytical paper in Spanish on a topic of their choice, after consulting with the professor. Students were also expected to incorporate the materials and topics discussed in class into their analysis.

Cuando una persona típica piensa en el existencialismo, probablemente lo imagina como el propósito de la vida o un movimiento cultural. En realidad, es más artístico en el sentido que describe la vida y la experiencia humana. Dentro de “Casa tomada” y “Perfumada noche”, por Julio Cortázar y Haroldo Conti respectivamente, hay temas existenciales que se expresan de tal manera que es realmente fascinante. En sus fundamentos, el existencialismo se construye a partir de la individualidad y con suerte, podemos usar los ejemplos de temas existenciales para reconstruir las opiniones de cada autor y cómo esto amplifica su individualidad. Antes de cualquier discusión que pertenece a la comparación de las dos obras, es importante definir lo que se considera un tema existencial. El reto es establecer parámetros que son amplios lo suficientemente, por lo que no presentar constricciones innecesarias en los autores que nunca han afirmado ser existencialistas. Dado que el objetivo es analizar obras literarias, es justo identificar temas existenciales como características comunes que se encuentran en las obras literarias del existencialismo en lugar de en las teorías filosóficas. En suma, usamos literatura en vez de filosofía, pero se debe esperar algún solapamiento. Dos figuras prominentes de la literatura existencial son Jean-Paul Sartre y Albert Camus. Cada uno tiene su propia opinión sobre la vida, la muerte, y todo en medio. Sartre, en sus escritos, comunica imágenes similares a las del humanismo en que hay un enfoque en la acción humana más que en la intervención divina. Sartre creía que las decisiones de una persona dictan cada aspecto de su vida, sin embargo las personas temen esta libertad absoluta de elección la cual los impulsa a crear un Dios para compartir la responsabilidad (Viljoen 2010). Los escritos de Albert Camus son un poco diferentes. Aunque él es considerado como un escritor existencialista, denunció este título. En cualquier caso, sus escritos contienen ideas que son 74

muy elogiadas por los eruditos existencialistas. Debido a esto, el uso de sus obras podría ser útil para nuestra meta de identificar temas existenciales en literatura sin las constricciones de la filosofía típica. Bueno, él escribió sobre la idea del absurdo en que él introduce el problema de una persona racional que se enfrenta por un universo que carece de cualquier razón discernible para existir (Viljoen 2010). Esto es significativo porque aborda el estatus de una persona en el universo en su conjunto. Con los escritos de Sartre y Camus, podemos definir adecuadamente los parámetros para la evaluación. Para asegurar la exactitud y limitar los criterios, es importante hacer referencias cruzadas de elementos de la literatura existencial con elementos de filosofía existencial. La Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy dice que algunos temas incluyen: la libertad, la ansiedad, la contextualización, la existencia, la individualidad y la irracionalidad (Burnham et al, 2020). Esto coincide con las ideas de Jean-Paul Sartre y Albert Camus. Específicamente, el elemento de la libertad y el elemento de la ansiedad resumen la literatura de Jean-Paul Sartre en que una persona está libre de la influencia de una deidad hasta que el miedo le hace crear una. Los escritos de Albert Camus tienen el elemento de la irracionalidad con su idea del absurdo. Debido a esto, usamos los elementos de la ansiedad, la libertad y la irracionalidad para analizar las obras de Conti y Cortázar. Comenzando con “Casa tomada” por Julio Cortázar, podemos ver el elemento de la ansiedad pero no se expresa de una manera esperada. Es importante notar que hay dos caras de la moneda de la ansiedad: la ansiedad como se describió anteriormente y la autenticidad. Martin Heidegger acuñó el último término pero el significado se adaptó bajo la filosofía de Sartre para convertirse en un socio de la ansiedad (Flynn, 2006). La versión de Sartre aborda el desafío de una persona

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que reconoce sus decisiones auto-definitorias. Esta idea se coordina con el individualismo, en el sentido de que una persona celebra la independencia pero también la originalidad de su existencia. Aunque el narrador y su hermana tienen una vida que encapsula el concepto de la originalidad con su “matrimonio de hermanos”, los personajes no carecen de conformidad (Cortázar, 1995). Por ejemplo, dentro de esta relación doméstica, los dos tienen roles y rutinas estrictas que llevan a cabo cada día. Irene, la hermana, es dependiente tremendamente del narrador, hasta el punto de que ella nunca sale de la casa de la familia pero esto no es el problema necesariamente. Después de todo, dudo que la mayoría de los filósofos querían incluir a las mujeres cuando hablaban de ‘la independencia’, pero el problema real es con el narrador. Una parte importante de la autenticidad es una persona que entiende la naturaleza de su existencia (Burnham et al, 2020). Sin embargo, el narrador no reconoce la realidad de su existencia en la vida de Irene ni en el bienestar de la casa con la frase “pero es de la casa que me interesa hablar, de la casa y de Irene, porque yo no tengo importancia” (Cortázar, 1995). Rechaza este reconocimiento hasta el punto de que nunca nos dice su nombre, que yo diría que disminuye su individualidad. Debido a esto, el narrador está viviendo una vida inauténtica de acuerdo con las ideas del existencialismo pero la presencia de tales sigue siendo importante tener en cuenta para luego. La segunda idea es que el elemento de la irracionalidad tiene una presencia dentro de “Casa tomada” también. La expresión de este tema se puede encontrar en todos los aspectos desconocidos, especialmente los que pertenecen a los intrusos. Albert Camus describe la irracionalidad como la falta de significado existencial y, en sus escritos, menciona que el reto básico es la confrontación entre una persona y la irracionalidad (Viljoen 2010). En “Casa tomada”, hay un conflicto extraño entre los residentes de la casa y los entes misteriosos en que la última partida trata de reclamar la casa poco a poco, que es una reminiscencia de la relación entre los seres humanos y el absurdo. Sin embargo, en lugar de confrontación, el narrador y su hermana evitan directamente el problema simplemente abandonando partes de la querida casa familiar. No sabemos la razón por la que los intrusos están en la casa ni su propósito pero el único hecho es que están tomando la casa y los dueños son pasivos. Esto reafirma la condición de los hermanos como inauténticos bajo las calificaciones del existencialismo, que tiene un gran significado para el final de la historia. Aunque los personajes dentro de la historia tienen vidas inauténticas bajo los temas del existencialismo, esto no es el caso para el cuento en su conjunto. Al final de la historia, el narrador y su hermana huyen de la casa porque los entes la han tomado. También, el

texto dice que “cerré bien la puerta de entrada y tiré la llave a la alcantarilla. No fuese que algún pobre diablo se le ocurriera robar”, desde la perspectiva del narrador (Cortázar, 1995). Esto nos lleva al tema existencial final ― la libertad. En un contexto del existencialismo, la libertad significa responsabilidad para uno mismo y para sus acciones sin la influencia de un poder superior (Burnham et al, 2020). El narrador finalmente asumió la responsabilidad y realizó una acción significativa, reconociendo la situación grave dentro de la casa. Esto coincide con una de las interpretaciones populares del cuento, en que nadie puede permanecer de brazos cruzados. Tarde o temprano, toda la gente tiene que tomar medidas. En este sentido, el patrón de los personajes que son inauténticos según el existencialismo durante el principio del cuento coincide con el mensaje y la filosofía al final. “Perfumada noche”, de Haroldo Conti, aborda los temas existenciales de una manera diferente. Esto no es sorprendente porque el tono está muy lejos del suspense psicológico. De hecho, es una historia de amor. En cualquier caso, el cuento expresa los tres temas existenciales: la ansiedad/la autenticidad, la irracionalidad, la libertad. Primero, ejemplos de la ansiedad se pueden encontrar en las reacciones del Señor Pelice a la señorita Haydée Lombardi. Cada día, él escribió una carta con un sobre perfumado que nunca enviaría y cada noche él “se quitaba puntualmente el panamá frente a aquella puerta a las seis de la tarde en invierno y a las ocho en verano, y ella inclinaba apenas la cabeza y casi sonreía” (Conti, 2014). Él repite este ciclo todos los días hasta la muerte de la señorita Lombardi, sin encontrarse ni hablar con ella. De una manera, no puede vivir su propia vida porque él está enamorado de la vida de la señorita Lombardi, que va en contra de la autenticidad. Sin embargo, somos testigos de un cambio del Señor Pelice porque justo después de que ella fallece, él le envía una carta con un sobre perfumado en que confesó su amor. Aunque él fue aplastado por la muerte de la señorita Lombardi, él continuó encontrando cosas pequeñas en su vida para pasar el tiempo (como conseguir un pez dorado) hasta su inevitable muerte muchos años después. Esto demuestra un sentido de un tipo de reconocimiento de estar por sí mismo que se expresa por el elemento de la ansiedad. La expresión de la irracionalidad se expresa más en los sentimientos del narrador, que es una presencia omnisciente limitada, sobre la muerte y vida. Dice que “la muerte es según, como la vida. Es otra vida, justo, otra forma de consistir, no un per saecula definitivo, nada absoluto, ninguna cosa extravagante porque también es de ser, aunque en artículo mortis” (Conti, 2014). El narrador describe la vida y la muerte como estados de ser. Esto coincide con las ideas del absurdo por Albert Camus, en que él describe un universo sin una razón 75

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de existencia. Incluso cuando los amantes se reúnen en la muerte, no hay explicación. Aunque el existencialismo (en literatura o filosofía) puede ser pesimista a veces porque sólo se centra en las experiencias vividas, esto es un ejemplo raro en que la muerte se expresa como otro estado de ser con tan poca razón para la existencia como la vida. En realidad, esto es el punto focal de la expresión de los temas existenciales dentro esta obra ― el optimismo. Albert Camus tiene esta perspectiva también porque, en sus escritos, aconseja buscar la felicidad y el valor en la misma ausencia de significado existencial (Viljoen, 2010). En este sentido, la irracionalidad se expresa bellamente, incluso si no está de acuerdo con las perspectivas típicas del existencialismo. Finalmente, hay la expresión de la libertad. Como se describe anteriormente, este tema es más sobre la responsabilidad de las acciones. El mejor ejemplo, en mi opinión, ocurrió al final del cuento cuando los amantes se reúnen en la muerte. El Señor Pelice, que vivió toda su vida sin interactuar con la mujer que ama, finalmente“saluda a la señorita Haydée” (Conti, 2014). Los dos comparten una conversación y caminan juntos a medida que la historia llega a su fin. No hay persuasión de una entidad divina, ni de su propia timidez. El Señor Pelice toma una decisión definitiva para cambiar su pasividad que le impidió estar con ella mientras estaban vivos. Esto se alinea con las obras de Sartre, en que él anima a la gente a no ser obstaculizada por sus propias decisiones, o en este caso la falta del mismo (Viljoen, 2010). Así como “Casa tomada”, esta historia capturó el concepto existencial de la libertad con un personaje principal cambiando su patrón de decisiones. A fin de cuentas, “Perfumada noche” expresa los temas existenciales pero también demuestra la diferencia entre la literatura y la filosofía existencial. La literatura no está obligada por interpretaciones estrictas y fomenta un tipo de fluidez con las aplicaciones universales. La filosofía funciona un poco diferente en el sentido que tiene reglas más estrictas. Sin embargo, debido al hecho que el existencialismo tiene un enfoque fuerte en el concepto de la individualidad, las reglas están sujetas a adaptación. De hecho, algunos filósofos usan literatura como una forma clara de expresión existencial. Por ejemplo, Jean-Paul Sartre creía que la literatura existencial era realmente “littérature engagée”, que se traduce más o menos en literatura inmersa (Gusman, 2017). La creencia es que, a través de la escritura sobre temas personales y sociales, un escritor puede moldearse tanto a sí mismo como al mundo que lo rodea. Teniendo esto en cuenta, aprender más sobre los autores podría ser beneficioso porque los detalles personales podrían indicar cómo se moldearon a sí mismos con la expresión de su individualidad dentro de sus obras. Con lo que se sabe de Julio Cortázar, se cree que “Casa tomada” es un poco autobiográfica en naturaleza. Por ejemplo, él tenía una hermana y un amor profundo 76

por la literatura francesa. Sin embargo, la principal fuente de interés es las circunstancias que rodean la historia. Él escribió “Casa tomada” en 1947 y la obra se interpreta como una pieza política contra Juan Perón. Esta teoría es interesante especialmente dado el hecho de que Julio Cortázar se vio obligado a salir de su trabajo el mismo año. Aunque él negó tal alegoría política, reconoció la legitimidad de las teorías porque él no era ajeno a ser político en sus escritos (Standish, 2001). Aunque sus opiniones específicas sobre las teorías existenciales son desconocidas, se puede decir que vio un valor en la libertad creativa como lo hizo evidente por sus obras y las muchas interpretaciones reconocidas. Sin embargo, puede ser percibido como más tradicional en sus escritos con el uso de roles de género definitivos y con su estatus autoproclamado como un neoromántico (Standish, 2001). Dicho esto, sus tendencias más tradicionales no impidieron su originalidad. Con respecto a su estilo, un gran número de sus escritos implican la inserción de elementos fantásticos, y a menudo perturbadores, en un contexto donde todo lo demás parece bastante normal. “Casa tomada” definitivamente se ajusta a esos parámetros. Su gravitación hacia lo fantástico no es tan sorprendente porque fue considerado un individuo introvertido y un ratón de biblioteca desde que era un niño. De muchas maneras, Julio Cortázar es el personaje principal de “Casa tomada”. Debido a la expresión de los temas existenciales dentro de “Casa tomada”, es posible que él lamentó ser pasivo sobre un problema en particular en su vida, o al menos no actuar sobre algo más pronto porque esa es la situación con respecto al personaje principal. Haroldo Conti, como sus obras, fue muy diferente de Julio Cortázar. “Perfumada noche” fue publicada en 1971 dentro de su novela En vida (Coly, 2012). Su opinión general sobre la vida probablemente se puede resumir dentro de las primeras líneas de “Perfumada noche”. Las primeras líneas dicen “la vida de un hombre es un miserable borrador, un puñadito de tristezas que cabe en unas cuantas líneas. Pero a veces, así como hay años enteros de una larga y espesa oscuridad, un minuto de la vida de un hombre es una luz deslumbrante” (Conti, 2014). Como ya se ha dicho, su estilo consiste de optimismo, especialmente cuando siendo realista no tiene sentido para ser. Hay paralelos entre esto y su vida. Irónicamente, Haroldo Conti fue un profesor de filosofía de la Universidad de Buenos Aires aunque se desconoce si era un existencialista (Aletta de Sylvas, 2011). Lo que está claro es que él era alguien que trató de sacar el máximo provecho de la vida con muchas actividades. Él fue un escritor, un profesor, un director, viajero y tambíen le gustaba montar en bote (Coly, 2012). Creo que su naturaleza de espíritu libre se expresa dentro de sus obras y también dentro de los temas existenciales.

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En resumen, la expresión de los temas existenciales dentro de las dos obras “Casa tomada” y “Perfumada noche” se alinea con las características individuales de los autores, Julio Cortázar y Haroldo Conti respectivamente. Al fin y al cabo, el factor clave del existencialismo es las experiencias del individuo. Los dos autores lo encarnaron con éxito en sus obras y con sus estilos personales. Obras Citadas Aletta de Sylvas, Graciela. “Memoria y Escritura. Para Una

Lectura de Haroldo Conti.” A Contracorriente, vol. 8, no. 2, Jan. 2011, pp. 62–75. EBSCOhost, search.ebscohost. com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=ip, sso&db=30h&AN=62608171&site=edslive&scope=site. Burnham, Douglas, and George Papandreopoulos. “Existentialism.” Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2020, iep. utm.edu/existent/. Coly, Youssouph. “Claves Del Existencialismo En La Novela En Vida de Haroldo Conti.” Anales de La Literatura Hispanoamericana, vol. 41, Jan. 2012, p. 345. EBSCOhost, search.ebscohost.com/login. aspx?direct=true&AuthType=ip, sso&db=edsglr&AN=e dsgcl.409978774&site=eds-live&scope=site.

Conti, Haroldo. “Perfumada Noche.” Tierrapapel Cuadernos Para Historias Maravillosas, Tierrapapel, 9 Mayo 2014. tierrapapel.wordpress.com/2014/05/09/ perfumada-noche-haroldo-conti/. Cortázar, Julio. “Casa Tomada”. Plaza & Janés, 1995. Flynn, Thomas. Existentialism: A Very Short Introduction. OUP Oxford, 2006. EBSCOhost, search.ebscohost. com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=ip, sso&db=e00 0bna&AN=186565&site=eds-live&scope=site. Gusman, Simon. “There Are No True Stories: Narrative Identity and the Ambiguity of La Nausée as an Existentialist Novel.” Clio, vol. 46, no. 3, Summer 2017, pp. 353–368. EBSCOhost, search.ebscohost. com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=ip, sso&db=hus&AN=137256327&site=edslive&scope=site. Standish, Peter. Understanding Julio Cortazar. University of South Carolina Press, 2001. EBSCOhost, search. ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=ip, sso&db=e000xna&AN=144534&site=e ds-live&scope=site. Viljoen Johan. “Existentialism’s Hidden God : Submission and Revolt in the Writings of Jean-Paul Sartre and Albert Camus.” Phronimon, vol. 11, no. 1, Jan. 2010, pp. 5–14. EBSCOhost, search.ebscohost. com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=ip, sso&db=edssas&AN=edssas.phron.v11. n1.a1&site=eds-live&scope=site.

Student Reflection: When this assignment was first introduced, my confidence in my Spanish capabilities was the lowest it had ever been. I frequently asked myself if this career path was right for me and debated whether or not I was deserving of the time my professors invested in teaching me. However, what does not require debate is my love for literature and art. By learning a second language, I gave myself the opportunity to add to this love and expand my bookshelf to countless works that I would have completely missed otherwise. Because of this, I know I made the right choice. I would like to thank my little sister, Megan, for always encouraging me. I would also like to thank Dr. Ana Moraña for her continued guidance and for revitalizing my passion for the Spanish language.

Abstract: The objective of this paper is to compare the existential themes found within the two Argentinian works “Casa tomada” and “Perfumada noche”, by Julio Cortázar and Haroldo Conti respectively. This is achieved by defining what an existential theme is, identifying them within the texts, and comparing how the authors use these themes to express their respective identities. The first step is to define an existential theme. This is done by cross-referencing literary expressions of existentialism with actual elements of existential philosophy. Specifically, literary expressions from notable existentialist authors like Jean-Paul Sartre and Albert Camus are compared with the modern definitions of elements of existentialism. With this in mind, the chosen themes are anxiety, freedom, and irrationality. After analyzing both works with the selected criteria, it can be said that the expression of existential themes align with the individual characteristics of the authors.

Shippensburg University

Editor's Choice Second Place, Lower Level

The Relationship Between Writers and Tutors Jay Harnish AEES 190: Writing Tutoring Theory and Praxis Dr. Karen Johnson Assignment For this paper, you will demonstrate the connection between theory and practice by formalizing your personal writing tutoring philosophy. You will examine the pedagogies we studied to determine your personal philosophy of tutoring/fellowing in writing and new insights gained from this course.

How Writing Tutors Can Best Support Individual Writers The process of academic writing occurs as students formulate ideas, transform their ideas into coherent sentences, and revise what they have written to produce a more polished paper. The writing process does not have a concrete outline that is widely accepted or strictly adhered to since each stage can be revisited at any point during the process. The recursiveness of writing makes it impossible to specify precisely when each stage begins and concludes; sentences and paragraphs can be added, modified, or removed any time before a rough or final draft is submitted for a grade. Each individual approaches the writing process in unique ways, and they may employ different methods or strategies depending on their purpose for writing. Numerous factors influence the task of writing, including the type of assignment, the instructor’s requirements, the intended audience, and the deadline for submission. Each writer reacts differently when confronted with writing; some eagerly take on the challenge while others quiver and experience immense trepidation. All writers have individualized needs when it comes to writing. Instructors strive to accommodate for each writer’s needs; however, many instructors teach multiple courses and cannot realistically meet the needs of every student in their classes. Although instructors may still provide personalized assistance to students, writers may also receive help from writing center tutors. At writing centers, tutors are tasked with helping writers improve their writing skills through open, inviting conversations. Tutors are given an opportunity to learn about each writer’s unique style and needs, and they use this information to guide writers toward a completed and satisfactory assignment. Tutors ask questions and listen carefully as writers talk to them, which is something that instructors are not always able to do. The writing center allows writers to connect with a fellow peer who can 78

teach them important concepts and skills which can then be applied to their own writing. Tutors differ from instructors in that they are not likely to be viewed as authority figures; they are simply interested peers who observe the writing process as it takes place and propose suggestions for improved writing. Throughout the entire process, writers maintain autonomy over their work, which helps them stay motivated and encourages them to resolve issues independently. The preceding view of the writing process and the role of tutors in writing centers is merely one of an infinite number of perspectives on the same subject. It is the culmination of my studies into published theories on writing tutoring over the course of this semester. My position on writing tutoring, specifically how tutors can effectively assist writers, is derived from research as well as from my experiences as a participant and observer in Shippensburg University’s writing center. I regard writing tutors as empathetic allies who can best accommodate for students’ needs by talking to writers, asking probing questions, listening attentively, explaining concepts, making referrals, modelling solutions, and providing suggestions for potential revisions. If I were to become a tutor, I would utilize these practices to teach writers about writing conventions and mechanics, all while following a nondirective approach and encouraging the writer’s autonomy so that they may be able to identify and correct problems independently and apply what they have learned to other papers. Conflicting Theories on Writing Tutoring My perspective on the role of writing tutors is most closely reflected in articles written by Harris (1995), North (1984), and Rapp Young (2000). Each of these authors notes the significance of addressing individual needs by talking to writers and asking pertinent questions. Harris directly states that conversations between tutors and writers result in “thinking and discovery” (p. 31). She acknowledges that tutors can help writers

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come to conclusions about their writing which they may not have reached entirely on their own. She also supports my view that writers feel less pressured when collaborating with a peer as opposed to an instructor, whom they view as an authority figure. Writers may feel more relaxed and willing to participate in a tutoring session because they do not have to worry about facing the consequences for appearing incompetent in front of an instructor. When a writer is removed from a setting where they fear judgment and condemnation, they “feel freer to develop their own ideas, ” writes Harris (p. 31). Correspondingly, North argues that talking to writers is the primary responsibility of tutors, and that writers can benefit from talking to tutors even when they make no changes to their paper during a session. He summarizes the role of tutors by stating that “[they] are here to talk to writers” (p. 440). His assertion coincides with my belief that talking to writers is a fundamental practice that I, as a tutor, would need to engage in. By talking to writers, I would ensure that the writer, and not their paper, would be the focus of my tutoring sessions. Like other tutors, I would not be required to supplement or replace any instructor’s curriculum; instead, I would have the freedom to concentrate specifically on the needs of the writer. Harris (1995) describes such an individual as being “a middle person…who inhabits a world somewhere between student and teacher” (pp. 27-28). Her statement supports my belief that tutors are independent and do not serve as advocates for instructors. Because tutoring sessions are not dependent on curriculum, tutors do not have to justify an instructor’s assignments, methods, or grades. If I were tutoring a writer who was dissatisfied with their instructor’s feedback, I would refer them back to their instructor instead of trying to come up with an explanation of my own. As a tutor, I would have to be neutral and professional to maintain my independence. North (1984) indicates that he favors a similar position by stating that “we pass no judgment;” however, he also mentions that tutors can “try…to help the writer make constructive sense of the situation” (p. 441). North demonstrates that there is a clear alternative to siding with either the writer or the instructor. The remedy he proposes exemplifies that tutors can be respectful and supportive of both parties. Along with referring a writer back to their instructor for clarification, tutors may also need to refer to other external resources, such as handbooks. Rapp Young (2000) writes that referring to a handbook is a way to “model an important skill that writers can learn to use on their own” (p. 114). Consulting a handbook, Rapp Young explains, is beneficial because tutors may need to verify that they are describing a certain concept properly. Additionally, handbooks can

be utilized when tutors encounter issues which are unfamiliar to them. When a tutor refers to an external resource, they prove that they do not know absolutely everything about writing, even though they are viewed as “writing experts.” Rapp Young refers to this view when she states that tutors should “be honest about [their] limitations” so that writers do not assume that they have all the answers (p. 113). She also demonstrates support for the practice of modelling, stating that “writers learn from modelling” (p. 112). When tutors model examples for writers, they provide a visual representation for how to do something, which writers can in turn use to independently resolve errors in their own writing. Because modelling empowers writers to learn as well as make revisions on their own, modelling is one of the most powerful tools in a tutor’s arsenal. The suggestions tutors make, coupled with the models they present, can lead writers to discover patterns of error which they might not have recognized before. Furthermore, giving writers an example to follow instead of pointing out and correcting mistakes firmly establishes that writers are solely responsible for their own work. Harris (1995) notes that the writer “gains confidence” when a tutor “helps…set up criteria to use for her own assessment, ” signifying her support for my position (p. 35). As a tutor, I would offer writers suggestions but also keep in mind that it is ultimately up to them if they want to take my advice. While I strongly agree with the role of tutors as described by Harris (1995), North (1984), and Rapp Young (2000), there are other perspectives on writing tutoring that I greatly oppose. In “Minimalist Tutoring: Making the Student Do All the Work, ” Brooks (1991) recommends a hands-off approach to tutoring in which writers take full responsibility for their own success, receiving only a negligible amount of support from tutors. Brooks’s credibility is heavily debatable since he makes claims without providing evidence or statistics to back up his arguments. He uses phrases such as “I think” or “I find that” without including references to any research or studies (pp. 2-3). Brooks talks at length about “perfect” papers, stating that tutors must resist the urge to edit papers even though they supposedly want to make them “perfect” (p. 2). When describing the difficulty of tutoring, Brooks says, “Every instinct we have tells us that we must work for perfection” (p. 2). He claims that the drive for perfection is so powerful that “[tutors sometimes] forget that students write to learn, not to make perfect papers” (p. 3). Every tutoring session I have either participated in or observed has totally contradicted Brooks’s perspective on tutors’ goals. Neither the writers nor the tutors in those sessions were trying to create the “perfect” paper. While it can be argued that everyone who writes wants their writing to be the best it can be, it is extremely 79

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unrealistic for anyone to believe that they can create anything even remotely close to a “perfect” paper. Apart from his view on “perfect” writing, I also disagree with Brooks’s view on the role of writers and tutors. Brooks asserts that it is “easier and more satisfying [for tutors] to take charge;” however, I have not witnessed any tutor struggling to let writers take charge in tutoring sessions (p. 2). In fact, I noticed that tutors gained the most satisfaction from watching writers grow, which contradicts the source of satisfaction described by Brooks. According to Brooks, tutors are mainly responsible for keeping a writer “focused, ” yet tutors do a lot more than that. Tutors tend to teach as well as keep writers on track, as was the case in the tutoring sessions I observed. At one point, Brooks notes that having a writer read aloud and having them make marks on their paper “saves [a tutor’s] eyes in the case of bad handwriting, ” which is simply ignorant. (p. 3). He often states that tutors should “make the student” do things, even though tutors can only offer suggestions. He even claims that good things a writer has included in his or her paper are not “easy” to find (p. 3). His statement that “student writing…has no real goal beyond getting it on the page” also suggests that writers cannot take away anything from writing assignments (p. 3). I disagree sharply with the preceding statement, as well as most of Brooks’s article. Even though Brooks makes good points about minimalist tutoring, his opinions are not an accurate reflection of how tutors should act, and they certainly do not represent the tutors which I personally worked with or directly observed.

the writing center” (2016, p. 52). By studying writing center research, I learned about the methods tutors use to accommodate for all writers, even those who are difficult or uncooperative. I heard stories about students who started coming to the writing center for help and later became tutors themselves. One of the most important things I have learned this semester is that we are all unique. We all learn at different paces, we all have our own strengths and weaknesses, and we all approach the task of writing differently. Although tutors may be viewed as “writing experts, ” there is no “ideal” writer which is “better” than all the rest. All writers have the potential to improve their writing, including the more “experienced” writers like tutors. For tutors, individual differences should only be considered to accommodate for writers’ needs; differences do not have to define anyone. Over the course of the semester, I have learned about the different types of writers that visit the writing center, and I have been taught how all varieties of writers can receive assistance. For instance, ESL and ELL writers cannot be expected to produce the same papers as other writers. I now understand how differences in both culture and language can affect someone’s writing, and that is something I would consider as a tutor. I also learned that both writers and tutors can be difficult, but any issue can be resolved with communication (Blazina, 2002, p. 14). Because there are so many differences between writers and writing styles, there is no one “right” way to write, and what can be regarded as “good” writing is dependent on a multitude of factors, varying with each individual.

There is No “Good” or “Bad” Writer: We Are All Unique

Writing Tutoring is a Respectable Profession

My understanding of what constitutes good writing has changed dramatically since the start of the semester. Prior to this semester, I understood what writing tutoring was, and I had attended a few tutoring sessions for other classes, but I was not truly aware of how writing tutoring worked. I did not realize how complex the relationship between a tutor and a writer could be, and I did not anticipate that there would be so many published studies on writing tutoring. Initially, I assumed that writers would mainly be the ones who benefited from attending tutoring sessions; however, I soon realized that tutors could grow as individuals, as writers, and as scholars just by being tutors. I gained tremendous respect for writing tutors after learning that every writer they work with has a unique writing style and a different approach to writing. It occurred to me that, even though tutors were in a position to teach writers, tutors could learn from the people they sought to teach. Ryan and Zimmerelli note that “all writers bring compelling stories and unique needs to 80

The study of writing tutoring introduced me to just a few of the individual differences that make every person unique. It also reinforced my belief that we can all learn from each other, even if we are not in “teaching” positions. Activities may seem to only benefit or favor one person or group but, as with writing tutoring, that may not be the case at all. The research on writing centers has shown me that tutoring is more than offering suggestions to make papers better; it is all about the exchange between writers and tutors: different people who speak the same language and have the potential to influence each other in various ways. Tutors can teach strategies which can be used for all sorts of writing assignments, and they can encourage and uplift writers who feel as though their writing is not good enough. Tutors can validate concerns in ways which instructors cannot, causing writers to feel comfortable and safe at the writing center. Some students know what they want to say but are unsure of how to write it; tutors can help them transform their thoughts into words, sentences, and paragraphs. Tutors can

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help students become more confident in their writing abilities, which can significantly impact their grades and overall academic performance. I respect tutors for being there for students who might otherwise be forced to figure out how to write all on their own. If I were to become a tutor, I would strive to be compassionate and understanding, and I would work to address all writers’ needs by engaging in an open conversation with them, asking questions, and listening carefully as they speak. After determining what the writer’s goals were, I would work with them to model examples, refer to external resources, and make suggestions when needed, all while encouraging the writer’s autonomy and providing them with the tools they could use to identify and revise errors in any writing assignment confidently and independently.

References Blazina, J. (2002). On difficult students (and difficulty in general) in the writing tutorial. The Writing Lab Newsletter, 26(9), 14-16. Brooks, J. (1991). Minimalist tutoring: Making the student do all the work. The Writing Lab Newsletter, 15(6), 1-4. Harris, M. (1995). Talking in the middle: Why writers need writing tutors. College English, 57(1), 27-42. North, S. M. (1984). The idea of a writing center. College English, 46(5), 433-46. Rapp Young, B. (2000). Can you proofread this? In B. Rafoth (Ed.) A tutor’s guide: Helping writers one to one (pp. 111-26). Boynton/Cook Publishers, Inc. Ryan, L., & Zimmerelli, L. (2016). The Bedford guide for writing tutors (6th ed.). Bedford/St. Martin’s.

Student Reflection: After spending an entire semester studying various perspectives on writing tutoring, I was tasked with identifying which approaches would be best suited to apply to my own praxis. My professor challenged me to think critically about each article and chapter I read during the semester, enabling me to get started without much difficulty. As I wrote, I consolidated my beliefs about the purpose, nature, and value of writing tutoring. It soon became apparent that writing tutoring means more to me than simply helping peers improve their writing. I realized that writing tutoring is a means of establishing meaningful connections between individuals of different cultural and educational backgrounds as they work together to achieve a common goal. Following that realization, I made sure to emphasize that everyone goes about the writing process in unique ways and that there is no such thing as “good” or “bad” writing as a result. By the time I completed my paper, I recognized that tutors are capable of influencing student writers beyond helping them make improvements in their writing. Tutors can enhance a student’s academic experience just by being a compassionate and empathetic ally and coach with genuine concern for the student’s success, and that is precisely the type of tutor I intend to become.

Shippensburg University

Applying Effective Academic Strategies to College-Level Coursework Abigail Holenchik AEES 101: Foundations for Academic Success Dr. Karen Johnson Assignment In this final essay, students explained how they developed effective learning strategies to help them experience success during their first semester at Ship. The assignment required students to provide examples and reasoning to support their claims and to discuss how to transfer these newly acquired strategies to the next semester.

Upon entering college, it is not common for students to know absolutely every skill imaginable. With time, these skills can be taught and developed for college freshmen to use like time management, notetaking, reading textbooks, preparing for exams, and lastly, taking exams. Without a doubt, it can become a challenge for students to form these skills if they were not taught or strongly enforced in high school. However, with the proper motivation and encouragement, these skills can be improved and applied towards student success. In this paper, I will be discussing five out of the many skills and strategies that students entering college will learn to develop, as well as the multiple challenges and hardships that are faced when learning them. During my high school years, time management was not a skill that was taught, or enforced to every student. Personally, I used a planner throughout my junior and senior year, but because this skill was not taught to all students, this meant that I was not managing my time to the certain extent that I thought I was. When entering college, I realized that during the first week of classes, I underestimated the amount of work that was going to be assigned. This led me to purchase two planners: one monthly and one weekly. Additionally, I purchased a calendar for more important dates and assignments that were not due until later in the semester. These two planners have been lifesavers and have been the key to my college success thus far. When planning out my homework, papers, and quizzes for the week, the calendar served as a great way to refresh my memory on assignments that were to be completed at a later date. Because this strategy worked well this semester, I will continue to use it in the future. Note-taking has always been my favorite part of homework and is also where my perfectionism likes to come into play. For me, I have applied this skill 82

effectively during my first semester of college and did well adjusting it throughout many different courses. However, upon entering college, I was introduced to different note-taking methods and styles that I have not heard of. With that, I discovered the Cornell method, which is now my go-to note-taking method for almost every course. Using this method has allowed me to create questions to study with, as well as summaries that describe what the notes were about. I have found that the Cornell method has been extremely effective within my psychology readings because often times they can contain large amounts of information. I will continue to use this method for the rest of my psychology courses, as well as for the rest of my college years. As for reading textbooks and other academic resources, I came into college blind with the amount of reading as well as the amount of information that they contained. Over time, I have realized that highlighting, annotating, taking notes, and setting a time length have all been primary factors that contribute towards how I now read college-level material. By highlighting and annotating my readings, I am able to pull out main ideas and reword sentences that will be more understandable to me. Annotating, more specifically, is a strategy that has helped me so much within my seminar readings as they are very long and specific. When annotating, I reword and form sentences into my own words to ensure that I understand what it is the author is trying to convey. Moreover, taking notes is my go-to strategy to use when reading because it allows me to be able to rewrite sentences and format them to be easier to study with. College readings are long and contain a lot of information, but when setting a time length, I found it to be helpful. If reading the assigned pages all at once, it can further lead to confusion about what the reading is about. Setting a time length makes certain that I can take a break and review what I read before

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diving back into the reading. Preparing for exams can be stressful. Before entering college, I was never taught specifically how to prepare for an exam. In high school, I simply just studied in order to remember the information for the next day when the test was given, which was primarily done with using flashcards. Shortly after the test was taken, the information was forgotten about. In college, professors stress the importance of retaining the information that is learned because of the fact that we are not only going to apply it to our lives, but also towards our future careers as well. At the beginning of the semester, I took my first exam in psychology. I went into this exam anxious and thought I had studied hard enough with the Quizlet’s and flashcards that I had made and constantly repeated to myself. When I got my results back, I was not thrilled. In fact, I was very disappointed in myself. I had so many negative thoughts in my head that were saying, “Maybe I could not major in psychology.” After a long talk with my parents, they made me realize that I am much more than a test score and that this was only my first exam, and it certainly will not be my last. It is common for first semester freshman to not do well on their first college exam. Because of this, I knew that I was not alone. For the next exam, I found that the best strategy to do was to overprepare myself. Since I had taken the exam once, I knew the questions format, time length, and how many questions were to be on the exam. Creating study guides for myself was the best way that I could study and being able to constantly self-test myself helped as well. Once I took the second exam, I got a way higher score, which was actually higher than the projected class average! This high score motivated me to continue these same strategies for the future exams, not just in psychology, but for future courses as well. Furthermore, taking exams plays a major role in college. These exams are made to assess student’s knowledge on the material learned. Entering college,

I learned that when professors create questions on the exams, they are not meant to trick us, as they are made to make us critically think about the questions. My biggest problem with taking exams is my test anxiety, which has never been easy to manage. With time, I began to learn about different ways to reduce test anxiety. I found that when I review my notes and other study resources before opening the exam and focus on my breathing when taking it, my nerves dissolve and I regain my focus on the questions. At the beginning of college when taking that first psychology exam, I spent too much time on one question, which made me lose so much of the time that I was given. I learned from that exam if I am unsure of an answer, skip it and return back to it. When there is enough time left, I return to questions and spend a specific amount of time on it before selecting the answer of best choice. If time runs out, I take an educated guess and hope for the best result. If there is one piece of advice I have learned from this semester, it is that exams do not have to be stressful, unless I make them out to be. Overall, no one enters college one-hundred percent certain on what skills they need to learn and develop. Although this was challenging for me to realize, I now understand that these skills can be worked on and are always improved upon during life long after college. From this unusual semester, I have realized to not be hard on myself about the performance on my work and managing the perfectionism within me. However, since next semester will still be under the unique coronavirus circumstances and also include more difficult classes, I will continue to find improvement on all the effective learning strategies, especially on the two areas that I struggle the most in: preparing and taking exams. If they become too hard to manage, I will seek help from any of the trained professionals at Shippensburg University to guide me through the process that does not need to be tackled alone.

Student Reflection: This paper was assigned for our final exam as a way to reflect on how we developed effective learning skills and strategies during our first semester college. As I wrote this paper, it was interesting to see how much I have grown and changed as a student in comparison to my high school self. It takes time, patience, and a lot of practice to know and understand what suits you as a student, which is something I have realized throughout this journey thus far. Overall, what I want readers to take away from this paper is that students learn in different forms, as well as help future incoming freshman make it through their first semester of college.

College of Education and Human Services

Shippensburg University

Eating Disorder Research Paper Megan Herigan SWK 360: Research Techniques for Social Workers Dr. Andrea Barrick Assignment Students are to write a research on a topic that the class selects.

Problem Statement Eating disorders affect many people throughout the world including different races and ethnicities. Eating disorders, such as anorexia, bulimia, and binge eating disorder, are serious mental health conditions that can happen to anyone but are much more common in women (Office on Women’s Health, 2018). People who struggle with anorexia tend to think they are fat when they are thin and tend to eat less than what they should (Office on Women’s Health, 2018). A person who struggles with treating disorders such as bulimia, anorexia, and binge eating will have serious health problems if this goes untreated (Office on Women’s Health, 2018). More research needs to be done to figure out the differences in race and ethnicity when it comes to eating disorders (Shuttlesworth & Zotter, 2011). The purpose of this study is to explore which groups are mostly affected by eating disorders and what factors cause these types of people to have an eating disorder. Lit Review Introduction to Eating Disorders: Many people believe that people who suffer from an eating disorder chose that type of lifestyle choice (National Institute of Mental Health, 2019). People do not choose to have eating disorders, they are medical illnesses that cause many issues for people who have them (National Institute of Mental Health, 2019). People who have an eating disorder may have obsessions with their body weight, food, or their body figure (National Institute of Mental Health, 2019).Eating disorders can affect anyone regardless of age, race, gender, ethnicity, and other human characteristics. The most common types of eating disorders are anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and binge-eating disorder (National Institute of Mental Health, 2019). Anorexia nervosa is when people avoid eating food, restrict food, or starve themselves (National Institute of Mental Health, 2019). This is the eating disorder that has the highest death rate, compared to any other mental 86

disorder (National Institute of Mental Health, 2019). Bulimia nervosa is when people overeat, and they may force themselves to vomit (National Institute of Mental Health, 2019). People who have bulimia tend to be a normal weight or a little bit overweight (National Institute of Mental Health, 2019). Binge-eating disorder is when people have no control over their eating, and they eat large quantities at a time (National Institute of Mental Health, 2019). People who binge eat tend to be overweight, or obese (National Institute of Mental Health, 2019). Prior Empirical Work Females are more likely to have experience with eating disorders compared to men (Wagner et al, 2016). There was aA study done at a college in Hawaii , the study included two hundred twenty-eight males and four hundred and eighty-one females (Wagner et al, 2016). The point of the study was toIts purpose was to show that both males and females are affected by eating disorders. The issue with this study was that students were not filling out every question on the questionnaire (Wagner et al, 2016). However, these researchers found that more females chose objective binge eating than males. They reported that 9.2% of males took up binge eating compared to 13.9% of females (Wagner et al, 2016). In comparison, mMore females also chose to take up sSubjective bBinge eating compared to males. For sSubjective bBinge eating, the rates are 4.39% of males compared to 15.59% of females (Wagner et al, 2016). For purging, the percentage of females was still higher than males. For males, 3.07% of males choose to purge compared to 6.03% of females (Wagner et al, 2016). Eating disorders have affected both males and females. However, fFemales have a higher percentage than males when it comes to eating disorders. HoweverThough, with current research, more males are starting to partake in eating disorders (Wagner et al, 2016). Studies have shown that eating disorders have started in boys and girls around the same (Hazen, Goldstein, & Jellinek, 2011). Anorexia seems to start

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more in the adolescent age range and Bulimia seems to start later in life (Hazen, Goldstein, & Jellinek, 2011). Anorexia is easier to identify among males and females compared to bulimia (Hazen, Goldstein, & Jellinek, 2011). Males and females can both develop osteoporosis. This occurs when bones lose their mineral density from various eating disorders such as anorexia (Hazen, Goldstein, & Jellinek, 2011). Hazen, Goldstein, & Jellinek (2011), found that twenty percent of adolescent teens struggle with a mental health disorder. Furthermore, one to three percent of females who identify as adults ages eighteen to twenty have a diagnosis of bulimia (Hazen, Goldstein, & Jellinek, 2011). When it comes down to males and eating disorders, women are more prone to having them, but males can suffer from them (Hazen, Goldstein, & Jellinek, 2011). They also found that in the United States, eating disorders are found in Caucasian or Asian adolescents, compared to Hispanic or African American adolescents (Hazen, Goldstein, & Jellinek, 2011). In the United States more people who identify as Caucasian or Latino tend to have more issues with eating disorders compared to those who identify as African American or Asian (Hazen, Goldstein, & Jellinek, 2011). African American women are more content with their bodies and are less likely to control their weight by vomiting or dieting (Shuttlesworth & Zotter, 2011). African American women experience eating disorders less than Caucasians. Though, for African American women, the lower the ethnic identity, the more likely they were to have bulimia (Shuttlesworth & Zotter, 2011). Caucasians care more about their figure due to their culture of viewing women who are skinny as beautiful (Shuttlesworth & Zotter, 2011). This is one of the main reasons why Caucasian women tend to have eating disorders such as anorexia or bulimia. Shuttlesworth and Zotter (2011), found that African American women who have strong ethnic identities are less likely to suffer from eating disorders, than those with less ethnic identity. Bulimia Nervosa is more common among Latino women than those of non-Latina Caucasians (HigginsNeyland & Bardone-Cone, 2017). One of the main reasons that Latino women engage in bulimic behavior is because they feel disconnected from their families which causes them to feel depressed and possible have suicidal thoughts. Ego threatening stressors such as discrimination could cause minorities to engage in binge eating as a coping mechanism (Higgins-Neyland & Bardone-Cone, 2017). In this study, they tested a population of Latinos, seventy-eight had a history of eating disorders and forty-one Latinos who do not have a history of an eating disorder. The study found that Latinos who are depressed tend to have an eating disorder such as bulimia or binge eating (HigginsNeyland & Bardone-Cone, 2017).

