Write the Ship • A Journal of Student Writing 2021-2022 by Shippensburg University

WRITE THE SHIP A Journal of Student Writing 2021-2022

WRITE THE SHIP A Jour nal of St udent Wr it ing Faculty Advisor: Dr. Nicole Santalucia Student Editor: Ashleigh Kennedy Committee Members: Lonna Anderson Isabella Brignola Olivia Chovanes Grace Gilfert Jay Harnish Katie McCann Allyson Ritchey Cover: Color Is Not That Simple by Darran Edmonds Tempera paint on Whiteboard Paper

Shippensburg University 2021-2022 Write the Ship is sponsored by the Department of English, the College of Arts and Sciences, and the Office of the Provost and Vice President for Academic Affairs

Student Editor's Preface Dear Reader, After two years of distanced and blended learning, we’ve all made it back to Shippensburg. As I’m writing this, it’s a beautiful 67 degrees outside. The trees haven’t bloomed yet, but the flowers are at the brink of blossoming in front of Lehman Library. Students sit outside in the quad’s Adirondacks, Chick Fil-A paraphernalia and notebooks scattered beside them, books and sunglasses in hand. This is my third year at Shippensburg, yet only the first I’ve seen this happen thanks to COVID whisking us all away. The air seems, in more ways than one, easier to breathe. Yet even so, “the winter of our discontent” is far from over. We may be all back on-campus, but the problems that plague us have not disappeared. COVID is still battering other parts of the globe even if it has thankfully declined in the States. What’s more, the issues that COVID has exasperated and highlighted – income inequality, racial injustice, gendered violence, mental health decline, substance abuse, the climate crisis – still ravage and kill in more ways than one. We are seemingly no happier, as a nation, than we were at the onset of the pandemic. How can we confront and solve such problems that have no easy cure? The students at Shippensburg, as this year’s Write the Ship shows, may have no silver bullets, but they do offer glimpses into the beyond we wish to create. Criminal Justice and Social Work students confront diverse issues such as the influence of race in convictions and foster care, patterns in officer assault, and the individual as well as social implications of gender identity. Humanities students study indigenous and state-side feminisms, ethnic and national revolutions and corresponding crackdowns, the relationship of art and mental health, and the theoretical groundings of today’s most controversial ideologies. Business students confront international models of workplace bullying and the role of business in creating a sustainable future. All of these students offer crucial voices as they carve a future for both themselves and our society. These students’ efforts led as well to an astonishing growth of Write the Ship. Submissions grew by 73% compared to last year, a change that in turn led to the expansion of Write the Ship’s editorial team. Jay, Lonna, Olivia, Katie, Grace, Allyson, and Isabella – all this would be impossible without your much-needed help. Thank you for the weekends and late-nights spent on this; I could ask for no better group of peers and, what’s more, friends. Megan and Dr. Santalucia, you are my guiding stars. Thank you for your constant advice and honesty; I am indebted to you both in ways that expand far beyond this magazine, and you know it. Jessica Kline, Pamela Bucher, and Jeanie Henry had to deal with my constant emails, and for that they deserve praise; they are the reason checks are in wallets and books are in bindings. Thank you to all the professors who encouraged their students to submit and all the students who were brave enough to offer their works; without you this magazine (and our minds) would be a bit more blank. And finally, thank you to you, dear reader, for spending your time with all of us; it is for you that we offer our grains of wisdom, however small they may seem. Read this, ponder it, and, most of all, act on it. These students, and their world, deserve no less. Thankfully Yours, Ashleigh Kennedy, Student Editor

Committee Members' Prefaces Lonna Anderson As a first time editor for Write the Ship, I was extremely intimidated. However I found the experience to be very rewarding and quite fun overall. I am very grateful to have been invited in and I hope can live up to the standard. Every paper was amazing to read and I hope everyone knows how proud they should be of themselves and their work. Isabella Brignola Working with writers of any type is always an honor, but doing so with a broad range of students from across the campus is especially rewarding. I want to thank everyone who submitted for their dedication to academia and the courage to send their writing. Olivia Chovanes Serving as an editor for this year’s Write the Ship has personally been an incredibly illuminating experience for me. I am very grateful and proud of the creativity, ideas, conversation, and teamwork which culminate in this journal. Grace Gilfert I was really glad to have the opportunity to work on this project with my peers, albeit remotely! Thanks to my peers for their hard work, and thanks to our students for their submissions. Jay Harnish My experience as a student editor for Write the Ship has been very rewarding. I have had the pleasure of reviewing essays penned by talented writers from a variety of classes across different majors. It is wonderful to see everyone's unique writing styles and hard work reflected in their papers. I am especially glad to be part of the Write the Ship team since I am also a DHC writing tutor who actively works with students to help them with their writing. Tutor and editor are different roles, but both serve the same purpose: to strengthen writing. I would like to thank everyone who submitted their work and to congratulate those whose papers are being published. All of your contributions have led to a solid and well-rounded publication. Katie McCann I am incredibly honored to be a part of the Write the Ship team. This is my first experience as part of an editorial staff and I was lucky to be able to work with such talented people. I also consider myself extremely fortunate that I was able to read the wonderful work that came from each and every submitter. Allyson Ritchey I was so honored to have been asked to take on the task of editing this year's edition of Write the Ship. It is amazing to see everyone's hard work come together in one big culmination of academia.

Contents The Lost Cause? An Ideological Criticism of Confederate Iconography at Home and On the Battlefield by Brian Atkinson..............................................................................................................................................................................11

The Volvo Group: An Analysis of Sustainable Procurement by Chase Slenker..............................................................................................................................................................................16

Assaults and Murders of State Wildlife Officers in the Line-of-Duty by Robert Roush IV...........................................................................................................................................................................20

Effect of Telomerase on Cancer by Kayla Kunkel.................................................................................................................................................................................25

Understanding Indigenous Feminism and its Impact on Guatemalan Women and Communities by Ashley Ott......................................................................................................................................................................................29

The Influence of Race and Ethnicity in Capital Punishment by Bridget Sharkey............................................................................................................................................................................34

Ecofeminist Analysis of Nature Imagery in Their Eyes Were Watching God by Emily Dziennik..............................................................................................................................................................................38

Assessing the Impacts of 9/11 on Firefighters by Luke Clement................................................................................................................................................................................42

Racism and Portrayals of Black Characters Depicted in Movies by Sara Cox........................................................................................................................................................................................45

Beauty Standards in the Media by Brenna White................................................................................................................................................................................48

Analyzing the Illegal Take of Wildlife in the United States: A Theoretical Perspective by Robert E. Roush IV.......................................................................................................................................................................50

How LGBTQ Community is affected by the Justice System and Victimization by Nicholas Keith..............................................................................................................................................................................56

Crime Rates Vs. Low Income by Megan Cottingham.......................................................................................................................................................................60

The Significance of Statistical Accuracy on Police-Involved Shootings and Crisis Intervention Training Programs by Emilly Anderson............................................................................................................................................................................64

Wrongful Convictions: Why They Happen and What We Can Do to Stop Them by Hunter Piper.................................................................................................................................................................................67

False Eyewitness Identification by Noah Aeppli..................................................................................................................................................................................72

The Policy – Violence Against Women Act by Sydney Kunkel..............................................................................................................................................................................77

Why are People with Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities Treated Differently by Medical Professionals? by Devon Speiser..............................................................................................................................................................................84

A Shooting Star’s Momento Mori by Willow Prenatt...............................................................................................................................................................................91

Infographic by Natalie Wentz...............................................................................................................................................................................93

Look Back and See the Present: An Analysis of “I Am Joaquín” by Alaina Conaway ...........................................................................................................................................................................96

Feminism within Beloved by Toni Morrison by Hannah Cornell..........................................................................................................................................................................100

Opal Viola Victoria Bear Shield Character Biography by Cynthia J. Koubik........................................................................................................................................................................105

Letter to CK by Megan Gardenhour....................................................................................................................................................................110

Depression and the Emotional Body by Megan Gardenhour....................................................................................................................................................................113

Are You My Mother?: Art as Fetish or Art as Healing? by Victoria Helfrick..........................................................................................................................................................................116

Does Exercise Help to Increase Bone Density in Postmenopausal Women? by Lauren Ocker..............................................................................................................................................................................118

Super Suits as an Ergogenic Aid in Competitive Swimming by Rachel Johnston.........................................................................................................................................................................122

The Creatine and Exercise Partnership by Mekhi Lee...................................................................................................................................................................................126

Looking at McConnellsburg, PA’s Historic District by Rebecca Wenschhof..................................................................................................................................................................130

As Social Movements Evolve, Consider the Pit Bull by Paije Koller..................................................................................................................................................................................137

Comparing Counterrevolutions: International Forces at Work by Ashlyn Browning.........................................................................................................................................................................143

The Five-Factor Model: A New Tool for Promoting a Positive Work Environment by Ashley Unger...............................................................................................................................................................................152

A Cultural Comparison of Workplace Bullying in the United Kingdom & the United States by Cassandra Oakes.......................................................................................................................................................................156

Rocketbook Brand Assessment by Stephanie Runyon......................................................................................................................................................................161

Assessing Whether Tobacco Products Should Be Sold to 18-Year-Olds by Jay Harnish ...............................................................................................................................................................................166

What does your gender identity mean to you? by Saige Keyes

............................................................................................................................................................................173

Reflecting on Gender by Zoé Williard

.............................................................................................................................................................................175

What Does Gender Mean to Me? by Carlos Barraza-Rodriguez .........................................................................................................................................................178

Prisoner Reentry and the Troubling View of Mental Health by Elizabeth Nee..............................................................................................................................................................................181

Policies Creating a Voice for Olympic Athletes by Madeline Davis...........................................................................................................................................................................184

Foster Care is Failing Families by Keirstyn Ruth..............................................................................................................................................................................187

Student Writings

Write the Ship, 2021-2022

Provost's Award College of Arts & Sciences

The Lost Cause? An Ideological Criticism of Confederate Iconography at Home and On the Battlefield by Brian Atkinson HCS 370: Rhetorical Criticism Dr. Eveline Lang Assignment: An Ideological Criticism of Confederate iconography in various forms and whether or not these icons deserve removal or rewritten. With the recent focus on Confederate monuments and symbols in America, including the removal of the Robert E. Lee statue in Richmond, it is important that we evaluate the ideology and semiotics behind the icons while debating their place in our society and public memory.

Abstract George Santayana once stated that “those who cannot remember the past are doomed to repeat it.” The Civil War itself only lasted from 1861-1865, but the root causes and bitter resentment born from the buildup has lasted, for some, even to this day. Unlike wars fought on foreign soil, the very land that America sits on still bears the scars of this bloody dispute. Many people seek to preserve the history of the conflict through the preservation of battlefields, towns, and landmarks that served as the scenes and backdrops of the grand conflict. Recently, a new battle has been waged over how we remember these places and the people who acted on the grounds. There are those who wish to see all Confederate iconography removed and these groups have seen success in the changing of state flags and removal of prominent statues of Confederate leadership. There are others who argue that the removal of these monuments is erasure of history. How we preserve and teach about the events of the past determines how we remember and what we learn from it. Building on Stuart Hall’s Ideological Theory and Peirce’s work in Semiotics, this study will examine Confederate iconography with a focus on battlefield monuments and plaques. Viewing these monuments through the Ideological lens will help determine what lessons and messages they teach/convey and whether they should be removed altogether or altered to remain as a teaching tool. Introduction The American Civil War is an enduring event in our nation’s history that shaped laws, the land, and its people for decades and now centuries beyond it taking

place. Tony Horwitz’s 1998 national bestselling book Confederates in the Attic detailed his personal journey as a journalist through the American South to seek out why the conflict left such an indelible mark on the country and what sentiments about it remained. The Civil War is referred to as having occurred in 10,000 places; poke a pin in a map of the South and you are likely to prod loose a battle or skirmish (Horwitz, 1998). While you were taught in elementary school that the conflict ended in 1865, it continues today. In 2015, Dylan Roof killed nine people at Emanuel African Methodist Episcopal Church in Charleston, South Carolina in hopes of inciting a race war. However, in the aftermath, a grassroots effort began to fight against and remove Confederate iconography after photos showed Roof posing with guns and the Confederate battle flag. Since 2017, over 170 Confederate monuments have been removed, as well as several states and counties having removed the Confederate flag from official state iconography (SPLC, 2019). Those who support this movement feel the right thing is being done, while opposition states that history is being destroyed or heritage is being erased. Building off Stuart Hall’s Theory of Ideology and Silverman’s work in Semiotics, this study will focus on an Ideological Criticism of Confederate iconography and what the individual icons are purveying. Focusing on flags and prominent monuments, both on battlefields and on private property, this study aims to highlight the romanticized version of history portrayed through the iconography. Viewing these monuments and symbols through the Ideological lens, will allow us to determine the true messages being conveyed and what history/heritage is truly being represented. Most 13

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of these icons are centered around the ideas of The Lost Cause, Southern honor and innocence, and Northern aggression. They focus on the idea of Southern heritage being maintained. The creation and centering of these values seek to topple what neo-Confederates would deem the hegemonic outlook of the Northern revisionists. Literature Review Stuart Hall has done an incredible amount of work in the realm of Ideology. According to Hall, Ideology refers to mental frameworks, languages, concepts of thought, systems of representation, and images that different classes or social groups use to define or sort out how society works (Hall, 1985). Hall believed that, because ideologies could not occur in an isolated event, there were multiple ideologies operating congruently within a society, some being dominant and some being marginal (Pasternak, 2005). Hall also labels ideology as “sense making” and thus not concerned with the actual truth or validity of the ideology, but merely how it functions to help a group make sense of it all (Pasternak, 2005). Hall also put forth that Ideology does not operate autonomously from other social structures. Ideology must be analyzed in its correspondence and relation to other social structures; this makes Ideology one of the key analyzers for dispositions and struggle of power (Grossberg and Slack, 1985). There are, according to Hall, also ideological logics to public debate which limit the social realities of the ways the world works (Makus, 1990). This also serves to allow us to analyze the interaction between discursive structures and historical conditions, especially when it comes to a struggle for meaning of symbols (Makus, 1990). Because Ideological Theory deals with competing views of the world or society and these ideologies do not operate apart from one another, it is only natural that certain ideologies are more popularly held than others. Hegemony refers to the privileging of the ideology of one group over another. Hegemonic ideologies constitute domination and control of a prevailing ideology over another (Foss, 2018). Hall states that hegemonic ideologies invite us to understand the world in a certain way and establishes the symbolic power to classify the world for others (Hall, 1988). Hegemonic ideologies must be reinforced through repeated symbols as well as smothering of opposition ideologies (Foss, 2018). It is important then, to understand the symbols and their meanings of an ideology. Charles Sander Peirce pioneered work in the field of Semiotics (study of symbols) listing three characteristics a sign has: material quality, pure demonstrative application, and appeal to a mind (Hoopes, 1991). Essentially, signs act 14

as a substitute for something else; they function in a way outside of themselves (Foss, 2018). It is also important to understand the role that museums, or in the case of many of these monuments, battlefields, play in the presentation of these symbols. Museums allow people to engage in the past in a perceivably unmediated way with exhibits and artifacts deemed reliable by the public (Rosenzweig and Thelen, 1998). Hutton’s work shows that how and where a museum displays an object, or site specificity, matters in how memories are unlocked (Hutton, 1993). The space a symbol or display is in can matter almost as much as the symbol itself. Museums in this sense, tell stories of lived experiences that are meant to connect to the present day people (Appadurai and Breckenridge, 1992). So what is displayed and how/where it is displayed plays a major role in how we perceive a memory and how these memories are shaped. With that knowledge, this study will explore several different types of Confederate iconography in several different settings. Rhetorical Situation Before delving too far into the monuments and other icons themselves, it is important to understand the background behind how and when the monuments came to be. While memorializing the events and participants of the Civil War began as early as 1866, the Southern Poverty and Law Center (SPLC) notes that dedication of Confederate memorials occurred during two distinct eras; the first era occurred in the early 1900s as Southern states began passing Jim Crow laws to overturn much of the work Reconstruction had accomplished. This era lasted into the 1920s and coincided with the rebirth and revival of the Ku Klux Klan, who adopted the Confederate battle flag as a rallying symbol. The second major era of Confederate monument placement occurred alongside the Civil Rights movement of the 1950s-1960s (SPLC, 2019). Some of these monuments were established or funded by individual states, but a large majority were enacted by private groups such as the United Daughters of the Confederacy (UDC). In 1894, the United Daughters of the Confederacy emerged as an umbrella organization for memorial groups and shaped public memory in the South by maintaining a positive image of Confederate veterans. Overlapping official and vernacular cultural interests encouraged erection of monuments to anonymous soldiers from 1865 through 1920 (Gulley, 1993). The UDC has been called the largest perpetuator of Confederate mythology (Towns, 2012). Much of their role and purpose is geared towards a preservation of Southern heritage and culture through the changing of textbooks, placement of memorials, and hosting of Confederate-centric events (Towns

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2012). It would be the duty of the members to carry on tradition and values that were carried by the wartime generation, their valor and glory, triumphs and defeats, and their loyalty and devotion (Towns, 2012). The UDC, the Sons of Confederate Veterans, and their offshoot Children of the Confederacy prescribe to a Confederate Catechism that teaches of Southern valor and the true history of the Civil War (Horwitz, 1998). The timing and source of these monuments and icons are rooted in the ideologies of the groups and governments that raised them. Confederate Flag The Confederate battle flag has become one of the most co-opted and divisive symbols and has been since the end of the Civil War. Because of its popular usage by white supremacist groups and groups such as the Sons of Confederate Veteran’s, the Anti-Defamation League (ADL) has recognized the Confederate Battle Flag as a symbol of hate. The Stars and Bars, as it is known colloquially, was never officially the recognized flag of the Confederate States, but rather was the battle standard for Robert E. Lee’s Army of Northern Virginia. Proponents of the flag will argue that it stands for state’s rights and a symbol to stand against governmental oppression. This belief is born mostly from the Dixiecrats Party adopting the flag in the 1950s. The Dixiecrats were a group of Southern Democrats who adopted the flag as a symbol of resistance against the federal government, much as the Confederacy had done during the Civil War. Following that, it was integrated into the Georgia state flag, and widely became a symbol of southern defiance regarding desegregation. More people have carried the Confederate flag in parades, at football games, at protest rallies, or displayed them on a car, truck, or shirt than fought under it in the Civil War (Coski, 2005). As it was in 1860, the flag became a symbol of those who were fighting for state’s rights, but the rights of a social hierarchy rooted in white supremacy (Coski, 2005). To defenders of the Confederate flag, it is a symbol of history, of events that transpired, but cannot be erased. The flag is a vestige of Southern tradition and heritage according to defenders, one that should not be furled as it was in 1865 but flown proudly to celebrate the rich history of the South. Stone Mountain The largest and grandest monument to the Confederacy is Stone Mountain near Atlanta, GA. Engraved into the mountain is the largest bas-relief sculpture in the world featuring Generals Robert E. Lee and Thomas “Stonewall” Jackson, as well as President of the Confederacy Jefferson Davis, all on horseback (McKay, 2020). The sculpture itself is 90

feet by 190 feet and 42 feet deep. Referred to by the nickname “The Confederacy’s Mount Rushmore,” Stone Mountain was originally meant to feature 60 individuals including Nathaniel Bedford Forrest, Confederate cavalryman and founder of the KKK. Lee, Jackson, and Davis are seen astride their noble steeds, hands and hats held over their hearts. This depicts the three men, not as secessionists or proponents of slavery, but gallant gentleman watching over their contemporary Southern ancestors. The relief is carved into the side of a granite mountain, a symbol of strength, resilience, and permanence. While many detractors offer compromise in moving potentially offending symbols to an educational environment, the sheer size and location of this craving, make that near impossible (Hendrix, 2017). Recent calls for the removal of the carving have been met with the same cries of southern heritage as the flag controversy. Robert E. Lee Memorials Upon his death in 1870, Robert E. Lee became a rallying figure for memorialization and for the Lost Cause. Lee is the central most symbol of the Lost Cause narrative due to his social status, military leadership, and the cult of his personality (NPS, 2021). Despite his slight stature in life, many memorials to Lee show a larger-than-life likeness that speaks to the power and reverence in which he was held. One such memorial is the Virginia State monument located on the Gettysburg National Battlefield. The first Confederate State Monument erected at Gettysburg, the monument prominently features Robert E. Lee atop his horse, Traveler. The statue of Lee and Traveler itself stands fourteen feet tall. At the base of the monument are seven Confederate soldiers, each one representing civil occupations such as farmer, mechanic, and youth (Hawks, 2021). The placement of Lee speaks to his stature to the cause, as well as his status to the cause. The physical placement of the monument also lends itself to the myth of the Lost Cause. The Virginia State Monument can be found near where Lee watched the failed Pickett’s Charge on the third and final day of the battle. Pickett’s Charge has, itself, become a romanticized event of the outnumbered Rebels launching a last-ditch effort to dislodge the Union forces from their fortifications. Lee was viewed as the ideal Southern gentleman, noble in life, and nobler in death. The soldiers at the base of the monument represent the Southern innocence and the righteousness of the Cause. By depicting the commonness of the Confederate soldier, it reinforces the Southern ideal that these were men, or boys, defending the South from Northern aggression, all under the watchful eye of Robert E. Lee.

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The most famous Robert E. Lee memorial is one that no longer exists. The first monument placed in Richmond’s Monument Avenue in 1890, was the massive Equine statue of Robert E. Lee. Once again, this monument served to glorify the Lost Cause. Lee was once again depicted as larger than life. Traveler was not used in this monument, but rather a healthy-looking thoroughbred was put in place of Lee’s trusted mount. Shiloh Battlefield Confederate Monument The final monument this study will address also reinforces the Lost Cause mentality, as well as the valiancy of the Southern forces. The Confederate memorial at the Shiloh National Battlefield was erected in 1917 by the UDC (NPS Confederate Monument, 2021). The center pedestal features a carving of fallen General Albert Sidney Johnston. Surrounding the central pedestal are two panels: one representing the spirit of the first day of battle and one representing the sorrow of the second day. The panel representing the first day shows youthful, exuberant faces fearlessly charging into battle. The panel representing the second day reflects the sorrow of a defeat that was so nearly a victory. Also featured on the memorial are three clusters of statues. One side features an infantry soldier having snatched up the battle flag in defiance of the Northern aggressors and an artilleryman appearing cool and unfazed by battle. The other side shows a cavalryman and an officer expressing frustration at how the battle had turned. Finally, in the center is an angelic figure known as “Defeated Victory.” The angelic form is handing a laurel representing victory over to the figures of Death and Night, the two things believed to have stopped a Confederate victory (Johnston’s death and nightfall allowing Union reinforcements to arrive. The depiction of the Confederacy as angelic and righteous is obvious. The lamentation of a near victory is not one of a defeated group. Confederate leadership is once again placed on a pedestal of moral righteousness and the use of youthful faces once again depicts a Southern innocence and valor. The angelic form of Victory and the depictions of Night and Death also reinforces that the North did not defeat the South, but merely prevailed in the conflict.

Evaluation and Conclusion When evaluating the purpose or necessity of Confederate monuments, it is important to understand the context of each individual representation. SPLC lists 174 Confederate monuments that have been removed since 2017; however, they list over 1700 monuments still standing. The purpose of monuments, battlefields, and museums is to provide an accurate and unmediated portrayal of history. While it is not the duty of Ideological criticism to determine truth or validity, it is an important lens to view these historical presentations through. It is often said that history is written by the victors and while this most often rings true, it is clear that the Confederate iconography strewn about the United States is presenting history through a Southern-colored worldview. The ideals behind the Lost Cause, Southern righteousness and valor, Southern heritage and Northern aggression versus Southern secession are the driving influences behind most of these symbols. The timing and circumstances behind the erection of most of these monuments and the coopting of theses Confederate icons by groups prescribing to white supremacy show how these groups attempt to subvert the hegemonic ideology of how the Civil War is perceived. This study and its subjects lend itself to further study that would be beneficial across multiple platforms and genres. As the debate over whether Confederate iconography should be removed or has a place as a marker of history, it will be important to study the impact the messaging of these icons has. Further studies should be done on the effectiveness of memorials and battlefield memorials are at teaching history, as well as on ways what is taught can be more inclusive of the different views. This study also lends itself to further investigate the different narratives and myths behind much of the Confederate iconography and to investigate the chaining out process of the narratives. The Civil War was a divisive conflict which left scars on this country that are felt to this day. The role of the Confederacy, how it is remembered, and how it should be taught is still up for debate. The ideologies behind much of the Confederate iconography is not.

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References Appadurai, A., and Breckenridge, C. (1992). Museums are good to think: Heritage on view in India. In I. Karp, C. Kreamer, and S. Lavine (Eds.), Museums and Communities: The politics of public culture (34-55). Washington DC: Smithsonian Institute Press Coski, J.M. (2005). The Confederate Battle Flag : America’s Most Embattled Emblem. Harvard University Press. Foss, S.K. (2018) Rhetorical Criticism: Exploration and Practice (5th Ed). Waveland Press Inc. Grossberg, L., & Slack, J. D. (1985). An Introduction to Stuart Hall’s Essay. Critical Studies in Mass Communication, 2(2), 87. https://doi. org/10.1080/15295038509360069 Gulley, H.E. (1993). Women and the Lost Cause: preserving a Confederate identity in the American Deep South. Journal of Historical Geography, 19(2), 125-141. Hall, S. (1985). Signification, representation, ideology: Althusser and the post‐structuralist debates. Critical Studies in Mass Communication, 2(2), 91-114 Hall, S. (1988). The Toad in the Garden: Thatcherism Among the Theorists in C. Nelson and L. Grossberg (eds.) Marxism and the Interpretation of Culture. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. Hawks, S.A. (2021). The state of Virginia Monument. https:// gettysburg.stonesentinels.com/confederate-monuments/ confederate-state-monuments/virginia/ Hendrix, S. (2017, September 19). Stone Mountain: The ugly past — and fraught future — of the biggest Confederate monument. The Washington Post. September 19, 2017

Hoopes, J. (1991). Peirce on Signs : Writings on Semiotic by Charles Sanders Peirce. The University of North Carolina Press. Horwitz, T. (1998). Confederates in the Attic: Dispatches from the Unfinished Civil War. New York: Random House Inc. Hutton, P. (1993). History as an art of memory. Hanover, VT: university of Vermont. Makus, A. (1990). Stuart Hall’s theory of ideology: a frame for rhetorical criticism. Western Journal of Speech Communication, 54(4), 495. McKay, R. (2020, July 3). The world’s largest Confederate Monument faces renewed calls for removal. Reuters, National Park Service (August, 17, 2021). Confederate Monument- Tour Stop #2. https://www.nps.gov/places/ confederate-monument-tour-stop-2.htm National Park Service (September, 14, 2021). Memorialization of Robert E. Lee and the Lost Cause. https://www.nps.gov/arho/learn/historyculture/ memorialization-of-robert-e-lee-and-the-lost-cause.htm Pasternak, A. F. (2005). Stuart Hall and the Concept of Ideology. International Journal of the Humanities, 3(2), 33–38. Rosenzweig, R., and Thelen, D. (1998). The presence of the past: Popular uses of history in American life. New York: Columbia University Press Southern Poverty Law Center. (February, 1, 2019). Whose Heritage? Public Symbols of the Confederacy. https://www. splcenter.org/whose-heritage Towns, W.S. (2012). Enduring Legacy : Rhetoric and Ritual of the Lost Cause. University Alabama Press.

Student Reflection: The American Civil War and how it is taught has always been of keen interest to me. As a child, I’d visit battlefields, spend hours lining up toy soldiers, and voraciously devour books on the subject. How the Civil War is viewed and remembered, especially through the prism of socioeconomic and geographic lenses has fascinated me. Inspired by Tony Horwitz’s Confederates in the Attic, I felt it important to view the icons and monuments left behind through an ideological critique.

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Provost's Award College of Business

The Volvo Group: An Analysis of Sustainable Procurement by Chase Slenker SCM 315: Strategic Procurementg Dr. Ian Langella Assignment: Pick a Fortune 500 firm (focal firm) that is known to have a policy towards sustainable purchasing. Familiarize yourself with the policy and examine their level of sustainability, particularly with respect to their operations including the first tier and second tier procurement levels. Perform an analysis of the sustainability of the selected suppliers, sustainability policies, as well as an analysis of the sustainable operations.

Companies today sometimes incorrectly view "supply chain sustainability" as a buzzword, referring to environmental stewardship within business practices. Although a company’s impact on the earth is one component of the triple bottom line, it is only one component of supply chain sustainability.1 The Volvo Group is a multinational corporation with a comprehensive sustainability policy, including a Supplier Code of Conduct. The company reasonably upholds its commitment to people, planet, and profit through multiple upstream levels of suppliers, all the way to its down-stream customers.2 One of the four strategic priorities of the Volvo Group is to “secure a desirable sustainable product and service portfolio with the right quality, leveraging new and well-known technologies.” According to its annual report, the Volvo Group is targeting purchasing excellence, and acknowledges that “long-term cooperation with suppliers drives efficiency, quality and responsible behavior throughout the valuechain,” which is visible through a variety of policies and initiatives.3 The company maintains a commitment to achieving carbon neutral products and operations and conducts regular supplier assessments. Additionally, the company maintains a social goal of zero accidents or lives lost with Volvo products. They are currently striving to reduce aggregated accident rates by at least 50% by 2030. Within their strategic plan, the Volvo Group recognizes that their commitment to their employees, community, and environmental stewardship drives their growth and profits.

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The Volvo Group maintains a full value approach in its products by actively considering environmental and human impacts. Some examples include reducing hazardous material usage in its products through its Sustainable Minerals Program, supporting the Paris Climate Agreement to keep global average temperatures down, and building on the five-step framework of the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) Due Diligence Guidance for Responsible Supply Chains. The Volvo Group maintains the ranking of number twenty on Fortune and World’s Best Workplace worldwide.4 The group strives to align their human rights review methodology with the United Nations (UN) Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights and aligns parts reviews with Occupational Health and Safety Assessments Series (OHSAS) 18001 and International Organization for Standardization (ISO) 450001 quality standards.5 The Volvo Group maintains high human capital standards for the workplace, limits environmental impact, and maximizes profits while not reducing its impact on people or the planet. The company extends its high standards down to its suppliers through the Volvo Supplier Code of Conduct, which sets expectations for respect, non-discrimination, safety and healthy workplaces, collective bargaining, and workers compensation. It not only sets the minimum requirements but also sets its aspirations for suppliers in the areas of human rights, responsible sourcing of raw materials, environmental performance,

Ian Langella, Jerry Carbo, and Viet Dao, “Creating Socially Responsible and Environmentally Sustainable IT-Enabled Supply Chains,” Sustainable Value Chain Management (2016): 139-140. “Volvo Group Annual and Sustainability Report 2020,” The Volvo Group (2021): 75. “Volvo Group,” 167-171. “Volvo Group,” 39. “The 17 Sustainable Development Goals,” United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs – Sustainable Development (2021).

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and business ethics.6 The company conducts supplier audits to identify actual and potential adverse human rights impacts on its employees and environmental damages from suppliers. The process is coordinated by Volvo Group Purchasing and covers tier one suppliers. In 2020, 92% of Volvo Group components were from suppliers who passed on environmental and social criteria. In high-risk areas, the percentage was 97%, with 95% of all of Volvo’s first-tier suppliers analyzed in 2020.7 The company’s supplier guidelines are in place to uphold sustainability in purchasing standards and uphold the company’s commitment to the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The Volvo Group maintains transparency in its reporting and primarily upholds its commitments when analyzing first and second tier suppliers from Volvo Cars, a branch of The Volvo Group. Overall, the company maintains sustainability in purchasing standards with only a few very minor deviances from its policy. In an analysis of the first and second tier suppliers of the Volvo S60, all first-tier suppliers reviewed met social and environmental standards and second tier suppliers met almost all components of the company’s standards.8 The Volvo S60 contains spark plugs manufactured by DENSO in Japan, with the resistors made by Japan Resistor Mfg. Co., LTD. Ignition coils are manufactured by Federal Mogul, while the exhaust system is manufactured by Faurecia. The rear bumper is manufactured by Magna and the Brake Bundle is manufactured by TI Automotive.9 The in-car audio system is manufactured by Mitsubishi Electric with the speakers made by Kenwood in the United States. The final supplier analyzed was the front brake pads, which are manufactured by Honeywell with the phenol resin in the brake pads supplied by the DIC Corporation. In analyzing all these companies’ sustainable practices, most had their own goals of carbon neutrality by 2050 and were actively taking steps to achieve this.10 The only identifiable problem is with Honeywell’s sourcing practices for rare minerals. Other potential challenges to Volvo’s supply chain sustainability goals may exist, but this is the only identifiable limitation within the research conducted. A limitation on this analysis is that the Volvo S60 contains parts from all over the world manufactured by hundreds of 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

suppliers, only a few of which were included in this analysis.11 Overall, the Volvo Group’s suppliers met the standards set forth by sustainable supply chain principles and by the company’s own internal sustainability policy. The Volvo S60 spark plugs are manufactured by Denso, which maintains a Denso Group Sustainability policy with high standard social policies on human rights. The Denso Group is currently working on implementing new and emerging environmental protection policies to use water more efficiently. The company is working to cut the proportion of total CO2 emissions throughout the value chain, with a target of 50% or less compared with fiscal year 2012 by 2025.12 The company maintains Volvo’s criteria within its Sustainable Suppliers policy, including all core competencies. Denso receives its resistors from Japan Resistor Mfg. CO., LTD., which has very little information on social or environmental policies. Hazardous waste disposal is a common problem for them, as with many resistors manufacturers. The company does maintain the Environmental Management System ISO 14001 certification and is working to address environmental issues in daily work. “We consider it a responsibility to tackle the environmental issues of the resistor manufacturing process,” the company stated in a press release regarding questions on the environmental impact of the company.13 Another first-tier supplier for the Volvo S60 is the brake pads manufactured by Honeywell. Honeywell currently focuses 50% or more of new product research and development on solutions that improve environmental and social outcomes.14 Like Volvo, Honeywell maintains a Supplier Code of Business Conduct. Within their Supplier Code of Business Conduct, one issue exists, surrounding its raw materials sourcing. The company’s Responsible Sourcing of Minerals policies only have governance on tantalum, tin, tungsten, and gold and only requires suppliers to ensure that their business operations do not finance or benefit armed groups that are perpetrators of human rights abuses in the Democratic Republic of the Congo or a neighboring country.15 Granted, those policies do still cover most minerals that are mined using laborers without basic human rights guarantees. However, it is a

I-Hsien Sherwood, “5 Ways Brands Are making Sustainability matter: Adidas, Volvo, Ikea, and other Marketers are Tapping into Consumers’ Environmental Awareness,” Advertising Age (2021): 92. “Volvo Group,” 167. “Shop Genuine Volvo S60 Parts,” Volvo Cars. “Annual Reports & Accounts 2020,” TI Fluid Systems (May 2021): 4-10. Henrik Palson, Christian Finnsgard, and Carl Wanstrom, “Selecting of Packaging Systems in Supply Chains from a Sustainable Perspective – The Case of Volvo,” Packaging Technology and Science (2013): 290. “Honeywell’s Corporate Citizenship Report,” Honeywell Corporation (October 2020): 22-23. “Sustainability Management,” Denso Crafting the Core, (2021): 2. “JRM Activities,” Japan Resistor Mfg. Co., (May 2021): 10. “Honeywell’s Corporate,” 5. “Honeywell’s Supplier Code of Business Conduct,” Honeywell Corporation (October 2020): 19-22.

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selective policy for only certain minerals and only in a select geographic area. This is an area for improvement for both Honeywell and for Volvo. Within the brake pads that Honeywell makes is phenol resin, which is supplied by the DIC Corporation, a Japanese chemical company. Akin to Volvo, the DIC Corporation aligns its goals with the U. N.’s 17 priorities and views social and environmental sustainability as a key factor for profit growth. The company has a net carbon zero goal by 2050 and to cut 50% of its emissions from 2013 by the year 2030.16 The DIC Corporation takes a similar view to Volvo that the value creation chain should maintain its high sustainability goals. With this being a second-tier supplier for Volvo, this shows promising signs that Volvo’s value chain holds near-similar priorities. Similarly, Mitsubishi Electric strives to achieve carbon zero by 2050 and maintains a commitment to “solving social issues from a long-term perspective, having sensitivity and adaptability to changes in society and proactive disclosure to stakeholders.”17 Mitsubishi manufactures the audio system in the Volvo S60 and maintains five values for materiality: Realize a sustainable global environment, respect for all, realize a safe and comfortable society, strengthen corporate governance and compliance on a sustainable basis, and create a sustainability-oriented corporate culture. Mitsubishi’s values are held by its speaker supplier, Kenwood, which provides the KFC 23041 Car Speaker for the S60’s audio system. Kenwood upholds Restriction of Hazardous Substances (RoHS) legislation and additionally upholds Registration, Evaluation, and Authorization of Chemicals (REACh) policies.18 The audio system maintains Volvo’s supply chain sustainability policies down to the second-tier suppliers.19 Ultimately, it is quite clear that through a thorough analysis of some of Volvo’s randomly selected first and second-tier suppliers, the Volvo Group’s high social and environmental sustainability policies extend consistently down to its second-tier suppliers with only minor deviations. Transparency is key to supply chain sustainability and these suppliers exhibit this quality, demonstrating goals of carbon dioxide neutrality and being responsible labor employers. A sustainable company is only as good as its suppliers, and it can be concluded that the Volvo Group’s commitment to responsible and sustainable supply chains is accurate. However, there is always room for continued growth and the Volvo Group views this as one of its strategic priorities for company and profit growth. 16 17 18 19

Bibliography “Annual Reports & Accounts 2020.” TI Fluid Systems. May 12, 2021. https://investors.tifluidsystems.com/~/media/ Files/T/Tiautomotive-IR/result-centre-documents/tifluid-systems-plc-q1-2021-trading-update-release-final. pdf “DIC Publishes DIC Report 2021 Integrated Report.” DIC Corporation. August 26, 2021. https://www.dic-global. com/en/news/2021/csr/20210825164311.html “Environmental.” Kenwood´s Environmental Care - See our Certifications. April 8, 2019. https://www. kenwoodworld.com/en-us/about/environmental. “Honeywell’s Corporate Citizenship Report.” Honeywell Corporation. October 2020. https://www.honeywell. com/content/dam/honeywell/files/Corporate_ Citizenship_Report_2020.pdf “Honeywell’s Supplier Code of Business Conduct.” Honeywell Corporation. October 2020. https://www. honeywell.com/content/dam/honeywell/files/code-ofconduct/Supplier%20Code%20of%20Business%20 Conduct%20pdf.pdf “JRM Activities.” Japan Resistor Mfg. Co., Ltd. May 6, 2021. https://www.jrm.co.jp/en/ Langella, Ian M., Jerry Carbo, and Viet Dao. “Creating Socially Responsible and Environmentally Sustainable IT-Enabled Supply Chains.” in Sustainable Value Chain Management, edited by Adam Lindgreen, 139-152. London: Taylor and Fracncis, 2016. Palsson, Henrik, Christian, 1974 Finnsgard, and Carl, 1976 Wanstrom. 2013. “Selecting of Packaging Systems in Supply Chains from a Sustainability Perspective – the Case of Volvo.” Packaging Technology and Science 26 (5): 289-310. Doi: 10.1002/pts. 1979 Sherwood, I-Hsien.“5 Ways Brands Are Making Sustainability matter: Adidias, Volvo, Ikea, and other Marketers Are Tapping into Consumers’ Environmental Awareness.” Advertising Age, 2021. “Shop Genuine Volvo S60 Parts.” Volvo Cars. https://usparts. volvocars.com/Volvo__S60.html “Sustainability Management.” DENSO Crafting the Core. https://www.denso.com/global/en/about-us/ sustainability/ “The Mitsubishi Electric Group’s Materiality.” Mitsubishi Electric. August 24, 2021. https://www. mitsubishielectric.com/en/sustainability/management/ management/materiality/index.html “The 17 Sustainable Development Goals” United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs – Sustainable Development. https://sdgs.un.org/goals “Volvo Group Annual and Sustainability Report 2020.” The Volvo Group. February 26, 2021. https://www. volvogroup.com/content/dam/volvo/volvo-group/ markets/global/en-en/investors/reports-andpresentations/annual-reports/annual-and-sustainabilityreport-2020.pdf

“DIC Publishes DIC Report 2021 Integrated Report,” DIC Corporation (August 2021): 14. “The Mitsubishi Electric Group’s Materiality,” Mitsubishi Electric (August 2021): 2-4. “Environmental,” Kenwood’s Environmental Care – See our Certifications, (May 2021): 1-8. Sherwood I-Hsien, “5 Ways,” 92.

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Student Reflection: This research includes only a small sample of Volvo Group suppliers for one specific model and for only a few select parts. The conclusion of the report is that The Volvo group’s first and second tier suppliers generally uphold the policies and framework established by the Volvo Supplier Code of Conduct and its sustainability policies. The research embodies the practice of inspecting suppliers for quality assurance and is a practice that Volvo conducts regularly and touts their success with. Conducting this research put me in the shoes of a quality control analyst and allowed me to see how quickly information is not available as one researches further and further down the supply chain. Overall, this assignment allowed me to grow in my research skills and provided me the opportunity to explore just a small sliver of the enormous supply chain network of just a few machine parts. The research conducted should be further explored and the process enacted should be applied to other multi-national companies with well-renowned polices on sustainable purchasing.

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Provost's Award College of Education and Human Services

Assaults and Murders of State Wildlife Officers in the Line-of-Duty by Robert Roush IV CRJ 310: Research Methods Dr. Carlos E. Rojas-Gaona Assignment: Students had to write a literature review of a criminal justice topic of their choice. In this assignment, students conveyed to the reader what research knowledge and ideas have been established on the topic, and what their strengths and weaknesses are. The literature reviews were defined by a guiding concept (e.g., research objective, the problem or issue discussed, or argumentative thesis). The purpose of the assignment was to enhance students’ research, writing, and critical analysis skills.

Abstract Much attention and research has been given to the conventional law enforcement officer, yet there is a contingent of state law enforcement officers that are rather consistently overlooked by both the public and academia: the wildlife officers. Wildlife officers are consistently in potentially dangerous situations in remote areas, often alone, and frequently deal with well-armed individuals (Carter, 2004; Eliason, 2006). Because of the nature of the job, the question arises: is there an elevated risk of murder or assault in the line-of-duty for these officers compared to conventional police officers, and what duties of wildlife officers are most dangerous? The few studies that exist on the subject indicate that while wildlife officers are less likely to be murdered or assaulted than the general population of law enforcement officers, when they are assaulted, it is often more severe (Carter, 2004; Eliason, 2006). Boating enforcement and attempting arrests or assisting other law enforcement agencies, appear to be the most dangerous aspects of the job (Carter, 2004; Eliason, 2006; Forsyth & Forsyth, 2009). This type of research will help raise public awareness of the realities of the wildlife officer position, and by the gathering of solid information, assist in informing the leaders of today’s wildlife officers of where to take steps to mitigate physical risks to their men and women in uniform. Introduction Research regarding state law enforcement officers routinely focuses on the municipal officer patrolling his beat, the state trooper enforcing traffic laws, or the deputy sheriff arresting a fugitive. Yet there is a contingent of state law enforcement officers that are rather consistently overlooked by both the public and academia: the wildlife officers. While this should not 22

be a surprise, since these officers are few in number compared to their conventional brethren, they are found in all 50 states in the U.S., and are known by a variety of titles depending on the state, including conservation officer, state game warden, or natural resource officer (Carter, 2004; Eliason, 2010; Patten, 2012). Wildlife officers' law enforcement duties, too, often vary by state, and they may be tasked with enforcing and investigating violations of laws related to boating, all-terrain vehicles and snowmobiles, and environmental protection, among other areas (Falcone, 2004). However, while there may not be a consistent title or job description that exists across the nation, there is one common factor that this unique breed of officers all share: the responsibility to conserve their state’s natural resources by enforcing and investigating violations of the laws and regulations related to wildlife, including the rules related to consumption of those resources, such as through the process of hunting and trapping (Falcone, 2004). While some see wildlife officers simply as glorified biologists due to the role they frequently play in wildlife research and public education, they are in fact law enforcement officers who are consistently in potentially dangerous situations (Hower, 2020). Their numbers are stretched thin in many states, leaving little option but to patrol and confront lawbreakers alone, often in remote areas miles away from potential back-up (Eliason, 2006). Because the nature of the job requires frequent interactions with hunters and firearm enthusiasts, it is routine for these men and women to deal on friendly terms with individuals carrying or possessing weapons, including large knives and high-powered rifles, the presence of which a municipal or state police officer would rarely tolerate within the reach of a suspect (Carter, 2004). Investigating and

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arresting organized criminals involved in the lucrative trade in wildlife parts, the second most profitable black market next to illicit drugs, is sometimes part of the job (Bower, 1991). Additionally, in most states, wildlife officers have full police powers and as such, serve warrants, are first responders, and provide back-up to conventional law enforcement agencies (Falcone, 2004; Patten & Caudill, 2012). Furthermore, dealing with unpredictable wild animals, injuring oneself in remote environments, and even operating assigned equipment all present additional dangers (Eliason, 2010). Because of all these factors, the question arises: is there an elevated risk of death or assault in the lineof-duty for these officers, compared to conventional police officers, and what duties of wildlife officers are most dangerous? While information on this topic is relatively sparse, in the last few decades, a handful of researchers have attempted to begin answering these questions. Their research will help raise public awareness of the realities of the wildlife officer position, and by the gathering of solid information, assist in informing the leaders of today’s wildlife officers of where to take steps to mitigate physical risks to their men and women in uniform. Review of Literature The question asked earlier, “do wildlife officers experience an elevated risk of murder or assault while performing their duties compared to conventional police officers, and what duties of wildlife officers are most dangerous?”, can easily be divided into three parts: murders, assaults, and most dangerous duties. For the purposes of this paper, murders and assaults will be dealt with separately, with analysis of the most dangerous duties occurring throughout the paper. A law enforcement officer killed while performing his or her duties, particularly if he or she was murdered, often evokes a strong emotional response. Unfortunately, this kind of event happens, with some regularity, across the country. This persistent threat, and some of the causes of it, have been the focus of much research in regards to conventional law enforcement officers, but not so much when it comes to wildlife officers. However, line-of-duty murders do occur in their ranks as well, some of the most high-profile examples in the last 15 years being the shootings of Justin Hurst of Texas and David Grove of Pennsylvania (Patten, 2012). Research on line-of-duty murders of wildlife officers is extremely scarce, and in fact, only one study on the topic could be found in the academic literature. Stephen Eliason of Montana State University has done a broad investigation into wildlife officers from all 50 states who were killed in the line-of-duty and their cause of death (Eliason, 2010). From 1886-2009, there were a total of 253 deaths of state wildlife officers in

the line-of-duty nationwide, and as might be expected, the cause that claimed the most lives was gunfire, at 93 deaths (Eliason, 2010). It is also worth noting that only one of those gunfire-related deaths is considered accidental (Eliason, 2010). However, the next highest causes of death are surprising, with automobile accidents at 40, drownings at 38, aircraft-related at 28, and even heart attack at 16 (Eliason, 2010). Notably low causes of death include vehicular pursuit at 8, assault at 4, and stabbing and animal-related death, each at 1 (Eliason, 2010). Eliason proceeded to do a deeper dive into available data, mostly breaking the different causes of death into even 20 year segments, with a notable exception being for the most recent interval (2001-2009), which is only one decade (Eliason, 2010). Shockingly, the highest cause of wildlife officer death in the last decade of the study was not due to gunfire, but to automobile accidents at 6 deaths, and also aircraft-related accidents at 3 deaths, with heart attacks also claiming 3 officers (Eliason, 2010). Gunfire-related causes were only responsible for 2 deaths during this time period (Eliason, 2010). However, the 2001-2009 interval is, historically-speaking, the exception to the rule, because for all previous intervals, gunfire caused the vast majority of wildlife officer deaths (Eliason, 2010). For example, during the 1921-1940 time period alone, 29 wildlife officers were killed by gunfire, and other causes of death did not even enter double-digit territory until the 1961-1980 interval (Eliason, 2010). With the high-risk scenarios that wildlife officers often find themselves in briefly discussed in the beginning of this paper, why are there not more deaths in the line-of-duty? For comparison, in New York City alone, 585 police officers died in the line-of-duty during the 20th century, compared to the 253 state wildlife officers who died from 1886-2009 (Eliason, 2010) . Perhaps one of the reasons for this discrepancy lies in the numbers. In 2016, one researcher states there were only 8,000 federal and state “wilderness officers” in the United States, which likely includes a substantial amount of park and forest rangers, who usually have distinctly different responsibilities and jurisdictions than wildlife officers (Biggar et al., 2016). Compare that number to the 644,936 sworn, full-time law enforcement officers in the United States in 2016 (minus the aforementioned “wilderness officers”), and the sheer difference in numbers is staggering (Uniform Crime Report, 2016). However, the comparatively low death rates of state wildlife officers are likely driven by a wide variety of factors, which would lead to some intriguing research questions, but are outside the scope of this paper. Academic research on assaults against wildlife officers, while still rare, is slightly more numerous than the literature on line-of-duty deaths. One of the most 23

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detailed and frequently referenced studies was conducted by Timothy Carter of James Madison University in Virginia, who took a qualitative approach to assaults on wildlife officers, one of the only studies of its type on the subject (Carter, 2004). Carter obtained data on assaults on members of the Virginia Department of Game and Inland Fisheries (DGIF) law enforcement division, from 1995 to 1999 (Carter, 2004). By combing through this information and comparing it to UCR data and other available sources, Carter arrived at some intriguing conclusions (Carter, 2004). First, it was ascertained that there were a total of 24 assaults on Virginia wildlife officers during the reporting period, or 1 assault for every 39.8 wildlife officers, compared to 1 assault for every 8.2 conventional police officers in Virginia (Carter, 2004). However, when Virginia’s wildlife officers were compared to the Virginia State Police only, a state police officer was assaulted for every 6,665 citations on average, while DGIF wildlife officers experienced an assault for every 2,717 citations issued (Carter, 2004). This equates to Virginia’s wildlife officers being 2.45 times more likely to be assaulted than Virginia’s state police (Carter, 2004). Carter also found that wildlife officers were 1.5 times more likely to be alone when assaulted compared to their conventional law enforcement counterparts, were 7 times more likely to be assaulted with a firearm or cutting object, and more than 2 times more likely to experience injury from an assault than the general police population in Virginia (Carter, 2004). Twenty of the 24 total assaults occurred during the course of patrol activity, but only half of these assaults were directly related to traditional wildlife officer tasks, such as enforcing laws related to fish, game, or even boating (Carter, 2004). The other 10 assaults were a result of engaging in general law enforcement tasks, such as rendering assistance to police or attempting an arrest (Carter, 2004). This is particularly surprising in light of the fact that summonses issued by Virginia wildlife officers for general law enforcement accounted for only 8% of the total summonses during the study period (Carter, 2004). Weapons used in these assaults were overwhelmingly hands or feet in 13 of total assaults, although firearms came in next at 3, with vehicles at 2, while a bottle, fishing rod, creel, and ballpoint pen each accounted for one assault each (Carter, 2004). Carter also found a distinct temporal pattern in these assaults, specifically that assaults many times occurred during weekends, particularly Friday and Saturdays, and were most likely to occur between 17:00 and 21:00 hours (Carter, 2004). Lastly, over half of the total assaults occurred while the wildlife officer was alone, and over half of the assailants were found to be under the influence of alcohol or drugs at the time of the assault (Carter, 2004). 24

Unlike the dearth of quantitative studies on assaults, several qualitative studies have either focused on assaults against wildlife officers, or have at least touched on the subject. One of these studies was conducted by Stephen Eliason on Kentucky’s wildlife officers (Eliason, 2006). Eliason mailed questionnaires to Kentucky’s 149 wildlife officers, 29 of which completed and returned the survey (Eliason, 2006). Twenty-four of the 29 wildlife officers also participated in an intensive interview which garnered more information (Eliason, 2006). Although inherently unquantifiable due to the nature of the study, Eliason findings indicated that, in contrast to Carter’s study on Virginia’s wildlife officers, physical assaults on Kentucky’s wildlife officers were believed to be extremely rare (Eliason, 2006). A recurring and intriguing theme that arose throughout several interviews was the perceived increased risk of assault while enforcing boating laws (Eliason, 2006). This finding is in direct contrast to Carter’s study, where only 2 of the 24 assaults were linked to boating enforcement (Carter, 2004). However, similar to Carter’s findings that highlighted a strong link between intoxication and the increased likelihood of assault, Eliason’s qualitative information indicated that Kentucky’s wildlife officers also seem to be at higher risk of assault when the person of interest was under the influence, particularly of alcohol (Eliason, 2006). Based on the information he gathered, Eliason stated that while assaults rarely occur on wildlife officers, when they do happen, they are usually severe (Eliason, 2006). This correlates well with Carter’s findings that wildlife officers were twice as likely to sustain injuries as a result of an assault than the general police population was (Carter, 2004). Eliason’s determination that assaults were more likely when physical arrest and potential jail time was a possibility also fit nicely with Carter’s determination that assaults were most likely while conducting arrests and assisting other agencies (Carter, 2004; Eliason, 2006). Another qualitative study, while focusing broadly on the work of wildlife officers, also deals with assaults on wildlife officers. This study, conducted by Craig and York Forsyth of the University of Louisiana, directly interviewed 27 wildlife officers in Louisiana, although the authors note that some information is also included from a separate project where 35 other wildlife officers were interviewed (Forsyth & Forsyth, 2009). The interviews appeared to provide strong support for Eliason’s premise that boating enforcement can be particularly dangerous, as many of the interviews noted assaults against wildlife officers occurred in boats or while trying to enforce boating laws (Forsyth & Forsyth, 2009). This finding again seems to not support Carter’s study of assaults on wildlife officers in Virginia, where boating enforcement only accounted

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for 2 of the 24 assaults in the study (Carter, 2004; Forsyth & Forsyth, 2009). However, the relative isolation from other law enforcement and fear of or actually being assaulted while alone was a persistent theme throughout the interviews, providing support for Carter’s quantitative data that wildlife officers often patrol alone and are more likely to be assaulted when alone (Forsyth & Forsyth, 2009). Also brought out was the inherent danger of the work environment, with one wildlife officer noting that four wildlife officers had died from vehicle wrecks or drownings over his 25 year career, which correlates well with Eliason’s 2011 study on wildlife officer deaths, where the data showed significant numbers of wildlife officers were killed due to non-criminal events, especially in recent decades (Forsyth & Forsyth, 2009). Notably absent, except for one incident where a wildlife officer became involved in a gunfight with a drug dealer, was information on assaults or deaths occurring while performing general law enforcement tasks, which suggests that general law enforcement may not play as large a role in assaults on Louisiana’s wildlife officers as it did for Carter’s Virginia wildlife officers (Forsyth & Forsyth, 2009). Finally, the aggravating effect of alcohol or drugs on assaults as postulated by both Carter and Eliason was well-supported throughout this study, with several wildlife officers mentioning assaults occurring by individuals under the influence of drugs or alcohol (Forsyth & Forsyth, 2009). Future Research Academic literature on the subject of state wildlife officers is strikingly scarce, especially when it comes to assaults and deaths experienced by wildlife officers. Accordingly, the need exists for a new generation of researchers interested in environmental policing to conduct further research into all aspects of wildlife policing in the United States in order to expand the general knowledge base to better inform, not only other researchers, but also wildlife law enforcement managers. While research of any type is desirable, detailed, quantitative studies on the subject of lineof-duty assaults and deaths of state wildlife officers are desperately needed for numerical comparison and analysis, as Eliason’s research on deaths and Carter’s research on assaults appears to be the only examples of quantitative studies on these subjects. Also needed is research done on a variety of wildlife agencies across the country, to better capture unique regional and state-level differences that may be lost by focusing on only a select few states, as has been done so far. Finally, while information on line-of-duty deaths of wildlife officers appears to be more plentiful and easily accessed, the lack of data and/or the lack of access to data on assaults severely hinders this type of research, and reduces

the potential for studies with meaningful results, and by extension, forces wildlife law enforcement managers to make decisions and develop standard operating procedures without the benefit of empirical evidence. To combat this problem, all wildlife agencies are encouraged to collect detailed information on all assaults against their officers (including the date and time of assault, the type of action the officer was undertaking at the time of assault, and the demographics and state of sobriety of the assailant), and make this information available to qualified researchers interested in studying the subject. Conclusion Clearly, due to the isolated and weapon-centered aspects of their work, state wildlife officers have great potential to be in highly dangerous situations, which may ultimately lead to them being assaulted or even murdered in the the course of their duties. This observation led to the research question, “is there an elevated risk of murder or assault in the line-of-duty for wildlife officers, compared to conventional police officers, and what duties of wildlife officers are most dangerous?”. Research indicates that line-of-duty assaults and murders of these specialized law enforcement officers are relatively rare, especially when compared to the overall police population (Carter, 2004; Eliason, 2006). In fact, particularly in recent years, the majority of deaths of state wildlife officers can be attributed to non-criminal causes (Eliason, 2011). However, evidence suggests that when wildlife officers are assaulted, the assaults are more violent, cause more lasting injury, and are much more likely to be carried out with a weapon such as a firearm or knife than assaults against a conventional police officer (Carter, 2004; Eliason, 2006). The perpetrators of these assaults are likely to be under the influence of other substances, especially alcohol (Carter, 2004; Eliason, 2006; Forsyth & Forsyth, 2009). Particularly noteworthy is the observation that assisting other law enforcement agencies and attempting to arrest individuals were the most dangerous activities performed by state wildlife officers, and evidence suggests enforcing boating laws may also be particularly dangerous (Carter, 2004; Eliason, 2006; Forsyth & Forsyth, 2009). To remedy these problems, wildlife law enforcement managers can take several steps to reduce the likelihood of assault or death. Carter’s research indicated that assaults generally took place when the wildlife officer was alone, and an almost defining quality of wildlife officers is that they often patrol solo, and frequently lack immediate backup (Carter, 2004). Accordingly, an increased emphasis on keeping wildlife officer ranks at full capacity, and possibly even increasing that capacity, could afford wildlife 25

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officers more protection by increasing the likelihood of backup and perhaps allowing more two-officer patrols. Additionally, making wildlife officers aware of the elevated dangers of particular tasks – such as assisting other law enforcement agencies, effecting arrests, or conducting boating stops – and providing specialized training and developing specific standard operating procedures in these areas may also reduce the likelihood of violent interactions. In any case, by highlighting the nature of the wildlife officer’s work, this paper should encourage a renewed respect for those who enforce the laws related to our natural resources and serve the public on a daily basis, because there is a very real element of danger involved.

References Biggar, R., Jr, Chen, J., & Forsyth, C. (2016). Criminal futures on the ruralside: a preliminary examination of antisocial behaviors of rural and urban students. Journal of Rural Social Sciences, 31(2), 16-34. http:// search.proquest.com.ezproxy.hacc.edu/scholarlyjournals/criminal-futures-on-ruralside-preliminary/ docview/1853267890/se-2? accountid=11302 Bower, Bill. (1991). One man in green. Grit Publishing. Carter, T. (2004). Force against and by game wardens in citizen encounters. Police Quarterly, 7(4), 489-508. doi: 10.1177/1098611103253852. Eliason, S. (2006). A dangerous job? An examination of violence against conservation officers. Police Journal, 79, 359-370. Eliason, S. (2011). Death in the line of duty: Game warden mortality in the united states, 1886-2009. American Journal of Criminal Justice : AJCJ, 36(4), 319-326. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12103-010-9087-x Falcone, D. (2004). America’s conservation police: Agencies in transition. Policing, 27(1), 56-66. doi:http://dx.doi. org/10.1108/13639510410519912 Forsyth, C., & Forsyth, Y. (2009). Dire and sequestered meetings: The work of game wardens. American Journal of Criminal Justice : AJCJ, 34(3), 213-223. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12103-009-9065-3 Hower, Steve. (2020). Shots in the dark: memories and musings of a retired game warden. Masthof Press. Patten, R. (2012). Drunk and angry is no way to enjoy the outdoors: An examination of game wardens and the use of force. International Journal of Comparative and Applied Criminal Justice, 36(2), 121-132. doi:http:// dx.doi.org/10.1080/01924036.2012.669583 Uniform Crime Report. (2016). 2016 Crime in the United States: Full-time law enforcement employees. Federal Bureau of Investigation. https://ucr.fbi.gov/crime-inthe- u.s/2016/crime-in-the-u.s.-2016/tables/table-25

Student Reflection: I am working on earning a bachelor's degree in criminal justice in anticipation of becoming a state game warden in Pennsylvania, so when Dr. Rojas announced a literature review assignment on a criminal justice topic of our choice, I knew right away what I wanted to write about. In my experience, there appears to be a lot of confusion among the general public as to what a state wildlife officer is or does, with some apparently thinking that a wildlife officer is little more than a mix between a license inspector and an animal control officer. While checking hunting licenses and responding to calls regarding injured or nuisance wildlife is indeed part of the job description, most state wildlife officers have full police powers and may confront lawbreakers of all types, often in remote settings, and they frequently interact with heavily armed individuals while enforcing hunting-related laws. This mix can lend itself to dangerous encounters, and while I had randomly run across some statistics in the past about the dangers of the job from books written by retired state wildlife officers, in this assignment, I was able to review and compare some of the original literature on the topic.

Write the Ship, 2021-2022

Editor's Choice First Place, Upper Level

Effect of Telomerase on Cancer by Kayla Kunkel CHM 301: Biochemistry I Dr. Thomas Frielle Assignment: This assignment was to research a biochemical topic of the students choosing with the approval of the instructor. The paper could not include any clinical research and had to rely on mostly primary sources (peer-reviewed research articles) with limited secondary sources (review articles).

Telomerase is an enzyme that adds length to the end of a chromosome’s DNA by adding a chain of G-rich nucleotides to its end. Telomeres protect the chromosomal end against damage during each cycle of cellular division (1). In addition, telomeres protect against chromosomal degradation and fusion as well as maintain the metabolism of the cell (2). Telomerase produces telomeres by using the 3’-end single strand as a primer and adding sequences of TTAGGG to the chromosomal end (3). Telomerase goes to the end of a chromosome because of an interaction with the TEL patch. The TEL patch is a group of amino acids that includes TPP1 (Tripeptidyl Peptidase 1), glutamate (E), and leucine (L) patch (4). Throughout the process of cell division, the length of the telomere will shorten after each cellular division. Once a critical telomere length is reached, cell death will be triggered (1). Telomerase is classified as a ribonucleoprotein complex that is composed of catalytic proteins and RNA templates which consist of telomerase reverse transcriptase (TERT), telomerase RNA component (TERC), and dyskerin (1, 3). The functions of telomerase include telomere stability and genome integrity, as well as other functions (3). Telomerase also exhibits extra-cellular biological functions such as TERT promoted cancer progression driven by different mutations of the promoter (1). There is no telomerase activity present in somatic cells, which are nongenetic cells in humans (1). Stem cells and cancer cells require telomerase activity to be present in order for the life of the cells to be prolonged (5). The telomerase enzyme was determined to have reactivated up to ninety percent of cancer cells (1). Cell death is prevented because of the telomerase activity allows the cells to have a prolonged life (2). The reactivation of telomerase could have occurred through different telomerase reverse transcriptase reactivation mechanisms. Some TERT reactivation mechanisms include: TERT copy number, TERT gene amplifica-

tion, and point mutations at the TERT gene promoter region (1). This reactivation of telomerase activity in cancer cells is one of the driving forces of tumorigenesis (6). Human telomerase reverse transcriptase (hTERT) is a subunit of telomerase present in humans. hTERT is a vital part of both tumorigenesis and the slowing down of cell division. Alternative splicing of hTERT pre-mRNA can also be used for telomerase regulation. There are multiple selective splicing sites on hTERT pre-mRNA. This creates alternative splicing variants (ASVs). However, telomerase activity cannot be seen with the ASVs, only with the full hTERT mRNA strands. hTERT alternative splicing variants are thought to be able to represent prognostic and diagnostic biomarkers in cancer patients (7). Since telomerase is active in ninety percent of cancer cells, it is a good target for different types of cancer therapies. Cancer is difficult to prevent or treat because it can be caused by either genome or epigenome alterations. Cancer also exists in many forms which makes it hard to prevent (8). Telomerase activity is a driving factor in the preservation of cancer cells. This occurs because of the fact that telomerase aids in the elongation of DNA through telomeres. Telomerase not only elongates the DNA strands, but also aids in the preservation of the telomeres at the 3’ end of the chromosomes. The reactivation of telomerase gives the cancer cells a prolonged life (9). It is thought that cancer cells have similar characteristics to stem cells. The idea that cancer cells and stem cells are similar is thought to be driven by a population of multiplying cancer cells. These cancer cells have high telomerase activity as well as high cancer stemness (5). This fact would make sense since both stem cells and cancer cells require telomerase to be activated. The most used form of telomerase assay was PCR-based telomeric amplification protocol (TRAP). In vitro, TRAP measures the insertion of a telomere 27

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sequence of six base pairs on a DNA template. The TRAP assay tends to determine a number of telomerase inhibitors that are too low (10). One of the most advanced telomerase inhibitors is imetelstat. Imetelstat binds to telomerase RNA and inhibits the interactions that occur between telomerase and telomeric DNA. There are possible uses for imetelstat in cancer therapies/treatment in the future (7). Inhibiting telomerase activity causes the telomeres to shorten. The shortening of telomeres eventually causes cancer cells to go through apoptosis. There is an analog of indole nucleotides called 5-methylcarboxylindolyl-2’-deoxyriboside 5’-triphosphate (5-MeCITP) that has been determined to inhibit telomerase activity through previous research. 5-MeCITP binds to the Tribolium castaneum TERT and during this interaction, the nucleotide base flips in the active site. This method of inhibition was tested in vitro, and it was shown that 5-MeCITP inhibits telomerase activity to the same extent as azidothymidine (AZT) (6). Cancer therapies that use CRISPR functions are being developed, and one method of cancer therapy is called telomerase-activating gene expression (Tage). Tage makes use the telomerase activity in cancerous cells and uses CRISPR functions to kill multiple types of cancer cells. Some examples of the cancer cells it can kill include HeLa, MDA-MB-453, and Hepa 1-6. This method uses a gene expression vector to carry a recognizable telomerase sequence that is used to infect cancer cells. The sequence is then elongated by telomerase, and at the same time a vector for an artificial transcription factor also infects the cancer cells, the transcription factor can produce a Cas9 complex. Once the Cas9 protein is expressed, it associates with the telomere-targeting sgRNA to form a unit that causes damage to the chromosomes of cancer cells by causing apoptosis to occur through the cutting the ends of the telomeres (11). Since somatic tissue cells do not have telomerase activity, Tage is not activated and because of that, it does not affect the somatic cells at all (8). There is another form of cancer therapy that would regulate hTERT pre-mRNA alternative splicing patterns. Regulating these patterns would allow for the amount of the different hTERT transcripts to be changed. Telomerase activity would then lower as hTERT mRNA levels of expression decrease. It is unclear whether or not hTERT ASVs can be used to regulate telomerase activity; however, tumors with very little to no telomerase activity have been reported to contain shortened hTERT alternative splicing variants. Tumors that show high telomerase activity contain full-length hTERT mRNA. The use of imetelstat and immunotherapy to inhibit telomerase have been investigated, and it is not clear whether imetelstat can attain prolonged telomerase inhibition (7). 28

There are many ways to detect telomerase activity, but each method has different strengths and weaknesses. One way to detect telomerase that has been studied is the use of electrochemiluminescence resonance energy transfer (ECL-RET). This method detects telomerase activity through the use of a proximity-binding multi-pedal DNA walker. ECL is a popular method of detecting telomerase activity since it is high in sensitivity and has a wide response range. Multi-pedal DNA walkers were created to improve the sensitivity of the detection and the walking rate. The ECL-RET method of detecting telomerase activity provides a specific quantification of activity, gives high conversion through the use of the DNA walker, and allows for an improved walking rate and signal amplification due to the use of a multi-pedal DNA walker. This method yields both high feasibility and high sensitivity rate when detecting activity (12). Traditionally, telomerase activity is detected through the use of telomere repeat amplification protocols (TRAPs) that are determined by polymerase chain reactions (PCRs) and a variety of electrochemical methods. A method of detecting telomerase activity that is highly sensitive, simple, and label-free was created to make the process of detecting the activity of telomerase easier. This method uses an endonucleaseassisted cascade recycling signal amplification approach which proves to have three advantages. These advantages include the fact that simple and abundant amplification is accomplished by using three recycling cycles, the use of the recycling signal amplification method to screen different drugs to see if they inhibit telomerase for cancer treatments and prognosis, and the face that the endonuclease-assisted signal amplification method is highly multifaceted (4). Another method that has been developed to detect telomerase activity is the novel method. This method increased the sensitivity and negative predictive value of testing telomerase activity in cancer patients. The novel method allowed for identification of notable differences in the activity of telomerase between cancer patients and healthy patients. This method tests blood and allows for quick diagnosis of cancer and relapsed cancer; it can be completed rather quickly and is quite easy to perform. The research group that developed this method tested plasma samples for telomerase activity, which were processed in three different ways with their telomerase activity detection rates being compared. The three processing methods performed were the conventional method, the novel dialysis method, and the novel method 1:1 LB. The novel dialysis method allowed processing that removed substrates that would possibly hinder the detection of telomerase. When compared, the novel method had drastically better sensitivity, specificity, and positive and negative

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predictive values than the conventional method. The novel method allowed for more sensitive telomerase activity detection in cancer patients (13). A fourth method of detecting telomerase activity is using a point-of-care assay. Different types of pointof-care methods that detect telomerase activity include glucometer-based methods and gas pressure methods. The point-of-care assay is derived from multi-code beads that are brought about by DNAzyme-mediated cycling amplification that is paired with a glucometer. In a point-of-case assay of telomerase activity, the primer sequences are extended, and a cofactor is then added which results in the lengthened primer being cleaved at the RNA site. This prompts a displacement reaction of the cyclic strand, and gel electrophoresis is then used to analyze the lengthening and cleaving of the telomerase. The point-of-case assay is highly sensitive and selective. The effect of the telomerase inhibitor MST-312 on telomerase activity was also studied. It was found that as the concentration of MST-312 increased, the activity of telomerase decreased. This shows that the point-of-case assay can also be used to determine the efficacy of telomerase inhibitors (2). A final method of detecting telomerase activity is through the use of DNA computation. DNA computation uses strands of nucleic acids as inputs and outputs of a system. These inputs and outputs can be used to carry out the processing of information, and through this research, a telomerase logic gate was created. This system of DNA computation for telomerase included a telomerase substrate that was extended with multiple strands. A telomerase substrate probe was used that would infect the cells, and if the substrate was extended by telomerase, a series of reactions would occur, and a fluorescent signal would appear that indicated the presence of telomerase. Cells that did not have telomerase would not produce a fluorescent signal. This method was tested on different types of cancer cells, such as HeLa, Hep G-2, and different breast cancer cells. The fluorescent signals were observed in all the cancer cell lines tested, indicating telomerase activity. HeLa cells were treated with epigallocatechin-3-gallate, which can inhibit the activity of telomerase in cancer cells, and after being treated with the inhibitory factor, the HeLa cells demonstrated a lower intensity of fluorescence. The efficacy of this assay proved that it does not need any further modifications. This method was also proved to be feasible and versatile in detecting telomerase activity across different cancer cell lines. Finally, this method was able to demonstrate a decrease in telomerase activity in cancer cells when the cells are treated with telomerase inhibitory factors (14). There are also factors that enhance telomerase activity in cancer cells. One such enhancer is alternative splicing (15). Actively regulating alternative splicing

in hTERT pre-mRNA is a form of cancer therapy (7). However, alternative splicing is not regulated in cancer cells. This increases the cancer cell’s ability to multiply. When telomerase activity is reactivated, like in cancer cells, hTERT transcripts are spliced and produce full length telomerase reverse transcriptase. One splicing factor that enhances the splicing of full-length hTERT is NOVA1. Along with enhancing the splicing, this factor increases the activity of telomerase and increases telomerase’s ability to be maintained in different cancer cells while also playing a role in neurogenesis. A protein that plays a role in both neurogenesis as well as the splicing of hTERT in cancer cells are polypyrimidinetract binding proteins (PTBPs). PTBP1 was determined to reduce the splicing of the full-length hTERT and telomerase activity in cancer cells. It was also determined that the knockdown of PTBP1 increases how much PTBP2 there is. PTBP2 also interacts with NOVA1. This interaction potentially keeps NOVA1 from interacting with hTERT pre-mRNA. These facts signify that the splicing of cancer cells is regulated by the competition for different splice sites and that multiple factors are able to interact at the regulatory sites that are present on pre-mRNA. The interaction of NOVA1 and PTBP1 has been shown to regulate the activity of telomerase in many types of cancer cells (15). Telomerase is an enzyme that provides additional length to the 3’ end of a chromosome to protect the chromosomal end against degradation and enhance the metabolism of the cell. Telomerase is inactive in somatic cells, but it is reactivated in cancer cells. It is also active in stem cells; this fact allows for the conclusion to be made that cancer cells exhibit stemness. There are multiple methods for detecting telomerase activity including the use of electrochemiluminescence resonance energy transfer, telomere repeat amplification protocols, a novel method, a point-of-case assay, and DNA computation. Telomerase activity can be inhibited in cancer cells through the use of different inhibitory factors. Inhibiting telomerase activity will likely lead to cell death. Different types of cancer therapy have been created including the use of CRISPR and hTERT pre-mRNA alternative splicing regulation. If alternative splicing is not regulated, it will enhance the activity of telomerase, which would prolong the life of the cancer cells.

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References 1. 2.

Wu, L.; Fidan, K.; Um, J.; Ahn, K. S. (2020) Telomerase: Key regulator of inflammation and cancer. Pharmacological Research. 155, 104-726. Liu, C.; Zhang, S.; Li, X.; Xue, Q.; Jiang, W. (2019) Multi-code magnetic beads based on DNAzymemediated double cycling amplification for a pointof-case assay of telomerase activity. Analyst. 144, 4241-4249. Liu, X.; Li, X.; Li, J.; Jiang, B.; Yuan, R,; Xiang, Y. (2019) A multi-recycling amplification-based sensor for label-free and highly sensitive detection of telomerase from cancer cells. Analytica Chimica Acta. 1086, 116-121. Nakashima, M.; Nandakumar, J.; Sullivan, K.; Espinosa, J.; Cech, T. (2013) Inhibition of telomerase recruitment and cancer cell death. Journal of Biological Chemistry. 46, 33171-33180. Noureen, N.; Wu, S.; Lv, Y.; Yang, J.; Yung, A.; Gelfond, J.; Wang, X.; Koul, D.; Ludlow, A.; Zheng, S. (2021) Integrated analysis of telomerase enzymatic activity unravels an association with cancer stemness and proliferation. Nature Communications. 12, 139. Hernandez-Sanches, W.; Huang, W.; Plucinsky, B.; Garcia-Vazquez, N.; Robinson, N.; Schiemann, W., Berdis, A., Skordalakes, E.; Taylor, D. (2019) A nonnatural nucleotide uses a specific pocket to selectively inhibit telomerase activity. PLOS Biology. 17, 3-204. Liu, X.; Wang, Y.; Chang, G.; Wang, F.; Wang, F.; Geng, X. (2017) Alternative splicing of hTERT pre-mRNA: A potential strategy for the regulation of telomerase activity. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 18, 1-567.

10. 11. 12.

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Dai, W.; Xu, X.; Wang, D.; Wu, J.; Wang, J. (2019) Cancer therapy with a CRISPR-assisted telomeraseactivating gene expression system. Oncogene. 38, 4110-4124. Li, Y.; Tergaonkar, V. (2016) Telomerase reactivation in cancers: Mechanisms that govern transcriptional activation of the wild-type vs. mutant TERT promoters. Transcription. 7, 44-49. Arndt, G.; MacKenzie, K. (2016) New prospects for targeting telomerase beyond the telomere. Nature Reviews Cancer. 16, 508-524. Dai, W.; Xu, X.; Wang, D.; Wu, J.; Wang, J. (2018) Cancer therapy with a CRISPR-assistant telomeraseactivating gene expression system. Cancer Biology. 1-46 Guo, Y.; Liu, S.; Yang, H.; Wang, P.; Feng, Q. (2021) Proximity binding-triggered multipedal DNA walker for the electrochemiluminescence detection of telomerase activity. Analytica Chimica Acta. 1144, 68-75.. Hilal, G.; Reitzel, R.; Hamal, Z.; Chaftari, A.; Wohoush, I.; Jiang, Y.; Hachem, R.; Raad, I. (2017) Novel plasma telomerase detection method to improve cancer diagnostic assessment. PLoS One. 12. Wang, W.; Huang, S.; Li, J.; Rui, K.; Bi, S.; Zhang, J.; Zhu, J. (2017) Evaluation of intracellular telomerase activity through cascade DNA logic gates. Chem. Sci. 8, 174-180. Sayed, M.; Yuan, L.; Robin, J.; Tedone, E.; Batten, K.; Dahlson, N.; Wright, W.; Shay, J.; Ludlow, A. (2018) NOVA1 directs PTBP1 to hTERT pre-mRNA and promotes telomerase activity in cancer cells. Oncogene. 38, 2937-2952.

Student Reflection: When picking a topic for this paper, I was instantly drawn towards cancer as it has affected many people in my life. Once I decided on telomerase, the paper was an exciting one to write. My prior knowledge of telomerase was little but I found it quite enjoyable to learn about the different ways telomerase proliferates cancer and the ways to combat it.

Write the Ship, 2021-2022

Editor's Choice Second Place, Upper Level

Understanding Indigenous Feminism and its Impact on Guatemalan Women and Communities by Ashley Ott HIS 444: History of Women in Latin America Dr. Gretchen Pierce Assignment: This research paper on indigenous feminism was created as the final project to the Women in Latin America course instructed by Dr. Pierce at Shippensburg University. The paper covers what indigenous feminism is, how manifests in Guatemala, three specific Maya communities and their women, and how indigenous feminism from Guatemala is perceived internationally.

Feminism throughout Latin America is a vast and diverse topic, especially when one focuses on indigenous feminism. Indigenous feminism is not linear or the same as modern day, fourth wave feminism, or how the western world has grown to understand it. Some say it is or could be fifth wave or “no wave” feminism, as it uses intersectionality and deconstructs colonial and capitalistic systems and philosophies that so many women, and other peoples, have had forced upon them. Defining indigenous feminism is difficult, as some women do not even want to be subjected or associated with the politics and philosophy of western feminisms and gender understandings; but many groups in Guatemala are starting to define feminism in their own way and claim it as a force of change. Indigenous feminism is not restricted to Latin America, and reaches North American native groups to indigenous peoples located in India, Australia, Europe, etc.. It is a global phenomenon or reaction to colonization and capitalistic oppression, a reaction to a system many people never asked to be a part of, or wanted to be. The global reaction allows indigenous women to find footing in modern day systems to elevate their voices. This paper will focus on Guatemalan indigenous feminism and activism, and how that feminism is at the forefront of change within native communities as these women fight to save not only themselves from violence and oppression, but their local communities and the environment they live in. What is Indigenous Feminism? To begin, it is important to note that my understanding of indigenous culture and lives is from an 1 2

outside, western perspective. I want to portray the information in this paper as correctly and accurately as I can, as I have studied many indigenous groups and cultures during my time at Shippensburg University. I want to be a force that brings a better understanding to marginalized groups of people and awareness to their struggles and continuous fight. Indigenous feminism is a new, continuous, developing movement that is giving indigenous women a platform on the grounds of gender, violence, and environmentalism on local and global levels. According to the Stanford Social Innovation Review, indigenous feminism more academically defined is the “intersectional theory and practice of feminism that focuses on decolonization, indigenous sovereignty, and human rights for indigenous women and their families.”1 Scholars claim that it embodies indigenous concepts of community equilibrium, duality, and complementarity, which were greatly discouraged and suppressed when colonization began and European societal structures permeated native communities in the beginning in the late fifteenth century.2 It is important to note that many indigenous women renounce the term “feminism” as it has connotations and roots in colonization and historically was not intersectional or inclusive to lower social classes of women and to different cultures. However, more and more indigenous women, especially within states like Guatemala, are joining together to embrace what they deem to be a new understanding of feminism. Typical westernized feminism is usually defined as advocacy and advancement of full rights for all sexes and peoples. Some indigenous women may feel they

Jean Gearon, “Indigenous Feminism Is Our Culture,” Stanford Social Innovation Review, Feburary 11, 2021, https://ssir.org/articles/entry/ indigenous_feminism_is_our_culture Emily Beuter, “Resilient Voices: 21st Century Indigenous Women Activism in Latin America”, COW Latin America, May 5, 2020, https:// cowlatinamerica.voices.wooster.edu/2020/05/05/resilient-voices-21st-century-indigenous-women-activism-in-latin-america/.

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are doing more than just searching for equality; rather they want the right to exist, and without violence and a political agenda forced upon them. This movement is not isolated to Central and South America; rather, it is a global response from groups of indigenous peoples who were forced into colonization and oppression for centuries. The movement spans from Northern Canada all the way to Australia, from India to Eastern Europe, anywhere colonizing powers negatively impacted local populations. As the movement grows, more and more indigenous women are able to share their stories and unite under a shared experience of trauma. As stated before, these women desperately want the violence against their communities, families, and environment to end. This rather new movement, having roots in indigenous justice which became a common topic in the 1980’s when groups like the American Indian Movement started to protest the harsh and cruel, inhumane treatment they received from society. Nancy Saporta Steinbach in Feminisms of Latin America argues that feminism is in fact for Latin American women, “a kind of thriving, broad based social movement that many other feminist movements are still aspiring to become.” Steinbach asserts that feminism in other parts of the world has historically and stereotypically been defined as middle class, but that indigenous women in Latin America are just as much involved and concerned in the activism of healing themselves, their community, and environment.3 Indigenous women face a variety of problems that are rarely heard and are “easily overlooked as voiceless remnants of the past,” especially within global politics.4 They remain on the “margins of political decision making” where they have to prove the hideous systemic oppression they face in front of a court system to receive any credibility.5 Indigenous women face violence disproportionately to any other group of women, and Latin America has some of the highest rates of femicide in the world. Besides political oppression, these women also live in fear of being murdered, raped, tortured, and or stolen.6 An article by Frauke Decoodt that took personal accounts from Maya women further explains that “it’s about demoralizing violence. Comparing

the violence done to our land and to the violence done to our bodies and life is something women in the communities [indigenous Maya] can relate to.” 7 The next few paragraphs are going to focus on the state of Guatemala and how various communities of Indigenous women are banding together to fight back against state and social violence put against them. Indigenous Feminism in Guatemala Indigenous peoples in Guatemala, and most of Latin America, have been seen as inferiors in the colonial system since it started developing in the 1500’s with the arrival of the Spanish and Portuguese. The attitude has prevailed into the modern era, causing indigenous communities long histories of violence and hurt. An account from a modern Mam woman, Sister Maudilia from the San Miguel region states, “they’re no longer killing us with weapons, but they’re killing us with ideas. They’ve realized that our lands and the ravines they’ve left us… that there is wealth underneath those lands… so they want to take it from us again. All they want is to get rich to insure their own interests, but they forget ours.”8 Native peoples started fighting neoliberals and rural ladino landowners (mixed Spanish and Indigenous descendants) as they swept the continent in a civil war in the middle of the 20th century. This dispute was over what land rights, poverty, exclusion, and violence native peoples were facing from popular society at the time. The fight goes back as early as the 1940’s , became most violent in the 1980’s, and is still going on today. Q’eqchi Women In the book, Indigenous Women and Violence, Irma A. Velásquez Nimatuj examines the sexual violence that fifteen Q’eqchi’ women endured in the years 1982 to 1986 from the Guatemalan military. These women were from communities around the Sepur Zarco region/village of Guatemala and Velásquez Nimatuj documented these women’s stories in 2011 with an organization called Women Transforming the World (MTM).9 She explains the history of violence in the region with the arrival of neoliberal land distribution policies that took land from indigenous communities

Nancy Saporta Sternbach, Marysa Navarro-Aranguren, Patricia Chuchryk, and Sonia E. Alvarez, “Feminisms in Latin America: From Bogotá to San Bernardo,” in The Making of Social Movements in Latin America: Identity, Strategy, and Democracy, ed. Arturo Escobar and Sonia E. Álvarez (New York: Routledge, 1992), 394, https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429496301-15. 4 Manuela Lavinas Picq, Vernacular Sovereignties: Indigenous Women Challenging World Politics (Tucson: The University of Arizona Press, 2019), 2% Kindle. 5 Picq, Vernacular Sovereignties, 2% Kindle. 6 Oliver Pieper, “In Guatemala, Women Fear for Their Lives,” DW, May 2, 2021, https://www.dw.com/en/ in-guatemala-women-fear-for-their-lives/a-57397987. 7 Frauke Decoodt, “Guatemala’s Anti-Landlord, Indigenous Feminists: ‘Healing Is Political,’” New Internationalist, July 2, 2019, . https:// newint.org/features/2019/04/09/place-healing. 8Morna Macleod, “Grievances and Crevices of Resistance: Maya Women Defy Goldcorp,” in Demanding Justice and Security: Indigenous Women and Legal Pluralities in Latin America, (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 2017), 74% Kindle. 9 Irma A. Velásquez Nimatuj, “The Case of Sepur Zarco and the Challenge to the Colonial State” in Indigenous Women and Violence: Feminist Activist research in Heightened States of Injustice, (Tucson: The University of Arizona Press, 2021), 40% Kindle.

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to increase profits for the free market; anyone who resisted quickly was labeled an “enemy of the state.” This conflict led to a thirty-six year civil war between the Guatemalan military and the indigenous peoples in the area, and throughout the country. As the war went on, the Guatemalan government restricted the rights of the indigenous people, and even enacted a “scorched earth” policy in 1982, destroying over 440 towns, massacring over 600 communities and displacing 1.5 million Maya people.10 During this time, thousands of Maya women and girls were subjugated by the soldiers, sexually assaulted, tortured, and murdered.11 The Partullas de Autodefensa Civil (PACs, Civil Self-Defense Patrols) were the militant groups pushing violence on these Native communities. Many scholars now refer to the end of the 1970’s to the mid 1980’s as the Maya genocide. The communities of this region were in poverty, with no access to basic healthcare, food, and education. The women were even more devastated by the murder of their husbands, which left them vulnerable. A Q’eqchi’ woman named Magdalena Pop said, “I was sexually raped; the military transformed me into a slave at their disposal… They would get us at the outpost, in the rivers, in our homes, in the mountains, anywhere they wanted, in front of our kids who screamed whenever they witnessed those attacks… I wanted to die.”12 The women did everything they could to keep the violence at bay, like trading their animals to buy corn, making the soldiers tortillas and meals three times a day, cleaning uniforms, etc., but it did not stop the violence.13 Another woman named Antonia Choc recounted being stopped by ten soldiers who raped her after her husband was taken by the military. They accused her of feeding guerilla indigenous soldiers and as a result, her pregnancy ended that night and she lost her baby.14 There are many more accounts given by these fifteen women, many even more violent and gruesome. In 2012, these Q’eqchi women went to court, and in 2016 had a trial. As a result, Guatemala recognized violence against indigenous communities and the trial helped push forward the state on antiviolence legislation to protect women.

K’iche women In a municipality called Chichicastenango, in the El Quiché region of Guatemala, is home to one of the largest ethnic populations of Maya people in the country, the K’iche’ people. About 98% of this region is indigenous and very rural, consisting of small scale agriculture, handicrafts, and commerce. 68% of people here live under the poverty line, making it also one of the poorest regions in the country.15 The conflicts they face are similar to those of the Q’eqchi’ women and people, as ladino landowners push indigenous people off their land to increase agricultural profits with the stolen land for the state. As a response to the violence, the K’iche’ people were influenced by a leftist branch of the Catholic Church called ‘Liberation Theology’ that was spread to rural villages during the 1960’s. This led to the creation of the Guerilla Army of the Poor.16 Many Indigenous men when caught were forced to join a counterinsurgency called the Civilian Defense Patrols, the PACs, who perpetrated the violence against the indigenous communities. After the war ended in 1996, many state and international NGOs went into the villages to help stabilize the region, however, it became a force of bureaucracy and difficult to navigate. In 2008, the K’iche’ women created the National Coordination for the Prevention of Domestic Violence and Violence against Women, which was to ensure that the concerns of the villages were actually being heard and were inclusive to all genders. This positioned some K’iche’ Maya women into a position of authority or leadership. A local association known as ASDECO, a subdivision of communities known to have a history of opposition to the state, came together with K’iche’ women and were able to organize women and children to teach them self-esteem, K’iche’ identity, culture, and worldview. Essentially, these women started to revitalize their communities with the power of international and local NGOs behind them, “strengthening indigenous authorities, indigenous law, and women’s self-esteem after facing so much destruction and violence.”17

10 11 12 13 14 15

Ibid. Ibid. Ibid. Valásquez Nimatuj, “The Case of Sepur Zarco and the Challenge to the Colonial State,” 41% Kindle. bid. Rachel Sieder, “Between Participation and Violence: Gender Justice and Neoliberal Government in Chichicastenango, Guatemala,” in Demanding Justice and Security: Indigenous Women and Legal Pluralities in Latin America, ed. Rachel Sieder (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 2017), 25% Kindle. 16 Sider, “Between Participation and Violence,” 26% Kindle. 17 Ibid.

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Mam Women

Modern Era

Lastly, the Mam Maya women in the region of San Miguel Ixtahuacán, Guatemala have been fighting the Canadian Company Gold Corp for opening the second largest open-pit mine in Latin America in 2005, called the Marlin mine.18 Any resistance effort on the behalf of Mam women typically was criminalized, or dismissed by their communities, especially by their male counterparts, as some say it was bringing opportunity to the region. However, Mam women have not stood down; they have refused to sell their land and have been a constant force against the company Goldcorp since it encroached upon their lands. Morna Macleod explains, “…the mine has been cataclysmic in women’s lives… as the company’s invasion of their ancestral land triggers a deep uncertainty… of being left as a people without land and food.”19 She mentions that one of these women, named Doña Diodora Hernández, refused to sell her land to Goldcorp. Doña Hernández was “despised by her neighbors, …and later a victim of assault and attempted murder,” when she was shot in the head and left to die.20 She survived; however, she lost one eye and her hearing in part of her ear, and yet still refused to sell her land. Women in the region claim that the mine is using up all the available water, or polluting what was available, killing their livestock, and hurting the land.21 Mam women have had small victories. For example, the United Nations and other NGOs started to back them on the grounds of environmental protection and concern over the increased social conflict in the region. Another organization called Tz’ununija’ helped to get arrest warrants for eight women revoked and start programs to help heal their communities. As women became more enlightened on the legal process, individuals like Doña Crisanta, another local, were able to learn about territorial rights and who sold their land. She started to educate her community on how they were violated and taken advantage of, leading to heavier disputes in 2007 as she and others demanded justice, again, with the support of many legal international organizations. They were able to challenge Goldcorp and stop some of the invasive and destructive tactics used by the company to gain more profit at the expense of the communities already living there.

Maya women, and many other indigenous women all over the globe, have had to learn how to navigate the legal and media systems of not only their countries, but also internationally, to be able to facilitate and organize to bring change to their communities. Rigoberta Menchú, a K’iche’woman from Guatemala who won the Nobel Peace Prize, broke the silence on the extreme violence her people were receiving by the hands of the Guatemalan government and military, when an anthropologist recorded and published a biography on Rigoberta’s life. She had to watch and experience the global media support her, but also attack her credibility and sincerity, challenging the authenticity of her story. Many people, and even scholars, started to criticize her accounts, and claim she skewed the truth for emotional appeal.22 Menchú had to fight the world, not just the oppression she grew up with on a local or national level. Indigenous women have to do this time and time again, as they oppose the state, corporations, and landlords that threaten, steal, and pollute their lands, a story that not only repeats itself in Guatemala, but all over the world. The growing field of indigenous feminism and justice means that this fight is far from over, but is only growing louder and louder, gaining more momentum as native peoples are able to cultivate and grow a platform of justice. In 2015, Sandra Morán became the first, openly lesbian, indigenous woman to become a member of Congress in Guatemala. She asserts, “Congress is still very dominated by men and very conservative, but here I am,” showing how indigenous women have to be diligent in their fight every day to be seen and heard by the world.23 Conclusion “Since the 1980’s peasant movements throughout Latin America have become a space of political organization for indigenous women,” scholar Rosalva Aída Hernández Castillo states, showing just how important grassroot movements are within small indigenous communities.24 These organizations are led by indigenous women, who are at the forefront of this fight. They heal and save their communities from centuries of violence and oppression, while also making sure there is a place in the future for indigenous people to live

18 Morna Macleod, “Grievances and Crevices of Resistance: Maya Women Defy Goldcorp,” in Demanding Justice and Security: Indigenous Women and Legal Pluralities in Latin America, ed. Rachel Sieder (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 2017), 74% Kindle. 19 Morna Macleod, “Grievances and Crevices of Resistance”, 74-75%Kindle. 20 Ibid. 21 Ibid. 22 Greg Grandin, Who is Rigoberta Menchú? (London: Verso, 2011), 2-8% Kindle. 23 Nina Lakhani, “‘In Guatemala to Be a Feminist Is Not Welcomed, a Lesbian, Even Less so. I Am a Lesbian Feminist’, The Guardian, Feburary 11, 2016, https://www.theguardian.com/global-development-professionals-network/2016/feb/11/ guatemala-feminist-lesbian-sandra-moran 24 Rosalva Aída Hernández Castillo, “The Emergence of Indigenous Feminism in Latin America,” Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 35, no. 3 (2010): 542. https://doi.org/10.1086/648538.

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and express themselves, free from systematic violence and hatred. Indigenous feminism is doing just that, healing, and will continue as more and more women are able to liberate their bodies from all the trauma they have endured. For now, the fight remains to make sure that these women continue to have a global voice, to make sure that watchdog groups, such as the United Nations and other NGOs, support these women and their message. It is also important that western paradigms do not encroach upon or interpret what these women are arguing. Rather, they should be forces that listen and elevate these testimonies and stories. The last few paragraphs examined some of the experiences that Q’eqchi, K’iche’, and Mam Maya faced during a horrifically violent civil war in Guatemala as landlords, corporations, and the state fought for who had rights to indigenous land, land that was already being occupied and used by millions of Maya people. Maya women then were thrown onto a global stage where they had to fight and prove the systematic violence and oppression they faced actually happened and still is. This paper focused on Guatemalan indigenous feminism and activism, and how feminism is the forefront of change within native communities as these women fight to save not only themselves from violence and oppression, but aslo their local communities, and environment they live in. Bibliography Beuter, Emily. “Resilient Voices: 21st-Century Indigenous Women Activism in Latin America.” COW Latin America, May 5, 2020. https://cowlatinamerica.voices. wooster.edu/2020/05/05/resilient-voices-21st-centuryindigenous-women-activism-in-latin-america/. Decoodt, Frauke. “Guatemala’s Anti-Landlord, Indigenous Feminists: ‘Healing Is Political.’” New Internationalist, July 2, 2019. https://newint.org/features/2019/04/09/ place-healing.

Gearon, Jihan. “Indigenous Feminism Is Our Culture.” Stanford Social Innovation Review: Informing and Inspiring Leaders of Social Change, February 11, 2021. https://ssir.org/articles/entry/ indigenous_feminism_is_our_culture. Grandin, Greg. Who Is Rigoberta Menchú? London: Verso, 2011. Hernández Castillo, Rosalva Aída. Multiple Injustices: Indigenous Women, Law, and Political Struggle in Latin America. Tuscon: University of Arizona Press, 2018. The Emergence of Indigenous Feminism in Latin America.” Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 35, no. 3 (2010): 539–45. https://doi.org/10.1086/648538. Lakhani, Nina. “‘In Guatemala to Be a Feminist Is Not Welcomed, a Lesbian, Even Less so. I Am a Lesbian Feminist.’” The Guardian. February 11, 2016. https://www.theguardian.com/globaldevelopment-professionals-network/2016/feb/11/ guatemala-feminist-lesbian-sandra-moran. Picq, Manuela Lavinas. Vernacular Sovereignties: Indigenous Women Challenging World Politics. Tucson: The University of Arizona Press, 2019. Pieper, Oliver. “In Guatemala, Women Fear for Their Lives.” dw.com. May 2, 2021. https://www.dw.com/en/ in-guatemala-women-fear-for-their-lives/a-57397987. Saporta Sternbach, Nancy, Marysa Navarro-Aranguren, Patricia Chuchryk, and Sonia E. Álvarez. “Feminisms in Latin America: From Bogotá to San Bernardo.” Journal of Women in Culture and Society 17 (1992). https://doi. org/10.4324/9780429496301-15. Sieder, Rachel. Demanding Justice and Security: Indigenous Women and Legal Pluralities in Latin America. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2017. Stephen, Lynn, and Shannon Speed. Indigenous Women and Violence: Feminist Activist Research in Heightened States of Injustice. Tucson: The University of Arizona Press, 2021.

Student Reflection: At my time at Shippensburg University, I have taken many courses that informed me on indigenous studies, activism, and hardships. Last semester, I did a series of research projects on indigenous rights, environmentalism, and activism and I started to notice not many people have any idea just how badly indigenous communities are still being hurt or have been. I felt compelled to do this specific research project on indigenous feminism and not just Latin American feminism as I knew it would be a difficult topic to research as indigenous studies is a fairly new topic in the academic world. I wanted to push my research skills, while also uplifting voices of people who are not normally heard. I hope this paper can bring awareness to voices of indigenous justice and activism to my local community of South Central Pennsylvania, especially since Shippensburg itself is so close to the original Native American boarding school in Carlisle, which is only 30 minutes from the university. I also hope this paper demonstrates my passion for indigenous activism as I want to attend graduate school for indigenous studies and anthropology, to continue uplift indigenous voices, both locally and internationally. 35

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Editor's Choice Third Place, Upper Level

The Influence of Race and Ethnicity in Capital Punishment by Bridget Sharkey CRJ 452: Race, Ethnicity, and Crime Dr. Arelys Madero Assignment: This paper is a synthesis of the published literature on a selected topic. You will read, analyze, and summarize the literature into a report of “what we know” on the topic.