Eating disorders and body image concerns are issues among many college campuses (Schoen et al, 2020). On Campuses, 13.5% of women and 3.6% of men have stated that they have had symptoms of an eating disorder (Schoen, et al., 2020).Eating disorders are increasing among males and females in a college setting, so more prevention techniques need to be in place (Schoen et al., 2020). Young college women are more likely to experience an eating disorder compared to any other age group (Schoen, et al., 2020). More research needs to be done to figure out how many college students are affected by eating disorders, compared to non-traditional students. Research Question and Hypothesis The research question is: Have you experienced an eating disorder? Hypothesis 1: Females are more likely to have experienced an eating disorder. Independent Variable: Females Dependent Variable: Eating Disorder Hypothesis 2: Caucasians are more likely to have experienced an eating disorder. Independent Variable: Caucasians Dependent Variable: Eating Disorder Hypothesis 3: Traditional Students are more likely to experience an eating disorder. Independent Variable: Traditional Students (18-24) Dependent Variable: Eating Disorder Research Methods Paper: Type of Research Design: This type of study is an Exploratory Design because we are exploring the relationships between our variables and eating disorders. We are exploring the relationship between eating disorders and gender such as male, female, trans male, trans female, and nonbinary. We are also exploring the relationship between eating disorders among different race and ethnicities such as Black/African Americans, Caucasians, and Latino/ Latinas. We are using SWK 360 students as participants in this study. The study is a quantitative design because we are creating a survey that has a numerical association with the different responses to the survey questions. We will look at the data with a statistical standpoint which will be focused on frequency and percentage when calculating our variables. We created the survey in class, and it has five questions in regard to 87

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eating disorders and our variables. Question one stated that the participant was aware that they did not have to complete the survey if they did not feel comfortable. Question two was asking about whether or not the participant has experienced an eating disorder. Question three was a demographic question relating to the gender of the participant. The fourth question was another demographic question that relates to the participants age falling into the categories of traditional and nontraditional. The fifth and final question asks a demographic question regarding to the race and ethnicity of the participant. Participants The study is using the nonprobability strategy that uses convenience sampling for recruiting participants in the study. A convenience sample is a technique that allows the researcher to select participants who are available to participate in a particular study. These participants normally come across the researcher by accident. This particular study is a convenience sample because we were all conveniently placed in SWK 360 together. As students, we did not know that we were going to be placed in this class together. The sample is focused on the variables of gender, race/ethnicity, and age. For gender we are looking at males, females, trans males, trans females, and those who identify as nonbinary. For race and ethnicity, we are focused on African Americans/Blacks, Caucasians, and Hispanics/ Latinos. The age that we are focused on are those who identify as traditional students and nontraditional students. Traditional students follow the ages of eighteen to twenty-four and nontraditional includes those who are twenty-five and older. Other groups include those who are enrolled in SWK 360 at Shippensburg University. There are anticipated risks to this study based on eating disorders. Some people may have had a family member who dealt with an eating disorder or they may have dealt with one themselves. With this happening, the topic of eating disorders can be a trigger for some students, and they may back out of the study because they may not feel comfortable. When it comes down to protecting the participants of the study, I will focus mainly on confidentiality. Instead of using the names of participants who are partaking in the study, I will use numbers, so I know how many people participated. Data will be held on a password protected computer stored in Excel. I will be the only one who has the password top the computer, along with the data. Data Collection We used an electronic questionnaire which allowed each participant to highlight their answers to each of the survey questions. The electronic questionnaire was created using five questions and they were based off the variables in the study. 88

Instrument We developed an electronic survey that the participants filled out. Our survey was five questions long and each question was short and to the point. The first was asking the participants if they knew their rights and that they could back out of the study if they did not feel comfortable answering certain questions. The second question asked the participants if they have ever experienced an eating disorder. Questions three through five were focused on demographic questions based on age, race/ethnicity, and gender. The two types of validity being used in our eating disorder study are face validity and content validity. The study uses face validity because SWK 360 research students decided the face value of the question, where each question was a good way to assess our topic. Content validity was used because we are using our measuring tool, which is the survey in this case to show all aspects that are being tested. We tested the different age groups, genders, races, and ethnicities that are mainly affected by eating disorders. The type of reliability that is being used is test retest reliability because when the participants are asked about experiencing an eating disorder in a time frame from six months to a year, their answers will still be the same. Also, the same variables will be used in the next study. Data Analysis We are using nominal variables in our eating disorder study. These variables are going to look at the frequency and percentage for our research variables. Descriptive Statistics Table 1. Descriptive Statistics

Frequency

Percentage

Male

12%

Female

88%

Caucasian

69%

African American

23%

Hispanic

Traditional

85%

Non-Traditional

15%

Gender

Race

Age

N=26 In regard to gender, there are three males that make up 12% of the sample. There are twenty-three females that make up 88% of the sample. In regard to race, there are eighteen people who identify as Caucasian that make up 69% of the sample. There are six people

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who identify as African American/Black and they make up 23% of the sample. There are two people who identify as Hispanic/Latino and they make up 8% of the sample. In regard to age, there are twenty-two traditional students (students who are ages from 18-24) who make up 85% of the sample. There are four nontraditional students (Students who are 25 and older) who make up 15% of the sample. There are twenty-six total students who participated in this eating disorder survey. Table 2. Eating Disorders by Gender (Frequency)

Eating Disorders

Male

Female

Yes

N=26 Frequency of male students who said yes to having an eating disorder is one out of a total of three males. Frequency of males that said no to having an eating disorder is two out of a total of three males. . Frequency of female students who said yes to experiencing an eating disorder is seven out of a total of twenty-three females. The frequency of female students who said no to experiencing an eating disorder is sixteen out of a total of twenty-three females.

Caucasian

African American

Hispanic

Yes

N=26 The frequency of Caucasian students who said yes to having an eating disorder is five out of a total of eighteen Caucasian students. The frequency of Caucasian students who said no to having an eating disorder is thirteen out of a total of eighteen Caucasian students. The frequency of African American/Black students who have said yes to having an eating disorder is two out of a total of six African American/Black students. The frequency of African American students who said no to having an eating disorder is four out of a total of six African American/Black students. The frequency of Hispanics/Latino students who have said yes to having an eating disorder is one out of a total of two Hispanic/Latino students. Table 4. Eating Disorders by Age

Eating Disorders

NonTraditional Traditional

Yes

N=26

Discussion: What I learned:

Table 3. Eating Disorders by Race

Safety

The frequency of traditional students who said yes to having an eating disorder is seven out of a total of twenty-two traditional students. The frequency of traditional students who said no to having an eating disorder is fifteen out of a total of twenty-two traditional students. The frequency of non-traditional students who said no to experiencing an eating disorder is one out of a total of four traditional students. The frequency of non-traditional students who said yes to having an eating disorder is three out of a total of four non-traditional students. The percentage of students who identified as Caucasians and participated in the eating disorder survey is 69%. The percentage of African American students who participated in the eating disorder survey was 23%. The percentage of Figure 1. Percentage of Hispanic/Latino students Racial Group Participants who participated in the eating disorder survey was 8%.

I found that females are more likely to have experienced an eating disorder compared to males. One of the reasons why I found this to be true is because our data shows that seven females have had an eating disorder compared to one male. Please refer to table 2 to look at further data regarding gender. I also believe that there were more females who had experienced eating disorders because in our SWK 360 class, there are twenty-three females and three males total. Our second hypothesis was that people who identify as Caucasian are more likely to have experienced an eating disorder. This data seems to be true because five Caucasians have had eating disorders compared to two African Americans, and one Hispanic/Latino student. Please refer to table 3 for information regarding race and ethnicity. According to our figure, sixty-nine percent of the SWK 360 population identified as Caucasian. The reason why this could have occurred is because the majority of the class is identifying as Caucasian. There was a total of eighteen Caucasian students, six African American students, and two Hispanic students. With hypothesis three, traditional students are more likely than nontraditional students to experience an eating disorder; our data proved this true. Seven traditional students said that they have experienced an eating disorder, compared to one nontraditional student. This could have occurred in our class because the population of traditional students is significantly higher than those who fall into the category of nontraditional students. 89

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Data Connection to Literature Review: According to my Literature Review data, females are more likely to experience eating disorders, compared to men (Wagner, et al, 2016). They found that almost fourteen percent of females chose binge eating, compared to nine percent of males (Wagner, et al, 2016). The second research hypothesis stated that people who identified as Caucasians were more likely to have experienced an eating disorder, compared to other races/ ethnicities. The data that I found from Hazen, et al. (2011), found that people who identify as Caucasian or Latino tend to have more issues with eating disorders, compared to other races/ ethnicities. They also found that eating disorders in the United States are found in Caucasian or Asian adolescents, compared to Hispanic or African American adolescents (Hazen, et al., 2011). They found that African American women who had low ethnic identity were more prone to having an eating disorder, compared to those who have high ethnic identity (Shuttlesworth & Zotter, 2011). In a different study, they found that seventy eight percent of Latinos had experienced an eating disorder compared to forty one percent who did not(Higgins-Neyland & Bardone-Cone, 2017). They also found that Latinos who are depressed tend to have an eating disorder such as; bulimia or binge eating (Higgins-Neyland & Bardone-Cone, 2017). The third hypothesis was that traditional students were more likely than nontraditional students to have experience with an eating disorder. On college campuses, almost fourteen percent of women and four percent of men stated that they have had symptoms of an eating disorder (Schoen, et al., 2020). They also found that young college women are more likely to experience an eating disorder, compared to any other age group (Schoen, et al., 2020). Implications for Social Work: Social workers who deal with young adults need to be aware that this group of people are experiencing high rates of eating disorders. This can impact clients who have had an eating disorder because with all the statistics about eating disorders, they can see that they are not the only ones who face issues with eating disorders. If college faculty start to notice an increase in students who have symptoms of eating disorders, they can advocate for policies to be made to help the young adults. For example, if a professor notices a student vomiting purposely after they just ate, they can contact the Dean or administrative office and see what types of resources are available to students with eating disorders. Faculty can also educate the public on the different types of eating disorders and the types of symptoms for each one, so that parents can be aware in case their children who have one. For clients who have experienced an eating disorder, it opens the door for 90

them to start a support group for those who have eating disorders, so that they can talk about how it started and ways to quit these habits and eat a healthier diet. Recommendations for Social Workers Social workers need to talk to their clients and get information on what caused them to have an eating disorder. For example, if girls are overweight, they tend to starve themselves to lose weight, which can lead to anorexia. I used to starve myself for weight loss because I wanted to be skinny, and eventually I was eating less than twelve hundred calories a day. Social workers need to be able to refer clients to nutritionists, so that they can explain what healthy eating habits are and healthy weight loss alternatives. I feel that college campuses should have posters educating students about how many people are affected by eating disorders annually. By doing this, I feel that students would create organizations and clubs that will help those who have eating disorders become comfortable in their own bodies. I feel that college campuses need to have a speaker come in to talk to the student body about the negative effects that eating disorders can have on students, so that students can reach out to someone if they need help coping with their disorder. I also feel that instead of doing an electronic questionnaire, we should do a paper and pencil one, so people can fill them out at a faster rate. Limitations and Future Research One limitation to this particular study was the sample size of twenty-six students. I feel that in order for this study to effective there should be a sample size of a hundred people or more, so that way we can see how many people out of a hundred experienced an eating disorder. I feel that a larger sample size would be more accurate because we are using more people to gather data and it would be people from all over campus, not just in one particular class. I also think that we should have had people who identified as other genders rather than just male and female, so that we could have a more diverse and accurate study of the population. When it comes to age, I feel that using eighteen to twenty-four was a good idea because we wanted to find the amount of people in college who suffered from an eating disorder. The majority of students on college campuses fall into the age group of eighteen to twentyfour, however there is a small amount of people who are twenty-five and older. When it came down to race/ ethnicity, we did not have a diverse class, so the sample was unfair. Since there were eighteen Caucasians, six African American, and two Latino students, I feel that we had too high of a Caucasian population, so our data could be wrong. If this study were repeated, I feel that there should be the same amount of people from each race/ethnic-

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ity. For example, if our sample size was 100, then we should have twenty-five people who are Caucasian, twenty-five people who identify as African American, twenty-five people who identify as Hispanic/Latino, and 25 people who identify as Asian or some other race. Also, we should have the same number of people from each age group, so that the number of people seems to be even, and the more accurate our data will be. References Hazen, E., Goldstein, M., & Jellinek, M. (2011). Eating Disorders. In Mental Health Disorders in Adolescents: A Guide for Parents, Teachers, and Professionals (pp. 212226). New Brunswick; New Jersey; London: Rutgers University Press. Retrieved October 5, 2020, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt5hhws9.20 Higgins-Neyland, M. K., & Bardone-Cone, A. M. (2017). Tests of escape theory of binge eating among Latinas. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 23(3), 373–381. https://doi.org/10.1037/ cdp0000130 National Institute of Mental health. (2019). NIMH » Eating Disorders: About More Than Food. Nih.Gov. https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/eatingdisorders/index.shtml

Office on Women’s Health. (2018) “Eating Disorders.” Womenshealth.gov, Department of Health and Human Services., www.womenshealth.gov/mentalhealth/mental-health-conditions/eating-disorders/ anorexia-nervosa/#1. Schoen, E., Clougher, K., & Wiese, J. (2020). Developing an Eating Disorder Peer Advocate Program on Campus: A Report on the Eating Disorder Awareness and Advocacy Program (EDAAP). Journal of College Student Psychotherapy, 34(3), 211–227. https://doi.org/10.1080 /87568225.2019.159273 Shuttlesworth, M., & Zotter, D. (2011). Disordered Eating in African American and Caucasian Women: The Role of Ethnic Identity. Journal of Black Studies, 42(6), 906922. Retrieved October 5, 2020, from http://www.jstor. org/stable/41304564 Wagner, A., Stefano, E., Cicero, D., Latner, J., & Mond, J. (2016). Eating disorder features and quality of life: Does gender matter? Quality of Life Research, 25(10), 2603-2610. Retrieved October 5, 2020, from http:// www.jstor.org/stable/44852996

Student Reflection: The research paper was based off a study that we completed as a Social Work 360 class. The study was based off the following research questions. The study found that more women compared to men have suffered from an eating disorder. The study also found that Caucasians are more likely to have eating disorders compared to those of other races. There needs to be further research on whether or not traditional students are more prone to have eating disorders than those who identify as nontraditional students. I want to say that I am honored that you nominated my paper to be part of the Write the Ship. I loved partaking in this class, and I feel that I have learned new ways to gather information for a research study. I also learned how to use excel properly when it comes down to entering data. Hypothesis 1: Females are more likely to have experienced an eating disorder. Hypothesis 2: Caucasians are more likely to have experienced an eating disorder. Hypothesis 3: Traditional Students are more likely to experienced an eating disorder.

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Eating Disorder and College Students Edith Odubo SWK 360: Research Techniques for Social Workers Dr. Andrea Barrick Assignment Students are to write a research on a topic that the class selects.

Problem Statement Although, many people consider eating disorder a lifestyle choice, the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) defines eating disorder as a serious medical illness marked by severe disturbances to a person’s eating behavior (NIMH, 2018). According to the Eating Recovery Center, over 30 million people in the United States will suffer from eating disorder and 10 million of those are men and 13 percent of women over the age of 50 have symptoms of an eating disorder and the rate of children admitted to a hospital for eating disorders rose 119 percent in less than a decade (Eating Recovery Center, 2020). Furthermore, researchers have established that eating disorders among college women is a significant concern on university campuses (Schwitzer, Bergholz, Dore, Salimi, 2010). Additionally, while eating disorders have historically been associated with heterosexual, young, white females, according to NIMH, eating disorder can also affect people of all ages, racial/ethnic backgrounds, body weight and gender (NIMH, 2018). According to the National Eating Disorder Association (NEDA), black teenagers are more likely than their white counter parts to exhibit bulimic behaviors like binging and purging (NEDA, 2018). More importantly, researchers have reached differing and sometimes mixed conclusions on ethnic differences regarding eating disorder and its risk factors (Cheng, Perko, Fuller-Marashi, Gau & Stice, 2018; Sim, 2019). Racial/ethnic stereotyping of eating disorder as well as its causes and impacts on minority groups is also an issue that deserves a critical look. While several studies have been conducted on eating disorder in different racial/ethnic groups, there are limited studies that focus on the causes and impacts of eating disorder in minority groups, especially, African American women (Sala, et.al, 2014). Consequently, this study highlights the causes and impact of eating disorder in females and traditional college students, especially those between ages 18-25.

The study also highlights the causes and impact of eating disorder in minority groups, especially, African American women. Literature Review NIMH identifies obsession with food, body weight, and shape as possible signs of eating disorder. NIMH also indicated that not only does eating disorder affect a person’s physical and mental health, but it can also be life-threatening. It is important to note that people with eating disorder may be extremely ill even though they may appear healthy. NIMH indicated that eating disorder may be a combination of genetic, biological, psychological and social factors (NIMH, 2018). The Eating Recovery Center noted that eating disorders have the highest mortality rate of any mental illness as nearly one person dies every hour as a result of eating disorder. More importantly, the Eating Recovery Center points out that people suffering from eating disorder are not always underweight, especially, because about 35 percent of binge eating disorder and 30 percent of bulimia patients are medically obese. The Eating Recovery Center also avers that anorexia is the third most common chronic illness among adolescents after asthma and obesity(Eating Recovery Center, 2020). NIMH identifies three types of eating disorder: (1) anorexia nervosa; (2) bulimia nervosa;and(3)bingeeating disorder. People suffering from anorexia, for the most part, stay away from food or avoid eating. This is because even when they seem to be underweight, they believe they are severely overweight. On the other hand, people with bulimia tend to frequently eat large amounts of food and exhibits an inability to control themselves in this regard. Following their binge-eating episodes, people with bulimia tend to compensate this behavior by acts of forced vomiting, fasting, excessive exercise, etc. Finally, people with binge-eating disorder, although, similar to people with bulimia in their eating habits, are different from people with bulimia. This is so because, their binge-eating episodes are not followed

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by fasting, excessive exercise or purging. Therefore, binge-eaters are often obese or overweight (NIMH, 2018). NIMH proffers several treatment options for eating disorder including psychotherapy, medical care and monitoring, nutritional counseling, medications, or a combination of the above options (NIMH, 2018). Eating Disorder and its Impact on Females The Harvard Medical School (2012) averred that 90% of people with eating disorders are female and that these females are typically adolescents and young women. Eating disorder also affects middle-aged or elderly women (Harvard Medical School, 2012). Other researchers identify body image, preoccupation with weight, unhealthy weight management, etc. as some of the prevalent causes of eating disorder among college students (Schwitzer, et al, 2010).Sharam and Sundar (2015) attributes the causes of eating disorder in young females in Western nations to mostly psychological. According to the authors, the over valuation of staying slim in the Western world is a major contributing factor that makes young females succumb to anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa (Sharam & Sundar, 2015). Eating Disorder and its Impact on African American NEDA indicated that studies on eating disorder in adolescents found that Hispanics were more likely to suffer from bulimia nervosa than their non-Hispanic counterparts. However, NEDA also pointed out that another study shows people of color that self-identify as having eating or weight concerns were significantly less likely than their peers (NEDA, 2018). In their study, Taylor, Caldwell, Baser, Faison and Jackson (2007), found that anorexia nervosa is not common among African Americans. However, the researchers also discovered that African-Americans may be more at risk of anorexia nervosa than Caribbean black adults, with a younger age of onset than the general U.S. population, which was a concern to the researchers (Taylor, etal, 2007). Ross (2017) pointed out that the general conception that black women do not necessarily deal with the issue of body dissatisfaction because the AfricanAmerican culture welcomes larger and curvier body types and the fact that research suggests that aneroxia nervosa is less common in black women than their white counterparts, masks the issue of eating disorders prevalent in minority groups. Nevertheless, according to Ross (2017), recurrent binge eating occurs at higher rates in black women than their white counterparts. Ross (2017) indicated that research shows that people use binge eating or emotional overeating as a way to cope with difficult emotions resulting from past trauma such as childhood mistreatment.

More importantly, studies have shown that women of color are more susceptible to eating disorders which can be attributed to a response to environmental stress including abuse, racism and poverty (Ross, 2017; NEDA, 2018). For instance, Ross (2017) noted that eating disorder in black women can be used as a coping mechanism with the stress of living and working day in day out in hostile, unwelcoming environments. The author further mentioned that black women experience depression at a higher rate than their white counterparts resulting in eating disorders for these women (Ross, 2017). a Eating Disorder and its Impact on Traditional College Students Eisenberg, Nicklett, Roeder and Kirz (2011)found symptoms of eating disorder prevalent and persistent among college students (Eisenberg, et al, 2011). Deshpande, Basil & Basil (2009)identified poor eating habits of traditional college students as defined by their food choices in their first time being independent as college students. The authors emphasized that female college students tend to eat more fatty food than their male counterparts (Deshpande, Basil &Basil, 2009). Leavy and Ross (2006) in their research on this issue found a link between the oral history and the personal, psychological, and social problems that contribute to eating disorder in college students. Berg, Frasier & Sheer (2009) points to unique social and academic stressors of a college environment as contributing factors. The authors reviewed studies conducted on changes in eating disorder symptoms in college and found body dissatisfaction as a risk factor that contributes to higher level of symptoms in college. They further identified low self-esteem, depression, body weight and stress as other significant factors that contribute to eating disorder symptoms for female college students(Berg, Frasier & Sheer, 2009) Research Question and Hypothesis The Research Question is: Have you ever experienced an eating disorder? Dependent variable: eating disorder Classification of Independent variables: Gender, race & ethnicity, and age Gender: male, female, non-binary, trans-male, and trans-female Race & Ethnicity: Caucasians, black, or African Americans, Hispanics Age Traditional (18-24) and non-traditional (25 and older)

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H1: Males are more likely to have experienced an eating disorder. Dependent variable: eating disorder Independent variable: males H2: African Americans are more likely to have experienced an eating disorder. Dependent variables: eating disorder Independent Variable: African American H3: Traditional student are more likely to have experienced an eating disorder.

The informed consent also informed the participant that they are voluntarily participating in the research study. All the participants were informed about the purpose of the study and given their informed consent to participate before the study. The survey was anonymous to protect the privacy of the participants. Data collected was stored on password protected computer with the researcher the only one to access the computer. Also, all the information collected for this study will be used only for the purpose of the study and will be kept confidential. Data Collection

Independent Variable: Traditional students

For the purpose of this study, data was collected electronically. This is so because it is an online class. As such, it was easier for the researcher to easily access participants.

Methodology

Instrument

Research Design

Questionnaires were chosen for this research because they are a reliable and quick method to collect information from multiple respondents in an efficient and timely manner. The questionnaire consisted of demographic questions, related to age, gender, ethnic/ racial composition. Other vital questions asked related to the focus of the study in relation to eating disorder such as have you had a eating disorder? A total of five questions were asked to participants. The questionnaires were distributed electronically among Shippensburg University social work 360 students via email. Considering the nature of the questions of this study, the reliability of this study was the test-retest reliability. This is so because in weeks from now, if the same questions are presented to the same participants, their response would most likely be the same, especially, because their age at the time, gender, ethnic/racial composition and their response to the question; have you ever had an eating disorder may likely not change. In addition, the study is considered a face validity because the tool used, which is the survey questionnaire is considered an accurate measure of the construct because answers/ response to survey questions were received. Furthermore, this study considered a content validity because the data collection tool captured the construct used in this study.

Dependent variables: eating disorder

This study is exploratory because we studied the relationship between eating disorder and gender, race, ethnicity, and age. The study used the quantitative research strategy, in the sense that numeric data was obtained from a survey that was produced in class with responses. A quantitative research strategy is particularly applicable for the purposes of this research because, we created a survey with numeric association. Specifically, the descriptive design with the frequency and percentage was used. Participants Non-probability sampling strategy that uses the convenience sampling as procedure for recruiting participants was used in this study. A convenience sampling method was used because the participants in the study were individuals who are most accessible to the researcher. Also, it is timesaving and an inexpensive way of data collection. The sample population for the study is Shippensburg University college students. Bothmale and female traditional college students between the age of 18-24 participated in the study. The study put into account all races; Caucasians, Black/ African Americans, Latinos. The study also focused on other characteristics i.e. social work students. There were some anticipated risk factors the researcher took into consideration for the study. For example, a simple question that can trigger a past bad experience with eating disorder. For this reason, participants were given informed consent form to communicate to the participant that they understand the research project and its risks.

Data Analysis Statistical analyses were conducted, and nominal variables were used for the purpose ofthis study. The frequency and percentage was calculated for demographic; gender, age, race/ethnicity variables.

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Results with Descriptive Statistics

Table 2. Eating Disorders by Gender (Frequency)

Eating Disorders

Table 1. Descriptive Statistics

Frequency

Percentage

Gender Male

12%

Female

88%

Caucasian

69%

African American

23%

Hispanic

Traditional (18-24 years of age)

85%

Non-Traditional (25 years & above)

15%

Race

Age

N= The response rate for this study is100%.A total of 26 questionnaires were sent out to the participants and all 26 participants responded. Of the 26 participants, 3 or 12% were malea nd 23 or 88% were female participants. Also, of the 26 participants, 18 or 69% were Caucasians, 6 or 23% were African American while 2 or 8% were Hispanic. In terms of the ages of the participants, 22 or 85% were traditional students or ages 18-24 while 4 or 15% were non-traditional students or ages 25 years and above.

Fig. 1: Pie Chart Showing Percentage of Race and Ethnicity of the Participants

As stated earlier and as shown in figure 1 above, 69% of the participants were Caucasians, 23% were Black/African American and 8% were Hispanic.

Male

Female

Yes

With regard to the eating disorder of the participants and their gender, 2 out of the 3 male participants or approximately 67% had eating disorder while only one of the male participants or 23% responded in the negative when asked if they have an eating disorder. Furthermore, out of the 23 female participants, 6 or 26% responded in the affirmative when asked if they have had eating disorder. On the other hand, 17 female participants or 74% indicated they do not have an eating disorder. Comparing both outcomes, it appears more male participants (67%) had eating disorder compared to females(26%). Table 3. Eating Disorders by Race (Frequency)

Caucasian

African American

Hispanic

Yes

Safety

On eating disorder and race, of the 18 Caucasians that participated in the study, 5 or approximately 28% responded in the affirmative when asked if they have had an eating disorder while 13 or approximately 72% responded in the negative. For the African Americans that participated in the study, 4 out of the 6 participants or approximately 67% responded in the affirmative when asked if they have had eating disorder. On the other hand, only 2 out of the 6 participants or 33% responded in the negative when asked if they have had an eating disorder. Finally, the outcome was split. Of the two participants, one responded in the affirmative (50%)and one responded in the negative(50%). Comparing the outcome of the results in terms of eating disorder and race, it appears the issue of eating disorder is more prevalent in the minority group (67% for African American, 50%f or Hispanics and 28% for Caucasians).

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Table 4. Eating Disorders by Age (Frequency)

Eating Disorders

NonTraditional Traditional

Yes

With regard to eating disorder and traditional and non-traditional students, out of a total of 22 traditional students that participated in the study, 8 or approximately 36% responded in the affirmative when asked if they have had an eating disorder while a total of 14 out of the 22 participants or approximately 64% claimed they do not have an eating disorder. On the other hand, for the non-traditional students that participated in the study, only 1 out of the 4 participants or 25% responded in the affirmative while 3 out of the 4 participants or 75% claimed they have not had an eating disorder. Discussion The Harvard Medical School (2012) averred that 90% of people with eating disorders are female and that these females are typically adolescents and young women. However, as earlier indicated, while eating disorders have historically been associated with heterosexual, young, white females, according to NIMH, eating disorder can also affect people of all ages, racial/ ethnic backgrounds, body weight and gender (NIMH, 2018).This study tends to agree with this thoughtprocess in that there are more male participants that have experienced eating disorder (67%) compared to female participants of the study (26%) that acknowledged having an eating disorder. Furthermore, as earlier indicated, researchers have reached differing and sometimes mixed conclusions on ethnic differences regarding eating disorder and its risk factors (Cheng, Perko, Fuller-Marashi, Gau & Stice, 2018; Sim, 2019). In this study, eating disorder appears to be more prevalent in minority groups (67% for African Americans, 50% for Hispanics and only 28% of Caucasians).Finally, as earlier indicated, Eisenberg, Nicklett, Roeder and Kirz (2011)found symptoms of eating disorder prevalent and persistent among college students (Eisenberg, et al, 2011).However, on the contrary, this study found only 36% of traditional college students confirmed they have had an eating disorder and 25% of non-traditional students that participated in the study indicated that they have had an eating disorder.

Implications for the Social Work profession. The fact that 31% of 26 social work students admitted to having experienced an eating disorder is alarming and could affect the future of the social work profession. This is because, as a prospective social work student, most instructors encourage students to share their prior and or present personal experiences to encourage and help clients out of difficult situations. However, the management of self-disclosure is critical, as a therapist’s own story can be helpful as well as can be harmful to a client. In other words, the management of personal information is key in the field of Social Work. For this reason, I would recommend that social workers be mindful of the personal information they share with their clients. Furthermore, holistic health is should be a must for social workers and other related helping professions. Therefore, I would recommend that social workers make their mental health top priority, to enable them, help their clients more effectively. Most importantly, with the high percentage (31%) or a frequency of 8 of 26 participants, admitting to have e xperienced an eating disorder, it is important that the Shippensburg University administration give the issue of eating disorder, which is a mental issue, utmost priority to avoid harming the social work department/ profession, and also other fields that work directly with vulnerable populations. Limitations The study lacks reasonably in malere presentation with an overwhelming representation of female participants. Also, with regards to race, there was under representation of Hispanics/Latinos as well as African Americans as opposed to their Caucasian counterpart. Furthermore, the study focused on Shippensburg University Social work 360 students as such, cannot be generalized. For future research, I would suggest that the study look a little more into non-traditional students and the minority population. In conclusion, this study found more male participants with eating disorder than their female counterparts. The study also shows eating disorder to be more prevalent among minority groups than their white counterparts. With regards to eating disorder among traditional and non-traditional college students, the study shows there are more traditional college students with eating disorder (36%) compared to nontraditional students. However, both numbers (36% for traditional college students and 25% non-traditional college students) are less when compared to respondents within their groups. For instance, there were less students with eating disorder within the traditional college student group and less students with eating disorder within the non-traditional college students.

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References Berg, C. K., Frazier, P., Sherr, L.(2009).Change in eating disorder attitudes and behavior in college women: Prevalence and predictors. Eating Behaviors 10(3) 137–142. doi: 10.1016/j.eatbeh.2009.03.003 Cook, B., & Hausenblas, H.(2011).Eating disorder-specific health-related quality of life and exercise in college females. Quality of Life Research, 20(9), 1385-1390. Retrieved October 7, 2020, from http://www.jstor.org/ stable/41488202 Deshpande, S., Basil, D.M., &Basil, Z.D. (2009). Factors influencing healthy eating habits among college habits: An application of the health belief model. Health Marketing Quarterly, 26:145-164. https:doi. org/10.1080/07359680802619834 Eating Recovery Center(2020). Eating disorder facts & statistics. Retrieved on October 6, 2020, fromhttps:// www.eatingrecoverycenter.com/conditions/ eating-disorders/facts-statistics Eisenberg, D., Niklett, J.E., Roeder, K., Kirz, E.N.(2011). Eating disorder symptoms among college students: Prevalence, persistence, correlates, and treatmentseeking. Journal of American College Health; 59(8): 700–707. doi:10.1080/07448481.2010.546461 . Harvard Medical School(2012).Eating disorders in adult women. Retrieved on October 8, 2020, from https://www.health.harvard.edu/newsletter_article/ eating-disorders-in-adult-women Leavy, P., &Ross, L.(2006).The Matrix of Eating Disorder Vulnerability: Oral History and the Link between Personal and Social Problems. The Oral History Review, 33(1), 65-81. Retrieved October 7, 2020, from http:// www.jstor.org/stable/3675666 Magarita, S, Reyes-Rodriguez, L.M., Bulik, M.C & BardoneCone, A.(2013).National Institute of Health. Race, ethnicity, and eating disorder recognition by peers. Retrieved on October 7, 2020, from https://www. ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3779913/pdf/ nihms-510933.pdf. doi:10.1080/10640266.2013.827 540. National Eating Disorder Association (2018).People of color and eating disorder. Retrieved on October 6, 2020, from https://www.nationaleatingdisorders.org/ people-color-and-eating-disorders

National Institute of Medical Health(2018). Eating disorders: About more than food. Retrieved on October 6, 2020, from https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/ eating-disorders/index.shtml Ross, C. C.(2017). African-American women and eating disorders: Depression, and the strong black woman archetype. Retrieved on October 6, 2020 from https:// eatingdisordersreview.com/african-american-womenand-eating-disorders-depression-and-the-strong-blackwoman-archetype/ Sala, M., Reyes-Rodriguez, L.M, Bulik, M. C. BardoneCone, A.(2014).National Institute of Health. Race, ethnicity, and eating disorder recognition by peers. Retrieved on October 6, 2020, from https://www. ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3779913/pdf/ nihms-510933.pdf Sanderson, S., Lupinski, K., & Moch, P.(2013).Is Big Really Beautiful? Understanding Body Image Perceptions of African American Females. Journal of Black Studies, 44(5), 496-507. Retrieved October 7, 2020, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/24573098 Schwitzer, M.A., Bergholz, K., Dore, T., Salimi, L.(2010). Eating disorders among college women: Prevention, education and treatment responses. Journal of American College Health; 46(5): S286–S295. doi:10.4103/0019-5545.161493 Sharan, P. & Sundar, S.A. (2015). Eating disorders in women. Indian Journal of Psychiatry;52(2):199–207. https://doi.org/10.1080/07448489809600223 Sim, L.(2019).Mayo Clinic. Our eating disorders blind spot: Sex and ethnic disparities in help-seeking for eating disorders. Retrieved on October 6, 2020, from https:// www.mayoclinicproceedings.org/action/showPdf?pii =S0025-6196%2819%2930572-5 Wagner, A., Stefano, E., Cicero, D., Latner, J., & Mond, J.(2016).Eating disorder features and quality of life: Does gender matter? Quality of Life Research, 25(10), 2603-2610. Retrieved October 7, 2020, from http:// www.jstor.org/stable/44852996

Student Reflection: Learning and knowing how to write a research paper is a valuable skill that, without doubt, will serve me throughout my social work carrier. Although, it felt intimidating at first, but with the help of my motivated and dedicated teacher, I was able to draw some courage and the reason to see the benefit of knowing how to write a good research paper. Writing this paper really expanded my knowledge. Furthermore, the research process allowed me to gain knowledge on a peculiar topic that has been lingering on several campuses without proper attention being paid to it. Also, the writing process helped me remember what I have learned and understand it on a deeper level. It was a great opportunity to explore an interesting topic as “eating disorder and college students.” However, it was also eye opening and alarming at the same time. For instance, the results of the study showed that eating disorder affects people of all ages, racial/ethnic backgrounds, body weight and gender at an alarming rate. Indeed, it was a worthy research topic and I am glad to have had a brilliant instructor like Dr. Barrick, as my teacher during this process. 97

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Eating Disorder and College Students Lizzie Nee SWK 360: Research Techniques for Social Workers Dr. Andrea Barrick Assignment Students are to write a research on a topic that the class selects.

ProblemStatement According to Rae Jacobson from the Child Mind Institute website, “it is during the college years that young people, especially young women, are at risk for developing [eating disorders]” (Jacobson, 2020, paragraph 1). Our research study will be focusing on if college students have ever experienced an eating disorder, which is an important issue in today’s society with eating disorders becoming more prevalent. Jacobson talks about the reasons behind college students developing eating disorders, such as stress from courses, but leaves out the actual statistics about differences between college students and their potential eating disorders. Upon further examination, it seems that we need to take into consideration differentiating factors that separate college students to obtain true results about college student’s experiences with eating disorders. Some factors we may need to consider are gender, race/ethnicity, and age. This is a crucial aspect of getting down to fully understanding the experience college students have. The purpose of this study is to investigate if gender, race/ethnicity, and age have a factor in college students eating disorders experiences. Prior Empirical Work When conducting research, it is extremely important to take into consideration finding from previous work. Not only does this allow researchers to see that what they are interested in studying is prevalent enough to have been studied before, but it also gives researchers something to compare their findings to. Several studies have been conducted on eating disorders in undergraduate students, in addition to eating disorders in specific groups of students. The findings of these studies can be compared to each other to see if there are any similarities. Similarities may indicate a prevalence or area to further explore. Gender and Eating Disorders One study conducted by various researchers from West Virginia University, Miami University, and the University of South Carolina looked to determine 98

if disordered eating was more strongly associated with females than males when it comes to overall life satisfaction(Matthews, Zullig, Ward, Horn & Huebner, 2012). The researchers believed that predictors of eating disorders differ according to gender. The hypothesis for this study was that females are more likely than men to suffer from eating disorders. The study took into consideration over all life satisfaction, and the results yielded that males reported having better satisfaction with themselves and fewer poor eating habits than females (Matthews, et al., 2020). Their findings supported their initial claim that females tend to suffer from eating disorders more than males. Another study conducted by several researchers at the University of North Florida found similar results, in that females are much more likely to suffer from disordered eating (Yu, Stice, Bane, Tan, Indelicato & Fuglestad, 2018). It is important to also see the rates for disordered eating in males, as it does occur. One must understand sex differences when it comes to eating disorders and the difference in prevalence rates. The prevalence rate may be higher with the female gender, but males still do suffer from disordered eating and deserve the same help as females. Both of the findings from these researchers indicated that females do have a higher prevalence when it comes to suffering from eating disorders. Race and Ethnicity and Eating Disorders A study conducted by researchers at Arizona State University looked to see the differences in disordered eating when it comes to different races/ethnicities. It is important to not only consider the African American and Caucasian community but other minorities in America such as the Hispanic community. The study looked to find the prevalence of compensatory behaviors when it comes to eating disorders. The study results found that the prevalence for the Hispanic community has a much lower rate of self-reporting of disordered eating compensation than compared to Caucasians, while African Americans were the lowest group total (Brueningand Perez, 2019). It appears that

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Caucasians are the highest prevalence group when it comes to eating disorders according to these studies. To further this claim, a study conducted by a psychologist researcher at the University of Rhode Island, looked to discover the rates of disturbed eating in African American women. Some factors that should be considered with disordered eating include one’s body image attitudes and how they feel about their physical attributes (Harris, 2006). Considering that African American women are thought to usually have positive associations with their body images, it is important to take into consideration that they still may suffer from eating disorders. The findings of this study show that there is variation in African American women and disordered eating, but they still can suffer from it(Harris, 2006). Age and Eating Disorders Eating disorders may become prevalent in the early years of adolescents for certain individuals. The stress of becoming an adult, the pressure to fit in, and the stress from school could all lead to disordered eating. A study conducted by researchers at Florida State University was interested to find out how age can affect eating disorders. They found that eating disorder shave a peak and onset rate during the adolescent years of one’s life (Tzoneva, Forney, & Keel, 2015). According to the study, one factor that could tie into eating disorders is not only the way someone feels about themselves but also how their peers interact with them about their body image. Adolescents are more likely to have friends concerned with body image, which could lead to a prevalence of eating disorders (Tzoneva, Forney, &Keel, 2015). Eating disorders are often associated only with adolescents of the younger population. There can be limited research on eating disorders when it comes to older adults. Researchers from West Virginia University decided to take a closer look at eating disorders in the older generations since they still can occur. The findings of this study concluded that eating disorders can occur mid-life, but age is not a significant factor concerning the results. The results suggest that eating disorders can occur across all age groups, which cause seven more concern that there are not more studies about disordered eating in older adults (Patrick, Stahl, Sundaram, 2011). Research Question and Hypotheses Research question: Have you ever experienced an eating disorder? Dependent Variable: Eating disorders Independent Variable: Gender, Race/Ethnicity, Age Categories of Independent Variable: Gender-Male,

Female, Non-Binary, Transgender Male, Transgender Female Race/Ethnicity- Caucasian, African American, Hispanic Age-Traditional students (18-24)and Non-traditional students(25+) Hypothesis 1: Gender Females are more likely to experience an eating disorder. Independent variable: Females Dependent variable: Eating disorder Hypothesis 2: Race/Ethnicity Caucasians are more likely to experience an eating disorder. Independent variable: Caucasians Dependent variable: Eating disorder Hypothesis 3: Age Traditional students (18-24) are more likely to experience an eating disorder. Independent variable: Traditional students(18-24) Dependent variable: Eating disorder Research Design Our research is about eating disorders in undergraduate social work students. The research we are conducting is an exploratory study. We are trying to study the relationship between eating disorders and undergraduate students. Another aspect of our research is that it is quantitative since we are creating a survey with a numerical association for the responses and allowing participants to choose their worded responses. Our survey was created and sent out via email to the participants chosen for the study. Participants When taking into consideration the process of selecting participants, we did a non-probability sample. We decided to go with a convivence sample. A convivence sample is when the researchers chose their participants based on the fact that they are accessible and easy sources for the researchers to use. In our study, we are just using the students in our Social Work 360 class. We are all accessible and able to receive the survey by email. The students in the class are able to define their characteristics. They will be asked about their gender, race/ethnicity, and age on the survey. The categories for gender include male, female, non-binary, transgender male, or transgender female. The categories for race/ 99

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ethnicity include Caucasian, African American, and Hispanic. Lastly, our categories for age include traditional students(18-24) and non-traditional students (25+). Asking someone if they have ever suffered from an eating disorder could trigger the participant and present risks. To ensure protection, we will guarantee their confidentiality. Names will not be associated with the survey and only numbers will be assigned to responses. The responses will be recorded on Microsoft Excel and remain on a password-protected computer and only accessed by the researchers. In addition, we also have the participants sign a consent form before taking the survey that will outline what the survey entails and make sure the participants are fully informed about their participation. Data collection COVID-19 has presented some problems for data collection. If it was not for the pandemic, this survey questionnaire would be done by paper and pencil. However, now that we are not allowed to meet in person, the survey will be sent out virtually. The survey is sent through email and the participants will be able to access the survey through an attachment. From there, the participants will fill out the survey electronically. Instrument The survey will consist of four questions. The first question will ask the participants if they have ever suffered from an eating disorder. The second question will ask the participants what their gender is, and the options will include male, female, non-binary, transgender male, or transgender female. The third question will ask the participants what their race/ethnicity is, and the options will be Caucasian, African American, or Hispanic. Lastly, the fourth question will ask the participants about their age with the options of being a traditional student (18-24) or non-traditional (25+). Our research is reliable because it uses test-retest reliability. This means that if a participant was to take the survey today and then again 6 months later, their results would not change. It is also valid because we took the questions at face validity. We said that the answers are good enough and reliable to count as data. We also ensured content validity which is how well a measurement tool captures all of the constructs. Our independent variable had three constructs of gender, race/ethnicity, and age.

to see just how often something may be occurring. By collecting the frequency and percentage, we will be able to see how prevalent eating disorders are in the different categories of gender, race/ethnicity, and age. We may have only asked 4 questions, but we included all different constructs and ensured validity. Descriptive Statistics Table 1. Descriptive Statistics

Frequency

Percentage

Male

12%

Female

88%

Caucasian

69%

African American

23%

Hispanic

Traditional (18-24 years of age)

85%

Non-Traditional (25 years & above)

15%

100%

Gender

Race

Age

In regard to gender, there are 3 males and they make up 12% of the sample. There are 23 females and they make up 88% of the sample. As for race/ethnicity, there are 18 Caucasians that makeup 69% of the sample. There are 6 African Americans that make up 23% of the sample. Lastly, there are 2 Hispanics and they make up 8% of the sample. The last category is age and there are 22 traditional students (18-24) and they make up 85% of the sample. There are 4 non-traditional students(25+) and they make up 15% of the sample.