Abstract This paper examines the relationship between race and ethnicity and the death penalty. It seeks to identify the factors that contribute to the overrepresentation of minorities wrongfully sentenced to death, which include stereotypes and implicit biases operating in the system and reinforced by individuals who hold power in the government and justice system. It examines the Baldus study, which showed the race of the victim to play an essential role in deciding whether to implement the death penalty or not. It evaluates the impact of the McCleskey v Kemp court case. The impact of race on jury selection is also explored, drawing from the Purkett v Elem case. Finally, the paper addresses the close relationship between race and ineffective legal representation in capital punishment cases. Keywords: race and ethnicity, capital punishment/ death penalty, overrepresentation Introduction The death penalty, also referred to as capital punishment, is reserved in our justice system for the most heinous crimes. Currently 20 states utilize the death penalty, Pennsylvania included (Death Penalty Information Center [DPIC], 2021). Historically, the death penalty was primarily reserved for black offenders charged with raping a white victim. Although time has passed and the justice system has evolved, systematic discrimination still exists, and race and ethnicity play a huge role in the system’s decision to utilize the death penalty. There are many layers to this topic, so it is essential to break each layer down to examine how race and ethnicity impact the justice system, more specifically the death penalty. The death penalty itself does not have a race problem; “it is the race problems of America that manifest themselves through the implementation of the death penalty” (Ndule, 2020, p.33). These problems are evident when examining 36

wrongful convictions and the overrepresentation of offenders of color wrongfully sentenced to death (DPIC, 2021). The race of the victim also plays a huge role in the decision to utilize the death penalty, which is most common in cases with a white victim (Ndule, 2020). Lastly, inside the courtroom, there is a correlation between offenders of color and ineffective legal representation, which in turn impacts case outcomes (Ndule, 2020). Race and ethnicity also influence not only who is selected to serve as a juror, but can influence the juror’s decisions to administer the death penalty (Urbina, 2003). Wrongful Convictions Since 1963, 119 people of color have been wrongfully convicted and sentenced to death, two of them being exonerated in 2021, making this an apparent and current issue (DPIC, 2021). It is also important to note that people of color on average spend four years longer on death row than white defendants before being exonerated (Ndule, 2020). Of those wrongfully convicted of capital murder, defendants of color are overrepresented due to several factors such as unreliable DNA evidence and implicit biases (Ndule, 2020). Implicit bias has a direct impact on who we associate with more violent crimes (Ndule, 2020). In 2013, Judge Edith Jones of the U.S Court of Appeals stated that “racial groups like African Americans and Hispanics are prone to be involved in more heinous crimes” (Urbinia, 2019, p.1791). This judge’s comments imply that minority groups commit more violent crimes simply based on their race, which is a common stereotype. Other individuals holding power in the system reinforce these stereotypes, such as former President Donald Trump, who stated in 2015 during his campaign, that Mexico was sending people with “lots of problems” (Urbinia, 2019, p.1796). He continued to say “They’re bringing drugs. They’re bringing crime. They’re rapists” (Urbinia,

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2019, p.1762). Our nation’s history of stereotypes associating people of color with crime affects who we assume should be a suspect for unsolved murder cases (Ndule, 2020). For an unsolved murder case with little evidence, these stereotypes influence the court’s decision, and could wrongfully sentence a person of color to death. One example of this is the case of Walter McMillian, an African American who was targeted for the unsolved murder of a white woman due to his race (Ndule, 2020). Prosecutors and Alabama police framed McMillian solely based off the fact that he was involved in an interracial relationship (Ndule, 2020). These stereotypes are dangerous, especially coming from individuals that hold power in the government and criminal justice system, as they continue to marginalize these minority groups, making them more susceptible to be wrongfully sentenced to death. DNA evidence, a common method used to identify suspects, can produce unreliable results. It has been criticized for “a lack of validity testing and an absence of validating standards for declaring a match” (Free, 2018, 336). Of the 119 wrongfully convicted people of color, DNA evidence was used in 19 of these cases (DPIC, 2021). The Innocence Project, a national organization that works to exonerate people who were wrongfully convicted of a crime, reports that unvalidated or improper forensic science was present in about half of their DNA exonerations (Free, 2018). In a case with little evidence, an offender of color is more likely to be a person of interest and may be sentenced to death based on unvalidated DNA evidence. Race of the Victim Arguably, the strongest role race plays in the decision to implement the death penalty is the race of the victim. Professor David Baldus and his colleagues conducted a study of Georgia’s death penalty scheme, referred to as the Baldus study, which examined different variables on hundreds of murder cases in Georgia (Baldus et al.,1983). This study revealed that race had a direct influence on the outcome in these cases. More specifically, they noted that “Georgia juries appear to tolerate greater levels of aggravation without imposing the death penalty in black victim cases” (Baldus et al., 1983, p. 710). As Alexander (2020) notes, defendants charged with killing white victims were eleven times more likely to receive the death penalty than those charged with killing black victims. These findings were vital as they solidified the common theme of race impacting a death penalty verdict (Niven, 2020). One particular case, McCleskey v Kemp (1987), is a pertinent reading regarding race and the death penalty. Warren McCleskey, a man of color, was sentenced to death for killing a white police officer during an armed robbery in Georgia. He appeared in front of the

U.S Supreme Court to challenge his sentence “on the grounds that Georgia’s death penalty scheme was infected with racial bias and thus violated the Fourteenth and Eighth Amendments” (Alexander, 2020, p.138). McCleskey built his case around the Baldus study, using it as evidence to plead his case. The Baldus study, which had compelling evidence of racial disparities in sentencing, was not enough for McCleskey to prove racial discrimination in his sentence. The Court ruled that even with strong evidence like the Baldus study, racial bias in sentencing could not be challenged under the Fourteenth Amendment. For this to be proved, there must be clear evidence of discriminatory intent (Alexander, 2020), meaning that the defendant must show that there was purposeful discrimination in their case. The Court reasoned that “The Constitution does not require that a State eliminate any demonstrable disparity that correlates with a potentially irrelevant factor in order to operate a criminal justice system that includes capital punishment” (McCleskey v. Kemp, 1983, p.481). In the McCleskey ruling, the Supreme Court disregarded the Baldus study, which exemplified clear evidence of racial bias in Georgia’s death penalty scheme. The idea that the death of a white person is seen as more serious than the death of a person of color is implicitly stated through the Court’s rulings (Niven, 2020). The Baldus study brought this narrative to the surface, addressing the issue with strong evidence, and McCleskey sought to shine light to this issue in proving racial bias in his sentencing. The Court’s ruling in this case illustrated whose lives are valued versus devalued, placing the value on white victims (Ndule, 2020). The Impact of Race Inside the Courtroom Breaking this topic down to another layer requires examining the role of race inside the courtroom in capital cases. Jurors in the first stage of capital trials decide the guilt of the defendant, and in the second stage, they decide on the penalty, giving them a crucial role in these cases (West, 2021). In capital cases with a defendant of color, juries are likely to make decisions based on implicit biases, especially a jury panel that lacks diversity. In a report by the Death Penalty Information Center, Ndule states that “many of those (people of color) on death row today were tried and sentenced by an all-white or nearly all-white juries” (2020, p.39). American courts have a long history of excluding people of color from jury service, dating back to when the justice system was initially established (Ndule, 2020). In Purkett v Elem (1995), the Supreme Court ruled that striking out prospective jurors is justified as long as there is a “race neutral” reason. The reason 37

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given by the prosecutor in Purkett’s case was the juror’s “long, unkempt hair, his moustache, and his beard” (1995, p.776). Despite this ruling, discrimination can still exist within jury selections, and be concealed as race neutral. Purkett v Elem still gives prosecutors the option to openly strike Black or Latino jurors, using race neutral reasoning such as hair length, personality, or clothing, which is enough to justify patterns of striking specific minority groups. Giving prosecutors the power to assemble an allwhite jury proposes many concerns relating to a capital case with an offender of color. West and his colleagues (2021) conducted a study that examined how the defendant’s immigration status and ethnicity interact with mock jurors’ cognitive processing traits to influence decisions in capital trials. This study examined the second stage in the capital trial when jurors consider aggravating and mitigating factors to make sentencing decisions. The researchers recruited 497 participants to serve as mock jurors, who were given a 1900-word summary of the trial. The participants were also given a description of the defendant, who was described as Latino or Caucasian, and as a citizen, documented immigrant, or undocumented immigrant (West et al, 2021). The mock jurors were instructed to report whether mitigating factors outweighed aggregating factors or vice versa. In their study, West et al. (2021) found that mock jurors weighed aggravating factors over mitigating ones, when the defendant was Latino as compared to Caucasian. This suggests that if two defendants, one White and one Latino, are being charged with the same crime, jurors are more likely to sentence the Latino defendant to death, due to jurors seeing the crime as more aggravating. Urbinia and Peña (2019) noted that Latinos have been the subject of marginalization and are oppressed by the same system that is supposed to represent and protect all people. This can be attributed to our history, and they suggest the American education system “has been used to teach Latinos and Blacks that their culture is inferior to white culture” (Urbania, 2019, p.1794). These ideas remain as underlying themes in the justice system and are evident in capital cases. Jurors can also be influenced by the appearance of an offender regarding their race, which was examined in a study of death-penalty cases in Philadelphia (Ndule, 2021). This study found that defendants with skin color and facial features associated with African Americans were over two times more likely to be sentenced to death (Ndule, 2021). This can be attributed to the stereotype that associates African Americans to more violent crimes. In another study, participants were given the same scenario, but with different photographs of the suspect, either with light or dark 38

skin (Ndule, 2021). In this study, the person with the darker skin was rated as more culpable (Ndule, 2021). These studies go hand in hand in illustrating the influence of race on these capital cases, with race acting as a “silent aggravating factor, putting a thumb on the scale in favor of death” (Ndule, 2021, p. 46). Also, inside the courtroom, race plays a huge role in the administration of ineffective counsel in capital cases. A defense counsel’s main priority in a capital case is to save their client’s life, giving them a huge role to fill. Unfortunately for minorities in capital cases, the ineffectiveness of the defense counsel results in a failure to fulfill this role. Ineffective legal representation, including failing to appear for hearings, falling asleep during trial, or showing up intoxicated, is seen most commonly in cases with court-appointed counsel (Free, 2018). This ineffective legal representation is a direct result from inadequate funding among indigent clients (Free, 2018). Since “African Americans are overrepresented at the lower end of income and occupation hierarchies” (Urbina, 2003, p.101), they are more likely to seek a court appointed attorney, resulting in ineffective legal representation. It is also important to note that most capital defense practitioners are white, which creates barriers for a defendant of color. A white defense attorney may not have the ability to fully understand a client’s life experiences, including racism and discrimination, directly impacting how they represent their client and their case, which can make or break a capital case. Conclusion Race and ethnicity’s influence in capital cases continues to contribute to the racial inequality that exists in the justice system. As Baldus et al. (1983) found, the race of the victim in capital cases is highly influential in deciding whether to implement the death penalty or not. Common themes like this were examined through other research which reveals that ethnicity is also extremely influential in the juror’s decisions to implement capital punishment (West et al., 2021). The influence of race inside the courtroom was also examined, as jurors were more likely to execute the death penalty when the defendant possessed features more traditionally associated with African Americans (Ndule, 2021). Understanding these concepts and issues is crucial, as it is the only way for the justice system to evolve into one that does not discriminate through capital punishment. Although racial stereotypes are not as apparent today, implicit bias still exists and continues to be reinforced in our society. Because these issues are embedded in the justice system, it is not a quick fix, rather a slow and gradual change. This change starts with not only the acknowledgement of these issues, but the willingness to make changes.

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References Alexander, M. (2020). The new Jim Crow: Mass incarceration in the age of colorblindness. New Press. Baldus, D. D., Pulaski, C., & Woodworth, G. (1983). Comparative review of death sentences: An empirical study of the Georgia experience. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 74(3), 661-753. Death Penalty Information Center. (2020, September 15). https://deathpenaltyinfo.org/. Free Jr., M. D., & Ruesink, M. (2018). Flawed justice: A study of wrongly convicted African American women. Journal of Ethnicity in Criminal Justice 16(4), 333–347. doi.org/10.1080/15377938.2015.1015199 Hoag, A. (2020). Valuing black lives: A case for ending the death penalty. Columbia Human Rights Law Review 51(3), 983–1007. McCleskey v. Kemp, 481 U.S. 279 (1987). https://www. oyez.org/cases/1986/84-6811 Ndule, N. (2020). Enduring injustice: The persistence of racial discrimination in the U.S. death penalty. Death Penalty Information Center. https://documents. deathpenaltyinfo.org/pdf/Enduring-Injustice-Race-andthe-Death-Penalty-2020.pdf

Niven, D. (2020). Killing with prejudice: Institutionalized racism in American capital punishment. Journal of Criminal Justice Education, 31(3), 459-462. Purkett v. Elem, 514 U.S. 765 (1995). https://www.oyez.org/ cases/1994/94-802 Urbina, M. G. (2003). Capital punishment and Latino offenders: Racial and ethnic differences in death sentences. LFB Scholarly Publishing LLC Urbina, M. G., & Peña, I. A. (2019). Capital punishment, Latinos, and the United States legal system: Doing justice or an illusion of justice, legitimated oppression, and reinforcement of structural hierarchies. UCLA Law Review 66(6), 1762–1816. West, M. P., Wood, E. F., Miller, M. K., & Bornstein, B. H. (2021). How mock jurors’ cognitive processing and defendants’ immigrant status and ethnicity relate to decisions in capital trials. Journal of Experimental Criminology 17(3), 423–432. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s11292-020-09411-4

Student Reflection: I grew up in a predominantly white area, blinded by my own privilege to see the blatant racism and discrimination happening not only around me, but implemented in the justice system. This motivated me to major in criminal justice, because I wanted to be educated on these specific issues to hopefully make a difference in the future. This class (Race, Ethnicity, and Crime) was one of my favorites because it taught me a lot about the racial bias embedded in our system. I really enjoyed this assignment because I was able to fully immerse myself in research to educate myself and break down the many layers of race and ethnicity regarding their impact on the death penalty. As I stated in my paper, understanding and acknowledging these issues is the first small step of making a change, this paper allowed me to do both.

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Editor's Choice First Place, Lower Level

Ecofeminist Analysis of Nature Imagery in Their Eyes Were Watching God by Emily Dziennik ENG 234: American Literature II Dr. Cristina Rhodes Assignment: This midterm assignment asks that you write an original and well-researched analysis of a text that we have discussed in class or that is related to course discussions. For example, you could write about one of our Modernist poems or locate another Modernist poem of interest, or you could read and write about another speech by Frederick Douglass, or one of Zora Neale Hurston’s short stories. Ultimately, what text you choose to analyze is up to you, though you are certainly encouraged to discuss your research interests with Dr. R to identify an engaging topic for you. Your analysis should contain a clear and argumentative thesis statement, cogent textual analysis, and a conclusion that indicates the significance and implications of your research.

Zora Neale Hurston is one of the most famous women authors from the Harlem Renaissance. Her novels, short stories, and plays that depicted African American life are now considered world-renowned, though they were highly criticized at the time they were written. After spending a majority of her early life in Eatonville, Florida, Hurston enrolled in college in New York and befriended several other famous black writers and activists from the time period (Norwood). Hurston’s writing is centered around studying and promoting black culture with one of her most famous works being her novel Their Eyes Were Watching God, published in 1937. Their Eyes Were Watching God is the story of Janie Crawford, a young woman of color trying to find her place in a world full of racism, sexism, and oppression. Janie embarks on a long journey to discover herself, struggling through three failed marriages and surviving a destructive hurricane. After all of these terrible experiences, Janie must return to a somewhat normal life alone, leaving those around her critical of her decisions and judgmental of her lifestyle. By tackling all of these issues, Hurston manages to create a very raw, human story—as well as a beautiful piece of writing. Ecofeminist Literary Criticism For this essay, I will be employing strategies from ecofeminist literary criticism to review Hurston’s work. Ecofeminist criticism developed in the 1980s (Gaard 47). It utilizes many ideals from feminist criticism, but extends further to critique the ways in

which women are compared to nature and reduced to objects. Ecofeminists often argue that this objectification of women “diminishes their moral significance, enabling their exploitation, abuse, and destruction” (Donovan 161). By comparing women to nature, authors frequently remove the humanity from their feminine characters, allowing them to be disrespected and abused by dominant male figures. Ecofeminism is also rooted in activism, and critiques many forms of alienation, hierarchy, and this domination over women, while also attempting to heal marginalized individuals and cultures (Gaard 48). In her novel Their Eyes Were Watching God, Hurston uses a variety of nature imagery throughout the story to signal changes in her main character, Janie. Hurston also uses this nature imagery to demonstrate the common comparison of women to nature, and ultimately critique and tear down the objectification of women that occurs as a result. Nature Imagery in Janie’s Early Life From the beginning of Hurston’s novel, it becomes clear to the reader that nature imagery is very important to understanding the life of Janie Crawford. As the reader is introduced to Janie and her life, Hurston establishes a connection between Janie’s youth and purity to nature. Janie lived with her grandmother in West Florida for most of her early life. In the backyard of their house, there was a pear tree that Janie frequented to think about life and love as a young woman.

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Hurston writes: She was stretched on her back beneath the pear tree soaking in the alto chant of the visiting bees, the gold of the sun and the panting breath of the breeze when the inaudible voice of it all came to her. She saw a dust-bearing bee sink into the sanctum of a bloom; the thousand sister-calyxes arch to meet the love embrace and the ecstatic shiver of the tree from root to tiniest branch creaming in every blossom and frothing with delight. So this was a marriage! She had been summoned to behold a revelation. Then Janie felt a pain remorseless sweet that left her limp and languid. (11) In this excerpt, Janie is watching bees pollinate this pear tree in her yard. She appears enamored with the act of the bees diving into the flowers and even describes the tree as feeling a sort of pleasure from this act. She then marvels at what she believes is an image of true love, in awe of the pairing of the blossoms of the pear tree and the pollinating bees. There are other instances in the story that Janie returns to this pear tree, all of which include Janie’s fascination with the blossoming flowers and a reference to the strong emotions they stir inside her (Hurston 10). Hurston depicts young Janie in this way to demonstrate her purity. At this age, Janie has a very naïve view of love that will diminish as time passes. But, for now, Hurston ensures that her audience knows that Janie is very innocent and has yet to mature and discover her sexuality. This very innocent depiction of Janie mirrors what ecofeminist scholars find in many other works with significant nature imagery. Often, women are thought to be blooming flowers, very delicate and beautiful. Men, however, are typically described as the bees, able to fly from flower to flower without consequence and pollinate the flowers they chose. This is one of the most commonly used examples of a comparison of women to nature. By witnessing this, the reader is able to see Janie consider her sexuality for the first time. Society at this time has taught her that women are the flowers and men are the bees, and that that is true love. Hurston most likely included this metaphor as a critique for this common generalization. By reducing women to flowers, objects unable to move or act, only admired for their beauty, all autonomy and respect are removed from them as well. Janie also finds comfort in the nature around her, claiming that when she was seeking confirmation, the world around her would acknowledge her and answer her questions (Hurston 11). Janie is not only comparing her views of love to nature, but she is seeking answers from the natural world around her. This

suggests an even deeper connection between Janie and nature that Hurston will tear down later in the novel. Scholars have argued that Their Eyes Were Watching God is a story about “finding one’s own voice,” and that this problem is first faced under the pear tree (Russell 95). Janie ponders relationships, love, marriage, femininity, and more—all while lying under this pear tree. All of these examples of nature imagery help to establish this link between Janie and nature, as well as teach the audience about her character and how she sees the world at a very young age. As Janie ages, however, this nature imagery begins to shift to a more negative tone. Nature Imagery and Love Janie’s connection to nature begins to shift as she is faced with the reality of her first and second marriage. Janie’s grandmother insists that she marry Logan Killicks, a man with land and money, someone who can provide for her. Janie refuses at first, caught in her naïve views of love and marriage that she thought about for so long under the pear tree. In response, Janie’s grandmother says, “You know, honey, us colored folks is branches without roots and that makes things come round in queer ways” (Hurston 16). This connection to Janie’s life and the life of a growing tree is established very early on in the story, but it is often discussed in many different ways. Janie’s grandmother sees Janie’s life as one with “no roots,” signifying that she may never find a true home or her true place in the world. This is a particularly harmful train of thought for Janie to be caught in, and Hurston used Janie’s grandmother to force it upon her. Janie, who was expecting to fall in love, put down roots, and live a happy life has now been told that she is nothing more than rootless branches. Hurston creates a strong contrast between the very positive, reassuring nature imagery used previously, and this newer, harsher reality. After spending some time with Logan Killicks, Janie leaves her first husband, for the eccentric Joe Starks. Joe promises to treat Janie well and to make her a real home where she is cared for and admired. Joe promises exactly what Janie imagined under her pear tree all that time ago. Joe’s plan is to become the mayor of his own town, with Janie serving as the mayor’s wife and nothing more. Their marriage devolves over time as Joe becomes easily jealous and very angry towards Janie. He takes out his frustration on Janie by ordering her around, yelling at her, keeping her away from public gatherings, and even hitting her. Again, there is a shift in the nature imagery Hurston uses. She writes, “The bed was no longer a daisy-field for her and Joe to play in. It was a place where she went and laid down

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when she was sleepy and tired. She wasn’t petal-open anymore with him. She was twenty-four and seven years married when she knew” (71). Janie, who used to imagine herself as this beautiful flower waiting to fall in love and find her perfect match, has now had to face the reality that she was nothing to her husband anymore. Similar to how Janie once found comfort in her yard with the pear tree when she was younger, she also thought of her bed as a safe place that was comforting and reassuring because Joe was there with her. But, not, Hurston makes it clear that Janie has abandoned all of her preconceived notions about love and marriage. This is cemented when Hurston returns once more to the bee-pollination metaphor used once before, “She had no more blossomy openings dusting pollen over her man, neither any glistening young fruit where the petals used to be” (72). This shift not only signals to the reader a new chapter in Janie’s life in which she has given up on her dreams to find true love, but also critiques the stereotypical nature imagery that is used to describe women and marriage. Instead of focusing on the dreamy, naïve views of love typically described, she has given the reader the reality that Janie is facing: it is difficult to find true love that lasts forever. Instead of comparing Janie to nature, Hurston is now using this nature imagery to demonstrate this challenge. From this challenge then comes the final shift to destruction of nature and the disasters Janie faces. The Hurricane as Nature Imagery Hurston’s final shift in her usage of nature imagery in this novel occurs with a hurricane at the end of the story. After her second husband dies, Janie moves down to Lake Okeechobee, where she and her third husband, Tea Cake, work in the fields picking beans. While down on the lake with Tea Cake, Janie is the happiest she has ever been. Though their relationship still has its problems, Janie believes she has found true love. But, just as her and Tea Cake think that they have their lives figured out, Florida is hit with a hurricane. Janie’s new, happy life is completely destroyed by this hurricane and the flooding that follows, putting both Tea Cake and Janie in a life-or-death situation (Hurston 156). In her article analyzing the meaning behind this hurricane, Sonya Posmentier writes, “Hurston would later dramatize this menace in her novel Their Eyes Were Watching God, in which she describes a different hurricane as a “senseless monster” threatening the lives and livelihood of the people” (158). Hurston’s description of the hurricane, a true force of nature, is a strong

contrast from the delicate images in the beginning of the novel. What began as a discussion of purity and beauty has now changed entirely. Some scholars analyze the hurricane as a metaphor for the lives of black people living in the Jim Crow south and trying to survive the middle passage, as that journey brought them much pain and destruction. While I agree that this is one possible interpretation, I would like to push this interpretation further and suggest that for Janie, this hurricane represented the destruction of everything that was holding her back (Posmentier 164). After the hurricane, and after she is forced to kill a very sick Tea Cake, it is almost as if Janie has been freed from everything that kept her from becoming her true self. It is only after the hurricane, when she returns back to her and Joe’s previous home, that Janie finally feels at peace. She has broken away from not only her unhealthy marriages, but also society’s expectations for who she should be. She is finally able to be herself, explaining that she calls her soul back to her after her long and tumultuous journey (Hurston 193). This shift from beautiful nature imagery to a violent hurricane signals not only the final change in Janie’s character, but also suggests that Hurston is attempting to destroy this stereotype of nature imagery tied to female characters. Hurston quite literally destroys this standard with a hurricane, a powerful force of nature that can take down everything in its path. The hurricane leads to the destruction of this connection between Janie and nature that she has had for her whole life. She is free of these stereotypes that have been placed upon her by society, and she finally is able to become her true self after all of this is over. Conclusion Hurston’s use of nature imagery helps the reader to understand the trials that Janie Crawford faces throughout her life, including her self discovery, her failed marriages, and the hurricane she lives through. Along with this character development, Hurston also utilizes this nature imagery to critique the very common comparison of women to nature, often resulting in objectification of feminine characters in many stories. Hurston shows a progression from a pure image of love, to a loss of hope in love, to a loss of everything else important through the hurricane. Janie is no longer being compared to nature—her life has been completely changed by it. By destroying Janie’s original views of love, marriage, and femininity, Hurston also works to destroy this common stereotype that women are delicate flowers, and men are the bees, able to come

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and go as they please to whichever flowers they like. It combats this removal of autonomy that women often face, both in stories and in the real world, when they are viewed as delicate or pure. Though Their Eyes Were Watching God was written some 40 years before the beginnings of ecofeminist literary criticism, Hurston still challenges some of the very same issues many ecofeminists try to tackle today. It is through writing like Hurston’s that readers may be able to see how women can be written without this objectification, and how progress may be made in both the literary world and the real world as writers break down these stereotypes that hold women back.

Works Cited Donovan, Josephine. “Ecofeminist Literary Criticism: Reading The Orange.” Hypatia, vol. 11, no. 2, [Hypatia, Inc., Wiley], 1996, pp. 161–84. JSTOR, http://www. jstor.org/stable/3810269. Gaard, Greta. “Strategies for a Cross-Cultural Ecofeminist Literary Criticism.” Ecozon@: European Journal of Literature, Culture and Environment, vol. 1, no. 1, 2010, pp. 47–52. EBSCOhost, search.ebscohost.com/login.asp x?direct=true&AuthType=ip,sso&db=mzh&AN=20113 02716&site=eds-live&scope=site. Hurston, Zora Neale. Their Eyes Were Watching God. 75th Anniversary ed. New York: Harper Perennial Modern Classics, 2006. Norwood, Arlisha R. “Zora Neale Hurston.” National Women’s History Museum, www.womenshistory.org/ education-resources/biographies/zora-hurston. Posmentier, Sonya. “Collecting Catastrophe: How the Hurricane Roars in Zora Neale Hurston’s Their Eyes Were Watching God.” Cultivation and Catastrophe: The Lyric Ecology of Modern Black Literature, Johns Hopkins University Press, 2017. Project Muse, search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=tru e&AuthType=ip,sso&db=edspmu&AN=edspmu. MUSE9781421422664.12&site=eds-live&scope=site. Russell, Tiffany Simpkins. “Pear Trees and Poetry: Crafting Identity in a Private Boarding School.” Black Women, Gender & Families, vol. 5, no. 2, Fall 2011, pp. 93–115. JSTOR, doi:10.5406/blacwomegendfami.5.2.0093.

Student Reflection: Back in my senior year of high school, I read Their Eyes Were Watching God and wrote short paper on it for my AP Lit class. When I found out that I would be re-reading this wonderful book again in American Lit 2, I was very excited. This class gave me the opportunity to revisit one of my favorite books from high school and analyze it from an entirely new perspective. Writing a paper this detailed was a little out of my comfort zone, but it has become my favorite essay I have written in college so far. I was able to really delve into the feminist elements Hurston wove into her story and just appreciate her talent as a writer. I want to thank Dr. Rhodes for teaching such an amazing course, and for pushing us all to question what even makes a piece of literature “American” in the first place.

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Editor's Choice Second Place, Lower Level

Assessing the Impacts of 9/11 on Firefighters by Luke Clement HON 106: Honors Academic Writing Dr. Thomas Crochunis Assignment: This assignment was a research paper that required finding and using quality sources to address a research question. The research stemmed from a topic I had already written about (September 11th attacks), but now had to investigate further in order to development into a research question that could be answered with evidence.

The 9/11 attacks on the World Trade Center (WTC) devastated the lives of many individuals. Nearly three thousand people died directly because of the attacks while thousands more were harmed in the aftermath of the devastation. Tiny toxic particles known as respiratory irritants from the rubble were breathed in by the rescue and recovery workers that were on the scene in the immediate aftermath and months afterward. This caused many to suffer from various airway diseases that were brought on by the damage to their lungs and other organs. As a result, the lives of rescue and recovery workers were changed by the onset of various medical problems. First responders often had to deal with ailments that made it too difficult to work. This made me curious about how firefighters specifically were impacted by the debris of the 9/11 attacks since they have one of the most physically intense and stressful jobs in the world. How have the toxic respiratory irritants caused by the 9/11 attacks affected the health of firefighters and their ability to work? I began my research by investigating the various aspects of 9/11 related to firefighters and other first responders in general. I read medical journals, online articles, and websites pertaining to the impact of the toxic agents at ground zero to understand how they exactly impacted those individuals. Next, I looked at how the Fire Department of New York (FDNY) and its firefighters were more directly impacted by 9/11. I looked for answers to whether there was a link between 9/11 and early retirement. This was followed by research into the political atmosphere at the time and years afterward. I looked for answers to what was done to help firefighters and other rescue and recovery workers to see if it was sufficient. I then took the information and compiled it so it could be readily understood by others. Many things could have gone better if the U.S. and the federal government had been more attentive to the problems facing individuals exposed to the 9/11 attacks. 44

Initially many people were skeptical of any negative health effects caused by the 9/11 attacks, but evidence came to light that could not be ignored. Many people including members of Congress did not believe that toxic dust rubble could cause much if any harm to individuals present at ground zero (Haelle). Most were focused on the people directly killed in the attacks and the idea that air pollutants could be a major problem took a back seat. In fact, it was not until the Obama presidency through the James Zadroga 9/11 Health and Compensation Act of 2010 that any effective legislation was passed by Congress to help responders and survivors affected by the toxic respiratory irritants (Calvert). In truth, it did not take long for studies to find a correlation between health problems and ground zero toxic agents. A study immediately following the 9/11 attacks found that nose irritation, throat irritation, eye irritation/infection, and coughing were prevalent in approximately 82% of the adult population in residential areas nearby the WTC disaster zone months after the attack (Community Needs Assessment). Later studies would echo this theme. One such study found “GERD [Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease] and upper and lower respiratory disease, each occur among more than 40 percent of FDNY workers, and those who arrived on-site earliest had the highest rates of respiratory disease” (Haelle). Another study found that “Nearly half of living responders have a respiratory or digestive condition related to 9/11” revealing how prevalent airway diseases were in rescue and recovery workers (Haelle). These conditions were much more common in individuals exposed to the 9/11 debris than those in the general population. This proved that there was a direct correlation between the intensity of 9/11 debris exposure and the severity of symptoms and subsequent negative health effects. Scientists and health organizations would continue to monitor individuals exposed to the 9/11 disaster zone helping to break down the effects of breathing in the toxic agents even when politicians lagged in addressing those problems.

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Many health problems developed in people who breathed in the toxic respiratory irritants from the WTC rubble. One study found “acute and prolonged exposures were associated with a large burden of asthma symptoms 5 to 6 years after the September 11 WTC attack” (Brackbill). In general, the toxic agents in the debris caused severe lung damage resulting in conditions like emphysema, reactive airway disease syndrome, chronic rhinosinusitis, gastroesophageal, and more (Haelle). Damage to the lungs caused many people to be physically weaker and much more tired as it became difficult to take in oxygen from the air. Many individuals also experienced autoimmune diseases that made it much more difficult to fight infections and other diseases (Haelle). Additionally, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) manifested in many individuals due to breathing in toxic inhalants. Normally, people associate PTSD with solely psychological circumstances, but researchers found “Sustaining an injury during a disaster like 9/11 would considerably heighten the life-threatening traumatic exposure, which could lead to PTSD” (Brackbill). Many injuries in this case came from the physically hazardous labor caused by 9/11 and the toxic agents that severely damaged the lungs and other organs of exposed individuals. PTSD is a serious problem for individuals in their working lives because when triggered a person can become unable to perform even basic tasks. Cancer became another major issue that was linked to a significant number of people exposed to the 9/11 disaster zone. The prevalence of cancer became apparent with time as “Researchers have identified more than 60 types of cancer and about two dozen other conditions that are linked to ground zero exposures” (Haelle). In fact, 23,000 of the people exposed to the WTC debris have been diagnosed with at least one type of cancer (Radcliffe). Cancer is such a big deal that simply having it in some cases can completely hinder a person from working. These conditions were all so prominent that many people exposed to the 9/11 debris could not function in the same way as they did before the event, and this was especially true for firefighters. Firefighters were one of the most severely exposed 9/11 first responder groups and were thus the most critically affected in their ability to continue their line of work. Firefighters need to perform duties such as going into burning buildings. The damage caused to their lungs made breathing in smoke a dangerous hazard for many of them as it could trigger an asthma attack thus preventing them from performing their duties. The effect of PTSD has played a major role in the early retirement of firefighters. Even today “Two decades after the attacks, 9 percent of FDNY veterans of 9/11 still have PTSD,” and it was much more prominent in the initial aftermath of the event (Haelle). This

made it nearly impossible for some firefighters to go back to work because the psychological effects made their job too stressful. Cancer also took a heavy toll on many people in the FDNY. About 20 % of all FDNY firefighters developed cancer in the ensuing years and this number continues to grow (Haelle). Any firefighter that developed cancer either had to quit or take the time to treat it. This often meant having to take fewer work hours. These kinds of problems along with the other conditions associated with 9/11 often caused those firefighters to leave the force sooner rather than later. When all the damage was said and done, a significant number of FDNY workers had to leave the force due to health problems caused by 9/11. Many firefighters ended up retiring because of the exposure to toxic respiratory irritants present in the 9/11 rubble. Today, an estimated 75% of the firefighters who toiled at ground zero suffer from related chronic diseases (Shea). This effectively caused 7,000 new firefighters to be hired over the next 12 to 13 years in the New York Fire Department due to the high number of retiring firefighters (Shea). “We basically turned over our entire firefighting force” according to former FDNY Commissioner Sal Cassano (Shea). The FDNY had to expand the fire academy recruit training program from 13 weeks to 18 weeks, while training for new lieutenants went from four to six weeks to accommodate the demand for recruits (Shea). Those firefighters who didn’t retire became the officer corps. “Everybody was doing a job that was probably two or three years before their time, before they were ready,” according to Former Chief of the Department, Ed Kilduff (Shea). All these changes added a lot of stress to the job and with the effects of 9/11 lingering in the background, the FDNY decided to train retired firefighters in basic counseling and placed them in firehouses as peer counselors (Shea). The prevalence of stress adds further evidence that many firefighters feeling the negative psychological and physical effects of 9/11 decided to retire or reduce their hours to deal with stress. The retirements and changes at the FDNY were unprecedented, and with the addition of various studies on the health effects of exposure to the 9/11 disaster zone, a clear link forms between exposure and the retirement of FDNY workers. With all the sacrifices these heroic individuals made, it is surprising that little was initially done to help them, and even now some may argue that more should be done to support the firefighters who responded to 9/11. There were some things done to help firefighters as well as others exposed to the 9/11 disaster zone but much of it happened years afterward, and it was often not enough for these essential workers. As mentioned before, it took nearly a decade and a whole administration for the U.S. to set aside money through the James 45

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Zadroga 9/11 Health and Compensation Act of 2010 to help rescue and recovery workers exposed to toxic agents at ground zero (Calvert). The program provides health care, medical monitoring, and treatment to responders and survivors who were exposed to the toxins at ground zero and now are sick due to their exposures (Programs to Help 9/11 Responders). This program is extremely important because an estimated 410,000 first responders, cleanup crews, and survivors were exposed to the toxic WTC debris (Radcliffe). Unfortunately, only about a fourth of the individuals are enrolled in the program. While it was great that firefighters began at least receiving the medical treatment they deserved, many saw it as the equivalent of paying a soldier returning from battle with treatment of his wounds and nothing else. That is why the bill was expanded after five more years to provide an “additional 4.6 billion dollars to ensure that responders and survivors will receive the full compensation that they deserve” (Programs to Help 9/11 Responders). This in effect recognized that firefighters experienced chronic health problems from the 9/11 attacks, while finally giving them the benefits they should have received years before. In conclusion, many people were initially skeptical or unconcerned with aiding firefighters even though studies had shown an alarming connection between the 9/11 respiratory irritants and chronic health effects such as long-term lung damage, autoimmune diseases, PTSD, and cancer. While it took some time to gather information to officially link health problems to 9/11 debris exposure, most studies made an effective connection within a few years after 9/11. It became clear that FDNY firefighters were retiring or quitting in unprecedented numbers due to the damage caused by inhaling the toxic WTC respiratory irritants combined with the psychological stress of their job. Since this was an issue that affected not only New York, but the United States, Congress and the U.S. government should have been swifter in enacting policies to not only cover medical problems but provide additional compensation to firefighters and other individuals

exposed to toxic WTC debris. Congress eventually did provide funds to help the firefighters, but not before so much time had passed that the aid was less impactful. All things considered, the support given to firefighters after 9/11 was not terrible, but more could have been done sooner. Lastly, we should not only continue to honor the brave firefighters that gave their lives to save others in the 9/11 tragedy, but also those that gave up their health and jobs. Depending on how you view life and work, they might have paid the higher price. Works Cited Brackbill, Robert M., et al. “Chronic Physical Health Consequences of Being Injured during the Terrorist Attacks on World Trade Center on September 11, 2001.” American Journal of Epidemiology, vol. 179, no. 9, May 2014, pp. 1076–1085. EBSCOhost, doi:10.1093/aje/kwu022. Accessed 5 February 2022. Calvert GM, Reissman D, Howard J. “World Trade Center Health Program: 20 years after 9/11.” Occupational and Environmental Medicine. 2021; 78:697-698. Accessed 5 February 2022. “Community Needs Assessment of Lower Manhattan Residents Following the World Trade Center Attacks --- Manhattan, New York City, 2001.” Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). https://www.cdc.gov/ mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm51SPa4.htm. Accessed 5 February 2022. Haelle, Tara. “Health Effects of 9/11 Still Plague Responders and Survivors.” Scientific America. www. scientificamerican.com/article/health-effects-of-911-still-plague-responders-and survivors/. Accessed 5 February 2022. “Programs to Help 9/11 Responders and Survivors.” 9/11 Health Watch. https://www.911healthwatch.org/theprograms/.” Accessed 5 February 2022. Radcliffe, Shawn. “20 Years After 9/11: What We Know About the Long-Term Health Effects.” Healthline. https://www.healthline.com/health-news/20-years-after9-11-what-we-know-about-the-long-term-health-effects. Accessed 6 December 2021. Shea, Gregory, et al. “How the Fire Department of New York Changed After 9/11.” Harvard Business Review. https:// hbr.org/2021/09/how-the-new-york-fire-departmentchanged- after-9-11. Accessed 5 February 2022.

Student Reflection: People tend to discuss the September 11th attacks in terms of the people that directly died in the event and the political and social implications the attacks had on American life. A less looked at aspect of the 9/11 attacks are the negative health effects the attacks had on rescue and recovery workers and firefighters in particular who were exposed to the toxic air particulates and stressful conditions brought on by the disaster. This paper examines the effects of these conditions on these individuals and what has been done to address those problems. I think this was a good experience for me in developing my research skills including developing a topic to write about, investigating sources, and piecing the information together into a formal research paper. 46

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Editor's Choice Third Place, Lower Level

Racism and Portrayals of Black Characters Depicted in Movies by Sara Cox COM 245: Diversity and the Media Dr. Dhiman Chattopadhyay Assignment: This critical analysis assignment is about how black characters in the movies “The Death Cure”, “The Green Mile”, and “It: Chapter Two”. I wanted to show how the characters were treated and show how their personalities were differing between the different movies.

The word stereotype may carry a lot of negative connotations. Stereotyping a group, or a community is something we often do, especially when we may not have met or known many people from that group, but simply learnt about them from different mass media such as movies, advertisements, books, or news articles. Some positive stereotypes may help us understand others, and be pervasive (Czopp, Kay, and Cheryan, 2015). However, even if not particularly bad or negative on paper, stereotypes may not allow for authentic representations for the complex subjects they are describing. Stereotypes tend to be simple but the subjects they are talking about may not be (Henry, 2020). Research shows that many of us—even if we mean well—have “some type of implicit, or unconscious, biases” (Bernstein, 2018). People have stereotypes about others, often subconsciously. And, as social psychologists argue, they may influence our behavior. Rationale & Question I picked this topic because I recently started noticing the trend of very similar characters being portrayed in movies over and over again, especially when the portrayals were of Black characters. Covert or overt racism is seen quite often in older Hollywood movies in more ways than one, including but not limited to scenes with the Klu Klux Klan, actors using black face, and White actors being portrayed as superior. I was curious: with what we know about stereotypes human behavior, and the past – how much racism – overt or covert – is still present in movies that are produced today? Some of the common portrayals of racism maybe subtle. However, in some cases, obvious comments are made to insult the Black character, such as making assumptions based on the color of their skin, and using other common stereotypes to frame the character that we see on screen.

Previous studies (of movies made in the 1970s and 80s) found that when Black characters were portrayed or depicted in movies, six main stereotypes were seen : “Tom” or the light-hearted and submissive Black man; “Coon” or the selfish, ignorant, and lazy person; “Bad Buck” or the violent, strong, and threatening man; “Mammy” or the loud, argumentative black woman; “Tragic Mulatto” or the mixed race woman who is attractive to White men; and finally the “Buddy” or the supporting role that is seen saving his (usually) White buddy (Luther and Lepre, 2019, p. 53) Methodology To understand the presence of possible race-related stereotypes in more recent Hollywood movies, especially movies made in the past two decades I decided to conduct a qualitative content analysis by watching three movies including. They were, (a) The Death Cure, (b) The Green Mile and (c) It: Chapter Two. I watched them on Hulu and HBO Max to observe how Black characters/race was depicted in movies in the Sci-Fi genre. “The Green Mile” is the oldest movie of the three and was released December 6, 1999, and is about Paul Edgecomb, who worked on death row with a variety of cons and had never encountered someone like John Coffey, a massive Black man convicted of brutally killing a pair of young sisters. “The Death Cure” was released January 26, 2018, and is about Thomas, who leads some escaped Gladers on their final and most dangerous mission yet. To save their friends, they must break into the legendary Last City, a WCKD-controlled labyrinth that may turn out to be the deadliest maze of all. Finally, the most recent movie that was released on September 6, 2019, was “It: Chapter Two”. This movie is about the members of the Losers’ Club, and the evil clown Pennywise that returns 27 years later to terrorize the town of Derry, Maine, 47

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once again. Now as adults, the childhood friends have long since gone their separate ways. But as people start to disappear, Mike Hanlon calls the others home for one final stand. Findings To understand the themes that emerged while watching these three movies, I split my findings into three categories using different colored highlighters. These categories included pink highlight for the negativity that was shown on screen, yellow highlight for the positive portrayals shown in the films, and orange highlight for the similarities between all three movies. While some categories may have had more highlights than others, all had a relatively decent amount. The Sidekick: To begin, the films all had similar stereotypes portrayed for a Black character, which was the “buddy”. As mentioned before, the “buddy” stereotype is more of a sidekick and someone who saves or helps the main (often White) character. In “The Death Cure”, one of the only black characters that is portrayed is named Frypan. He is often seen by his two White friends, Newt and Thomas. At one point in the movie (minute: 29:18) Frypan is seen saving his White friend’s life at the last second. In the “The Green Mile” too, at one point (minute 2:16:12), John Coffey is taken to Paul Edgecomb’s friend’s house to save the life of Hal’s wife, Melly, who had a brain tumor. John did this due to the friendship and trust that he had with the head guard, Paul Edgecomb. In both cases, the Black man enacts the buddy role. All the movies also had different levels of covert race-stereotypes/racism. In one of the movies, a characters by the name of Wild Bill says: “N-words oughta have their own electric chair. White man...oughtn’t have to sit in no n-word electric chair. No sir”. Positive Portrayals: As for the positive portrayals in the films that were seen, we see many Black characters being kind, helpful, caring, and being a voice of reason to those around them. In the film “It: Chapter Two”, the character of Mike Hanlon (a Black man) is a constant voice of reason or the one person who can bring the group back together. He is seen keeping the other characters at bay and from making choices that could later affect them horribly. In the movie “The Green Mile”, although John Coffey is much bigger than the guards in the prison, he is shy, and more scared of the guards, than the guards are of him. The guards later find out how polite John really is and even has one of the guards, Paul Edgecomb, questioning if John committed the crime that he was accused of. This movie also showed multiple scenes where a White man was showing respect and kindness to a Black man during the Great Depression such as when Paul allowed

John to watch a movie because he had never seen one and even shook his hand out of common respect and kindness right before he was killed for a crime he didn’t commit (minute: 2:52:36). Similarities: Finally, there are many similarities in themes with these films beginning with the unfortunate fact that these characters were not given very much screen time. This is despite two out of three were supposed to be playing a major role in the movies that they were in. John Coffey received the most screen time among all Black characters, which was approximately 1 hour and 15 minutes out of three hours and 15 minutes. Mike Hanlon had just over 45 minutes out of the 2 hours and 49 minutes of the movie; and Frypan about 15 minutes of screentime where he had a speaking role out of the movie’s 2 hours and 22 minute run. While the characters seemed to have more evolved and nuanced roles than movies of the past, it was sad that they continued to be marginalized in terms of screen presence. John Coffey and Mike Hanlon were considered main characters of the movies they were in, and Frypan’s character was a main part in the book series but more of a side or background character in the movie. Another similarity that was shown through all the movies was that although the “buddy” stereotype was portrayed quite often, the “bad buck” stereotype was also evident. Both Frypan and John Coffey were shown being violent at one point or another in the movies they were in. At 2:30:16 in his movie, John used another man to kill Wild Bill in his cell in a very gruesome and violent way. However, I also saw that all the movies showed the kind, and compassionate side of the Black characters as well. John was depicted as being polite and helpful. Mike was shown as the voice of reason, and Frypan was always willing to lend a hand and do the right thing for his friends. Conclusions After many hours of watching and analyzing these movies, I found that while Black character roles have evolved since the 1970s and 80s that Luther, Lepre & Clark (2016) refer to, we still portray Black characters in very similar manner that we did half a century ago, in many respects. Things have just become more subtle. Hollywood tries to cover up the stereotypes by adding in light-hearted comments, or showing brighter sides of the Black characters. However, we still have a tendency to put these Black characters in a box, perhaps because the powerful elite that make the movies feel this is how we see the world.

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This worldview needs to change. I found my analysis as a major cause for concern, but also as a learning experience for those that may want to watch these films. We must question such narratives, because screenwriters or directors shouldn’t be writing out characters where a major part of the story depicts a character like Frypan. We also shouldn’t advertise that an actor or character is a main character when they have less screen time than almost all major White co-stars. As viewers watch these films, I hope they see what “could be” rather than “what is happening”, and fight to get more movies showing true backgrounds or personalities of Black characters in the future.

References: Bernstein, E. (2018). Why We Stereotype Strangers. Wall Street Journal, Oct. 29, 2019. Retrieved from https://www.wsj.com/articles/ why-we-stereotype-strangers-1540824439 Czopp, A., Kay, A., and Cheryan, S. (2015). Positive Stereotypes Are Pervasive and Powerful. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 10 (4), pp. 451-463 Henry, S. (2020). Black sells: The portrayal of black people in Cinema. London Metropolitan University. Retrieved November 30, 2021, from https://www.londonmet. ac.uk/news/expert-commentary/2020/october/ black-sells-the-portrayal-of-black-people-in-cinema/ Gotham Group. (2018). The Death Cure [Film]. United States. Luther, C. A., Lepre, C. R., & Clark, N. (2019). Diversity In US Media (2nd E). John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Warner Bros. Pictures. (2019). It: Chapter Two [Film]. United States. Warner Hollywood Studios. (1999). The Green Mile [Film]. United States.

Student Reflection: This critical analysis allowed me to see how the different movies portrayed these characters and show that their different eras of time helped to differ their treatment. This also was able to show that many of the black characters in movies nowadays are always one of the six common stereotypes of the black community shown in mass media. The man, John Coffy, in the “Green Mile” movie portrayed a black man who seemed aggressive due to his stature and build but was actually a kind soul who was wrongfully accused due to the color of his skin. Frypan, in the “Death Cure” movie, was portrayed as a sidekick and as the black character who saves the main white character’s life. This was unfair to his character because in the books he had way more potential than they gave him credit for. Finally, Mike Hannon in “It: Chapter Two”, was shown as a friendly man at first that brought his friends together again but then at the end, was manipulative and conniving. This showed his character as untrustworthy and gave in to the stereotype that black people are liars and are the villains. With these stereotypes and observations in mind from the analysis, it only scratches the surface of what is out there and how this group of people are portrayed in the media..

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Beauty Standards in the Media by Brenna White COM 245: Diversity and the Media Dr. Dhiman Chattopadhyay Assignment: I chose to do this project on the unrealistic beauty standards that the media has set on for women. While there are many examples of the negative affects that the media has on women and their bodies, I also thought it was important to highlight the examples of those who have broken the negative stereotype. Some celebrities and brands have worked on creating a better environment for women’s bodies in the media.

Student Reflection: I chose to do this project on the unrealistic beauty standards that the media has set on for women. While there are many examples of the negative affects that the media has on women and their bodies, I also thought it was important to highlight the examples of those who have broken the negative stereotype. Some celebrities and brands have worked on creating a better environment for women’s bodies in the media.

of women believe that the media promotes an unattainable body image for women

%67

Source: Meteamedia

Source: NPR

in the media|

Source: Coveteur

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Analyzing the Illegal Take of Wildlife in the United States: A Theoretical Perspective by Robert E. Roush IV CRJ 309:Theories of Crime and Crime Control Dr. Cyndi Koller Assignment: Students will prepare a term paper on a specific type of crime or criminal, a review of the major criminological theories, and a discussion of how the theories apply or do not apply to this criminal/crime type. The paper should include three parts: Part 1: Introduction and Crime/Criminal Typology; Part 2: Explanation and Application of Theories; and, Part 3: Conclusions/Personal Opinion (i.e., do you believe this type of crime can be prevented?).

Introduction Urban and suburban crime, no doubt because of its seemingly more frequent and often violent nature, receives most of the attention from policymakers, academia, and the media. However, criminal acts also occur in rural areas, and not just in the form of murder or assault. Natural resources abound in the hinterland, and laws and regulations are formed in an effort to properly manage them, and prevent them from being unsustainably used or abused. However, as is wellknown in the realm of criminal justice, whenever there are rules made, there are also those who are willing to break them. This is especially true when it comes to wildlife. Unlike many other natural resources, wildlife are often highly mobile and cross property and political boundaries at will, can be vectors for diseases, and sometimes come into direct conflict with humans and their property, all of which creates unique management challenges. Wildlife also has intrinsic value for a wide sub-set of people. For example, wildlife has high use value for hunters and trappers, as well as aesthetic value for birdwatchers and tourists, and can play a significant role in local economies. Wildlife is also a key actor in local, regional, national, and even global ecosystems. Based on these factors, it is clear that strong management regulations and laws must be put into place, and perhaps more importantly, enforced, so that criminals who misuse these resources are brought to justice and the integrity of wildlife populations is upheld. However, like with any other criminal, simply locking offenders up is not always the solution. To effectively enforce wildlife laws, it is also critical to understand the “why” and “how” behind the crime.

Accordingly, this paper will provide a typology of the wildlife criminal and crime, a review of the seven most influential theories in crime and criminality, and a brief application of these theories to those who commit wildlife crime, before concluding with a summary and personal position statement. Crime Typology Wildlife crime is a broad term and contains several different forms of crime, similar to how the term “violent crime” includes murder, assaults, rapes, and other similar crimes. For example, wildlife crime can include the abuse of wildlife, the illegal possession of live wildlife, and the illicit trade of wildlife and their parts, among other things. For the purposes of this paper, the focus will be primarily on the illegal take, or killing, of wildlife for non-commercial purposes, frequently referred to as “poaching,” which is one of the more common forms of wildlife crime (Musgrave, Parker, & Wolok, 1993). It is possible to violate the laws regulating the legal take of wildlife by various means, such as hunting out of season, night hunting, or taking over the legal limit of wildlife, among many other things (Musgrave et al.). The frequency of these types of crimes are exceedingly difficult to estimate, as there is no “Uniform Crime Report-like” national database on any type of wildlife crime in the United States, besides that of organized, inter-state or international wildlife crime, where the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service has jurisdiction. While all state wildlife agencies likely keep records of citations issued or prosecutions made, very few of them make this information publicly available, or if they do, it is in an extremely general form and/or categorized very differently from other states, making inter-state comparison next to impossible.

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However, while likely not reflecting regional differences, some generalizations can still be made by comparing Pennsylvania’s state-level data to the state’s census data. In Pennsylvania, 1,072 cases of “illegal take of game or wildlife” were prosecuted in the 20192020 financial year (Pennsylvania Game Commission, 2021). According to the 2020 census conducted by the United States Census Bureau, Pennsylvania had 13,002,700 citizens. This roughly translates into 1 case of the illegal take of game or wildlife for every 12,000 people in Pennsylvania. For perspective, according to the 2019 Uniform Crime Report (UCR), there were 12,390 motor vehicle thefts in Pennsylvania, which roughly equates to one motor vehicle theft per 1,000 people in Pennsylvania. Accordingly, poaching events, at least the ones that are investigated and prosecuted, are relatively rare, even when compared to motor vehicle thefts, the least common property crime recorded in the UCR. Criminal Typology Criminals who illegally take wildlife, commonly called “poachers,” can vary greatly in their backgrounds (Musgrave et al.). However, it is possible to draw some broad generalizations about this group of individuals. First, as most wildlife and wildlife habitat is found in rural areas, many poachers also operate in relatively remote locations (Eliason, 2010). Many poachers tend to be white, likely reflecting the general rural population in the United States (Crow, Shelley, & Stretesky, 2013). However, when minorities are cited, it is usually for fishing violations, perhaps because rivers and other habitat for fish are often located near large cities where higher concentrations of minorities are, as opposed to the prime habitat of land animals, which is likely to be some distance away from urban and suburban sprawl (Crow et al.). The vast majority of poachers are overwhelmingly male, however, like minorities, females are more likely to be cited for fishing violations as opposed to hunting violations (Crow et al.). Additionally, while females may rarely be directly responsible for the illegal killing of terrestrial wildlife, anecdotal evidence from state wildlife officers suggests it is not uncommon for females to be accomplices to poaching crimes committed by a male family member or friend (Hower, 2020). Additionally, many, but not all, poachers are relatively young, with some suggesting that many poachers are in their 20s, with the average age of a poacher being 36 (Crow et al., 2013). Overview of Theories Social disorganization theory, as developed by Shaw and McKay, centers around three primary factors – poverty, high population mobility, and ethnic heterogeneity – and it was theorized that when these factors come together, crime is more likely to occur (Class

Notes, 2021). Also key to social disorganization was the idea that weak social relationships with friends and particularly family also played a major role in leading to criminal actions, as without a strong social network, there were few external factors holding these individuals back from doing what they wanted to do (Williams & McShane, 2014). Differential association, a theory developed by Edwin Sutherland, centers around eight key points. First is that criminal behavior is learned, while the second states that learning takes place through association with others. Third, learning is most likely to occur within groups of people the individual has ties to. Fourth, techniques and values are learned related to a particular behavior. Fifth, learned values may be opposite to those encouraged by the law. Sixth, crime is committed when the “weight” of criminal values “outweighs” those of the law. Seventh, the more groups or cultures there are the more likely an individual may learn criminal values. Lastly, some groups have more values conducive to criminality than other groups (Williams & McShane). Additionally, Sutherland saw relationships, criminal or non-criminal, varying along four primary dimensions, namely frequency (how often a person is around another individual), duration (how long the relationship has existed), intensity (how much a person has invested in a relationship), and priority (how important the relationship is) (Class Notes, 2021). Strain theory, developed by Robert Merton, focused on society’s pressure for individuals to achieve society’s goals, such as having a “successful life” (Williams & McShane, 2014). Merton saw deviance as resulting from an individual not holding society’s goals, or not having the means to achieve those goals, or both (Williams & McShane). If there is no positively valued stimuli, and there is the presence of a negatively valued stimuli, crime is likely to occur (Class Notes, 2021). Based on this idea, Merton developed several types of adaptions to strain (Williams & McShane, 2014). The conforming individual internalizes society’s goals and also has the means to achieve these goals. The innovator agrees with society’s goals, but does not have the means to achieve those goals, and so “innovates,” sometimes through illegal means, to reach those goals. The person who is ritualistic does not share society’s goals, but does have the means to achieve goals, but focuses on the means instead of any significant goal. The retreatist possesses neither society’s goals or the means to achieve those goals, and accordingly withdraws in large part from society. Finally, the rebellious person substitutes society’s goals with their own goals, and replaces legal means with their own means. This usually leads to direct conflict to society and its laws, and their behavior is often criminal (Williams & McShane). 53

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Social bond theory, created by Travis Hirschi, saw crime as the actions of self-interested individuals who had little to no restraint from institutions or personal connections to society (Williams & McShane, 2014). The four elements Hirschi saw as restraining selfinterested behavior include attachment (sensitivity to the opinions of others), involvement (time-consuming activities), commitment (investment in society), and belief (respect for the authority of the law). In sum, if any of these elements are weakened or non-existent, crime is much more likely to occur, as there is little reason for an individual to control their desire to commit self-interested actions. Rational choice theory, developed in part by Derek Cornish and Ronald Clarke, saw crime through the lens of hedonistic rationality, where the criminal commits crime to satisfy a desire, and makes a decision to do so based on several factors, including opportunity, costs, and benefits (Williams & McShane, 2014). According to rational choice theory, there are two different types of decisions: involvement and event (Williams & McShane). Involvement decisions are decisions made to begin committing a criminal act, continue with the offense, or withdraw from committing the act. Meanwhile, event decisions, made by a cost/benefit approach, are directly related to the tactics involved in carrying out an offense, and whether the benefits of a particular tactic outweigh the risks. Routine activities theory, formulated by Larry Cohen and Marcus Felson, focused on how social interactions, lifestyles, and daily patterns can influence crime (Williams & McShane, 2014). The theory states that there are three factors that play into the commission of a crime, namely, the presence of a motivated offender, a suitable target, and the absence of capable guardianship. All three of these factors must come together in time and space in order for a crime to occur. Life course theory, developed by Robert Sampson and John Laub, stated that crime could be linked to trajectories (life stages) and transitions (shifts into different life stages) throughout life, particularly that poor transitions could lead to criminal trajectories (Williams & McShane, 2014). Also part of the theory was the idea of “social capital,” meaning the better the quality of relationships, the less likely an individual was to commit crime, or vice versa (Williams & McShane). Terrie Moffitt expanded on this basic idea, and she saw criminals as being of two types: life course persistent (LCP) and adolescent limited (AL) (Moffitt, 1993). The LCP offender was believed to have neurological deficits, especially disabilities that slowed or stopped mental development, particularly in the early stages of human growth. These deficits led to consistent sub-par performance, socially and otherwise, compared to their peers, and also led to improper or illegal behavior, 54

which generally persisted for the majority of their lives (Moffitt). Meanwhile AL offenders committed offenses during a relatively narrow time window – usually from their mid-teens to mid-twenties – and then desisted from crime and led a relatively “normal” life afterwards. Application of Theories Although difficult to determine based on available research, the connection between social disorganization and wildlife poaching would appear to be rather weak (Williams & McShane, 2014). Two of the three main points of social disorganization theory – racial heterogeneity and high population mobility – are not traditionally associated with rural areas, where most poaching takes place. It is well known that many rural areas are, from a racial perspective, very white (Lichter & Johnson, 2020). The term “high population mobility” brings the idea of a high “turn over” rate of residents in an area. However, while many rural areas are seeing an exodus of residents, there is not a comparable amount of people moving into these areas to replace them, meaning there is not much of a turn over (Lichter & Johnson). The one point of social disorganization that may carry some weight is poverty, as some studies suggest that poaching is more likely to occur in areas with poor economies, and that poachers may be 30 times more likely to be unemployed than the average legal hunter (Musgrave et. al., 1993). Research on the connections between weak family ties and poaching is apparently absent, although the majority of anecdotal evidence from state wildlife officers seems to indicate that many poachers appear to have substantial bonds with their families, which would invalidate this point of social disorganization theory (Wasserman, 2014). However, differential association theory does appear to be useful in understanding wildlife crime. Differential association posits that crime is the result of learning values and techniques favorable to crime, and that an individual’s preferential association with those close to them sometimes facilitates learning criminal behavior and values, which leads to committing crime if those values outweigh the values of conventional society (Williams & McShane, 2014). In one qualitative study of poachers in Louisiana, the researchers found that each poacher in their sample claimed to have been introduced to wildlife crime by a family member, especially a father or grandfather, who modeled the behavior for them (Forsyth & Marckese, 1993). Additionally, in all cases, family members supported their illegal activities, and many times participated in these crimes with them (Forsyth & Marckese). This demonstrates the preferential association poachers had with individuals close to them, similar to what is

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postulated by differential association, and backs up the idea that family can have a large impact on learning values and techniques favorable to committing a crime, even when the general community may disapprove of it. Strain theory can also be easily applied to the crime of poaching. As discussed earlier, strain theory finds crime to usually be the result of the inability or the unwillingness to reach conventional society’s goals in a legal fashion (the innovator), or perhaps the individual does not hold society’s goals at all (the rebel) (Williams & McShane, 2014). Those involved in taking wildlife, particularly terrestrial wildlife, oftentimes set a goal of taking a particularly large animal or one that exhibits some other exceptional or unique quality, and doing so and displaying parts such as antlers or skins is important for “bragging rights” (Eliason, 2010). Even without the aid of research, it could be said that simply harvesting any animal during a hunting season would likely be an important goal. However, the legal means of doing this are restricted through laws and regulations, as state wildlife agencies and many in the general community put a high priority on managing wildlife in a sustainable fashion, which is another societal goal. Yet, there are some who do not share this goal of sustainable wildlife populations, or at least disagree with the specific population goals and related limitations set by wildlife agencies, and so “rebel” against the law and act by their own goals, and usually through their own means, and take wildlife illegally (Musgrave et al., 1993). There are also those who may share society’s goals, particularly those of harvesting an animal, especially a “trophy,” but in order to make sure they achieve those goals, they use illegal and “innovative” means, such as night hunting and baiting (Musgrave et al.). Most of social bond theory can also be applied to the crime of poaching. As summarized earlier, there are four primary elements of the social bond: attachment, involvement, commitment, and belief (Williams & McShane, 2014). Obviously, poachers are breaking the law, so they apparently have little belief in it or respect for its authority. Some studies indicate that poachers are very likely to be unemployed or even on disability pay, suggesting they may have a relatively weak level of involvement and perhaps commitment to society, at least in the form of employment (Musgrave et al., 1993). The one element of social bond theory that is difficult to gauge in poachers is attachment, as their victims are not directly other humans, so it is difficult to say generally whether or not they are sensitive to the opinions of others. Obviously they are not respecting the opinions of society at large, but they are often sensitive to the opinions of their family and in some cases, sub-culture (Forsyth & Marckese, 1993).

Accordingly, attachment may be the primary exception to the four elements of social bond theory when applied to poaching. Rational choice theory posits that crime occurs when a criminal wants to satisfy a desire and makes involvement and event decisions to do so based on several factors, including opportunity, costs, and benefits (Williams & McShane, 2014). These concepts can easily be applied to the crime of poaching, as opportunity to commit a wildlife crime can be nearly anywhere in a rural area (Eliason, 2010). Furthermore, poachers clearly make cost/benefit analyses when considering a crime, as they make event decisions by choosing to use “sneaky” tactics, such as using rifles with silencers or archery equipment, and they often look for wildlife in remote locations where they are least likely to be spotted, all of which decreases potential “costs” (Forsyth, 2008). It could also be said that involvement decisions to persist in crime are made if they believe they have not been detected, or a decision to desist is made if law enforcement appears (Forsyth & Marckese, 1993). While relatively similar to rational choice theory, routine activities theory, out of all the theories reviewed in this paper, probably fits the best with the crime of poaching. Routine activities theory finds crime to occur at the intersection of a motivated offender, a suitable target, and the lack of a capable guardian (Williams & McShane, 2014). Obviously, there are some individuals who are motivated to harvest a wild animal, whether it is for “bragging rights” or even for financial gain, and they are willing to break the law to do so (Eliason, 2010). Because poaching often occurs in rural and accordingly relatively isolated areas, there is rarely the presence of a capable guardian, whether that is a law enforcement officer or a member of the general public (Eliason). Furthermore, studies indicate that poaching frequently occurs on private lands, where other individuals, including law enforcement officers, are not allowed to go under normal circumstances (Eliason). A suitable target, due to the high mobility of wildlife, could literally be anywhere in a rural area, although the much sought after “trophy” animals are often found on private property (Eliason). Based on this information, and according to routine activities theory, when a “poaching-minded” individual comes across a large animal in an isolated setting, especially on private property, a poaching event is likely to occur. Life course theory is extremely difficult to link to poaching due to the lack of in-depth research on the topic, especially as it pertains to social relationships and how poaching events line up with different life stages, and particularly, transitions between those trajectories (Williams & McShane, 2014). However, it has already been established that the great majority of poachers

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tend to be on the younger side, with some studies suggesting they are mostly in their 20s, with the average age being in the mid-30s (Crow et al., 2012). This lines up relatively well with Moffitt’s life course persistent/adolescent limited theory, where the majority of crime is committed by younger individuals, with a few persistent criminals likely driving up the average age to the mid-30s (1993). Of course, other factors, such as ease of mobility, may also play into this finding, but it would only make sense that wildlife criminals would also exhibit some of the same characteristics of street criminals. Conclusion In summary, this paper broadly looked at the crime of the illegal take of wildlife, otherwise known as poaching, through the lens of theory, particularly from the perspective of social disorganization, differential association, strain, social bond, rational choice, routine activity, and life course theories. As might be expected, some theories fit better than others. Differential association, strain, social bond, rational choice, and routine activities theories seemed relevant to the crime of poaching, while the applicability of social disorganization appeared rather dubious. Much of life course theory was deemed impossible to apply due to its very specific concepts of “trajectories” and “transitions” as this theory does not appear to be represented in academic literature on the subject, and it is seemingly impossible to draw generalizations from anecdotal accounts which are mostly “snapshots” in time of particular incidents. However, Moffitt’s life course persistent/ adolescent limited view of crime from the perspective of life course theory seemed to be at least somewhat supported by the available evidence (1993). Like other forms of crime, wildlife crime has occurred ever since laws on the subject have existed, and violations will almost certainly occur into the future. While I do not believe that the illegal take of wildlife can be totally prevented, I do think that there are steps

that can be taken that have the potential to limit the frequency of this type of crime, most of which revolve around increasing guardianship. Based on the guardianship idea of routine activities theories, I believe that further engaging the general public and raising awareness of the dangers, illegality, and unfairness of this type of crime will likely result in the public taking more guardianship of their local wildlife populations, which could lead to increased reporting of potential poaching incidents to authorities. Over time, this may change the perception of low wildlife guardianship in certain areas, and could reduce the desirability of poaching in that area, in this way increasing the potential “costs,” as postulated in rational choice theory. Another step that could be taken is to ensure that wildlife enforcement divisions are consistently at full complement, or perhaps even increasing that complement, so there are more wildlife officers around giving the impression of increased guardianship of wildlife resources, and again increasing the potential cost of committing a wildlife crime. Creating new educational programs in schools, or continuing current ones, which emphasize the importance of protecting wildlife and respecting the laws that are formed for this purpose, may help decrease the numbers of young, seemingly adolescent-limited offenders that appear to make up a majority of poachers. Whatever steps are taken to combat the illegal take of wildlife, it must be kept in mind that the reasons for poaching are manifold and complex, and that there is no “magic bullet” solution to the problem. In fact, some of the underlying reasons for poaching, such as association with criminal family members and poverty, are nearly impossible to “fix.” However, if we are to continue to manage wildlife in a sustainable fashion, the related laws must continue to be enforced, and through further research and understanding the problem from various theoretical perspectives, perhaps the effectiveness of enforcement and crime prevention methods can be increased.

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References Crow, M., Shelley, T., & Stretesky, P. (2013). Camouflagecollar crime: an examination of wildlife crime and characteristics of offenders in florida. Deviant Behavior, 34(8), 635–652. https://doi.org/10.1080/01639625.2 012.759049 Eliason, S. (2010). Trophy poaching: a routine activities perspective. Deviant Behavior, 33(1), 72–87. https:// doi.org/10.1080/01639625.2010.548289 Forsyth, C. J. (2008). The game of wardens and poachers. Southern Rural Sociology, 23(2), 43- 53. Forsyth, C. J., & Marckese, T. A. (1993). Thrills and skills: sociological analysis of poaching. Deviant Behavior, 14(2), 157-172. Hower, S. (2020). Shots in the dark: memories and musings of a retired game warden. Masthof Press. Lichter, D. T., & Johnson, K. M. (2020). A demographic lifeline? immigration and hispanic population growth in rural america. Population Research and Policy Review, 39(5), 785- 803. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/ s11113-020-09605-8 Moffitt, T. E. (1993). Adolescence-limited and life-coursepersistent antisocial behavior: a developmental taxonomy. Psychological Review, 100(4), 674-701.

Musgrave, R. S., Parker, S., & Wolok M. (1993). The status of poaching in the united states - are we protecting our wildlife? Natural Resources Journal, 33(4), 977-1014. https://digitalrepository.unm.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi? article=1862&context=nrj&httpsredir=1&referer= Pennsylvania Game Commission. Fiscal 2019-20 annual report. Media & Reports & Surveys. Retrieved on November 18, 2021 from https://www.pgc.pa.gov/ InformationResources/ MediaReportsSurveys/Documents/2020%20PGC%20 Annual%20Legislative %20Report.pdf Uniform Crime Reports. (2019). Crime in the united states by region, geographic division, and state. https://ucr. fbi.gov/crime-in-the-u.s/2019/crime-in-the-u.s.-2019/ topic- pages/tables/table-4 United States Census Bureau. (2020). Quick Facts: Pennsylvania. https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/fact/ table/PA,US/PST045219 Wasserman, W. (2014). Track of the poacher. Penn’s Woods Publications. Williams, F. P. & McShane, M. D. (2014). Criminological theory. Pearson.

Student Reflection: I wrote this paper to satisfy the term paper requirement in Dr. Koller's CRJ 309 Theories of Crime and Crime Control class. I chose the topic of the illegal take of wildlife partially because it is a unique subject and partially because of my interest in wildlife crime and my career goal to become a state game warden in Pennsylvania. For my research, I primarily used ProQuest and Google Scholar to look for appropriate scholarly articles, and partially because of the apparent scarcity of related scholarly articles, I supplemented that information with books written by retired state game wardens. Because the class I was writing the term paper for focused on theories about crime and crime control, I looked at the crime of the illegal take of wildlife through the lens of the multiple theories taught in Dr. Koller's class, and how those theories did or did not apply, and what can be learned about the illegal take of wildlife and those who commit those crimes from the perspective of theory.

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How LGBTQ Community is affected by the Justice System and Victimization by Nicholas Keith CRJ 310: Research Methods Dr. Carlos E. Rojas-Gaona Assignment: Students had to write a literature review of a criminal justice topic of their choice. In this assignment, students conveyed to the reader what research knowledge and ideas have been established on the topic, and what their strengths and weaknesses are. The literature reviews were defined by a guiding concept (e.g., research objective, the problem or issue discussed, or argumentative thesis). The purpose of the assignment was to enhance students’ research, writing, and critical analysis skills.

Abstract As the LGBTQ+ community takes America by storm, they have been attempting to attain equality and equity amongst society and population of America. Throughout their efforts, many have agreed with their perspective of wanting to be treated equally. However, it seems to be that much more of the population are against this community than are in support of their ideals or values. Over the years, the LGBTQ+ community has been victimized and mistreated by the justice system. This literature review will examine the ways the LGBTQ+ community is disproportionality victimized in crimes and the effects that these crimes have on an individual. Additionally, this literature review will examine the ways the justice system (police, legal system, etc.) are placing preconceived notions on people within that community and how these notions affect the LGBTQ+ community. Lastly, this review will touch on the best methods that the criminal justice system can enact to gain the trust of the community. Introduction Background In the United States, discrimination is buried deep within the roots of our history. It seems as though if anyone is not listed as one of the majorities, they are looked at as inferior and even targeted by those who fall into the majority. This same scenario is exemplified when analyzing the discrimination against the members of the LGBTQ+ community. To combat these discriminatory views, the LGBTQ+ community have held civil rights movements. According to Britannica Digital Learning (2020), starting in the 1960s, the LGBTQ+ community within America has become increasingly prevalent in the culture of America. With 58

the massive population increase of the LGBTQ+ community members and people outside of the LGBTQ+ community taking notice, their battles are now pushed into the forefront of America’s culture. Setbacks from the 1990s required members to continue their progress into the 2000s. To this day, people within the community are still advocating for equality due to the prejudice and injustice that they deal with. From a criminal justice perspective, the disparities that the LGBTQ+ members face compared to people who are not a part of the community are absolutely unacceptable. Statement of the Problem Specifically from a criminal justice standpoint, people within the LGBTQ+ community are being victimized and are unjustly treated by many practitioners within the field itself; specifically by police and the legal system. Across America, the LGBTQ+ community is being disproportionately chosen to be victims against crimes. This high victimization leads to many negative factors, including the increased tension between the law enforcement and members of the LGBTQ+ community. These issues need to be resolved due to the fact that the criminal justice system is intended to be equal for all. Justification for Study Due to the victimization that is occurring against the LGBTQ+ community and the discriminatory actions that are done by the criminal justice system, the LGBTQ+ members are still experiencing unequal treatment that they have tried to diminish for an eternity. In the attempt to empathize and understand what they would want from the criminal justice field, society must first understand the trials and factors that they are facing within the perspective of the criminal justice field.

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Research Question There are three main questions that this literature review will attempt to answer. The first question is when victimization occurs and the effects of being victimized on the LGBTQ+ community. Secondly, this review will ask, how are the LGBTQ+ community members’ perspectives on the procedural and justice system impacted? Lastly, my review will ask, what is the most effective method police can undergo to support the LGBTQ+ community? Literature Review Victimization experiences can start at a very young age, typically beginning in school by fellow youths and classmates, and can even be victimized by teachers and administrators. In the 2009 National School Climate Survey, they found that 84.6% of LGBTQ+ students were, “…verbally harassed (e.g., called names or threatened), 40.1 percent were physically harassed (e.g., pushed or shoved), and 18.8 percent were physically assaulted (e.g., punched, kicked, injured with a weapon) at school because of their sexual orientation” (Kosciw et al. 2010). Additionally, it was found that students who were in the LGBTQ+ community are 1.7 times more likely to report being, “…threatened or injured with weapons or otherwise assaulted…” and LGBTQ+ members are “…more likely to face harsh disciplinary actions, including expulsion, from school administrators” (Himmelstein and Brückner 2011; Morgan et al. 2014). With LGBTQ+ community members being victimized in places that are intended to be safe and free of judgment, the members are exposed to discriminatory views at an extremely young age by people who are supposed to be influential leaders in their lives. With the lack of support and protection that the LGBTQ+ community members receive, they are left to fight and advocate for themselves and by themselves. Being a victim of a crime is already stressful as it is. The main crime that the LGBTQ+ community members experience are hate crimes. Perry defines these types of crime as being, “…committed against individuals or groups or their property (destruction and theft) because of their race, ethnicity, religion, national origin, disability, sexually orientation” (Perry, 2008, p. 257). According to the Uniform Crime Report, in 2020 alone, there were 8,263 hate crime incidents involving 11,129 offenses. Of those cases, 20% (approximately 1,652) of them were based on the victim’s sexual orientation (UCR, 2020). With the definition of hate crime stated, LGBTQ+ members experience crimes by offenders who purposefully commit a crime solely based on one’s sexual orientation. A study conducted specifically on 593 lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender people within the United Kingdom examined the effects of direct (experiencing a hate crime)

and indirect hate crimes (hearing a hate crime through another individual) using emotional reactions and behavioral intent. Of the 593 people within the study, 59 of them were transgender and the remaining 534 of them were non-transgender LGBTQ+ members. Before the study, the LGBTQ+ members were asked if they ever experienced direct hate crimes; these can be physical assaults, assaults with weapons, verbal abuse, and online abuse. It was found that transgender people were significantly more likely than non-trans LGBTQ+ members to experience a direct hate crime. 85% of the 59 transgender people experienced verbal abuse, 52.5% experienced online abuse, 12% experienced vandalism, 29% experienced assault, and 12% experienced assault with a weapon. Though the sample size of transgender people is much smaller (59 members) compared to the 534 non-transgender members, the percentages show that the chance of experiencing a hate crime directly is much higher. As the members of the study were asked about their experience with direct and indirect hate crimes, they were asked about their emotional reaction based on the event. The emotions were categorized as threats, vulnerability, anxiety, shame, and anger; these were scaled from 1 to 7, with 7 being the highest level of reaction. As the study proceeded, the subjects were given hypothetical hate crime scenarios to be able to depict how they would feel if they did indeed experience a hate crime. The prompt was, “…imagine that you find out that a LGBT person, who you did not personally know, was physically assaulted in an anti-LGBT hate crime in the town where you live” (Walters et al. 2020). The subjects were then told to give an example of an emotion that they would believe that they would express if they were in that fake scenario. After hearing the scenario, researchers believe that those, “…behavioral intentions have been shown to be a significant predictor of actual behaviors…” (Walters et al. 2020). The predicted behaviors had four responses, pro-action, improve security, avoidance, and retaliation. Both transgender and non-transgender LGBTQ+ members have similar responses to each other. It seems to be that both transgender and non-transgender LGBTQ+ members seem to favor pro-action and do not want to use violence as a behavioral retaliation. Out of the list that was mentioned above, LGBTQ+ members are likely to feel angry, undergo anxiety, and become vulnerable. The emotional response may on heighten the chance of the LGBTQ+ members to experience victimization due to their emotions and reactions being more timid than aggressive. After experiencing a crime that lacks a proper solution, a member of the LGBTQ+ may develop a prejudiced view of the justice system (police and legal system) due to their previous experiences of victimization and the effects of being a victim. This 59

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long-standing battle for equality is being hindered by the LGBTQ+ community due to their perceptions and their emotions towards the police and their willingness to help. This seems to be justified by the previously mentioned victimization and the lack of justice that is brought to those who discriminate and commit hate crimes against the LGBTQ+ community. The relationship has been extremely turbulent, to say the least. The biggest factor that influences LGBTQ+ perspective on the police is through procedural justice. Procedural justice can be defined as, “…how people perceive treatment in these interactions, including, for example, the decision-making processes used by the police” (Hinds & Murphy, 2007; Tyler, 2006). Within the procedure done by the police, the legitimacy of the police is also influenced by their actual process of conducting the interaction with the LGBTQ+ member, the level of fairness that is perceived by the LGBTQ+ member, respect by the officer, and other factors that are between the LGBTQ+ (the victim) and the officer. Due to these interactions being negative and influencing the legitimacy felt by the LGBTQ+ member, the LGBTQ+ member themselves feel as though they need to appear straight to appeal to the police officer. Nadal and their colleagues have hypothesized that the methods done by the police are often affected by the presentation of one’s gender, “Gay men reported a need to appear more masculine in order to not be mistreated or harassed, while lesbian, bisexual, and queer women described how appearing more feminine allowed them to “pass” or not receive any negative treatment” (Nadal et al., 2015, p.476). In addition to appearing an opposite way, people within the LGBTQ+ community have their procedural justice influenced by one’s age and gender as well. Due to police being mainly a male-dominant profession, women and LGTBQ+ members are prone to seeing the criminal procedure differently than males do. The high population of males within this profession creates a sense of hypermasculinity. With hypermasculinity, there becomes a heightened importance of heterosexuality and women and LGTBQ+ members who lack the masculine trait are looked at as inferior. According to Dario, “Researchers have found that police misconduct against women includes the unnecessary use of physical force, dismissal of crime reports filed by women, failure to appropriately investigate intimate partner violence and sexual assault cases, and sexual assault” (Dario et al. 2020) It is also noted, that due to the “hypermasculinity” of the police officers and their field, they tend to act with “hostility, discourtesy, stereotypes, and harassment of women by police officers” (Dario et al. 2020) and “Pervasive heterosexism and homophobia within policing organizations contributes to many officers opposing LGBT rights” (Bernstein, Kostelac, & Gaarder, 2003). 60

A study to further the knowledge of procedural justice perceptions of the law enforcement within minority communities such as the LGBTQ+ community was conducted. This study featured people who self-identified as members of the LGBTQ+ community and consented to receive a survey that asked them about their perspective on the police. The results of this study were to be expected. The survey revealed that establishing procedural justice and legitimacy are both influenced positively. Additionally, through this study, it adds through empirical data that, “… law enforcement agencies improve understanding of, tolerance toward, and sensitivity to the LGBT community.” (President’s Task Force on 21st Century Policing, 2015) Also, this study found that “…LGBT people reported significantly lower perceived levels of police legitimacy than their non-LGBT counterparts, suggesting that like their Australian law enforcement counterparts, police in the United States—at least in Arizona—still have much work to do to improve their relationship with the diverse members of LGBT communities” (Dario et al. 2020). With the LGBTQ+ community believing that the procedure done by the police is illegitimate and has the possibility to become prejudiced, they are less likely to desire the need for the involvement of the police and the legal system. Although historically, there have been hostilities between the LGBTQ+ community and the procedures done by the police, with the high victimization of the community members, it is apparent that they will require police in their community. However, the methods that the police practice may need to be adapted to their wants and needs in order for it to be effective. In order for this harmony to be a reality, Dwyer suggests that police go through specified training for LGBTQ+ members, “This training is developed and facilitated by an LGBTQ community organization based in the state that I work in, and I sit in on the training as an ‘expert’ who can translate the discussion in terms of its relevance to operational policing work” (2019). With the addition of a better understanding of the culture and community itself, it can definitely ease the tension that officers or LGBTQ+ members may encounter with interacting with one another. Dwyer believes that if these discomforts diminish, then maybe this will also diminish the disparity between the LGBTQ community and the police. As LGBTQ+ members feel comfort from the police, a staple in society, then possibly they may feel a decrease in hostility from members in society who do not agree with the lifestyle of those within the LGBTQ+ community. However, data is lacking from this method of policing to aid the LGBTQ+ community due to the practice being relatively new.

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Conclusion In conclusion, as LGBTQ+ members face factors that are preconceived with prejudice and discrimination alone, they are only fighting an uphill battle. With the high rate of victimization that begins at such a young age, they are battling and advocating by themselves from the beginning. The change begins inside our schools to enact policies that protect those who do not fall under that majority and therefore place positive outlooks on those in the LGBTQ+ community

and also protect them and allow them to be their true selves. The positive experience in school for example, would then fall into a positive outlook on people who are not within the LGBTQ+ community. This majority could be police officers, people in the legal field legal field, and even politicians in state and federal legislations. With their support, it only adds to the trust, respect, and legitimacy that they’ll have between each other and we as a society may finally live-in harmony together.

References Britannica Digital Learning. (2020). LGBTQ History and Current Issues: Vol. First edition. Britannica Digital Learning. Dario, L. M., Fradella, H. F., Verhagen, M., & Parry, M. M. (2020). Assessing LGBT People’s Perceptions of Police Legitimacy. Journal of Homosexuality, 7, 885. Duncan, D. T., & Hatzenbuehler, M. L. (2014). Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender Hate Crimes and Suicidality Among a Population-Based Sample of Sexual-Minority Adolescents in Boston. American Journal of Public Health, 104(2), 272–278. https://doi. org/10.2105/AJPH.2013.301424 Dwyer, A. (2019). Queering policing: what is best practice with LGBTQ communities? Current Issues in Criminal Justice, 31(3), 383–398. https://doi.org/10.1080/10345 329.2019.1640172 Feddes, A. R., & Jonas, K. J. (2020). Associations between Dutch LGBT hate crime experience, wellbeing, trust in the police and future hate crime reporting. Social Psychology, 51(3), 171–182. https:// doi.org/10.1027/1864-9335/a000409 Hate crime statistics. The United States Department of Justice. (2021, October 29). Retrieved November 16, 2021, from https://www.justice.gov/hatecrimes/ hate-crime-statistics. Himmelstein, Kathryn E.W., and Hannah Brückner. 2011. “Criminal Justice and School Sanctions Against Nonheterosexual Youth: A National Longitudinal Study.” Pediatrics 127(1):49–57.

Hinds, L., & Murphy, K. (2007). Public satisfaction with police: Using procedural justice to improve police legitimacy. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Criminology, 40, 27–42. doi:10.1375/acri.40.1.27 Kosciw, Joseph G., Emily A. Greytak, Elizabeth M. Diaz, and Mark J. Bartkiewicz. 2010. The 2009 National School Climate Survey: The Experience of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender Youth in Our Nation’s Schools. New York, N.Y.: GLSEN (the Gay, Lesbian, and Straight Education Network). LGBTQ youths in the juvenile justice system. (2014). Last update: August 2014. Nadal, K. L., Quintanilla, A., Goswick, A., & Sriken, J. (2015). Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and queer people’s perceptions of the criminal justice system: Implications for social services. Journal of Gay & Lesbian Social Services: The Quarterly Journal of Community & Clinical Practice, 27, 457-481. Perry, Barbara. 2008. Silent Victims: Hate Crimes Against Native Americans. Tucson: University of Arizona Press President’s Task Force on 21st Century Policing. (2015). Final Report of the President’s Task Force on 21st Century Policing. Washington, DC: Office of Community Oriented Policing Services. Walters, M. A., Paterson, J., Brown, R., & McDonnell, L. (2020). Hate Crimes Against Trans People: Assessing Emotions, Behaviors, and Attitudes Toward Criminal Justice Agencies. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 35(21/22), 4583–4613. https://doi. org/10.1177/0886260517715026

Student Reflection: Coming from an extremely small town, I had little to no experience with minority groups of any kind. While attending college, I have challenged myself to gain new perspectives in order to better myself as a human being. With that being said, before writing this paper, I was conscious of the disparities that the LGBTQ+ community has had with the entire Criminal Justice system and I wanted to learn much more about it. As a future criminal justice practitioner, I feel as though we must be exposed to areas that make us gain new perspectives and understand disparities that may occur in our profession. This can allow many within the criminal justice world to understand how to treat those who are different from themselves. Choosing this topic and writing this paper has allowed me to achieve new and profound knowledge that I can carry with me as I graduate and become a practitioner in the criminal justice field. After this paper I will continue my efforts to expand knowledge and gain new perspectives in not only the criminal justice profession, but in my everyday life as well. 61

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Crime Rates Vs. Low Income by Megan Cottingham CRJ 310: Research Methods Dr. Carlos E. Rojas-Gaona Assignment: Students had to write a literature review of a criminal justice topic of their choice. In this assignment, students conveyed to the reader what research knowledge and ideas have been established on the topic, and what their strengths and weaknesses are. The literature reviews were defined by a guiding concept (e.g., research objective, the problem or issue discussed, or argumentative thesis). The purpose of the assignment was to enhance students’ research, writing, and critical analysis skills.

Abstract In this literature review, we look at the correlation between economic status and crime rates. Economic status has been researched and determined to be one of the leading factors to why people commit crimes. This review is meant to focus strictly on how economic status correlates with crime. Considering that crime is categorized into violent and non-violent (property) offenses, we take a look into how economic status, specifically low-income and poverty, impacts the rate at which crimes are committed. A look at crime rates in Philadelphia during 2020 and where these crimes occurred, meaning within low-income areas or not, is also included in this literature review. Keywords: crime, economic status, poverty Introduction Crime is a phenomenon that occurs everywhere you go. All over the world, in the United States, in Pennsylvania, and even in our home cities, crime happens every day. Crime has been an issue for the entire existence of man and probably always will be. There are always new policies that are put in place to try to prevent, deter, and punish criminals in attempt to reduce crime. Implementing programs that prevent and deter crime, and also help rehabilitate offenders, are also key to reducing crimes nationwide and locally in our communities. However, before policies are implemented and programs are created, it is important to understand why crime occurs. Many studies have been conducted to determine the root cause of crime. Economic status, drug use, education level, race, and family structure are all factors that have been studied as reasons why people commit crime. The Uniform Crime Report breaks down crime into two categories. One category is violent crime, and the other is non-violent, or property crime. Violent crimes include homicide, rape, robbery, and 62

aggravated assault. Property crimes include arson, burglary, larceny-theft, and motor vehicle theft (FBI, n.d.). Relatively speaking, a property crime occurs every 4.1 seconds and a violent crime occurs every 24.6 seconds in the United States (FBI, 2018). In this literature review paper, we are going to focus on economic status being a factor of crime. We are going to answer the question, does economic status, specifically low income, correlate with crime rates? Since the 1970s, the state prison population has grown 700% and the average cost per-inmate is $31,286 (Mai & Henrichson, 2017). In 2020, over 37 million people in the United States were living in poverty- meaning they made less money in a year than the average cost of an incarcerated person (Bureau, 2021). If we are able to get a better grasp on why crime occurs, we could reallocate our state and federal resources to mitigate crime before it even takes place instead of using those resources after crimes have already been committed. Review of Literature Many studies have been conducted to try and understand why crime happens. Certain influences of crime, such as biological risk factors and race, cannot be modified. Knowing that certain influences cannot be modified, it is even more important to study modifiable influences of crime and try to find resolutions to these influences. Poverty has been one of the studied modifiable influences of crime, some studies dating back over 80 years. The Cost of Inequality: Metropolitan Structure and Violent Crime researched the correlation between urban criminal violence and differences in racial inequality in socioeconomic conditions (Blau & Blau, 1982). This study researched “why rates of criminal violence differ from place to place or from time to time which involved determining which variations in social conditions are associated with the differences in crime

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rates” (Blau & Blau, 1982). This study compiled prior research and compared the results. A study by Shaw and McKay in 1942 showed a correlation between delinquency rates and poverty, heterogeneity, and mobility. Among these conditions, poverty was found to be the most influential factor. This study also highlighted the attributes that tend to follow povertystricken neighborhoods- such as toughness, smartness, excitement, and fatalism which often consequently bring persons into conflict with the law (Blau & Blau, 1982). This article also focuses on ethnic economic inequality, which is directly related to poverty. Economic inequality is the unequal distribution of income and opportunity between different groups in society. Blau & Blau state that “pronounced ethnic inequality in resources implies that there are great riches within view but not within reach of many people destined to live in poverty” which really drives home that people living in poverty are stuck in this revolving door of resentment, frustration, and hopelessness that then cause social disorganization and disorientation (1982). The research for this article was compiled using metropolitan areas (SMSAs) in the United States along with data from the US Bureau of the Census. The results show that economic income and poverty substantially raise the rate of criminal violence (Blau & Blau, 1982). Another research article was published in 2007 by John Hipp, titled Income inequality, race, and place: Does the distribution of race and class within neighborhoods affect crime rates, studied the effects of neighborhood inequality and heterogeneity on crime rates. This study focuses on how race and class within neighborhoods play a role in neighborhood crime rates (Hipp, 2007). Hipp also focuses on how prior studies have focused on SMSAs and larger areas within a single city whereas he wanted to focus on smaller neighborhoods throughout multiple cities. Focusing on smaller neighborhoods allowed Hipp to generalize his study more. From his research and analysis, Hipp has concluded that “tracts with a higher proportion of residents at or below 125 percent of the poverty level have higher rates of violent crime but are not significantly different for the types of property crime” (2007). His research also shows a positive correlation between increased economic inequality and increased crime rates (Hipp, 2007). The US Department of Housing and Urban Development, also known as HUD, published an article in 2016 focusing on neighborhoods and violent crimes. Data retrieved from the FBI databases helped shape this article. Numbers show that although rates of violent crime have decreased over the past two decades, there is still a disproportionate exposure of crime to people of low economic status (Sackett, 2016).

Sackett introduces hot spots, which are geographically known areas of concentrated violent crime (2016). Sackett’s researched revealed that “neighborhoods with more concentrated disadvantage tend to experience higher levels of violent crimes” (2016). An example from his article is that of neighborhoods with higher poverty rates tend to have higher rates of violent crimes (Sackett, 2016). The article also focuses on how concentrated disadvantage, crime, and imprisonment all interact to cause a perpetuating destabilizing feedback loop (Sackett, 2016). Sackett notes that the link between poverty and crime also plays an indirect role in the lives of neighborhood residents. The residents that are not directly impacted by violent crime can still have lasting effects from those crimes (Sackett, 2016). In 2014, the US Department of Justice published the report Household poverty and nonfatal violent victimization, 2008-2012. This report focuses on the relationship between nonfatal violent victimization and household poverty level as measured by the US Department of Health and Human Services (Harrell, et al., 2014). Retrieving data from the Bureau of Justice Statistics, the report states that “persons in poor households at or below the Federal Poverty Level (FPL) (39.8 per 1,000) had more than double the rate of violent victimization as persons in high-income households (16.9 in 1,000),” (Harrell, et al., 2014). In this article, poor households are those that fall between 0% and 100% of the FPL and low income is referred to as 101% to 200%. The statistics also show that persons in poor households had the highest rate of violence involving a weapon (Harrell, et al., 2014). The Bureau of Justice Statistics obtained this data through survey coverage. The survey was a self-report survey. Research shows that surveys tend to underestimate the data due to willingness to participate, fear, or other factors. With that in mind, these numbers could be even higher. Looking further into the correlation between low-income and crime rates, I used Geographic Information System (GIS) software, ArcGIS Pro, to visually look at where crimes in Philadelphia occurred during 2020. First, I determined the areas in Philadelphia that were considered low-income areas by using data from Data USA to find the average income of every neighborhood in 2019. Many government assistance programs use 101% to 200% above poverty as a guideline to determine low-income. I used 150% over the poverty rate of a three-person household because according to the U.S. Census Bureau, the average household size in Philadelphia in 2019 was 2.55. According to the ASPE, 150% above poverty in a three-person household is $31,995. Therefore, any area with an average income of $31,995 or less is considered a low-income area.

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Using data from Open Philly Data, I was able to map all reported property and violent crimes that occurred in 2020 in Philadelphia. Appendix A displays where all property crimes occurred. Out of all 45,629 property crimes that occurred in 2020, 14,587 occurred in an area that is considered low-income, which is 32%. With these property crime points, I was able to derive a hot spot map, which is displayed in Appendix B. On average, 321 crimes occurred per square mile. The hot spot map shows areas that where higher than the average and shows how much higher than the average they were. In Appendix C, all of the violent crimes that occurred in 2020 are mapped. Out of the 14,860 violent crimes, 7,447 occurred within the low-income areas, which is 50%. Appendix D displays the hot spot map of violent crimes. On average, 105 crimes occurred per square mile. The hot spots show where the intensity of violent crime was higher than average. After looking at all of the research that has been conducted, it appears that there is some correlation between economic status and property crimes, and there is a stronger correlation between economic status and violent crimes. Looking at the crime maps of Philadelphia, we see that there is less correlation between low-income and property crimes. There is visible correlation between violent crimes and lowincome. However, depending on the year or area being observed, the correlation between economic status and crime rates could be different.

References Blau, J. R., & Blau, P. M. (1982). The Cost of Inequality: Metropolitan Structure and Violent Crime. American Sociological Review, 47(1), 114–129. https://doi. org/10.2307/2095046 Bureau, U. S. C. (2021, October 18). Income and poverty in the United States: 2020. Census.gov. Retrieved November 16, 2021, from https://www.census.gov/ library/publications/2021/demo/p60-273.html. FBI. (n.d.). Crime Data. Crime Data Explorer. Retrieved November 16, 2021, from https://crime-data-explorer. app.cloud.gov/pages/explorer/crime/crime-trend. FBI. (2018, September 11). Crime clock. FBI. Retrieved November 16, 2021, from https://ucr.fbi.gov/crimein-the-u.s/2017/crime-in-the-u.s.-2017/topic-pages/ crime-clock. Harrell, E., Langton, L., Berzofsky, M., Couzens, L., & Smiley-McDonald, H. (2014, November). Household poverty and nonfatal violent victimization, 2008 ... Office of Justice Programs. Retrieved November 16, 2021, from https://bjs.ojp.gov/content/pub/pdf/hpnvv0812. pdf. Hipp, J. R. (2007). Income inequality, race, and place: Does the distribution of race and class within neighborhoods affect crime rates? Criminology, 45(3), 665–697. https:// doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.2007.00088.x Mai, C., & Henrichson, C. (2017, May 23). The price of prisons. Vera Institute of Justice. Retrieved November 16, 2021, from https://www.vera.org/publications/ price-of-prisons-what-incarceration-costs-taxpayers. Philadelphia, PA. Data USA. (n.d.). Retrieved November 19, 2021, from https://datausa.io/profile/geo/ philadelphia-pa/#economy. Poverty guidelines. ASPE. (n.d.). Retrieved November 19, 2021, from https://aspe.hhs.gov/topics/ poverty-economic-mobility/poverty-guidelines. Sackett, C. (2016). Neighborhoods and violent crime. Neighborhoods and Violent Crime | HUD USER. Retrieved November 16, 2021, from https://www. huduser.gov/portal/periodicals/em/summer16/ highlight2.html. U.S. Census Bureau quickfacts: Philadelphia County, Pennsylvania. (n.d.). Retrieved November 19, 2021, from https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/fact/table/phila delphiacountypennsylvania,PA/PST045219.

Student Reflection: In this assignment, I was able to use both the knowledge I have gained from my Criminal Justice major and my Geographic Information Systems (GIS) minor. This was a research assignment, so I did a lot of research on how low economic status contributes to crime rates. I was then able to take this assignment even further by using my GIS skills to create maps that visually displayed where the violent crimes and property crimes occurred in the city of Philadelphia in 2020 and how the location of the crimes correlated with low-income areas within the city. Overall, I am very proud of this assignment, and I’m glad Dr. Rojas submitted my work for this opportunity.

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Appendix A

Appendix B

Appendix C

Appendix D

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The Significance of Statistical Accuracy on Police-Involved Shootings and Crisis Intervention Training Programs by Emilly Anderson CRJ 310: Research Methods Dr. Carlos E. Rojas-Gaona Assignment: Students had to write a literature review of a criminal justice topic of their choice. In this assignment, students conveyed to the reader what research knowledge and ideas have been established on the topic, and what their strengths and weaknesses are. The literature reviews were defined by a guiding concept (e.g., research objective, the problem or issue discussed, or argumentative thesis). The purpose of the assignment was to enhance students’ research, writing, and critical analysis skills.

Abstract The importance of accurate data collection by national databases can impact the views of people in the criminal justice system and in communities. Crisis intervention training programs are being developed in the aid of people who suffer from mental illnesses. This analysis discusses the importance of Crisis intervention team (CIT) programs and how having statistical accuracy is crucial for the effective treatment of mentally ill people. Though the majority of police-involved fatalities involve a person who is having a mental crisis, having an accurate collection of data can aid in better allocation of resources to areas of communities that need it the most. CIT training programs have led to a better understanding of mental illnesses and have been shown to decrease the use of force in law enforcement agencies. If there is an underestimation of police-involved altercations that deal with someone who has a mental illness, law enforcement cannot tailor their services to what the community needs. The implication of more accurate data collection and in-depth training may lead to fewer police-involved shootings resulting in fatalities and a stronger relationship between the criminal justice system and its communities. There have not been many studies that have focused on the sources of the rise of fatalities surrounding law enforcement and if there were to be a shift in focus, a decrease in deaths related to law enforcement and stronger ties with the community would be seen.

Introduction Background The rise of crisis intervention team (CIT) training programs began in the early 1980s as law enforcement agencies began to introduce mental-health-oriented training programs for police officers (Lurigio et al., 2008). CIT training is a

highly specific training curriculum that strives to decrease the possibility of injury or death during interactions between people with mental illness (PWMI) and law enforcement officers (Rogers et al., 2019). PWMI are individuals characterized by brain disorders/mental illnesses such as major depressive disorder, bipolar disorder, and schizophrenia. These training programs were specifically focused on violent PWMI and paid little interest to non-violent PWMI who would be in and out of the criminal justice system (Lurigio et al., 2008). Since then, CIT training programs have been adopted by countless law enforcement agencies, not only in the U.S. but worldwide.

Statement of the Problem The underlying issue with CIT training programs and determining their effectiveness is a lack of accurate data collection. In 2018, approximately one thousand people were fatally shot by police officers in the U.S. and roughly twentyfive percent of those people had a mental illness (Rogers et al., 2019). Furthermore, an estimated fifty percent of inmates have at least one mental illness (Frankham, 2018). Paired with only about thirty-one to forty-one percent of all fatal law enforcement encounters being logged in public databases, there is a lack of accurate information available to not only the public but law enforcement agencies (Fuller, 2015).

Justification for Study For PWMI to get proper medical attention when going through psychological turmoil, CIT training programs need to be implemented and used effectively in every police department. If there is a significant lack of information regarding shootings/altercations with PWMI, CIT program effectiveness, and the role of mental illness in fatal police shootings, then there will never be an effective policy in place to help those who cannot help themselves.

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Research Questions In this preliminary study, there is a lot of information needs to be unpacked and sorted through. The focus will be centered on whether CIT training programs are effective in decreasing the probability of violent altercations between PWMI and law enforcement? Furthermore, what role do mental illnesses play in the degree of violence during a police interaction? Lastly, is statistical data regarding the presence of people fatally shot by police with mental illnesses underestimated?

Review of Literature Prior Research To begin, in a study focused on the Effectiveness of Police Crisis Intervention Training Programs, the authors noted that CIT programs are commonly organized by what they call a “tripartite typology” (Rogers et al., 2019). The first characteristics of these programs are specialized police response teams that consist of sworn law enforcement who undergo specific training on how to have controlled interactions with PWMI and this is where CIT training would fall. These officers act as first responders to mental-health-related calls and have close relationships with local mental health services. Second, mental health specialized response centers where employees, who are not sworn police officers, can provide on-site or private consultations and give advice to police officers who are working in the field. Lastly, the third characteristic of CIT programs is specialized mental-health-based responses. This includes independent mental health workers who assist in crisis intervention calls in the field as well as after the fact and this ensures that the treatment for the PWMI is specifically tailored to their needs and they can receive proper treatment (Rogers et al., 2019). In a study conducted by Lurigio et al. (2008), it was determined that mentally ill individuals are four times as likely to be fatally shot by law enforcement than non-mentally ill individuals, and the rate at which mentally-ill persons kill police officers is over five times more than that of non-mentally ill persons. It was further noted that the most dangerous situations that law enforcement officers are involved in are cases dealing with violent domestic partners or PWMI, according to the FBI. What’s more, NYC law enforcement officers are, on average, dispatched every six minutes to respond to calls involving PWMI. Police and law enforcement administrators view crisis intervention calls as time-consuming, burdensome, and difficult (Lurigio et al., 2008). Still, CIT training programs have been used by police departments over the last few decades, though effectiveness may vary. Teller et al. (2006) analyzed dispatch logs of the Akron Police Department in Akron, Ohio two years before a CIT program was implemented, and then four years after. They determined that since the training program was implemented into the department, there has been an increase in the number of calls involving possible PWMI. There was

also an increase in the rate of PWMI being transported to a treatment facility by a CIT-trained officer. Furthermore, there was an increase in voluntary transport of PWMI. It was concluded that CIT collaborations between law enforcement agencies, the mental health system, PWMI, and their families can assist PWMI in receiving adequate treatment (Teller et al., 2006). Recently, there have been a few studies that focus on the impact that mental health can have on the severity and intensity of police altercations. In a study conducted by Frankham (2018), it was discussed how the presence of mental health-related issues are commonly not mentioned when police-involved shootings occur resulting in fatalities. Data collected by the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) through the Uniform Crime Reports (UCR) focus more on socioeconomic status, as well as race and ethnicity in relation to police-involved fatalities (Frankham, 2018). This causes a deficit in information regarding one’s mental stability, thus creating gaps in findings and statistical data. Having these gaps in data creates many difficulties in determining the efficacy of CIT programs and the existence of a mental health crisis in an area. If there is no data being actively collected about the presence or lack of mental health issues in an area, how can police departments, and the criminal justice system overall, tailor their resources to fit the needs of their communities? The last study examined in this review was by Fuller et al. (2015). They discuss how only thirty-one to forty-one percent of all fatal law enforcement encounters are not recorded in national databases. It is noted how public attention has been fixated on the undercounting of police shootings that result in fatalities, but few focus on the fact that this spike has been catalyzed by mental illness. Furthermore, they discuss how there is a sixteen-times greater chance of PWMI being killed during an encounter with law enforcement (Fuller et al., 2015). Then, they discuss the many ways that not only law enforcement, but the entire criminal justice system, should focus on ways to be more effective at aiding the communities they are sworn to protect. Within these studies, there are many areas that are in need of further research and development. To begin, there should be more development systems to record critical details of fatal police shootings. Whether that be a civilian being fatally injured, or an officer, there needs to be an increase in public data showing the complete picture of the event and the psychological and biological factors that may have contributed to someone losing their life. Furthermore, the accurate recording of not only fatalities, but any/all police encounters that resulted in the use of force by law enforcement, are needed in addition to effective mental health treatment. If the criminal justice system truly wants to decrease the amount of PWMI who do not receive proper medical treatment in the hopes of decreasing the amount of police-involved shootings, access to treatment needs to be more readily available and more affordable.

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With all of that in mind, there needs to be an increased understanding of different mental illnesses and the most effective ways to interact with people who have them. Law enforcement can not be expected to know how to handle an encounter with a PWMI that they know nothing about. Giving police officers and law enforcement administrators a more well-rounded understanding of the most prevalent mental illnesses will aid in better treatment and an increase in the willingness of the community to interact with law enforcement. If police are offered more training in police academies and then training every few years as more is discovered about these various conditions, law enforcement will have a more in-depth understanding of the mental challenges that people in their community are facing.