Data Analysis Procedure Lastly, we are using nominal variables in our research. While using this, we will be looking at the frequency and percentage for the demographic variables that are described above. This will allow us to see the prevalence of eating disorders in the different categories of students. Frequency and percentage allow researchers 100

Figure 1. Percentage of Racial Group Participants

This graph visibly shows the break-up of the different races/ethnicity in the sample. Inregard to race/ethnicity, 69% of the sample was Caucasians. In addition to Caucasians, 23% of the sample was

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African Americans and the last 8% of the sample was Hispanics. This graph helps show the actual difference in the percent of different races/ethnicities. Table 2. Eating Disorders by Gender (Frequency)

Eating Disorders

Male

Female

Yes

In this sample, we found out that 1 male has suffered from an eating disorder. 2 males have not suffered from an eating disorder. As for females, we found out that 7 females have suffered from an eating disorder. 16 females have not suffered from eating disorders. Table 3. Eating Disorders by Race (Frequency)

Caucasian

African American

Hispanic

Yes

Safety

In this sample, we found out that 5 Caucasians have suffered from an eating disorder. 13 Caucasians have not suffered from an eating disorder. As for African Americans, we found that 2 African Americans have suffered from an eating disorder. 4 African Americans have not suffered from an eating disorder. Lastly, we found that 1 Hispanic has suffered from an eating disorder and 1 Hispanic has not suffered from an eating disorder. Table 4. Eating Disorders by Age (Frequency)

Eating Disorders

NonTraditional Traditional

Yes

Lastly, for age, we found that 7 traditional students have suffered from an eating disorder. 15 traditional students have not suffered from an eating disorder. As for non-traditional students, 1 non-traditional student has suffered from an eating disorder and 1 non-traditional student has not suffered from an eating disorder. Discussion Our research question is to see if any undergraduate students have suffered from an eating disorder. After conducting our research and reviewing our data, I believe we were able to effectively answer this question. Our data allowed us to see that females, Caucasians,

and traditional students are the most likely to suffer from eating disorders. Not only were we able to see this, but we answered our initial question. This study showed us that undergraduate students do indeed suffer from eating disorders. Our first hypothesis focused on gender and stated that females would be more likely to suffer from an eating disorder. When conducting our research, we kept this in mind to see if we would be able to prove our hypothesis. Our data shows that we can accept this hypothesis. 7 females indicated that they have suffered from an eating disorder, while only 1 male indicated that they have. This data allows us to conclude that females are more likely than males to suffer from an eating disorder. Our second hypothesis focused on race/ethnicity and stated that Caucasians are more likely to suffer from an eating disorder. According to our data, we can also accept this hypothesis. Our data shows that 5 Caucasians indicated they have suffered from an eating disorder. In contrast, only 2 African Americans indicated they have, and 1 Hispanic indicated that they have. This allows us to also conclude that Caucasians are more likely to suffer. Our last and final hypothesis focused on age and stated that traditional students are more likely to suffer from an eating disorder. According to our data, we can accept this hypothesis as well. Our data shows that 7 traditional students indicated that they have suffered from an eating disorder. Only 1 non-traditional student indicated that they have. This allows us to conclude that traditional students can be said to be more likely to experience an eating disorder. When looking at gender, we can compare our results to those mentioned in the other literature stated above. The study conducted by various researchers from West Virginia University, Miami University, and the University of South Carolina hypothesized that females are more likely to suffer from an eating disorder, just like we did in our research. Their results ultimately showed that females are more likely to suffer because males have higher body satisfaction (Matthews, et al., 2020). Our results conclude the same and fall in line with this research. In addition, another study conducted by several researchers at the University of NorthFlorida, which is mentioned above, also found that females are more likely to suffer from an eating disorder(Yu, et. al., 2018). Regarding race/ethnicity, a study conducted by researchers at Arizona State University found that Hispanics are much less likely to suffer and report eating disorders than Caucasians are. Our data shows this, but the researcher also found in their study that African Americans are the least likely group to suffer, whereas our data shows that Hispanics are the least 101

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likely (Bruening and Perez, 2019). The other study regarding race/ethnicity mentioned above conducted by a psychologist researcher at the University of Rhode Island found that even though it is less likely for an African American woman to suffer from not liking her attributes, they can still suffer from eating disorders (Harris, 2006). Our data also shows this, as women and African Americans in our study indicated they have suffered from an eating disorder. Lastly, when looking at our data and the literature regarding age there are some similarities. A study conducted by researchers at Florida State University, as mentioned above, concluded that eating disorders have a peak during adolescence (Tzoneva, Forney, & Keel, 2015).Our data corresponded to this since we had significantly more traditional students indicate that they have suffered from an eating disorder. Another study mentioned above conducted by researchers from West Virginia University found that eating disorders can occur later in life as well, but may not have a lot of data on them (Patrick, Stahl, Sundaram, 2011). This also corresponds to our study because we found that very few non-traditional students indicate that they have suffered from an eating disorder, so we do not have a lot of data. Not only does this study help us see the prevalence of eating disorders, but it can also help the social work profession overall. As a social worker, we are there to help anyone who may need it. This can include clients who suffer from issues such as an eating disorder. After conducting this study, we can see the breakdown of eating disorders and in what different types of people they are more prevalent in. This can allow us, as future social workers, to be aware of which clients may have a higher chance of suffering from eating disorders and allow us to provide them the help they need. My recommendation for other social workers is to remember that eating disorders can occur in any group of people. Just because males, African Americans and Hispanics, and the older generation are less likely to suffer from an eating disorder does not mean they will not suffer. This study helped us see the different prevalence rates among groups of people, but none of our results showed that a specific group cannot suffer from an eating disorder. As social workers, we must keep an open mind to everything. There are many things people can be suffering from that we are unaware of. Limitations can severely impact research if they are found to be significant. There were many limitations to this research we conducted. One limitation includes the fact that there was such a small sample size of only 26 students. There was a very small sample of males, African Americans, Hispanics, and non-traditional students. The small sample size can increase the margin of error and ultimately reduce the power of a study. Another limitation is that we used a convenience 102

sample of only our classroom. This is what contributed to the small sample size, but it also did not allow us to include other students in the study. If we did not conduct a convenience sample then we may have been able to include a more diverse sample for our data. Lastly, some suggestions I would make for future researchers if they are interested in conducting a similar study is to include a larger sample size, use a randomized sample, and do the questionnaire by paper and pencil if allowed to do so per COVID-19 safety regulations. A larger sample size could help reduce any errors in our data. Even though our sample is reliable, a small sample size can reduce reliability. I would also suggest using a randomized sample to ensure complete equal opportunity in the sample. One of our limitations included that we took a convenience sample, which may have introduced bias into our data. Lastly, a paper and pencil questionnaire maybe abetter way to collect data. We were not allowed to do this due to social distancing, but I feel like it could potentially help participants feel more comfortable with keeping their confidentiality since there is not an electronic trace of their submitted response form. References Bruening, A.B., &Perez, M.(2019). Compensatory behaviors among racial and ethnic minority undergraduate women. Eating Disorders, 27(2), 123–136. https://doi.or g/10.1080/10640266.2019.1585685 Harris, S. (2006). Body Image Attitudes, Physical Attributes and Disturbed Eating among African American College Women. Race, Gender & Class, 13(1/2), 46-58. Retrieved October 8, 2020, from http://www.jstor.org/ stable/41675220 Matthews, M., Zullig, K., Ward, R., Horn, T., & Huebner, E.(2012). An Analysis of Specific Life Satisfaction Domains and Disordered Eating among College Students. Social Indicators Research, 107(1), 55-69. Retrieved October 6, 2020, from http://www.jstor.org/ stable/41427021 Patrick, J. H., Stahl, S. T., & Sundaram, M. (2011). Disordered Eating and Psychological Distress among Adults. International Journal of Aging and Human Development, 73(3), 209–226. Jacobson, R.(2020, August21). Eating Disorders in College Students. Retrieved October 08, 2020, from https:// childmind.org/article/eating-disorders-and-college/ Tzoneva, M., Forney, K. J., & Keel, P. K. (2015). The influence of gender and age on the association between“fat-talk”and disordered eating: An examination in men and women from their 20s to their 50s. Eating Disorders: The Journal of Treatment & Prevention, 23(5), 439–454. https://doi.org/10.1080/10640266.2015.10 13396 Yu, Z., Stice, C., Bane, L., Tan, M., Indelica to, A, N., & Fuglestad., P.(2018). Sex differences in disordered eating and food addiction among college students. Appetite, 129, 12–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. appet.2018.06.02

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Student Reflection: For this research assignment we focused on eating disorders in our class. This was my first real research assignment that included an in-depth analysis. Not only did I learn in the class the process that goes into creating a research paper and analysis, but I was also able to tie it into my own paper. Our research looked to see if social work 360 students have ever experienced an eating disorder, while taking into consideration the student’s gender, race, and age. I found this research to be very significant since, as a social worker, we will be trying to help out any marginalized group or suffering persons. By gaining more information about eating disorders in undergraduate students, I can apply this to my future work as a social worker and help clients who may be suffering from a potential eating disorder.

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Eating Disorders among Gender, Race/Ethnicity, and Age Marissa Riedy SWK 360: Research Techniques for Social Workers Dr. Andrea Barrick Assignment Students are to write a research on a topic that the class selects.

Problem Statement: Much literature exists that explains or studies eating disorders, the symptoms, causes, and treatment options. Researchers have looked at eating disorders in both males and females, people who are transgender, minority groups, and different ages. As a result of their study, Bentley et al, (2016) saw that many females, ages 12-18, experience obsession with weight and body shape which can lead to mental distress, and ultimately, an eating disorder. Eisenberg et al., (2011) stated eating disorders are prevalent in 8% to 17% of college students and, 20% of college students, who responded to a survey, felt they had suffered from an eating disorder. Eating disorders affect all age groups, racial and ethnic minorities, both genders, as well as those who are transgender. In the growing age of social media, body types considered “attractive” to societal standards are plastered everywhere for people to see. Eating disorders affect a majority of people and can be detrimental to their mental health. The value behind our study is looking at various groups through a survey to gain a sense of what group is most affected by eating disorders. A focus on diverse groups of people is missing from current literature and research. Most studies focus on a specific population rather than multiple populations. The purpose of this study is to investigate eating disorders among males, females, transgender male to female, transgender female to male, Caucasians, minority groups (Black/African American and those who are Hispanic), young and old age groups. Literature Review Eating disorders affect many different people in our world today. Types of eating disorders include Anorexia Nervosa, Bulimia, binge eating, or compulsive eating. With standards of beauty constantly changing, it can be difficult for people to not compare themselves to others. Over the years, many people have shed light on 104

their struggle with an eating disorder and studies have been conducted to investigate the psychology behind them. People, whether its race, gender, or age, can be affected by an eating disorder. Eating Disorders in Males and Females: In their research, Bentley et al., (2016) decided to focus on three main areas when it came to studying eating disorders in males and females. The areas were overevaluation, dissatisfaction, and being preoccupied on weight and shape of body. The age group for this study was 12-18 years of age, both males and females. A survey included the three areas of focus as well as psychological distress, behaviors related to eating disorders, and regular information on demographic (Bentley et al., 2016). The results concluded from the study were split up by girls and boys. According to Bentley et al., (2016), “preoccupation with weight and shape emerged as a particularly potent predictor of distress and eating disorders in girls” (p. 6). This indicates that weight and body shape affect girls the most when it comes to developing an eating disorder. Bentley et al., (2016) also found, “preoccupation, overevaluation, and dissatisfaction with weight and shape were relatively equal contributors to distress and binge eating in boys” (p. 6). A restrictive diet can be a result of preoccupation with weight and body shape in boys. The three components of body image seem to equally influence the development of an eating disorder with body weight and body shape having a slightly higher influence on boys. Eating Disorders in Transgender Male to Female and Female to Male: Balsam et al., (2017) wanted to research further into the body dissatisfaction and societal reactions to those who are transgender. The researchers examined the relationship between gender-confirming medical interventions (an example of this would be hormone

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therapy) and non-affirmation of one’s gender identity. The anonymous survey used was part of Trans Health and 154 transfeminine and 288 transmasculine participated. Balsam et al., (2017) noticed, “gender-confirming medical interventions reduces the experiences of non- affirmation, which increases body satisfaction and thus decreases eating disorders” (p. 1). This research tells us that eating disorders in those who identify as transgender stem from a lack of acknowledgement of their transition because it makes them feel less than or insecure. GCMI’s help to affirm their identity which can help increase their self-esteem. Eating Disorders related to Ethnicity and Race: Berry et al., (2018) focused on ethnic and racial minority groups which include Asian/American, Hispanic/Latino, and Black/African American. They examined recent research on identifying how eating disorders develop in minorities, how the disorder presents itself, and treatment. Lastly, Barry et al., (2018) identified some risk factors that can lead to the development of eating disorders in minorities. These include adjusting to a new culture, becoming aware that one is a minority, experiences being in the minority group, and pressure to fit ideal body types (which can be influenced by peers, social media, and family). Another risk factor could be if eating disorders run in the family. Eating Disorders in Caucasians: Baugh et al., (2010) studied ethnic identity and body image among black and white college students. To test these concepts, Baugh et al., (2010) examined correlations with race, ethnic identity, and body satisfaction using multigroup ethnic identity measure, body satisfaction subscale of eating disorders inventory-2, and contour drawing rating scale. The participants were undergraduate women from two different universities in a relatively similar area. One university was big and had prominently white students, while the other was small and historically black. Results showed: “There was no relationship between a woman’s ethnic identity and her body satisfaction. Although white women scored higher body dissatisfaction measures” (Baugh et al., 2010, p. 1). It was also noticed that both groups of women with high scores on body dissatisfaction preferred smaller body types because they felt it was ideal (Baugh et al., 2010). This shows that Caucasian women seem to be more affected by their body image. Eating Disorders in young age groups (18-24) Eisenberg et al., (2011) was interested in the eating disorder symptoms among college students. The researchers in the study used the SCOFF screening tool, which is 5 questions and is set up to identify

eating disorders in those who potentially have one. The study revealed “the prevalence of positive screen was 13.5% for women and 3.6% for men” (Eisenberg et al., 2011, p. 1). Among the 2,822 (56%) of students in the study, only 20% had received treatment for their mental health (Eisenberg et al., 2011). They concluded symptoms related to eating disorders were consistent among college students. This supports our hypothesis that traditionally college students are more likely to experience an eating disorder. Eating Disorders in older age groups (25 and older) Kummer et al., (2016) looked at eating disorders in older aged men. The age range for participants was between 40-75 years old. Participants completed an anonymous questionnaire and an eating disorder examination questionnaire that examined eating behaviors, body image, and exercise. They also focused on four symptoms of eating disorders such as, binge eating, binge eating and purging, body mass index, and purging without binge eating. Eisenberg et al., (2016) results were, 32 of the 470 men studied had at least one of the eating disorders listed and the symptoms greatly affected their eating behavior, their exercise, and their satisfaction with their weight and body shape. Compared to the previous study on younger age groups, eating disorders are not as strong in older males. This next study focuses on older women and more specifically, anorexia nervosa. Hill et al., (2010) had participants over the age of 50. They were patients at St. Georges Eating Disorders service with in the last 10 years. There weren’t any cases where an eating disorder emerged later in their lives. Hill et al., (2010) wrote in their article, “Of the 11 interviewed, six participants retained a diagnosis of anorexia nervosa, four had an eating disorder not otherwise specified, and only one was recovered” (p. 1). The author’s research indicates that older women have dealt with an eating disorder for the majority of their lives. Research Question and Hypothesis Research Question: Have you ever experienced an eating disorder? Dependent Variable: Eating disorders Independent Variable Categories: Gender: male, female, gender non-binary, transsexual male, or transsexual female Race/Ethnicity: Caucasian, Black/African American, or Hispanic Age: 18 to 24 (traditional), 25 and older (non-traditional)

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H1= Females are more likely to have experienced an eating disorder Dependent Variable= Eating disorder Independent Variable= Females H2= Caucasians are more likely to have experienced an eating disorder Dependent Variable= Eating disorder Independent Variable= Caucasians H3= Traditional students are more likely to have experienced an eating disorder Dependent Variable= Eating disorder Independent Variable= Traditional students Methods Research Design The research design of this study is exploratory because the relationship among eating disorders is in regards to gender, different races/ethnicities, and two different age groups is being explored. This study will be quantitative because of the survey. The survey will have a numerical association with the responses because the number of times a participant responded to the questions will be collected. The survey given to the participants was created in the SWK 360 class, entitled Research for Social Work Practice. Participants For the selection of participants of this study, non-probability convenience sampling will be used. Convenience sampling is when the researcher selects participants based off their availability, or in other words, when it’s convenient for them. For this study, the participants are taking the survey while they are in their research for social work practice class. This is convenient or the best time for them to complete it. Participants in this study are based off their gender. For example, male, female, and transgender male to female or transgender female to male. Participants can come from different ethnic backgrounds of ethnicities such as Black/African American, Caucasian, and Hispanic. Lastly, the two age groups of focus are ages 18-24 (traditional age) and 25 and older (nontraditional age). More specifically, the participants of the study will be the students in the SWK 360 class. The nature of the study can be potentially harmful for the participants considering it is focused on eating disorders. If at any time a participant feels triggered or uncomfortable, the University Counseling Center, which is located on the lower levels of Naugle hall, is somewhere for them to go. They can reach them by telephone number at (717) - 477-1481. The survey will be anonymous and confidential. The data is stored 106

on the researcher’s laptop, which is password protected, and the researcher is the only one with access. An informed consent form will be given to participants to read over and sign. Data Collection, Instrument, and Data Analysis The data will be collected online through an electronic survey. It will consist of several questions. The first question will be, “Have you ever experienced an eating disorder?”. The second and third questions are related to demographic. For example, the person’s age, race and/or ethnicity are related to a certain demographic. To ensure this research is reliable, test and retest reliability will be used. Test and retest reliability is when data is collected at different times and with the same participants. In this study, participants could retake the survey 3 months later and the answers would still be the same. For example, asking “Have you had an eating disorder?” wouldn’t change because at some point, the subject did experience one. To ensure the survey is valid, the researchers will be using content and face validity. We, as the researchers, decided our questions were good enough to use, also known as face validity. Content validity is used to ensure all aspects of the topic of interest is being tested. The survey questions created cover the areas of interest in the study (eating disorders among race/ethnicity, gender, and age). Lastly, for the data analysis procedure, nominal variables will be used, which is when variables and their specific category do not mathematically relate to each other. Additionally, we will be looking at percentages and frequencies within our data. Table 1. Descriptive Statistics

Frequency

Percentage

Male

12%

Female

88%

Caucasian

69%

African American

23%

Hispanic

Traditional (18-24 years of age)

85%

Non-Traditional (25 years & above)

15%

Gender

Race

Age

N=26 When looking at this table, we see the frequency of males was 3 and males make up 12% of the respondents. Females however, had a frequency of 23 which makes up 88% of the respondents. In regards to race, Caucasian had a frequency of 18 which makes up 69%

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of respondents, African American was 6 making up 23% of respondents, and Hispanic was 2 which makes up 8%. Traditional age (18-24) had a frequency of 22 which makes up 85% of the participants compared non-traditional (25 and older) which is at a frequency of 4, which makes up the 15% of participants.

an eating disorder”. African American/Black, the frequency was 1, and Hispanics also had a frequency of 1. The frequency of “NO, I have not experienced an eating disorder” was 12 for those who were Caucasian. The frequency was 5 for African American/Black and 1 for Hispanic/Latino. Table 4. Eating Disorders by Age (Frequency)

Eating Disorders

8% 23%

Caucasian Black Hispanic

69%

Figure 1. Percentage of Racial Group Participants

Figure 1 shows the percentages of each racial group in regards to the participants of the survey. The majority of students who took the survey were Caucasian. They made up 69% of the students. African American/ Black was the second group with a large number of respondents, making up 23% of the students who participated in the survey. Lastly, Hispanic/Latino made up 8% of the students who took the survey. Table 2. Eating Disorders by Gender (Frequency)

Eating Disorders

Male

Female

Yes

N=26 Table 2 illustrates the frequency of responses in regards to gender and if the person has or has not experienced an eating disorder. The frequency of “YES, I have experienced an eating disorder” for males was 2. For Females, the frequency was 7. For males, the frequency of “NO, I have not experienced an eating disorder” was 1. For females, the frequency was 16. Table 3. Eating Disorders by Race (Frequency)

Caucasian

African American

Hispanic

Yes

Safety

N=26 Table 3 illustrates the frequency in regards to race/ ethnicity and if the person has or has not experienced an eating disorder. The first group is Caucasian which shows a frequency of 6 for “YES, I have experienced

NonTraditional Traditional

Yes

N=26 Table 4 illustrates the frequency in regards to the respondent’s age and if the person has or has not experienced an eating disorder. The frequency for “YES, I have experienced an eating disorder” for participants 18-24 years old (traditional) was 6. For participants 25 and older (non-traditional), the frequency was 2. When looking at the 18-24 year-olds, the frequency for, “NO, I have not experienced and eating disorder”, was 16. The frequency for participants 25 and older was 2. Results The data collected from this research shows Caucasian females who are between 18 and 24 are most likely to experience an eating disorder. For example, if we look at table 2, the frequency for men who have experienced an eating disorder was 2 but females had a frequency of 7. Table 3 shows that out of Hispanic/Latino and Black/African American subjects, Caucasians had the highest frequency. Hispanic/Latino were at 1, as well as Black/African Americans, while Caucasians were at 6. Lastly, when examining the 2 age groups, 18-24 year-olds had a higher frequency 6, compared to the 25 and older participants 2. Discussion: Our research question was, “Have you ever experienced an eating disorder?” and the data illustrates young, white, females are most affected by eating disorders. Looking at the various race/ethnicities, ages, and gender, the frequency and percentages were consistently higher across the different variables. What I learned from this research question and the collected information is that females most likely will experience an eating disorder. This does not come as a surprise because women and their bodies are more likely to be compared to one another. Women are very much concerned with how they look, such as wearing makeup, going to salons to receive a makeover, or plastic surgery; the focus on women is particularly on

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their physical appearance. Young girls, who are exposed to this way of thinking, struggle with their self-esteem and might feel they don’t look good enough, resulting in an eating disorder. In previous research, females were often dissatisfied with their body shape and weight. In their study, Bentley et al., (2016) studied eating disorders among adolescent males and females. The authors had a specific focus on overvaluation of one’s appearance, body dissatisfaction, and being preoccupied with one’s weight and body shape. The researchers discovered, “preoccupation with weight and shape emerged as a particularly potent predictor of stress and eating disorders in girls” (Bentley et al, 2016, p. 6). Based off our findings and this research, young women experience eating disorders because they are very much worried about their weight and their figure. The results of this study support our hypothesis regarding gender that females are more likely to experience an eating disorder. Research conducted by Baugh et al., (2010) showed there to be no correlation in regards to a person’s ethnicity/race and if they like their body. However, the researchers did observe, “white women scored higher body dissatisfaction measures” (Baugh et al., 2010, p. 1). Although females seem to be at a higher risk of experiencing an eating disorder, their race/ethnicity does not impact our data as much as gender. Yes, white females scored higher in regards to their body dissatisfaction; however, the relationship between race/ethnicity and eating disorders is not a strong relationship as the ties between gender and eating disorders. The findings from this study show eating disorders to be a reoccurring problem, especially among those in college. For the social work practice, this implies becoming more aware of this issue. The data does show young, traditionally aged, Caucasian, college females tend to experience an eating disorder more frequently. The data also shows males, and Hispanic/Latinos, non-traditionally aged people, and so forth have also experienced an eating disorder. This implies the social work practice needs to understand a variety of people might have/could be dealing with one. A recommendation for current and future social workers is to work on understanding eating disorders. I recommend they research possible signs and symptoms of the disorders. This will help them identify one in clients currently or with future clients. When working with people, whether it’s an individual client or family, listen to what that person or group is expressing because it might be possible a client is struggling with an eating disorder and is not speaking about it. Maybe they’re too ashamed to say something in front of their family. It is important for social workers to realize different races/ethnicities, gen108

ders, and/or ages can be impacted by eating disorders. Lastly, inform themselves on the signs of an eating disorder, which can allow them to help their client who is dealing with one. Limitations: There are several limitations of our study. The class who participated in the survey had predominantly female students which means, males in the class are not represented as well in the data. The next limitation is that the majority of the class was white, meaning Black/African American and Hispanic/Latino were not represented as much as those who were Caucasian. Our study also had more students who were 18-24 rather than 25 and older, meaning, again, there wasn’t much representation when it came to the non-traditional age group. Lastly, the class size was 26 students total and it was only this particular class (the 2:00 to 3:15 class) rather than other classes in this particular research section, other classes in the social work major, or other majors outside social work. Suggestions for Future Research: One suggestion I have is to expand the sample size. While studying a smaller group of people can be less difficult, the sample size doesn’t represent the population well because it is only a small portion of it. Secondly, I would suggest conducting a similar study but with a more diverse group of people. With a variety of different backgrounds being sampled, it can give the researchers a better understanding on how eating disorders affect different people. Lastly, I would suggest incorporating other universities besides just Shippensburg. The researchers can gain insight into how many college students (traditional and non-traditional) are struggling with an eating disorder. This provides universities the opportunity to provide more support and resources for their students. References Baugh E., Mullis R., Mullis A., Hicks M., & Peterson G. (2010). Ethnic identity and body image among black and white college females. Journal of American College health, 59 (2), 105-109. https://doi.org/10.1080/07448 481.2010.483713 Eisenberg, D., Nicklett, E. Roeder, K., & Kirz, N. (2011). Eating Disorder Symptoms among College Students: Prevalence, Persistence, Correlates, and TreatmentSeeking. Journal of American College Health, 59 (8), 700-707. Mangweth, M. B., Kummer, K. K., & Pope, H. G. (2016). Eating disorder symptoms in middle-aged and older men. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 49 (10), 953- 957. https://doi.org/10.1002/eat.22550 Mitchison, D. Hay, P., Griffiths, S. B., Bentley, C., GratwickSarll, K., Harrison, C., & Mond,

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J. (2017). Disentangling body image: The relative associations of overvaluation, dissatisfaction, and preoccupation with psychological distress and eating disorder behaviors in male and female adolescents. The International Journal of Eating Disorders, 50 (2), 118126. https://doi.org/10.1002/eat.22592 Pajo, B. (2018). Introduction to research methods: A hands-on approach. Sage Publications, Inc. Rodgers, R. F., Berry R., & Franko, D. L. (2018). Eating Disorders in Ethnic Minorities: an update. Current Psychiatry Reports, 20 (10), 90. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s11920-018-0938-3

Scholtz, S., Hill, L. S., & Lacey, H. (2010). Eating disorders in older women: Does late onset anorexia nervosa exist? International Journal of Eating Disorders, 43 (5), 393397. https://doi.org/10.1002/eat.20704 Testa, R. J., Rider, G. N., Haug, N. A., & Balsam, K. F. (2017). Gender confirming medical interventions and eating disorder symptoms among transgender individuals. Health Psychology, 36 (10), 927-936. https:// doi.org/10.1037/hea0000497

Student Reflection: I felt this assignment was interesting considering I have read numerous research papers for my other classes but this time I had the opportunity to create one of my own. The topic of our research was something I was interested in learning more about, in regards to the impact of eating disorders among gender, age, race and ethnicity, because it has impacted people in my life who I care about.

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School Shooting Prevention: Are We Headed in the Right Direction? Alexia Laughlin SWK 450: Research Techniques for Social Workers Dr. Andrea Barrick Assignment Students select a policy of their choice and explore it in depth.

Social Policy Summary The School Shooting Safety and Preparedness Act (H.R. 4301) was introduced to the House in September of 2019. This bill mandates the Department of Education to publish a report annually that includes indicators of school crime and safety. The report includes the following: number of school shootings nationwide, demographics of victims, motivation of the shooter, how the shooting ceased, number and type of ammunition and firearms used in the shooting. The report will be created by the National Center for Education Statistics of the Department of Education in collaboration with the Bureau of Justice Statistics of the Department of Justice. In addition to the required data listed above, the report must also include information on the number of school shooting suicides, number of individuals that were injured, number of people killed, time of shooting, the length of time that the shooting occurred in, and a variety of details pertaining to the weapon utilized. The bill also mandates that there be sections of the report dedicated to identifying historical data related to previous school shootings and any shootings that would take place after this bill is enacted. The report will also include information about the safety and prevention tools, or lack thereof, at the time of the shootings in previous years. History of the Policy Development The bill is sponsored by Representative Tulsi Gabbard. So far, this bill has not made too much traction since its introduction to the House in 2019 on the 12th of September. On the same day, it was referred to the House Committee on Education and Labor. Almost a week later, on the 18th, the committee consideration and mark-up session was held. Finally, the bill was ordered to be amended by the Yeas and Nays which was 27-22. Since then, the bill has not

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had not made any further progress. Due to the rising concerns of Covid-19, this bill has potentially been put on the backburner for now. A fact sheet on the Committee on Education and Labor’s website outlines the reasons for the needed policy. The document states that “... gun violence has claimed the lives of students and educators” (Scott, p.1). It also goes into detail about what the bill would require and consist of. The fact sheet also lists the following groups that endorse this bill: “Everytown for Gun Safety, Moms Demand Action for Gun Sense, Sandy Hook Promise, National Education Association, American Federation of Teachers, Council of Great City Schools, National PTA, School Social Work Association of America, American School Counselor Association, National Association of Secondary School Principals, National Association of School Psychologists, ad Newtown Action Alliance” (Scott, p.1-2). Strengths and Deficits of the Policy Upon researching strengths and weaknesses for this policy, it was rather hard to find any articles or journals that specifically discussed those points. In a short Mena Report, the act was described similarly to all the other websites I have looked at. However, it did state that this bill “is a small, but important step towards ensuring that classrooms are safe places where parents can have peace of mind and children are free to learn” (United States). Although this is simply an opinion and has no data to support it, from a social work perspective, this statement pertains to the thoughts and fears of potential clients we may assist. In an article published by NPR, it was found that despite 240 reported incidents in schools involving a shooting in the 2015-2016 school year, that number is actually way off. In fact, two-thirds of those reported incidents never occurred. The article claims that, “In 161 cases, schools or districts attested that no incident

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took place or couldn’t confirm one. In at least four cases, we found, something did happen, but it didn’t meet the government’s parameters for a shooting…” (Kamenetz, et al., 2018). With this information in mind, this policy would not only outline what a school-related shooting is, but also require the careful tracking of those that meet the definition. This policy would create more accurate data and documentation for future research. The Washington Post published an article that does not specifically talk about this policy, but it does make pessimistic comments about the effectiveness of upgrading school security to prevent shootings. The news website reached out to every school that experienced a shooting since 2012. They were asked, “What, if anything, could have prevented the shootings at their schools?” (Cox & Rich, 2018). Nearly half of those that responded said “There was nothing they could have done” (Cox & Rich, 2018). The policy in question does not claim to be a preventative measure, but with this article in mind, it raises question about how useful this policy is. Will it make any large impact on the safety of kids in school? Based on the question previously stated, the policy does not necessarily require any documentation of information that would improve the safety of schools. An article from NBC discusses a preventative measure that is often overlooked when it comes to school shootings. In an analysis of 41 school shooting, “In nearly every instance, students who committed attacks had already come to the attention of adults who were concerned about their well-being, while classmates knew about potential danger as well” (Cornell & Mayer, 2019). If the policy was to add a requirement that faculty report or document concern for particular students, perhaps intervention can occur before the individual decides to go through with their plan of implementing a mass shooting. Program Description Currently, there are no programs that exist as a result of this policy. However, if this policy is amended to include the suggestion I stated in the previous paragraph, there is potential for a program to be created. For example, if the policy were to require that schools document any faculty concerns about the well-being of a student, this could lead to a program that educates schoolteachers on ways to reach out to those students. If there is concern about a student, then there should be an obligation by teachers to reach out to them or at least provide some type of support to the student whether it be a social worker that speaks to the student or a student trying to show some kindness. It has been found that students who committed these attacks were

“typically, the students committing the assaults were victims of bullying who were angry and depressed, and had experienced mounting stresses at home and school. In each shooting, there was a missed opportunity for intervention to help a troubled student” (Cornell & Mayer, 2019). If there was concern about a student, why was there not more action taking place to assure the student was alright? The policy has the potential to make a real impact, but in its current state, it does not seem to hold too much value, aside from research purposes. Policy Impact on Clients and/or Professionals This policy’s requirement of data collection, as is, could potentially resonate with some parents if they are able to receive a copy. Although the policy does not regulate guns or create higher security within schools, it does take a look at trends within school shootings. From a macro perspective, if data from the annual reports on school safety indicate that AR-15s are the most commonly used weapon in mass shootings, parents could vote and/or lobby for those to be permanently banned. If the policy were to include a section that describes common characteristics of those who initiate school shootings, such as experiencing bullying, parents can teach their children to stand up for those who are bullied. Of course, these may not be major actions that will completely prevent future shootings, but if they can in some way help prevent it, then why not try? Importance for Social Workers This policy is important to social workers primarily in the research area of practice. This annual school shooting safety report would provide data on so many different aspects that contribute to mass shootings. Similarly, if the data shows that AR-15s are the most commonly used weapon in school shootings, social workers can advocate for more restrictions or even the banning of those particular weapons. In a micro aspect, if a school social worker receives word that a faculty member is concerned about the well-being of a student, that social worker needs to make it a priority to reach out to that student. The role of a social worker is to support those who are in need or are struggling, and from what the data shows, typically those who engage in a school shooting are deeply struggling with something internally. As outlined by the CSWE, they believe “that federal policy should make addressing gun violence a public health initiative. This means utilizing research and evidence-based prevention and intervention strategies to improve health, safety, and life expectancy” (Role of Social).

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Conclusion

References

Although the School Shooting Safety and Preparedness Act has yet to get passed into law, it has the potential to make an impact if it is amended appropriately. No child should have to fear going to school and no parent should have to worry about the safety of their child in an educational setting. However, these are the times that we live in and we must prepare for these unfortunate events. By creating policies that regulate documentation of school shooting related information and creating new policies that aim to prevent future mass shootings, perhaps someday soon we can stop the unjust killing of students and even stop someone from committing the heinous act of shooting ones’ classmates.

Cornell, D., & Mayer, M. (2019, December 08). School shootings could be prevented if we intervened in cases of troubled students. Retrieved November 18, 2020, from https://www.nbcnews.com/think/opinion/schoolshootings-could-be-prevented-if-we-intervened-casestroubled-ncna1097376 Cox, J., & Rich, S. (2018, November 13). Billions are now spent to protect kids from school shootings. Has it made them safer? Retrieved November 18, 2020, from https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/2018/local/ school-shootings-and-campus-safety-industry/ Kamenetz, A., Arnold, A., & Cardinali, E. (2018, August 28). The School Shootings That Weren’t. Retrieved November 18, 2020, from https://www. npr.org/sections/ed/2018/08/27/640323347/ the-school-shootings-that-werent Role of Social Work Education in School Safety and Gun violence Prevention. Council on Social work Education. https://www.cswe.org/AdvocacyPolicy/ SWEdu_SchoolSafety_Gun Violence_2018.aspx Scott, R. (2019). H.R. 4301 School Shooting Safety and Preparedness Act. Retrieved from https://edlabor. house.gov/imo/media/doc/2019-09-19%20School%20 Shooting %20Safety%20and%20Preparedness%20 Act%20Fact%20Sheet.pdf United States: Education and Labor Committee Approves Bill to Help Address Impact of School Shootings on Students and Teachers. (2019). Mena Report.

Student Reflection: “School Shooting Prevention: Are We Headed in the Right Direction?” is a research paper I composed for one of my social work classes with Professor Barrick. This paper analyzes the proposed 2019 School Shooting Safety and Preparedness Act and discusses the pros and cons of passing such a policy. I chose the topic of school shooting prevention because it seems to be talked about only after mass devastation has occurred. In the profession of social work, it is crucial to advocate for the safety and wellbeing of those that are the most vulnerable. My hope is that this paper inspires readers to consider how future policies can make a huge impact on the safety of students.

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Social Policy Paper Maggie Cramer SWK 450: Research Techniques for Social Workers Dr. Andrea Barrick Assignment This paper explores a specific bill/law in detail.