Conclusion In conclusion, the literature available on this topic has many unanswered questions. Are CIT training programs effective in decreasing the chances of violent interactions between PWMI and police officers? This is answered yes and no. With there being some data correlating an increased use of CIT training programs with a decrease in violent interactions, there is still not enough research done in an attempt to replicate the results. There is also no data, available to the public, deciphering the presence of mental illness in police-involved fatalities. Next, mental illnesses play a part in the severity or intensity of violence used during interactions with law enforcement in the sense that most police officers do not possess the knowledge on the most common mental illnesses and how to interact with the people who have them. Lastly, there is significant evidence that does support the idea that statistical data in regards to police-involved fatalities of PWMI is underestimated. If the criminal justice system strives to have the best of communities in mind, it is thought that accurate and detailed information would be recorded and released so law enforcement officials could allocate their resources most effectively.

References Frankham, E. (2018). Mental illness affects police fatal shootings. American Sociological Association, 17(2), 70-72. file:///media/fuse/ drivefs ccfc73869e7039e2fca3335aff48e174/ root/Fall %202021/CRJ%20310/LR/ mentalillnessaffectspolicefatalshootings.pdf. Fuller, D.A., Lamb, H.R., Biasotti, M., & Snook, J. (2015). Overlooked in the undercounted: The role of mental illness in fatal law enforcement encounters. Treatment Advocacy Center, 1-13. file :///media/fuse/drivefs-ccfc 73869e7039e2fca3335aff48e174/root/Fall%202021/ CRJ%20310/LR/overlooked-in-the-undercounted.pdf. Lurigio, A.J., Smith, A., & Harris A. (2008). The challenge of responding to people with mental illness: Police officer training and special programmes. The Police Journal, 81, 295-322. file:/// media/fuse/drivefs-cc fc73869e7039e2fca3335aff48e174/root/Fall%20 2021/CRJ%20310/LR/the%20challenge%20of%20 repsoning%20to.pdf. Rogers, M. S., McNiel, D. E., & Binder, R. L. (2019). Effectiveness of police crisis intervention training programs. The Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law, 47(4), 1-8. file:/// media/fuse/drivefs-ccfc73869e7039e2fca3335a ff48e174/root/Fall%202021/CRJ%2 0310/LR/ effectivenessofpolicecrisisinterventiontraining.pdf. Teller, J. L. S., Munetz, M. R., Gil, K. M., & Ritter, C. (2006). Crisis intervention team training for police officers responding to mental disturbance calls. Psychiatric Services, 57(2), 232-237. file:/// media/fuse/drivefs-ccfc73869e7039e2fca3335a ff48e174/root/Fall%202021/CRJ%20310/LR/ crisisinterventiontraining.pdf.

Student Reflection: When I started this assignment, my focus was on CIP programs and their potential effects on police-involved shootings. After spending over a month extensively researching the impacts that mental health has on the severity and likelihood of police-involved shootings, I found little to no empirical data regarding the mental health of victims/ offenders involved in police-involved shootings. My topic for this paper means a lot to me and I did not want to choose a different topic. Instead of placing my focus on the content that I was able to uncover, I focused on the significant lack of data instead. Overall, my hope is to call attention to an area of research that is marginally neglected by federal databases and is not heavily trained on in law enforcement and correctional settings. I enjoyed writing this assignment and the opportunity that has come out of it to shed light on a research area that is often overlooked.

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Wrongful Convictions: Why They Happen and What We Can Do to Stop Them by Hunter Piper CRJ 452: Race, Ethnicity, and Crime Dr. Arelys Madero Assignment: This paper is a synthesis of the published literature on a selected topic. You will read, analyze, and summarize the literature into a report of “what we know” on the topic.

Abstract In recent decades, the vast enhancements of DNA testing and advancements in forensic science have made the public aware of the abundance of wrongful convictions that have disturbed the United States’ criminal justice system. As a student of criminal justice, the mere thought of innocent people spending years of their lives behind prison bars due to shortcomings in our system of justice, is appalling, and should behoove us into fixing this major problem. Understanding what wrongful convictions are, who is most affected by them, and the factors that lead to them happening are the first steps to decide what policies are needed to reduce wrongful convictions. This paper explores these issues and how we can stop these terrible miscarriages of justice. Keywords: false convictions, innocence, exonerations, injustice Introduction In 1983, a woman was raped while staying at a Bronx motel in New York City. Two days later, an African American man named Marion Coakley was arrested, charged, and put on trial for rape (National Registry of Exonerations, 2021, para. 3). At Coakley’s trial, a pastor testified that Coakley was at a bible study four miles away from the crime scene at the time of the attack. However, three witnesses for the prosecution “positively” identified Marion Coakley as the offender. In 1985, Coakley was convicted of rape. He served four years of his 5 – 15-year prison sentence. In 1987, a blood test concluded that the blood type of the offender found at the scene did not match that of Marion Coakley. He was then released and exonerated (National Registry of Exonerations, 2021, para. 5). This was the first of many convictions that were overturned thanks to Barry Scheck and Peter Neufeld, who later founded “The Innocence Project.” This

organization works to exonerate the wrongly convicted mainly via DNA testing, as well as via changes in the criminal justice system (Neufeld & Scheck, 2021, para. 7). The Marion Coakley case was a landmark one that got the ball rolling for more people who were wrongfully convicted to be exonerated, and for the issue of wrongful convictions to be brought to the public’s attention. Wrongful or false convictions are convictions of persons by the criminal justice system that are later found to be wrong or false for a various number of reasons (National Institute of Justice, 2021, para. 1). According to the National Institute of Justice, the reasons a person can be found to be wrongfully convicted can be grouped into two categories: “(1) The person convicted is factually innocent of the charges, or (2) There were procedural errors that violated the convicted persons rights” (National Institute of Justice, 2021, para. 2). For the purpose of this research paper, I will be looking at the first category - those who are factually innocent. The only way to measure the number of factual wrongful convictions in the criminal justice system is by looking at the number of exonerations that have already happened. An exoneration or exoneree is a term that describes a person who was convicted of a crime and based on new evidence of innocence, was cleared of their crime. The National Registry of Exonerations collects data on all exonerations in the United States from 1989 to the present. Currently, there have been 2,937 exonerations (National Registry of Exonerations, 2021, para. 1). Although this statistic seems excessive, what is even more troubling is the realization that many wrongful convictions will never come to light. There is simply no way to determine the actual number of convicted people that are serving sentences for crimes they did not commit. 69

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There are many issues pertaining to wrongful convictions such as the factors that contribute to them, and the overwhelming majority of certain racial or ethnic groups that are affected by them. However, different methods or programs are now being created that attempt to fix these issues and exonerate those who are innocent. Wrongful convictions are very harmful to our system of justice because they affect the integrity of our system and prove that our system, though very great, is also not perfect. Literature Review Groups Most Impacted by Wrongful Convictions When reviewing the data and research studies done involving wrongful convictions, you begin to notice a pattern. Looking at specific characteristics you begin to realize that a large portion of people who were proven to be wrongfully convicted by exoneration are African American. According to a research study published in 2017 “African Americans are only 13% of the American population but a majority of innocent defendants wrongfully convicted of crimes and later exonerated (Gross, et. al, 2017, p. ii). From the National Registry of Exonerations, about 47% of the 1,900 exonerations as of 2017, were African American defendants (Gross, et. al, 2017,). This statistic references the idea of overrepresentation in the criminal justice system, which is when a particular group of people that are classified based on such as race, gender, or age, appears as a greater number in the criminal justice system than their total population in the United States (Gross, et. al, 2017). This research study suggests that there is an overrepresentation of African Americans in the system when looking specifically at wrongful convictions. The fact that almost half of all the wrongful convictions that we know of involve African Americans is very troubling, but the statistics are worse for certain types. Looking at the crime of murder, the most serious crime a person can commit, research shows that “innocent black people are about seven times more likely to be convicted of murder than innocent white people [and] African-American prisoners who are convicted of murder are about 50% more likely to be innocent than other convicted murderers” (Gross, et al, 2017, p. iii). The same type of over-representation patterns can be found when looking at other crimes. For example, the study found that compared to whites African Americans accused of sex crimes were three and a half times more likely to be wrongfully convicted, and twelve times more likely to be wrongfully convicted in relation to drug crimes. (Gross, et. al, 2017). Other studies report that about 12 percent of wrongfully convicted exonerees were Latinos (O’Brien et al., 2019). The research suggests that similar issues cause 70

wrongful convictions across racial groups; however, in the case of Latinos, language barriers and immigration considerations further exacerbate the injustices suffered by defendants (O’Brien et al., 2019). Factors That Lead to Wrongful Convictions There are a multitude of different factors studied in the criminal justice system that are proven to lead to wrongful convictions. Criminal law professor at Washington College of Law, Cynthia Jones teaches law students about wrongful convictions in the criminal justice system by having each student research a case of a person who was wrongfully convicted (Jones, 2013). She then has them give a presentation on the case and the factors that led to their wrongful convictions, and as Jones describes it, “After the first few presentations, students start to notice that . . . each case involves one or more of the following factors: (1) faulty forensic science; (2) eyewitness misidentification; (3) a false confession; and/or (4) the use of unreliable jailhouse informant (“snitch”) testimony” (Jones, 2013 p. 610). Each of these are specifically identified as the four main factors that lead to wrongful convictions. While each factor can lead to a wrongful conviction, one or more of these factors on the same case makes it that much harder for a person to be exonerated. Forensic science such as DNA testing that started in 1986, is relatively new to the criminal justice system. Prior to DNA becoming widely available, most criminologists believed wrongful convictions to be extremely rare (Leo, 2017, p. 83) After major DNA testing began and thousands of wrongful convictions were discovered, it truly shocked the entire criminal justice system. It was clear that even though we had great constitutional protections and safeguards our system could still fail. As we saw in Marion Coakley’s case, he was exonerated due to new DNA testing that proved he was not the rapist. Sadly, in the same way forensic science can exonerate someone, it can also be used to convict someone. Errors in forensic science, forensic science analysts, and the use of testing methods that are no longer scientifically valid are a leading cause of wrongful convictions (Scheck, 2017). When forensic science started to expand in the mid 1980’s to 1990’s, specific testing methods were developed to test the evidence found at crime scenes. For example, today experts say that for a fingerprint match you need approximately 20 – 30 matching points, called minutiae, on one fingerprint (Zaeri, 2011). However, in the 1980’s and 90’s this standard was a much lower number, such as 5 or 6 (Zaeri, 2011). This is just one way in which forensic science worked to wrongfully convict people. Still today we are developing new techniques and technologies to help us further investigate crimes through forensic means.

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False eyewitness identification is cited as the most frequent cause of wrongful convictions and has contributed to wrongful convictions in over 80% of exonerations cleared through DNA testing (Krieger, 2017). In the case of Marion Coakley, three witnesses at trial and under oath identified Coakley as the rapist, which was later proven to be false (National Registry of Exonerations, 2021). False eyewitness identification is often caused by improper law enforcement procedures when having victims identify offenders through lineups, photos, or even at the scene of the crime (Krieger, 2017). This idea of eyewitness testimony in court and the immense weight that it is given, needs to be looked at and scrutinized by those in the criminal investigative and trial processes, such as law enforcement officers and prosecutors. Law enforcement officers can contribute to wrongful convictions by employing the outdated tactics; likewise, prosecutors in court can contribute to this issue by employing eyewitnesses as actual concrete evidence to present to a jury. Another cause of wrongful convictions is false confessions. The use of certain police tactics, such as lying to pressure suspects in an interrogation and keeping suspects for a prolonged amount of time, have been associated with false confessions (Krieger, 2017). False confessions that were prompted by law enforcement resulted in approximately 20% of wrongful convictions cleared by DNA evidence (Krieger, 2017). The most famous and documented case of false confessions leading to wrongful convictions was the “Central Park Five Case” that happened in New York City in 1989. In this case, a woman was found raped and badly beaten in Central Park, law enforcement then detained five teenage boys who were found in the vicinity of the park and interrogated these teens without lawyer’s present (Krieger, 2017). The misconduct by law enforcement in these interrogations has been heavily documented including the fact that, the interrogations of these boys endured for over 24 hours and each of the five boys confessed (Krieger, 2017). All five of the teenagers were convicted at trial and subsequently went to prison for a number of years until the real rapist confessed in 2002 and the boys were exonerated (Krieger, 2017). In the world of criminal justice, a false confession by a defendant is one of the most detrimental things to a criminal defense and in all likelihood will lead to a guilty verdict. The last of the four factors that lead to wrongful convictions is perjured testimony in court, typically jailhouse informants (Handy, 2012). What usually happens in these scenarios is that when a suspect is arrested and put in jail, other defendants that are in jail will try to find out as much information about their case as they can and through any means necessary (Handy, 2012). The jailhouse snitch will then contact

the district attorney’s office and falsely claim that they heard someone confess to their crime and will testify to that fact in exchange for a lighter sentence for themselves (Handy, 2012). Research on this subject has found that “from 1973 to 2004, jailhouse informant testimony was the leading cause of wrongful convictions in United States capital [death penalty] cases” (Handy, 2012 p. 758). The problem with using jailhouse informants is that there are too many incentives to lie. Fixing Past and Future Wrongful Convictions Now that we have looked at the four main factors that are most likely to cause wrongful convictions, we must now look at ways to fix wrongful convictions that have already happened and prevent future ones. A way to fix past wrongful convictions and turn them into exonerations, is through new divisions that are being formed in district attorneys’ offices called “Conviction Integrity Units” or CIUs (Scheck, 2017). CIUs go back and look specifically at cases involving the four factors that lead to wrongful convictions and re-investigate the case to ensure that the person convicted of the crime actually committed the crime (Scheck, 2017). CIUs are intended to work cooperatively with organizations that help exonerate people who are currently serving prison sentences, such as “The Innocence Project” (Scheck, 2017). It is by working with these organizations that CIU’s can decide which cases to re-investigate and make the whole exoneration process go much quicker and smoother (Scheck, 2017). As of 2021, there were 91 CIUs in the United States, 51 of which had not yet produced any exonerations (Scheck, 2017). Barry Scheck, who has spent 20 years of his life helping to overturn convictions and exonerate the innocent, argues that the development of CIUs “signal[s] something qualitatively different: a movement toward a post-conviction non-adversarial process for reinvestigating potential miscarriages of justice, which involves prosecutors, innocence organizations, and defense lawyers working together in a joint search for the truth” (Scheck, 2017 p. 706). For example, in 2011 Harris County Texas, a CIU discovered that due to a forensic lab error, over a hundred defendants pled guilty to drug offenses when in fact the substances that were used as evidence against them were not actually illegal substances (Scheck, 2017). From 2011 until 2017, 119 other drug cases have been overturned and innocent defendants exonerated (Scheck, 2017). Looking ahead to preventing wrongful convictions in the future, there is one thing in common with all four factors associated with wrongful convictions and that is that the prosecutor. The prosecutor handling the 71

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case decides whether or not to include the forensic science, eyewitness testimony, confessions, and jailhouse informants in an effort to prove their case (Byrne, 2017). Yet, there is a noticeable lack of accountability when prosecutors use these factors to convict people and are later found to be wrong. Richard Byrne, a law student and staff editor for the Law Review at the University of Baltimore School of Law, argued that in cases of prosecutorial misconduct, prosecutors are very rarely, if at all, disciplined for any of their actions. In fact, “a study by the Northern California Innocence Project revealed that, between the years of 1997 and 2009, out of 707 California appellate and federal court cases where prosecutorial misconduct was found, only six prosecutors were disciplined by the state bar” (Byrne, 2017, para. 3). Without policies and rules that allow for harsher penalties for prosecutors when they are found to be directly involved in misconduct that led to a wrongful conviction, we will not see any decline in wrongful convictions. Holding prosecutors to higher standards will act as more of a safety net and make them review, the facts of the case to ensure they have the most viable and accurate suspect, especially when using things such as jailhouse informants or eyewitness testimony as a part of the trial (Byrne, 2017). Conclusion I firmly believe that the United States criminal justice system needs to look at the multitude of research done on the different factors concerning wrongful convictions and adopt effective policies and practices that will not only exonerate the innocent but reduce the overall number of future wrongful convictions. Before I started doing research on the topic of wrongful convictions, I read an article that was published in 2004 by Vidar Halvorson on ethics in criminal justice (Halverson, 2004). In this article, the author quoted a legal doctrine first written about in 1769 by a man named William Blackstone in which he presented the argument that, it is better that 10 guilty people go free, than 1 innocent person suffers for something they did not do (Halverson, 2004). I was fascinated and somewhat stunned by his point, that it was somehow better to let guilty people go free than to have one innocent person in prison. I am inclined to agree with this argument after looking at the research and cases of men and women who spent years of their lives in prison, being looked down upon by everyone, people thinking they are crazy when they make the claim that they are innocent, and some of them even dying or being executed while under these false convictions. The idea of wrongful convictions to me and to any student of criminal justice should be truly reprehensible because no one who is innocent deserves that. 72

By looking at the factors that cause wrongful convictions and developing solutions such as CIU’s, and harsher penalties for those involved in wrongfully convicting someone, the criminal justice system can show that they are actively trying to fix and stop the major problem of wrongful convictions in the United States. References Byrne, R. (2017, March 31). Could harsher penalties deter prosecutors from tampering with exculpatory evidence? University of Baltimore Law Review. https:// ubaltlawreview.com/2017/03/31/could-harsherpenalties-deter-prosecutors-from-tampering-withexculpatory-evidence/ Gross, S. R., Possley, M., & Stephens, K. (2017). Race and wrongful convictions in the United States. University of California, Irvine: National Registry of Exonerations’, Newkirk Center for Science and Society. Halvorsen, V. (2004). Is it better that ten guilty persons go free than that one innocent person be convicted? Criminal Justice Ethics 23(2), 3-13. Handy, P. P. (2012). Jailhouse informants’ testimony gets scrutiny commensurate with its reliability. McGeorge Law Review 43(3), 755–765. Jones, C. E. (2013). “I am Ronald Cotton”: Teaching wrongful convictions in a criminal law class. Ohio State Journal of Criminal Law 10(2), 609–611. Krieger, S. A. (2011). Why our justice system convicts innocent people, and the challenges Faced by innocence projects trying to exonerate them. New Criminal Law Review 14(3), 333–402. Leo, R. A. (2017). The criminology of wrongful conviction: A decade later. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice 33(1), 82–106. National Institute of Justice. (n.d.). Wrongful convictions. https://nij.ojp.gov/topics/justice-system-reform/ wrongful-convictions. Neufeld, P., & Scheck, B. (n.d). Help us put an end to wrongful convictions! Innocence Project. https:// innocenceproject.org/. O’Brien. B., Stephens, K., Possley, M., & Grosso, C.M. (2019). Latinx defendants, false convictions, and the difficult road to exoneration. UCLA Law Review 66(4), 1682-1715. Scheck, B. C. (2017). Conviction integrity units revisited. Ohio State Journal of Criminal Law 14(2), 705–752 The National Registry of Exonerations - Exoneration Registry. (n.d.). Mission Statement. The National Registry of Exonerations, Newkirk Center for Science and Society. https://www.law.umich.edu/special/exoneration/ Pages/about.aspx. Zaeri, N. (2011). Minutiae-based Fingerprint Extraction and Recognition, Biometrics, Jucheng Yang, IntechOpen: https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/16502

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Student Reflection: Before this assignment I had never really thought about the issue of wrongful convictions in the criminal justice system. To me wrongful convictions were things that happened in popular television shows and movies in order to make the audience feel for a particular character or make the show more exciting. I, like a majority of people, thought that wrongful convictions did not happen very much in the real world. However, in doing research on this topic I was very surprised at the amount of actual people who spent years and years of their lives in jails or prisons for something they did not do. I believe that we in the United States have the greatest justice system in the world, but that doesn’t mean that I believe it is perfect. Our criminal justice system has flaws, I’ve spent four years of my life learning about them. So, my ultimate choice in deciding to submit this paper is to raise awareness of wrongful convictions and hopefully make our system of justice better.

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False Eyewitness Identification by Noah Aeppli CRJ 452: Race, Ethnicity, and Crime Dr. Arelys Madero Assignment: This paper is a synthesis of the published literature on a selected topic. You will read, analyze, and summarize the literature into a report of “what we know” on the topic.

Abstract False eyewitness identification is a major problem facing our society today. The sad thing about it is there is very little research on the topic as a whole. Throughout this paper the prevalence of false eyewitness ID will be examined as well as the facts that play a role in determining the accuracy of eyewitnesses. Experiments will be looked at which address whether or not the age of the eyewitness and the amount of time that passes between the eyewitness seeing the suspect and being questioned about it relate to diminishing accuracy of identification. Relative vs. absolute judgment strategies, which have been shown to decrease (relative) and increase (absolute) eyewitness accuracy in some cases, will be explained in depth. Postdictor variables which help in determining eyewitness accuracy “after the fact” will conclude the findings of this research paper. These may be critical in the future to helping us decrease the amount of false identifications. More research must be done in all aspects of false eyewitness identification, but especially in regards to the forms/presentations of lineups and the effects of both stressful/non-stressful situations on short- and long-term memory. Keywords: False eyewitness identification, lineups, postdictors, judgment strategies Introduction One of the first things that may come to mind when hearing about wrongful convictions is the idea of false eyewitness identification. According to the Innocence Project, 69% (252 out of 367 cases) of DNA exonerations involve misidentifications by eyewitnesses. This makes false eyewitness identification the leading cause of wrongful convictions (“How eyewitness identification”, 2020). Also, the National Registry of Exonerations has identified at least 450 non-DNA-based exonerations involving eyewitness misidentification (“How eyewitness identification,” 2020). 74

These are some staggering thoughts to keep in mind. Most people would think that if they saw someone committing a crime, assuming they got a good look at the facial features of the individual, they would be able to remember them no problem. A majority of people have the ability to remember times and places for daily events as well as adhering to a particular weekly schedule. We as human beings also rarely make errors in identifying our friends, family members, and co-workers. However, eyewitnesses routinely make errors during routine identification procedures. The question here is why? Could it be because the eyewitness is traumatized in some way after witnessing a criminal event unfold right before their eyes? Perhaps in the heat of the moment, they trick themselves into thinking they saw something which wasn’t there. Does age play a factor? Another possibility which could explain this phenomena is the length of time from when the incident occured to eyewitness testimony in court. Common sense would suggest that these eyewitnesses are not purposefully being malicious when it comes to picking the person whom they believe committed the crime. There are just so many factors that come into play which can affect the accountability of the eyewitnesses’ recollection of the perpetrator. When mistaken, it can be extremely difficult for law enforcement as well as judges and jurors to determine the accuracy (or inaccuracy) of the eyewitness accounts. This topic is important because so many innocent lives are impacted by false eyewitness identification while the guilty are running free. Currently justice is not being served and the goal in writing this paper is to find out exactly why eyewitness identification is not more accurate as well as what can be done to improve this significant issue. Literature Review Throughout this paper peer-reviewed journal articles will be dismantled which will aid in understanding why eyewitness identification can be an unreliable

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means of determining guilt or innocence and what, if anything, could improve it. The first article is by Jean Searcy, James C. Bartlett, and Amina Memon entitled Influence of post-event narratives, line-up conditions and individual differences on false identification by young and older eyewitnesses. These researchers set out to test whether or not the age of the eyewitness contributed to false recognitions on line-ups (Searcy et al., 2000). They compared effects of post-event information with a sequential line-up presentation on false identification with both younger and older adults (Searcy et al., 2000). “During a lineup the suspect is placed alongside several individuals who somewhat resemble the perpetrator.” (Worrall et al., 2018, pg.242). To break it down even further, ninety-eight older adults aged between 57 and 83 as well as ninety-seven college students aged between 19 and 33 watched a video of a crime simulation (Searcy et al., 2000). After listening to an auditory narrative, some heard a recap of the events of the crime along with some misinformation while others heard the control narrative which happened to be unrelated to the video (Searcy et al., 2000). The subjects recalled the crime and then witnessed either a simultaneous or sequential target-absent line-up (Searcy et al., 2000). A comparison was made in regards to the relationship of the experimental variables and several individual difference measures to false ID rates on the line-up (Searcy et al., 2000). The results revealed that the sequential line-ups reduced false eyewitness ID for both groups, young and elderly (Searcy et al., 2000). In terms of just the elderly group, hearing a relevant post-event narrative actually increased their false identifications (Searcy et al., 2000). Higher verbal recall of the actual perpetrator’s characteristics also increased false identification rates in elderly subjects. Inaccurate information in the post-event narratives also had influence on line-up choices (Searcy et al., 2000). These results showed that both age and time can influence an eyewitness’s identification of a perpetrator. Reducing post-crime exposure to crime-relevant information, along with sequential line-ups, can substantially reduce false identification by elderly adult witnesses. Not surprisingly, it would be expected that younger individuals would have better memory recall than the elderly. But is there a way to increase the memory recall of older adults when identifying perpetrators? The obvious answer could be just to shorten the amount of time from the individual witnessing the criminal act to taking the stand and testifying. However, this is not necessarily a practical solution as in many cases it can be months or even years before suspects are narrowed down let alone the time it takes for a civil or criminal

trial to run its course. Perhaps a more practical solution could come in the form of how line-ups are presented to the eyewitnesses. A study performed by Wells and Luus (1990) demonstrated that presenting a line-up one suspect at a time, as opposed to all of them at once, reduces false identification without simultaneously reducing correct identification (Wells & Elizabeth, 1990). Wells’ theory (1984) proposed that the traditional simultaneous line-up would encourage witnesses to use relative judgment in deciding which of the line-up pictures most resembles the culprit (Wells & Elizabeth, 1990). Using a sequential line-up presentation would force an absolute judgment as to whether each candidate appears to be the culprit (Wells & Elizabeth, 1990). More research is greatly needed in this department as the elderly population grows and we have an increasing probability of older eyewitnesses. Based on these quotes from Wells it would seem that there is reason to suggest that adult age differences in memory recognition can be minimized when the recognition task provides environmental support. It could be helpful, especially to older adults, to be shown a sequential presentation line-up when performing eyewitness identification. Next, there was a study which looked at “real life” scenarios of actual employees identifying customers who came into a convenience store looking to make some type of transaction. This had nothing to do with the eyewitnesses age, nor experiencing violent or heinous crimes (Krafka & Penrod, 1985). Researchers simply wanted to set-up an experiment which resembled the average eyewitness situation (Krafka & Penrod, 1985). In the majority of cases, eyewitnesses are not even aware that they are dealing with the perpetrator of a crime until after the fact (Krafka & Penrod, 1985). In other instances they may be asked to identify someone whom they saw fleeing the scene.(Krafka & Penrod, 1985). This experiment was originally conducted by Krafka and Hosch (1985). The experiment began with a ”customer” entering a convenience store located in Madison, Wisconsin (Krafka & Penrod, 1985). This customer purchased a small item with a traveler’s check. Sometime between 2 and 24 hours later a researcher, posing as a law intern, walked into the same store and asked the clerks to identify the customer (Krafka & Penrod, 1985). Eighty-five clerks were shown either customer-present or customer-absent photo arrays (Krafka & Penrod, 1985). The results of this particular experiment showed that in customer-present photo arrays, 41% of the clerks correctly identified him (Krafka & Penrod, 1985). As for the customer-absent photo arrays, 34% of the clerks falsely identified a photograph as that of the actual customer (Krafka & Penrod, 1985). 75

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A continuation of this experiment was later conducted by Brigham and colleagues (Cutler, n.d). This time, however, banks were the primary location of the field study. The experiment began with one of two “accomplices” walking into a bank and pretending to fill out a deposit slip (Cutler, n.d). This accomplice then approached the teller and attempted to cash a check (Cutler, n.d). The amount of the check was originally $10 but was changed to $110 (Cutler, n.d.). All of the tellers refused to cash these fraudulent checks (Cutler, n.d.). The accomplice would then proceed to argue with the teller, saying that post office personnel made and verified such alterations (Cutler, n.d.). This interaction lasted approximately 90 seconds until the accomplice exited the bank, taking the money order with him (Cutler, n.d.). An experimenter posing as a law enforcement officer entered the bank roughly four to five hours after the incident and showed the teller either an accomplice-present or accomplice-absent photo array (Cutler, n.d.). Overall there were 47 bank tellers who participated as eyewitnesses in this experiment (Cutler, n.d.). Out of the tellers who were shown an accomplice-present photo array, 47.8% made the correct identification (Cutler, n.d.). Out of the tellers who were shown an accomplice-absent photo array, 37.5% falsely identified the perpetrator (Cutler, n.d.). These studies were important for a number of reasons, one of which being that identifications of people seen only for a brief moment in time in non-stressful situations tend to be inaccurate in many cases (Cutler, n.d.). Only two out of five perpetrators were identified in the customer-present photo arrays resembling situations where the suspect was guilty (Cutler, n.d.). Also, one out of three innocent civilians were falsely identified in the customer-absent photo arrays which represented situations of suspect innocence (Cutler, n.d.). Another surprising discovery that came about was when researchers were informed that 77% of the mock eyewitness bank tellers had received some form of training for eyewitness situations (Cutler, n.d.). It seems that both the age of the eyewitness as well as the duration of time during which the perpetrator was visibly present would be the two biggest factors which come into play in determining the accuracy of identification (Cutler, n.d.). Another key factor is the amount of time between crime occurrence and eyewitness identification, as longer intervals tend to produce less accurate results (Cutler, n.d.). “Postdictors” of eyewitness errors are also significant areas of research within the field. This research comes from an article entitled, Postdictors of eyewitness errors: can false identifications be diagnosed? This article discusses system variable research which looks at the

variables that the legal system can control (Smith et al., 2000). They can also be used to prevent inaccurate identifications as well as influence the fairness of a lineup (Smith et al., 2000). There are also estimator variables which are used to determine the probability of making correct or incorrect identifications (Smith et al., 2000). The reason these variables are called postdictor is because they are utilized post-identification to estimate the accuracy of said identification (Smith et al., 2000). Postdictors consist of four distinct variables: confidence, response latency, relative versus absolute judgment strategies, and lineup fairness (Smith et al., 2000). Confidence has been the most widely studied of the four and it deals with the extent to which eyewitnesses trust in the correctness of their identification (Smith et al., 2000). It has, however, been found to be an unreliable means of identifying eyewitness accuracy (Smith et al., 2000). Across these studies, confidence and accuracy displayed a .29 correlation rate, hence witness confidence being associated with less than 10% of witness accuracy variance (Smith et al., 2000). Response latency deals with the amount of time it takes for eyewitnesses to make a decision when shown a lineup (Smith et al., 2000). In other words, a quick decision made by the eyewitness is more likely to be accurate and a better indicator of memory trace (Smith et al., 2000). There have also been different effects found for eyewitnesses who select an individual from a lineup (choosers) as opposed to those who do not make a selection (non-choosers) (Smith et al., 2000). As for the choosers, correct matches (hits) should happen relatively quickly, while incorrect matches (false positives) should happen at a slower rate (Smith et al., 2000). It is also important to know that decision time did not affect the accuracy of non-choosers (Smith et al., 2000). As for relative versus absolute judgment strategies, these look at the impact of false identification of the type of lineup used. Lindsay and Wells (1985) determined that sequential lineups are more effective than simultaneous lineups (Lindsay & Wells, 1985). During sequential lineups, photos are presented to the eyewitness one at a time whereas with simultaneous lineups, the photos are all shown at one time (Lindsay & Wells, 1985). It is believed that when it comes to simultaneous lineups, eyewitnesses compare the photographs and choose the one that makes sense according to memory and this tends to result in a high rate of false positives (Lindsay & Wells, 1985). Wells described these as relative choices because the person who comes to mind in the eyewitnesses memory is selected (Lindsay & Wells, 1985). The beauty of sequential lineups is that people are forced to make absolute decisions (Lindsay &

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Wells, 1985). The eyewitness is shown one photograph at a time and must choose then and there whether or not that individual is the perpetrator or not (Lindsay & Wells, 1985). Once a decision is made, then and only then is the eyewitness shown the next photograph if need be (Lindsay & Wells, 1985). This reduces the ability of the eyewitness to make comparisons among the different photographs (Lindsay & Wells, 1985). The final postdictor is lineup fairness. It can be both a system and estimator variable depending on the degree of control the legal system has over it (Lindsay & Wells, 1985). What makes it an estimator variable is when lineup fairness is measured after the eyewitness has made an identification (Lindsay & Wells, 1985). This may be a bit confusing; however, the measured fairness of the lineup after the fact can actually be used to estimate the probability of a false identification (Lindsay & Wells, 1985). Lineup fairness is less of an issue than it was in the past simply because it is known that sequential lineups reduce false positive identifications (Lindsay & Wells, 1985). The problem is that simultaneous lineups are still widely used by law enforcement and are the most common procedure used during eyewitness cases (Lindsay & Wells, 1985). For this reason, researchers included it in their study. In the experiment, up to three subjects were asked to watch a short video (90 seconds) and afterwards were asked to describe the criminal as well as fill out a description form (Lindsay & Wells, 1985). Five lineups were used, two with the perpetrator present and three with the perpetrator absent (Lindsay & Wells, 1985). The participants did not know if the perpetrator was in the lineup or not (Lindsay & Wells, 1985). They were then asked to make a decision as to whether or not the criminal was present and, if present, what position was he in (1-6) (Lindsay & Wells, 1985). Responses were timed, and participants also completed a form measuring the certainty of their decision (Lindsay & Wells, 1985). Next, half of the participants got randomly assigned to the feedback position (Lindsay & Wells, 1985). They were told they had made the correct decision regardless of whether or not they actually made the correct decision (Lindsay & Wells, 1985). There was also a no-feedback condition where participants went on to completing the relative/absolute items as well as the feedback items (Lindsay & Wells, 1985). The final two sets of items were varied across participants (Lindsay & Wells, 1985). Subjects then completed a mock-witness task for a different perpetrator than the one they had seen. After all of this, the participants were debriefed and then released (Lindsay

& Wells, 1985). For choosers, 44.9% were correct in identifying the perpetrator (Lindsay & Wells, 1985). Confidence and accuracy did end up being significantly correlated (Lindsay & Wells, 1985). Positive feedback, as opposed to no feedback, resulted in increased eyewitness ratings of clarity in their memory of the perpetrator’s face (Lindsay & Wells, 1985). Response latency (decision time and accuracy) were significantly correlated for the choosers (Lindsay & Wells, 1985). Results showed that the less time it took to choose a photograph, the more accurate their choice was (Lindsay & Wells, 1985). Looking at relative/absolute judgment strategies it was clear that choosers who claimed to use relative judgments were less likely to be accurate than the choosers who used absolute judgments (Lindsay & Wells, 1985). The accurate choosers made quick and decisive decisions unlike the inaccurate choosers (Lindsay & Wells, 1985). This showed that absolute judgment strategies were more effective than relative judgment strategies. The subjects who used absolute judgment strategies had much more confidence in their choices (Lindsay & Wells, 1985). As for lineup fairness, a certain proportion of mock witnesses who chose the perpetrator were used as a control group to measure just how fair particular lineups chosen by participants really were (Lindsay & Wells, 1985). This data was then entered into a regression to determine its relation to accuracy (Lindsay & Wells, 1985). As it turns out, lineup fairness significantly postdicted the accuracy of the subjects (Lindsay & Wells, 1985). As lineup fairness decreases, accuracy decreases as well (Lindsay & Wells, 1985). When the lineup becomes more biased the eyewitness is more likely to select someone who is innocent (Lindsay & Wells, 1985). This is why measuring lineup fairness after identification is a postdictor of witness accuracy (Lindsay & Wells, 1985). To conclude, the amount of time taken by the eyewitness to make a decision as well as the specific type of judgment strategy used (relative or absolute) have the ability to determine, with a great deal of accuracy, the correct or incorrect decision made by the eyewitness (Lindsay & Wells, 1985). The fairness of the lineup is also important to keep in mind because of its effects on potentially impacting the bias of the eyewitness. There are two factors which account for 29% of variance in the accuracy of the eyewitness and these are decision time and lineup fairness. Using a discriminant function analysis the postdictors could classify identifications as being either accurate or inaccurate 75% of the time (Lindsay & Wells, 1985).

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Conclusion

References

These studies show why false eyewitness identification is a problem. They have shown what potentially causes these problems as well as what could possibly be done to improve eyewitness identification. It may always be an issue simply because there are so many factors which come into play that can have a profound impact on both perception and memory. The future is bright especially if more research is conducted on the postdictor elements which were touched on while discussing the study done by Smith, Lindsay, and Pryke. It is crucial to continue to look at system variable research because the key to reducing wrongful convictions could be in being able to prevent false identifications from happening in the first place. With this research in mind, doing away with biased lineups and having law enforcement utilize sequential as opposed to simultaneous lineups should be the first step taken to try and reduce false eyewitness identification. This is an issue which should be met proactively rather than reactively.

Cutler, B. L. (n.d.). Mistaken identification: The eyewitness, psychology, and the law. Cambridge University Press, 1st edition, 11-16. How eyewitness misidentification can send innocent people to prison. (2020, April 23). Innocence Project. (1st edition) https://innocenceproject.org/how- eyewitnessmisidentification-can-send-innocent-people-to-prison/. Krafka, C., & Penrod, S. (1985). Reinstatement of context in a field experiment on eyewitness identification. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 49(1), 58–69. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.49.1.58 Lindsay, R.C. & Wells, G.L. (1985) Improving eyewitness identifications from lineups: Simultaneous versus sequential lineup presentation. Journal of Applied Psychology, 70, 556-564. http://dx.doi. org/10.1037/0021-9010.70.3.556 Searcy, J., Bartlett, J. C., & Memon, A. (2000). Influence of post-event narratives, line-up conditions and individual differences on false identification by young and older eyewitnesses. Legal and Criminological Psychology, 5(2), 219–235. https://doi.org/10.1348/135532500168100 Smith, S. M., Lindsay, R. C., & Pryke, S. (2000). Postdictors of eyewitness errors: Can false identifications be diagnosed? Journal of Applied Psychology, 85(4), 542–550. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.85.4.542 Wells, G. L., & Elizabeth Luus, C. A. (1990). Police lineups as experiments. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 16(1), 106–117. https://doi. org/10.1177/0146167290161008 Worrall, J. L., Hemmens, C., & Nored, L. S. (2018). Criminal evidence: An introduction. Oxford University Press. 3rd edition, 242.

Student Reflection: Many people believe eyewitness testimony to be gospel in determining suspect innocence or guilt. Truth be told it is a rather unreliable means of identifying actual perpetrators. The objectives here were to determine what factors play a role in determining the accuracy of eyewitnesses as well as what could possibly be done to improve recollection of past persons and events. One of the major problems I faced while writing this paper was a significant lack of published and scientific research conducted on false eyewitness identification. This is a shame because wrongful convictions are a serious issue and I think there should be greater emphasis on improving false identification rates.

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The Policy – Violence Against Women Act by Sydney Kunkel CRJ 454: Policy, Professionalism, and Ethics Dr. Melissa L. Ricketts Assignment: This assignment was to introduce a criminal justice policy by defining different aspects of that policy, applying the analytical framework learned in class, and summarizing the key findings of the research. Students were to research the implementation and effects of their chosen policy.

Problems to Address The Violence Against Women Act (VAWA) was created to bring attention to crimes of domestic violence, dating violence, sexual assault, and stalking. Domestic violence is defined as “crimes of violence committed by a current or former spouse or intimate partner of the victim,” but can also include co-parents and someone living with the aggressor (Domestic Violence, 2020). Dating violence is similar to domestic violence and is repeated “assaultive and controlling behaviors” used by the aggressor on the victim to “gain or maintain power and control in the relationship” (Defining Dating Violence, 2022). Sexual assault is unwanted or nonconsensual sexual contact, including attempted rape, fondling, and rape (Sexual Assault, 2022). Lastly, to be considered stalking, the perpetrator must cause fear in the victim by “harassing, following, or threatening” them (Stalking Laws in California – Penal Code 646.9 PC, 2022). Data presented by the World Health Organization (WHO) from year 2000 to year 2018 shows that 30% of women have been victims of of combined physical and sexual violence, or a singular category of this violence (Violence Against Women, 2021). These statistics provide reason enough for increased help for women who are victims of violent crimes. However, violence against women has always been prevalent. Up until 1871, it was a legal right for men to beat their wives, until Alabama became the first state to rescind that right. It was not until 1967 that domestic violence shelters began to open, one of the first being in Maine. Almost ten years later in 1976, Pennsylvania became the first state to establish a coalition against domestic violence and to pass legislation for protection of battered women (Violence Against Women Act History, 2012, p. 162). “The high rate of violence against women is cause for concern in the United States” (Clark, Biddle, & Martin, 2002, p. 417). The first draft of the VAWA

was introduced in 1990 by then US Senator, Joe Biden. Following the introduction, Senator Biden and the Senate Judiciary Committee staff conducted, “a threeyear investigation of the causes and effects of violence against women” (Violence Against Women Act History, 2012, p. 162). For example, more than 50% of female homicides are due to or related to intimate partner violence (Rajan & Fontaine, 2018, p. 24). Intended Outcomes The intended outcomes of the VAWA were to specifically address and reduce the problem of domestic, dating, and sexual violence, sexual assault, and stalking aggressed towards women. It was sponsored by US Senator, Joe Biden and signed into law by President Bill Clinton on September 13, 1994 (Violence Against Women Act History, 2012, p. 163). This document addressed concerns about violent crimes and violence against women, enhanced sentencing for repeat sex offenders, required compensation for victims of certain federal sex crimes, and gave state, local, and tribal law enforcement the ability to investigate and charge for violent crimes against women (Sacco, 2015, p. 1). “These types of violence are the leading cause of injury in women ages 15 to 44” (Crime Control Issues, 1994, p. 169). The passage of the VAWA was prompted by the fear associated with the growing crime rate of violent crimes, especially against women. This violence was addressed in the 1980s when the criminal justice system began to see, “family violence as a crime rather than a private family matter” (Sacco, 2015, p. 1). The VAWA began to open some eyes about the dangers women face in society. As a part of the Violence Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of 1994, the VAWA aimed to address domestic and dating violence, sexual assault, and stalking, and accentuated the development of “coordinated community care” among criminal justice professionals (Modi, Palmer, & Armstrong, 2014). Intimate partner violence is a main priority of the VAWA and can be 79

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“defined as violence committed by a current or former boyfriend or girlfriend, spouse or ex-spouse” (Modi, et al., 2014). The act also aimed to strengthen the penalties for repeat offenders of sex crimes and included the “rape shield law.” For example, rape victims are not allowed to be faced with questions of their previous sexual history, or “other sexual behavior,” as it would violate their rights (Cavallaro, 2019). In addition, the VAWA created legal relief for battered immigrants and allowed victims to get civil remedies for these crimes against women (Violence Against Women Act History, 2012, p. 163). Social Context Throughout recent history, the VAWA has been reauthorized three times. The first two reauthorizations were in 2000 and 2005, for the act to include protections for immigrants, elderly victims, people with disabilities, and women in tribal communities (Legislative Background On Violence Against Women, 2012). The 2000 reauthorization of the VAWA was through the Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act. The reauthorization included protections for battered citizens, new programs for victims in need of transitional housing, and for the protection of elderly and disabled women, a requirement for reports on program effectiveness, required funds for rape prevention and education programs, and newly added protections for victims of dating violence (Sacco, 2015, pp. 9-10). The 2005 reauthorization was ratified the Violence Against Women and Department of Justice Reauthorization Act. This reauthorization added more protection for battered and trafficked citizens, increased the penalties for stalking, and newly included programs for American Indian and sexual assault victims, as well as programs to “improve the public health response to domestic violence” (Sacco, 2015, p. 10). The Violence Against Women and Department of Justice Reauthorization Act focused on the alliance of law enforcement, health and housing, women, men, and youth, while encouraging communities to address the issue of violence against women (Sacco, 2015, p. 10). More recently, Congress passed the Violence Against Women Reauthorization Act of 2013 to reauthorize the programs under the VAWA (Sacco, 2015, p. 2). Some programs that were reauthorized in this act were, “STOP (Services, Training, Officers, and Prosecutors) grants, transitional housing assistance grants, and legal assistance for victims” (Legislative Background On Violence Against Women, 2012). The Violence Against Women Reauthorization Act of 2013 also included sexual assault services, homicides caused by or related to domestic violence, tribal court authorities, more protection for immigrants, and more “services for undeserved communities, and civil rights protections to ensure nondiscrimination” (Legislative 80

Background On Violence Against Women, 2012). This act provided support for indigenous people, members of the LGBTQ+ community, and human trafficking victims, but lacked the same amount of support for intimate partner violence against the immigrant population in the United States of America (Modi, et al., 2014). In addition, the reauthorization in 2013 revised the definition of “domestic violence” to include “intimate partners” and “current and former spouses.” It also redefined “undeserved populations,” which now includes people who are or may be discriminated against based on their religion, sexual orientation, or gender identity (Sacco, 2015, p. 12). Since the passing of the VAWA into law, states have reformed many laws to prioritize the prosecution of violent crimes against women and protections for women. For example, all states now have laws that make punishments for date or spousal rape equal to stranger rape, which was once considered a lesser crime. All states now have laws that make stalking a crime, and warrantless arrests are now permitted in cases where there is probable cause of a domestic violence occurrence. In addition, states now provide criminal charges against those who violate a civil protection order, and laws were enacted in many states that prohibit subjecting a rape victim to a polygraph test or something else. There are also varying laws in more than 35 states that address domestic and sexual violence and stalking in the workplace. (Violence against women act history, 2012, p. 192). Policy Analysis Through this policy analysis, the implementation and effects of the Violence Against Women Act (VAWA) will be addressed. Implementation Women are often silent victims of violent crimes, including rape and domestic violence. (Clark, et al., 2002, p. 424). The VAWA of 1994 had the primary goals to, “clearly criminalize acquaintance rape, domestic assault, stalking, and other acts of violence against women as well as to increase prosecution and penalties for these serious offenses” (Boba & Lilley, 2009, p. 169). When thinking about funding this act, the costs incurred by the government as well as costs for other actors come into play (Morestin, 2012, p. 4). To fund this act, the VAWA legislation created two forms of funding. First, they provided funds through the U.S. Department of Justice (USDOJ) for criminal justice purposes. The grants provided by the USDOJ were for law enforcement and prosecution, as well as to, “encourage arrest policies, and other grants addressing domestic violence, child abuse in rural areas, and child abuse programs” (Boba & Lilley, 2009, p. 169). The distribution of this money began in 1997. Next, the

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Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) provided grants that addressed social service support programs. These grants were aimed to create and fund a national domestic abuse hotline, shelters and other programs, rape education and prevention, and the reduction of sexual abuse of street youths. There was also funding for research and data collection (Boba & Lilley, 2009, p. 169). When the VAWA was reauthorized, so was the funding to maintain and support the aforementioned initiatives. The reauthorizations brought more focus to the STOP and Arrest programs (Boba & Lilley, 2009, pp. 169-70). There are multiple grant programs under the VAWA, including the prevention, investigation, and prosecution of domestic violence and other related crimes, as well as other programs. Other grants were used to improve the prevention of crime in public transportation and in public and national parks. The VAWA “also expanded the Family violence Prevention and Services Act (FVPSA) to include grants for youth education on domestic violence and intimate partner violence as well as to include grants for community intervention and prevention programs” (Sacco, 2015, p. 3). The VAWA provided more than just grant programs. In addition to grant programs and improvements to the criminal justice system, the VAWA required the U.S. Postal Service to guarantee the confidentiality of domestic violence shelters and the addresses of the abused. It was also mandatory for the Attorney General–as well as–others, to complete federal research to increase the understanding the government has of violence against women, studies on campus sexual assault, and battered women’s syndrome (Sacco, 2015, p. 4). “The Violence Against Women Act of 1994 (VAWA-I) was designed to create a safe environment for women – in their homes, on the streets, and within the court system” (Clark, et al., 2002, p. 418). The goals of the VAWA are to help prevent violent crime, respond to the needs of victims, increase knowledge about violence against women, and change the public’s attitude of domestic violence (Sacco, 2015, p. 17). These programs and requirements led to a study on the costs and benefits of the act. Through a cost-benefit analysis, researchers hypothesized that the VAWA, “has reduced societal costs associated with violent criminal victimization of women” (Clark, et al., 2002, p. 418). The main question associated with this analysis was: “What is the net social benefit of the Violence Against Women Act of 1994?” (Clark, et al., 2002, p. 418). Researchers gained data from the National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) on rape and assault (Boba & Lilley, 2009, p. 172). The costs were converted into dollar amounts, and all costs were included, no matter who

experienced them. The costs included property loss, medical and mental health care, victim and other social services, quality of life, and specificity. Some victimization costs were omitted from the analysis due to a lack of reliable data (Clark, et al., 2002, pg. 421). Overall, it was found that the benefits of the VAWA outweighed the costs. In a dollar amount, the costs were estimated at only $1.6 billion, while the benefits were estimated at $16.4 billion. Individually, the VAWA is estimated to cost $15.50 per US woman. “This suggests that VAWA-I is a fiscally efficient social program” (Clark, et al., 2002, p. 423). Overall, the VAWA is effective, both financially and fiscally. Feasibility is “about examining the technical feasibility of the policy… feasibility depends on the availability of the required resources” (Morestin, 2012, p. 5). The VAWA of 1994 aims to, “improve legal protection for battered immigrant women and children” (Clark, et al., 2002, p. 418). There are self-petitioning provisions in the act to protect immigrant women in abusive relationships because of their fears about their immigration status. These provisions ensure immigrant women have a way to escape a violent situation and protect their children (Ingram, et al., 2010, p. 877). The act protects so many different types of women. The resources provided by the VAWA are now, as of the reauthorizations in 2000 and 2005, offered to elderly victims, victims with disabilities, and women in tribal communities (Legislative background on violence against women, 2012). In addition to all those women, the act also protects children and youth. The programs enacted under VAWA also reach a wide variety of people. For example, the programs reach the public youth, “law enforcement, judicial personnel, and public/private sector providers with respect to services for victims of domestic violence and related crimes” (Sacco, 2015, p. 3). The programs from the VAWA are available to many women and provide them with increased confidence through the acceptability of the act. “Acceptability refers to how the proposed public policy is judged by stakeholders” (Morestin, 2012, p. 6). In an interview, women described a feeling of non-permanence when it came to the VAWA, saying the “self-petition process was marked by instability and uncertainty… they felt they were always waiting for something” (Ingram, et al., 2010, pp. 867-8). However, through this self-petition process, women began to see themselves and their children as transformed. Their self-esteem and dignity increased with them now having legal status. These women that were interviewed expressed that their confidence has increased and they will move forward in their lives with that confidence high (Ingram, et al., 2010, 872-3).

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Effects Effectiveness is defined as, “the objective is to prevent or remedy a health problem, or to otherwise promote health” (Morestin, 2012, p.3). To assess the effectiveness of the funding of the VAWA, the US Office of Management and Budget (OMB) used a software called the Program Assessment Rating Tool. The funding for the 1994 VAWA got the most favorable assessment out of all the funding provided in the Crime Act of 1994. That assessment was labeled as moderately effective, the second highest possible rating the funding could have received. This means there is still some work to be done with its efficiency or other problems, but overall, “the OMB concluded that the VAWA-funding programs were ‘generally wellmanaged and largely achieve the goal of improving the nation’s response to domestic violence and sexual assault crimes’” (Boba & Lilley, 2009, pp. 170-1). The funding provided ways for police departments, prosecutors’ offices, and probation departments to create specialized units, as well as the creation of domestic violence courts. These units were more cost effective than addressing the crimes against women through general criminal justice protocol (Boba & Lilley, 2009, p. 171). In addition to the cost-effectiveness of the VAWA, there has been reductions in the violent crimes against women. It is common to see reduced rape and aggravated assault in areas with funding from the VAWA. One reason could be because the abusers have been incapacitated, which prevents further violence from occurring. There may have also been a reduction in violent crimes against women due to the deterrence from increased police presence, more prosecution of the crimes, and harsher penalties. Another reason for the reduction of violent crimes against women could be the improvement of victim support programs that may have led to an increased, “reporting and follow-through by victims” (Boba & Lilley, 2009, p. 173). There have also been multiple actions taken to ensure the reduction of violent crimes. For example, there are legislative protections for battered women moving across state lines as well as a weapons and firearm ban for domestic abusers (Clark, et al., 2002, p. 418). In addition to all the programs listed previously, like the STOP and Arrest programs, there were two additional programs that led to the effectiveness of the VAWA: COPS MORE and LLEBG. These programs were designed to increase police efficiency and contributed to the reduction of violent crimes like rape and assault (Boba & Lilley, 2009, p. 182). Despite the effectiveness of these programs some downfalls to this legislation. In regard to how beneficial the VAWA has been and will continue to be, there are still unintended effects. “Unintended effects can be positive or negative 82

and can be produced in all kinds of areas” (Morestin, 2012, p. 4). A main downfall of the act would be the increased amount of evidence needed in sexual assault cases and the rollback of Title IX responsibilities (Rajan & Fontaine, 2018, p. 25). In the year 2014, it was reported that one in five women have been sexually assaulted while attending college (Stuart, 2014). For the general population, the number of undocumented sexual assaults is upwards of 63% and only 7.8% of reported sexual assault cases lead to conviction, while 4.6% lead to a prison sentence (Rajan & Fontaine, 2018, pp. 24-5). The VAWA aims to reduce those numbers, and has made considerable progress in the reauthorizations of the act. Every few years, there are threats like this that put women at risk of losing the act’s services (Rajan & Fontaine, 2018, p. 25). A way to combat this was the Campus Sexual Violence Elimination (SAVE) Act (Stuart, 2014). The VAWA helps many women, but it also causes unintended harm to those who need it most. There is a major lack of awareness about domestic violence and the weapons ban associated with charges of domestic violence. In the VAWA of 1994, there is an amendment to the Gun Control Act of 1968 making it, “illegal for a person against whom a qualifying order of protection has been issued to, ‘possess, ship, or receive a firearm or ammunition’” (Price, 2014, pp. 79-80). A main problem with this weapons ban is the possibility that judges may not issue as many protection orders because of the ban, which leads to domestic violence advocates opposing the use of the mandatory gun bans. A judge may not issue a protective order based on their views of the Second Amendment and gun rights, or whether the defendant is a hunter because the gun ban extends to rifles as well as handguns. There could also be a disempowerment of the domestic violence victim. Often, victims want the abuse to end, not the relationship. So, granting a protection order could make them feel less empowered in the situation (Price, 2014, p. 80). In addition to the downfalls of these protection orders, they are often misused. Another unintended effect of the VAWA would be that, “orders of protection have been granted, based upon completely frivolous allegations” (Price, 2014, p. 82). The amount of violence needed for a protection order to be granted varies between states. Some states do not even require physical violence to be involved in the altercation. This could lead to potential misuse of the protection order. The rate of intentional misuse of domestic violence orders of protection is estimated at 5%. Even though that number is low, it still equals approximately 100,000 defendants nationwide having their liberties taken from them based on the possibility of a domestic violence occurrence (Price, 2014, p. 83). “Three out of four American women will be victims

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of violent crimes sometime during their life” (Crime Control Issues, 1994, p. 170). This means that three out of four women could need these protection orders, but they may be used for the wrong reasons by the wrong people, which causes harm to more than just the individuals they are getting protection orders against. When referencing equity, the act must produce, “different effects on various groups” (Morestin, 2012, p. 4). The VAWA provides confidentiality protections to prevent abusers from further abusing non-citizen domestic violence victims. There are three types of protections given to immigrant victims: (1) nondisclosure provisions, (2) source limitations, and (3) enforcement limitations. Nondisclosure provisions help non-citizen violence victims by preventing their abusers from gaining information about a case and using that information against them. Source limitations are used to prevent immigration enforcement agencies from using information that is only provided to them by the victim’s abuser. Enforcement limitations prevent enforcement actions from occurring at domestic violence shelters and rape crisis centers, victim services programs, and family justice or supervised visitation centers. Violations of these protections can result in life-threatening dangers for the victims they are meant to protect (Utilizing Vawa Confidentiality Protections In Family Court Proceedings, 2016, pp. 69-70). However, these violations can be avoided with increased protection of battered women. In addition to the confidentiality protections provided by the VAWA, there are Department of Homeland Security (DHS) policies that implement them (Preparing Immigrant Victim Clients For Encounters With Dhs, 2016, p. 1). The main issues concerning the possible danger of non-citizen violence victims if these protections are violated, include the use of information by the abuser toward the abused and the communication with DHS as an interference with justice for the abuse victim. These tactics are used as a way for the abuser to still have power over their victim (Utilizing Vawa Confidentiality Protections In Family Court Proceedings, 2016, p. 71). There have always been challenges, similar to this, facing battered women. When the VAWA was implemented, it was challenged by the, “unique federal oversight” of the LowIncome Housing Tax Credit (Blake & Ng, 2019, p. 287). To combat these challenges, the VAWA enacted housing provision in the 2005 reauthorization. These provisions were put in place to, “encourage survivors of domestic violence, dating violence, and stalking, who were receiving housing subsidies, to report and seek help for the abuse committed against them without fear of losing their housing” (Blake & Ng, 2019, p. 289). Further expansion happened in the 2013 reauthorization. The act now includes the development of

a self-certification form for survivors and many other provisions to increase the help given to violence victims (Blake & Ng, 2019, p. 289). Summary and Conclusions Key Findings In summation, the VAWA was brought into fruition because of the high amounts of crime against women in the United States, and the alarm that brought to society (Clark, Biddle, & Martin, 2002, p. 417). The act provides protections for all women – citizens, noncitizens, elderly, disabled, and women in tribal communities (Legislative Background On Violence Against Women, 2012). The concerns addressed included violent crimes and violence against women, enhanced sentencing for repeat sex offenders, required compensation for some victims, gave law enforcement investigation abilities, and allowed prosecution for violent crimes against women (Sacco, 2015, p. 1). There were reauthorizations of the VAWA to further enhance and add protections. The VAWA has been reauthorized in 2000, 2005, and 2013. As of 2013, the act includes sexual assault services, domestic violence homicides, authorities for tribal courts, more protection for immigrants and services for undeserved communities, and nondiscrimination civil rights protections (Legislative background on violence against women, 2012). Overall, the VAWA provides support and protections of United States women citizens, indigenous women, immigrant women, members of the LGBTQ+ community, and human trafficking victims (Modi, et al., 2014). Durability of the Policy Overall, the VAWA is a durable policy. Durability refers to “the capacity to be sustained over time, cuts across all six dimensions” (Morestin, 2012, p. 2). The six dimensions are as follows: cost, feasibility, acceptability, effectiveness, unintended effects, and equity. In simpler terms, determining the durability of a policy helps determine if it should continue to produce effects. Morestin provided questions that should be asked about each of the six dimensions when determining the durability of a policy. “Cost: What is the financial cost of this policy? Feasibility: Is this policy technically feasible? Acceptability: Do the relevant stakeholders view the policy as acceptable? Effectiveness: What effects does this policy have on the targeted health problem? Unintended effects: What are the unintended effects of this policy? Equity: What are the effects of this policy on different groups?” (Morestin, 2012, p. 2). The cost of the act was proven to be moderately effective through the use of a software tool, the Program Assessment Rating Tool, by the US Office of Management and Budget (Boba & Lilley, 2009, p. 83

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170). Also, it has been shown that the VAWA is very cost effective, with net benefits reaching $16.4 billion and net costs only reaching $1.6 billion (Clark, et al., 2002, p. 423). That is a $14.8 billion difference, which is astounding. The VAWA provided funding for a lot of programs and necessary additions, such as the establishment and operation of the National Domestic Violence Hotline (Sacco, 2015, p. 4). The cost effectiveness of the act helps increase its feasibility. Feasibility refers to the availability of the resource (Morestin, 2012, p. 5). Overall, the VAWA is very feasible. As of the 2000 reauthorization, its protections do not only cover female citizens of the United States, but also women immigrants, elderly victims, victims with disabilities, and women in tribal communities (Legislative background on violence against women, 2012). In addition to all those women, the act also protects children and youth. The VAWA’s programs also reach many people like the public youth, law enforcement, and judicial personnel (Sacco, 2015, p. 3). The feasibility of the VAWA aids in its acceptability. The acceptability of the VAWA has its ups and downs. Some women felt that the self-petition process was not working for them; they felt like they were always waiting for something to happen (Ingram, et al., 2010, pp. 868). However, through those same self-petition processes, women began to see a change in themselves. They became increasingly more confident, and their self-esteem raised with their newfound legal status (Ingram, et al., 2010, 872-3). The effectiveness of the VAWA has a lot to do with its acceptability. Effectiveness can be described by the, “descriptive and anecdotal reports indicate[ing] that VAWA had profoundly altered the national response to violence against women, [but] documenting overall impact has been difficult” (Boba & Lilley, 2009, p. 170). However, the 2000 reauthorization of the VAWA required grant recipients to report of the programs’ effectiveness (Sacco, 2015, p. 10). There are multiple programs that assisted in the reduction of violent crime against women. For example, the STOP and Arrest programs prioritized training for criminal justice professionals and encouraged arrest policies (Boba & Lilley, 2009, p. 170). In addition to the STOP and Arrest programs, the COPS MORE and LLEBG programs assisted in reducing violent crimes like rape and assault (Boba & Lilley, 2009, p. 182). Even with the high effectiveness of the programs associated with the VAWA, there still came unintended effects. A major unintended effect is the increased proof needed for sexual assault cases, especially on college campuses (Rajan & Fontaine, 2018, pp. 24-5). Sexual assault happens to one in five women while attending college (Stuart, 2014). That is 20% of women who attend college. This is comparable to the 63% of sexual assaults that go undocumented (Rajan & Fontaine, 84

2018, pp. 24). Another unintended effect of the VAWA is the increased amount of protection orders granted based on falsities and the misuse of those protection orders (Price, 2014, pp. 82-3). However, with these unfair disadvantages of the VAWA comes a sense of equity. Lastly, the equity of this act coincides with its feasibility. The VAWA provides protections for women of all different groups. For example, immigrant women seem to be of extreme importance in the VAWA. The act’s confidentiality protections provide safety for immigrant women so their abusers cannot learn or use information against them in immigration cases. These protections include nondisclosure provisions, source limitations, and enforcement limitations. If these protections are violated, the abuse victims could be in life-threatening danger (Utilizing Vawa Confidentiality Protections In Family Court Proceedings, 2016, pp. 69-70). In addition to the confidentiality protections, there are now protections that include housing. Abused women no longer have to be afraid of losing their housing while seeking help to escape their abuser (Blake & Ng, 2019, p. 289). Recommendations In future reauthorizations of the VAWA, the limitations should be recognized and investigated to create safe programs for abused women. Addressing the issues within the act is the first step to finding ways to fix those issues. Revisions to the weapons ban and protection order is necessary. While it is not ideal, more proof by way of a requirement for people to get protection orders. This would help avoid the misuse of protection orders and help the women and families who need them to get them and be protected. Another way to combat this issue would be to provide a separate protection order for abused women. Like the self-petition process, there could be a required process or paperwork these individuals need to fill out to be considered for the protection order. Another limitation that needs to be revised is the increased amount of proof needed for sexual assault claims. Decreasing the amount of proof needed in sexual assault cases would make women feel safer and more understood and could possibly aid in them getting some sort of justice for what they have been through. In the United States, “81% of women and 43% of men reported experiencing some form of sexual harassment and/or assault in their lifetime” (Statistics). Sexual harassment and assault is a widespread problem which significantly affects the livelihoods of its' victims. Providing easier outlets for women, and men, to get the justice they deserve would create a safer nation, whether that be because the occurrences will reduce, or the offenders will receive some sort of correctional sentence.

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References Blake, R., & Ng, K. (2019). Upstanders and bystanders: The role of state housing finance agencies in implementing the Violence Against Women Act in the Low Income Housing Tax Credit program. Journal of Affordable Housing & Community Development Law, 28(2), 287–298. Boba, R., & Lilley, D. (2009). Violence Against Women Act (VAWA) funding a nationwide assessment of effects of rape and assault. Violence Against Women, 15(2), 168–185. doi: 10.1177/1077801208329146 Cavallaro, R. (2019). Rape shield evidence and the hierarchy of impeachment. American Criminal Law Review, 56(2). Clark, K. A., Biddle, A. K., & Martin, S. L. (2002). A costbenefit analysis of the Violence Against Women Act of 1994. Violence Against Women, 8(4), 417–428. doi: 10.1177/10778010222183143 Crime Control Issues. (1994, June-July). Congressional Digest, pp. 169-70. Defining Dating Violence. Teen Dating Violence. (2022). Retrieved January 24, 2022, from https://www. michigan.gov/datingviolence/0,4559,7-23346553-169521--,00.html Domestic Violence. The United States Department of Justice. (2020, October 23). Retrieved January 24, 2022, from https://www.justice.gov/ovw/domestic-violence Ingram, M., McClelland, D. J., Martin, J., Caballero, M. F., Mayorga, M. T., & Gillespie, K. (2010). Experiences of Immigrant Women Who Self-Petition Under the Violence Against Women Act. Violence Against Women, 16(8), 858–880. doi: 10.1177/1077801210376889 Legislative Background On Violence Against Women. (2012, June). Congressional Digest, p. 170. Modi, M. N., Palmer, S., & Armstrong, A. (2014). The role of Violence Against Women Act in addressing intimate partner violence: A public health issue. Journal of Women’s Health, 23(3), 253–259. doi: 10.1089/ jwh.2013.4387 Morestin, F. (2012, September). A framework for analyzing public policies: Practical guide. National Collaborating Center for Public Policy. 1-13.

Preparing Immigrant Victim Clients for Encounters with DHS. (2016). Family & Intimate Partner Violence Quarterly, 9(2/3), 53–56. Price, Margaret, S. (2014). All’s fair in love and war -- Or is it? Domestic violence and weapons bans. American Journal of Family Law, 28(2): 79-86. Ranjan, S., & Fontaine, J. (2018). Connecting the dots: Improving justice for women and girls. Translational Criminology, 16, 24–26. Sacco, L. N. (2015). The violence against women act: Overview, legislation, and federal funding. Congressional research service, 1-39. Sexual Assault. RAINN. (2022). Retrieved January 24, 2022, from https://www.rainn.org/articles/sexual-assault Stalking Laws in California – penal code 646.9 PC. Eisner Gorin LLP. (2022). Retrieved January 24, 2022, from https://www.keglawyers.com/ stalking-laws-california-penal-code-646-9 Statistics. National Sexual Violence Resource Center. (n.d.). https://www.nsvrc.org/statistics. Stuart, R. (2014). Renewed Violence Against Women Act addresses traditional and new issues. Diverse: issues in higher education, 31(4), 4–5. Utilizing Vawa Confidentiality Protections In Family Court Proceedings. (2016). Family & Intimate Partner Violence Quarterly, 9(2/3), 69–84. Violence Against Women Act History. (2012, June). Congressional Digest, 162-192. Retrieved from Congressional Digest: https://congressionaldigest. com/issue/violence-against-women-2012/ violence-against-women-act-history-2012/ World Health Organization. (2021, March 9). Violence against women. World Health Organization. Retrieved January 24, 2022, from https://www. who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/violenceagainst-women#:~:text=A%202018%20analysis%20 of%20prevalence,intimate%20partner%20or%20 non%2Dpartner

Student Reflection: I really enjoyed researching for and writing this paper. I chose the Violence Against Women Act for my policy analysis paper because of my passion and interest in the topic. I wish to see a change in the way the criminal justice system views women and their victimizations, which is aided by the Violence Against Women Act. Throughout my time at Shippensburg University, I have focused primarily on women’s issues in the criminal justice system as a point of research. So, I am grateful for this paper for deepening my knowledge in my preferred research topic and increasing my passion in understanding the victimization of women and the affect it has on them.

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Why are People with Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities Treated Differently by Medical Professionals? by Devon Speiser DS 400: Capstone Disability Studies Dr. Allison Carey Assignment: An independent research paper that displays the student’s skill at synthesizing literature. The paper is to integrate and synthesize learning from Disability Studies coursework and other classes in the students’ major field of studies.

The purpose of this paper is to look at the following research question: “Why are people with intellectual/developmental disabilities treated differently by medical professionals?” Examining the answer to this research question is extremely important in the context of disability studies because having access to adequate health care should be a basic human right. Finding affordable and adequate health care is difficult in general, but it is especially difficult for people with intellectual/ development disabilities because some medical professionals are not equipped to work with that specific population. People with developmental/ intellectual disabilities struggle to find jobs with good pay so they may not be able to afford specialty care. What's more, they also may struggle when it comes to their basic health care because medical professionals at times are able to choose who they will and will not provide care for. Lack of Autonomy Throughout history, people with disabilities have been seen as less than people who do not have a disability. They consistently did not have equal rights just based on the fact that they had a disability. One of the ways that people with disabilities had their rights violated was not having control over their autonomy. There are still instances today where people with disabilities lose their autonomy specifically when it comes to medical/ health decisions, but it was much more common in the past. Forced sterilization was common in the past among people with disabilities due to beliefs surrounding ableism and eugenics. Today, these negative experiences are now mostly impacting people who have an intellectual or development disability (IDD). People with an IDD are typically seen or stereotyped as not being able to properly care for themselves, 86

so they are commonly taken advantage of, specifically when it comes to medical and health decisions. “People with intellectual or developmental disability experience health inequities and confront multiple barriers in society, often related to the stigma of intellectual or developmental disability” (Fisher et al., 2020). These health inequalities and barriers that people with an IDD experience stems back to the history of ableism and eugenics. That same article by Fisher et al. found that “... ethical considerations between paternalistic beneficence and idealized autonomy have resulted in a lack of clear direction in working with a population that is often ignored or exploited” (Fisher et al., 2020). This shows that medical professionals are either unaware or ill prepared to understand what it means to give someone with IDD their own autonomy. Fisher et al. look at how nurses may categorize patients with IDDs as vulnerable without acknowledging their personal and specific capabilities (Fisher et al., 2020). “Professionals reported stress, lack of confidence, fear and anxiety, a tendency to treat people with ID differently and a lack of supporting autonomy” (Embregts et al., 2017). The lack of education among medical professionals will be discussed later in this paper, but these articles show how that lack of education can take away a person’s autonomy when it comes to their medical and health care. In addition to this lack of medical autonomy, people with disabilities are commonly categorized as being asexual aren’t seen as sexual/ intimate beings. This can be related back to the history of disabilities and eugenics yet again. Because people with disabilities aren’t seen as people who typically experience intimate relationships, they may not get the same experience or opportunities as someone who does not have a

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disability. “Sexuality is an issue of equality, rights, and ethics, especially when it comes to the sexuality of people with intellectual and developmental disabilities (IDD)” (Stein & Dillenburger, 2016). Relating back to medical care and lack of autonomy within the disability community, people with IDD most likely won’t receive an adequate sex education, which puts them at a huge disadvantage. Since they probably won’t be educated by medical professionals on the dos and don’ts of sexual relationships and reproduction, they may be more susceptible to sexual assault or harassment, unplanned pregnancy, STIs, and other areas of sex health that would typically be talked about with those professionals. Part of this issue stems to the fact that people with IDDs are seen as unfit parents by society, media, and medical professionals, so they are strongly encouraged to not have sexual intercourse or left purposely uninformed of their right to have children. “Although many accept that people with IDD have the right to sexual expression, this can be a difficult issue for parents and providers” (Stein & Dillenburger, 2016). Not only are medical professionals violating a person with IDD’s autonomy, but so are the family members of that person. “Traditionally, parents, professionals, and the law erred on the side of protection from harm, consequently limiting sexual expression, i.e., the same laws that are designed to protect people with IDD from harm prevented them from engaging in normal sexual activities” (Stein & Dillenburger, 2016). That article talks about how laws that are in place that put a limit on persons with disabilities sexual expression can be beneficial to those who truly cannot consent, but also create an “anti-sexual bias” that medical professionals are applying to all persons with IDD because most of the time they don’t look at people with IDD’s as complex individuals (Stein & Dillenburger, 2016). This lack of autonomy is also compounded by the fact that it is common for other, non-disabled people to make medical decisions for those with IDD’s, whether by asking/answering simple questions during a routine exam or even opting for a medical procedure without consulting directly with the patient. These professionals typically talk with the parent, guardian, or whoever is attending the appointment with the person with the disability instead of directly to the patient. These professionals are taking away the patients’ medical autonomy by doing this. There are even cases where medical professionals will go against living wills/ advance directives that the patient has put into place to instead listen to the family of the patients wishes. Despite these shortcomings, one way medical professionals are attempting to give back a patient’s autonomy is by allowing people with IDD to choose their own end-of-life care (Bekkema et al., 2013). As

we can see through these multifaceted instances, taking away the medical autonomy of a person with a disability is still a huge problem, but through education and advocacy, changes being made to right these wrongs. Cost/ Paying for Healthcare Health care in general is extremely costly, especially within the United States. For those with IDDs, these costs get even more expensive and increase the difficulty of having the ability to pay for it or having access to adequate insurance. “Certain chronic conditions and co-morbidities that are frequently found among individuals with IDD can drive the healthcare costs for this population” (Amin et al., 2020). People with IDD were found to have a “higher prevalence of medical conditions in virtually every organ system” (Amin et al., 2020). Because people with IDD commonly have multiple medical problems, they likely have to pay more into health care because they likely see medical professionals more than the average person. If they have the means to afford health insurance, their rates are likely extremely high for the same reason. People who are a part of the IDD population were found to be a high-cost subpopulation with the Medicaid program (Amin et al., 2020). People with disabilities often have to rely on government assistance like Medicaid to cover or help cover their medical expenses, and the study done by Amin et al. shows that people with IDDs make up a portion of Medicaid that has a high cost compared to people with don’t have IDD but also use Medicaid. Indeed, living with a disability is more expensive than not. People who live without disability or chronic illness rarely need to see medical professional on a regular basis unless it’s for preemptive care like yearly check-ups, but that’s only if they can afford those visits. People with disabilities commonly require frequent visits to the doctor and, depending on their specific disability, they may require frequent medical procedures. Individuals with IDDs may have different medical needs, as not all disabilities and people with them are the same. They may need frequent therapies and/or visits to primary care providers because they are more susceptible to certain health conditions that require annual checks. With the added amount of check-ups, procedures, and therapies, the cost of care is going to quickly pile up compared to a person who doesn’t have a disability. With all of these conditions that require frequent care, people with IDD will have extremely high insurance rates, and that is even if they care afford health insurance. Fujuura et al found “...a mixed pattern of differences in rates of service use and costs when compared to the general population depending upon personal characteristics, health status, and type of 87

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health care service” (Fujiura, et al., 2018). This article reaffirms the difference in cost of healthcare between people with disabilities and people without disabilities. Low-income families in particular commonly struggle with the cost of caring for a child that has a disability. They struggle to afford their healthcare but also have trouble with advocating for quality care for their children with IDD. A study done by Stone and Zisser (2015) looked at a program that can help those families do both of those things. “This program description presents an innovative program in which advocates, and attorneys work closely with healthcare professionals in a pediatric setting to improve implementation of clinical recommendations and outcomes for low-income children with intellectual and developmental disabilities” (Stone & Zisser, 2015). Preventive care is an absolute must for everyone but especially for people who have an IDD since they are more likely to have more health problems and complications compared to people who don’t have disabilities. For low-income families, it is difficult for them to prioritize preventative care because they seldomly can afford it. With this program, these families are assisted by not only medical professional but also legal professionals who help them fight for the right of affordable and adequate healthcare for their children with an IDD. As previously stated, disability history has played a large part in more people with disabilities being treated today by medical professionals and the continuation of medicalizing disabilities. With this study done by Stone and Zisser (2015), that is being rectified to better benefit those with IDD and their families. “... [R]esearch, policy, and legislation have shifted focus from the medical manifestations of disability to the interaction between the medical and social constructs that prevent individuals with disabilities from fully participating in important daily activities, such as employment and education.” But what happens when these children grow up? As noted, children with disabilities rely on their parents to financially help treat the health problems that come with their disability either out of pocket or through the parent’s insurance. But those resources run out after so many years. Once the person with IDD becomes an adult, their parents are no longer financially responsible for them unless they choose to be so. Also, depending on the insurance that the parent has, the person with the disability is only covered until they are 25 or 26 years of age. “Youth with IDD often lose familiar supports as they age out of service eligibility under IDEA and pediatric health care services” (Alexander et al., 2019). After these resources are gone, there is little assistance available to those individuals. They might be eligible for Medicaid or disability benefits, or maybe even Medicare, but who is going to help them sign up 88

for those benefits? Who is going to help them understand what is covered or not? Once these individuals with IDDs transition to becoming adults, they will have to learn how to do these things for themselves. A study by Alexander et al. (2019) found that transitioning to adulthood and insurance & financial resources are some of the priority topics with which young adults with IDD need the most help. Another important thing to address about paying for medical care while being a young adult with IDD is the fact that it is extremely hard for them to find a well-paying job that either offers benefits or pays enough to afford personal health insurance. People with IDD have limited career options or at least options that offer quality health benefits and a livable wage. All of these factors contribute to the financial difficulties of those with IDD’s, difficulties that can be compounded due to a person with IDD’s low-income, unemployment, and, as we shall soon see, race and ethnic grouping. Race/Ethnicity People with disabilities are already considered a minority, but when you add race/ethnicity into the mix, it gets even harder to receive adequate healthcare. Both people with disabilities and people of color have had a rocky history with medical professionals; both populations have been deceived and experimented on throughout history. Because of this, these communities are less likely to want to seek medical help or interact with medical professionals. Among “Black and Latinx adults with IDD, the most-mentioned reasons for not having usual source of care, delaying or foregoing medical care were “don’t like/don’t trust doctors,” “don’t use doctors,” and “don’t know where to get care.”. In contrast, “White adults with IDD group’s biggest perceived barriers were location and insurance related” (Li et al., 2021). Li et al. (2021) show how disabled minority communities have different concerns when it comes to their health care compared to their White counterparts. As mentioned earlier in this paper, people with IDD lack autonomy especially when it comes to reproductive health and rights. Women with IDD are having children at an increasing rate within the United States, but whether these births are successful can largely rely on race (Akobirshoev et al., 2019). Akobirshoev et al (2019) looked to see if there are “...racial and ethnic disparities in birth outcomes and labor and delivery-related charges...” They found “significant disparities in stillbirth among non-Hispanic Black and Hispanic women with IDD compared with their non-Hispanic White peers” (Akobirshoev et al, 2019). Racial bias and disparities involving the health care system and medical professionals are becoming more commonly reported, so we see that it is unfortunately

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common for minority women to receive less quality care than White women. When we add IDD into the mix, minority women are put at an even greater disadvantage due to bias against race and disability. Akobirshoev et al. (2019) also saw a difference is labor and delivery costs, with Black and Hispanic women with IDD being charged more than White women with IDD. Not only are there disparities between medical professionals and the healthcare system when it comes to minority women with IDD, but there are also documented disparities when it comes to minority children. “Racial and ethnic disparities in the quality of provider interactions were substantial” when it came to minority children (Magaña et al., 2015). This study looked to see if those racial and ethnic disparities changed over a period of four to five years. Magaña et al. (2015) found that “Racial and ethnic disparities in health care quality were found to be unchanged over time.” These disparities may not have changed at all because they weren’t being publicized or reported so no disciplinary actions or corrections were made. Essentially, medical professionals who were treating their patients with IDD differently due to their race/ethnicity were going unchecked. “Black and Latino parents were significantly less likely than White parents to report that their provider spent enough time with their child and was sensitive to the family’s values” (Magaña et al., 2015). Like most things, when something is wrong and goes uncorrected, no changes are made. As we’ve seen, minorities with IDD receive worse quality healthcare compared to the majority group. “Around the world, members of racial/ethnic minority groups typically experience poorer health than members of racial/ethnic majority groups” (Albrecht et al., 2013). There may be a couple different reasons of why that occurs. One of the reasons is, again, low socioeconomic status. People who are living in poverty cannot afford insurance or health care out of pocket, especially if they do not qualify for government assistance. People in poverty do not prioritize preemptive healthcare because they cannot afford it; they typically leave their health problem until they can no longer function without medical intervention. Another reason why minorities with IDD may experience poorer health care is because of racial bias. Medical professionals may be biased against a certain race/ethnicity which can and will affect the way they treat their patients. At times these professionals might not know they are biased until it is pointed out to them. Medical professionals may also be biased against people with disabilities, specifically those with IDD. Again, they might not know that they are being biased, but it is still extremely harmful to those minority populations.

Communication may also be playing a large part in health disparities when it comes to minorities living with IDD. Ali et al. (2013) found that a language/ communication barrier between healthcare workers and minorities with disabilities may be a factor as to why there are disparities with this population and their healthcare. For some people with IDD, it may be hard to communicate depending on what their disabilities is and their individual attributes. When a minority speaks a different language, there is an even bigger communication barrier. Medical professionals do have tools to help them communicate with patients that speak a different language, but there are going to be times where things get lost in translation. And while there are translation tools for international languages, there are no devices and/ or assistance that helps medical professionals communicate properly with individuals with communication disabilities. It may be possible that not all racial and disability disparities are the provider’s fault; it might be because the healthcare system is stacked against these populations. Lack of Education Among Medical Professionals Lack of education among medical professionals is probably the largest reason why people with disabilities do not get adequate healthcare. Some disabilities make it so that the patient cannot sit through certain procedures, so medical professionals have to adapt to this obstacle to be able to provide adequate healthcare. One medical field that struggles with adapting to work with people with disabilities is the dental field. The mouth is a very small area to work in, and it may be extremely hard for the dentist and the dental assistants to work with the IDD population. Again, this is not the person with the disabilities’ fault, and some medical professionals are working towards becoming more inclusive with their practice. However, like almost all medical fields, professionals in the dental field are not properly trained on how to work with people with development and/ or intellectual disabilities. “Strategies to improve service delivery include...education of individuals, career, and providers, including both classroom and clinical experiences...” (Fisher, 2012). Dentists are often thrown into the field without ever interacting with a person with a disability, so when one of their patients comes in with a disability, they are underprepared. This creates a bad experience for the patient and may put the professional off from working with the disability community in the future. By having dental professionals work with the disability community before they graduate, they are better prepared for their patients and attain the means to make the appointment or procedure a good experience for the patient, especially if there is fear surrounding dentist or even doctors in general. 89

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There are steps being made towards humanizing dental care. Clark and Watts (2021) looked at “the history of disability and discrimination to understand the progress made to date” in order to see where further steps can be made to better the humanistic dimensions of dental care. It is important to see where mistakes were being made in order to better practice in the future, making a sort of blueprint of what not to do or what to do better. That same study makes a point to say how one of the more important ways to humanize dental care for people with disabilities is to see each person as a unique person who has their own life and experiences, instead of generalizing people with disabilities (Clark & Watts, 2021). It is common knowledge that healthcare providers and doctors spend years getting an education and going through trainings. But it seems like during those many years spent in school not a lot is taught about the IDD population or even the people with disabilities in detail. As patients, family of patients, or even friends of patients, we can clearly see that there is a deficit when it comes to medical education involving persons with disabilities. Surely if we as outsiders can see it, then medical professionals see it also. In an article by Weise and Trollor (2018), mental health service providers reported that, “Participants reported low confidence in key clinical areas and insufficient training.” This shows that medical professionals do see that they aren’t properly prepared to work with people with IDD. The study found that mental health professionals who took part in the study felt that it is the person’s right to receive quality mental health care, but they felt they cannot provide comprehensive care to those individuals due to the lack of confidence and experience (Weise & Trollor, 2018). If these professionals feel like they cannot give patients quality care, then why are educational institutions allowing them to join the workforce? Similarly, Crossman et al. (2015) conducted a study that looked at health care professionals to see what kind of training they received with people with IDD, what kind of training they lacked, and how they thought to better encourage other medical professionals to work with patients with IDD. They found that “...respondents specified that the most critical issues are the lack of formal education or training provided to physicians during medical school and residency and their lack of knowledge around working with individuals with ASD” (Crossman et al., 2015). Not only is the topic of healthcare for people with IDD not taught in school but the providers do not get to practice often with the community, so they gain little to no experience.

Based on research, it actually seems like medical professionals across all fields are aware of how under trained and ill prepared they are to work and treat patients who have an IDD. Bokhour et al. (2012) talks about how doctors feel like they are working without direction and feel uncomfortable working with people who have an IDD because they were not properly exposed to or prepared to work with that specific population. “Primary care physicians who care for adults with intellectual disability often lack experience with the population, and patients with intellectual disability express dissatisfaction with their care” (Bokhour et al., 2012). Not only are providers aware that they aren’t providing the quality care they should be for their patients, but also the patients are aware that the care they are receiving from their providers is not up to standard and could be dramatically improved. “The authors also identified physician frustration and lack of confidence, compounded by anxiety related to difficult behaviors and a lack of context or frame of reference for patients with intellectual disability” (Bokhour et al., 2012). The lack of education among medical professionals are hindering their ability to treat their patients, and frustration and lack of confidence make the situation worse. Providers may start to resent working with patients who have an IDD because they have had stressful experiences with the population. As also found by Fisher (2012), the providers’ lack of experience and frustration is going to create a bad experience for the patient, which will possibly add even more difficulty and strain to the patient – provider relationship. “Primary care physicians request some modification of their educational experience to better equip them to care for patients with intellectual disability” (Bokhour et al., 2012). Medical professionals are taking strides towards being more inclusive and prepared for patients with disabilities, and they would rather experience working with the population hands-on instead of theoretical practice in a lecture/ class setting. After looking at how medical professional were put at a disadvantage due to the lack of education on disabilities, we will now look at how our future medical professionals are being trained and hopefully better educated. Coret et al. (2020) surveyed premed students to see what their experience with people with IDD is like during and outside of their education. “... educational initiatives focused on IDD have resulted in improved knowledge, skill and comfort levels surrounding IDD for participants in these initiatives, including primary-care providers and students from a variety of health disciplines such as medicine, nursing,

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psychiatry, and rehabilitation” (Coret et al., 2020). The study by Coret et al. (2020) looked at a survey of 36 premed students to see what their experience with people with IDD was like. The survey showed that “Forty-four percent of students reported minimal or no previous exposure to people with IDD. Of those with prior experience, 42% mentioned volunteer work, 25% mentioned school peers with IDD, and 19% had one or more immediate family members with IDD” (Coret et al., 2020). The majority of those students have little to no exposure to working with people with an IDD, so, if they were to go through medical school without additional education or experience, they would be thrown out into the workforce to serve a population that they don’t really know anything about. The study showed positive results when it comes to comfort working with people with IDD in the future but still recommends further education and experience working with the IDD community. Seeing how current medical professionals are ill-prepared, we can now look at how people who are a part of the IDD population feel about the lack of education of these medical professionals and how they feel the providers should be educated/ trained. Educators are speaking with patients with disabilities to see where providers and medical professionals need additional training and education to better serve their population. “Recognizing these inadequacies, U.S. medical educators are beginning to develop core competencies for trainees relating to the care of patients with disabilities, including understanding patients’ perceptions of their quality of life and skills in providing patient-centered care” (Iezzoni & Long-Bellil, 2012). The disability community regularly have nondisabled people make decisions for them without consulting the community themselves, so having their thoughts and feelings taken into account is a huge step towards giving people with disabilities equal representation. “Having today’s physicians, even when genuinely well-intentioned, retain control over designing disability-related training programs for future doctors may miss critical issues in caring empathically and effectively for persons with disabilities” (Iezzoni & Long-Bellil, 2012). It is almost impossible to represent a community if you are not a part of the community yourself or consulting with the community. Being an outsider and making decisions for a community may lead to missing out on extremely important areas that are needed or wanted by the community. By consulting the disability community on medical practices, these educators and providers are furthering their education on the disability community.

Conclusion What I found through research is that people with intellectual and/or developmental disabilities struggle in many different areas with the healthcare system because the health care system is stacked against the disability community as a whole and is particularly harmful for minority and/or low-income people with disabilities. What this means in practice for people with disabilities, able-bodied allies, and/or disability studies is that there is a lot of work that needs to be done to help people with IDD overcome these struggles. This work can be accomplished through advocating, and since it’s such a systematic problem, this activism also needs to be done policy-wise and through legislation. References Akobirshoev, I., Mitra, M., Parish, S. L., Moore Simas, T. A., Dembo, R., & Ncube, C. N. (2019). Racial and ethnic disparities in birth outcomes and labour and delivery‐related charges among women with intellectual and developmental disabilities. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 63(4), 313–326. https://doi. org/10.1111/jir.12577 Ali, A., Scior, K., Ratti, V., Strydom, A., King, M., & Hassiotis, A. (2013). Discrimination and other barriers to accessing health care: perspectives of patients with mild and moderate intellectual disability and their carers. PloS one, 8(8), e70855. Amin, M. R., Gentile, J. P., Edwards, B., & Davis, M. (2021). Evaluation of health care disparities for individuals with intellectual and developmental disabilities in Ohio. Community Mental Health Journal, 57(3), 482. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s10597-020-00669-6 Bekkema, N., De Veer, A. J. E., Hertogh, C. M. P. M., & Francke, A. L. (2014). Respecting autonomy in the end‐of‐life care of people with intellectual disabilities: A qualitative multiple‐case study. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 58(4), 368-380. Clark, L., & Watts, C. (2021). The journey of humanizing care for people with disabilities. Qualitative Health Research, 31(7), 1199–1208. https://doi. org/10.1177/10497323211000334 Fisher, K. (2012). Is there anything to smile about? A review of oral care for individuals with intellectual and developmental disabilities. Nursing Research & Practice, 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/860692 Fisher, K., Robichaux, C., Sauerland, J., & Stokes, F. (2020). A nurses’ ethical commitment to people with intellectual and developmental disabilities. Nursing Ethics, 27(4), 1066–1076. https://doi. org/10.1177/0969733019900310 Fujiura, G. T., Henan Li, Magaña, S., & Li, H. (2018). Health services use and costs for Americans with intellectual and developmental disabilities: A national analysis. Intellectual & Developmental Disabilities, 56(2), 101–118. https://doi.org/10.1352/1934-9556-56.2.101

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Iezzoni, L. I., & Long-Bellil, L. M. (2012). Training physicians about caring for persons with disabilities: “Nothing about us without us!”. Disability and Health Journal, 5(3), 136-139. Jiwa, M. I., Coret, A., Sawyer, A., & Lunsky, Y. (2020). Developmental disabilities in undergraduate medical education: The university of Toronto experience. Journal on Developmental Disabilities, 25(2), 1–14. Kramer, J. M., Schwartz, A. E., Watkins, D., Peace, M., Luterman, S., Barnhart, B., Bouma-Sims, J., Riley, J., Shouse, J., Maharaj, R., Rosenberg, C. R., Harvey, K., Huereña, J., Schmid, K., & Alexander, J. S. (2019). Improving research and practice: Priorities for young adults with intellectual/developmental disabilities and mental health needs. Journal of Mental Health Research in Intellectual Disabilities, 12(3–4), 97–125 Li, H., Parish, S. L., Magaña, S., & Morales, M. A. (2021). Racial and ethnic disparities in perceived barriers to health care among U.S. adults with intellectual and developmental disabilities. Intellectual & Developmental Disabilities, 59(1), 84–94. https://doi. org/10.1352/1934-9556-59.1.84 Magaña, S., Parish, S. L., & Son, E. (2015). Have racial and ethnic disparities in the quality of health care relationships changed for children with developmental disabilities and ASD?. American journal on intellectual and developmental disabilities, 120(6), 504-513. Pelleboer‐Gunnink, H. A., Van Oorsouw, W. M. W. J., Van Weeghel, J., & Embregts, P. J. C. M. (2017). Mainstream health professionals’ stigmatising attitudes towards people with intellectual disabilities: a systematic review. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 61(5), 411-434.

Penner, L. A., Hagiwara, N., Eggly, S., Gaertner, S. L., Albrecht, T. L., & Dovidio, J. F. (2013). Racial healthcare disparities: A social psychological analysis. European Review of Social Psychology, 24(1), 70-122. Stein, S., & Dillenburger, K. (2017). Ethics in sexual behavior assessment and support for people with intellectual disability. International Journal on Disability & Human Development, 16(1), 11–17. https://doi. org/10.1515/ijdhd-2016-0023 Warfield, M. E., Crossman, M. K., Delahaye, J., Der Weerd, E., & Kuhlthau, K. A. (2015). Physician perspectives on providing primary medical care to adults with autism spectrum disorders (ASD). Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 45(7), 2209. https://doi. org/10.1007/s10803-015-2386-9 Weise, J., & Trollor, J. N. (2018). Preparedness and training needs of an Australian public mental health workforce in intellectual disability mental health. Journal of Intellectual & Developmental Disability, 43(4), 431–440. https://doi.org/10.3109/13668250.2017.1310825 Wilkinson, J., Dreyfus, D., Cerreto, M., & Bokhour, B. (2012). “Sometimes I feel overwhelmed”: educational needs of family physicians caring for people with intellectual disability. Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, 50(3), 243-250. Zisser, A. R., & Stone, M. (2015). Health, education, advocacy, and law: An innovative approach to improving outcomes for low-income children with intellectual and developmental disabilities. Journal of Policy & Practice in Intellectual Disabilities, 12(2), 132–137. https://doi.org/10.1111/jppi.12115

Student Reflection: I was inspired to research and write about the topic of people with intellectual and developmental disabilities and their experiences with the health care system and their workers after hearing about said topic within lectures in both my Capstone Disability Studies and my Medical Sociology courses. As someone who aspires to one day be a Social Worker in the healthcare setting and has worked in a hospital, I feel that it is my duty to educate myself to better help my current and future patients and clients. My research for this paper was a tedious process but the hard work paid off because I was able to read and synthesize multiple peer-reviewed articles that gave amazing insight into how medical professionals are lacking in the care they provide while working with people with intellectual and developmental disabilities as well as how the next generation of healthcare providers are working towards addressing these problems. There was so much information found in those articles that I thought was essential to the assignment that it took some planning to fit it all appropriately into the final paper.

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A Shooting Star’s Momento Mori by Willow Prenatt ENG 113: Introduction to Academic Writing Dr. Erica Galioto Assignment: The assignment was an analysis of a song of our choice that went into depth on a particular social issue. In this essay we were expected to examine the overall meaning behind the song as well as the individual lyrics and how they form that overall meaning.

“Last Words of a Shooting Star” is the closing track in Mitski Miyawaki’s third album, “Bury Me at Makeout Creek”. This song is an artistic conclusion to the album in the form of a person considering their last moments before death. The song implies the story of a person on a plane that is experiencing turbulence and examines the last thoughts of the narrator as they find peace before the plane crashes. This theme of turbulence is something that appears throughout the song and seems to symbolize a huge negative event. The song is also used as an allegory for declining mental health and suicidal idealization. “Last Words of a Shooting Star” by Mitski argues that she has found with peace with death after evaluating her feelings of emptiness, lamenting over her unfulfilled expectations, and considering how her loved ones will remember her. People who struggle with thoughts of suicide often talk about excessive feelings of emptiness that prevail despite their best efforts to overcome them. In the metaphor of the plane crash, the narrator evaluates these feelings of emptiness moments before their sudden death. Mitski opens verse two with “They’ll never know how I’d stared at the darkness in that room”(In. 6). This line begins her reconciliation of these feelings. Mitski follows this up with a line about having no thoughts and then comparing herself to a shark. Although vague at first, lines 6- 8 imply that despite her loved-ones’ perception of her, she actually feels quite discontent with her life and even suggests that she feels empty or robotic. This idea is later reinforced in the song when Mitski sings, “And did you know the liberty bell is a replica, / Silently housed in its original walls” (lines 17-8). In these lyrics, Mitski is comparing herself to the liberty bell and is implying that she doesn’t feel like herself anymore and that she is performing as she used to but with none of the passion. This metaphor also lends itself to her feelings of emptiness through the imagery of a bell because bells are

hollow. It’s implied that the knowledge this emptiness will end, brings peace to the narrator. Feelings of emptiness can often be caused by a multitude of factors, such as losing a purpose or feeling unfulfilled in one area of life or another. While examining theses feelings of emptiness, Mitski through the narrator, begins to lament over a failed relationship and her unfulfilled expectations. The line, “You’d learned from movies how love ought to be”(In. 13), highlights the main cause of failure in her past relationship. She describes that her significant other didn’t really love her, but simply thought that they did. This relationship seems to have caused a lot negative feelings as well as leaving the narrator feeling unfulfilled. This theme of life subverting expectations can be seen in an earlier line. At the end of the second verse, she sings “I was going to live”(In. 11). With the context of the metaphorical, impending, plane crash, this line takes on a new meaning. This context illustrates how the singer seems to feel cheated from getting to participate in a life she was considering giving up. This concept also lends itself to her feelings of being unfulfilled. Unfortunately, It is only when she close to death that she can grapple with these mishaps in her life and find find peace with everything else. After after coming to terms with with both her unfulfilled desires and feelings of emptiness, Mitski begins to unpack how her family might perceive her sudden death. She goes on to say that she is glad that she left her room clean. She then sings “They’ll think of me kindly”(In. 4) and “When the come for my Things”(In. 5). She implies that in the wake of her death, that her tidy room will reflect well on her even as she has passed. This is important because it shows that even though her death seems imminent, that she still cares about what her family’s last impression of her will be. It’s also important to note that the line “And I am relieved that I’d left my room tidy”(In. 3), appears twice in the song. The first time is on third line of the 93

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first verse and it is connected to the line about people reflecting on her kindly. In the second time, the line is use in the last verse by itself, only followed by the line “Goodbye”(In. 27). This repetition throughout the song shows that she deeply cares about her family and weather they can come to terms with her death because it is not only her first thought, but also her last. It should be noted that the finality of the last two lines covey the idea of the narrator finding peace with how they will be perceived after death.

In conclusion, “Last Words of a Shooting Star” by Mitski shows her struggle to find peace with death and shows the process of how she strives to find that peace. This is shown in when she considers how her loved ones will remember her, evaluates her feelings of emptiness, and laments over her unfulfilled expectations about life. Using the metaphor of a plane about to crash, Mitski is able to explore the last thoughts of someone on the verge of death and offers that this is how she has found her peace.

Student Reflection: Although I am rarely proud of my work, I am particularly fond of this essay because I was able to write about a topic that I can relate to on a deeply personal level. I also feel that I was able to covey the emotions of the artist through my essay. I believe that this is definitely one of my best works to date and for that reason I am submitting it to Write The Ship.

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Infographic by Natalie Wentz ENG 114: Academic Writing Dr. William Harris Assignment: This assignment is an infographic meaning it is a combination of quotes, small amounts of text, and pictures. The assignment is based on the movie The Big Lebowski. I had to use other sources in addition to the movie script in order to support an overall theme that I chose.

Student Reflection: Although this assignment was different from any other assignment, I felt like I did the best at this assignment because I was able to be creative. It was not all about crafting the best paragraph that meets the rubric. I had the freedom to organize the infographic in the way that I saw appropriate. My creative side was able to come out in this assignment because I was able to utilize pictures to enhance the topic I was discussing.

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PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS AND TRAITS MAKE A MAN By: Natalie Wentz

THE DUDE The Dude's response to the Big Lebowski asking him what he thinks

THE BIG LEBOWSKI

a man is defined as highlights the

The Big Lebowski openly shows his

Dude's simple thinking. "Ummm ...

emotion when talking about his wife going

sure. That and a pair of testicles"

missing: “'Bunny Lebowski … She is the

(Coen and Coen 28).

light of my life. Are you surprised at my tears, sir? … Strong men also cry … Strong men also cry'” (Coen and Coen 28).

As a character, the Dude is seen as the mellow, calm, and easy-going character. "These two early confrontations establish the Dude as uninterested in competing with either macho or materialist conceptions of manliness" (Tyree

Because the Big Lebowski is emotional, it is "a masculinity that is so completely failed that it collapses

69).

into femininity" (Allen 387).

EXPLANATION

Each character has their own idea or definition In the Big Lebowski's eyes, a man is someone

Dude's simple thinking. "Ummm ... sure. That and a pair of testicles" (Coen and Coen 28).

emotion when talking about his wife going missing: “'Bunny Lebowski She is the Write…the Ship, 2021-2022 light of my life. Are you surprised at my tears, sir? … Strong men also cry … Strong men also cry'” (Coen and Coen 28).

Because the Big Lebowski is emotional, it is "a masculinity that is so completely failed that it collapses

69).

into femininity" (Allen 387).

EXPLANATION

Each character has their own idea or definition In the Big Lebowski's eyes, a man is someone of what a man is. To the Dude, the scientific who is able to cry openly in front of others. definition of a man is the scientific difference

between genders; what is found between their legs. The Dude, as a character, is very simple and straightforward. This contributes to his personal idea of what makes a man because he has a very simple idea of what makes a man. Because the Dude is straightforward, he does not engage in acts of manliness.

During the interaction between the Big Lebowski and the Dude, the Big Lebowski is physically upset over his wife going missing. He is not scared or ashamed of crying in front of another man. However, to some people, men who cry can be labeled as feminine. The Big Lebowski is seen by some readers as feminine because he sheds tears.

OVERALL

The physical characteristics that define a man as a man combined with unpopular traits of a man are two ways that characters in The Big Lebowski view men. The part of the body in between a man's legs is, in the Dude's eyes, a physical characteristic that defines who is a man. Masculinity comes from being a man. In contrast to the Dude's masculinity, the Big Lebowski can be seen as more of a sensitive character because he openly cries. Most of the time, men prefer to cry in private or do not openly admit to crying. The Big Lebowski is seen as feminine because he openly shows his emotions. However, society is trying to change the stereotype of men crying, because it is not an act of weakness but of strength.

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Look Back and See the Present: An Analysis of “I Am Joaquín” by Alaina Conaway ENG 234: American Literature II Dr. Cristina Rhodes Assignment: This midterm assignment asks that you write an original and well-researched analysis of a text that we have discussed in class or that is related to course discussions. For example, you could write about one of our Modernist poems or locate another Modernist poem of interest, or you could read and write about another speech by Frederick Douglass, or one of Zora Neale Hurston’s short stories. Ultimately, what text you choose to analyze is up to you, though you are certainly encouraged to discuss your research interests with Dr. R to identify an engaging topic for you. Your analysis should contain a clear and argumentative thesis statement, cogent textual analysis, and a conclusion that indicates the significance and implications of your research.