Introduction Sexual assault and rape have been a social issue throughout history but until recently, it hasn’t always been talked about. Many people consider it to still be a taboo topic. With this mentality and the mentality that sexual assault either doesn’t exist or the victim is to blame, it’s going to continue to be difficult to put an end to sexual assault. Sexual assault and rape has also not always been considered a violent crime to law enforcement. This has only recently changed when the first rape kit was invented. Rape kit testing is highly important to collecting evidence from a sexual assault in hopes of bringing justice to the victim. Summary of Social Policy A policy that helps maintain rape kit testing is the Debbie Smith Reauthorization Act of 2019, Public Law 116-104. This reauthorization act is following the Debbie Smith Act of 2004. The main points of this act are to reauthorize “grants under the Debbie Smith DNA Backlog Grant Program; grants to provide DNA training and education for law enforcement personnel, corrections personnel, and court officers; and grants under the Sexual Assault Forensic Exam Program” (Maloney, 2019). The Debbie Smith Act was created after a women name Debbie Smith was sexually assaulted by a stranger. She had a rape kit examination done after the assault, but it was not entered into the national database and tested until ten years after the exam was done. This reauthorization policy helps ensure that there is enough funding set aside for forensic testing. History of Policy Development In the 1990s, the Violence Against Women Act was passed into federal law. This act was made to help give more voice and bring more awareness to those who experienced domestic violence, improve services and resources for victims of domestic violence and changing the way law enforcement and the criminal justice system view domestic violence (Abrahamson & Cantrell, 2013). This act set a path forward for the

Debbie Smith Act of 2004 and later the many Debbie Smith Reauthorization Acts. In 1989, Debbie Smith was taken from her home and into the woods where she was beaten and raped by an unknown attacker for the span of an hour. Debbie Smith went to the hospital to report her assault and have a rape kit done. Although the kit was done, it was never entered into the national database for rape kits and therefore, it was never tested until 1994. The Debbie Smith Act was put in place to help support rape kit backlog which is a national issue. Since 2004, when the act was first set, it has continued to be reauthorized to ensure that there was funding for rape kits, which would then be entered into the national database and tested. The Debbie Smith Reauthorization Act of 2019 was the most recent update in the act to make sure that there was funding for rape kit backlogging. This reauthorization act was sponsored by Representative Carolyn B. Maloney. In total there were 24 others representative sponsors that supported this act. In 2004, it was signed into law by President George W. Bush after being passed by the 108th Congress, which was part of a bigger legislation. The Debbie Smith Reauthorization Act of 2019 was signed into law again by President Trump (Maloney, 2019). This reauthorization act is extremely important to ensuring that victims of sexual assault have a better chance of receiving justice from their assailant. Strengths and Deficits of the Policy The Debbie Smith Reauthorization Act has many strengths to its program as well as some weaknesses. One strength of this policy is that since the policy was enacted back in 2004, it has never lapsed or expired no matter which party oversaw the House of Representatives. This showing how important both parties find this reauthorization act. Considering women’s rights in general has been a constant battle, it is a positive to see that both sides are on the same page by making this act a priority (Congressional Record Senate Articles, 2019). 113

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One weakness to this act is that eventually, although both sides agree that this reauthorization act is important, politics manage to get in the way of that. According to Jackman (2019), “The Senate unanimously reauthorized the Debbie Smith Act in May and sent it to the House. It hasn’t moved. The leaders of RAINN, the Rape, Abuse and Incest National Network, said Friday they had gathered 32,000 signatures from online petitions that they were presenting to House leadership in hopes it would push Senate Bill 820 toward passage” (p.1). It appeared to Debbie Smith herself, who had made a speech to try and pass the reauthorization act again as well as RAINN, that members of the House were only using the reauthorization act as leverage so other acts could be passed that had nothing to do with DNA testing. This is considered to be a weakness since it appears that highly important testing is being switched and made into a political game. A second strength for this program is that it not only ensures funding for rape kit testing, but it also ensures trainings for law enforcement, correctional personnel and other court officers. This is aside from hospital staff who are already trained in how to administer and walk a victim through a rape kit exam. Since the Debbie Smith Act and the continuous reauthorization of this act, rape kit testing has gone up dramatically. Lastly, a second weakness to this policy is that there are many rape kits that continue to go untested and not entered into the national database. According to Fallik & Wells (2015), “Evidence that is submitted to a crime laboratory for testing but remains unexamined in excess of 30 days is generally considered to be backlogged” (p.2). The victims may go under the examination of a rape kit but unfortunately, that does not mean that the kit will be tested immediately. In this study, it was found that between 2002 and 2003, after collecting data from a total of 120 states, there were over 1,600 police departments that had over 169,000 rape cases that contained enough biological evidence that would be able to convict the assailant, but these cases had not be entered into the national database and had not been tested. Within the same study, in 2007, there was a survey taken of 2,300 police departments and it was found that, “forensic evidence existed but was never submitted for… 18% of unsolved rape cases…” (Fallik & Wells, 2015, p. 599). The Debbie Smith Reauthorization Act is a great policy to ensure the funding of rape kit testing, but there is still action to be taken to ensure that rape kits are continuously being tested to prevent the backlog number from rising. Programs Description There are not outside programs that have been created as a result of the Debbie Smith Act and the 114

Debbie Smith Reauthorization Act. The objectives of this act are to bring awareness to rape kit backlog and provide more funding to have these kits tested. There are no eligibility rules. If there is a victim that has been assaulted, they automatically fall under the right to have their kit processed and tested in the national database. The benefits, provisions, and services that come from this act is hopefully bringing justice to the victim of a sexual assault. This act helps ensure that there is enough funding that goes into the budget under this act. As for where the funding is coming from, according to Fucci (2015), “Senator John Comyn of Texas introduced the bill in 2012, for enactment in 2013, which requires 75 percent of federal grants under the Debbie Smith Act to be spent on analyzing crime scene evidence… both the SAFER Act and the Debbie Smith Act provide funding support to jurisdictions to test backlogged rape kits, neither bill requires that jurisdictions test rape kits or eliminate their backlogs” (p.219). Most states rely on private donations and municipal funds to end that backlog problem. This can become an issue when there is no federal law stating that states even must test or track the rape kits that are done. The administrative structure of this act is its introduction, journey to the House, approval, removal to the Senate, and then being signed into law by the president. Policy Impact on either Clients or Professionals Although this policy is not perfect and rape kit backlog is still a large issue throughout the country, it does positively impact the client’s lives. The Debbie Smith Reauthorization Act allows for victims of sexual assault to know that they have a better chance of having their rape kit tested and logged into the national database instead of knowing that nothing will be done. As for the professional, knowing that there will be funding going towards rape kit testing can give them more hope for their client to receive the justice they deserve. Although rape kit backlog is still a huge problem all over the country, this policy still plays a positive impact on client’s lives and the professionals who are helping them through their trauma. Importance for Social Workers As social workers, it’s our job and duty to help others no matter the situation they are in. Social workers play a major role in their clients’ lives. Part of this role is through advocating for programs and laws that will help benefit their clients. According to Campbell & others (2017), “Advocacy organizations have been instrumental in raising awareness about untested SAKs in police storage facilities through media engagement and investigative reporting projects” (p.370). Part of those advocacy groups are social workers or other professionals who work in the field and work with victims of sexual assault. Since this policy is still not perfect

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and sexual assault is still not widely being discussed and there is more work to do to help prevent it or help the victim, it may be difficult for the social worker to help their clients knowing there are so many barriers. Despite this, advocating and helping their clients is what social workers do, so they are willing to help their client no matter the situation. Conclusion Evidently, the issue of rape kit backlogging is a continuous problem. Victims of sexual assault have already experienced the trauma of the assault along with the trauma of having to undergo an invasive and lengthy examination to collect forensic evidence. When rape kits are not tested or even entered the national database, it is telling the victim of the assault that there is no chance of them receiving justice for the mental and physical toll they have endured. We can also see that rape kit testing and providing the funding to make sure that they are being tested is still a struggle. Rape kit testing and ending the backlog is extremely important to not only the victims of sexual assault, but also to those who advocate for more funding and for the backlog to end. Since rape kits have been created up to now, our government has made great strides to end this issue but there is still more work to do.

References Abrahamson, J., & Cantrell, R. T. (2013). Violence against women act: Elements & considerations. Nova Science Publishers, Inc. Maloney, C. (2019, December 30). H.R.777 - 116th Congress (2019-2020): Debbie Smith Reauthorization Act of 2019. Retrieved September 05, 2020, from https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/ house-bill/777 Jackman, T. (2019). Advocates implore congress to reauthorize funds for backlogged DNA rape kits before sept. 30 expiration. Fallik, S., & Wells, W. (2015). Testing previously unsubmitted sexual assault kits: What are the investigative results. Criminal Justice Policy Review, 26(6), 598-619. Congressional Record Senate Articles. (2019). Retrieved November 11, 2020, from https://www.congress.gov/ congressional-record/2019/8/1/senate-section/article/ s5289-2?q=%7B%22search%22%3A%5B%22Debbie+ Smith+Act%22%5D%7D Fucci, G. (2015). No law and no order: Local, state and federal government responses to the united states rape kit backlog crisis. Cardozo Public Law, Policy and Ethics Journal, 14(1), 193-228. Campbell, R., Feeney, H., Fehler-Cabral, G., Shaw, J., & Horsford, S. (2017). The national problem of untested sexual assault kits (SAKs): Scope, Causes, and Future Directions for Research, Policy, and Practice. Trauma, Violence & Abuse, 18(4), 363–376. https://doi. org/10.1177/1524838015622436

Student Reflection: When choosing this topic, I wanted to write about something that I knew I was already passionate about. As the issue of rape and sexual assault grows in our society, I wanted to be able to learn more about what happens after the assault occurs. Rape kit testing backlog is just as important to understand, as the assault itself. In my research I began to have a better understanding of the issue of rape kit backlogging. While writing this assignment I learned that rape kits weren’t invented until the 1970s, only after law enforcement began seeing sexual assault as a violent act rather than ignoring those who had be subjected to an assault. The most shocking information I learned in my research was that between 2002-2003, in 120 different states, 1,600 police departments had 169,000 rape kits that held forensic evidence that could convict an assailant, but these kits hadn’t been tested or entered into the national database so the justice system could not use the evidence. We still have a lot of work to do in ending the issue of rape kit backlog. I found this assignment to be eye-opening and it has pushed me to want to be the best social worker possible for my future clients.

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Research Project 3 Jahniya Crawford SWK 461: Field Work in Social Work II Dr. Andrea Barrick Assignment This assignment was part of a research project in which I discussed the difficulty of grandparents raising grandchildren and education. As we are aware of the changes that occur in our society surrounding education it was important to find ways to elevate the struggle for grandparents and the students. The research paper discusses ways to implement and the ways to evaluate in order to determine the best ways to help.

Introduction This project was based on the experiences of grandparents raising their grandchildren. As children are receiving their education it can be impacted in many different ways. There could be multiple obstacles that are occurring in the household where they are being raised by their grandparents. For instance, the health of that grandparent, the constant change of the education system, or even the lack of stability within the household. In this research paper, there will be supportive research articles that will describe the issue at hand. There will be articles that describe the health issues that could impact how involved the grandparent is in the education of the child. These articles that would be discussed in this research paper will be helpful for the head start agency as well as other agencies or schools. Many of the students who are attending school may struggle in school. As things become more advanced children and their caregivers struggle to understand. As technology becomes more integrated in the educational system, students are learning faster than if they would not be using technology. The educational system is constantly evolving while many caregivers are struggling to keep up with those changes. Agency information and EBP question The Shippensburg Head Start and Pre-K counts agency has created opportunities for families through their agency. The program was created to provide young children with the experience of learning and developing in a healthy way. The agency teaches children the basics, while it gives families a way to connect with the agency as well. Head start allows parents to get insight on the progress of their child and/or children in the program. Head start takes pride in providing an impactful experience for the families.

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It creates an environment where all those involved are supported through the connection of the teachers, staff, and others involved. At the agency they provide the families with the support they need by finding resources that could assist them in their needs. For example, they provide a parent survey which list different (resources) that the parent needs or would like to have. The agency of head start at Shippensburg is teaching the young children skills that they will use as they move onto the next grade level. The evidence-based practice question was what are the most effective ways to support grandparents in helping grandchildren during virtual learning? Although, while doing research I decided to change the question so that I could find more helpful research articles. The evidence- based question is now what are the most effective ways to support grandparents in helping grandchildren during their educational learning? While substituting the virtual learning with educational learning I was able to find more information. This was helpful because when using trying to focus on virtual learning there was not many articles that could be used without repeating the same information. The evidence-based question was created for the simple fact that grandparent who are raising their grandchildren may be having a more difficult time than children who are being raised by their parents. The educational system is constantly changing which can confuse the grandparents, as it becomes more difficult to understand. When adding into the equation technology things become more complicated when grandparents are trying to assist their grandchildren. With grandchildren being raised by their grandparents it can be a different experience for them as well. Synthesis of the concepts The articles that were analyzed for the literature review chart described the struggles children have in their

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learning for a variety of reasons. The articles that were included in the chart did not touch on grandparents, although there were additional articles that described the health side of this topic for grandparents. Something the teachers noticed from grandchildren being raised by their grandparents is the gap in their learning experience. The children behavior is different as well as how they are learning the material. This could be seen in the article Biggest concerns of school personnel about students raised by grandparents. Many grandparents have a difficult time raising their grandchildren for multiple reasons which will be detailed in this paper. With this change in the parental role the effect of this can be seen in the children. The children will change in their behavior inside and outside of school. Usually teachers will notice this change in the student and will continue to keep watch (Peterson et al., 2019). Many teachers who notice these concerns of the students who are being raised by their grandparents. They notice the biggest concerns are emotional and social development, educational success, lack of parent support, and discipline concerns. Grandparents have a harder time being involved in their grandchild’s social and academic development. The students will need more academic assistance with their schoolwork as it could be a challenge for the grandparents. The behavioral aspect of the child’s life will also be different and can be noticed in how they behave in school (Peterson et al., 2019). Caregivers especially grandparents will become stressed when it comes to trying to keep up with the changes of raising their children and/or grandchildren. Grandparents who are raising their grandchildren will have more of a difficult time keeping up with the movements of their grandchildren lives. Grandparents have a difficult time with trying to keep control of their grandchildren’s behavior, the generational differences which includes the education system and the overall way of how children should be raised. When there is collaboration between caregivers and teachers the children will more than likely have a better chance with their understanding of learning (Sands & Goldberg-Glen, 2000). Grandparents raising grandchildren has become a trend that impacts both the child and the grandparent taking on the parental role. The effects of a grandparent raising a grandchild can include the child’s education, the health of both the grandparent and child, financial issues, and support systems. The financial stress of raising a grandchild comes once a grandparent has to quit their job to be a full-time parent. Once a grandparent quits their job, they no longer

have the health benefits. Grandparents may not have the supports that they need, and they have a difficult time connecting with the other parents (Hayslip & Kaminski, 2005) Methodological strength and weaknesses The methodological strengths that were found in the few articles supported to end the result for the studies. For instance, looking at the results of how online education is being accepted by the students (Ni, 2013). Taking a looking at how the students are applying the information they are obtaining from the online version rather than in person learning. The students are able to express their beliefs of how effective online learning is compared to in person education. The article that showed the performance outcome of the online learning for the students. Another methodological strength the qualitative method that was used to collect the data to support the articles. Qualitative data answers the “why” of a person’s ideas and includes a smaller sample size. Qualitative data also includes interviews and observations based on the subject’s opinions and experiences. For both articles, (Peterson et al., 2019) they used the qualitative method to support their ideas stated in their studies. Using interviews from those who are impacted by their study or those who would have an understanding. This information that was collected in both studies helped the end result. A weakness would be that quantitative data was not seen for (Peterson et al., 2019) was the use of quantitative data. Quantitative data answers the “what”, “where”, “how”, “who”, and “when” to answer the hypothesis. Using qualitative data would be considered a weakness as well as a strength. There would be a smaller sample sized collected for the data. When it is a smaller sample size it does not generate answers that could represent majority of the population being represented. Also, it becomes a weakness when the population that you are looking at does not show diversity in age range, race, or gender. Another methodological weakness was using a smaller sample size when using interviews or surveys. This smaller sample could leave a gap in the information collected from the data. Also, if they were to use this data to obtain services for this population that would not have to right amount because of the smaller sample size. Another thing that was noticed was that they did not show all of the different racial/ ethnic groups. They clustered the different races/ethnic groups which then would not show how it impacts each group. This is important because each group will have a different experience (Pilkauskas, 2014).

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Implementation plan The implementation plan as informed by literature was to keep an updated record of the success rates of the students (Ni, 2013). When teachers and caregivers are updated with the progress of the student it makes it easier to track the areas where they are struggling. It allows room for improvement and the opportunity for that child to receive help. The caregiver could then also find a way to understand how to get their child help. If a school could assist their grandchild, it then takes the stress of trying to understand the new way of learning out of the equation for the grandparent. There are grandparents who have not completed high school and the way they learned during that time is completely different than it is in this generation. With the first implementation plan comes the training school staff on how to assist the student and their caregiver (Peterson et al., 2019). As stated, many times grandparents may struggle a lot more with trying to understand this new way of learning. The struggle of trying to help their grandchild with their education just becomes a new struggle, and it becomes a downfall for the child. Without the proper assistance the child will struggle in their learning and could fall behind in their learning. Although, if school staff were trained in how to provide assistance for grandparents raising grandchildren it could lead to a more beneficial relationship between the school, grandparent, and the grandchild. The last implementation plan that is connected with the others would be schools providing community resources for grandparents and grandchildren (Sands & Goldberg-Glen, 2000). The community resources would be able to assist grandparents in multiple ways that could then relive the stressors. For many grandparent caregivers they did not complete high school. They could be struggling with the emotional, social, or financial aspect of their lives on top of raising their grandchild. A grandparent raising a grandchild becomes a huge responsibility in which they then take on the parental role. Therefore, if schools offered assistance in finding resources that could aid them in their daily lives while they are taking care of their grandchildren. With this information the agency and other agencies could become more aware of this common trend of grandparents taking on the parental role of their grandchild. This could be for multiple reasons such as parental physical and mental illness, imprisonment, or neglect and physical abuse of the child. Grandparents take on the stress of the different things such as becoming a parent of a child, health concerns, financial concerns, and much more (Sands & Goldberg-Glen, 2000). Also, when a child transitions into living with

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their grandparents it takes a toll on their education and how well they function academically (Peterson et al., 2019). The different agencies will also be able to provide the most useful resources to the family. For instance, financial assistance for the grandparents who may have quit their jobs to raise their grandchild. Resources for academic assistance for the child who cannot get the help from their grandparent. Support groups for the grandparents because of the lack of emotional support if they do not have any friends or family. Agencies can provide resources for government assistance such as TANF, childcare, insurance for both the grandparents and the child and any other services needed. Evaluation plan The evaluation plan is an important part for agencies. The evaluation plan is taking a look into how well things are going after implementation stage. For agencies, it is seeing if things are going according to plan. If they are not going according to plan there has to be solution on how to fix the issue at hand. There are a few ways that an agency can evaluate the progress on their implementation plan. For example, creating questions and clearly defining your outcome. As you create questions it will help you collect the data needed to decide if your implementation is meeting the standards created. A way to evaluate the implementation plan is to closely look at the progress of the students. The students’ progress will be able to tell an agency or school if what they are teaching is aiding the children in truly learning the material. It will give them more insight on if the students will need outside help in understanding the material. If the grandparents and the students receive the assistance that is needed it could possibly show in the progress of the students. (Ni, 2013). Keeping track of the concerns that the students have as well as the family could have for the children. This connects with the evaluation plan having the teachers and caregivers keep track of how their student is doing both at home and in school. Teachers would be a great help in keeping track of the changes that is occurring with the child then constantly compare the changes to see if the services are helping. The teachers would be the first to notice this change in the classroom’s academic changes and behavioral changes. The teachers could then share the progress of the child’s success at school and the caregiver can do the same for the child’s progress at home (Peterson et al., 2019) Another way to evaluate the implementation plan that connects to the others is by developing a questionnaire that touches on the topic of the implementation plan. These questions can be answered by the caregiver

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and others involved in the child’s life. These questions can touch on the child’s behavior, academic progress, and the parental roles for the grandparent. The questions will be able to open up the conversation for it the grandparent is still having a difficult time after the implementation of the agency. When evaluating making sure to evaluate for both the children and their grandparent (Sands & Goldberg-Glen, 2000). Conclusion In conclusion, having an internship with Head Start has gave me the opportunity to learn about the mission of this agency. With the pandemic, it provided the chance to understand how this is impacting grandparents raising grandchildren. The pandemic changed how children are obtaining their education, for some it is completely online while for others it is hybrid. With the education system constantly changing it can become difficult for the grandparents to help their grandchild. While for the grandchildren, they will also struggle to keep up with what they are learning in their classes. As stated before, the way their grandparents have learned is completely different from how it has been in the last decade. Technology has become an important part in the education learning for schools. There are a variety of ways to aid grandparents in helping their grandchild to reap the benefits of their schooling. As these ways can be beneficial for the grandparents and the grandchild. When the grandparent struggles to take on the parental role it truly impacts the child. Grandparents raising grandchildren is an important

relationship. Grandparents taking on the parental role can be difficult depending on the age of the grandparent. There are more younger grandparents taking on the parental role of raising their grandchild. As time progress, the grandparent will start to depend on their grandchild to do things for them as it may become difficult. Without any assistance the child could lose focus on their academics and struggle more. Teachers are the first who will begin to see this struggle academically and should assist the grandparent and the child. Reference Hayslip, B., Jr., & Kaminski, P. L. (2005). Grandparents Raising Their Grandchildren: A Review of the Literature and Suggestions for Practice. The Gerontologist, 45(2), 262-269. https://doi:10.1093/ geront/45.2.262 Ni, A. Y. (2013). Comparing the Effectiveness of Classroom and Online Learning: Teaching Research Methods. Journal of Public Affairs Education, 19(2), 199–215. https://doi.org/10.1080/15236803.2013.12001730 Peterson, T. L., Scott, C. B., Ombayo, B., Davis, T., & Sullivan, D. (2019). Biggest concerns of school personnel about students raised by grandparents. Children and Youth Services Review, 102, 201-209. https://doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2019.05.004 Pilkauskas, N. V. (2014). Living with a grandparent and parent in early childhood: Associations with school readiness and differences by demographic characteristics. Developmental Psychology, 50(12), 2587–2599. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0038179 Sands, R. G., & Goldberg-Glen, R. S. (2000). Factors Associated with Stress Among Grandparents Raising Their Grandchildren*. Family Relations, 49(1), 97-105. https://doi:10.1111/j.1741-3729.2000.00097.x

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Generic Criticism: President Obama Eulogizes Congressman Lewis Cirsten Kelly HCS 370: Rhetorical Criticism Dr. Misty L. Knight Assignment Students in the course were required to select an artifact, select an appropriate method of rhetorical criticism, and then analyze the artifact based upon the chosen method. Papers were expected to be approximately 15 pages and use supporting materials to support the claims in their analysis.

On July 30th, 2020, upon approaching the stand in front of a large congregation in Atlanta, Georgia, former president Barack Obama stated, “It is good to be back in the Ebenezer Church in the pulpit of its greatest pastor, Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., to pay my respects to perhaps his finest disciple,” (Obama, 2020). This quote demonstrates how two iconic men from different generations, Obama and Lewis, became significant to each other’s personal and professional lives. Lewis was a Civil Rights leader who was born in 1940 from Troy, Alabama. Obama was born in 1961 in Honolulu, Hawaii. Both Lewis and Obama had strong beliefs about equal rights, the right to vote, and change for Americans. A distinct parallel between these two men and their fight for equal rights came when Obama delivered the eulogy at Lewis’ funeral on July 30th, 2020. Throughout his eulogy, Obama informed the congregation about Lewis’s childhood, his accomplishments in the Civil Rights era, and his time in Congress. Obama’s goal in this eulogy was to inspire the congregation based on the accomplishments of a close friend and historic icon whose dream was for equal rights and the right to vote. Obama’s relationship with John Lewis first started while Obama was attending Harvard Law School. Not only did he admire Lewis, but he also made clear that Lewis was one of his heroes at Harvard. If it was not for Lewis’s sacrifices and determination in the Civil Rights era, Obama may not have been able to accomplish being the first black president of the United States. Obama was one of many who heralded Lewis as a champion who demonstrated peace, equality, and justice to the American society (Mays, 2018). And through the years, Lewis not only gave all of himself to the struggles of fighting for freedom and justice but encouraged generations that followed to try to live up to his example. 120

Often there were times that John Lewis felt that he was reliving his childhood and the memories from the untimely brutal slaying of Emmett Till. Like all other Americans, Lewis witnessed the recent uprising of Black American activists protesting rampant police brutality throughout the United States. The last time Obama and Lewis shared forum was, fittingly, in the wake of the murder of George Floyd at the hands of the Minneapolis police. Both men attended a virtual town hall with student activists (Mays, 2018). During the virtual town hall, Lewis honored people of all racial and ethnic backgrounds that were uniting to fight for justice. To him, their activism signifies that his efforts made a difference, meaning his beliefs for equal rights and justice would carry on in future generations. Not only would Lewis go on to fight for equal rights, but he would also go on to fight cancer. Even through Lewis’s battle with stage 4 pancreatic cancer, on June 7, just weeks before his passing on July 17, he was determined to go to the Black Lives Matter Plaza in Washington D.C. to witness history once again. It gave him a sense of peace knowing that as a society involving different races, genders, sexual orientations, and ethnic backgrounds the struggle is still alive for equal rights and justice for all. Shortly after Lewis’s visit to the plaza, his fight with cancer ended, but his fight for equal rights continues through young activists. After Lewis’s death, Obama was asked to deliver a eulogy at the service. During the eulogy, Obama reminded those in attendance that even through the ups and downs Lewis faced, he still persevered through his faith that society would be okay (Paz, 2020). In Obama’s Eulogy for Lewis, he wanted to emphasize to the American audience that voting is very important. Exercising the right to vote, a right that has not always been granted to African Americans, has been discour-

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aged since the Supreme Court’s ruling in Shelby v. Holder in 2013 (Perez & Lau, 2021). Obama urged people who may have followed Lewis to continue fighting and support changing the Senate rules in order to eliminate the legislative filibuster, which was famously used during the early 1950s and ‘60s to delay the passage of key Civil Rights bills (Foran & Cole, 2020). However, one important measure in relationship to this statement is making sure the John Lewis Voting Rights Act of 2020, is passed in order to restore voting rights among African Americans, Latinx communities, and Native American populations disenfranchised by the United States Supreme Court in 2013 (Collins, 2020). The John Lewis Voting Rights Act needs to be implemented through Congress because it holds a strong history in relationship to the Voting Rights Act of 1965. The Voting Rights Act of 1965 originally was an enactment to make sure every American Citizen no matter their race or ethnicity had the right to vote (NAACP, 2020). This was a passion that Lewis continued to fight for since his early days as a Civil Rights activist and African American leader in Congress. On June 25, 2013 the Supreme Court ruled that section 4(b) of the Voting Rights Act, which establishes what states and jurisdictions must comply with the preclearance requirement of Section 5, is outdated, and can no longer be used. As a result, Democrats and civil rights activists claim that removing the preclearance requirement contributes to overt discrimination because some states and jurisdictions have since been using tactics that discourage black voters (NAACP, 2020). The John Lewis Voting Right Act restores the Voting Rights Act of 1965 in its entirety and improves upon it. In an effort to support the John Lewis Voting Rights Act, this article explores the question of how does Barack Obama’s eulogy for John Lewis function as a traditional eulogy. Generic criticism is used to analyze Obama’s eulogy. Then, four themes are identified from the analysis, all of which support passing the act in Lewis’s honor. Literature Review Eulogies In eulogies, there is a space provided to magnify the deceased’s accomplishments and the life of a significant person (Hall, 2018). A eulogy sums up a person’s life including their childhood, how they lived, academic achievements, and hobbies. A eulogy is not just for examining loss, but rather, it can be a positive force for honoring a certain loved one’s life (Foss, 2017). The rhetoric behind a eulogy can also be considered epideictic, which means to honor a person while displaying rhetorical or oratorical skills (Russell, 2016). From a rhetorical perspective, eulogies must respond to

certain types of situations and special expectations of the audience (Death Studies, 2003). Eulogies will differ from speaker to speaker based upon how the subject touched the life of the speaker. Political Activism in Eulogies Politicians or political activists sometimes give eulogies that integrate the personal with the political. The speaker discusses how the subject touched their life, but also uses rhetorical appeals to mobilize the audience. For example, Obama delivered a eulogy for South Carolina state senator, Reverend Clementa Pinckney, pastor of Mother Emanuel, who was, along with eight members of the congregation, unexpectedly shot and killed in a mass shooting in Charleston, South Carolina in 2015. Throughout his rhetorical performance, Obama transformed his speech from a eulogy for Pinkney into a call for Americans to prevent the ongoing issues of gun violence (Bostdorff et al., 2020). Obama’s eulogy is not just showing the tragedy behind Reverend Pinckney’s death but also setting the tone of unity within the congregation. Through the words of Obama’s eulogy, Reverend Pinckney’s reflection and character as a pastor came through. Anderson (2019) mentioned that Obama created a synthesis which allowed him to capitalize on the virtues of Pinckney to reveal a new outlook on this tragedy while developing a strategy for structural change in society. Robert et. al (2006) found that a eulogist may attempt to alleviate the bereavement of their audiences by suggesting solutions and actions that may help in the forefront. For example, in Pinckey’s case, Obama suggested stricter gun laws. Other historic icons in relationship to President Barack Obama have given eulogies, including well known Civil Rights activists. One Civil Rights Activist, Benjamin Mays, gave a eulogy for Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. after he was assassinated on April 4th, 1968. Benjamin Mays knew Dr. King as one of his students at Morehouse College located in Atlanta, Georgia. Both men both believed in nonviolent resistance as a principle instead of looking at it as a tactic (Hatch, 2001). Dickerson (2005) found that Mays was eager to develop a religious vanguard of educated black ministers to help destroy the racial caste in American society. Mays noted the irony that Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. died from violence, which he opposed, considering his nonviolent beliefs as a minister. In an analysis of Dr. Martin Luther King’s 1968 speech, Mays (2018) stated that he thought King would be eulogizing him on his final day. With great dismay Mays eulogized King to a large crowd of family, friends, supporters, and activists who supported this many. Though other political figures have delivered eulogies, Obama is one the most prominent figures in 121

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society today who can connect to well-known figures and breakdown racial barriers. Obama showed this when he gave eulogies for Reverend Pinckney and Senator John McCain. He is not only known for speaking for political icons, but also for the citizens around the world. Every time Obama gives a eulogy, he is not just standing there describing these icons and the sacrifices they made. He is also calling people to action. Therefore, generic criticism will be used to demonstrate genre within Obama’s eulogy and to identify key themes. Method Generic criticism, developed by Kenneth Burke, is a method of analysis in which the generic critic seeks to discover commonalities in rhetorical patterns across recurring situations. The overall purpose of generic criticism is to understand different rhetorical practices, sometimes in different time periods and in different places, by identifying the similarities in rhetorical situations and the rhetoric constructed in response to them (Foss, 2017, pg.179). The process begins by the critic choosing what type of analysis they plan on doing for this type of criticism. Generic criticism involves three types to choose from which are generic description, generic participation, and application. If the critic is interested in in generic description as their first option, they will examine several artifacts to determine if a genre exists. The second option may be generic participation, where you move from consideration of a general class of rhetoric to consideration of a specific artifact. And the last option is generic application that involves application of a generic model of artifacts to evaluate or assess them. Lastly, critics formulate the type of genre for the artifact they’re using and establish the functions served by the genre. Burke’s method of genre criticism has been seen in different kinds of scholarly research. Campbell III (1992) found that rhetorical criticism has dealt with such diverse genres as papal encyclicals, categoria and apologia, eulogy, resignation, gallows speeches and scaffold confessions, and premillenial apocalyptic. However, Jameison and Campbell (1982) found that genres are sometimes combined to fit certain situations. Certain genres are also defined depending on the type of audience that is present for the speech: a group of mourners at a funeral during a eulogy, for example. Also, a genre can be looked at through a rhetor’s style and character based on the history of their entire life. This, in essence, relates to the content that is involved in someone’s eulogy. The type of generic criticism this research will use is generic application. Instead of merely trying to figure out if Obama’s eulogy relates to a specific genre, this analysis aims to identify certain elements that may characterize a genre in Obama’s eulogy. 122

Analysis There were four key themes that became very evident within Obama’s Eulogy for Lewis: personal relationship, accomplishments of John Lewis, perseverance, and community. The first theme, personal relationship, is found throughout the eulogy based on how Obama and Lewis had a passion for democracy and politics throughout their lives. Next, the accomplishments of Lewis were prevalent based on his persistence to accomplish fighting for Civil Rights and the right to vote. Lastly, Lewis’s work within the community was an ongoing process for improving the quality of life for everyone. Through this analysis, it is evident that Obama’s eulogy both honors the deceased while also advocating for civil rights and the right to vote. Personal Relationship One theme that surfaced in the eulogy is the personal relationship between Obama and Lewis. Obama and Lewis were friends, and Lewis was a mentor to Obama in the political field. Obama stated in the eulogy, “Lewis was a member of Congress for 33 years and was an influential mentor to young people, including me at the time” (Obama, 2020). Lewis is a Civil Rights icon who was involved with Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. during the Civil Rights Movement and the March on Selma. When Obama was sworn into office, he signed Lewis’ program with the words, “Because of you, John” (“Why Barack Obama once wrote to John Lewis ‘Because of you, John’,” 2020). Obama was honored to have a relationship with a historic icon who helped the African American community and fought for civil rights. In their personal relationship with one another, both men shared the same interests in politics, democracy, and the right to vote. As stated in the eulogy, “We can’t treat voting as an errand to run if we have some time. We must treat it as the most important action we can take on behalf of democracy, and like John, we have to give it all we have” (Obama, 2020). Obama was reinforcing the idea that people in power are trying to discourage minorities and students from voting in the 2020 election. The former president also admired Lewis for his determination. Despite Lewis’s humble beginnings as a young boy from Alabama, Obama gave credit to this former “Freedom Rider” for helping him become the first black president of the United States (Lozano, 2020). In the eulogy, Obama reflected on Lewis’s past but also expressed how Americans need to continue fighting and believing in democracy and civil rights. Also, he made clear that democracy and civil rights should never be taken for granted, saying, “We have to engage in protests where its effective, but also translate our passion and our causes into laws” (Paz, 2020). Obama knew that in Lewis’s eyes peaceful pro-

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tests that enact change are one of the biggest attributes to American democracy, and Obama agreed. Accomplishments of John Lewis The next theme in Lewis’s eulogy is Obama’s acknowledgment of the great accomplishments that Lewis made throughout his life. As stated in the eulogy, Lewis was first of the Freedom Riders; head of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee; youngest speaker at the March on Washington; leader of the march from Selma to Montgomery; member of Congress; representing the people of this state and this district for 33 years; and a mentor to young people until his final day on this Earth, he not only embraced that responsibility, but he made it his life’s work (Obama, 2020). Inspired by the late Dr. King, Lewis was able to achieve these accomplishments beginning with his dedication from a young age. Even though he came from a poor background, he was determined to go to school instead of picking cotton. At times he would listen to the radio to hear Dr. King speak; this, in turn, inspired him to become a civil rights activist throughout his speeches. During the eulogy, Obama spoke about Lewis as one of the first Freedom Riders. The Freedom Riders were a group of white and African American civil rights activists, who took bus trips in 1961 to protest segregated bus terminals (History.com Editors, 2010). These actions demonstrate how Lewis and the Freedom Riders fought for desegregation in the South. In addition, Obama spoke about Lewis’s membership in another civil rights activism group known as the Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee (SNCC). This group gave younger people of color the opportunity to have their voices be heard in the Civil Rights Movement (History.com Editors, 2009). The SNCC was a huge advocate for representing non-violence, which was very important in African American communities. Young students, like Lewis, were stressing to the black communities that in order to overcome these racial situations they need to demonstrate peaceful protests instead of violence. The move from violence to peaceful protests was one milestone toward the progress of trying to eradicate racism in the United States in the 1960s. Lewis’s role as a Freedom Rider and membership in the SNCC are just two of the accomplishments that Obama reflected on in his eulogy. As a result of Lewis’s many accomplishments, Obama enforced that in order for children to live in a true democracy, citizens must continue the cause and be more like Lewis himself (Paz, 2020). As stated in the eulogy “Lewis knew that nonviolent protest is patriotic, a way to raise awareness for unjust events going on in the world” (Paz, 2020). Obama noted that society must engage in effective

protests such as the Black Lives Matter movement in 2020. According to Obama, “America was built by people like John Lewis,” and Lewis worked with other Americans to bring the nation together in a unified way. Lewis’s strong determination shows in the accomplishments he made during his career, and Obama’s eulogy of Lewis recognized these accomplishments. Perseverance Perseverance was another theme in the eulogy and an essential component of Lewis’s work effort to support the African American community. Obama talked within the eulogy about Lewis’s early days as a civil rights activist for equal rights and desegregation. He made clear that activism was not an easy task for Lewis to accomplish as a young black man. He stated, “Lewis and other young Freedom Riders sat at a segregated lunch counter who refused to let a milkshake poured on their heads or a cigarette extinguished on their backs or a foot aimed at their ribs-refuse to let that dent their dignity and their sense of purpose” (Obama, 2020). Their goals as activists were to exhibit peaceful protests instead of encouraging violence for what they were doing. This situation took courage not knowing what the outcome could be as an individual fighting and protesting for equal rights, especially as people of color. Obama reminded listeners that Lewis’ actions resulted in going to jail, not just once, but several times along with severe life-threatening beatings. But Lewis did not see going to jail as a black man a hindrance to his life. Rather, he saw it as an act of good trouble and progress. Community Finally, the former president’s eulogy stressed that the nation must come together to build a better America. He reminded the audience of Lewis’s work within the black community and to making voting more accessible to people of color: “The Voting Rights Act is one of the crowing achievements of our democracy. Its why John crossed the Edmund Pettus bridge and spilled blood in order for us to accomplish the right to vote involving Democrat and Republican efforts” (Obama, 2020). In this statement from the eulogy, Obama pointed to recent Supreme Court decisions weakening the Voting Rights Act, now the John Lewis Voting Rights Act, and developing laws that created additional hardships for minority groups to vote. In pointing this out, Obama made note that this was not just a coincidence, rather it was an attack on one right that John Lewis was willing to die for. Through his eulogy, Obama suggested that people of color could overcome this political battle over the John Lewis Voting Rights Act by making sure that every American is registered to vote, including former inmates who served time. President Obama made 123

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recommendation that Election Day in the future should be considered a national holiday so that voters could have a day off or could take time out their day to go to the polls and vote. As stated in the eulogy, “Now, even if we do all this, every voter-suppression law is struck off the books today, we’ve got to be honest with ourselves that too many Americans choose not to exercise the right to vote” (Obama, 2020). Not exercising the right to vote was a source of concern which Lewis focused on during his time in Congress. He was a strong advocate for an updated voting rights act because he knew that seeking change in American democracy is a slow and challenging process. On other hand Obama stated, “That we should try to pass the John Lewis Voting Rights Act that this man was willing to die for. In Obama’s opinion as a former president, this would be a fine tribute in remembrance of John Lewis” (Obama, 2020). Conclusion From the way President Obama eulogized John Lewis, the election of the first woman of color as VicePresident would have been one more feather in Lewis’s cap, suggesting he would have been at peace knowing that all the sacrifices he made as a Civil Rights activist at a young age are finally making an impact. This is a reason why people sometimes must wait to attain progress. This may not just be an honor to a historic icon like John Lewis, but also to President Barack Obama who considered John Lewis one of his greatest heroes. In conclusion, Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., who believed in peaceful protests and nonviolence, produced a disciple in Congressman John Robert Lewis who made a mark in African American history as an icon for civil rights and justice for all. Both of these black men paved the way to freedom and desegregation and the right to vote for people of color. Through their mentorship, speeches, and writings, King and Lewis helped a young community organizer, Barack Obama, become the first black President of the United States. President Obama and Congressman John Lewis shared the beliefs in the United States government building a better democracy through the right to vote. Throughout Obama’s eulogy, he strongly emphasized how important voting was, not only to him, but to Lewis who did not always have that right to vote. Lewis had to make sacrifices in his life to accomplish his right to vote, even though there are people who take voting for granted. He reminded us that we should not forget that voting rights have the potential to be taken away. As the president stated in the eulogy, “He knew that every single one of us has a God-given power and that the faith of this American Democracy depends on how we as individuals tend to use it” (Obama, 2020, para.15).

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President Obama took his eulogy for John Lewis and made it an inspiring tribute of a man who dedicated his life to fighting for justice, and equal rights in a non-violent demeanor. John Lewis was a humble Black man who saw the best in humanity even during its darkest hours. President Obama was able to elaborate on three key themes throughout his eulogy involving his personal relationship with John Lewis, Lewis’s accomplishments, and his work within the community. Lewis’s accomplishments were greatly admired due to his dedication and commitment to the Civil Rights Movement and fighting for the right to vote. In his later years, Lewis focused on striving for better community values among people of all races coming together as one with justice for all. The video that showed George Floyd being murdered helped to convict the officers that were involved. If it had not been for this public revelation of video spotlighting unjust brutality, the murderers would have gotten away with this crime. The work that Lewis spent his life doing supported the revelation of inequity and discrimination. The inequity and discrimination that we see in this crime and so many other injustices: getting pulled over by the police while lawfully driving, being murdered walking down the street with wearing a hoodie or being attacked while jogging in a neighborhood on a nice sunny day. These actual examples happen far too often and are why John Lewis said the fight is not over in our communities, we must continue as a nation to fight for equal rights and justice. References Anderson, S. (2019). Irony in Charleston: Barack Obama’s eulogy for Clementa C. Pinckney. June 26, 2015. Communication Quarterly, 4, 405. Bostdorff, D. M., & Goldzwig, S. R. (2020). Barack Obama’s eulogy for the Reverend Clementa Pinckney, June 26, 2015: Grace as the vehicle for collective salvation and Obama’s agency on civil rights. Rhetoric and Public Affairs, 23(1), 107. Campbell, J. L. (1992). Achieving extra‐genre rhetorical goals: Expectations. Communication Quarterly, 40(3), 199-210. https://doi. org/10.1080/01463379209369836 Collins, S. (2020, July 18). Rep. John Lewis’s voting rights legacy is in danger. Vox. https://www.vox. com/policy-and-politics/2020/7/18/21329623/ rep-john-lewis-voting-rights-legacy-supreme-court Congressman John Lewis. (n.d.). American Civil Liberties Union. https://www.aclu.org/congressman-john-lewis Dennis, R.M., Kunkel, D.A, & Ridder, K. (2006). Grief, glory, and political capital in the capitol: Presidents eulogizing Presidents. Death Studies, 30(4), 325-349. Dickerson, D. C. (2005). African American religious intellectuals and the theological foundations of the Civil Rights Movement, 1930-1955. Church History, 74(2), 217.

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Foran, C., & Cole, D. (2020, July 30). In his eulogy, Obama connects Lewis’ life work to political fights of today: ‘America was built by John lewises’. CNN. https://www. cnn.com/2020/07/30/politics/john-lewis-atlantaobama-memorial-service-internment/index.html Foss, S.K. (2017). Rhetorical criticism: Exploration and practice (5th ed.) Waveland Press. Who is the author of this article? Grief consolation in eulogy rhetoric: An integrative framework. Death Studies. 2003;27 (1):1. https://doi:10.1080/07481180302872 Harris, M. R., & Hall, A. R. (2018). “My living shall not be in vain”: The rhetorical power of eulogies in the face of civil unrest. Journal of Contemporary Rhetoric, 8(3), 173-183. Hatch, R.D. (1979). Racism and religion: The contrasting views of Benjamin Mays, Malcolm X and Martin Luther King, Jr. Journal of Religious Thought, 36(2), 26. History.com Editors. (2009, November 12). SNCC. HISTORY. https://www.history.com/topics/ black-history/sncc History.com Editors. (2010, February 2). Freedom Riders. HISTORY. https://www.history.com/topics/ black-history/freedom-rides Jamieson, K. H., & Campbell, K. K. (1982). Rhetorical hybrids: Fusions of elements. Quarterly Journal of Speech, 68(2), 146-157. https://doi. org/10.1080/00335638209383600

Lozano, A. (2020, July 18). Obama on his ‘hero’ rep. John Lewis: ‘I was only there because of the sacrifices he made’. NBC News. https://www.nbcnews.com/politics/ congress/rep-john-lewis-remembered-consciencecongress-who-inspired-new-generation-n1234275 Mays, B. (2018). Eulogy for the Reverend Martin Luther King Jr. Atlantic, 20-23. Paz, C. (2020, July 30). Read Barack Obama’s eulogy for John Lewis. The Atlantic. https://www.theatlantic. com/politics/archive/2020/07/read-barack-obamaseulogy-for-john-lewis-full-text/614761/Delete extra space hereWhy Barack Obama once wrote to John Lewis ‘because of you, John’. (2020, July 30). ajc. https://www.ajc.com/news/why-barack-obamaonce-wrote-to-john-lewis-because-of-you-john/ PQG2KYO44FF27L4QLV52L26ONI/ Perez, M., & Lau, T. (2021, January 28). How to restore and strengthen the voting rights act. Retrieved February 11, 2021, from https://www. brennancenter.org/our-work/research-reports/ how-to-restore-and-strengthen-voting-rights-act Russel, D. (2016), March 07). Epideictic. Retrieved February 11, 2021, from https://oxfodre.com/classics/ view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.001.0001/ acrefore-9790199381135-e-7040

Student Reflection: My personal intentions for writing this paper were due to my strong interest in Black history and the Civil Rights Movement. Being a young woman of color the one person that stood out in my studies this past year is the late Congressman John Lewis. Deep down it saddens me how I did not know much about him and his accomplishments until he unfortunately passed away in the year 2020. Lewis was not only a Congressman but he also was a civil rights leader, a legislator, an author, and a mentor to many like President Barack Obama. Even with his illness he was able to experience the injustice in regard to George Floyds death which sparked the Black Lives Matter Movement. Lewis felt like he was reliving his past all over again like the Civil Rights Movement of 1965. He knew deep down that he needed to go see the Black Lives Matter Plaza on more time, because he knew his days were numbered due to have stage 4 pancreatic cancer. This is an example, of why he wrote a speech titled, “John Lewis’s Last Words”, to only be said after his passing. He really emphasized to the younger generation in regards to the Black Lives Matter Movement that is a good example of his famous words of “Getting Into Good Trouble”. Therefore, what an honor it was for President Barack Obama to give Lewis’s eulogy to a man who was so proud to witness our first black president of the United States.