The Chicano Movement is one of the most notable social and political movements in American history. After years of abominable mistreatment and horrifying discrimination, Mexican Americans across the country advocated for social, political, and economic reform. During this period, activists fought for restoration of land grants, voting rights, equal educational opportunities, and much more. The Chicano Movement brought about political reform and advancement for Mexican Americans, as well as its own category of literature. In 1967, boxer, activist, and poet Rodolfo “Corky” Gonzales published his epic poem “I Am Joaquín,” a legendary piece of Chicano literature. In this essay, I will explore the preceding events and impacts of the Chicano movement and their influence on literature. Specifically, I will analyze Rodolfo “Corky” Gonzales’ “I Am Joaquín” and explain how it communicates essential themes from the Chicano Movement. Events Preceding Chicano Movement The racial, social, economic, and political discrimination imposed upon people of Mexican descent dates back to the Age of “Exploration”; for the sake of brevity, I will be focusing on the early twentieth century. As the Mexican American population grew, so did Mexican American identity: “The second half of the nineteenth century was the era during which the experiences of Mexican Americans as a people were founded; the group became a racialized minority in the Southwest, a status reinforced by class and social/ cultural subordination” (Camarillo 501). The budding Mexican American identity was not well-received by white Americans. Many Mexican Americans were met 98

with resistance, and racial discrimination rose quickly, establishing a tense social, political, and economic environment. This tense atmosphere was merely the beginning of what was to become the Chicano Movement. Much of the time, when white Americans hear the words “Chicano Movement,” they typically think of the exploitation of Mexican American farm workers and important figures such as Cesar Chavez; though important, this aspect is only one of many. According to Albert M. Camarillo, the Chicano movement “is a tale about institutional, social, political, and educational change in the United States,” (Camarillo 498). While the exploitation of farmworkers inspired many to fight for change, the divide between Mexican Americans and white Americans had been deepening years before. Throughout the early twentieth century, tensions rose immensely between Mexican Americans and white Americans as the former pushed to be recognized as a class of white citizens (Carrillo). Furthermore, the population of Mexican Americans attending colleges and universities grew more than ever; young Mexican American scholars faced racial discrimination in schools across the United States. The mistreatment of southwestern farm workers was the tipping point, and Mexican- Americans of all ages, economic and political backgrounds united to advocate for social, economic, and political equality. The Chicano Movement and Literature As any social, political, or economic movement does, the Chicano movement produced its own category of literature. This distinct genre of literature expresses the trials of Mexican Americans, ultimately

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becoming its own source of activism; after all, the pen is mightier than the sword. On the subject, Camarillo remarks, “The foundational literature of Chicano history was, thus, concerned with ‘bottomup’ approaches, working-class formations, racialized urban experiences and group identities shaped by race, ethnic/cultural, and class factors” (Camarillo 500). The intent of Chicano literature was, and still is, to share all facets of the Chicano movement both inside and outside of the Mexican American community. Chicano literature serves a higher purpose meant to advocate for the rights of the community, as well as inspire change in deeply flawed social, economic, and political systems such as those in the United States. One of the most iconic, influential authors and activists of the Chicano movement was Rodolfo “Corky” Gonzales. Rodolfo “Corky” Gonzales Throughout his life, Gonzales received recognition as a boxer, social activist, and poet. During the peak of the Chicano movement, Gonzales most notably fought alongside Mexican American youths, emphasizing the importance of equality in education. In 1966, Gonzales founded the Crusade for Justice, which scholar Ian F. Haney López describes as “an organization that spoke not to rural farmers or disenfranchised land holders, but to disenchanted Mexican urban youth” (221-222). Often in times of social unrest, society looks to younger generations both to blame and for change. Given their limited life experience, education, and resources, youths grow discouraged, hopeless, and numb to the sociopolitical strife around them; the Crusade for Justice lended Chicano youth a platform and a community to enact change. Gonzales recognized the crucial position and power of Chicano youth, and his epic poem, “Yo Soy Joaquín/I Am Joaquín” encourages Mexican Americans regardless of age, status, or era. Chicano Identity in “Yo Soy Joaquín/I Am Joaquín” The poem encompasses the shared struggles and victories of Mexican Americans throughout generations, touching on experiences and emotions with which all minority groups can resonate. Early on, Gonzales focuses on America and its detrimental impacts on Mexican American identity and heritage. The speaker recalls: “In a country that has wiped out/ All my history,/ Stifled all my pride,/ In a country that has placed a/ Different weight of indignity upon my age-old burdened back./ Inferiority is the new load . . . .” (Gonzales). In the early twentieth century, and still today, Mexican Americans were forced to assimilate to American culture, leaving them stripped of their Mexican heritage. As a result, many advocated to be recognized as white, further erasing a crucial aspect

of their identity. The country continued to “stifle the pride” of Mexican Americans, imposing sociopolitical limitations on them on the basis of race. Many white Americans degrade and shame Mexican Americans for their heritage; they add a new load, inferiority, to the already demeaning, racist stereotypes tacked onto the community. As the poem progresses, Gonzales highlights the guilt people of color feel when forced to suppress their heritage and background. The speaker reflects on himself, noting, “I look at myself/ And see part of me/ Who rejects my father and my mother/ And dissolves into the melting pot/ To disappear in shame” (Gonzales). America is famously considered the “melting pot” because of its diversity. Like many things white Americans say, the term “melting pot” often does more harm than good as it masks the individuality of various cultures and backgrounds. The speaker looks into this melting pot guilt-ridden and ashamed; he does not want to reject his ancestry, but he must sacrifice his Mexican identity to assume his American identity. The notion that someone must reject a foundational part of their identity in order to be seen as human is appalling, yet all too familiar in American history. As a result, many experience a sense of confusion and loss surrounding their identity. In reference to “I Am Joaquín,” López argues, “Gonzales [captures] the cultural schisms that fractured Mexican identity… engendered by the tensions between Mexican and American national identities” (222). These cultural schisms greatly impact a person’s sense of identity, especially in times of social and political unrest. The tensions surrounding Mexican American identity appear throughout the epic poem. While suppressing his heritage, the speaker comments, “I shed the tears of anguish/ as I see my children disappear/ behind the shroud of mediocrity,/ never to look back to remember me” (Gonzales). The speaker now ponders his children and their relationship with their identity, alluding to his rejection of his heritage. His thoughts torment him, as he fears his children will never see the importance of their heritage; he fears they will reject him just as he rejected his parents. The speaker realizes he is passing down shame in place of ancestry; his children will never understand the complexity and importance of their heritage, ultimately assimilating to American culture and abandoning their heritage. Historical Figures and First Person To further encourage Mexican Americans to embrace their heritage, Gonzales riddles his epic poem with pivotal moments in Mexican history. The speaker recounts centuries of victories and moments of endurance:

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“I am Cuauhtémoc, proud and noble,/ leader of men, king of an empire civilized/ beyond the dreams of the gachupín Cortés,/ who also is the blood, the image of myself./ I am the Maya prince./ I am Nezahualcóyotl, great leader of the Chichimecas./ I am the sword and flame of Cortes the despot/ And I am the eagle and serpent of the Aztec civilization” (Gonzales). By assuming these iconic roles, the speaker highlights the resilience and strength that brought modern day Mexican Americans to their social and political positions in America. These comparisons parallel similar battles fought during the Chicano movement for the same reasons: Freedom, social advancement, and equality. The speaker assumes the role of great Mexican leaders, such as Cuauhtémoc, the last Aztec Emperor, and Nezahualcóyotl, an early indigenous leader; he embraces their power and utilizes it to inspire his audience. However, the speaker also takes on the role of Spanish colonizers, such as Hernán Cortés. In order to fully embrace his heritage, the speaker must also acknowledge the atrocities that helped shape current day Mexico; to erase the tragedies would be to erase those who persisted in the face of catastrophe. The speaker accepts all aspects of Mexican history, both good and bad, to remind Chicano activists of their tenacity. Finally, the speaker refers to himself as the “eagle and serpent of the Aztec civilization.” These symbols of the Aztec civilization are revered for their staunch determination and resourcefulness; by embodying these symbols, the speaker emphasizes those same qualities he sees in the Chicano youth. Moreover, Gonzales includes more recent and thencurrent key figures of Mexican and Mexican American history. He utilizes these figures as a segue to modern times, comparing how far Mexican Americans have come and where they continue to progress. The speaker remarks, “I am the despots Díaz/ And Huerta/ And the apostle of democracy,/ Francisco Madero” (Gonzales). Simultaneously, the speaker assumes the role of three former Mexican leaders with a complex relationship. When Porfirio Díaz fell from power, the revolutionary “apostle of democracy,” Francisco Madero, became Mexico’s president. With tensions high, rebellion inevitably broke out and overthrew Madero’s presidency, and Victoriano Huerta, one of Madero’s own men, took his place. The speaker compares himself to these three infamous leaders to express the complex, recent history of Mexico and how it impacts Mexican Americans during the Chicano movement. Once more, the speaker accepts the brutal and bloody events of Mexico’s past, claiming the country’s tragedies as his own. His acknowledgement allows him to reclaim the power stolen during the revolution, now redistribut-

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ing it to members of the Chicano movement. This reclamation of agency inspires his audience to continue fighting for social, economic, and political change. The speaker assumes the role of iconic figures in Mexican history through his use of first person. Additionally, this use of first-person narration serves to bridge any gaps within the Mexican American community, further supporting the Chicano movement. Gonzales includes these comparisons to convey the unwavering strength and spirit of Mexican Americans, directly paralleling his speaker to those who triumphed before him; his words encourage Mexican Americans to persist and continue fighting for social, economic, and political equality. The influence and impact of Gonzales’ “I Am Joaquín” persists today, more than fifty years later. Gonzales immortalized the Chicano movement in his epic poem, and his words continue to inspire and uplift the Mexican American community. Though half a century has passed, America continues to degrade, dehumanize, and discriminate against Mexican Americans. The Chicano movement of the 1960s and 1970s paved the way for progress for Mexican Americans, but many of the issues Gonzales writes of in “I Am Joaquín” persist today. Especially in today’s highly polarized social and political atmosphere, we turn to figures like Gonzales and his work for hope; after all, change begins with ordinary people. Gonzales was no ordinary man, but he advocated for and uplifted the disenchanted youth of his time, ultimately inciting change. Fifty years have come and gone, but Gonzales’ impact remains as relevant today as during the Chicano movement. To further advance and advocate for the Mexican American community, we must remember those who began the conversation; it is up to us to continue it. Works Cited Camarillo, Albert M. “Looking Back on Chicano History: A Generational Perspective,” Pacific Historical Review, vol. 82, no. 4. University of California Press, 2013, pp. 496-504 Carrillo, Karen Juanita. “How the Chicano Movement Championed Mexican-American Identity.” History. com, A&E Television Networks, 18 Sept. 2020, https:// www.history.com/news/chicano-movement. González Rodolfo. I Am Joaquin: Yo Soy Joaquín ; an Epic Poem. 1967. López, Ian F. Haney. “Protest, Repression, and Race: Legal Violence and the Chicano Movement,” University of Pennsylvania Law Review, vol. 150, no. 1. The University of Pennsylvania Law Review, 2001, pp. 205-244.

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Student Reflection: During American Lit II, I took great interest in the Chicano movement and the literature it produced. For our midterm assignment, I elected to analyze Rodolfo “Corky” Gonzales’ epic poem, “I Am Joaquín” and explore how it impacted American society. Gonzales’ epic alludes to the vast and violent history between the United States and Mexico. By working closely with the text, I learned more about extensive, gruesome history between the two countries, specifically how our nation oppressed, exploited, and abused Mexicans and Mexican Americans. Alongside the text, I researched both the Chicano movement and Gonzales, including their own influences on American literature and society. The culmination of research and analysis proved fruitful for my work, allowing me to develop my thesis in a cogent, cohesive manner. Researching and writing this piece enriched my understanding and appreciation of the Chicano movement, its prominent figures, and its impact on American literature.

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Feminism within Beloved by Toni Morrison by Hannah Cornell ENG 234: American Literature II Dr. Cristina Rhodes Assignment: This midterm assignment asks that you write an original and well-researched analysis of a text that we have discussed in class or that is related to course discussions. For example, you could write about one of our Modernist poems or locate another Modernist poem of interest, or you could read and write about another speech by Frederick Douglass, or one of Zora Neale Hurston’s short stories. Ultimately, what text you choose to analyze is up to you, though you are certainly encouraged to discuss your research interests with Dr. R to identify an engaging topic for you. Your analysis should contain a clear and argumentative thesis statement, cogent textual analysis, and a conclusion that indicates the significance and implications of your research.

Imagine you are a woman in the early 1900s and you are fighting for the ability to have a say in the politics of the nation you reside in. Picture how you stand with your fellow women, holding signs and marching through the streets of your city or town. Visualize that you are demanding access to rights you feel you deserve as a contributing member of your society, just like your brothers, fathers, and husbands. You raise your children, care for your husband, hold up the structure of your household, and even maybe hold a job of your own. You are the backbone for the foundation of family and a direct producer of life. You do not know it yet, as there is not a widely used term for women like you who advocate for women’s rights and gender equality, but in the future, they will call you a feminist. While being an incredibly nuanced term, the term’s origins “…are in the Old French feminin, coming from the Latin word femina, meaning “woman,” and –isme comes from the Latin suffix –ismus, which makes a noun into a practice, system or doctrine” (Larkin para. 5). Basically, the term itself addresses being a woman, references womanhood as a whole, and/or addresses something to do with women in general. While the term wasn’t originally political, it did gain some recognition as a term referencing women’s rights in the early 1800s. “’Feminism’ as a term was first associated with women’s rights by French philosopher and radical social utopian, Charles Fourier, in 1837. He used the French féminisme to talk of empowering women. The English word “feminism” is a direct anglicization of féminisme…” (Larkin para. 5). It wasn’t until the term was used in a political context that it gained its meaning, representing the overall movements that advocate for women’s rights and gender equality, which oc102

curred sometime during or after the women’s suffrage movement. While feminism is widely debated socially, there is no doubt that the series of movements and overall ideology of feminism has done a lot to increase the rights of women, particularly in the United States. Within the U.S. there are two main historical movements of feminism, referenced in waves. The first wave, taking place from around 1848-1920, “…refers to the West’s first sustained political movement dedicated to achieving political equality for women…” (Grady para. 10), otherwise known as the women’s suffrage movement. Second-wave feminism references the movement that occurred between 1963 and the 1980s, which addresses the way in which women began to recognize and attempt to dismantle the systematic patriarchy present within their lives and their roles as women, according to Grady in her article “The Waves of Feminism, and Why People Keep Fighting Over Them, Explained.” In this wave, housewives took up the mantle against their assigned roles as caregiver and housekeeper, and women began to take back power in the areas of sex, relationships, bodily autonomy (through having access to birth control and abortions), and the labor force. In essence, women in this movement wanted the rights to make decisions about their bodies, the rights to work and be self-possessed economically, and the rights to live and love how they desired. Okay, now imagine you are back in the 1900s at the women’s suffrage march. Look around, not just at the signs or the buildings surrounding you, but at the people. What do they look like? What is one thing that the majority of the women around you have in common? That’s right – they are white.

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While feminism has pioneered and increased rights for women across the world, feminism itself has been a very biased movement, often catering to developing rights for white women, rather than all women. While intersectional feminism was introduced in the 1970s and has since made many strides for drawing attention to the struggles that women of color experience, modern feminism still struggles to diverge from its overwhelmingly white foundation – often placing white feminists at the center of important gender-based movements. This is where the struggle arises when it comes to defining feminism for women of color in early American Literature, like it is presented within novels like Beloved by Toni Morrison. Beloved is a novel that addresses the experiences and life of a Black woman living in the United States. The main female character within Beloved, Sethe, is a runaway slave struggling to hold her life together amongst the memory of what she experienced while shackled and after “freeing” herself, while also having to care for her children. The novel takes place both during and after slavery and demonstrates what it means for a girl to grow into womanhood and motherhood at this time, with particular attention upon how slavery and race can affect those systematic roles. In this essay, I will argue that the Sethe in Beloved represents feminist ideology and principals in a time before feminism acknowledged women of color in its movements. As Parvin Ghasemi and Samira Heidari state in their article “Patricia Hill Collins’ Black Feminine Identity in Toni Morrison’s Beloved,” “As one of the most celebrated achievements of African American literature, Morrison’s Beloved (1987) explores a slave woman who kills her own baby to secure her current standing” (Ghasemi and Heidari 2). Sethe, the slave woman in question, escapes to freedom with her children only to be hunted down by her former master, and in the altercation, she murders her second youngest child and attempts to murder the rest, in desperation and fear that they will become enslaved again themselves. Heart wrenching and provocative, this story follows Sethe in the events that occur nearly two decades after the filicide, where Sethe lives alone with her 18-year-old daughter Denver in the 1870s. While Sethe and Denver are free and no longer at risk of being recaptured due to the official end of slavery in 1865, Sethe relives her experiences as a slave through flashbacks, which are sparked by the reuniting of Sethe and a former slave friend named Paul D and the mysterious arrival of a sickly young woman they refer to as “Beloved.” These flashbacks take place between Sethe’s birth in 1835 and modern events at the novel’s close in 1875, and function to illuminate the truth and/causation behind events that occur in the present timeline of the novel.

While the events of Beloved happen during the beginning of first-wave feminism, the novel perhaps takes most of its feminist influence from when it was published in 1987, after the start of second-wave feminism and the beginning of intersectional feminist movements. Sethe as a character derives some of her most important roles from her position as a woman, such as the role of being a mother and the role of being a sexualized body in general, which is demonstrated through the narrative being driven by the outcomes of her children’s lives and the display of Sethe as a sexual being from the start of the narrative. However, this position and role of womanhood is altered and affected by Sethe’s position as an escaped slave, which fuse these roles with trauma, and inevitably alter how they appear within the plot. In fact, this is part of the idea that Renee Lee Gardner addresses within her article “Subverting Patriarchy with Vulnerability: Dismantling the Motherhood Mandate in Toni Morrison’s Beloved.” Within this text, Gardner analyzes the way that Sethe’s experience as a slave affects her role as a mother, stating “…Morrison exposes the trauma of motherhood in a society where not all mothers can meet the criteria set by ideological constructs for that role. I argue that though Sethe’s actions are guided by her impossible role as slave mother—and thus by her relationship to the state—the action she takes is her own, the individuality of her behavior evidenced by the shock of those around her” (Gardner 1). Within this text, Gardner acknowledges the way that Sethe, as a slave mother, differs greatly in experience from other mothers who have never experienced that trauma, and therefore cannot hold to the same level of expectation as non-slave mothers and the overall white-influenced idea of the cult of domesticity. When it comes to Sethe’s role as a mother, there is a clear tie between motherhood and trauma in her life. For example, while preparing to escape for slavery, Sethe’s breast milk is stolen by the schoolteacher and his sons, who become her masters after her previous owner passed away. “I am full God damn it of two boys with mossy teeth, one sucking on my breast the other holding me down, their book-reading teacher watching and writing it up” (Morrison 83). Angry and violated, Sethe fixates on how the act not only harmed her sexually, but more so how it would affect her ability to provide for her baby, who had already been taken to freedom by her mother-in-law. While Sethe escapes from slavery and makes the journey to Ohio, she again gives birth to another child, having to not only experience the long, harsh miles while pregnant and running from slave catchers while her clothing sticks to her skin from her leaking breasts and sweat, but also having to experience giving birth on the road with the help of a white woman who she is not sure she can completely 103

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trust. Even upon making it to Ohio and having one blissful month as a free woman with her family, she is hunted down and forced to kill her first-born daughter, scarring herself, severing her relationship with her two older boys, and causing so much internal trauma surrounding motherhood that she neglects to form strong emotional ties to Denver, who is the only child left with her in the present of the narrative. It is in this severance of “good motherhood” that Sethe represents a division from womanhood and therefore a slight rejection of patriarchal standards and gender norms, despite perhaps still conforming to patriarchy as a whole. Gardner states, “I trace what Sethe makes of it from her state of being as an escaped slave—during which she struggles to attain agency despite the degree to which it is denied her—to her self-imposed process of unbeing—which is instigated by her killing of Beloved, an act which ends not just her daughter’s life, but Sethe’s own sense of herself as a successful mother. Sethe stops trying to fulfill the motherhood mandate. In doing so—and in thereby refusing to allow her children to carry the burden of patriarchy—she accomplishes a kind of re-being, abandoning the impossible methods by which she has been taught to pursue power and finding it precisely because of that abandonment” (Gardner 2). In essence, Sethe’s trials as a mother and murder of her own child led her to diverge from the normal ideals of motherhood, instead allowing for Sethe to carve out an alternative path as an individual and as a mother. There is even the implication that this is a learned behavior from Sethe’s mother, who Sethe learns threw the babies that resulted from her rapes off of the slave ship, in a bid to refuse the system. “Her mother’s other progenies, Sethe realizes, were all savagely conceived in brutal and coercive acts of rape by the crew members of the slave ship. Nan implicitly states that her mother threw the babies overboard in a resistant and furious act against this savage subjugation. Nan tells Sethe that: ‘without names, she threw them’ (58)” (Ghasemi and Heidari 7). Gardner, in her article, calls this act of unbecoming, unbeing, and breaking, “shadow feminism” where Sethe’s feminist ideology is not defined by deliberate acts, but rather a lack of action that leads to the destruction of feminine norms. In addition, Sethe’s experience and personality as a black woman, specifically a black slave woman, can be defined in part by the ideas of Black feminist thought, which are “mainly made up of thoughts and concepts

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generated by black women that serve to elucidate a definitive viewpoint and stance of black woman” (Ghasemi and Heidari 2). Black feminist thought struggles with the ability of black woman to define themselves and their experiences, something that Sethe herself (and other black slave women) struggle with as women who have no rights and no autonomy. “As was mentioned earlier, the body of the Black female individual has always throughout history been abused and raped and has been regarded as a material site and object for discursive figuration” (Ghasemi and Heidari 4). However, within Beloved this same lack of autonomy under ownership is rejected by slave woman, such as Sethe’s mom who “…re-usurps and reformulates her own body figure once she re-reads the stain and stigma on her body savagely carved by slave owners as a material emblem: ‘I am the only one got this mark now. The rest dead. If something happens to me and you can’t tell me by my face, you can know me by this mark’ (57)” (Ghasemi and Heidari 4-5). Instead of rejecting this mark and denying or avoiding its existence, Sethe’s mother embraces it and allows it to become a part of herself, a part that is important enough to become a beacon of identification if the need arises. Sethe also reconfigures and reconstructs the meaning of marks left on her body by slavery. “Sethe also re-usurps and reformulates her body figure when the stigma on her back—a mark savagely stigmatized as well—is refashioned as an emblem and picture of chokecherry tree. Thereafter, for Sethe and her mother, signs that define and represent savage objectification and oppression are grasped and viewed as symbols that serve as confirmations of kinship and subjectivity and in the last analysis feminine identity” (Ghasemi and Heidari 5) Here we see Sethe and her mother attempting to reclaim their sense of bodily autonomy through the morphing of negative symbols into symbols of strength or identity. This reclamation of themselves and their bodies is a direct rebellion against the patriarchal system of slavery, which not only branded these woman as sexual figures, but also as objects rather than humans. This kinship and perseverance represented through symbolism is also represented within Sethe’s making of her own wedding dress. While many would argue that the insistence upon making a wedding dress demonstrates an attachment to gender norms and therefore a lack a feminist ideology, I would argue that Sethe’s creation of her own dress not only demonstrates her perseverance, intelligence, and resourcefulness, but also represents her desire to have a wedding that is on the same level as a free, white woman, and thus represents intersectional feminist thought - specifi-

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cally the intersectional feminist idea that seeks to not only have equality between the genders, but also to have equality for every woman regardless of race or identity. “In this specific account, irony and wit play on Sethe’s desire to be a wife-to-be. This was actually, in other words, her aspiration to demonstrate ladylike prettiness and emotional response. The story turns on Sethe’s jewelries; and as a concrete symbol of the social and economic supremacy that ideological dogmas of womankind force upon women, the jewelries have a magnetically mesmerizing power over Sethe, Denver, and Beloved…” (Ghasemi and Heidari 5). Sethe’s insistence upon making the dress, to the point where she makes Halle, her fiancé, wait for it to be finished illustrates Sethe’s power and determination, where the dress represents a good thing that Sethe wants to have for herself on a day that she feels should be special. Here, Sethe’s desire to stick to gender norms surrounding appearance don’t necessarily represent a tie to gender and patriarchy, but a desire for agency that arises from wanting something that many slave women were denied – the chance to dress and look how they wanted. In this narrative, the desire for the wedding dress and jewelry illustrate defiance against the system, and a demand for more. Finally, Sethe’s sexual and romantic roles as a woman within the novel demonstrates a divergence against typical gender norms of the time period, especially for slaves. While Sethe does not escape the sexual assault and rape that other slave woman often experienced around her, she is enabled to have a form of bodily autonomy when it comes to her sexual and romantic interaction with the slave men at Sweet Home. While at first, this autonomy is given by the boys at Sweet Home, who “…were young and so sick with the absence of women they had taken to calves” (Morrison 12), they still respect her decision to marry Halle, and do not bother her before or after that marriage, despite her youth and existence as the only female slave at Sweet Home. While this bodily autonomy is the result of the slave men choosing to not assault her, we see the assertion of rebellion in Sethe’s act of marriage and of being sexually involved at all, given the way that many of the other slaves in her life insist that emotional connections should not be developed because the people you love will die or be sold into slavery. Just the act of loving her husband and having children is a rejection of the system, until Sethe learns firsthand what that costs. There is also the reclamation of Sethe’s sexuality later in the novel, when she reunited with Paul D. after decades. Despite being raped, losing her husband, and killing her own child, Sethe still feels sexual desire and develops a sexual relationship with Paul, and despite not always feeling good after those interactions, she

has ownership over her body and how it interacts with Paul in a way that she did not when she was a slave. This bodily autonomy within sexuality is something that is both extraordinary for Sethe to have, as she was a slave and a woman with little rights, even after being technically freed by the Emancipation Proclamation. The rejection of gender norms that represent further feminist ideology come into play with the way that Sethe lives throughout her time after her escape, living alone with Baby Suggs (her mother in-law), her young boys, and Denver until it is just her and Denver left. Sethe lives for years without a male presence in her life and provides for and raises Denver alone, relying upon herself to keep things together in a time when it would be strange and difficult for any woman to live alone, especially a black woman with little to nothing to her name. Even when Paul D. enters their lives, there is the insistence from Sethe that he does not have the right to act like a father to Denver. With the addition of another female into the household, Beloved, Paul D. is outnumbered by women who run the household their way, while he simply acts as a guest within in. In conclusion, intersectional feminism did not officially exist until the 1970s, but we can see its fundamental principles appearing in literature and stories of the past. Foundationally, intersectional feminism arose from the desire to understand women as separate beings that cannot be lumped into one perfect category, due to a smattering of different experiences, races, cultures, languages, communities, etc. Intersectional feminism acknowledges that women are different and that sometimes those differences mark them as members of other disadvantaged groups, like black women who identify not only as female, but also members of a race that has been oppressed and discriminated against for centuries. This feminism with focus on the wide array of experiences of women has paved the way for black feminist theory and allowed for the first movements of black women to define themselves, rather than being defined constantly by others. It is this concept of black feminist theory and experience that we see principals of in Beloved by Toni Morrison, where Sethe struggles to reconstruct her identity in the face of trauma caused by slavery. This reconstruction often acts as a direct defiance of gender roles and patriarchal norms, where Sethe rejects typical motherhood roles after killing her child, reclaims marks left on her body from slavery, makes her own wedding dress, and claims her sexuality and expressions of love as her own. While this book was written in the 1980s and therefore is perhaps not a perfectly accurate account of the life of a slave woman in the 1800s, its importance comes from what it represents within the era it was written it. Given that Toni Morrison is a black woman, and that she won a Nobel

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Prize for this book, Sethe’s storyline within the narrative depicts the reclamation of slave narratives by those who are perhaps not directly affected by slavery but are affected by its outcomes decades later. Morrison’s novel is her attempt to recognize and reconstruct the past from the influence of both historical research and modern movements in racial and female justice. Toni Morrison’s Beloved, in essence, is a story written about a slave woman by a dreamer, who tried to reclaim her cultural past and continued to pave the way for a brighter future.

Works Cited Gardner, Renee Lee. “Subverting Patriarchy with Vulnerability: Dismantling the Motherhood Mandate in Toni Morrison’s Beloved.” Women’s Studies: An Interdisciplinary Journal, vol. 45, no. 1–4, Jan. 2016, pp. 203–214. EBSCOhost, doi:10.1080/00497878.2016.1 149029. Ghasemi, Parvin, and Samira Heidari. “Patricia Hill Collins’ Black Feminine Identity in Toni Morrison’s Beloved.” Journal of African American Studies, vol. 24, no. 4, Dec. 2020, pp. 586–595. EBSCOhost, doi:10.1007/s12111-020-09503-5. Grady, Constance. “The Waves of Feminism and Why People Keep Fighting Over Them, Explained.” Vox, Vox, 20 Mar. 2018, https:// www.vox.com/2018/3/20/16955588/ feminism-waves-explained-first-second-third-fourth. Larkin, Claire. “What’s the Meaning of ‘Feminism’?” Babbel Magazine, Babbel GmbH, 2 Mar. 2020, www.babbel. com/en/magazine/meaning-of-feminism. Morrison, Toni. Beloved. New York, Vintage Books, 1987.

Student Reflection: While thinking about this essay, I had grown attached to the novel Beloved by Toni Morrison, which was a required reading for another class I had at the time. Minoring in Women’s and Gender Studies, I had an interest in this novel from a feminist perspective, especially when I began to do research about the importance of intersectional feminism. When writing this essay, I worked to demonstrate the connection between Morrison’s character, Sethe, and the emerging field that was gaining a lot of ground in communities of color at the time the novel was written in the 1980s. Sethe, a slave woman living in the 1800s, is a character who kills her second-youngest daughter to save her from slavery. The novel itself takes place nearly two decades after the infanticide but jumps around in time to tell Sethe’s story and expose the ghosts of her past. While writing this essay, I identified the way in which this novel demonstrates a realistic narrative of feminism in a time before woman of color were recognized within feminist movements and how Morrison’s writing acts as a form of reclamation of slave narratives by those whose ancestors faced the horrors of slavery.

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Opal Viola Victoria Bear Shield Character Biography by Cynthia J. Koubik ENG 250: Literature and Society Dr. Erica Galioto Assignment: The novel There There by Tommy Orange is told from the perspective of twelve different characters--all from different walks of life, but with a shared Native American heritage. This assignment required students to select one of these twelve characters and analyze every scene of the novel in which the character appeared or was mentioned. Those analyses were used to build a character biography that breaks down and discusses the chosen character’s story, motivations, relationships, and identity.

The reader is first introduced to Opal Viola Victoria Bear Shield in 1971, when she is just eleven years old. She, her mother, and her older sister are participants in the Operation of Alcatraz. While on the island, Opal is exposed to concepts that force her to mature quicker than she may have without these experiences. She learns of her sister’s assault--although I personally don’t believe that she fully understands what took place until much later--and her mother admits to her that she has cancer. The events that Opal lives through through on Alcatraz cause her to abandon her faith, hope, and childhood innocence, and to turn her back on carrying forward Native American traditions and customs. Shortly before her family’s departure from the island, Opal finds her teddy bear that she had previously left behind and notices, “I couldn’t see the shine in his eyes anymore. I put him back down like he’d been. Left him like that” (Orange 58). This interaction of Opal no longer seeing life in her childhood stuffed animal shows that she has lost her sense of childlike wonder, innocence, and naivety. She is forced to grow up at the young age of eleven years old. After her mother’s death, Opal only has her older sister Jacquie to rely on. The two girls live with an older man, their mother’s adopted brother, whom they live in constant fear of. Jacquie becomes pregnant from the previous assault she endured on Alcatraz and eventually leaves Opal behind after giving her daughter up for adoption. The story then fast forwards forty years and we meet Opal once again, but now she is in her fifties and raising her three young great-nephews, her sister Jacquie’s grandsons. She works as a mail carrier and faces hardships with money--retirement nowhere in sight--and has only recently started communicating with her sister over text messages and email after a thirty-year period of silence. From interactions between her great-nephews (who are referred to as her grandsons, and she their grandmother), we learn that Opal

refuses to teach the boys anything about what it means to be Native American. The only Native American possession she has is a set of regalia that was given to her by a man that she had known and been in love with in her younger days: Lucas, Dene’s deceased uncle. She has completely turned away from her heritage, from the lessons that her mother taught her and her sister. At the very end of the story, after escaping the shooting at the powwow when her great nephew Orvil’s fate is uncertain, Opal allows herself to feel hope for the first time in many years and finally reconnects with the child she once was. In that moment, Opal realizes, “this is the time, if there ever was one, to believe, to pray, to ask for help, even though she’d abandoned all hope for outside help on a prison island back when she was eleven” (Orange 284). It is fear and suffering that drove her away from hope, and it is also fear and suffering that bring her back and inspire growth in the face of the unimaginable hardship of losing her grandson. There are a large number of important relationships that define Opal’s character, including that with halfsister, Jacquie, who is six years older than her, and her mother Vitcoria. Opal’s relationship with her mother is vitally important and should be discussed first. During their first night on Alcatraz, Opal notes that, “we’d always ended up in a house, in a room, in a bed at least” (Orange 49). Victoria does anything she can to provide for her girls, to make sure they have a place to lay their heads, and she only brings them to Alcatraz after all other options are exhausted. She tells her girls Native legends and stories, sings Native lullabies, teaches them about Native traditions and history, and makes sure that they understand the importance of their Native identity. After the reckless boat ride to Alcatraz, Opal finds comfort in her mother and falls asleep curled up to her. Victoria’s admission to having cancer is a huge blow to Opal and is the main catalyst that leads to her abandoning her faith and hope. There’s one line 107

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earlier in the story, before Opal learns of her mother’s cancer diagnosis, that simply reads, “At some point Jacquie had taken our mom’s place” (Orange 56). After Victoria’s death, it is up to Jacquie to take care of her little sister. Opal clings to Jacquie, having no one else to hold onto. They spend all of their time together, supporting each other through Jacquie’s pregnancy and the hardships with Ronald. Their mother’s adopted brother turns out to be bad news. He would watches the girls while they sleep and once tries to touch Jacquie but is quickly stopped by Opal, who believed for many years that she had killed him. The girls leave Ronald’s house and find themselves at a shelter, where a social worker meets up with them, and Opal is put into the foster system. Then Jacquie disappears from Opal’s life, leaving her completely alone. Opal eventually meets a young Native boy her age at a group home, Lucas, who helps her deal with and face her trauma by figuring out if Ronald is really dead or not. Their friendship progresses over the years and becomes something more, romantic love. Opal helps him make regalia and prepares him for his first powwow. Lucas, too, disappears from Opal’s life for many years and leaves her all alone. This relationship between Opal and Lucas also connects her to Dene, Lucas’ss nephew. He only shows up again once, twenty years later, to give her a set of regalia he had made and interview her for his documentary before dying soon after. Opal’s life was an endless cycle of losing relationships, of someone she loves leaving her behind to struggle to find a new place of belonging. However, when her niece dies, Opal adopts her three sons and gives them a home. They quickly become the most important thing in her life and also give her a feeling of connection to her older sister, since they are Jacquie’s grandsons. Orvil is greatly curious about his Native identity and seeks to learn more about the traditions and customs of his heritage, but Opal is unwilling to teach the boys any of the Native lessons that were passed to her by her mother. Her grandsons are so incredibly important to her that when Orvil is badly injured and the fate of his life is uncertain, Opal finds her hope and faith again. Like most characters in There There, Opal was born and raised in Oakland. Before her family participated in the Occupation of Alcatraz, they lived in a yellow house in East Oakland. Before that, the family had spent time living with each of Jacquie and Opal’s fathers. Their mother, Victoria, seems to have spent most of her life in Oakland as well. When she is with her daughters on the way to Alcatraz, Opal points out how, “she just smiled and watched the long gray Oakland streets stream by the bus window like it was an only movie she liked but had seen too many times to notice anymore” (Orange 48). Oakland was home to Victoria and her daughters, but they had spent so much time 108

there, bouncing around from house to house in search of home, and it was time to move on. The concept of “urban Indians” is explored in Opal’s experiences on Alcatraz. The Natives’ ancestral homes have been taken from them, forcefully ripped away and now covered in cities and roads that were never there before. The world has changed and they cannot live the way Natives used to. All that is left for them is an empty, abandoned prison; the only place they are able to call home. After they return from Alcatraz, the family settles in Oakland again, and Opal herself remains there for many years. Alcatraz had never felt like home, even when Opal and her family were living there. The city of Oakland is home; Victoria made sure to return home before dying. Oakland changed after the girls’ mother died. The city now represents the place where Opal’s mother died, and where she and her sister suffered through living with Ronald. Opal now lives, “in an Oakland that would never be the same as it was, before our mom up and left on a jagged wind” (Orange 61). Opal rremains in Oakland for many years, perhaps because she has nowhere else to go after losing her sister. Eventually, it becomes the city where she provides a home for her three young great-nephews, where she still resides, as far as we know. It is never Opal’s intention to attend the powwow. She does so because she knows that her grandson, Orvil, plans to attend with his brothers and dance with the other Native dancers. She finds a place to sit where she won’t be seen by the boys and disrupt Orvil’s moment. Despite her unwillingness to facilitate her grandsons in growing into their Native identities, she recognizes the importance of this moment and gives Orvil the space he needs to explore on his own. As soon as she hears the gunshots ring out, her first instinct is to call her boys and try to find them. She is able to reunite with Loother and Lony, who are both unharmed, but none of them can make contact with Orvil. Surprisingly, it is Jacquie who finds Orvil and brings him to Opal, seriously wounded and clinging to life. This is the first time that Opal has seen her sister face-to-face in many years, and she is carrying the lifeless body of her great-nephew. At the hospital, as they’re sitting in the waiting room, Opal realizes, “None of them will make it back from this if he doesn’t. Nothing will be okay” (Orange 284). However, whether Orvil does or does not make it, Opal’s life will forever be altered by the powwow. This is the event that brought her face to face with the sister she hadn’t seen in decades. Jacquie and Opal have a chance to reconnect, to commit to being a part of each other’s lives and remaining side-by-side for the rest of time. Blue, Opal’s niece, is also present in this waiting room, although she is unaware of her relationship at the time. When Blue finally tells Jacquie who she is, Opal gains a new family member as well. The tragic events of

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the powwow also lead Opal to reconnecting with the childhood innocence that she left behind on Alcatraz. For the first time in many, many years, Opal finds herself feeling hope and faith. Orvil’s condition leads her to this, inspires her to grow, and she will forever be changed by that, whether or not her grandson pulls through and his life goes on. One of the stories that Opal’s mother tells to her and her sister is that of the trickster spider, Veho. I dug around for further information on this legend, but every search result either led to a dead end or gave an analysis on these sections of There There without providing more information than what is in the book. Nevertheless, this story left a lasting impression on both Opal and Jacquie. Opal recalls, “Her mom said spiders carry miles of web in their bodies, miles of story, miles of potential home and trap. She said that’s what we are. Home and trap” (Orange 163). When Opal informs Jacquie about the recent development with Orvil, Jacquie reflects, “In her head she heard her mom say, ‘The spider’s web is a home and a trap’” (Orange 101). The story of the trickster spider has taught both sisters that there is both good and bad to be found in relationships and physical homes; home cannot be present without some form of trap, and vice versa. Alcatraz was home to Opal for a time, but her family was also trapped there, stranded without money or any other way to support themselves. The girls find a new home with Ronald, but this too is a trap, as Ronald acts very inappropriately towards them. Opal falls in love with Lucas, places her heart in his hands, and he disappears without warning. By opening herself up to him, she makes herself vulnerable to pain when he leaves; she lets herself fall into a trap. Continuing with the theme of spiders, the “spider legs” that both Opal and Orvil find growing out of themselves is a clear symbol as well. When Orvil tells Opal of his findings, she thinks back to her own similar experiences, “but she wasn’t surprised, not as much as she would have been had this not happened to her when she was around the same age Orvil is now” (Orange 163). These spider legs appear on Orvil at the same time in his life that Opal’s appeared on her, and she is understanding of the meaning. He is growing up, growing into his identity. Opal’s experience, when she was still a girl, was that her first period and the spider legs arrived at roughly the same time. She recalls, “Both the menstrual blood and the spider legs had made her feel the same kind of shame. Something was in her that came out, that seemed so creaturely, so grotesque yet magical, that the only readily available emotion she had for both occasions was shame” (Orange 165). The emergence of these spider legs symbolizes Opal’s emergence into adulthood, into becoming a woman. The spider legs and her first period go hand-in-hand. A girl’s first period is a universal symbol for the beginning

of the journey into womanhood. It isn’t much longer until Opal and Jacquie leave Ronald’s house, leaving their childhood behind them. Opal also notes that the bump the spider legs emerged from never went away; it is still present on her body in the current day, showing that her emergence into adulthood is permanent. There is no going back. I desperately searched for some sort of scientific explanation for this phenomenon because it sounded rather disgusting and concerning, and another reader believes this to be related to Morgellons disease. This is a rare skin condition in which “fibers” emerge from skin sores. It is unclear whether the condition is psychological, genetic, or due to an infection. It sounds so gross to me. I cannot imagine having to deal with something like this myself. I wholeheartedly agree with Jacquie’s analysis on page 154; if I found spider legs coming out of my leg, I too may have ended things right then and there. I believe that the strongest symbol in Opal’s story is Lucas’ss cheeseburger. When Lucas and Opal are young, he tells her a story of how he had left a McDonald’s cheeseburger in his backpack for two months. When he found it again, it was completely the same as when he had left it, and he decided to eat it. This cheeseburger is a symbol for Opal’s trauma. No matter how deeply you bury your trauma, no matter how far you push it down and how long you forget about it, the trauma will always be the same when you find it again. You do not get better and heal by shoving your trauma into a dark place you cannot reach. It will always find you when you least expect it. After Opal tells Lucas about Ronald, he says, “He’s like that cheeseburger in my backpack before I ate it” (Orange 169). Opal is unable to heal, grow, and move on until she faces her trauma down and eats the cheeseburger. Only by digesting the cheeseburger, digesting her trauma, can she overcome it. Out of curiosity, I did look into how long it takes McDonald’s food to spoil, and I was incredibly surprised. I wasn’t able to confirm whether or not the feed is still running, but I came across a report of someone from Iceland who had left their McDonald’s to sit out for at least ten years, live streaming its progression–or lack thereof–and the burger and fries look exactly the same as when they were purchased. Opal’s first section of the story, when she is eleven years old, is written in first person. The rest of her sections following use third person. I personally think this was an intentional choice by Tommy Orange to help readers connect with young Opal. The first person lets the reader truly understand Opal’s character at eleven years old and witness the loss of her childlike innocence and hope. When Opal’s second section appears in the story and the reader is now met with third person instead of first, they feel a bit closed off from Opal, as if she has pushed them out. This reflects 109

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the changes in Opal’s character. Her experiences as a young woman have turned her into a colder, harder adult without hope and faith. I think it would have been a very nice touch for Opal’s very last section at the end of the book to be written in first person, since that is the moment where she comes full circle and reconnects with her childhood self, but alas. In the interlude section, when discussing aspects of Native history, it is stated, “last names were given to us... These were attempted translations and botched Indian names, random surnames, and names passed down…” (Orange 139). I believe this shed light on the origins of both Opal’s and Jacquie’s last names, Bear Shield and Red Feather. These aren’t usual last names for white American culture, but they were most likely taken from a Native name. One Native man has the name Bear Shield, a normal name for his culture, but white settlers decided that this would be the family or last name that he passed down to his descendents, and eventually to Opal. I think that the first few lines of the Apparent Death section of the interlude are incredibly important as well. The lines read, “We won’t have come expecting gunfire. A shooter. As many times as it happens, as we see it happen on our screens, we still walk around in our lives thinking: No, not us” (Orange 140). This is what is experienced during the powwow. Natives come from all over the country to celebrate their identity and to connect with others who share their heritage. Opal goes to witness her grandson’s powwow dancing debut, to celebrate him. No one in attendance expects the event to end in gunfire and death. Opal’s experiences in her younger days turn her against her Native heritage and drastically change who she is as a person. I’ve touched multiple times on the idea that Opal loses her innocence and hope due to the events on Alcatraz island. She also loses her connection to her Native identity. Her mother had raised both her and her sister on old Cheyenne stories and stressed to them both how important their identities and their stories are, but still Opal turns away from those things. When her young grandson Orvil begins to explore his Native identity and starts his journey to discover who he is, he hides most of his feelings from Opal, knowing that she wouldn’t respond well. He and his brothers also keep it from Opal that they are planning to attend the powwow, knowing that she would disapprove. At the beginning of his first section, Orvil states, “Ever since they were in her care, Opal has been openly against any of them doing anything Indian. She treated it all like it was something they could decide for themselves when they were old enough” (Orange 118). This behavior of Opal’s leads me to believe that she would rather the boys discover their Native identity after they have left her house, when they are grown up and she is no longer responsible. She has turned so far 110

against her Native heritage that she wants them to wait until she no longer has to witness their Nativeness. Opal knows that she is Native, and that the boys are too, but she chooses not to act on it. She prefers to recognize her identity without fostering it, keeping a distance between herself and her Native identity. The artifact that I have included was made by me. I decided to use the image of a spider web to symbolize the idea of “home and trap” as mentioned multiple times by Opal and her sister. I wanted to highlight the connections or relationships between the “home” and “trap” aspects of people or places in Opal’s life. Her “homes” are on the left side and are directly lined up with a “trap” on the right side. The cheeseburger is a representation of Lucas, of the home that Opal finds in her love of him, and the image of regalia that it connects to symbolizes Lucas’s sudden disappearance from her life to return twenty years later with a regalia set for her. The teddy bear image represents Two Shoes and the part of Opal’s childhood that was spent on Alcatraz. This image directly connects to that of a jail cell. Opal’s family may not have been prisoners of Alcatraz, but they were trapped on the island all the same, with no escape in sight. The bed represents Ronald’s home that Opal and her family settle into after returning from Alcatraz. It should have been a safe place for Opal, but that was not to be. The bat that the bed directly connects to illustrates the actions that needed to be taken against Ronald to protect the girls from him. The red feather obviously represents Jacquie. Opal had a home in her sister. After their mother’s death, Jacquie took care of Opal for a while, before eventually disappearing. The alcohol bottle connected to the red feather represents Jacquie’s baggage, the pain that she kept her distance from Opal over, the addiction and sickness that she would bring back with her if she were to reconnect with her sister. Works Cited “Former Home of the Last McDonald’s in Iceland.” Bus Hostel, https://www.bushostelreykjavik. com/ last-mcdonalds-in-iceland. Moyer, Nancy. “Morgellons Disease: Symptoms, Fibers, Treatments, and More.” Healthline, Healthline Media, 3 Aug. 2021, https://www.healthline.com/health/ morgellons-disease. Orange, Tommy. There There. New York. Knopf, 2018. Today Show. “McDonald’s Burger and Fries Bought in 2009 Show No Sign of Rot.” TODAY.com, 7 Dec. 2015, https://www.today.com/food/mcdonalds-burger-friesshows-no-sign-rot- after-6-years-t60026.

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Student Reflection: Opal and I come from very different backgrounds and generations (her being a Native American woman in her fifties struggling to support her three grandsons, and I a twenty-one-year-old white college student), but despite our differences, I was able to find common ground that we share. The character biography that I have written focuses mainly on Opal’s endless cycle of being abandoned and her loss of childhood innocence and naivety at a young age. In the words of my professor, “perhaps you recognize her and that makes it easier to unpack her characterization?” Opal was a very difficult and very easy character for me to write about at the same time. The words came quickly to me because I share many of Opal’s life experiences, but this biography also forced me to face some of my own trauma that I would much rather have left forgotten. Opal has taught me that it’s important to eat the cheeseburger that is my trauma to heal and move on. I think it’s an incredibly powerful thing that I was able to relate to Opal on a personal level and learn from her despite the cultural and generational gaps between us.

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Letter to CK by Megan Gardenhour ENG 304: Literary Criticism Dr. Erica Galioto Assignment: Chris Kraus’s I LOVE DICK is a national sensation for its ability to take the personal from our lives and combine it with scholarly rigor. Her autotheoretical break-up art dismantles gender hegemony and considers how women are able to confront society’s limitations, transforming female emotionality and parasitic attachment into yonic art. In a 3–4-page letter to Kraus, theorize your own response to the piece.