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Editor's Choice Second Place, Upper Level

Intimate Partner Violence Sydney Kunkel CRJ 310: Research Methods Dr. Carlos E. Rojas-Gaona Assignment

Students had to write a literature review of a topic of their choice. Papers had to be a succinct summary of what is known about the topic to date. The purpose of the assignment was to enhance students’ research, writing, and critical analysis skills.

Abstract Intimate partner violence victims and offenders can be hard to identify. It is very common for victims not to come forward, so it is important to find commonalities among them to look for. This paper will explore the characteristics of both victims and offenders in relationships with intimate partner violence. First, there will be a brief introduction to the topic based on Shannan Catalano’s research of what intimates are and the different types of violent acts that can occur between them. Then, there will be an explanation of why this topic is important to research and expand upon. This paper’s main focus is on victim and offender characteristics. Being able to identify commonalities among victims and offenders of IPV will help criminal justice officials and psychological professionals help those in need and possibly decrease the amount of intimate partner violence we see in the world today. Finally, this paper will explain that there is more to research about this topic and the necessity of it based on Brittany Hayes’ research on IPV research. Introduction Intimate partner violence is a major problem today, in the United State of America and the world. Shannan Catalano defines intimates as “current or former spouses, boyfriends, or girlfriends including homosexual relationships” (2006, p 1). An intimate is not a relative, acquaintance, or a stranger. Victims and perpetrators normally have a close relationship. Catalano also briefly explains at the beginning of her analysis, “Intimate Partner Violence in the United States,” that it is difficult to measure violence that occurs between intimates. This is because that violence is often happening in private, no one else sees it or knows of it because victims are hesitant to come forward due to fear of retaliation from their assailant or are shameful of the situation (Catalano, 2006, p. 1). The main problem to address is the ability to identify dangerous behavior or characteristics within 126

future or current intimate partner violence offenders. Being able to see warning signs will help future or current victims and their friends or families get in touch with proper authorities for assistance. Along with identifying offenders, identifying victim characteristics is also extremely important. Victims may be hard to identify if they have been victimized their whole lives, but it is necessary to look for differences in behavior or attitudes from individuals that are more prone to being victimized. These problems are of concern because of the difficulty in the identification of victims and offenders. Looking further into the characteristics of victims and offenders is beneficial to study because it could help save future victims and help criminal justice officials, or even psychological professionals, see warning signs of both offenders and victims in an intimate partner violence scenario. This topic is extremely important because of how difficult it is to see when these types of situations are occurring. Obtaining the knowledge necessary to identify individuals in these situations would make it easier to reach out with help or report it to the police. Through the research of this topic, I hope to answer the question of “What are identifiable and common characteristics of both victims and offenders in intimate partner violence situations?” Review of Literature When identifying victims of intimate partner violence (IPV), there are multiple characteristics to look for. Typically, females are more likely to be victimized by nonfatal intimate partner violence. Between the years 1993 and 2004, twenty-two percent of violent victimizations occurred toward female intimates, while less than three percent were toward male intimates. Comparing male to female IPV homicide rates between the same years, females were killed in intimate partner violence situations approximately thirty percent of the time, while males were killed approximately five percent of the time. The rates of violent victimizations

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and IPV homicides vary by gender (Catalano, 2006, p 6). These numbers may seem small, but when comparing female and male rates of nonfatal and fatal intimate partner violence disputes, the numbers are drastic. Shannan Catalano provided follow up research in 2012 where she explains the decline in IPV. She states, “In 1994, 85% of intimate partner violence victims were female and the remaining 15% were male” (2012, p 3). That is an overwhelming number of female victims compared to male victims. From 1994 to 2010, approximately four in every five IPV victims were female (Catalano, 2012, p 3). There are reasons women are more likely to be victimized in IPV disputes than men. The main reason is the sexist attitudes held by men. Sexism is a major risk factor in intimate partner violence toward women. There are two different types of sexism men have toward women, hostile and benevolent. Hostile sexism is when men see women as lesser figures and control freaks. Benevolent sexism is the opposite. Men with a benevolent sexist attitude see women as pure creatures who need protection from everything and everyone around them, also as the love that makes a complete man. This form of sexism promotes traditional gender roles that enhance inequality. Not all men who have sexist attitudes toward women are intimate partner violence offenders, but there is a connection between sexism and IPV. Hostile sexists promote positive attitudes towards violence against women, i.e. victim-blaming (Juarros-Basterretxea, J., Overall, N., Herrero, J., & Rodríguez-Díaz, F. J., 2019, p 2). This type of behavior and attitude is more common toward women in the “middle” ages. A study was done by Michigan State University on intimate partner violence where they researched all forms of IPV, i.e. physical, sexual, intimidation, and overall violence. They found that the most common age group for intimate partner violence victims in Michigan were between the ages eighteen and fortyfour with eighty-one percent, while the most frequent victims were aged between twenty-five and thirty-four with thirty-five percent of overall IPV cases (Stone, R., & Rydberg, J., 2017, p 11). This was also true for Catalano’s 2006 study of IPV in the United States from years 1993 to 2004. She stated, “For the most recent year [2004], females age 20-24 and 24-34 were at the greatest risk of nonfatal intimate partner violence” (2006, p 9). She went on to confirm this again with her updated study in 2012. Catalano explains that there was a decrease in IPV for women aged eighteen to twenty-four between the years 2005 and 2010, but they still had the highest amount of IPV victims (2012, p 4). The common ages for IPV victims happen to be when most women are dating or married.

According to the Michigan State University study, it is most common for intimate partner violence to occur in dating relationships and between spouses. Approximately forty-five percent of overall IPV in Michigan happens in dating relationships, while nearly twenty-two percent happens in spousal relationships. Dating relationships have the highest percentages of all recorded IPV offense types within this study, i.e. physical, sexual, and intimidation (Stone, R., et al, 2017, p 8). The Michigan State study took place in 2017, so that data does not completely match Catalano’s studies of 2006 and 2012. But most recently, Catalano recorded that 314,200 of 775,650 IPV cases documented between 2009 and 2010 were towards females that were never married. It was also recorded in 2010, the most common household composition, omit other, for intimate partner violence was one female adult with children. The number recorded was 257,440 out of 775,650 cases (Catalano, 2012, p 14-5). Differing between female victims based on race is a valid form of statistics to research. When looking at race, there are differences between the Michigan State study and Catalano’s studies. Michigan State University recorded African American females were most at risk for overall IPV in the 2010 US census for Michigan. The overall rate for IPV among African American females was 197 victims for every 10,000 residents. This is a drastic difference when comparing to that of white females with a rate of 48 victims per every 10,000 residents. The authors of this study also state the rate of sexual intimate partner violence against African American females is over sixteen times larger than that of African American males, while the sexual IPV rate for white females was almost fifteen times larger than white males (Stone, R., et al, 2017, p 13). Catalano did not state specifics as Michigan State did. In her 2006 study, Catalano states nonfatal IPV is predominantly intraracial, happening within the same race. She finds that approximately eighty-nine percent of white IPV victims were victimized by white offenders and approximately ninety-five percent of African American victims were victimized by African American offenders. This can be easily proven by the opposite percentages of around five percent of white victims were victimized by African American offenders and less than three percent of African American victims were victimized by white offenders (Catalano, 2006, p 22-3). Based on all this research, it is obvious that females are the most common victims of IPV. While it is more common for females to be intimate partner violence victims, it is much more common to be victimized by opposite genders. In Catalano’s 2006 study, she states that approximately

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ninety-seven percent of females being victimized by IPV were victimized by a male, while only two percent were victimized by a female. The same goes for male victims. Approximately eighty-four percent of male IPV victims were victimized by females and twelve percent were victimized by males (Catalano, 2006, p 21). Despite the gender of the offender, they tend to victimize individuals that are around the same age as them. Between the years 1993 and 2004, approximately eighty-eight percent of IPV incidents occurring by an offender aged thirty years or more had a victim of the same age. Between the same years, almost sixty-five percent of IPV cases with an offender aging between twenty-one and twenty-nine had a victim of the same age bracket (Catalano, 2006, p 22). While age and gender are somewhat easy to measure in IPV offenders, some characteristics are more difficult. Family origin is important when looking at intimate partner violence offenders. Exposure to violence at a young age, up to eighteen, is crucial when identifying an IPV offender. This exposure could include parent-on-parent violence and witness or being the target of physical child abuse. Witnessing family violence at a young age can cause future intimate partner violence offenses later in life, no matter the gender of the offender. Along with family origin, personality traits are difficult to measure. But a common one among IPV offenders is antisocial personality traits and disorder. Antisocial personality traits and disorders are frequently caused by exposure to family violence, traditionalist views toward women, and positive attitudes toward violence against their partners and in general. Therefore, family origin and predisposition to sexist views are likely causes of antisocial personality traits and disorder (Juarros-Basterretxea, J., et al, 2019, p 3). While there has been a lot of research done on victim and offender characteristics, more must be done on the recording of these IPV incidents. When examining how intimate partner violence incidents are recorded, it is common to see not all of them are recorded based on the hierarchy rule. The Uniform Crime Report (UCR) only records the most serious offense that occurred at one time. Brittany Hayes, author of “Benefits and Challenges of Using Life History Calendars to Research Intimate Partner Violence” provides the example of “if the respondent was slapped and threatened with a weapon, only the threat was recorded for that date” (2018, p 4). This is an important fact because multiple things could occur during an IPV incident, such as verbal assault and physical battery. But only the physical battery would be recorded in the UCR because it is a more serious crime that happened within the same day. As well as only recording the highest-ranking criminal event on

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the hierarchy scale, it is also questionable how researchers record ongoing or repeated IPV events. Hayes goes on to explain that IPV victims tend to feel entrapped in their abusive relationships. This entrapped feeling shows that the victims feel there is no end to their abuse (Hayes, 2018, p 4). The difficulty the UCR has in recording every IPV event based on hierarchy means not every event will ever be recorded. This needs to be addressed to have a more accurate representation of IPV as well as all other criminal activity. Conclusion Identifying characteristics of victims and offenders in intimate partner violence relationships is very important to the survival of the victims. Throughout this paper, multiple characteristics of both victims and offenders have been addressed. Victims are most often white or African American females in dating or spousal relationships, often with children. Offenders can be either male or female who usually victimizes the opposite gender and same race as themselves. The most common age of a victim is between twenty-five and thirty-four years old. Offenders tend to victimize individuals within their same age range. IPV offenders are most likely to come from families where they have witness violence between their parents or a victim of child abuse. They also tend to have sexist attitudes and antisocial personality traits and disorders. This research thoroughly answers the question of “What are identifiable and common characteristics of both victims and offenders in intimate partner violence situations?” References Catalano, S. M. (2006). Intimate partner violence in the United States. Washington, DC: US Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Bureau of Justice Statistics. Catalano, S. M. (2012). Intimate partner violence, 19932010. Washington, DC: US Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Bureau of Justice Statistics. Hayes, B. E. (2018). Benefits and Challenges of Using Life History Calendars to Research Intimate Partner Violence. Journal of Family Violence, 33(3), 227-238. doi: 10.1007/s10896-018-9955-6. Juarros-Basterretxea, J., Overall, N., Herrero, J., & Rodríguez-Díaz, F. J. (2019). Considering the Effect of Sexism on Psychological Intimate Partner Violence: A Study with Imprisoned Men. The European Journal of Psychology Applied to Legal Context, 11(2), 61–69. doi: 10.5093/ejpalc2019a1 Stone, R., & Rydberg, J. (September 2017). Intimate Partner Violence in Michigan: An Analysis of Michigan Incident Crime Reports (MICR) For 2014 and 2015. https://cj.msu.edu/_asse ts/pdfs/mjsc/MJSC-IPVVictimReport-Sept2017.pdf

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Student Reflection: I wrote this paper on Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) as an attempt to bring awareness to the things you don’t immediately notice when looking at a victim or offender. IPV is not a common topic of conversation, but that is why it is so important to talk about. I am very passionate about this field and I wanted to bring awareness to the danger and commonalities among IPV offenders and victims. I am very happy with how this literature review turned out and I learned a lot while writing it.

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The Effects of Rehabilitative Programs on Juvenile Delinquents’ Recidivism Jarod Smith CRJ 310: Research Methods Dr. Carlos E. Rojas-Gaona Assignment Students had to write a literature review of a topic of their choice. Papers had to be a succinct summary of what is known about the topic to date. The purpose of the assignment was to enhance students’ research, writing, and critical analysis skills.

Abstract This literature review will examine three different rehabilitative programs and how they affect juvenile delinquents’ recidivism rate and chances of offending. The programs I will write about are multisystemic therapy (MST), correctional system intervention, and art intervention programs. Throughout this paper, I will address and show how being processed, and put through correctional programs has little, and even negative effects on the juvenile. I will show how art programs have been proven to decrease the chance of offending for at-risk juveniles. I will also provide information on how MST treatment has proven to help rehabilitate juveniles, and prevent them from offending, by taking more individualized and helpful approaches. Keywords: MST, recidivism, juvenile delinquent, art program, correction system, offending Introduction Over the years, the idea and implementation of correctional programs have changed and evolved. In today’s world, we are at a mid-way point between sending youth offenders into the correctional system and trying to rehabilitate them through individualized means. I firmly believe, and this paper will show, that using methods such as art programs and MST will lower the chance of juvenile delinquents re-offending or offending in the first place. Also, the prosecution of youth through the correctional/legal system has little, and more often negative effects on youth, and more than likely lead them to be recidivists or lifetime offenders. Background Juvenile delinquency has been around for a long time but did not gain any major prevalence until the 1940s-1950s, due to cultural shifts and the prevalence 130

of things like rock-n-roll and cliches in schools, that saw juveniles acting out more. This only evolved with the formation of gangs and environments that exposed youth to crime and normalized it. Over this time, the criminal justice system instituted ways to try to deal with, and help these juvenile offenders. In this paper, I will focus on three of these methods: MST, art programs, and correctional system intervention/ prosecution. MST is a community and family-based treatment that focuses on youth with serious offenses (i.e. violent offenses, sexual offenses). These were invented and began to be used in the 1970s. It takes a more individualized approach to fix the problem by viewing their relationships within the offenders’ system. Art programs have been used as a way for young offenders to express themselves and build confidence, and have been proven to help build traits that prevent offending in youth. Prosecution of youth, and processing them through the criminal justice and the correctional system has been around since 1899 when they founded the juvenile courts. Prosecuting and sending the juvenile through this system has led to them having a significantly higher chance of re-offending. Statement of Problem What I believe needs to be resolved, is that we need to stop processing these young offenders through the correctional system, and prosecuting them. We need to focus more on rehabilitating them and making them productive members of society. In past years, we have seen a steady decline in juvenile arrests, I believe this is in part caused by the implementation of these programs, and more hesitation to put these juveniles through the criminal justice system. This is shown by the juvenile arrest rate put out by the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP) (see Appendix A for the OJJDP juvenile arrest rate). This is important because I believe we can lower that number

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even further. We can do this by helping the juvenile while they are young, and by preventing them from offending we can significantly lower the chance of them becoming adult and lifetime offenders. Justification of Study It is important to study the topic of the effects of rehabilitative programs on juvenile offending and recidivism for several reasons. One reason is that by finding out what works and what doesn’t, we can direct more resources to the ones that are proven to help prevent these juveniles from offending and re-offending. Another reason is that by studying what the outcomes of these programs are, we can develop more programs and methods to help juveniles live effective crime-free lives. Research Questions The main question I am seeking to answer is, how effective are these programs compared to one another, and is one more superior to the others? Another question I am seeking to answer, is what are the benefits of each program and what effect does each have on the juveniles offending and recidivism rate? Review of Literature The literature I will be reviewing revolves around three studies on three different programs that show how each of them affects the juvenile in terms of offending and recidivism. I will also look at the lasting effects each program has on the juvenile, and if they are viable options to be used further to help decrease the amount of juvenile delinquency/crime. I will structure this review by presenting the procedures and findings from the three studies, and address unsolved or remaining problems. I will then use the information presented to show what I believe would be the most effective program(s) to help lower juvenile offending and recidivism. Prior Research To begin with, I will look at the MST study and the effects it has on juveniles and their recidivism and offending rate. “Multisystemic therapy is a community and family-based treatment that focuses on youth with serious clinical problems (e.g., violent juvenile offenders, juvenile sexual offenders, substance-abusing juvenile offenders, and youth with serious emotional disturbance) (Henggeler and Schoenwald, p.5, 2011). MST is a type of program that focuses on the social aspects of a serious juvenile offender and tries to identify what aspect(s) of their life is causing them to participate in criminal activity (see Appendix B for steps in the MST system). “MST, using the foundation of social-ecological theory, the social ecology systems con-

sist of micro, meso, exo, and macrosystems, at which MST has defined as individual, family, community, school, and peers.”(Deaton and Ohrt, p.93, 2018). The goal of this treatment is to identify the strengths in a juvenile’s system, be it a supportive teacher at school or a successful older sibling that they look up to, and encourage an increase in that person or activity to help lower antisocial behavior and delinquent acts. It also tries to identify the risky behaviors and activities the juvenile participates in and discourages them by replacing them: “ MST is one of the most extensively validated treatments. There are 21 published outcome studies.”(Henggeler and Schoenwald, p.6, 2011). By using the nine-step process outlined in Appendix B, the MST treatment has been able to help decrease offending and reoffending in juveniles. The study I want to present happened back in 2016, and looked at 256 juveniles. They were randomly assigned to two groups for treatment: MST and treatment as usual (TAU). They were categorized as either extremely violent (EV), or not extremely violent (NEV): “Data was collected by research assistants before the start of the treatment, each month during treatment, and immediately after termination of the treatment, in the homes of the participants...According to official judicial data, 71% of the participants had been arrested at least once before treatment.”(Asscher, et al., p.962, 2016). What they had found is that after four months of treatment both the EV and NEV juveniles that participated in the MST treatment reported having less externalizing (see Appendix C for a graph on externalization over time). The findings of this study match the results of similar studies conducted in assessing the effectiveness of MST. By addressing the things in a juvenile’s life that influence and encourage delinquent behavior, and by providing treatment to them, we can see that over time the amount of criminal behavior they participate in decreases. The limitations I found with this treatment method is that because of the individualized nature and in-depth nature of this study, it is very time consuming and requires a fair amount of follow-up and analysis of the effectiveness of the treatment. For the next program, I will look at the statistics behind processing juveniles through the criminal justice system and how that affects their chances of offending and recidivating: “Following an arrest, several juvenile justice stakeholders can decide whether the youth should be officially processed through the court system, released without a referral for services, or diverted from the system to a variety of communitybased services. A meta-analysis of 29 controlled studies compared juvenile justice processing with either release without services or processing to a diversion

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program. Overall, the analysis showed that juvenile court processing tended to increase criminal behavior, especially when compared with diversion to community services.”(Henggeler and Schoenwald, p.4, 2011). In this study, they will be following a sample size of 100,000 delinquents and 100,000 non-delinquents. More specifically, those who were prosecuted on their first offense and those who were not. The above quote fits the results of this study fairly well, considering the findings of this study saw those not processed through the criminal justice system/diverted to communitybased services were less likely to re-offend. “In our 2010 study youth initially arrested for a status offense were 2.2 times more likely to be recidivists if they were prosecuted on their initial crime, youth arrested for other misdemeanors were 1.8 times more likely to re-offend if prosecuted, and youth arrested for non-violent felonies were 1.4 times more likely to re-offend if prosecuted”(Barrett and Katsiyannis, p.2051, 2017). They had found that juveniles who had been prosecuted for a crime, had a significantly higher chance of recidivating (see Appendix D for recidivism percentage amongst juvenile offenders). The data they collected showed that processing the juvenile through the criminal justice system on their first offense, be it a misdemeanor or a felony, in almost every case, led to the juvenile having a significantly higher chance of committing another crime and reoffending. This also shows us that having the juvenile go through a community-based program, or just simply not prosecuting them will lead to a lower level/chance of recidivism. An interesting point made at the end of this study was how much money would be saved with early intervention. “For example, diverting a 14-year-old high-risk juvenile from a life of crime can result in savings between $2.6 and $5.3 million”(Barrett and Katsiyannis, p.2056, 2017). If this is the amount of money that can be saved by preventing one lifetime-offender from developing, the money saved by reforming how we deal with juvenile delinquents, to a method of just not prosecuting them on their first offense would be massive. From this study, and data found in previous studies, this method of processing the juvenile through the criminal justice system is ineffective and tends to lead to more recidivism. The last study focuses on the effect of an art program on at-risk juveniles, and how it affected their ability to focus and express themselves. In 2014, they conducted a program where they had regular art classes with the public display of the juveniles’ art and eventual charitable sale of their art. Throughout the program, they provide positive reinforcement and an outlet for the youth to express themselves. At the very end of the program, they sent out questionnaires and

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recorded how the juveniles felt after the program’s completion. The study had a total of 50 participants and had a questionnaire response rate of 50%. “93% cited positive benefits including an increase of selfesteem, decrease in stress, and pride or recognition of the ability to reach a goal from completing, exhibiting, and selling their art to benefit a charity for at-risk youth”(Miner-Romanoff, p.64, 2016)(see Appendix E for survey responses of participants). They found that giving the at-risk youth a way to express themselves healthily, it led to a more positive and confident youth. I believe that giving them a positive hobby to do and participate in, helps them to build relationships and encourages more social and professional behavior. This study also had attendee’s of the art selling event, answer questions about how they feel about juvenile offenders. “Community attendee survey results were transformative in that they indicated significant impressions on attitudes toward juvenile offenders and their rehabilitative needs”(Miner-Romanoff, p.64, 2016). The findings from this study show huge potential for both the juvenile offender’s side and the community side. It showed that this program can have a very positive impact on at-risk youth and prevent them from committing crimes and engaging in criminal activity. It also shows that by involving the community, they begin to realize the importance of rehabilitating juveniles, and erasing the stigma that once someone commits a crime they are a criminal for life. One issue I found with this study was the low-level response from the participants and the small sample size. I’m curious if this would have the same effect on a larger scale. Another issue was that this program was for at-risk juveniles and not actual offenders, but I believe the findings are still very usable. Conclusion In conclusion, when it comes to the effectiveness of these programs compared to one another, the most ineffective one is the prosecution and processing of juvenile delinquents through the criminal justice system. I believe this is based on the high recidivism rate amongst those prosecuted, compared to those not prosecuted. I believe the second-best program examined was the use of art programs on at-risk juveniles. I believe this because it showed to be effective in improving the juveniles’ social and self-health, but it lacked an application to actual juvenile delinquents. Nevertheless, I still believe this to be an effective program for youth. The best program based on statistics and prior studies is the use of MST. This is a highly effective treatment, because it takes an extremely individualized approach to help serious juvenile offenders, and identifies what in their life is causing them to act in that manner. It

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then fixes that behavior through a step-by-step process. Overall, I feel juvenile delinquency and the recidivism of juveniles is something that needs to be addressed at the youngest age possible, to prevent the juvenile from becoming a career offender. By using real rehabilitative methods such as MST and programs that provide a positive outlet for youth to express themselves and build strong social connections, we can decrease the number of juvenile delinquents, and lower recidivism rates among them. References Asscher, J. J., Deković, M., Van den Akker, A. L., Prins, P. J. M., & Van der Laan, P. H. (2018). Do extremely violent juveniles respond differently to treatment? International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 62(4), 958–977. https://doi. org/10.1177/0306624X16670951 Barrett, D., & Katsiyannis, A. (2017). The Clemson Juvenile Delinquency Project: Major Findings from a Multi-Agency Study. Journal of Child & Family Studies, 26(8), 2050–2058. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s10826-017-0714-8 Deaton, J. D., & Ohrt, J. (2019). Integration of Expressive Techniques in Multisystemic Therapy With At-Risk Adolescents: A Retrospective Case Analysis. Family Journal, 27(1), 92–99. https://doi. org/10.1177/1066480718819873 Henggeler, S. W. ., & Schoenwald, S. K. . (2011). Evidence-Based Interventions for Juvenile Offenders and Juvenile Justice Policies that Support Them.

Social Policy Report, 25(1), 1–20. https://doi. org/10.1002/j.2379-3988.2011.tb00066.x Miner-Romanoff, K. (2016). Voices from Inside: The Power of Art to Transform and Restore. Journal of Correctional Education, 67(1), 58–74. Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. (2019, October 31). Retrieved from https:// www.ojjdp.gov/ojstatbb/crime/JAR_Display. asp?ID=qa05200&selOffenses=1

Appendix A OJJDP Juvenile Arrest Rate(Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, 2019)

Appendix B Steps in the MST System (Deaton and Ohrt, p.97, 2018) Appendix C Externalization Over Time (Asscher et al., p.969, 2016) Appendix D Recidivism Percentage Amongst Juvenile Offenders (Barrett and Katsiyannis, p.2052, 2017) Appendix E Survey Responses of Participants (Miner-Romanoff, p.65, 2016)

Student Reflection: This assignment was very eye-opening, and frankly fun to do. I was given the freedom to choose my topic, and research about it. I decided to pick a combination about two things I was passionate about. I wanted to write about juveniles and rehabilitative programs. It was an all around great experience, that I was very happy to go the extra mile and really dig into this assignment. I was completely ecstatic to hear Dr. Rojas mention that he believed it would be good enough to submit to WTS. I really have to thank Dr. Rojas for believing in my assignment, and opening the door to this fantastic opportunity.

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Editor's Choice First Place, Lower Level

Systemic Racism in America: Police Violence, the Matter of Black Lives, and Our National Conscience Sydney Mesaros PLS 100: U.S. Government & Politics James R. Greenburg Assignment The purpose of this assignment was to enable students to read, think and write critically about a political issue, trend or movement of their choosing, which has appeared on the political scene since 2001. Students were required to identify a thesis question and construct an argument supporting their views on the issue in a formally prepared five page paper.

On May 25th, 2020 a 46-year old black man died; not with his family by his side, not comfortably in a hospital bed, but pinned underneath a white police officer’s knee. Why, you may ask, would the police feel the need to kneel on another man’s neck? And, not to reasonably and temporarily restrain him, but intentionally choke him for over eight minutes? George Floyd allegedly bought a pack of cigarettes with a counterfeit Twenty Dollar Bill. Is twenty dollars all a black man’s life is worth in the United States of America? According to Joe Feagin, “Over several centuries, whites have constructed an array of sincere fictions about the racial others.” 1 Feagin is not only correct, but also accurate in using the word “fictions”, as the ideologies that perpetuate systemic racism are as illogical and without basis in fact as those that promote a belief in a flat earth. These ideologies are false and have no objective truth backing them. Yet somehow, such ideologies have been created and used throughout history. In most cases, they have been used with the most negative effects by white men to create ways to demean, devalue and subordinate those around them. The transatlantic slave trade began in 1525 and lasted for well over 300 years.2 Even with the end of slavery in America after the Civil War by the ratification of the 13th Amendment in 1865, and the 14th Amendment in 1868, many white people still held prejudices against black and African-Americans, which led directly to legally sanctioned Jim Crow segregation 1 2

in Southern States. When all legal basis for segregation was invalidated based on the Equal Protection and Due Process Clauses of the 14th Amendment, through passage of the Civil Rights act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965 the same people held and perpetuated the same prejudices. For the past 55 years, persistent underlying and systemic racial bias, prejudice and bigotry have been used to undermine the social, economic and political successes of black and AfricanAmericans. One institution that has been negatively impacted by systemic racism is law enforcement. This is not a problem limited to any one state or region. Rather, it is a national problem. Indeed, it is a problem that weighs on America’s national conscience. Law enforcement is a critical institution in any society with a system of governance premised on justice and rule of law. Because of the level of responsibility and trust communities place in local law enforcement departments, accountability of those departments to the people who they swear to protect and serve is essential. When law enforcement officers misuse or abuse their authority to “legally murder” or harm black and African-Americans and are not held accountable, then that is a critical problem for our entire society. These abuses and crimes against black and AfricanAmericans have been happening for many years.3 Only now is the public due to cell phone videos and more recently, police body cameras seeing them. Now for the first time, the public is able to see the abuses and

Joe Feagin and Eileen O’Brien, White Men on Race, (Beacon Press, 2004) 96. Meilan Solly, “158 Resources for Understanding Systemic Racism in America,” Smithsonian.com (Smithsonian Institution, June 4, 2020), https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/158-resources-understanding-systemic-racism-america-180975029/. 3 Katie Nodjimbadem, “The Long, Painful History of Police Brutality in the U.S.,” Smithsonian.om (Smithsonian Institution), accessed January 28, 2021, https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smithsonian-institution/long-painful-history-police-brutality-in-the-us-180964098/.

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crimes that have happened frequently, if not routinely, for decades. And, “We the people” don’t like what we are seeing. In a recent article, Felicia Campbell and Pamela Valera note that nearly half of people surveyed felt fear just from watching videos of police violence, and almost three quarters felt sadness and grief.4 Left unchecked, this fear will destroy any trust between law enforcement and black and African-American communities. Additionally, continued incidents of police violence in which law enforcement is not appropriately and adequately held accountable will erode trust and confidence in our nation’s entire system of laws and justice. As a society, we simply cannot have an institution that is charged with the responsibility to protect and serve all members of the community become unaccountable oppressors of certain communities based on race. If children and adults in these communities feel unsafe, they also feel like their lives are in danger. The reason for this is that in reality, they are.5 If we as a nation permit this reality to continue, there will be no way for anyone, black, white or anywhere in between to live and feel safe and secure. For many years, black and African-Americans have been forced to live with and account for the reality that they are perceived, judged and treated differently by law enforcement. The murder of George Floyd has sparked national outrage, and has mobilized a new social movement, Black Lives Matter (BLM). This movement has mobilized the awareness and support of over 40 percent of Americans from all occupations from across the country.6 BLM has succeeded in calling attention to the injustices committed against black and African-Americans on a daily basis. For the first time, systematic racism is being addressed on a national level. Black and African-Americans, and all of us who know that systemic racism is wrong and must be addressed, feel empowered to speak out. As Samoya Lynnae, tells us in her spoken word poem, “THIS IS AMERICA until WE ARE AMERICA”. In this poem she tells us that now, more than ever, we must stand against systemic racism until “we are America.” Her message is simple. It is that black and AfricanAmericans are not viewed as part of America, meaning they are not included in society as equals, and that we as a nation cannot stop working to change this reality until they are included and seen as such.7 The murder 4 5 6 7 8

of George Flyod was viewed by many as a tipping point in America’s realization that the existence of systemic racism must be acknowledged and addressed in our society; and that when incidents of police violence occur, those responsible must be held accountable. Soon after his death, protests spread across the country, and later the world, like wildfire. During the summer of2020, nearly all major cities had nightly protests, some peaceful and other less so. Unfortunately, regardless of the nature of the protest, those that turned violent did so due to actions of counter-protesters and agitators, and in some cases, the actions of law enforcement. The looting on the other hand had something of a different origin. Minneapolis was a city in which a protest turned violent. According to Brynley Louise, some protesters and those trying to help them went to a Target in Minneapolis to purchase milk for those who had been tear gassed. When the Target staff refused to sell it some people took milk to try to relieve the irritation and pain from the tear gas. Soon many other people, completely uninvolved in the protests, noticed what was happening and began taking expensive items like electronics, or just outright destroying property.8 Looting soon spread in protests across the country these incidents were covered by national media outlets and spread on social media. Arguably, this press coverage has actually benefited the BLM movement, because now the entire nation was seeing the impacts of systemic racism and how important it is that it be addressed. My active citizenship is about engaging in political matters on the local, state and national level by making educated decisions about speaking out, voting and being actively involved in the community on issues that I believe will benefit the greater good. There are many ways to be an active citizen in making a positive difference on the issue of systemic racism in our society. Voting, peaceful protesting, attending city council meetings and staying informed through credible and substantive sources are all avenues we should pursue as active citizens. In the wake of recent incidents of police violence and the ensuing protests, the stage is set for positive changes in public policy. However, unfortunately, progress will be slow. Although progress is being made, there is much work to do. One law

Felicia Campbell and Pamela Valera, “‘The Only Thing New Is the Cameras’: A Study of U.S. College Students’ Perceptions of Police Violence on Social Media,” Journal of Black Studies 51, no. 7 (July 2020): pp. 654-670, https://doi.org/10.1177/0021934720935600. Emily Ekins, “Policing in America: Understanding Public Attitudes Toward the Police. Results from a National Survey,” Cato Institute, October 21, 2020, https://www.cato.org/survey-reports/policing-america. Juliana Menasce Horowitz and Gretchen Livingston, “How Americans View the Black Lives Matter Movement,” Pew Research Center (Pew Research Center, August 20, 2020), https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2016/07/08/ how-americans-view-the-black-lives-matter-movement/. Samoya Lynnae, “‘THIS IS AMERICA until WE ARE AMERICA,’” August 26, 2020, https://www.facebook.com/samoyab/ videos/10220253742226369/. Brynley Louise, “Minneapolis Target Looting: It Actually Began with Gallons of Milk,” Film Daily, August 11, 2020, https://filmdaily.co/ news/minneapolis-target-looting/.

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that was created as a result of the Black Lives Matter movement is “Breonna’s Law” which would regulate the use of no-knock warrants. This would prevent police from being able to simply break into peoples’ homes with no notice, identification, or declaration of purpose. “Breonna’s Law” would require law enforcement officers to knock first and verify that they have the correct suspect.9 Another result of the Black Lives Matter Movement is that people are now beginning to realize and understand the degree to which some law enforcement departments have sought to evade public accountability. The national conversation is changing around police violence from one of denial and dismissal, to one of recognition and accountability. According to Teen Vogue, for the first time, the media is widely covering systematic racism and everyone is seeing what is happening. In addition, celebrities and other public figures have spoken out about what the Black Lives Matter Movement means to them. An example of this is an interview of Lebron James from the LA times. Lebron said, “we are scared as Black people in America. Black men, Black women, Black kids, we are terrified.”10 His insight, perspective and message can reach a huge audience, because there are basketball fans or Lakers fans who may not normally pay attention to critical issues like political violence, or systemic racism, but now they will because they know of and trust Lebron James. One controversial issue that has emerged from the Black Lives Matter is “defunding” police. This has not taken hold amongst elected officials yet and probably will not gain support in the future. Arguably, the phrase has been misrepresented to mean something that it was not intended to mean. It was not intended to mean a complete end to funding police departments as we know them, but rather it is a call to reassess public needs and reallocate scarce tax dollars appropriately. The purpose of the idea of “defunding” the police is not to erase the police, but rather rebalance the funding of public agencies that are better able to address some problems that the police are now being used to address, even though they are not properly trained and resourced to do so. In effect, such an approach would involve reallocating some resources from the police to other agencies where they could be better used to meet human needs such as social services and mental health services. Something that has been revealed in all of the controversy, debate and protests resulting from re9

peated incidents of police violence is that the police are responsible for responding to such a wide variety of issues that it is impossible for them to handle them safely and appropriately without proper education, training, and organizational structures. This strain on local police departments is very real today.11 An appropriate example of what the Black Lives Matter Movement is advocating would be a rebalancing and reallocation of funds away from law enforcement towards social and mental health services that are better equipped to deal with situations like displacement and poverty. This would allow police departments to set their full focus on issues like violent crime and ensuring community safety and security. Although many more people are seeing the evidence and impact of systematic racism firsthand and understanding the need for change, there are still many who do not agree. The unfortunate truth is that racism is not an old fashion phenomenon, as many believe that it is. Rather, systemic racism is a current societal problem in the United States. Just like any family beliefs, traditions and legacies, racist beliefs are passed down from one generation to the next. Although this cycle can be broken, it is often very difficult to do so because children are afraid to go against their families’ beliefs out of fear of rejection or resentment, or even estrangement. An example of an ideal or tradition that is passed down and has become a controversial issue is the meaning of the Confederate flag and Confederate monuments. Many people, especially people from states that were part of the confederacy from April 1861 to April 1865 support and use Confederate flag imagery because they believe it represents Southern pride and state pride. This reasoning, however, has no basis in truth. According to CNN, the version of the flag that is most commonly seen today was never even flown as a national symbol of the Confederacy during the civil war. Instead, it was specifically the battle flag of individual state units that made up Robert E. Lee’s Army of Northern Virginia.12 In fact, after the war Robert E. Lee himself refused to support or associate with any continued use of any flag representing the Confederacy writing, “I think it wiser moreover not to keep open the sores of war.” While president of Washington College in Lexington, Virginia, Lee prohibited the flying of any flag representing the Confederacy. Additionally, flags were absent from his funeral procession in 1870, and former Confederate soldiers did not

Lucy Diavolo, “The Protests Are Changing How People Think About Police,” Teen Vogue, June 8, 2020, https://www.teenvogue.com/story/ black-lives-matter-protests-new-laws-changing-thinking-about-police. 10 Tania Ganguli, “LeBron James Speaks out against Police Brutality: ‘We Are Scared as Black People,’” Los Angeles Times, August 25, 2020, https://www.latimes.com/sports/lakers/story/2020-09-03/lebron-james-we-are-scared-as-black-people-police-brutality. 11 Paige Fernandez, “Defunding the Police Isn’t Radical. It’s Logical.,” Cosmopolitan (Cosmopolitan, June 4, 2020), https://www.cosmopolitan. com/politics/a32757152/defund-police-black-lives-matter/. 12 Ben Brumfield, “Confederate Battle Flag: What It Is and What It Isn’t,” CNN (Cable News Network, June 24, 2015), https://www.cnn. com/2015/06/24/us/confederate-flag-myths-facts/index.html.

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wear their former Confederate uniforms. Robert E. Lee was buried in a civilian suit.13 In the century and a half since Lee’s death in 1870, however, The Confederate flag has come to be used by the Ku Klux Klan and other white supremacist organizations as an ideological symbol of white supremacy. For African-Americans the continued use of the Confederate flag has come to represent slavery and the inhumane hardships faced by black and African-Americans during the Jim Crow Era, which is most certainly not something in which any American in any state should take pride. Many who oppose or seek to diminish the goals of the Black Lives Matter Movement advocate an “alternate” idea that All Lives Matter. On the surface, this seems obvious and self-evident. Those who advocate this idea, however, too often dismiss or disregard the reality that repeated incidents of the unlawful use of deadly force against unarmed African-Americans, by law enforcement officers sworn to protect and serve their fellow citizens, and the subsequent failure to hold the police officers involved in these incidents appropriately accountable, sends a message that the lives of African-Americans matter less than other lives in our society. This “alternate” idea surreptitiously undermines everything Black Lives Matter stands for and seeks to accomplish. What many do not realize is that when someone says, “Black Lives Matter,’’ there is an invisible word at the end of that phrase. That work is, “too.” “Black lives matter too.” Some who oppose the movement’s message and goals misleadingly add a different invisible word to the phrase “black lives matter,” which is “only.” They mischaracterize the message of the Black Lives Matter Movement as being, “only black lives matter.” This characterization is not only false, but is nefarious in nature. The phrase “black lives matter” communicates a way to properly include black and African-Americans into society with all of the rights and protections guaranteed by citizenship, the way they should have been starting hundreds of years ago. The Constitution guarantees black and AfricanAmericans all of the protections and opportunities of access to public life the same as all Americans. Today black and African-Americans are not being afforded equality of opportunity to access all of the rights and protections of public life, but the same is not true for all Americans. Large-scale change is not going to happen instantaneously. It just won’t. For real change to begin, what needs to happen is for all Americans of good will to commit to exercising their active citizenship to work for change. Voting and participating in the political process are very important in this effort. However,

our active citizenship is about more than participating in the political process. It involves each of us, as fellow citizens, to respect the dignity and value of all people, through not only our thoughts, but our words and deeds as well. Then and only then will positive and substantive societal change be achieved through the elimination of systemic racism. The reality of our time is that as a matter of our national conscience, all lives cannot truly matter, unless and until Black Lives Matter (Too). Bibliography Campbell, Felicia, and Pamela Valera. “‘The Only Thing New Is the Cameras’: A Study of U.S. College Students’ Perceptions of Police Violence on Social Media.” Journal of Black Studies 51, no. 7 (2020): 654–70. https://doi. org/10.1177/0021934720935600. Feagin, Joe, and Eileen O’Brien. White Men on Race. Beacon Press, 2004. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?dire ct=true&AuthType=ip,sso&db=asn&AN=23438937&si te=ehost-live&scope=site. Hill, Evan, Ainara Tiefenthäler, Christiaan Triebert, Drew Jordan, Haley Willis, and Robin Stein. “How George Floyd Was Killed in Police Custody.” The New York Times. The New York Times, June 1, 2020. https:// www.nytimes.com/2020/05/31/us/george-floydinvestigation.html. Solly, Meilan. “158 Resources for Understanding Systemic Racism in America.” Smithsonian.com. Smithsonian Institution, June 4, 2020. https://www.smithsonianmag. com/history/158-resources-understanding-systemicracism-america-180975029/. Lynnae, Samoya. “‘THIS IS AMERICA until WE ARE AMERICA,’” August 26, 2020. https://www.facebook. com/samoyab/videos/10220253742226369/. Louise, Brynley. “Minneapolis Target Looting: It Actually Began with Gallons of Milk.” Film Daily, August 11, 2020. https://filmdaily.co/news/ minneapolis-target-looting/. Ganguli , Tania. “LeBron James Speaks out against Police Brutality: ‘We Are Scared as Black People’.” Los Angeles Times. Los Angeles Times, September 3, 2020. https:// www.latimes.com/sports/lakers/story/2020-09-03/ lebron-james-we-are-scared-as-black-people-policebrutality. Diavolo, Lucy. “The Protests Are Changing How People Think About Police.” Teen Vogue, June 8, 2020. https://www.teenvogue.com/story/black-lives-matterprotests-new-laws-changing-thinking-about-police. Brumfield, Ben. “Confederate Battle Flag: What It Is and What It Isn’t.” CNN. Cable News Network, June 24, 2015. https://www.cnn.com/2015/06/24/us/ confederate-flag-myths-facts/index.html. Nodjimbadem, Katie. “The Long, Painful History of Police Brutality in the U.S.” Smithsonian.com. Smithsonian Institution. Accessed January 28, 2021. https://www. smithsonianmag.com/smithsonian-institution/longpainful-history-police-brutality-in-the-us-180964098/.

13 Daniel Brown, “Here’s What Robert E. Lee Thought about Confederate Monuments,” Business Insider (Business Insider, August 16, 2017), https://www.businessinsider.com/robert-e-lee-opposed-confederate-monuments-2017-8.

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Ekins, Emily. “Policing in America: Understanding Public Attitudes Toward the Police. Results from a National Survey.” Cato Institute, October 21, 2020. https://www. cato.org/survey-reports/policing-america. Horowitz, Juliana Menasce, and Gretchen Livingston. “How Americans View the Black Lives Matter Movement.” Pew Research Center. Pew Research Center, August 20, 2020. https:// www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2016/07/08/ how-americans-view-the-black-lives-matter-movement/.

Fernandez, Paige. “Defunding the Police Isn’t Radical. It’s Logical.” Cosmopolitan. Cosmopolitan, June 4, 2020. https://www.cosmopolitan.com/politics/a32757152/ defund-police-black-lives-matter/. Brown, Daniel. “Here’s What Robert E. Lee Thought about Confederate Monuments.” Business Insider. Business Insider, August 16, 2017. https://www.businessinsider.com/ robert-e-lee-opposed-confederate-monuments-2017-8.

Student Reflection: As a human being I have a moral responsibility to advocate for equality for all members of our society. If any person is cast out, excluded, or ostracized in our society, we are all diminished. As a citizen, it is my duty to help them in any way I can. Systemic racism plagues America. To ignore this reality is the same as giving in -the same as saying, "It's ok." It's not ok. In our society, black and African Americans are treated unjustly, and even inhumanely, by police and certain groups based on historic biases, prejudices and factually false ideas and beliefs. We must expose and call attention to these injustices, and educate our fellow citizens to debunk hateful and destructive ideas and beliefs so that all people, including black and African-Americans, can live lives of dignity and be happy, respected and safe in our society. As citizens, we have power to create positive change. It is our responsibility and obligation to do so. Through our Active Citizenship -voting, peacefully protesting, staying informed, treating all people with kindness, dignity and respect - as a matter of conscience, we can make the promise of America real for all people - not just some.

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Color Is Only Skin Deep: America’s Promise, Systemic Racism, My Active Citizenship and “Freedom’s Song” Brianna Fry PLS 100: U.S. Government & Politics James R. Greenburg Assignment The purpose of this assignment was to enable students to read, think and write critically about a political issue, trend or movement of their choosing, which has appeared on the political scene since 2001. Students were required to identify a thesis question and construct an argument supporting their views on the issue in a formally prepared five page paper.

From the day we are born, we are endowed with our individual civil liberties and civil rights. As we grow, we take on identities, and form views, beliefs, and opinions. All of these, over time, become essential to who we are as human beings. Our value as human beings should not be defined by our skin color being a different shade than another’s. Individual characteristics vary both within and between any group of people. Those variations or differences are all part of who a person is and should not result in deliberate, irrational, and prejudicial treatment by others. Tall or short, freckled or smooth, thin or stout, dark or light; personal characteristics should not define who is deserving of human and civil rights. Here, it does not matter where you came from, what color your skin is, who your parents are, or what religion your practice. Here, all men and women are equal under the law. Here, you are judged by what you do, not be who you are. This is America’s promise. As an American, this is my “Freedom’s Song.” Of all human characteristics, skin color and race have evoked the most egregious and harmful societal divisions. In modern terms, discrimination based on the color of someone’s skin is known as racism. Slavery was abolished by the 13th amendment in 1865, but those of a darker skin tone are still treated as being less than equal by others, mainly Caucasians, and those who claim “power” to define the fundamental human rights of others. Kelly Bakshi writes, in her book, Roots of Racism, “Racism has affected various ethnic and racial groups worldwide. White, black, and brown people have experienced

racism throughout history. Why does racism persist?”1 Bakshi is confronting the pressing societal question of our time, “If racism is not a new concept and we know it is wrong, why is it still here?” The reality is that racism in our society has been allowed to remain discretely shrouded, politely unacknowledged, and unaddressed. She argues that this must change if our society is to live up to the ideal of equality of access to the opportunities and protections of the public space for all Americans, not just some.2 Throughout America’s history, social movements have brought awareness to societal needs and concerns that were not being appropriately or adequately represented within the political process – by our elected representatives. The Black Lives Matter (BLM) Movement is a current social movement that has gained widespread public support as it raises awareness of black citizens being systemically denied equal protection of the laws based on the color of their skin. Because of systemic racial bias and prejudice, and racial stereotypes based on perceived differences, black lives have come to be regarded as mattering less, and therefore, too often expendable. Since 1865, there have been changes made to our nation’s laws that advance equality for black people in the United States. These laws have not only benefitted black people, but they have benefitted all Americans. Among these are the 14th Amendment, the Civil Rights Act of 1964, and the Voting Rights Act of 1965. When all have equal access to due process and all the protections and opportunities of public life, we all benefit. Still, statistics show

1 Kelly Bakshi, Roots of Racism, (Minneapolis, MN: Abdo Publishing, 2017), p. 94 2 Megan Ming, Francis, director, “Let’s Get to the Root of Racial Injustice,” (Youtube, 21 Mar. 2016) youtu.be/-aCn72iXO9s,

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that the problem of systemic racism has not gone away. Rather, in some pockets of society, it has worsened to the point of renewed open and blatant – and sometimes, even aggressive – prejudice, bigotry and hatred being publicly paraded on our nation’s streets. Systemic racism remains a critical societal issue. According to a survey by the Pew Research Center, “More than fourin-ten [Americans]say the country hasn’t made enough progress towards racial equality…and there is some skepticism [about whether] black people will ever have equal rights with whites…”.3 This survey reveals that there is not a vast amount of hope that true equality for blacks will be achieved any time soon. In a larger sense, this means that systemic racism is not something that will be resolved without all of us doing our part to eliminate it as an insidious factor in our society. To some, this may not seem like an issue at all, but rather simply a matter of misplaced or misinformed opinions or perspectives. But if you are a person of color in our nation, you know that systemic racial bias, prejudice, racism and bigotry is a very real and a very damaging issue. Black people feel as though their concerns are not being heard, even though statistically, they are voicing their opinions through voting, protesting, and social movements.4 The critical issue of systemic racism has not been adequately addressed. Society has not made needed progress towards valuing all lives in our society – including black lives – equally by ensuring and protecting the fundamental human rights of all people equally. Our political process is essential to addressing this issue. Without political representation and consensus, progress cannot be achieved. This is important, because when rights are not represented and protected fairly and equally, loss of confidence in our governing institutions can result when people lose faith in the political process.5 Some believe that the United States was built on the exploitation of people who were in the social, economic, and political minority. According to Christine Barbour, in America’s representative democracy “Rights are so important, so sought after, and so controversial because they are fundamentally about power: they confer power on people and limitations on government.”6 Civil liberties and civil rights – basic human rights – have always been a topic of debate and compromise among those who have power over others. Beginning with the Constitutional Convention, “We the people,” through our political process, have

utilized compromises to create and sustain a government that could secure the ideal of balancing liberty and freedom with justice – in theory, for all. By their nature, compromises are often imperfect, and have permitted racism and unequal treatment of others to persist in our pursuit of realizing our national ideal of equality of opportunity and justice for all. In this context, even the Constitution, our society’s great equalizer as the law of the land, came up short in specifying fundamental rights for all citizens. The Framers did not count African-Americans as equals meriting individual rights, but as part of a caste system of property in a compromise that allowed slave-owning states to increase and secure their political power. Christine Barbour and Gerald Wright characterize the Three-Fifths Compromises as a disgraceful tool used not to give voting rights or any political power to slaves, but to further the agenda of southern states to have disproportionate representation in the House of Representatives and thus, more political power.7 While the compromise succeeded in preventing the southern states from maximizing all of the power they sought in the new government, it failed to acknowledge and protect the basic human rights of Americans who were enslaved solely because of their racial identity. The Constitution succeeded in achieving an acceptable balance of power between the states and the new national government, but the balance of “power” remained unchanged as far as race was concerned. When the majority has the power to take away or diminish a minority’s individual civil liberties and civil rights legally, and without fear, the results can and will impact the course and progression of humanity over time. These long-lasting consequences have caused ripples of tension and conflict throughout our nation’s history within the social, economic, and political arenas. These ripples, sometimes growing into waves and even storms throughout our history, have included struggles for social access and status; economic access and prosperity; and political access to the vote and representation. By extension, all these impact how African Americans view politics and how they view government as a whole. This is important, because persisting systemic racism directly impacts equality of opportunity for access to all the promise, opportunities and protections of the public space for all, not just some, Americans. All lives are diminished unless and until black lives matter equally with all other’s lives. According to

3 Anna Brown, Kiana Cox and Juliana Horowitz, “Views on Race in America 2019.” Pew Research Center’s Social &Demographic Trends Project, (Pew Research Center, 8 Oct. 2020), www. Pewsocialtrends.org/2019/04/09race-in-america-2019/. 4 Caroline S. Clauss-Ehlers and William D. Parham, “Stepping Out, Stepping Up, and Staying Strong: Using Vigilance as a Tool for Preserving Rights and Promoting Social Justice.” Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, vol 45, no. 3, 2017, pp. 214-229. doi:10.1002/ jmcd.12075 5 Ibid. 6 Christine, Barbour, Am Gov: Long Story Short (Thousand Oaks, CA; Sage CQ Press, 2019.), p.73 7 Ibid.

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Solomon, Maxwell, and Castro, in their article, “Systematic Inequality and Economic Opportunity”, the facts of “...segregation and the persistent devaluation of workers of color are a direct result of intentional government policy.”8 These are critical issues of systemic racism in our society that show that systemic bias, prejudice, bigotry and racism that manifest themselves in public policies such as segregation, affects the rights of people of color by communicating that people of color are unimportant – that their interests, needs and concerns, indeed their lives, do not matter as much as those of others. This persistent denial of equality affects every aspect of the lives and communities of peoples of color. Valerie Wilson and Jahcova Williams research reveals that, “In 2018, the median black household earned just 59 cents for every dollar of income the median white household earned, which is unchanged from 2017”.9 The disparity in wages affects equality in several different ways, including how society perceives, understands and responds to racism. An enculturated economically devalued view of African Americans cripples others’ ability to see all people of color as equal and to see racism as a societal problem, not just an individual problem. As the world changes and people of color assume roles of increased responsibility, authority, power and prestige in society our shared perception of human dignity and value will increase – we will be a better, more just and more equal society. However, this cannot be achieved until racism in federal, state, and local policymaking is eliminated and along with it the disparities and injustices based on race and the resulting denial of access to opportunities for all people. Some racial groups have exercised their Active Citizenship to call our society’s attention to the injustice of systemic racism and vocalize their discontent with three realities of the current racial divide in our nation. First, with the slow pace at which change towards racial equality is occurring in the U.S. Second, with the growing divide between racial groups in a growing number of communities. And finally, with the growing social, economic and political impacts of lack of representation and progress on the injustices created by the persistence of systemic racism in our society.10 Some view slow government changes regarding racism as a step in the right direction while others, who have lived a life being viewed and judged under the scrutiny of the lens of color, disagree. According to the founders of the Black Lives Matter Movement, slow progress

appears to be no progress when people are being killed by law enforcement officers because of their race. The Black Lives Matter Movement promotes awareness and a cohesive message while exercising our common responsibility and obligation to use our active citizenship to voice discontent with the insufficiency or absence of local, state, and federal laws that ensure the accountability of local law enforcement departments to the communities they are sworn to protect and to serve. The assertion is not that one race is better than the other, but that justice and equality must start at the grass-roots level of life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.11 As a 17-year-old ineligible to vote in the 2020 Election, there are many ways in which I can make my voice heard now. I will choose now to participate in peaceful, nonviolent protests and demonstrations in support of issues and causes that matter not only to me, but also to others. I will stand up to societal injustices, and call attention to and denounce bias, prejudice, bigotry and racism when I encounter them. I recognize that in the next presidential election in 2024, I will be one of the many who will have to make a personal decision concerning candidates for whom I will vote. But before the next presidential election there will be several smaller elections that will be just as important as the presidential election. I will exercise my rights as an active citizen today in every way in which I am guaranteed by the Constitution and the Bill of Rights – at every opportunity. There is no single way to simply be involved that will guarantee positive change towards racial justice and equality, but through my determined and responsible active citizenship there are many ways I can help to create better and more equitable and just outcomes. In addition to voting, I will use my voice to speak out against social injustices and systemic racism while still abiding by the laws and rules currently in place to address the COVID-19 Pandemic, like wearing masks and social distancing. I will strive to broadly inform and mature my understanding of politics and our political process – and my role within it. As I do so, I will learn to discern between the real issues of substance and importance to our society and mindless and deceptive character assassinations, name-calling, disinformation and political grandstanding by some who might seek to obscure or deny the reality of systemic racism and who seek to obstruct efforts to achieve the promise of a “more perfect union” of equality and justice for all. I

8 Danyelle Solomon, et al. “Systematic Inequality and Economic Opportunity.” (2019), p. 8 www.americanprogess.org/issues/race/ reports/2019/08/07/472910/systematicinequality-economic-opportunity/. 9 Jhacova Williams, and Valeria Wilson, “Racial and Ethnic Income Gaps Persist amid Uneven Growth in Household Incomes.” (Economic Policy Institute, 2019), www.epi.org/blog/racial-and-ethnic-income-gaps-persist-amid-uneven-growth-inhousehold-incomes/. 10 Solomon, et al. p. 17 11 Megan Ming, Francis, director, Let’s Get to the Root of Racial Injustice, (Youtube, 21 Mar. 2016) youtu.be/-aCn72iXO9s

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will use my desire to unite people of all backgrounds, to include racial, ethnic and religious backgrounds, and vote for candidates, who shares my convictions, values, ideals, principles and respect for all mankind. As Kim Gallon stated in her article, Black Voices Matter when she quoted a song by Ella Baker, “Until the killing of black men, black mothers’ sons, becomes as important to the rest of the country as the killing of a white mothers’ son, we who believe in freedom cannot rest.”12 The dignity and value of all lives are diminished unless and until black lives matter equally with the lives of all others, America’s promise cannot be fulfilled. As an American, this too, is my Freedom’s Song. Bibliography Bakshi, Kelly, and Eileen O’Brien. Roots of Racism. Essential Library, an Imprint of Abdo Publishing, 2018. Barbour, Christine, and Gerald C. Wright. Am Gov: Long Story Short. CQ Press, 2020. Francis, Megan Ming, director. “Let’s Get to the Root of Racial Injustice.” Youtube, 21 Mar. 2016, youtu. be/-aCn72iXO9s. Gallon, Kim. “Black Voices Matter.” AARP The Magazine, 2020, pp. 36–39.

Horowitz, Juliana Brown Anna, and Cox, Kiana. “Views on Race in America 2019.” Pew Research Center’s Social & Demographic Trends Project, Pew Research Center, 8 Oct. 2020, www.pewsocialtrends.org/2019/04/09/ race-in-america-2019/. Parham, William D., and Caroline S. Clauss-Ehlers. “Stepping Out, Stepping Up, and Staying Strong: Using Vigilance as a Tool for Preserving Rights and Promoting Social Justice.”Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, vol. 45, no. 3, 2017, pp. 214–229., doi:10.1002/jmcd.12075. Solomon, Danyelle, et al. “Systematic Inequality and Economic Opportunity.” 2019, www.americanprogress. org/issues/race/reports/2019/08/07/472910/ systematicinequality-economic-opportunity/. Wilson, Valerie, and Jhacova Williams. “Racial and Ethnic Income Gaps Persist amid Uneven Growth in Household Incomes.” Journal of the Economic Policy Institute, 2019, www.epi.org/blog/racial-and-ethnicincome-gaps-persist-amid-uneven-growth-inhouseholdincomes/.

Student Reflection: Too many people do not understand that politics, racism, and social inequality are connected by a common thread. I wrote this paper to help increase understanding of two important issues of our time and how our society will address systemic racism, inequality and injustice, and the role of our government in advancing basic human rights for all Americans. My research focuses on systemic racism as a source of inequality and injustice. It reveals that systemic racism is destructive of too many lives and communities in our society. In my writing, I found agency in my Active Citizenship - in using my voice to express my perspective and point of view. It is said that young people are the future. As a 17-year old African American woman in 2ist century America, I cannot - and will not- be afraid to speak out against systemic racism, inequality and injustice. Speaking out on these critical issues will positively impact the future. As Americans, we must acknowledge and address the corrosive impacts of systemic racism in our society. We cannot stand in the shadows wishing it away. Our actions and words are the building blocks of America's promise that creates positive change in our "one common country."13

12 Kim Gallon, “Black Voices Matter.” AARP The Magazine, 2020, pp. 36-39 13 Abraham Lincoln letter to Francis P. Blair, esq. of January 18· 1865.

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Editor's Choice Third Place, Upper Level

The Need to Restore Faith in Politics Steve Fares PLS 300: Advanced American Government and Public Policy Dr. Lawrence Bailey Assignment Using the Ezra Klein book as the primary source, write a paper that makes an argument for what is the current state of American politics and its near-term future (10 years out). The paper should focus on the current state of parties and elections, core institutions, and outside influences (IGs, Media, Money). Make an argument for how we should view the current state or status of American politics and how the current situation will play out in the next decade.

On January 6th of 2021, a mob of supporters of U.S. President Donald Trump stormed Congress in an effort to overturn the 2020 presidential election. More than two hundred years earlier, a similar event happened in France with the storming of the Bastille. Both events were a result of distrust in leadership. However, France was a monarchy and the U.S. is a democratic republic. Even though time has passed since the storming of the Bastille and even though it occurred in France, both the storming of congress and the storming of the Bastille show how easily the public can come to distrust their government and act upon it, especially under the perception of elite control. While there is some truth to elite control in the U.S. today, ultimately, the attack on Congress was unprecedented, and the reason for the attack (distrust in leadership) is a result of propaganda that has disintegrated the public’s faith in our political system and led to extreme polarization. This polarization is discussed in Ezra Klein’s book Why We’re Polarized, which shows how and why the American political system is divided and what this means for the U.S. Polarization has led to the public’s doubt in our country’s leadership, which has been demonstrated through media coverage, media consumption habits, presidential elections, and other aspects of our culture. This paper will argue that the current view of American politics is one of deterioration and disintegration. Furthermore, it will bring together solutions for our current state and advocate for one goal: to restore our faith in politics over the next decade. How We Are Polarized Before I argue that we need to restore faith in the U.S. political system, I want to establish the need to restore faith. In Why We’re Polarized, Klein (2020) uses examples to show how polarization manifests itself. He argues that ticket splitting–voting across party lines–is less common now than ever before. He says parties used to overlap, but the divide is widening. Klein

(2020) uses the analogy that partisan politics is like sports because of team or party loyalty. It is easy to see what the other team (or party) is doing wrong but it is harder to see the faults of one’s own team (or party). However, dislike for a team (or party) can be even more powerful than loyalty, especially in politics. Klein (2020) describes this phenomenon as negative partisanship–voting against a party as opposed to voting in favor of a party. Negative partisanship has played a role in the widening partisan gap, which has increased from 15% to 36% over the years. Klein is not the only scholar to recognize the political divides we see today. The UCLA Social Science Division (2021) uses a line graph to illustrate the polarization of major party ideology in congress. The graph shows there was a time when ideology overlapped, but now ideology is separating outwards. In her book Super Mad at Everything All the Time, Allison Dagnes (2019) has also shown how media factors into polarization. She finds four primary reasons for how our political media has become polarized: grounds for separatism (conservatives believe academia, government, and media are liberally biased), creation of niche narrow casting that generates partisan news (caused by technological advancement), growth of a right-wing media bubble (the conservative alternative to liberally biased media), and cocoons (the public cocoons itself in ideological bubbles). As mentioned earlier, there is a need to restore faith in the political system. From reading other scholars’ work, I believe four actions can be taken to achieve this goal: educating the people, listening to others, reinvigorating federal service, and counteracting the elites. The next section will explain each of these actions. Educating the People The first way to address polarization is to educate the public. In “Education, Not Income, Predicted Who Would Vote for Trump,” Nate Silver (2016) 143

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found that education levels predicted whether voters supported Clinton or Trump in the 2016 presidential election. Educated people were more likely to vote for Clinton, while non-educated people were more likely to vote for Trump. Though these statistics are clear, the interpretation is not. Silver (2016) argues that emotional appeals may play a factor in the polarization and specifically mentions that Trump uses emotional appeals in his campaign approach. In the United States of Conspiracy, Frontline (2020) found that Alex Jones, who was influential in Trump’s campaign, also uses emotional appeals to mobilize people. I believe if the public is educated about the widespread use of emotional appeals, they will be more likely to detect them. Silver (2016) also mentions that education levels can impact media consumption. Again, I believe if the public is educated on what to look for in their media sources, they will be more likely to choose a reliable source, rather than someone like Alex Jones or other fake media sources. Some of the strategies to recognize fake news, provided by Kerri Miller and Elizabeth Shockman (2017) in “7 Ways to Recognize and Deal with Fake News,” include looking at the sources, consulting the original source to gather information, researching whether the outlet has ethical reporting standards, learning to recognize media bias through the stories that the outlet covers, and recognizing one’s own biases. This last point about recognizing one’s own biases is important because education can actually strengthen bias. In “Why We Believe in Alternative Facts” and Chapter 4 of Why We’re Polarized, Kirsten Weir (2017) and Klein (2020), respectively, cite a study by Yale Professor Dan Kahan and colleagues, which suggests that the smarter a person is, the more likely they are to resist facts that go against their political ideology. According to Klein (2020), “People weren’t reasoning to get the right answer; they were reasoning to get the answer that they wanted to be right” (p. 91). Weir (2017) also mentions the importance of media literacy. She claims that readers should pay close attention to the source, consider possible biases or motives, think about what details news source may have left out, and remember that teaching only goes so far. As Klein (2020) mentions, people can still show bias and may become even more biased, as a result of their education. This is why we need other solutions to help restore faith. Education will not be enough on its own. Listening to Others Beyond education, it is important to listen to other people’s opinions, rather than enclosing oneself in a bubble or echo chamber. In Super Mad at Everything All the Time, Allison Dagnes (2019) presents an opportunity to combat the fast and loud political discourse of today. She claims the public must, “turn down the 144

volume of political discourse and listen to others...” (p. 23). Similarly, in “Why We Believe Alternative Facts,” Kirsten Weir (2017) argues for less talking and more listening. Weir (2017) finds that it is better to work with people’s motivations rather than fighting against them. It helps to know people’s attitude roots–their fears, ideologies, worldviews, vested interests, and identity needs. Weir (2017) uses the example of vaccine skeptics: if someone wants to convince a vaccine skeptic that immunizations are safe, first that person needs to know what motivates the skepticism. Instead of getting angry with those who disagree, it is better to befriend them and understand them–to listen. Klein, however, finds that the public is unwilling to listen and engage with those who have differing views. In Why We’re Polarized, Klein (2020) claims that we are so locked into our political identities that there is virtually no candidate, no information, no condition, that can force us to change our minds” (p. xiv). In chapter 4 of Why We’re Polarized, Klein (2020) goes on to say that humans are social creatures and therefore will “flip their positions” to fit the group. This flipping is not constructive when political groups are in search of power, rather than the truth. In this sense, Klein’s work furthers the notion that listening is important. In another study on partisanship, Sean Westwood and Shanto Iyengar found when awarding a college scholarship, Republicans and Democrats cared more about the political party of the student than the student’s GPA (Klein, 2020). As Iyengar claims, “political identity is a fair game for hatred” because political beliefs are a choice with moral implication (p. 75). However, as Klein (2020) notes, if we live in a world where a student loses out on a non-political scholarship due to their party affiliation, it is unlikely that in this same world politicians are listening to opposing parties on emotional and controversial issues. Though we are not currently listening to one another, we need to take Weir’s advice to understand others instead of getting angry and staying in our ideological bubbles. Reinvigorating Federal Service In addition to educating the public and listening to others, we need to get back the spirit of service. According to Paul Light (2008) in “Government Ill Executed: The Depletion of the Federal Service,” Alexander Hamilton argued for seven characteristics of an energetic federal service: extensive and arduous enterprise (taking on difficult problems), clarity of command (strong links between executive branch and federal bureaucracy), post of honor (qualified, upstanding leaders with merit and expertise), vigor and expedition (upholding the law), sprit of service (motivation by public service), steadiness in administration, and safety in the executive (transparency and accountability).

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President Donald Trump and the way that he ran his office did not follow this spirit of service. As Klein (2020) notes, “Trump’s most offensive rhetoric comes on a direct conveyer from conservative media feeding him conspiracies that he transforms into presidential proclamations” (p. 163). Trump is not following Hamilton’s third characteristic, post of honor, in that he uses conspiracy theories to inform his ideas. In “United States of Conspiracy,” Kirk et al. (2020) note that Trump has tried to gain votes from polarizing figure Alex Jones’s audience and has suggested support of Jones’s theories. Trump was also lacking in Hamilton’s sixth characteristic, steadiness in administration. According to Stephen Hess and James Pfiffner (2020) in the podcast “Organizing the Presidency, from Roosevelt to Biden” Trump was not able to delegate to his chief of staff, and those who have served as Trump’s chief of staff have been ineffective in managing the White House. Trump has had four chiefs of staff, four press secretaries, and four national security advisors in the last four years. Turnover causes chaos and often triggers more turnover (Hess & Pfiffner, 2020). As Light (2008) mentions in “Government Ill Executed: The Depletion of the Federal Service,” the energetic federal service is “on overload.” The public must recognize the hard work that goes into achieving Hamilton’s energetic service. Only when the government is at its best, when it is properly executed, will faith be restored in our political system. Counteracting the Elites Lastly, to restore faith in the U.S. political system, it is important to counteract elite control. Klein (2020) has noted that “…political elites are polarizing more and faster than the public at large, but as the public tunes in, it becomes more polarized, too” (p. 17) The message is clear that political elites are polarized. These polarized political elites also control the status quo. In “Don’t Worry About Special Interests,” Jonathan Ladd (2015) identifies two types of people who have influence in interest groups: those with strong opinions and those who have socioeconomic resources. The former, Ladd is not concerned with. He believes agitation and protest are good for democracy. However, he is concerned about the wealthy elites. Those with more resources and more money have an easier time participating and gaining control over elected officials (Ladd, 2015). Elites have found ways to donate extraordinarily large amounts of money toward political campaign efforts. According to political science professor Lawrence Bailey (2021), elites often gather all their information about a campaign before they create their super PAC, and then create the super PAC to raise money in favor of the campaign without being directly involved. Elites

also donate to 501(c)(4) groups, a type of non-profit organization to launder money. Unlike super PACs, 501(c)(4) groups do not have to disclose donors, which leads to “Dark money” or funds difficult to trace back to their donor (Kasinuas et al., 2016). The good news, according to Nina et al. in “Interest Groups, Super PACs, and Independent Expenditures: Driven by Ideology,” is that technological advancement has led to the ability to collect large amounts of money from grassroots small donor contributions statewide and nationally. Act Blue can collect small donations from many donors, Stay Woke can collect petition signatures, and Bots can be used to run automated tasks. In this way, Kasinuas et al. (2016) argue that technology is allowing grassroots-oriented interest groups to raise the same amount of money as the wealthy groups. Social media, internet fundraising and organizing, blogs, podcasting, online videos, and email lists are also useful for grassroots efforts because they connect groups with voters. As a result, the public can raise more money than ever (Kasinuas et al., 2016). Though the elites are injecting a great deal of money in politics, rather than trying to control or limit the elites, it is better to counteract them. Raymond La Raja and Brian Schaffner note that regulations on money do not keep money out of politics but redirects the channels through which money gets into politics (Klein 2020). In “Money is the Gatekeeper of Politics” La Raja (2020) claims again that the problem is not corporations, corporate money, super PACs, or giving money straight to a politician. The problem is how money enables the wealthy to dominate the circulation of political ideas and policies. According to La Raja, money structures the political power of gatekeeping and determines our existing state of affairs. His solution is to promote strategies that act as a counterweight for wealthy interests. Some of these strategies include strengthening underrepresented institutions that represent marginalized citizens (labor unions, churches, and other non-profits), increasing public investment in legislature so that Congress can think for itself rather than relying on lobbyists, supporting the emergence of lobbyists on behalf of underrepresented populations, and developing policies in favor of independent local news coverage in communities (La Raja, 2020). These solutions and others can be used to balance populist and wealthy interests. Conclusion The unprecedented attack on Congress was a result of propaganda that has disintegrated the public’s faith in our political system and led to extreme polarization. This polarization is discussed extensively in Ezra Klein’s book Why We’re Polarized, which shows how and why the American political system is divided and what this 145

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means for the U.S. Polarization has led to the public’s distrust in the government, which has been demonstrated through media consumption habits and other aspects of our culture. This paper argued that the current view of American politics is one of deterioration and disintegration. Furthermore, it brought together solutions for our current state and advocated for one goal: to restore our faith in the political system over the next decade. From reading other scholars’ work, I believe four actions can be taken to achieve this goal: educating the people, listening to others, reinvigorating federal service, and counteracting the elites. Although the country is polarized, there is hope for a more civil union among citizens of the United States, but the nation must change its current state of being. If we focus on education, listening, reinvigorating the federal service, and counteracting the elites, we can make a difference for the next generation of citizens. References Bailey, L. (2021). PLS 300 week 4 lecture. Retrieved from https://ship.zoom.us/rec/share/snkb4gkIopk qwnSUCv3eUdwN6D3NHi_1Hgertb3vb17rkeVnCaM601RI6jBthcT.PYdWPV_ZIJt2YAIV?startTi me=1610133966000 Dagnes, A. (2019). Super Mad at Everything All the Time. Springer International Publishing. Finan, B., Hess, S., &amp; Pfiffner, J. (2020, December 23). Organizing the Presidency: From Roosevelt to Biden. The Brookings Institution. https://www.brookings.edu/podcast-episode/ organizing-the-presidency-from-roosevelt-to-biden/. Kasniunas, N. T., Keckler, C. N. W. & Rozell, M. J. (2016). Interest groups, super PACs, and independent expenditures: Driven by ideology. In R. J. Semiatin (Ed.), Campaigns on the cutting edge (pp. 119–136). SAGE Publications.

Kirk, M., Bennett, P., Gilmore, J., & Wiser, M. (2020). United States of conspiracy. PBS. https://www.pbs.org/ wgbh/frontline/film/united-states-of-conspiracy/. Klein, E. (2021). Why We’re Polarized. Avid Reader Press. La Raja, R. (2020, October 18). Money is the gatekeeper of politics. Public Books. https://www.publicbooks.org/ money-is-the-gatekeeper-of-politics/. Ladd, J. M. (2015, September 11). Don’t worry about special interests. Vox. https://www.vox. com/mischiefs-of-faction/2015/9/11/9279615/ economic-inequality-special-interests. Light, P. C. (2008). A government ill executed: The depletion of the federal service. Public Administration Review, 68(3), 413–419. https://doi. org/10.1111/j.1540-6210.2008.00878.x Miller, K., &amp; Shockman, E. (2017, July 18). 7 ways to recognize and deal with fake news. MPR News. https://www.mprnews.org/story/2017/07/18/ how-to-recognize-fake-news. Silver, N. (2016, November 22). Education, not income, predicted who would vote for Trump. FiveThirtyEight. https://fivethirtyeight.com/features/education-notincome-predicted-who-would-vote-for-trump/. UCLA Social Science Division. (2021). Congress at a glance: Major party ideology. Voteview. https://voteview.com/ parties/all. Weir, K. (2017, May). Why we believe alternative facts. Monitor on Psychology. https://www.apa.org/ monitor/2017/05/alternative-facts.

Student Reflection: At the beginning of the winter term, I reached out to the Writing Studio Coordinator, Crystal Conzo, who I had worked with in Fall 2020. She helped me organize folders on my computer, download the readings, and preview my course textbook. Each day of the week, I would read the articles, with support from Crystal as needed. Over the winter, Crystal and Shelbie D’Annibale from OAR finally helped me find a reading software that works for me. Crystal and I also discussed note taking strategies for reading and for the recorded lectures. This is important because I usually have a notetaker, but I didn’t this winter. Once the writing assignment came out, I had all of my notes prepared and ready to write the paper. The ideas flowed naturally because of the way Dr. Bailey structured the course. The readings built on each other. Overall, the final writing assignment gave me the opportunity to show what I learned through the entire semester. I have come a long way in writing papers. Each semester I am getting better in terms of writing, communicating my ideas, and understanding the gist of assignments. I am so thankful for this opportunity.

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Do Athletes Who Abuse EPO and Blood Transfusions Increase Their Cardiovascular Risks? Molly Herigan ESC 321: Exercise Physiology I Dr. William Braun Assignment Develop a research question pertinent to exercise physiology and locate, read and discuss research studies that address the specific question. Write a synthesis paper that describes the rationale for this research question, the studies that have been conducted and how their findings have helped to answer the question.

General Information About Erythropoietin Erythropoietin, commonly known as EPO, is a protein hormone acting as the main regulator of red blood cells through erythropoiesis (1). It is mainly produced in the kidneys with small amounts in the liver. Red blood cells are the main carriers of oxygen to the rest of the body through the use of hemoglobin, so increasing the number of these cells will increase the O2 carrying capacity of the body, therefore increasing endurance performance (5). These procedures were first performed on anemic patients to increase their energy so they could resume their normal life. Currently it is still used on patients with anemia, but has become more readily available to athletes who wish to cheat and artificially increase their performance (1).Throughout the field of athletics there are a variety of ways that athletes are manipulating their bodies in order to increase their hematocrit. The two ways that I am going to focus on are blood transfusions and administration of recombinant human erythropoiesis-stimulating agents, (rHuEPO). The practice of blood doping is defined as the misuse of substances or certain techniques to optimize oxygen delivery to muscles with the aim to increase performance in sports activities (1). Blood transfusions involve a process in which blood or blood-based products are transferred into the circulatory system of an individual in order to increase the amount of circulating red blood cells (1). These transfusions can be homologous or autologous. Homologous blood transfusions involve the infusion of blood from one or more donors of the same blood type. In autologous blood transfusions, 1 to 4 units of blood are withdrawn and centrifuged, and these stored red blood cells are generally reinfused back into the original donor 1 to 7 days before competition (1). Each of these methods has its advantages and disadvantages, which will be discussed later.

The use of erythropoiesis-stimulating agents (rHuEPO) is another way that athletes can increase their red blood cell count in their body. This doping method was discovered well after the use of blood transfusions and simplified blood doping in sports (3). Once this was discovered, the practice of blood transfusions greatly decreased due to the simplicity of this method. Unlike blood transfusions, which require substantial infrastructure and logistics, rHuEPO can be administered by simply using a subcutaneous or intravenous injection (1). Effects of Blood Doping on Exercise Performance A study by Sgro et al. (5) involved an empirical trial that looked at 11 different studies regarding the effect of the administration of the drug rHuEPO on athletic performance. All of the data supported the fact that after administering rHuEPO, athletic performance was improved in one way or another. One trial found that after 6 weeks of 3 doses per week, hematocrit values increased from 44.5% to 49.7% (5). The next trial found that after 5 weeks of 3 doses per week, VO2max (maximal aerobic capacity) increased by 7.7%, 9.7% and 4.5% at the end of weeks 4, 8, and 12 respectively, while the placebo group showed a slight decrease in VO2max (5). Total time to exhaustion (TTE) was also significantly increased after the administration of rHuEPO with starting values of 12.8 minutes and ending values at 14 minutes (5). While testing TTE, three submaximal cycling intensities were used: 60%, 72%, and 80% of VO2max. Data from all other studies supported these results as well. Another study by Malm et al. (3) examined the effect that autologous doping with cryopreserved red blood cells had on physical performance. Unlike the study above, this study used the doping method of blood transfusions to increase red blood cells. As mentioned before, autologous blood transfusions include 147

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reinjection of one’s own blood. Cryopreservation is when blood is stored at freezing temperatures where it can be preserved and used at some point in the future. A total of 29 individuals participated in this experiment and were randomized into a control group and a transfusion group (3). Hematocrit and VO2 values were measured before donation, after donation, and after reinjection. Blood donations happened at week 1 and week 2 for a total of 900 mL of blood. The red blood cells were then cryopreserved to be used later in the study. Throughout this study, aerobic work capacity and physical performance were tested 9 times using VO2max testing and time to exhaustion testing during treadmill running. These 9 tests occurred 48 hours before blood donation, 5 and 15 weeks after donation, 48 hours after RBC reinfusion, and weeks 1, 2, 3, and 4 after reinfusion. Compared to the control group, time to exhaustion was decreased following blood donation and increased 48 hours after RBC re-infusion. To go along with this, VO2max and running performance decreased significantly after donation compared to baseline, indicating the important role RBCs play in exercise performance (3). After re-infusion of RBCs, performance increased by about 20% and, in some, it remained increased for up to 3 to 4 weeks (3). It was also found that components such as VO2max can be elevated for weeks after infusion, while time to exhaustion may only be elevated for several days, indicating the need for reinfusion and strategic timing of infusion (3). In response to these blood transfusions the largest change in hematological variables occurred 48 hours after blood donation (3). These changes included a decreased number of RBC, decreased blood volume, and decreased total hemoglobin mass. It was found that blood hemoglobin levels are normalized about 5 weeks after donation while VO2max is not recovered until 48 hours after reinfusion, suggesting an inevitable decrease in performance following blood donation. Regardless of the method used, it can be estimated that elite athletes can improve their performance by up to 3% with blood doping (3). For reference, this improvement is equivalent to a two hour faster winning time for the Tour de France or 7 minutes faster in a 90 km cross country ski race (3). Detection and Prevalence of EPO Abuse in Athletes A study by Wintermantel et al. (6) looked at the doping cases among elite athletes from 2000-2013. The goal of this was to answer the following questions: How many doping cases exist among elite athletes who compete in Olympic disciplines? For which countries do these athletes compete? Is there a relationship between certain Olympic sports and the number of doping cases? Which substances and methods are used most often to increase performance? 148

The cases that were examined occurred after the establishment of the World Anti-Doping Agency in 1999 and up until 2013. The WADA banned the use of many techniques to increase the oxygen carrying capacity, which included blood transfusions and EPO hormone injections (3). A total of 1,236 cases were found; the sports with the most cases were track and field followed by weightlifting and cycling. These cases were found throughout 120 different countries with the most coming from Russia and the U.S (6). These results strongly suggest that there is a very high prevalence of doping among elite athletes all over the world and participating in many different disciplines. It is clear that blood doping is prevalent in sports all over the world. This is a big problem because the use of blood transfusions or the drug rHuEPO can be hard to detect in some cases. Blood doping is not a new practice and has been occurring for more than 40 years. Before the 1990s blood transfusions were the main doping method, but once rHuEPO was introduced this became the doping method of choice. It was not until methods of detecting rHuEPO came to be that transfusions became popular again (1). Although there are ways to detect rHuEPO use and homologous blood transfusions, there has been no direct method to test for autologous blood transfusions which could still be widely used today (3). Another study by P. Johansson et al. (2) looked at the hemoglobin levels in blood donors and competitive rowers to see what normal levels were and if levels could be high without doping. A total of 85,646 blood donors and 1,406 rowers with a median age of 27 participated in the study. Reference values are set in athletics and those who have a hematocrit above this value may be excluded from competition. For this study any hematocrit above 51%, or hemoglobin above 10.5 mM for males and any hematocrit above 47%, or hemoglobin above 9.7 mM for females was considered too high for competition. It was found that of the blood donors 3.9% of males and 1.6% of females had blood hemoglobin above the recommended level and 10.4% of male rowers and 8.3% of female rowers had high levels. This study shows that there are a great number of normal individuals and athletes who have higher than recommended hemoglobin levels and would be suspected of doping even though that may not be the case (2). This study clearly shows that detecting blood doping may be a lot trickier than expected and other ways may need to be developed. Health Risks of EPO Abuse and Blood Transfusions Many athletes who abuse rHuEPO and blood transfusions only consider the benefits to performance and ignore the potential short and long-term health risks. For example, rHuEPO use was suspected of having caused the death of nearly 20 European cyclists over a four-year period (1).

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Blood transfusions are associated with many health risks. Homologous blood transfusions involve the infusion of blood from one or more donors with the same blood type. The benefit of this method is that the blood can be infused immediately so there is less risk of damage from storage, but there are also a lot of disadvantages. The disadvantages include potential transfer of infectious diseases such as hepatitis, HIV, and syphilis as well as reactions to transfusion such as fever or shock (1). For both autologous and homologous methods of transfusions, the large increase of RBCs can cause hyper-viscosity syndrome. This is characterized by an increased blood viscosity and decreased cardiac output and blood flow, which results in a reduction in peripheral O2 delivery (1). As mentioned before, while storing RBCs for later infusion some cells may become damaged, which can be dangerous to an athlete. Damaged RBCs that are infused into circulation can release free hemoglobin, which may cause sudden changes in blood pressure. In addition, a high number of circulating RBCs will increase the viscosity of the blood. This increased blood viscosity along with hot weather and dehydration may cause even more cardiovascular risk. All of these factors increase the probability of ischemia and heart attacks (1). There are also a variety of risks associated with rHuEPO abuse. Erythropoietin (EPO) is a glycoprotein that stimulates reproduction and maturation of erythroid cells in the bone marrow. Recombinant human erythropoietin (rHuEPO) was produced to stimulate erythropoietin in order to increase circulating red blood cells, which would then increase hematocrit levels. More circulating red blood cells means an increase of oxygen delivery to the muscles increasing athletic performance (4). A study performed by Piloto et al. (4) aimed to evaluate the cardiovascular effects of rHuEPO in rats under chronic aerobic exercise. A total of 28 rats were tested under 4 conditions: a sedentary control group, a sedentary rHuEPO group, a control group, and a swimming with rHuEPO treatment group. The rats under rHuEPO treatment showed an increase in red blood cell count compared to the control, as well as an increase in blood pressure and heart rate. In week 8 of this study, a rat from the exercise and treatment group suffered a sudden death during a swimming session with the hypothesis of heart failure as the cause of death. Rats under this rHuEPO treatment showed increased cardiovascular risk due to increased RBC count accompanied by hypertension, tachycardia, and increased blood viscosity. This data indicates an elevated risk may be associated with rHuEPO treatment in athletes (4). Athletes choose to use erythropoietin in sports due to the increased oxygen capacity that it provides. The

main risks of this include heart failure, myocardial infarction, seizures, peripheral thromboembolic events and pulmonary embolism (4). Endurance athletes, the primary users of blood doping, are at greater risk during competition because of their great loss of fluids while sweating. This is dangerous because, while doping, blood viscosity is already heightened and a loss of body fluid increases it even more, thereby creating more of a risk. Overall, erythrocytosis increases the risk of myocardial infarction, stroke and mortality, which was observed in the study with rats but can also demonstrate the risk to athletes who are under similar conditions (4). Limitations of Research Each of the studies that I reviewed had some type of limitation, but that does not take away from the breadth of information they provide. The study by Sgro et al. (5) pulled data from other experiments to create their study so it was not a direct experiment done on athletes. The next study by Malm et al. (3) only had a total of 29 participants, which is a fairly small sample size. The third study by Wintermantel et al. (6) talked about prevalence of blood doping throughout athletics. Although there was a large sample size used, this one study cannot show how many doping cases there really are. The last by Piloto et al. (4) was done on rats, which can be beneficial to research, though it would have been more beneficial to perform the trials on humans in order to see exactly how our bodies would react to the different conditions. Is Additional Research Needed? After reviewing some research studies on this topic, I would say that additional research is needed. When looking for relevant research topics it was hard to find articles that directly examined the cardiovascular risk to EPO abuse in athletes. Additionally, when researching this topic, I found a lot more information on blood transfusions rather than EPO abuse which shows that there needs to be more research done on the use of EPO. My Conclusion Athletes who abuse EPO and other forms of blood doping are at a higher risk of stroke and/or heart attack. Increasing the number of red blood cells in the body may be beneficial for athletic performance, but it is very dangerous for the heart and other parts of the body. Increasing blood viscosity can be detrimental to the heart and can cause many complications, which can end up being fatal. Many athletes have already died from these unsafe practices of blood doping. Athletes need to reconsider the risks of blood doping rather than focusing exclusively on the benefits. 149

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References 1. de Oliveira, C. D. R., de Bairros, A. V., & Yonamine, M. (2014). Blood Doping: Risks to Athletes’ Health and Strategies for Detection. Substance Use & Misuse, 49(9), 1168–1181. 2. Johansson, P. I., Ullum, H., Jensen, K., & Secher, N. H. (2009). A retrospective cohort study of blood hemoglobin levels in blood donors and competitive rowers. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 19(1), 92–95. 3. Malm, C. B., Khoo, N. S., Granlund, I., Lindstedt, E., & Hult, A. (2016). Autologous Doping with Cryopreserved Red Blood Cells – Effects on Physical Performance and Detection by Multivariate Statistics. PLoS ONE, 11(6), 1–25.

4. Piloto, N., Teixeira, H. M., Teixeira-Lemos, E., Parada, B., Garrido, P., Sereno, J., Pinto, R., Carvalho, L., Costa, E., Belo, L., Santos-Silva, A., Teixeira, F., & Reis, F. (2009). Erythropoietin promotes deleterious cardiovascular effects and mortality risk in a rat model of chronic sports doping. Cardiovascular Toxicology, 9(4), 201–210. 5. Sgrò, P., Sansone, M., Sansone, A., Romanelli, F., & Di Luigi, L. (2018). Effects of erythropoietin abuse on exercise performance. The Physician and Sportsmedicine, 46(1), 105–115. 6. Wintermantel, J., Wachsmuth, N., & Schmidt, W. (2016). Doping Cases among Elite Athletes from 2000 to 2013. / Dopingfälle bei Spitzenathleten in den Jahren 2000 bis 2013. German Journal of Sports Medicine / Deutsche Zeitschrift Fur Sportmedizin, 67(11), 263–268.

Student Reflection: Getting assigned a research paper on the first day of a class can be an intimidating task for some and definitely was for me. From choosing a topic to finding research articles and combining them all into one paper I was very overwhelmed at first. Shortly after choosing my topic I began to look into some articles that I may want to use and started to become excited for this paper that seemed so challenging. The amount of information that I have learned just by writing one paper was amazing. Not only did I enjoy reading previous research on this topic but also enjoyed the process of writing this paper. Once I compiled all of my research and got my information organized the paper pretty much wrote itself. I did have some challenges along the way but overall I enjoyed this assignment and am proud of my work.

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How Does Altitude Sickness Affect Athletic Performance? Alexis Estep ESC 321: Exercise Physiology I Dr. William Braun Assignment The assignment provided a summary and interpretation of four studies in the field of exercise physiology. The research collected was used to answer the question of how acute mountain sickness affects athletic performance and what further research may be needed to continue the analysis.

General Information About Altitude Sickness Altitude sickness occurs typically at elevations of 8,000 feet or higher. Altitude sickness is split into three categories: Acute Mountain Sickness (AMS), High-Altitude Cerebral Edema (HACE), and HighAltitude Pulmonary Edema (HAPE) (2). Hackett et al. (2) report that AMS has similar symptoms to an alcoholic hangover: headache, vomiting, nausea, fatigue, and loss of appetite. Symptoms usually occur two to twelve hours after arrival at the higher elevation and can be worsened after sleep at the higher elevation. AMS symptoms typically disperse after twenty-four to forty-eight hours. HACE, on the other hand, is much more fatal although rarer. HACE has all the symptoms of AMS with added lethargy, confusion, ataxia, and drowsiness (2). Immediate descent is required or death or hypoxia may occur within twenty-four hours. HAPE is the most fatal of the three with initial symptoms of breathlessness with exertion, and later breathlessness with no exertion (2). Oxygen needs to be supplied immediately and descent is highly recommended if possible. HAPE effects 1 per 1,000 skiers in Colorado and 1 per 100 climbers at elevations exceeding 14,000 feet (2). Acute acclimatization is essential when traveling to an area of higher elevation. Locations such as Denver may not need several days of acclimatization at various elevations whereas La Paz, Bolivia does. It is recommended that individuals stay at an elevation of 8,000 feet for three to five days before ascending to 10,000 or more feet. Airplanes will typically land at a lower elevation and the rest of the drive or climb will need to be done after the acclimatization period. After acute acclimatization, exercise performance will be decreased, ventilation will be increased, and hemoglobin concentration will be increased (2). The purpose of this paper is to better understand the physiological reasons for AMS as well as how AMS symptoms appear

in individuals with different physical fitness, training type, and other conditions. Acute Mountain Sickness in a General Tourist Population at Moderate Altitudes The research conducted by Honigman et al. (3) examined a large quantity of “average” people rather than athletes. The study defined moderate altitude as elevations between 6,300 and 9,700 feet. (1,9202596 meters) The subjects were men and women attending conferences at a variety of resorts and hotels in Colorado. Subjects were given a questionnaire and a brief description of the study typically within forty-eight hours after their arrival. Out of the 4,212 individuals given questionnaires 3,158 completed them (3). The questionnaires collected data on demographics such as age, height, weight, and permanent residence (used for elevation comparisons.) The subjects were also asked how physically fit they thought they were and if their physical activity had been restricted while at the higher elevation. Lastly, the subjects were asked if they had any of the symptoms of AMS. If they checked off three or more boxes on the list for AMS, they were diagnosed with AMS. Honigman et al. (3) found that twenty-five percent of participants had three or more symptoms. Seventythree percent had one symptom which was most commonly headache. Sixty-five percent of participants noticed these symptoms within twelve hours of arriving, whereas thirty-four noticed symptoms within twelve to thirty-six hours; and the remaining one percent noticed symptoms after thirty-six hours. Fifty-eight percent noted that they took Ibuprofen or Tylenol after symptoms started and twenty-eight percent stayed the night at a lower elevation before fully ascending. Finally, forty-four percent of participants found no decrease in their physical activity, fifty-one percent found moderate decrease in physical activity, 151

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and five percent were bed-ridden. Women, those with heart or lung conditions, younger individuals, and those pregnant were found to be more susceptible to AMS (3). Headache was likely the leading symptom due to it being a common symptom for many physiological changes or disturbances. The decrease in oxygen from the individuals’ permanent residence elevations applies discomfort to the brain due to less oxygen intake than what the body is used to. Physical activity was not decreased at altitude by many due to the fact that the individuals were not athletes and did not normally perform large amounts of physical activity (3). Those who declared themselves less physically fit were not found to differ in symptoms of AMS from those who were more physically fit (3). Therefore, fitness level did not seem to alter the risk of developing sickness at altitude. Maximum Aerobic Capacity and Running Performance at Altitude The study conducted by Faulkner et al. (1) examined differences in VO2max (maximal aerobic capacity) of collegiate athletes at various elevations. All participants performed VO2max tests and timed mile trials at sea level (SL). The participants were then divided into three experimental groups for five to six weeks of training. Participants recruited at the National Collegiate Athletic Association Outdoor Track Meet trained at 2,300 meters for six weeks. Participants from the Pennsylvania State University Track Team trained for two weeks at 2,300 meters, 1 week at 3,100 meters, then once more at 2,300 meters for an additional two weeks. Participants from the University of Michigan trained at 4,300 meters for five days, 2,300 meters for four weeks, and then an additional five days at 4,300 meters. Each group was instructed to run thirty to eighty miles per week using a mix of interval training and cross country running. The high-altitude group found difficulty in following the instructions due to acute mountain sickness during the first five-day trip. As a result, the only physical activity performed were the bike ergometer tests and brief walks. The high-altitude group also struggled setting up a treadmill due to inclement weather and lack of equipment for maximal tests during the first visit. The second visit allowed for ten miles to be run due to inclement weather and rough terrain. Both tests were able to be used the second time. The treadmill tests were set up at 8 mph and the participants would run for four to eight minutes. A percent grade was calculated for each individual. The percent grades at sea level ranged from 10-17.5%, 2,300 meters ranged from 5-12%, 3,100 meters ranged from 5-7.5%, and 4,300 meters ranged from 2.5-7.5% (1). The bike ergometer test was performed by starting 152

each participant at 300 kgm/min and then adding 75 kgm/min each minute until VO2max was reached. None of the experimental groups showed much difference during the post tests performed at sea level. The group decrements for VO2max while at various elevations, however, were 3-19% at 2,300 meters, 19-21% at 3,100 meters, and 24-29% at 4,300 meters. The high-altitude group also showed a difference in ventilation equivalents with their results at 4,300 meters being 57 l/min while running and 51 l/min cycling compared to around 38 l/min for both at sea level. A higher ventilation signifies greater metabolic stress. The high-altitude group appeared to be the only group to experience AMS symptoms due to all the individuals being higher trained aerobic athletes. Inclement weather and rough terrain made training difficult for the group and perhaps more differences would be seen during the post tests if training was less sporadic than with the other groups. The ventilation equivalents of the high-altitude group along with the VO2max decrements confirm the difficulty of oxygen consumption and usage at higher elevations. More studies are needed with more stable training and conditions to further the research. Exercise Exacerbates Acute Mountain Sickness at Simulated High Altitude The study conducted by Roach et al. (4) examined the difference between two, 10-hour days at a simulated altitude of 4,800 meters using a decompression chamber. Each participant performed a progressive exercise test prior to the study using their voluntary maximal workload on a cycle ergometer. On one day of the experiment the seven healthy men performed 30-minute bouts of submaximal exercise which were measured as 50% of their altitude specific workload. They performed four x 30-minute bouts in a six-hour time. The last four hours were spent in the decompression chamber. On the other day of the experiment, the men were sedentary for their 10-hour period at altitude. Acute Mountain Sickness symptoms, resting minute ventilation, pulmonary function, arterial oxygen saturation, fluid input, and urine volume were collected every three hours. Much of the data was collected by breathing through a mouthpiece with a nose clip on for five minutes then measured with a digital flowmeter, fuel cell oxygen analyzer, infrared carbon dioxide analyzer, pulse oximetry, and an automated electronic spirometer. The AMS symptoms were determined by using a 0-3 scale for each symptom. This resulted in a 0-12 scale, 3+ being a sign of moderate AMS, and 6+ being a sign of severe AMS. A high prevalence (86%) of the subjects experienced 3+ AMS scores during the exercise trial. One subject experienced a 3+ AMS score

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during sedentary conditions in comparison (4). One subject left the chamber after six hours due to an AMS score of 7. Urine volume decreased in exercise conditions between the three-and-six-hour marks. The majority of the men experienced AMS symptoms during the exercise trials due to working at submaximal rates with no acclimatization. Even without acclimatization and the vigorous work only one individual had a severe case of AMS. This is likely due to the fact that each individual performed at a work rate set specifically for them. It was not mentioned if the individual who experienced AMS symptoms on the sedentary day was one of the individuals that showed symptoms the exercise day or was the unlucky one that suffered the more severe case. This information would be interesting and noteworthy in the research. The reduction in the subjects’ urine volumes between the three- and six-hour mark could be reflective of increased fluid retention that might raise the risk of pulmonary edema. The fluid retention could also be attributed to demands to maintain heat balance as a result of the exercise. Heightened Exercise-Induced Oxidative Stress at Simulated Moderate Level Altitude vs. Sea Level in Trained Cyclists The study conducted by Wadley et al. (5) examined oxidative stress in cyclists trained in the past at higher altitudes. The subjects had to be in a healthy condition, experienced cycling at altitudes but not in an altitude-based training program for a year prior to the study. VO2max was found for each subject one to two weeks before the experimental tests started. The VO2max tests were performed on an electric ergometer starting with 60 W and increasing by 35 W every three minutes until VO2max was reached or the cyclist could no longer continue. The experimental tests used a work rate corresponding to 70% of the individual’s VO2max (5). Both tests were seventy-five minutes long, one under normal conditions and one under simulated elevation equivalent to 2,000 meters using an altitude chamber. Blood samples were collected before each test, directly after, and two hours post-test. Plasma parameters of oxidative stress were measured. These included protein carbonylation (PC), thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS), total antioxidant capacity (TAC), and catalase activity (CAT) (5). PC increased in the simulated altitude test and decreased in the normal condition test. CAT increased under both conditions but stayed above normal after the two-hour post examination. TBARS and TAC had no differences. The subjects had 10.5% lower power output under the simulated altitude test although there was no change in heart rate or blood lactate (5).

The individuals’ oxidative stress being measured through plasma parameters allowed for examination of cellular level metabolic stress, rather than only providing differences in VO2max like other studies. The increase in CAT and the above normal levels after the two-hour post period provide insight into the body’s need to balance oxygen needs even after exercise was performed. The demands of the body manifest in different ways, especially in extreme conditions. The fact that the individuals’ bodies were attempting to provide themselves with more oxygen after the stress was over supports this point. The lower power outputs coupled with no increase in heart rate or blood lactate provide evidence of the heightened metabolic stress associated with performing work in high altitude environments. Conclusions From the research studied. it can be concluded that altitude sickness can affect athletic performance. As with any illness or condition performance will be restricted especially with more severe AMS or any case of HACE or HAPE. If a competition is to be performed at a high elevation a team from sea level or a low elevation would want to arrive to the competition several days early to allow their players to at least become partially acclimated to the altitude. The likelihood of having AMS symptoms if exercising at heavy workloads or intensities immediately after arriving at high elevation is very high. It is unclear if athletic performance is improved over a short period of time (2-6 weeks) based on the research studied. However, long term training at higher elevations should allow for improvements through adaptations of the body as long as training is controlled and monitored so injury or any adverse conditions can be avoided. My research was limited by the fact that many of the articles found were older and employed less advanced assessment techniques. The research may still be valid or more contemporary studies may have shown different results. Each individual study had its own limitations including incomplete participation, small sample sizes, and issues in performing the same tasks for all experimental groups. Further research could look into performance of various sports other than cycling and running and looking at differences between individuals who have lived at high altitude vs those who have lived at low altitude their entire life. The research provided in this paper confirmed my suspicions about how AMS symptoms vary in individuals depending on physical fitness, activity, and altitude conditions they were exposed to. Each study gathered their data through different means. However, in the future I would like to continue the research on AMS and look into how it affects a variety of athletes. Examining the VO2, plasma parameters, symptoms, 153

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etc. of athletes across many sports at a facility such as the Olympic Training Center in Colorado Springs and perhaps the surrounding colleges and high schools of the area could provide further insight into how athletes of different playing levels, different backgrounds, and permanent residences perform at higher altitudes. References Faulkner, J. A., Kollias, J., Favour, C. B., Buskirk, E. R., & Balke, B. (1968). Maximum aerobic capacity and running performance at altitude. Journal of Applied Physiology, 24(5), 685-691. doi:10.1152/ jappl.1968.24.5.685 Hackett, P. H., & Shlim, D. R. (2019, October 18). High-Altitude Travel & Altitude Illness - Chapter 3 - 2020 Yellow Book. From https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/ travel/yellowbook/2020/noninfectious-health-risks/ high-altitude-travel-and-altitude-illness

Honigman, B., MD, Theis, M., MA, Koziol-McLain, J., RN, MS, Roach, R., MS, Yip, R., MD, PhD, Houston, C., MD, & Moore, L. G., PhD. (1993). Acute Mountain Sickness in a General Tourist Population at Moderate Altitudes. The Nurse Practitioner, 18(6), 11. doi:10.1097/00006205-199306000-00005 Roach, R. C., Maes, D., Sandoval, D., Robergs, R. A., Icenogle, M., Hinghofer-Szalkay, H., Loeppky, J. A. (1999). Exercise Exacerbates Acute Mountain Sickness At Simulated High Altitude. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 31(Supplement). doi:10.1097/00005768-199905001-00813 Wadley, A. J., Svendsen, I. S., & Gleeson, M. (2017). Heightened Exercise-Induced Oxidative Stress at Simulated Moderate Level Altitude vs. Sea Level in Trained Cyclists. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism, 27(2), 97-104. doi:10.1123/ ijsnem.2015-0345

Student Reflection: The topic of the paper and the research presented have been an interest of mine since middle school and high school due to personal experiences performing competitively at high elevations. My coaches would always offer little bits of advice that they found slightly helped their athletes overcome acute mountain sickness symptoms over the years. Even with their advice teams from coastal and lower elevations would always struggle more than those that were used to the Colorado elevations. I was intrigued by the fact that AMS symptoms always were more pronounced in the outfielders and middle infielders than the corners, pitchers, and catchers. The research I presented helps understand why smaller, lighter, more oxidative reliant players succumb to AMS more than their counterparts. I hope to continue finding more answers to my questions by reviewing other’s research along with presenting my own research.

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Provost's Award College of Education and Human Services

Determination of Oxygen Uptake and Running Economy Brooks Bear ESC 421: Exercise Physiology II Dr. William Braun Assignment

This assignment was a lab experiment used to demonstrate our understanding of the material learned throughout the duration of the course. We were to record various measurements that go into deriving a person’s running economy for four students. Our conclusions were then compared to an academic journal publication of our choosing with findings in a related experiment.

Introduction An athlete’s work capacity is extremely important regardless of the sport in which they participate. For aerobic based athletics, the best indicator of work capacity is “VO2max” (maximal oxygen uptake). This measure reflects a person’s ability to produce work using the aerobic energy system. VO2 can be measured using a machine called a metabolic cart. A VO2max assessment can help the athlete determine workout intensities as well as how ready they are for competition. The person conducting this test must be knowledgeable of the calibration process, the equipment set up, and the operation of the metabolic cart throughout the exercise test. The metabolic cart measures variables based on expired gases. Some of these include RER (respiratory exchange ratio—indicator of fuel use: carbohydrate vs. fat), VO2 (rate of oxygen use), energy expenditure rate (calories used to perform task), and ventilation (Ve, volume of gas moved through lungs during inhalation and expiration). In this lab, we compared results of VO2, RER, respiratory rate, and Ve of each of four individuals who completed the testing protocol. We then completed calculations to determine oxygen use relative to their body mass per kilometer (km) of distance (ml/kg.km). This variable allows for oxygen use to be normalized across different running or walking speeds. The purpose of this lab was to increase knowledge of, and experience in operating, the Metabolic Cart, as well as learn how to assess economy of running and caloric expenditure from data derived of expired gases. Methods The procedure for this lab began with calibration of the metabolic cart (ParvoMedics TrueMax 2400, Provo UT). To start, the cart was turned on and warmed up

for 30 min prior to calibration. Two calibrations were performed based on manufacturer recommendations: flow rate and gas calibration. Following calibration, the test subject’s information was entered into the computer software. This included height, body weight, age, and sex. Once the individual’s data was entered, a sterilized mouthpiece was provided to the subject then connected to expired gas tubing that feeds into the cart’s mixing chamber (from which gas concentrations are sampled continuously during the testing). Once the student and cart were completely set up, the student blocked the nose with a nose clip to ensure all ventilated gases were directed from the mouth to the tubing. The test subject then stood for two minutes to collect resting baseline measures. After this period, the subject walked on the treadmill at 4mph for three minutes, then jogged for three minutes at the same speed. This was followed by a four-minute running stage at a self-selected pace determined by the subject. Once the final stage of the test was concluded, the student was to remain hooked up to the tubing and cart to collect recovery data for 2 min. After this, the student helper proceeded to end the test on the computer monitor and the test subject removed the nose clip and mouthpiece, which were then re-sterilized. During testing, heart rate was continuously monitored via telemetry using a chest strap transmitter and wristwatch receiver (Polar A7 Heart Rate Monitoring System, Polar, Inc.). Results The results of this lab were interesting because had the oppurtunity to practice how to collect all of the data and information we’ve talked about throughout this semester. Over the course of the running economy test, we saw how different bodies respond to running as well as what type of training they perform. 155

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Averages Rest Walk @ 4mph

Table 1. Mean results (n = 4) for each stage of the protocol (RER = respiratory exchange ratio; RR= breathing frequency; HR = heart rate; RPE= rating of perceived exertion). VO2 (L/min) VO2(ml/kg.min) RER RR(b/min) Ve(L/min) HR(bpm) RPE 0.35 4.48 0.94 14.5 12.57 86 N/A 1.53 19.12 0.84 22.75 34.14 119 10

Jog @ 4mph

2.01

25.13

0.88

26.25

47.72

135

10.5

Running

2.8

34.92

0.94

72.82

164

13.2

Recovery

1.27

1.04

23.5

40.46

N/A

For example, someone who is an aerobic athlete will often show a lower VO2 during aerobic exercise, than someone who is not accustomed to running. Following this trend, their ventilation rate will be much lower due to regularly running, their body is much more used to working at intensities for long durations. To make more accurate comparisons, the individual’s results as well as average results per category will be displayed on graphs. Based on the data collected, each subject’s metabolic responses follow the same path, except for subject 4. All participants increase in oxygen cost when going from the walk to the jog. Although the treadmill speed remained the same, the modified gait resulting from jogging at 4 mph causes the body to use more oxygen (less economical pattern of movement). For the last stage of the test, all subjects increased running speed. They were not all the same speed, but they all increased which means intensity increased as well (Figure 1). When examining this transition using oxygen cost per km (Figure 2), the run speed was not substantially different from the 4.0 mph jog speed for two participants, was higher for one subject, and was lower for

the final subject. These responses signify that subject economy varies widely. Subject 4 showed a decrease in oxygen cost at the run speed; this could be related to her being an aerobic athlete who is trained to run. She could be used to working at much higher intensities for longer durations. Although there was a speed increase, it did not affect her like the other students due to her training background. Further, it would commonly be expected to see the highest oxygen cost per km during the 4.0 mph jog due to the awkward gait patterns associated with jogging at a walking speed. In this protocol, subjects selected to run at fairly slow treadmill speeds (4.8 -6.0 mph). So, it’s possible that either they were not accustomed to running or the selected run speed was not fast enough to support an improvement in economy. Subject 3 presented the lowest oxygen cost per km throughout the entire experiment. A cause of this could be training status or it could be related to gait factors, as this was the tallest participant. Height may contribute to a lower oxygen cost per km reflecting a higher economy of movement (i.e., lower energy cost). Using the VO2 per km rather than the rate of oxygen use per minute provides us an idea of

Figure 1. Sex comparison of VO2 response by exercise stage expressed per minute. Run speeds varied by subject.

Figure 2. The oxygen cost per kilometer of each participant during each exercise stage. Run speeds varied by subject.

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how much oxygen is used at each phase of the experiment based on a fixed distance (i.e. whether speed or mode of movement alters the total energy cost to cover a fixed distance). VO2 expressed per minute gives us an idea of how much more oxygen is consumed as intensity increases over time. Using this variable, oxygen use will always increase as intensity or work rate increases in a linear fashion. During the 4.0 mph walk (Table 2), subjects 1 and 4 reflect a greater contribution of fat to their energy production (RER <0.85) while subjects 2 and 3 reflect a greater contribution of carbohydrate (RER >0.85) to their energy production. For RER, a value of 0.7 would represent pure fat oxidation and a value of 1.0 would represent pure carbohydrate oxidation (a value of 0.85 would be balanced fat and carbohydrate oxidation). This is interesting to me because walking is not a high intensity exercise. However, when looking at height of the subjects, the two who were more on the fat oxidation side were taller, which meant they had longer legs, and didn’t have to stride as much. Whereas, the two subjects who used more CHO had shorter legs, meaning they had to take more strides and work harder to perform the same task. Another measurement I noticed was the heart rates for each subject. One had a moderately high HR at 141 bpm, which is almost 20 beats faster than the next highest HR at 123bpm. There are a variety of reasons for this to occur, one could be the participant was out of shape. It may be the subject was not used to working at that rate, so their heart had to work harder to fulfill oxygen needs of the body. Analyzing these data sets gives a small indication as to who has the best economy for running. Subject 4 has the lowest HR as well as the lowest ventilation rate. This means their body is accustomed to endurance training and will likely perform better in an aerobic environment. Figure 3, shows VO2 in L/min over the course of the exercise. As expected, it increases as intensity

increases. Each liter of oxygen is equivalent to 5 kcal (Calories) of energy. Thus, energy expenditure rates are easily derived from oxygen uptake rates. A person with a larger body mass should reflect a higher rate of oxygen use for rest and fixed work rate exercise when expressed in L/min. Figure 4 compares VO2 measurements expressed per unit of body mass per minute (ml/kg.min). This expression of VO2 allows for direct comparison of oxygen use rates among people of different body mass. Exercise VO2 measures can be compared using this unit as long as the same work rate is applied to subjects. Subject 4 appears to consume the least amount of oxygen in L/ min for each exercise stage; however, when expressed as per kg of body mass, they are consuming more oxygen than any other subject. This likely signifies that this subject has the lowest body mass while also revealing a lower economy of movement during common work rate exercise stages (walk and jog at 4.0 mph). Figure 5 shows the Respiratory Exchange Ratio of each subject as well as averages in each phase of the experiment. This measurement indicates what fuel source is being used across each phase. It generally ranges from 0.7-1.0, the lower end of the spectrum signifying fat use, and the upper end signifying CHO usage. Half the subjects appear to be utilizing CHO at rest, which could be the result of stress induced from the testing apparatus (mouthpiece and nose clip). It can be uncomfortable for some to breathe through a giant tube and have their nose clamped, as well as with the mouthpiece making it hard to swallow. This discomfort causes hyperventilation which artificially elevates the RER measure. However, once exercise begins, all subjects have the response expected throughout the protocol. As work rate builds, RER will also increase reflecting a shift from fat towards greater reliance on CHO to fuel the muscles. The elevated RER during recovery is also reflective of hyperventilation. Increased CO2 production elevates this measure.

Table 2. Subject responses to walking at 4.0 mph. Subject

RER

Ve (l/min)

HR (bpm)

RPE

0.82

30.1

106

0.9

42.46

141

0.9

36.78

123

0.74

27.22

104

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Figure 3. VO2 measurements expressed as L/min for each stage of the protocol.

Figure 4. VO2 measures expressed as ml/kg.min for each stage of the protocol.

Figure 5. RER levels of each participant throughout each stage of the protocol. A lower RER is reflective of a greater fat contribution. A higher RER is reflective of a higher carbohydrate contribution. An RER exceeding 1.0 is indicative of a hyperventilation state.

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Figure 6. Respiratory rate (breaths/min) for each phase of the protocol.

Figure 7. Ventilation rate (L/min) for each subject over the course of the protocol.

Figure 8. Caloric expenditure (kcal/min) of subjects 1 and 4 during the walk and jog phases of the experiment.

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Figure 6 displays the breaths per minute each subject took during each stage of the protocol. Almost every subject responded in a similar manner. They experienced an increase in breaths per minute as exercise intensity increased. This is a response to bring more oxygen into the body, but more importantly respiratory rate (and ventilation) increases to expire the increased amounts of carbon dioxide being produced by the body. There was one subject who decreased in breaths per minute from the walk to the jog. This could be due to the subject being in very good shape, or not experiencing any intensity increase from the walk to the jog. Figure 7 displays how each subject’s ventilation changed throughout the experiment. This graph has different influxes, although both have to do with breathing during exercise. For example, in the RR graph, subject 4 had the highest breaths per minute rate, which might be presumed to lead to the highest ventilation as well. However, this is not the case. When looking at volume of gas moved through the lungs, subject 2 has the highest value of all the participants. A cause of this could be that he is among the heaviest, and tallest subjects. So, his lungs are naturally bigger and have the ability to move more gas. Discussion The purpose of this lab was to interpret running economy of laboratory participants based on data obtained from expired gases that were analyzed using a metabolic cart. We could then infer training history, muscle fiber type, and training status based on the body’s response to the applied stress. Using the metabolic cart data, we were able to assess oxygen uptake rate under various conditions. This measure also enables assessment of energy expenditure rate. Resting metabolic rate (RMR) is the caloric expenditure measured under specified resting conditions, whereas basal metabolic rate (BMR) is the minimum number of calories needed to perform living functions, also under specified conditions. While we obtained resting data, our results do not accurately reflect either RMR or BMR as our subjects stood quietly on the treadmill and were not completely at rest. Other factors would affect our resting measurements, including lack of familiarity with the testing equipment, which raises stress on the subject. This is evidenced by the high RER and Ve measures we observed at rest. Normally, under true rest, we would expect to see RER values closer to 0.7 and Ve closer to 6 L/min (standard for resting state). Oxygen cost was not the same for all subjects even though all subjects performed a jog at 4 mph for three minutes during the first exercise stage. This is because each body worked at a different intensity based on training background, body size differences, and gait 160

factors. For instance, someone who is more endurance trained should show a lower VO2 at the same fixed work rate as, through training, they develop better economy of movement. In contrast, someone with a higher body fat percentage or with poorer economy will have a higher VO2 and RER because that person probably doesn’t train as regularly and will be forced to rely more on CHO stores. This is due to their body not being as adapted to exercise, so it cannot make as much of a smooth or fast transition to an aerobic state. Further, if untrained, the work represents a greater physiologic strain which normally leads to higher CHO oxidation. Factors that influence a runner’s economy would be stride length and rate, movement mechanics, increased VO2max, decreased ventilation during exercise, and a lower heart rate. Having a greater VO2max means their body can consume more oxygen and utilize it for work, meaning they can work at a higher capacity than others. Often as VO2max increases, fat oxidation can also be improved during sub-maximal exercise (signified by a lower RER measure). A lower Ve during exercise means the body does not need to expire as much CO2 as another person, meaning their ventilation threshold is much higher than others. This is also reflective of a better capacity to use fat for fuel and of less lactic acid production (acid production drives CO2 production through a buffering process). Along with this, having a lower heart rate during this experiment shows that the intensity was not that difficult for them. This means they can work at higher intensities and longer durations compared to other students. Another factor to look at is muscle fiber type. Someone with a greater abundance of Type I fibers (oxidative fiber type) will be able to perform better in an aerobic state than someone with Type IIb (fast oxidative and glycolytic) or IIx (fast glycolytic). An athlete with a higher number of Type I fibers will have a better muscle fiber make up for running economy than someone with more explosive, anaerobic fibers. To manipulate a person’s economy of movement you could increase speed or increase the angle at which they run. This will cause the body to have to move faster or in a different direction than before. Over time this will fatigue the athlete more and reduce their running form, making it less effective. Although each subject performed exercise at the same 4.0 mph treadmill speed for the first two stages, caloric expenditure values varied across subjects. When looking specifically at subject 1 and 4, subject 4 has the better running economy as reflected by the lower total energy expenditure rate. During the walk at 4mph, subject 4 used 1.02 fewer Calories per minute compared to subject 1. Then, when transitioning to a jog at the same speed, subject 4 used 2.08 fewer Calories per minute than subject 1. This most likely is related

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to training background, body mass, and what muscle fiber type they have. Notably, body mass does influence the total energy cost. It’s also worth noting that the energy cost of jogging at a walking speed is substantially elevated. This would be reflective of a poorer economy (higher oxygen use to perform at the same treadmill speed). Those who are better trained for distance running will typically exhibit a higher economy, meaning that running would be less energetically expensive. A person’s running economy is affected by multiple genetic and environmental factors that make up that runner. Along with gait pattern, fiber type is a huge factor in running economy. Someone who primarily has Type I muscle fibers will be more efficient and better suited at operating in an aerobic state than someone who primarily has Type II muscle fibers. Type II fibers are more explosive and are most effective for power events such as jumping, throwing, or power lifting. Some Type II fibers have aerobic characteristics in them, but they are generally more effective in an anaerobic state. Another characteristic that can affect running economy would be body type. Someone who genetically carries more adipose or muscle tissue than someone who has more of an ectomorphic (lean frame with little muscle content) build will not likely have as good of an economy for running. More tissue means more weight, and more weight means more stress on the body than someone who has a smaller frame and build. The person who has less fat and muscle will have less metabolic stress due to having less mass to transport. Their body will be able to work at the same intensity and in some cases greater intensity for longer durations. A third factor affecting a person’s running economy would be training style. An individual who primarily trains by weightlifting or sprinting will have a lower running economy than someone who primarily runs greater distances for exercise. Their body is more used to working in an aerobic state than the person who generally does resistance training.

In the article Running Economy During a Simulated 60-km Trial, scientists measured similar metabolic functions as we did. They had 13 men and 5 women run three 20km laps, taking measurements at the end of each lap. They measured VO2, Ve, HR, and RER just as we did. Unfortunately, they do not differentiate between male and female so there is no way to compare their findings to ours in terms of sex. However, we can still compare changes in measurements as time went on through the experiments. In our lab, ventilation steadily increases the whole time, where in their experiment it increases at first then levels off. This could be due to us increasing intensity over intervals, compared to them remaining at the same pace the whole time. When comparing RER levels, in our lab the levels initially decreased, showing a transition from hyperventilation at rest toward steady state metabolism once the subjects began the walking stage. This was followed by a shift back up to reflect a gradual shift toward more CHO contribution as our stages and intensity progressed. In the article, RER levels dropped down, then remained down during the whole trial, not returning up until the recovery phase. It is hard to make a clear comparison between the two experiments due to different procedures being done during them; however, we can conclude that general metabolic changes occur no matter what intensity of endurance exercise is being done. It is clear that a variety of measures are needed to evaluate a person’s running economy. Understanding how to operate the metabolic cart as well as being able to interpret information obtained from the metabolic analyses will improve our ability to assess an athlete’s aerobic energy system and his or her running economy. Bibliography Schena, F., Pellegrini, B., Tarperi, C., Calabria, E., Salvagno, G. L., & Capelli, C. (2014). Running Economy During a Simulated 60-km Trial. International Journal of Sports Physiology & Performance, 9(4), 604-609. http://doi. org/10.1123/IJSPP.2013-0302

Student Reflection: I found this experiment to be extremely beneficial to not only knowing the material but using it in an application setting. Conducting this lab required me to use all information learned from earlier in the semester, ranging from energy systems and muscle fiber type to body composition and an analysis of training history. This experiment gave me the opportunity to not only understand what the measured information was, but also how to apply it to real life. I was able to infer a student’s running economy based off data relayed to me via a computer. Knowing measurements such as ventilation rate, heart rate, and caloric expenditure I could determine which student had the best economy for running. Along with applying knowledge acquired over the semester, it also encouraged me to use approved databases to research academic journals. These journals were used in reference for my paper to provide support for my conclusions. This experiment was the most valuable study I have done throughout all classes at Shippensburg.

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Dr. Squatch Chase Carpenter MKT 305: Principles of Marketing Dr. Mohammad Rahman Assignment This assignment involves choosing a brand and assessing their products and marketing strategy. The student had to choose relevant topics that were discussed through the course to describe the marketing strategy of the chosen brand.

Brand Overview Dr. Squatch Inc. is a company which sells high quality soaps and other male grooming products online. This company was created by Jack Haldrup when he saw a gap in the soap industry for nourishing and healthy soaps for men. He sought to produce a soap with natural ingredients that did not use harsh chemicals that dried out the skin. The company boasts that, “While most soap companies are focused on cutting costs, our focus is on creating a better bar and a better shower” (About Us, 2020). They consistently carry 11 scents of soap while also offering seasonal or limited-edition soaps with clever names. Dr. Squatch has expanded over the last few years to sell other male-oriented grooming products including shampoos, shaving products, and toothpaste. This company is engaged in a niche marketing strategy and chooses to appeal to masculine men who still care about their skincare routine. Most people who do recognize their brand know them for their comedic advertisements that keep the customer engaged throughout. This company also has a very structured marketing mix, so each pillar of the Four P’s of Marketing is clear. The product that this company primarily produces is high quality bars of soap which are made of natural ingredients rather than harsh chemicals. They also do most of their business online, so they offer a delivery service for their products. Dr. Squatch’s soaps are all individually packed in recyclable cardboard boxes which feature the company logo as well as its ingredients. The price is set higher than most other bar soaps on the market, but still proves reasonable enough to be afforded by middle-class individuals. They also frequently offer several discounts through their email program to get up to 20% off an entire order and offer discounts of 10% off to all veterans or active service members (Hero Discounts, 2020). Though it is marketed as a semi-luxurious product, Dr. Squatch offers discounts on bulk purchases of their soap. The placement strategy that Dr. Squatch uses is 164

based predominately around their online store. They ship the individual bars of soap to the customer, as well as offer a subscription service online to have them delivered the same time each month. Dr. Squatch also offers wholesaling opportunities to businesses to put their soaps into retail locations, but that is not their most common market placement. The promotion strategy is what sets Dr. Squatch apart from other companies. They heavily advertise online through YouTube as well as social media sites like Instagram and Facebook. Their advertisements have gone viral due to their comedic nature, and from their customers sharing them with their friends. Dr. Squatch has also promoted their product through referral incentives they offer to customers. For every new Dr. Squatch customer referred, the referrer and new customer get a free bar of soap (See Figure 1). Identifying Relevant Concepts/Theories Creating Customer Value Customer value can be defined as “the perceived benefits, both monetary and nonmonetary, that customers receive from a product compared to the costs (money, effort, and time) associated with obtaining that product (Beitelspacher, 2021). This is one of the most important pieces of marketing, as even the best marketers have difficulty selling a product in which the benefits are outweighed by the costs of purchasing. For a company’s long-term success, it is paramount to have a strong framework for customer value creation. Dr. Squatch uses a functional or instrumental value approach to creating customer value, which focuses on the extent to which a product has desired characteristics and performs a desired function (Smith et al., 2014, pg. 10). One of the ways that Dr. Squatch delivers value to their customers is through their superior ingredients used in their soap production. Many companies will claim to use “natural ingredients” in their products, but still have chemical compounds and detergents mixed

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in alongside their natural ingredients. These detergents strip the skin of natural oils, effectively sucking the moisture out of skin (Purenakedsoap, 2015). Dr. Squatch boasts that all of the ingredients found in their bars of soap can be easily pronounced and are products one would find in their cupboards (About Us, 2020). By not cutting corners and going with cheaper ingredients to save money, they are able to offer their consumers a quality product and add to the customer value. The process in which Dr. Squatch produces the soap also adds significant customer value for the consumer. Most large soap companies (playfully referred to as “Big Soap” on their website), use large-scale manufacturing processes where they dump chemicals and synthetic materials into vats to massproduce their products. Squatch uses a process known as “cold-processing” in order to craft their handmade soaps. This is an old-fashioned and time-consuming process which involves a chemical reaction with lye and natural oils to heat the mixture of natural ingredients, where they are stirred together into the consistency of melted wax. The mix is poured into large molds where it is set to cool; then it is hand-cut into individual bars (Purenakedsoap, 2015). This process keeps in the natural moisturizer glycerin, which is an ingredient that is used to make lotion. Large soap manufacturers, on the other hand, remove glycerin from their soaps to sell to lotion manufacturers. Dr. Squatch’s soaps are also made environmentally friendly since there are no added chemicals in their production process. When showering with their soaps, consumers can be sure that chemicals used in other large soap manufacturing processes will not end up polluting waterways (Purenakedsoap, 2015). The customer value of the product is improved through the use of the cold processing, which keeps the moisturizing ingredient glycerin in the soap, as well as pleasing those who are environmentally conscious when purchasing products. Another way customer value is provided to Dr. Squatch customers is through allowing them to express themselves through the use of the product. This is known as symbolic or expressive value, which is the extent to which customers attach or associate psychological meaning to a product (Smith et al., 2014, pg. 10). Consumers want products that allow them to express themselves and their personalities. They derive self-worth from purchasing products which align with the identity which consumers wish to portray. The brand identity of Dr. Squatch is that it makes products for masculine men who care about proper skin care. Products that they sell like “Pine Tar”, “Cedar Citrus”, and “Grapefruit IPA” all contain scents which people associate with masculinity, such as the forest and

alcohol. The description of their pine tar soap further proves Squatch’s product strives for masculinity, reading “Rugged, woodsy, and strong, just like a Squatch man should be” (Handmade Bar Soaps, 2020). These marketing practices, though they provide customer value through self-expression of consumer identity, prey on male insecurities of needing to be masculine. In modern media, men are portrayed in a way that they need to “man up” in order to satisfy women and to find self-worth (Scheibling, 2019, pg. 229). By targeting these societal standards of masculinity in their products and advertising, Dr. Squatch is able to sell more bars of soap to men who feel the need to be portrayed as manly. Though it seems to work for them, many would criticize Squatch for targeting a man’s masculinity in their advertising. Toxic masculinity is a concept which has been making headlines recently, so there are some who have cancelled Dr. Squatch as a result. This is a small minority of consumers though, since it seems Squatch actually encourages the abolition of toxic masculinity by encouraging their customers to break the cultural stigma that caring about hygiene is a strictly feminine practice. Customer Engagement and Social Media Dr. Squatch is a company that has found success from its effective social media campaigns in which they actively keep the customers engaged. Customer engagement occurs when consumers become emotionally bonded to a product or brand (Oliveira, 2020, pg. 1214). Dr. Squatch is able to generate positive emotions for customers by drawing them in with comedic advertisements, then keep them interested through constant communication and interaction over social media. Their two most popular social media pages are on YouTube and Instagram, where they boast 50,000 subscribers and 250,000 followers respectively. Dr. Squatch effectively uses social media to promote customer engagement, which increases their customer loyalty, positive word of mouth, and sales. Dr. Squatch’s claim to fame has been their comedic video advertisements which appeared on YouTube. These video advertisements were created for a male demographic and played before videos targeted for the same group, ensuring that Squatch was following the concept of relevancy of subject matter so their advertisements would be more effective (Zhu et al, 2015, pg 8). All of their advertisements are also uploaded to their own channel and boast a combined total of 250,000,000 views (Dr. Squatch Soap Company, 2018). These advertisements were funny enough that consumers would see the advertisements originally in other videos, then seek out the videos to watch again

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for fun. The lightly raunchy comedian who stars in the videos, James Schrader, pokes fun at those of who use other more feminine soaps and praises those who lather with Dr. Squatch soaps. The commercials also make cultural references that men can relate to, such as how men need to be tough but cannot help crying during the movie Rudy (Dr. Squatch Soap Company, 2018). Their comedic marketing campaigns have created a die-hard fanbase of customers who spread the brand and its legacy to family and friends. Dr. Squatch has reaped the benefits of positive word of mouth advertisements from their own consumers since the product is good and the way Squatch engages their customers is memorable. These positive emotions which are generated from viewing the videos lead to active customer engagement, and as a result, customer loyalty to Dr. Squatch. Dr. Squatch takes a more friendly approach to active customer engagement with their followers on social media. Unlike many other companies who only use their social medias to promote products and deals, Dr. Squatch’s social media team frequently posts memes involving their brand. For example, one of their most recent posts is not some discount code to instigate consumers to check out their site, but rather a meme which jokes about how the consumer can have smooth skin but still smell great with their product (Figure 3). This style of customer engagement encourages followers to continue following their social media pages by having mutually beneficial interactions with their customers (Zhu et al, 2015, pg 6). On their social media pages, Dr. Squatch’s social media team is highly interactive with their followers and consumers of the products. All comments on their posts are either liked or responded to by Dr. Squatch’s social media team. Whether the comments are product reviews, suggestions for improvement, or complaints about their experiences with the product, Dr. Squatch responds to them all (Figure 2). By having these personal interactions with their consumers, Dr. Squatch is able to make them all feel significant, which subsequently increases customers’ loyalty to their brand. Though Dr. Squatch has a very strong level of customer engagement, all of their marketing efforts stay in line with the brand’s identity. They are a midsize soap manufacturing company that sells to the average man, and they do not promote themselves as a hyperluxury product or conduct themselves as a well-spoken and classy brand. It is for this reason they do not have male models showering with their soaps in their commercials, and it makes their company feel like a more realistic option for many males. By marketing their company effectively to the average male, Dr. Squatch increases their level of customer engagement.

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It could be argued that customer engagement on social media is Dr. Squatch’s strongest aspect as a company. They do not have any glaring flaws in this category, though some consumers may feel like the company does not take itself seriously enough online. The goofiness and comedic personality of Dr. Squatch has, as a company, has been the reason for their success thus far, so it would not be fair to criticize them for that. Conclusion To better market themselves to customers, Dr. Squatch focuses on providing customers with a large amounts of customer value and strong customer engagement on social media. Their comedic advertisements have made a strong impression on their consumers, and the quality of their product keeps them coming back. Their consumers also feel they have a personal connection to the Dr. Squatch brand, which promotes a high level of customer loyalty. If Dr. Squatch continues to stick to their company values of providing customer value and facilitating consumer engagement, they will continue to find success as a brand. References: About Us. (n.d.). Retrieved October 28, 2020, from https:// drsquatch.com/pages/about-us Beitelspacher, L. (2021). Connect Master Marketing 2.0. New York, NY: McGraw Hill Education. Dr. Squatch Soap Company. (2018, May 21). Dr. Squatch Natural Soap for Men. [Video]. https://www.youtube. com/watch?v=cjEK7qQKRDY&t=1s DrSquatch. (2020, November 1). “Best of both worlds ...[Instagram]” Retrieved from https://www.instagram.com/p/ CHDnfP5BhbO/?utm_source=ig_web_copy_link DrSquatch. (2020, October 7). “You guys must really like the chocc. The day has finally come, we’re at the end of our stock ...[Instagram]” Retrieved from https://www.instagram.com/p/ CF-BxoHB-gn/?utm_source=ig_web_copy_link Handmade Bar Soaps. (n.d). Retrieved October 28, 2020, from https://drsquatch.com/collections /bar-soaps Hero Discounts. (n.d.). Retrieved October 28, 2020, from https://drsquatch.com/pages/hero-discounts Oliveira Santini, F., Ladeira, W. J., Pinto, D. C., Herter, M. M., Sampaio, C. H., & Babin, B. J. (2020). Customer engagement in social media: a framework and meta-analysis. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science: Official Publication of the Academy of Marketing Science, 1. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s11747-020-00731-5 Purenakedsoap. (2015, January 15). Why Cold Process Soap. Retrieved October 29, 2020, from https:// purenakedsoap.wordpress.com/2015/01/15/ why-cold-process-soap/

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Refer A Friend. (n.d.). Retrieved October 28, 2020, from https://drsquatch.com/pages/ refer-a-friend?utm_source=faq Scheibling, C., & Lafrance, M. (2019). Man Up but Stay Smooth: Hybrid Masculinities in Advertising for Men’s Grooming Products. Journal of Men’s Studies, 27(2), 222–239.

Smith, B., & Colgate, M. (2014). Customer Value Creation: A Practical Framework. Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice, 15(1), 7-23. doi:https://www.tandfonline. com/doi/abs/10.2753/MTP1069-6679150101 Zhu, Y., & Chen, H. (2015). Social media and human need satisfaction: Implications for social media marketing. Business Horizons, 58(3), 335-345. doi:10.1016/j. bushor.2015.01.006

Appendix:

Figure 1: Referral Program (Refer a Friend, 2020).

Figure 3: (Dr Squatch, 2020)

Figure 2: (Dr Squatch, 2020)

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Student Reflection: I did enjoy this assignment since I understood through my research why some brands were so effectively capturing my interest as well as why I make decisions as a consumer. Understanding these strategies that marketing agencies employ makes it so that I can more easily see the value that a product is giving me rather than the flashy words that are on the advertisements. Analyzing the Dr. Squatch marketing campaign was fun as well since their marketing campaign is so unique from others in the soap industry. Breaking down their comedic commercials and seeing their components was interesting as well. Overall, I feel that I took a lot away from this assignment that will be useful for myself down the road.

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Ben & Jerry’s Brand Assessment Kyrsten Mahoney MKT 305: Principles of Marketing Dr. Mohammad Rahman Assignment For this assignment we had to pick a company and complete an analysis on that company’s marketing strategies. We used concepts that we learned in class to research how the company markets their product, and then write a report explaining what we discovered.

Brand Overview Ben & Jerry’s began in Burlington, Vermont in 1978. Ben and Jerry had only taken a $5 course in ice-cream making at Penn State when they opened their shop in a renovated gas station. Two years later they began renting space in an old sewing factory to pack their ice cream in pints. This allowed them to distribute to grocery stores out of their VW Squareback Wagon. In 1981 their first franchised scoop shop opened in Shelburne, Vermont. By 1985 they were able to start the Ben & Jerry’s Foundation. The company has now expanded their products to include ice cream in pints, ice cream shops, a factory tour experience in Vermont, and other ice cream accessories. Ben & Jerry’s has continued to introduce new flavors while sticking to their promise to use natural, non-GMO ingredients for the best quality ice cream. By using natural ingredients and promoting respect for the environment, they have grown a large fan base for these unusual practices. Because of this, they charge a premium for their products. A pint at the grocery store typically costs around $5 while other competitors are selling half gallons for $3. In addition to caring about the environment, their slogan “peace, love & ice cream” shows their commitment to informing people about the issues they care about. They are vocal about voting, LGBTQ+ rights, racial justice, and many more. They voice their opinion on these issues while promoting their products. They are active on the social media platforms of Instagram, Facebook, and Twitter, where they post about their upcoming sales and products while emphasizing issues they find important. The company also releases weekly emails with information about new products and an email newsletter about important topics going on in the world. The company also sells other products, like t-shirts, that provide them with free advertising once it is purchased. This report will examine how Ben & Jerry’s implements consumer engagement to grow their

social media following and uses segmentation to find their target market. Identification of Relevant Theories/Concepts Customer Engagement Consumer engagement is defined as the level of a customer’s physical, cognitive, and emotional presence in their relationship with a service organization (Brodie, 2013). With the increased use of social media, it is providing companies with some of the best ways to engage with their customers (Connect Master, 2020). When companies make social media campaigns, it is essential to create a conversation about the brand or product (Connect Master, 2020). The conversations can then become a form of engagement (Connect Master, 2020). Consumer engagement has been shown to positively influence buyer behavior, which causes increased loyalty and trust for the brand (Singhal, 2016). Ben & Jerry’s consumer engagement focuses around their presence on social media. Their largest following is present on Facebook, Instagram, and Twitter. On Facebook they have 8.7 million likes, which is their biggest following. On Instagram they have 1.5 million followers, and on Twitter they have about 500,000 followers. Their posts on social media use photos, gifs, and plain text. Out of all three types of posts, the ones with plain text receive the largest consumer engagement. A large majority of their plain text posts feature links to their blog where they talk about controversial world issues and social causes. Ben & Jerry’s is unique in their social media strategy because they post what others would consider controversial. As a company, they are very vocal about views that are important to them, which include global warming, racial justice, and more. As a social media account manager, I discovered that out of all of the plain text posts, the ones discuss-

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ing these issues gain the highest engagement (see figure 1). This shows that Ben & Jerry’s has a deep understanding of their target audience, and the kinds of content to post to maximize engagement. Their Instagram account gained half a million followers in June 2020, which is the largest spike in followers they have ever had. This is most likely due to the fact that, following George Floyd’s death, they were active in posting about the Black Lives Matter movement, and fighting for racial justice. As an account manager I decided to compare their posts before and during June 2020. On their posts during June 2020 they averaged around 300,000 likes and 5,000 comments (see figure 2). Their other posts this month only average about 17,000 likes and 166 comments. By sticking to their company’s values, they were able to grow their consumer base and increase consumer engagement. Consumers are more likely to buy from businesses when they agree with their values, so by promoting these values Ben & Jerry’s is gaining new customers. Another way they provide consumer engagement is with their scoop truck. Ben & Jerry’s scoop truck travels around the country to different towns. The purpose of this truck is to provide customers with free ice cream scoops while hearing their feedback. By doing this, workers can interact with the customers in more normal conversations, which can then be implemented into new ideas for the company (Florida Justice Remix’d Tour, 2010). This summer the scoop truck went to Miami, Florida where they held community events to start conversation, speak with the community, and give away ice cream. Each year there is a theme for the scoop truck. This year’s theme was Justice ReMix’d where they are fighting for investment in services that build up the communities to help stop crime instead of just locking people up (Introducing New Justice Remix’d Limited Batch, n.d.). By giving away ice cream Ben & Jerry’s is starting conversations with the community about the issues that impact them the most. By talking to community members and getting their opinions, they are engaging with their consumer base to try and make a change in their communities (Introducing New Justice Remix’d Limited Batch, n.d.). Segmentation Companies must recognize that the market is not homogeneous, but instead is broken up into segments (McDonald, 2012). Market segmentation is the process of splitting customers, or potential customers, in a market into different groups or segments (McDonald, 2012). In order to do this, customers first compare products to find the one that has the benefits they are looking for. By doing this the customers can

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segment themselves and help the company understand the needs of the customers (McDonald, 2012). In addition, many companies can predetermine how the customers are broken into segments and focus their marketing efforts on them (McDonald, 2012). There is no perfect way to segment a market. In order to be successful, organizations have to try many different combinations and be willing to adapt to changing environments (Martin, 2011). By segmenting the market and directing the company’s products toward the target group, companies can gain a competitive advantage over their competitors (Martin, 2011). Consumer market segmentation can be broken up in four ways. These are geographic, demographic, behavior, and psychographic (Martin, 2011). Ben & Jerry’s segments their market in two main ways, psychographic and demographic. Psychographic is defined as the study of personality, values, attitudes, interests, and lifestyles (Martin, 2011). Ben & Jerry’s focuses their marketing on people with certain values and lifestyles. An important value is their ice cream going from “cow to cone” (Ackerman, 2013). Ben & Jerry’s can be qualified as premium ice cream, meaning that each step in the supply chain must follow the company’s mission statement that emphasizes high product quality (Ackerman, 2013). In order to do this, they only use eggs from Certified Human cage-free farms (How We Do Business, n.d.). This is defined as “ensuring that laying hens have wholesome, nutritious food, access to clean water, and adequate space to engage in normal behaviors” (How We Do Business, n.d.). In addition, all of Ben & Jerry’s ice cream is nonGMO because they believe that people should know what is in their food (How We Do Business, n.d.). Ben & Jerry’s also targets towards a specific lifestyle. They focus on the group of people who are more health-conscious and care about what goes into their food. These are the people who will pay more money for better quality ice cream. Recently they have started expanding their ice cream choices to accommodate different lifestyles. It is important to them to play a positive role in society and continue growing as a company (Here’s How Ben & Jerry’s, 2020). Their newest venture was into vegan ice cream. They understood the growing demographic of people choosing to have a vegan diet and lifestyle and knew it was essential to explore the market (Here’s How Ben & Jerry’s, 2020). Demographic segmentation refers to demographic factors such as age, ethnicity, nationality, occupation and more (Martin, 2011). Ben & Jerry’s divides the market by age group in order to market to their target consumers. Their target market focuses on ages 10 to 35. On Ben & Jerry’s numerator brand snapshot, the

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index for people under 24 is 142, whereas the index for people 25-34 is 127 (Ben & Jerry’s Demographics, n.d.). This shows that it is the target market since all of the other age brackets index do not go above 100 (Ben & Jerry’s Demographics, n.d.).Ben & Jerry’s markets to people who are concerned with bigger world issues. These demographics tend to be the younger generation who are anxious to make change in the world and appreciate how Ben & Jerry’s is inspiring change themselves as a large corporation. In addition, people who make over $100k are more likely to purchase Ben & Jerry’s ice cream. The index for people making from $100k to $125k is 110 and the index for over $125k is 105 (Ben & Jerry’s Demographics, n.d.). This is because Ben & Jerry’s have some of the highest prices in the ice cream market, so the people who make more money can afford these prices. Conclusion After analyzing Ben & Jerry’s, it has become apparent that they know who their target market is and how to reach them. By using their social media to engage customers and segmentation to find their target market, they have developed an effective marketing plan. By utilizing their social media, they are able to promote their products and values to interact with customers. By implementing segmentation, they learned their target market and demographics to be able to market effectively. Each company is different and has to figure out how to appeal to their market, which Ben & Jerry’s has successfully accomplished.

References Ackerman, A., & Padilla, A. (2013, October 9). Ben & Jerry’s: Quality From Cow to Cone. Retrieved November 02, 2020, from https://consumergoods.com/ ben-jerrys-quality-cow-cone Ben & Jerry’s Demographics and Consumer Insights. (n.d.). Retrieved November 02, 2020, from https://snapshot. numerator.com/brand/ben_n_jerrys Ben & Jerry’s is a values-led company. (n.d.). Retrieved October 31, 2020, from https://www.benjerry.com/ values Brodie, R. J., Ilic, A., Juric, B., & Hollebeek, L. (2013). Consumer engagement in a virtual brand community: An exploratory analysis. Journal of Business Research, 66(1), 105-114. Connect Master. (2020). Principles of Marketing (2.0). McGraw-Hill Education, New York. Florida Justice ReMix’d Tour {BenJerrysTour}, (2010, May). {Twitter moment}. Retrieved from https://twitter.com/ benjerrystour?s=21 Here’s How Ben & Jerry’s is Using Programmatic Advertising to Drive Social Change. (2020, March 19). Retrieved November 02, 2020, from https://programmaticusa. wbresearch.com/blog/ben-and-jerrys-programmaticadvertising-strategy-for-social-change How We Do Business: Ben & Jerry’s. (n.d.). Retrieved November 02, 2020, from https://www.benjerry.com/ values/how-we-do-business Introducing NEW Justice ReMix’d Limited Batch! (n.d.). Retrieved October 31, 2020, from https://www.benjerry.com/whats-new/2019/09/ introducing-justice-remixd Martin, G. (2011). The Importance of Marketing Segmentation. American Journal of Business Education, 4(6), 15-18. Retrieved November 2, 2020, from https:// eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1056632 McDonald, M., & Dunbar, I. (2012). Market segmentation: How to do it and how to profit from it. Chichester, United Kingdom: John Wiley & Sons. Singhal, T. K. (2016). Impact of Social Media Expressions on Engagement and Trust of Customers. Amity Business Review, 17(2), 96-103.

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Appendix

Figure 1

Figure 2

Student Reflection: By doing this project I found that it helped me understand more about the concepts we were presented in class. Instead of just getting lectured on the topics, we were given the opportunity to take those concepts and develop a real analysis on a popular company. I have always enjoyed Ben & Jerry’s ice cream, but I had never thought into the way they market their product. After completing this project, it was interesting to see a real-life example of how products are marketed to consumers. This is especially important to me since I am a marketing major and am looking to go into advertising. I will have to use these skills in the future to analyze how I would want to market a product or a company. I was able to begin to form and develop the skills necessary for this task and can continue to learn more throughout the remainder of my education.

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Pura Vida Brand Assessment Morgan Landman MKT 305: Principles of Marketing Dr. Mohammad Rahman Assignment Choose a company to research and evaluate their brand and marketing strategies. Describe two major themes of marketing and how the company incorporates them into their brand.

Brand Overview Pura Vida, a bracelet and jewelry company, was founded in 2010 by two California friends, Griffin Thall and Paul Goodman. During a trip to Costa Rica, Griffin and Paul met two artisans struggling to survive and support their families, whose string bracelets captured the beauty of Costa Rica. The two friends asked the artisans to make a couple hundred bracelets, which they took back to California with them to sell in local boutiques. After the bracelets sold out within a few days, Griffin and Paul realized that these bracelets were more than just simple friendship bracelets, but a movement that celebrates the simple things in life, referred to as “Pura Vida” in Costa Rica. Griffin and Paul teamed up with Jorge and Joaquin and more than 800 other Costa Rican artisans to create bracelets in a multitude of color combinations, providing them with a steady income and positive work environment they did not have before. This small movement grew worldwide in no time, selling millions of bracelets each year (Our Story, 2020). Pura Vida has expanded their products to not only colorful string bracelets, but also rings, necklaces, earrings, and other accessories. They offer a product line known as the Charity Collection, including specialty bracelets for each of the 175 charities Pura Vida is partnered with. Through the Charity Collection, Pura Vida has donated around 8 million dollars to charities around the world. The company is continuously expanding their products by introducing new color combinations and bracelet packs, along with new jewelry designs. Pura Vida sells good quality products for an affordable price in comparison to other companies in the industry. All of the string bracelets cost $6 and the rings and necklaces range between $10-20. The company sells their products primarily online, as well as selling a limited selection of products in some local boutiques. When it comes to promoting their products, Pura Vida is very active on various social media platforms, such as Instagram, Twitter, Facebook, and YouTube, where they promote their new products and

upcoming sales and discounts. They also have Brand Ambassadors, who promote Pura Vida’s products on their own accounts and offer discounts to their friends and family with a personalized code. This paper will analyze how Pura Vida markets their brand by engaging with their customers on social media and creating customer loyalty and retention. Identification of Relevant Theories/Concepts Customer Engagement As a method of marketing their brand, Pura Vida focuses on customer engagement through social media and their website. Customer engagement refers to a “psychological state that occurs by virtue of interactive, cocreative customer experiences with a focal agent/ object in a focal service relationship” (Brodie, 2013). Essentially, it is a connection between a brand and a customer in which customers give the brands immediate feedback on their products, and customers can learn ways to use a product (Connect Master, 2020). Social media is a large growing outlet that companies, including Pura Vida, use to engage and build relationships with their customers. Marketers can take advantage of and use social media to engage target customers, build their brand by increasing their visibility and promotional advertisements, and increase the traffic on their website (Paswan, 2018). Through the use of social media, companies can interact with and engage their customers on a daily basis. Pura Vida is active on a number of social media platforms including Instagram, Facebook, and Twitter. Looking at Pura Vida’s social media pages, we can see how they have connected and engaged their customers. When drafting posts for social media, it is important to promote engagement with the company (Paswan, 2018). Posts promoting engagement include asking customers to use a certain hashtag (Paswan, 2018). Additionally, posts can promote engagement by asking their followers a question and having them respond in the comments of the post. Companies can also engage 173

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their customers by asking for their opinion or feedback on products and ways to improve their brand. Pura Vida’s social media pages show a few examples of engagement posts in an attempt to promote customer engagement:

opportunity to submit an idea under the “What should we make next?” tab on their website (What should we make next, 2020). This discussion board allows customers to give feedback about the brand, a fun idea for a new product, or a new cause they should support in their Charity Collection (What should we make next, 2020). This type of customer engagement truly engages the customer in the company and the brand because they are contributing to products Pura Vida is selling. Not only does this discussion board demonstrate customer engagement, but it also shows customers that the brand values their customer’s opinions. In fact, some of Pura Vida’s best-selling styles have been designed from fan feedback (What should we make next, 2020). While there is always room for improvement, Pura Vida is effectively engaging with their followers on social media on a daily basis. By posting regularly, Pura Vida is giving their customers a glimpse of their new and unique products, as well as the discounts they are offering in order to draw customers to their website. Pura Vida’s idea board, located on their website, sets them apart from other brands because it is a rare feature that not many companies have. It allows customers to feel like they are not only buying the products Pura Vida has to offer, but also engaging with the brand on a different level by suggesting ideas for a new product or charity. Customer Loyalty and Retention

Note: Reprinted from Pura Vida. (2020, October 29). “Where should we have our next pop up shop? Tells us what city in the thread! [Twitter]” Retrieved from https:// twitter.com/puravidabrac/status/1321951966189289472

In this post, Pura Vida is asking their followers to share locations they would like to see Pura Vida place a pop-up shop. Since most of Pura Vida’s business is done online, pop up shops allow customers to go to a physical location to purchase their products. This is an effective engagement post because Pura Vida can get feedback from their followers, which helps them decide where to set up their next pop up shop. They would want to place a pop-up shop in a city where a large population of their followers are located. Similarly, Pura Vida gives their customers the 174

Creating customer loyalty is a significant consideration when a company is marketing their brand. Loyalty to a brand refers to the “measure of attachment that a customer has to a brand” (Karunaratna & Kumara, 2018). Marketers can determine a customer’s loyalty to a company or brand based on the number of times they repeat purchases. The stronger a customer’s loyalty to a brand is, the more likely they are to recommend the company’s products to their friends. In order to strengthen a customer’s loyalty, companies should make sure consumers are highly satisfied, or delighted. Ultimately, brands should strive to create customer delight because “delighted customers remain loyal and talk favorably to others about the company and its products” (Armstrong & Kotler, 2017). Pura Vida, like many other companies, emphasizes measuring customer loyalty and retention through loyalty programs, which offers discounts based on the rewards they’ve earned. This rewards program is referred to as Pura Vida Shore Club and is open for anyone who wants to sign up. There are only three simple steps to the rewards program: (1) Join the club, (2) Earn Points, and (3) Redeem (Pura Vida Shore Club Rewards Program, 2020). There are several ways to earn shore dollars, which are listed in the image below. After earning shore dollars, members can redeem

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Note: Pura Vida Shore Club Rewards Program. Retrieved November 04, 2020, from https://www.puravidabracelets.com/pages/pura-vida-shore-club

these points for discounts and free products (Pura Vida Shore Club Rewards Program, 2020). Pura Vida’s rewards program is creating value for its customers because it is allowing them to get discounts on bracelets and other jewelry. It gives customers the ability to spend less money on Pura Vida’s products than they would if they were not a part of the Shore Club. Despite the fact that rewards programs allow customers to spend less money, they are still profitable because customers will want to continue to buy products so that they can earn and redeem more points. Additionally, customers will spend more money when they are shopping because they know that they will get rewarded for larger purchases (Santi, 2017). Overall, the Pura Vida Shore Club provides consumers with incentive to spend more and shop more frequently, which increases customer loyalty and retention. Pura Vida offers another program to boost customer loyalty and retention in which customers can become a Pura Vida Brand Ambassador. Brand Ambassadors spread the Pura Vida movement, showing

their love for the brand while getting free products and cash along the way (#PuraVidaCrew, 2020). Similar to Pura Vida’s Shore Club rewards program, there are only three steps to become a Brand Ambassador, which include: (1) Apply, (2) Share, and (3) Connect (#PuraVidaCrew, 2020). The application step includes filling out a simple Brand Ambassador application so the company can learn more about the applicant. Brand Ambassadors receive a unique ambassador code that they can use to earn 10% commission and get free products. When Brand Ambassadors share their code with their friends, family, and followers on social media, they will receive 20% off their purchases (#PuraVidaCrew, 2020). Pura Vida’s Brand Ambassador program is an effective strategy to increase customer loyalty and retention. Customers that become Brand Ambassadors will buy more bracelets/jewelry because they will be getting discounts and other rewards. Not only will Brand Ambassadors receive benefits, but they will also share their code with their family and friends,

Note: #PuraVidaCrew. Retrieved November 04, 2020, from https://www.puravidabracelets.com/pages/brand-ambassadors

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who will subsequently receive a discount for their purchases. Consumers involved with or related to Brand Ambassadors will continue to shop on Pura Vida because they will be receiving discounts on their purchases that they would not have had if they were not a part of the Brand Ambassador program. Conclusion After analyzing Pura Vida’s brand, they have effectively utilized marketing strategies to market to their target customers through customer engagement on social medial and creating customer loyalty and retention. Marketers can engage customers on social media by encouraging them to like and comment on posts and promote their products. Pura Vida has created customer loyalty and retention through programs such as the Pura Vida Shore Club, and Brand Ambassadors. References Armstrong, G., Kotler, P., Harker, M., & Brennan, R. (2018). Marketing: An introduction. Pearson. Brodie, R. J., Hollebeek, L. D., Juric, B., (2013). Customer engagement in a virtual brand community: An exploratory analysis. Journal of Business Research, 66(1), 105-114

Connect Master. (2020). Principles of Marketing (2.0). McGraw-Hill Education, New York Karunaratna, A. C., & Kumara, P. A. P. S. (2018) Determinants of customer loyalty: A literature review. Journal of Customer Behavior, 17(1), 49-73 Our Story. Retrieved November 01, 2020, from https://www. puravidabracelets.com/pages/story Paswan, A. (2018). Social Media Marketing Strategies. DAWN: Journal for Contemporary Research in Management, 5(1), 8-11. Pura Vida. (2020, October 29). “Where should we have our next pop up shop? Tells us what city in the thread! [Twitter]” Retrieved from https://twitter.com/ puravidabrac/status/1321951966189289472 Pura Vida Shore Club Rewards Program. Retrieved November 04, 2020, from https://www. puravidabracelets.com/pages/pura-vida-shore-club Santi, S. (2017). The Rewards of a Reward Program. Veterinary Team Brief, 5(8), 26-29. Retrieved from http://proxy-ship.klnpa.org/login?url=http://search. ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=1 2522110&site=eds-live&scope=site. What should we make next? Retrieved November 01, 2020, from https://www.puravidabracelets.com/pages/ what-should-we-make-next #PuraVidaCrew. Retrieved November 04, 2020, from https:// www.puravidabracelets.com/pages/brand-ambassadors

Student Reflection: Writing this brand assessment and researching Pura Vida’s brand really allowed me to apply concepts I learned from this course to companies that I shop at regularly and further developed my understanding of marketing within a company. I have shopped at Pura Vida for many years, so I had a general knowledge of their story, but this assignment allowed me to dive deeper into a company that I enjoy. Being able to identify concepts we learned in Principles of Marketing within Pura Vida’s brand, such as rewards programs, really helped me to understand how much of an impact marketing can have on customer retention and creating value for a customer.

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Ethical Issues on Social Network Sites within Business Ashley Wagner HON 440: Honors Business and Society Dr. Wendy S. Becker Assignment Complete a two-part project, consisting of a class presentation and a research paper. This project gives you a chance to apply the theories and concepts that you have learned in this class. Search the primary academic literature using library databases (i.e., EBSCO, JSTOR, PsychInfo) to gain background for your research. Analyze a topic regarding ethics, sustainability, or social responsibility in organizations. You must submit a final written research project. Use APA format for your research citations, both in-text and at the end of your paper.

Strategies for promoting business interactions with consumers are constantly evolving. One of the newest most effective ways companies have found to do so is by using social networking sites. High and low-tier employees use social networking sites for both personal and business-related reasons. Some marketers have even created accounts on social media sites for the business itself. For example, Walmart and Nike have accounts or pages on Facebook and Twitter. While the integration of businesses onto these social networking sites is extremely helpful when marketing to a new audience of consumers, there are ethical issues that also arise. This paper examines the importance of ethical business practices, specifically corporate social responsibility. It will also look at specific types of ethical issues social networking sites can create. It will evaluate the responsibilities individuals within a company have along with the responsibilities of the company as a whole. Lastly, the paper identifies the type of opportunities the future holds for integrating business and social networking. It is no secret that unethical scandals have happened in business before, some of the most common being the Enron, Johnson & Johnson, and Ford Pinto cases (Trevino & Nelson, 2017). The same factors which contribute to unethical behavior within business also underlie such behavior on social networking sites. Unethical behavior can be driven by pressure from stakeholders, conflicts of interest, communication issues, and wrongful behavior from executives (Fassin, 2005). Many companies have focused on corporate social responsibility (CSR), the triple bottom line, and sustainable development to adhere to government regulations. There are many definitions of CSR, but for the purpose of this paper we will view it as the economic, legal, ethical and philanthropic responsibilities a company has to focus on (Chen, 2009). The

question now focuses on if companies learned from these scandals and if they are progressing to make more ethical decisions based on the changes they have made. Studies have shown that despite efforts to be more ethical there is still an increasing amount of cases involving unethical behavior within businesses. One issue that is not often thought about is businesses are responsible for the actions of other parties that are associated with them. For example, a business could be acting completely ethically on social networks but if their supplier in a third world country is acting unethical in any way it can still come back and hurt the reputation of the business (Chen, 2009). Recent standards have now made it a generally acceptable rule that businesses are responsible for checking on their suppliers to make sure they are following all regulations. Businesses are also still struggling to determine who is responsible for bearing responsibility when an ethical issue occurs (Chen, 2009). It is still a gray area in understanding the member and structure relationship of a network, which is a reason for the increasing amount of unethical cases. Analysis of social networks at an individual and inter-organizational level helps to better understand the power and influence an actor can have on a social network site. The amount of power and influence an actor has is determined by the relational and structural properties of a network (Chen, 2009). The relational properties focus on what is being exchanged within the network and the qualities of relationships between members in the network. Structural properties focus on the way network members associate together to form a network and the different roles individuals play. People within a network can engage in unethical behavior either actively or passively. The first initial act of unethical behavior is then followed by several 177

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succeeding acts of unethical behavior. These succeeding acts are usually done by observers of the original act creating a chain reaction (Zuber, 2014). Social media sites are a completely new platform in which businesses can advertise and interact with their consumers. Previously it was difficult for businesses to actually interact with their consumers because they only saw ads through newspapers and television ads, but social media sites allow for businesses to get direct feedback and reactions from consumers. These platforms also allow for individuals to communicate and discuss quicker with each other than ever before. Using social media sites is effective for businesses because in most cases it is free or a very low cost to make an account, whereas running TV ads can get very expensive. Businesses have found that using social media sites such as Facebook are very helpful in building stronger customer relationships. Facebook’s groups feature also allows for consumers of businesses to build communities based on certain products or businesses they like (Gummerus et al. 2017). There are also other sites that are just for these types of communities that have started to become more popular. Any of these communities that are mediated by electronic communication are viewed as virtual social networks (Chen, 2009). By using these community pages, corporations are able to better judge and manage their current reputation with their consumers and understand what it is that consumers are looking for next (Whelan, et al. 2013). Corporations can create what is known as corporate arenas of citizenship. These are similar to the aforementioned communities, but they are specifically used for individuals and stakeholders to address issues they have regarding the company’s CRS. Corporations often organize ‘town hall’ meetings within these arenas; these virtual meetings happen at a certain time and individuals can ask questions about different company policies. Certain interested citizens may not be able to attend these meetings due to time conflicts. Corporations have gotten around this issue by creating and posting videos that address concerns and talk about company policy (Whelan et al. 2013). These arenas of citizenship and communities of consumers are some of the first places a company will go to address a corporate crisis. For example, a company called Primark relied on social media to address the public regarding allegations that the company was facing about the ethics of their supply chain. Not only were they able to get the information out quickly, but they were able to reach a large number of their consumers. Another benefit of doing this is consumers are able to voice their support for the company in the comment section so those who are skeptical are able to see other individuals’ thoughts on the matter and perhaps change their mind (Whelan, et al. 2013). 178

In today’s world online shopping has become just as, if not more popular than in-person shopping. Businesses have found that marketing through social media sites is very effective in reaching a new audience of consumers. Now the debate centers around the ethics of these new forms of marketing and what issues consumers have with being marketed to in this way. Research has shown that one of the biggest issues consumers have with marketing through social media sites is the credibility of the information given about a product (Hajli, 2018). When shopping in person, consumers have the ability to touch a product and test some of the features it is marketed to have. The difficulty with online shopping is consumers have to completely trust the marketing behind the product because they can only see a picture of it on the screen to determine if they want to buy it or not. Since many consumers have some level of difficulty in trusting the credibility of the ads for online products, businesses solve this problem by using online community platforms. These communities allow for consumers to talk about what they liked and disliked about certain products with other consumers (Hajli, 2018). The nature of these communities helps consumers have more trust in the products they are buying. Social media sites can also be disadvantageous for businesses. If a business makes a mistake or has some sort of scandal it only takes consumers seconds to expose the company online, and in a matter of minutes the mistake can become viral for millions of people to see. Another issue social media sites present is that if a company accidentally makes a wrong post online or post something they shouldn’t it is nearly impossible to get that post removed from the internet (Whelan, et al. 2013). These issues prove that while social networking sites may make it easier for companies to better judge their reputation with their consumers, these sites have also made it easier for consumers to harm a company’s reputation. The Dove beauty products campaign in 2006 showed the power that consumers have when it comes to social media. Dove posted a series of YouTube videos that critiqued the modeling and beauty industry for the unattainable standards they put on women. Consumers watched these videos over 10 million times and they were spread across many different social media platforms, making the campaign truly viral. Other consumers who were not supporters of the campaign made videos mocking the Dove campaign and bringing to light stereotypes that Dove’s own products put on women. These videos were watched over a million times, but in most instances Dove supporters showed false legitimacy of the mockery (Whelan, et al. 2013). The spread of unethical behavior within businesses can happen for a variety of reasons. There are two mechanisms found as the causation for unethical behavior. These mechanisms are referred to as the

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cohesion and equivalence mechanisms. The cohesion mechanism suggests that a positive relationship between two actors results in similar attitudes towards unethical behavior and results in imitation of unethical behavior. In this type of environment, it would be common for unethical behavior to happen often (Zuber, 2013). However, the equivalence mechanism suggests that actors who are similarly positioned in a network often compare themselves and are indirectly aware of the other’s behavior. This causes them to indirectly adopt to the other’s attitudes and therefore imitate the others behavior. These mechanisms show similarity even though there is only one positive relationship in the mechanisms, yet in both actors adopted/imitated each other’s unethical behavior. In the equivalence mechanism the adoption happens more passively, while in the cohesion mechanism the adoption of behavior and attitude is more active (Zuber, 2013). Further research was conducted on the aspect of how different actors are passively or actively involved in acts of unethical behavior and how they react differently. There were three lines of research pursued in this experiment, focusing respectively on the reactions of the perpetrators, victims, and observers of unethical behavior. Perpetrators, victims, and observers can all be seen as having a specific type of relationship to an act of unethical behavior. These types of relationships can be either positive or neutral (Zuber, 2013). They have found negative relationships have a positive correlation to supporting unethical behavior due to the lack of empathy and psychological proximity. Although the majority of relationships in organizations are either positive or neutral, negative relationships create more of an impact on outcomes of unethical behavior (Zuber, 2013). One ethical issue that occurs as the internet becomes more popular, is that startup companies are making websites to promote their business or entrepreneurs are creating new sites to attract users. These recent phenomena of many new websites being created by entrepreneurs is referred to as the “dot.com hype” (Fassin, 2005). Issues arise at many different points throughout the startup process and include confidentiality of information, insider trading, and even the concept of the idea they are trying to create. Social networking comes into play because many new social media sites have been created to try and compete with the popular sites like Facebook and Twitter. Since these sites are ‘knock-offs’ of other sites there are oftentimes ethical issues involved with the creation of these new social network sites. Another ethical issue phenomenon that has been enabled by the creation of social media is the creation of social networking sites that leak confidential infor-

mation to the public, such as WikiLeaks. These sites have become popular for individuals who want who want to uncover private affairs involving our government and international relations. While people find this information to be interesting and compelling, it is extremely unethical due to the release of confidential information and it is violating secrecy. An example of one of the most popular leaks of information was when WikiLeaks published about Pfizer attempting to blackmail the Attorney-General of Nigeria. This information leak damaged Pfizer’s reputation and hurt their business (Whelan, et al. 2013). It is rather undisputed that those in executive positions have a higher standard of responsibility for their own actions and bear some responsibility for the actions of their employees. Examples of companies that follow this relationship of power vs. responsibility are Amazon and E-Bay, for the purpose of their customer protection schemes (Chen, 2009). It is the responsibility of managers in today’s world to put an importance on ethical issues within their respective corporations. Studies have shown that there is obvious correlation between traits of people and how ethics impact their decisions. A manager’s background has a huge effect on their decisions regarding ethical issues because different backgrounds emphasize different morals. Someone who was raised with bad morals is more likely to act unethically. Managers that put a higher focus on ethical decision-making were married and of non-American nationality. A more obvious correlation is that managers with a higher-grade point average in college were more aware of ethical issues happening in the workplace (Pearce, 2011). Overall, the importance in ethical business decisions is mostly based on how the manager is presented the decision when being put under some sort of evaluation and what other circumstances or conflict of interest might be at play. Based off of the readings used in this paper, the future of social networking sites in business looks to be rather promising. I think that since businesses have just started deep-dive exploring all features and benefits that social networking sites have to offer them, they will be able to work through the ethical issues that are currently being presented. I also think that more universally accepted standards will be established for businesses to follow to help prevent ethical issues from occurring. Of course, there will always be some cases of unethical behaviors happening within businesses as it is inevitable in any situation. This topic is relatively new and not much research has been done yet, so I think that as this era continues to age and progress, we will be able to find out about more types of ethical issues that can occur. In conclusion, there are many different relationships that exist between actors on social networking sites and individuals in a corporation that lead 179

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to the spreading of unethical behavior. Social networking sites also offer many opportunities for businesses to expand and interact more with consumers, while also benefitting the consumers. Works Cited Chen, S. (2009). Corporate Responsibilities in InternetEnabled Social Networks. Journal of Business Ethics, 90(4), 523–536. Fassin, Y. (2005). The Reasons Behind Non-Ethical Behaviour in Business and Entrepreneurship. Journal of Business Ethics, 60(3), 265–279. Franziska Zuber. (2015). Spread of Unethical Behavior in Organizations: A Dynamic Social Network Perspective. Journal of Business Ethics, 131(1), 151–172. Gummerus, J., Liljander, V., & Sihlman, R. (2017). Do Ethical Social Media Communities Pay Off? An Exploratory Study of the Ability of Facebook Ethical Communities to Strengthen Consumers’ Ethical Consumption Behavior. Journal of Business Ethics, 144(3), 449–465.

Hajli, N. (2018). Ethical Environment in the Online Communities by Information Credibility: A Social Media Perspective. Journal of Business Ethics, 149(4), 799–810. Pearce, J. A. (2013). Using Social Identity Theory to Predict Managers’ Emphases on Ethical and Legal Values in Judging Business Issues. Journal of Business Ethics, 3, 497-514. Treviňo, L. K. & Nelson, K. A. (2017). Managing business ethics: Straight talk about how to do it right, 7th Edition. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. Whelan, G., Moon, J., & Grant, B. (2013). Corporations and Citizenship Arenas in the Age of Social Media. Journal of Business Ethics, 118(4), 777–790.

Student Reflection: Out of all the papers I have written throughout my undergraduate career, this is easily my favorite. As a business major and someone whose generation is fueled by social media, I enjoyed being able to see how the two worked hand in hand. As businesses become fonder of using social media sites for a variety of reasons, I wanted to really look at what ethical issues could arise and how they can be solved. One of the main reasons I really enjoyed this paper is because I saw the results come full circle back to the main idea behind our class. Although it is the reputation of the business that is being portrayed, that reputation is driven by the personal ethics of each person within that business.

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