I want to lie to you. I want to look you in the eyes and tell you I’m not like you, but I’m a bit too afraid to admit I saw myself in your words. I Love Dick was supposed to be about falling for a dick, realizing the yonis is much more powerful, and reaching selfactualization. It wasn’t supposed to make me question my behaviorisms and standing as a self-proclaimed feminist. I wasn’t supposed to be told I’m something I’m not. I thought I was above labels associated with women. We’re always told we are sex objects meant to be used, discarded, and only for viewing pleasure. Breasts, butts, and vaginas waiting to be filled are what make a woman a woman, but I depicted myself as above that image. This superiority complex fooled me into believing I was a stronger and impenetrable type of woman, but it wasn’t enough to protect me from falling back into femininity and that desire to be filled. Through my drive for intellect and feminist identity, my foundations of what it means to be a woman have shattered, and you are leaving me with pieces. As someone with no significant feminine traits, I had a deep gut feeling that I was somehow different or “other” than what the women around me in school portrayed themselves as. Rather than “boy crazy,” I focused on academics and wanting to be smarter than the partner next to me. I did not get romantic attention, so I pointed myself in the direction of bettering myself in intellect. This mirrors you directly when you reflect on your budding relationship with Sylvére. You write, “At that time it went so badly-- those feelings were barely expressed and never accepted. I had to resort to other stratagems, like being the most intelligent and useful girl” (Kraus 130). Love, or lack thereof, had led you to feminism, but in reality it was a cover for who you truly wanted to be as an object of desire. You wanted others to admire you, but it was a front. I too wanted others to admire and want me, but since I never received it, I turned to education. It was a shield 112

from belligerent questions of marriage and children, serving as an excuse as to why I never had a significant other. Empowerment and feminism are intertwined in their definition, but power is not derived from intellectual value. Rather, it is through your latter desire: “usefulness”. To be useful is to be used, filled, and discarded. As women, we desire the phallus. As author Ana Fazekaš writes, “it is the man/the Dick, who represents the unattainable Other, but also lives wholly in the Symbolic, while the women seek to inhabit his status, gaining the ‘privilege and burden’” (97). You threw yourself into academics to compete or even become Sylvére, while I rivaled my male classmates to become the best in the class. I wanted to become them, beat them with grades and wit, and then I would have removed myself from the female labelling of romantic and boy crazy. I fancied myself as forging a new wave of femininity with books and analysis, but I was only perpetuating ideals of female binaries that you fall back on as well. Through your letters, you further emphasize the difference between the intellectual woman and the female parasitic ulterior ego. You write that the letters themselves “manifest the alienation of the postmodern intellectual in its most diseased form” (Kraus 42). Disease is the root of raw desire, breaking down the academic until they are separated from all that they are familiar with. I thought this passage was strange and I could not understand why it latched onto my brain throughout the rest of the novel. In a way, I was witness to the rotting of your feminist identity that you had built up for so long. Your alienation was spurred on by your fear of embracing your own desire and who you are in terms of your body. Even the diction of “alienation” and “disease” suggest an otherworldly presence to the idea of shedding your intellectual identity. In this, I was able to see your journey as a kind of parasite take shape. Parasitic feminism is the

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practice of overtaking the phallic host in a relationship that plagues the mind of a woman. You were the parasite to Dick’s naivety, but you also latched onto Sylvére in a way that freed you from the entrapment of your marriage. Writer Anna Fisher explores parasitic feminism by reiterating, “Women’s emotionality is transfigured in the parasite as a kind of parachute--the promise of a way out of the same old gender dyad. The parachute offered by a parasitical feminism, however, does not guarantee survival or even successful escape. Casualties are inevitable” (9). Fisher’s concept of the parachute reflects the notion that women use desire and the phallus as an escape from traditional gender roles. By desiring the Dick, it allows women to break out of their patriarchal molds to allow them to attach to that host, slowly destroy them, and rebuild themselves in the best case scenario. I don’t think I quite got that from your letters, but I wish I had. I can see it in the way you speak of Dick as time passes, how you slowly distance yourself from those around you in order to reach him. It’s desperate and self-destructive, but inspiring to someone who has been in that position before. This type of feminism brought your quote full-circle to my personal life because it was the most familiar. When I first started dating my boyfriend, I was ecstatic to finally be a part of my surroundings. No more dating questions from family and friends, I would fit in with every other girl in my life, and I would finally get to experience budding womanhood with a partner by my side. However, I quickly learned that I resorted to those gender roles of playing the housewife and future childbearer as if by instinct. It certainly wasn’t something I wanted, but I played the roles anyway. I treated him as if I had been the one to personally give birth to him, but it only pushed me away. I began to experience slow panic, emotionally pushing him away and floating at his side during family events. It made me question what I truly wanted in a relationship, much like how you did with Sylvére. My Dick was not a physical person, but the temptation of a third party, someone to overtake and consume, was prevalent. Parasitic feminism is cataclysmic to all those involved like your own case study, so I am somewhat glad I did not choose that path. I wouldn’t count my desire’s demands as a disease and nor do I feel alienated by their opposition to my intelligence, but I felt threatened by them. I thought I knew myself better than to fall into those gender roles and temptations, but the parasitic part of myself longed to feel

that attachment if only to claw my way free. I found myself carrying out your exegesis, or “the crazy person’s search for proof that they’re not crazy” (Kraus 187). By directly confronting my thoughts and feelings, I was able to sort out what I truly wanted from my relationships. Writing helped even before I knew your stance on art. You’ve inspired me to write. If every letter is a love letter, I would be penning words to even the most fleeting of thoughts. In private letters, I confront my desire without putting my body on the line. I can be myself, both feminist and parasite, without exposing the objective parts of me to the world. In a way, am I writing this letter to myself? You don’t feel real. Your body does not exist. You are not currently sitting somewhere, maybe at a desk somewhere or writing. You encourage readers to make case studies out of themselves, but that step of analysis is crushing to the feminist I label myself as. I will never be as bold and daring as you are. While I consciously map out my every decision and thought, you jump into desire with every bone in your body. I cannot make a case study of my life because I am already doing it in every decision I make. What happens when the rat in a maze becomes aware of the scientists dangling the cheese in front of it? Will it keep searching for a way to physically reach it, or give up entirely on its subjectivity? Perhaps the greatest reward yielded by carrying this knowledge is the freedom to choose whether to take part in the maze at all. I do not know how you can exist. You dismantled your identity as a woman and built it up again, but I do not know how you carry on without constantly juggling whether or not it was the dumb cunt or feminist in you. You have stabbed the man/the Dick, but what is left behind? If a parasite is without its host, it slowly and painfully dies out. I hope for both of our sakes we find a way to carry on with our arms outstretched. References Fazekaš, Ana. “I Love Dick: A Pop-Cultural Investigation Of Desire And The Female Gaze”. AM Journal Of Art And Media Studies, no. 17, 2018. AM Journal Of Art And Media Studies, https://doi.org/10.25038/am.v0i17.273. Fisher, Anna Watkins. “Parasitical Politics And Epistolary Games: The Parasitical Art of Chris Kraus and Sophie Calle”. WSQ: Women’s Studies Quarterly, vol 40, no. 1-2, 2011, pp. 223-235. Project Muse, https://doi. org/10.1353/wsq.2012.0029. Kraus, Chris. I LOVE DICK. Semiotext(E), 1998.

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Student Reflection: I was very hesitant in writing and sharing this written piece not only because of the personal element to it, but because of the conflict with my feminist identity. I did not agree or relate with Kraus’s self-objectification at first, but once I began dissecting what makes me a feminist and how that relates to my own sexuality and romantic interests, I was conflicted. This letter is the embodiment of my conflict as a self-proclaimed feminist. Female experiences are not always universal, but how we respond and incorporate them into our academics and art is vital to what makes us women and feminist. I am very grateful to Dr. Galioto for consistently pushing me to question myself and supporting me with all of my outlandish ideas. I hope this letter inspires other feminine identities to create their own art forms that explore their sense of self and bodies.

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Depression and the Emotional Body by Megan Gardenhour ENG 304: Literary Criticism Dr. Erica Galioto Assignment: Throughout our work on Paul Preciado’s written theorization on the body, we have studied the lived experience through academic, intersexual, and ethnic lenses. Using a quote from one of our course’s required texts as your epigraph, explicate that quote through its correlating essay on the body

Anne Cvetkovich’s groundbreaking work in Depression: A Public Feeling is extraordinary in addressing the peculiarity and conventionality of mental illness within a human body. Within her introduction, she says the following: “But in addition to writing a polemic against drugs, I also want to write about depression because my own experiences of it have been so unexpected and so intense, the sensations so invisible and yet so spectacular, that I feel compelled to honor them with description. I want to know how it was that not just my mind but my body experienced such excruciatingly bad feelings” (15-16). This quote sets the tone for her work, in which she attempts through handpicked scenes throughout her depressive journey to highlight and critique her sense of self. The memoir serves as Cvetkovich’s journey of depression through the personal and theoretical, mind and body. Additionally, she tackles the conceptualization of depression as a result of societal conditions through her career and academia, attempting to write her experience of it. Cvetkovich explores depression within the body through her writing, effectively remaining stuck as time passes. In doing so, Cvetkovich mirrors Sigmund Freudd's Mourning and Melancholia while simultaneously moves foward through through her writing and memoir. Cvetkovich introduces depression as a bodily affect, dispelling ideas of biochemical disorders and genetic variations. It is distinctly caused by social influence, specifically that of violent and overwhelming urges to succeed above others. She connects this to her designated field of academia where she is consistently locked in a corporational battle to have a successful career while maintaining some sense of a personal life. Her writing is the only semblance she has of who she is as an identity. As she states in the introduction, “The forms of productivity demanded by the academic sphere of

the professional managerial class can tell us something more general about corporate cultures that demand deliverables and measurable outcomes and that you are only as good as what you produce” (Cvetkovich 19). Creative writing in this sense is highly contemptible because of its inability to succeed in comparison to a more concrete practice, such as teaching. Cvetkovich relates depression to the term “impasse,” which roughly is defined as times when human beings lose all conceptual meaning of the items or practices around them. She explains, “As a theoretical concept, impasse imports its spatial or literal sense into conceptual and social circumstances; it suggests that things will not move forward due to circumstance--not that they can’t, but that the world is not designed to make it happen or there has been a failure of imagination” (Cvetkovich 20-21). Impasse is the groundwork from which she bases depression as we know it-- that overwhelming hopelessness and loss of faith. Similar to Cvetkovich’s iteration of depression, Freud explored that same loss in his work Mourning and Melancholia. He describes melancholia to be the greatest “inhibition of activity” in which the person loses all capacity to find interest in the world (Freud 244). When libido is drawn from an object completely, he regards the attachment to it as severed and that it is the beginning of melancholia. The process itself is not easy, as the human body will desire to find an opposition to that severed libido since it is unused to the lack. Freud further explains, “This opposition can be so intense that a turning away from reality takes place and a clinging to the object through the medium of a hallucinatory wishful psychosis” (244). Freud’s definition of melancholia aligns with Cvetkovich’s description of depression, complete with similar feelings of lack and the absorption of the self. While Freud focuses his study on the melancholic person’s own

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self-deprecation, he also brings up that melancholia leads to greater levels of awareness about the world and everyone’s place in it. This form of self-evaluation connects to the theory Cvetkovich has about the taxation of society upon the mind and body, causing a cessation of all matters pleasurable. In slight contradiction, however, Freud states, “The patient’s self-evaluation concerns itself with much less frequently with bodily infirmity, ugliness, or weakness, or with social inferiority; of this category, it is only his fears and asservations of becoming poor that occupy a prominent position” (248). Melancholia is the precedent for extreme self-evaluation like mentioned previously, but Freud argues that this “self-actualization” is limited to the psychological doubt or neglect that they have pushed onto themselves instead of outside forces that are the origin, such as a loved one. Masking the situation of their own obstruction or revolt is the basis for how individuals fall into the state of melancholia, in which they then become trapped and unable to recover over time. Melancholia, unlike grieving, is expected to be treated with medicinal procedures, which is similar to depression diagnoses in modern society. According to Cvetkovich, depression is a direct segway into prescribed medicine. She views her own experience with drugs to be underwhelming, commenting on the fact that doctors never ask questions and simply prescribe name-brands (Cvetkovich 50). Throughout her memoir writing, she does not once attribute the drugs to have helped her in any way. With Freud, he takes a more minimalist approach since the science of treating depression was not as expansive as it is today. He reflects, “It is also well worth notice that, although mourning involves grave departures from the normal attitude to life, it never occurs to us to regard it as a pathological condition and to refer it to medical treatment. We rely on its being overcome after a certain lapse of time, and we look upon any interference with it as useless or even harmful” (Freud 243-244). With his comparison of mourning to that of melancholia, Freud associates that great sense of loss that occurs with the two to be a societal process of dealing with it over time. However, the alienation of melancholia from society is an issue that commonly occurs, even in 1917 when Freud was still alive. At the time Freud wrote this theory, there was not as much research on mental illness and drugs as there is today. Medicine affects the body and tries to change its structure to adapt into a state that is not natural, despite depression’s commonality in the human population. A diagnosis implies that a depressive state is a biochemical illness or disease that is able to be “fixed”. Cvetkovich argues that since depression is itself a natural state, individuals should not be focused on taming it but rather facing it head-on through creative methodologies. 116

Cvetkovich’s profound quote revolves around the idea of putting words to paper that are able to describe depression, specifically that of its ability to transcend the mind. With her depression memoir, she attempts to critique her emotional and personal experience on an academic level that correlates mental illness with outside forces through professional jargon. She recounts her failure with antidepressants through the journey of her writing, which therefore allowed her to reclaim her body. In her theory, creative and personal writing is the cure. She encourages readers to “use writing prompts and forms of automatic writing that have their origins in surrealism and other modernist practices that seek to circumvent the conscious mind in order to generate material from the places of feeling, including the body” (Cvetkovich 77). Through this, the singular abstraction of depression is translated in process-based writing without the shadow of discipline. Like Freud’s emphasis on self-critique, Cvetkovich promotes personal writing as an outlet to unblock the great feelings of loss and inaptitude. The reclaiming of the physical body from taming practices like that of drugs is pivotal in the process of creative transformation. Cvetkovich’s depression memoir stands as an encouraging message and case study of what it means to explore mental illness from an academic standpoint, all without losing the personal along the way. She challenges the postulation of medical treatment for depression within the field by its negative and useless influence on the body, as evident through her own experiences. Depression, although invisible, is universal power. Freud’s theorization of melancholia laid the groundwork for what it means to struggle with a loss that reflects obsessional neurosis and ambivalence. Cvetkovich’s work builds Freud’s thinking up into a solution garnered around creative expression, opening up the field of psychoanalysis into new possibilities surrounding autotheory. Personal writing, as seen in an academic and critical lens, is the future for bridging the mind and body, connecting identity and every genre that falls underneath. Cvetkovich’s work is only just the beginning in this connection, and with each new publication of autotheory, the closer we are to uncovering the sensationalism of the self. References Cvetkovich, Ann. Depression: A Public Feeling. Duke University Press, 2012. Freud, Sigmund. “Mourning And Melancholia”. The Standard Edition Of The Complete Psychological Works Of Sigmund Freud, James Strachey, 14th ed., The Hogarth Press, London, Accessed 16 Sept 2021.

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Student Reflection: One of the most memorable experiences I had with this paper was the exploration into Anne Cvetkovich’s work on depression and creative writing. Her ability to capture her own depression in a memoir was fascinating to read, especially in comparison to my own conceptualization of depression and lived experience. The sensation of depression is not only limited to the mind, but also to the body and outside influence of societal oppression. Cvetkovich’s work is a staple in psychoanalysis and autotheory, and I’m thankful to have chosen her work to focus on because of her ingenious theorization of the body. It was a fascinating piece to read, and I will look back on this piece fondly. A huge thank you goes to Dr. Galioto for always providing excellent feedback and telling me to “go there”, even when I am clueless as to where “there” is. I’m still looking for it, but I’ve had a wonderful experience exploring along the way.

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Are You My Mother?: Art as Fetish or Art as Healing? by Victoria Helfrick ENG 304: Literary Criticism Dr. Erica Galioto Assignment: Examine Bechdel’s graphic form as artistic production in the same way we have been analyzing Lily’s painting and Woolf ’s writing: How does the graphic memoir genre of Are You My Mother? relate to the psychic exploration and self-writing within? Please refer to at least one of our preceding coursepack texts (Freud, Kristeva, Winnicott, Chee) in this 4-5 page thesis-driven literary analysis.

Alison Bechdel’s Are You My Mother? is a graphic memoir that not only exemplifies the strategies of autotheory, but also encompasses psychic exploration and self-writing. In this graphic memoir, Bechdel explores the writing of Fun Home–a tragicomic about her father’s suicide–as well as her relationship with her mother and the effects of that relationship on her life. Using theory from Julia Kristeva’s Black Sun, I conclude that Bechdel’s writing of Are You My Mother? serves as both a fetish to her loss and a therapeutic process of healing. As Bechdel navigates through this theorizing of herself, in the beginning it seems a way to perpetuate the pain of the relationship with her mother, yet by the end she works through that relationship and comes out on the other side. The reason I say Bechdel’s journey with this particular piece of art begins as a fetishization of the loss is because it begins with the repetition of pain. In Black Sun, Julia Kristeva points out that “the death drive splits the very ego into one component that is unaware of such drive while being affected by it (that is, its unconscious component) and another component that struggles against it (that is the megalomaniac ego that negates castration and death and fantasizes immortality)” (Kristeva 25 & 26). For Bechdel the pressure to separate from her mother is unconscious at the beginning of the book; she is describing her process of writing Fun Home, and she is simply struggling with memories of her relationship with her mother from the past and present. What is working against the separation from her mother initially is the writing of Fun Home and the writing of Are You My Mother?. In writing these pieces Bechdel is forced to remember and even go through old documents. She also sends drafts to her mother time and time again looking for the approval she knows she won’t ever get. In revisiting her childhood memories and in working with her mother in creating these pieces of art, she is repeating the pain of being “The Gifted Child” relentlessly. 118

Alice Miller theorizes "The Gifted Child as having "an insecure parent who depended on the child behaving in a particular way and an 'amazing ability' on the part of the child to perceive this and take on the assigned role." This designation of "The Gifted Child" is what created the pain for Bechdel and also what complicates her separation from her Mother (Bechdel 149). Bechdel had to absorb so much for her mother in order to secure love. I think the best representation of being "The Gifted Child" is on page 86 when her mother asks her, “Do you love me?” and she goes through this whole thought process trying to come up with the ‘right’ answer because she “knew that all (she) wanted was to assure her that (she) loved her” (Bechdel 86). It is memories like these that surface in Bechdel’s process of writing Are You My Mother? and it is what allows Bechdel to fetishize and repeat the pain. Even after she grows up and moves out of her mother’s house she still perpetuates the pain by, one, writing the books, and two, continuing to be the gifted child– always listening but never being listened to. Throughout the memoir there are multiple calls to her mother, and each one is characterized by the mother’s total dominance of the conversation, with Bechdel fearing “the pressure to be concise, entertaining, and apposite in this small window” and instead “pass(ing) with a ‘Fine. Nothing new to report’” (Bechdel 14). Much later in the memoir, Bechdel tells the story of when her mother tried to call her while she was at school to tell her that her parents were getting a divorce. Her mother says, “Where have you been?! I’ve been calling and calling you!” and Bechdel thinks in reaction; “I wasn’t there when she had needed me” (Bechdel 157 & 158). This dependence of the mother on the child is what created Bechdel as “The Gifted Child” and caused her to constantly cater to her mother’s emotional needs instead of her own. Although Bechdel was clearly mentally and emotionally occupied by her mother, eventually there

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was a shift, and I think that’s when the art turned from fetishization to therapeutic healing. According to Kristeva, “matricide is our vital necessity, the sine-quanon condition of our individuation, provided that it takes place under optimal circumstances and can be croticized -- whether the lost object is recovered as erotic object… or it is transposed by means of an unbelievable symbolic effort, the advent of which one can only admire, which eroticizes the other… or transforms cultural constructs into a ‘sublime’ erotic object.” (Kristeva 27 & 28). Bechdel approaches matricide towards the end of Are You My Mother? and I think it begins on page 229 where she hangs up the phone on her Mother; “the day I hung up the phone on Mom was the last time she made me cry” (Bechdel 233). The fact that Bechdel hung up on her mother, didn’t feel guilty about it, and cried for the last time on account of her mother’s disapproval was the first sign of her separation from her mother. Then after reading Winnicott and Lacan theorizing the Mirror, Bechdel realizes that “in the ‘contest’ with (her) mother (she) had liberated (herself )” (Bechdel 254). And finally, on the last page Bechdel confesses “there was a certain thing I did not get from my mother. There is a lack, a gap, a void. But in its place, she has given me something else. Something I would argue, that is far more valuable. She has given me the way out.” (Bechdel 288 & 289). What she is saying here is that what her mother did was turn her into the psychoanalyst she is today; her “way out” is her writing. Her relationship with her mother and the eventual psychic separation from her mother (matricide) is what allowed her to write the memoir and her writing became the new object. Since she no longer had to be emotionally or mentally occupied by her mother, she had room to theorize herself and create the art that is Are You My Mother?. Bechdel’s writing of Are You My Mother? began as a way to fetishize the loss of her mother as the object, but ended up as a process of therapy and healing. As Julia Kristeva points out in Black Sun, “art seems to

point to a few devices that bypass complacency and, without simply turning mourning into mania, secure for the artist and the connoisseur a sublimatory hold over the lost Thing” (Kristeva 97). For Bechdel, writing Are You My Mother? served as a hold over the matricide she was going through. In a way she was perpetuating the pain of her mother ignoring her and disregarding her feelings and accomplishments while also demanding the opposite in return, because in order to write this she had to consult her mother and their relationship. As Bechdel was psychoanalyzing herself and doing the research for this book, I think she went through some fetishization of the painful relationship between her and her mother, but ultimately it turned out to be a therapeutic process, and we know that from the last part of the memoir where she separates from her mother. This separation was characterized by her acknowledgement and acceptance that her mother would never give her what she wanted. Julia Kristeva also points out that, “the imaginative capability of Western man, which is fulfilled within Christianity, is the ability to transfer meaning to the very place where it was lost in death and/or nonmeaning” (Kristeva 103). In Bechdel’s case, I think she separated from her mother as the object, and then the lack that was left allowed her to transfer meaning into her writing. In the completion of this memoir, Bechdel finally comes to a conclusion about her mother and because of her psychoanalytic journey, she is able to complete the matricide. If Bechdel had never finished writing Are You My Mother?, I think it would have only been considered a fetish of the loss, but the completion and publication of it signifies her acceptance of the loss and acknowledgement of the lack. Works Cited Bechdel, Alison. Are You My Mother?: A Comic Drama. Mariner Books, 2013. Kristeva, Julia. Black Sun: Depression and Melancholia. Columbia University Press, 1987.

Student Reflection: Diving deep into psychoanalysis by exploring Are You My Mother? and “Black Sun” proved to be a challenging and intriguing experience. Before reading Are You My Mother? we read To the Lighthouse by Virginia Woolf and examined art as either repetition and fetishization of loss or as a form of therapeutic healing. In Woolf ’s To the Lighthouse we examined Lily’s painting as art and Woolf ’s writing of To the Lighthouse as art and both as either fetishizations of loss or as a form of healing. In my writing about Alison Bechdel’s Are You My Mother? I examine Bechdel’s writing and publishing using Julia Kristeva’s theory in “Black Sun” for support, in the same way that we did Woolf ’s To the Lighthouse and Lily’s painting. In this critical analysis I conclude that Bechdel’s journey of self-writing and autotheory that is Are You My Mother? began as a fetishization of the psychic separation from her mother and physical loss of her father (in death), but ended as a form of therapeutic healing in its publication. 119

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Does Exercise Help to Increase Bone Density in Postmenopausal Women? by Lauren Ocker ESC 321: Exercise Physiology I Dr. Turi Braun Assignment: This assignment is a research paper that I completed for my Exercise Physiology course in the Fall of 2021. I could choose any physiology related topic that interested me, and complete research on that topic. I used my knowledge about the body from the course along with validation from research to construct this paper.

What is Postmenopause in Women? Postmenopause is the period after a woman has not had her menstrual cycle for an entire year. Menopause usually happens between ages of 45 and 55, which is generally when a woman’s estrogen declines (Cleveland Clinic, 2022). Menopause also has other effects on women other than their period ending. A rapid decrease in bone density is common in postmenopausal women. This is due to a drop in estrogen in the body. It has been shown that estrogen has many effects on bone, including stimulation of bone formation by osteoblasts and inhibition of parathyroid hormone action to facilitate bone resorption (Shimegi et al., 1994). If nothing is done to prevent this loss of bone density, it can lead to a disease called osteoporosis, which means the bones are very fragile and susceptible to fractures. This paper is concerned with the effects of exercise on bone density in postmenopausal women. Since a common issue brings up several questions: can exercise prevent this loss of bone density from occurring or if it has already started, can it stop it from getting worse? We know that exercise helps improve muscle strength, but this paper will address the impact it has on bone strength, specifically with women who are susceptible to osteoporosis. Most Susceptible Areas for Bone Loss When it comes to bone loss in women, the most susceptible areas for it to occur at first are in the hips and spine. As women age, the level of bone loss tends to increase; women lose .06%, 1.1% and 2.1% per year for the 60-69, 70-79 and > 80 age groups (Benedetti et al., 2018). If you look at the more susceptible areas of bone, the loss is 1.5% per year for the spine and 1.1%-1.4% for the femoral neck in the first 4-5 years (Benedetti et al., 2018). This gives a reasonable representation of how rapid this bone loss can be in 120

these areas if nothing is done to prevent it. As people grow older, the hips and the spine are very critical in their physical wellbeing. These two bone structures play a huge role in stability and mobility in humans, especially as age increases. If they become too fragile, that will lead to a decrease in the function of these structures. Subsequently, there can be a very high chance of falling and fracturing those sites, which leads to a whole other array of issues. Can exercise prevent or mitigate these losses? For the first study conducted by Kemmler et al. (2002), a 3-year longitudinal study on an exercise programs effects on hip and spinal bone mass density (BMD) placed 137 early postmenopausal women into control groups and exercise groups. The exercise group exercised four times a week, twice in a supervised group setting and twice at home on their own. Two of the training days were group exercises which were 65-70 minutes long. The exercise consisted of a warm-up, endurance exercise, jumping, strength training, and stretching. Some exercises performed within these categories included walking and running, bench press, leg curls, hip flexion, jump roping, jumping jacks, and skipping, all with a regulated rest time. Intensities were controlled using heart rates measured by watches and ground reaction forces were measured with force plates. The goal was for heart rates to be greater than 65% of the heart rate max after 3 minutes and then to remain at 70-85% of the max for the remaining time. Assessments were made every 6-8 weeks of training (Kemmler et al., 2002). It was found that after 14 months of training, lumbar spine BMD in the exercise group increased significantly by 1.3% and decreased significantly by −1.2% in the control group. A decrease was detected at the total hip: -0.3% for the exercise groups and -0.8% for the control group (Kemmler et al., 2002). The in-

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vestigators reported that their exercise regimen reduced loss of bone mineral density in these areas, which is very important for postmenopausal women. Even if the increases aren’t huge, it is clear to see the bone loss can at least be delayed longer than if no exercise is present. Physical Activity Impacts on Bone Density In some of the studies that have been done to look at the impact exercise has on bone health, it has been demonstrated that physical exercise is considered an effective means to stimulate bone osteogenesis (bone formation) in osteoporotic patients (Benedetti et al., 2018). Even though not all postmenopausal women will get osteoporosis, the fact that exercise stimulates bone osteogenesis means physical activity could help prevent the loss of bone mass to which they are susceptible. Physical exercise can consist of a lot of different types of work. In the second study conducted by Shimegi et al. (1994), researchers didn’t focus as much on what type of exercise is more efficient, but rather whether or not simply staying active has any correlation with BMD. In this study, there was a control group that did not perform activity regularly and two groups that played either volleyball or jogged as an activity. These women were all around the same age, 50-60, and were healthy individuals. For the study, measurements and different blood tests were performed to see differences in the groups. These measurements were estimated by x-rays and the blood samples were collected by venipuncture. The findings showed that specific sports appear to have selective effects on the skeletal sites used predominantly in those sports (Shimegi et al., 1994). For example, the volleyball group had greater mean femur bone mineral density than the control and joggers, which is due to the amount of jumping required in volleyball. The volleyball players’ femoral means were about 0.8 g/cm2 for the neck, 0.7 g/cm2 for the greater trochanter, and 0.6 g/cm2 in the Ward’s Triangle. For the joggers, their means were about 0.66 g/cm2 for the neck, 0.61 g/cm2 for the greater trochanter, and 0.5 g/ cm2 in the Ward’s Triangle. Both active groups had a much higher BMD in the lumbar spine region when compared to the control group. The volleyball players and joggers both had means between 0.9 g/cm2 and 1.1 g/cm2 while the control group had means all below 0.9 g/cm2. This information tells us that the repeated use of certain parts of the body can help the BMD at those sites. This can then be used to create exercise plans for people struggling with bone loss in certain areas of the body. If the areas that need the assistance are targeted, then the exercise can focus on making sure those areas are being regularly improved. To further support these statements, the study concluded that mechanical stress

placed locally on the bone, rather than humoral factors acting on systemic bones, is involved in higher lumbar vertebrae bone mineral density in active subjects (Shimegi et al., 1994). This study had significant findings backing their claims on physical fitness and bone density. The study demonstrated that regular physical activity can increase bone mass as well as prevent bone loss in both premenopausal and postmenopausal states. Regular physical activity contributed to the higher BMD observed in active groups compared with the controls (Shimegi et al., 1994). Long-term Exercise Preventing Postmenopausal Bone Loss Andreoli et al. (2011) looked at 48 women that included a control group and a group of ex-elite female athletes, weight bearing and non-weight bearing, who had been active well before hitting menopause. The main goal was to see how their BMD held up in the critical years. These women were between 54-73 years of age and had detailed data collected on them about their workout status as younger women and in their present state. The athlete group had much more training in younger years when compared to the control group, but at the time of the study, there were no differences in activity levels between the two. They took BMD measurements via X-rays after 12 hours of fasting and 24 hours free of exercise and analyzed them. The results found that total body BMD in the control group was significantly lower compared with the athletes; however, no differences were found between the swim and the run trained athletes (Andreoli et al., 2011). When looking at where the areas of more dense bone differed between the two types of athletes, such information seemed to vary based on which areas of their body were being worked more for their sport. The runners had a higher BMD in the legs, 1.115-1.130 g/cm2, than the controls, 0.92-0.924 g/cm2, and swimmers, 1.043-1.062 g/ cm2. The swimmers had higher overall BMD in both of their arms, 0.703-0.710 g/cm2, than the runners, 0.692-0.716 g/cm2. The runners had a small peak in BMD in their right arms, potentially due to that being their dominant arm. The study stated that it is well known that BMD increases at sites of maximum stress, which can explain why the results came out like that (Andreoli et al., 2011). The controls had lower BMD in every area evaluated compared to both the runners and swimmers. This study is important when discussing this topic because it provides evidence that adult women with a lifetime history of strenuous physical activity had markedly higher BMD, bone mineral content, and appendicular muscle mass than sedentary controls of similar age and menopausal status (Andreoli et al., 121

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2011). Being physically active early on in life can help tremendously when women are going through their menopause period. It can help combat against the bone loss they tend to have, and can provide a head start on continuing to maintain that BMD as they age. Differences in Exercise Type on Effectiveness As many people know, there are many different types of exercise one can perform, including strength training, endurance training, resistance training, etc. It is well established now that physical activity can prevent the loss of bone mass and can improve it in some cases, but which exercises work best for this to occur? Weight bearing vs. non-weight bearing are the two exercise options that will be discussed further. Nonweight bearing means the legs shouldn’t be supporting any body weight. Exercises such as swimming, water aerobics, biking, and lifting while sitting down are all examples of non-weight bearing exercises. Weight bearing exercises consist of running, lifting, jumping, dancing, walking, etc. In a study conducted by Shanb et al. (2014), weight bearing exercises were compared with nonweight bearing exercises in women with osteoporosis. Even though this paper is concerned mainly with protecting the bones from getting to that point, it provides good evidence for how these exercises affect the bones when they are in a weaker state. This information can then be used to get people a head start in maintaining their BMD efficiently. In this experiment, there were 27 females and 13 males, all who were between ages 60-67 with osteoporosis. 20 patients practiced weight bearing exercises while 20 did non-weight bearing exercises. All patients trained for 45-60 mins/session, 2 sessions/week for 6 months. Measurements of BMD of the lumbar, spine, right neck of femur, and right distal head were recorded via X-rays before and after the programs (Shanb et al., 2014). The results showed a significant increase in BMD in both groups at the lumbar spine, neck of femur, and right distal radial head. The weight bearing group had higher percentages of change at the end of the experiment, but both groups showed improvement, which means both methods of exercise could be used successfully. The weight bearing group showed a 26.8% improvement in the lumbar spine, 30.4% improvement in the femoral neck, and 27.5% in the radial head BMD measures. The non-weight bearing group showed a 15.4% change in the lumbar spine, 20.5% change in the femoral neck, and 18.4% in the radial head BMD measures. Quality of life was also measured pre and post program completion and it turned out to be higher in the weight bearing group, which had a mean difference of 7.1 compared to the non-weight 122

bearing gain of 5.5 (Shanb et al., 2014). Weight bearing exercises do not have to be highly intense or involve heavy loads, but participants must be mobile and stable to perform them correctly. This could explain why quality of life may rank higher with this type of exercise. To further elaborate on why weight bearing is more beneficial, more muscular strength is built with weight bearing exercises. With more muscular strength, the body has more pull on the bones when trying to move them, which could correlate with higher BMD. If possible, weight bearing exercises should be used first to help treat a loss in bone mass or to help resist a loss of bone mass for the best results. Limitations in Research Some limitations in research from these studies include the number of patients used, the length of time of the studies, the limited research on activity level in youth years correlating with BMD in older years, and the use of other vitamins to help the bone mass. These are all important factors to look at when studying this topic. A large sample size is important to see how steady the results are across a larger population. A longer study period also allows for data on how rapidly the bone is affected by exercise or, in contrast, how long it takes to increase. A longer study could also help determine if eventually there is a plateau in bone gain, which means it would turn into maintaining the bone with these programs. A lot of the studies also do not consider how active the participants were at a younger age. Along with that, there is very little research on how much of an impact activity level at a younger age helps in the future with postmenopausal women specifically. This paper broke down a few papers that looked at this topic, but future research should consider looking at that more. Notably, for instance, a lot of women take vitamins, which could impact bone mass. It may not have a tremendous impact, but it is important for that to be taken into consideration in the studies. Some research does take that into account, but not all. There could also be future research on how well those supplements work alone and along with an exercise program. Conclusion When considering the research evaluated in this paper, it is safe to say that exercise can help increase bone density in postmenopausal women. If the exercise program is started a little later than the ideal time, exercise can surely help maintain the bone that is present and slow the process of losing it. Women, specifically in their post-menopausal years, are very susceptible to bone loss due to the rapid decrease of hormones in their body. Although there are other treatments to help reduce this, exercise is a very natural and healthy

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way to help maintain bone density. The research in this paper supports the fact that exercising, specifically weight bearing, but not limited to it, helps build bone density. Some research in this paper also supports the fact that women who go into menopausal years with high bone density have an advantage in bone health compared to those who do not. If nothing is done to reduce the age-related decline in bone mass, osteoporosis may become an issue, which can be very dangerous, especially as one ages. Having a stable/mobile body is very crucial for staying healthy. As stated earlier in the paper, it is crucial to maintain bone density of the spine and hips in aging women. Each type of exercise studied showed a higher BMD in these areas when compared to non-exercise control groups. It is very important for women to understand the risk they are at for bone loss. It is also very important for them to know how they can prevent that from occurring in their body. All in all, exercise is very effective when it comes to increasing and maintaining bone density in postmenopausal women.

References Andreoli A, Celi M, Volpe SL, Sorge R, Tarantino U, (n.d.). Long-term effect of exercise on bone mineral density and body composition in post-menopausal ex-elite athletes: A retrospective study. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition; 66(1): 69-74 (2012). Retrieved January 25, 2022, from https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih. gov/21673718/ Benedetti, M. G., Furlini, G., Zati, A., & Letizia Mauro, G. (December 23, 2018: 1-10). The effectiveness of physical exercise on bone density in osteoporotic patients. BioMed Research International. Retrieved January 25, 2022, from https://www.hindawi.com/ journals/bmri/2018/4840531/ Kemmler, Wolfgang, Engelke, Klaus, Lauber, Dirk, Weineck, Juergen, Hensen, Johannes, Kalender, Willi A. Exercise effects on fitness and bone mineral density in early postmenopausal women: 1-year EFOPS results, Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise 34(12): 21152123 (2002). Retrieved January 25, 2022, from https:// journals.lww.com/acsm-msse/Fulltext/2002/12000/ Exercise_effects_on_fitness_and_bone_mineral.38.aspx. Postmenopause: Signs, symptoms & what to expect. Cleveland Clinic. (n.d.). Retrieved January 25, 2022, from https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/15224menopause-perimenopause-and-postmenopause. Shanb, Alsayed A, and Enas F Youssef. “The Impact of Adding Weight-Bearing Exercise versus Nonweight Bearing Programs to the Medical Treatment of Elderly Patients with Osteoporosis.” Journal of Family & Community Medicine; 21(3): 176-181 (2014) Medknow Publications & Media Pvt Ltd, Sept. 2014, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih. gov/pmc/articles/PMC4214007/. Shimegi, Satoshi, Masahiko, Yanagita, Hiroya, Okano, Megaumi, Yamada, Hiroko, Fukui, Yukihito, Fukumura, Yoshito, Ibuki, Itaru, Kojima. Physical Exercise Increases Bone Mineral Density in Postmenopausal Women. Endocrine Journal; 41(1): 49–56, 1994. https://doi.org/10.1507/endocrj.41.49.

Student Reflection: The topic of bone density loss is very interesting to me, especially since I have seen it firsthand in my grandparents and other elderly around me. It is something that is a risk to a lot of people as they age, especially women. I am very interested in how exercise and maintaining good health throughout your life can help prevent certain diseases or aging issues, which is why I love being an Exercise Science major. This research paper allowed me to use my interest in exercising and apply it to preventing a physiological problem that many people may struggle with one day. In the future, I hope to be able to use my knowledge obtained from this program at Shippensburg and be able to make an impact on people needing guidance to live a healthier lifestyle. This paper was a great first start to broaden and solidify my knowledge about an important topic, and I now believe that I can assist anyone struggling with bone loss or wanting to prevent bone loss in their future.

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Super Suits as an Ergogenic Aid in Competitive Swimming by Rachel Johnston ESC 343: Foundations of Exercise Physiology Dr. Turi Braun Assignment: The assignment prompted students to explore ergogenic aids and their effect on sports or exercise performance through research. Students were encouraged to build an argument on the use of the specified ergogenic aid using documentable support from published research studies.

An ergogenic aid, in the context of sport or exercise, can be defined as a technique, substance, nutrient, practice, or application that is used to enhance physical performance. The ergogenic aid that is being evaluated in this paper is the use of “super suits,” which were used in competitive swimming before being banned by FINA, an international swimming competition management organization. These swimsuits are designed to trap air and increase buoyancy while compressing the wearer’s muscles to reduce workload off the body, leading to a faster and easier stroke in competitive swimming races. Super suits have been referred to as a form of “technological doping” because of how advanced the suit design is. Many critics have agreed that the suit takes away from the sport, arguing that swimming is a sport to showcase human talent, not swimsuits. I chose to evaluate this ergogenic aid since, as a competitive swimmer, I have always been fascinated by technology suit (tech suit) designs. Tech suits are very tight-fitting and compressing suits that are made of a smooth and drag-resistant material. Regular tech suits do not significantly aid in faster swimming,\; they are mainly worn for competition professionality. Super suits, on the other hand, do much more than reduce drag and look professional. This paper will explore the effects of super suits on physical performance in competitive swimming. Webb et al. (2014) investigated the effects of the full body suits (super suits) that were banned by FINA and whether it provided a reduction in swimming resistance in both male and female swimmers. The 2009 World Championships showed a significant improvement in performance, and when the high-performance super suits used in those championships were subsequently banned, there was an immediate reduction in swimming performance. This suggests that the super suits provided the wearer with a significant decrease in swimming resistance, which led to faster times. 124

The authors modeled the swimming resistance and propulsion in both male and female elite swimming races through a race simulation split into “suit” (decreased resistance to replicate the effects of a super suit) and “no-suit”. The simulation included four phases: start, underwater swimming, surface swimming, and turn. The start and turn were not physically modeled, but the effect on distance, time, and speed were considered in the overall simulation. The arm and leg propulsion models were used to replicate the movements of freestyle for the surface and underwater swimming phases. All phases were modeled independently to accurately measure the race time, since each has a different influence in swimming speed. Only the male and female 50 m, 100 m, and 200 m freestyle were modeled. When comparing the suit and no-suit conditions, both stroke rates were kept the same. An analysis of the 2009 World Championship race times and 2001 to 2013 (not including 2009) race times was conducted to find variations in times. The authors found that the reduction of race time was due to a change in swimming resistance, with the change in resistance coming from the super suit. For the 50 m freestyle, the simulated time without super suits was 22.04 seconds for males and 24.78 seconds for females, and with the super suits was 21.53 seconds for males and 23.99 seconds for females. For the 100 m freestyle, the simulated no-suit time was 48.49 for males and 54.21 for females, whereas the stimulated suit times were 47.57 and 53.28 respectively. Lastly, for the 200 m freestyle, the no-suit times were 107.04 for male and 118.92 for females; suit times were 104.27 for males and 117.14 for females. The resistance reduction of the suits was calculated to be 3.9 to 6.9%, averaging 4.8%. Given the simulation and time analysis, the authors concluded that if super suits were not present in the 2009 World Championships, performance would have

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been decreased (Webb et al., 2014). The findings of this study show that super suits, as an ergogenic aid, have a significant effect on performance. It reduces the resistance of the swimmer and therefore allows them to swim easier and, more importantly, faster. The evident appeal of the super suit to competitors in the 2009 World Championships was that it makes the wearer move more smoothly and increases speed through the water. Although super suits have their benefits, it took away from the main purpose of the sport, which is to showcase human performance in the water and compete with other swimmers fairly, which is why FINA decided to ban them. Next, Gao et al. (2020) researched the natural progressions made by male swimmers if high performance swimsuits were never permitted in the 2008 and 2009 World Championships. Full body high technology swimsuits are made of thin sheets of polyurethane or non-textile materials that decrease resistance, elevate the swimmer’s body position in the water, improve core stability, increase buoyancy, and maximize support to the muscles. When super suits were introduced to competition, over 130 world records were broken in just 2 years (2008-2009). Since then, none of those records were met by the year of this study (2019). The world records no longer reflected the natural/real progressions made by athletes over time. This study quantifies the swimsuit bias in the 50 m, 100 m, 200 m, and 4 x 100 m freestyle in men’s swimming and calculates the natural progression of world records without super suits. In addition to that, the authors conducted a literature review to gather more information on the effects of the super suits on races in 2008 and 2009. In the literature review, the authors found the existence of swimsuit bias (the concept that swimsuits give the wearer advantages in racing) through a study that predicted and compared the progression of athletic records (without super suits) to times swam in 2008 and 2009 championship meets. Race performance was significantly faster than predicted in 17 out of 26 events (Gao et al., 2020). They also found that the 2008 Olympic results were biased because of super suits and that the predicted natural progression of times wouldn’t realign until 2012. These full-body, high-tech suits increased performance by 5.5% (Gao et al., 2020). For the quantification portion of the study, the 2011 World Championships and 2012 Olympics were used to represent the top swimming times without super suits. During the process, swimsuit bias, natural improvement, and swimmer’s true performance in 2008 (the race time after the removal of the super suit) were considered to represent variations among athletes and swimsuits. The Autoregressive Integrated Moving Average (ARIMA) model, a technique used to model the natural improvement of human swimmers,

was used to predict the future times based entirely on the previous time of the specific event. This modeling method shows, through color-coded graphs, that the 2008 and 2009 records with the swimsuit bias had a tremendous impact on the race times (Figure 3 in the research article). The graph points (representing swimsuit bias) were well below the line that represented times without swimsuit bias, showing that those were faster times and therefore the super suits aided in the faster race time. The authors also used mathematical splines that modeled improved performance through natural progression. The spline created shows a negative relationship between time and year, which corresponds to faster swim times as each year goes by (Gao et al., 2020). Overall, the model and spline show us that times swam by male swimmers in later years, such as Caleb Dressel, could have been world records if super suits had never been allowed in competitive swimming. The WR up to 2019, made with super suits, for the 50 m freestyle was 20.91 seconds, for 100 m was 46.91s, for 200 m was 1:42.00, and for the 4 x 100 m was 3:08.24. The recalculated real WRs were 21.31s for the 50 free, 47.47s for the 100, 1:42.95 for the 200, and 3:10.65 for the 4 x 100. In 2019, Caleb Dressel was only 0.05s off the 50 m freestyle WR (with super suits). This study shows that super suits gave wearers a huge technological advantage and led to inaccurate reflections of human progression (Gao et al., 2020). Eventually, swimmers would have naturally progressed to meet these WRs; however, the super suit gave swimmers a huge leap in times, which seemed unachievable for the years in which races were swam. This article further supports the idea that super suits were, technologically speaking, a great aid in fast swimming; however, as stated earlier, these suits took away from the purpose of the sport, which is to display human ability. Morales et al. (2019) conducted an extensive meta-analysis on studies that researched the influence of high-speed swimsuits on competitive swimming performance up to the release of the “Jammer” model. To be clear, the Jammer model is a model of competitive swimsuits that start from the waist and end right above the knees for men and start at the chest to above the knees for women. A total of 43 articles were closely reviewed to analyze the influence of high-speed suits up until the most recent legal suit, the Jammer. To fairly conduct the meta-analysis, researchers ensured that all reviewed articles were peer-reviewed and that each article researched/analyzed the effect of different swimsuits in historical, biomechanical, physiological, and psychological terms and only in the sport of competitive swimming. Any articles that did not fit this criterion were not included in the results and conclusions. It was found that technological innova125

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tions have played a great role in swimming through the evolution of swimsuits. The first official technology suit (tech suit) was released in 1992 by Speedo, known as the “Fast-Suit”, which eventually evolved into the “Aquablade.” Then the Adidas full-body suit was released in 1998, followed by the Speedo sharkskin “Fastskin” in 1999. The first round of tech suits was designed to reduce drag and cover the entire body. These suits were not authorized for competitive use by FINA until shortly before the 2000 Olympics, which was known as a revolutionary new beginning for competitive swimming because it involved the first use of tech suits. Several other models were released, but one that particularly stood out was the 2008 Speedo “LZR Racer”. The LZR Racer was designed with polyurethane material, where panels were strategically positioned on the body to replicate sharkskin, significantly reducing drag. This tech suit was classified as a super suit. Several world records were broken using the LZR Racer in the 2008 Beijing Olympics. Following the LZR Racer, brands such as “Arena” and “Jaked” engineered super suits that were made of the same materials as the LZR Racer. This sparked controversy in the competitive swimming world. Media labeled this as “techno doping” and many critics stated that super suits are taking over as an advertising war between companies to capitalize on the winning of gold medals. Super suits of these kinds were great at improving buoyancy and reducing drag. The meta-analysis also found that 43 world records were set in a single championship with the use of these suits. It was concluded by Morales et al. (2019) that swimmers, as athletes, had always been greatly concerned with reducing drag as much as possible; this means that swimmers were always searching for technology innovations to make this happen. Styles of super suits differed based on the preference of the swimmer. Sprint, middle-distance, and distance events each had a suit that compressed different areas of the body to accommodate each type of event. Overall, this study concluded that the evolution of swimsuits and how they came to use was a result of common desires amongst elite swimmers to get faster in any legal way possible (Morales et al., 2019). Competitive swimmers are always searching for something to make them faster, so it is not surprising that many were drawn to super suits. Wearers of hightech suits performed very well, however, as said before, it did not accurately reflect human performance. There should always be a limit to the technological capabilities of racing suits because, if technological innovations in suits were to continue, competitive swimming would no longer be about the athlete. Instead it would be about the suit that they are wearing and what it is capable of. 126

Moria et al. (2010) conducted a study on the contribution of swimsuits to swimmer’s performance with a hydrodynamic experimental evaluation of two swimsuits, the Speedo LZR Racer and the Speedo FastSkin-II. It is estimated that about 90% of a swimmer’s power output is used to overcome hydrodynamic resistance, including wave drag, form drag, and skin friction drag. Wave drag is the work required to overcome water waves; form drag refers to the resistance created on the body due to the motion of the stroke; and skin friction drag is the resistance to motion due to the body acting as a wall (Moria et al., 2010). When the Speedo LZR Racer was first released in 2008, the manufacturer claimed that the suit was ultra-light weight, had water repellency, and had muscle compression features, all to help the swimmer reduce drag and get faster in the water. The material of these suits plays a significant role in swimming as a speed-based sport. The study used wind forces that were calculated equivalently to hydrodynamic speed to test the swimsuits’ effects. For the experiment, each swimsuit was wrapped around a PVC cylinder filled with some filler (for structural rigidity). Aerodynamic forces were measured based on the cylinder diameter and wind tunnel speeds. More specifically, each test was conducted to test the function of the swimsuit material and seam positions. The Speedo LZR Racer was composed of 70% Polyamide and 30% Elastane with weld seams on the sides. The FastSkin-II was made of 75% Polyamide and 25% Elastane with stitch seams on the sides, and the design included a V and reverse V-pattern. The tunnel in which the suits were tested was a closedcircuit wind tunnel that stimulated cross wind effects. When wind force was applied on each of the suits, it was found that the drag coefficient for the LZR Racer was 0.56 and for the FastSkin-II was 0.62. The drag coefficient quantifies an objects’ resistance in a fluid environment; 0 has the least amount of drag and 1 has the most. The seams of the LZR Racer do not have any effect on drag, and therefore are insignificant to the suit’s abilities. Overall, the results indicate that these suits do not assist the swimmer with drag reduction and speed as much as muscle compression and buoyancy benefit speed (Moria et al., 2010). This source indicates that super suits were not necessarily used for their drag reduction, but their significant effects in body and muscle compression, and most importantly, increasing buoyancy. The authors call for more research on these aspects of the suit and the structure that induces muscle compression and buoyancy. Although the sharkskin material has always been a highlight of the super suit manufacturer’s advertisements, this study confirms that the effects of the super suit that people prominently see are not because of drag reduction but because of other technological aspects.

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Reflecting on the collected research and findings, it can be concluded that the use of super suits as an ergogenic aid in competition is controversial. Speaking from a technological perspective, high performance technology suits would be a great aid for swimmers whose main purpose is to increase their speed in the water. The study done by Webb et al. (2014) shows that super suits are statistically effective in reducing race times. In the short time that super suits were permitted, world records were broken constantly. This led to a huge leap forward in performance progression; records from 2008/2009 were not broken until 2019, according to Gao et al. (2020). Moria et al. (2010) focused on the structural aspect of super suits and concluded that the drag reduction caused by the suits isn’t as big as it appeared and that the speed benefits these suits provide are caused by muscle compression and an increase in buoyancy. Each source analyzed in this paper researched a different aspect of high technology suits and each of them supported the idea that super suits are consistently effective at improving performance. The main controversy that caused these super suits to be banned by FINA was the idea that the competitive legalization of technology suits would take away from human performance. Gao and Webb highlighted the cause of uncertainty that many critics and coaches had by analyzing the times and world records swam with super suits. Critics’ main concern was that the use of these suits would eventually make competition humanly impossible and that competitive swimming would become a technology show rather than a human sport. Morales et al. (2019) highlights this idea through their meta-analysis. Super suit manufacturing

companies started to capitalize on Olympic gold medals and world records so that it would raise attention for their suits. Had the use of super suits continued, manufacturers would be the ones in competition rather than the athletes. The controversy that super suits sparked was a very important issue that still needs to be addressed. It tested both the swimmers and theirs committees/community on how far they would go to be fast and, more importantly, where they would draw the line. Now that the super suit controversy has passed, research should focus on what the current, legal technology suits are doing for their wearers and if there are any methods, other than a suit, to be used as an ergogenic aid for a swimmer. Works Cited Gao, Z., Li, Y., & Wang, Z. (2020). Restoring the real world records in Men’s swimming without high-tech swimsuits. De Gruyter, 16(4), 291-300. https://doi. org/10.1515/jqas-2019-0087 Morales, A. T., Fajardo, J. A., & Gonzalez-Garcia, H. (2019). High-Speed Swimsuits and Their Historical Development in Competitive Swimming. Frontiers in Psychology, 10. https://doi.org/10.3389/ fpsyg.2019.02639 Moria, H., Chowdhury, H., Alam, F., Subic, A., Smits, A. J., Jassim, R., & Bajaba, N. S. (2010). Contribution of Swimsuits to Swimmer’s Performance. Procedia Engineering, 2, 2205-2510. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. proeng.2010.04.023 Webb, A. P., Taunton, D. J., Hudson, D. A., Forrester, A. J., & Turnock, S. R. (2014). The effect of swimsuit resistance on freestyle swimming race time. Procedia Engineering, 709-714. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. proeng.2014.06.120

Student Reflection: Through writing this paper, not only was I able to connect a passion/interest in my life to the course, but I was also able to achieve a greater understanding and knowledge in my life-long sport. I’m part of the Shippensburg University varsity women’s swim team and have been swimming competitively from a young age, so this topic sparked great interest in me. Technology suits have always fascinated me as a swimmer, although getting myself into one hasn’t always been my favorite (tech-suits are extremely tight fitting and compressing). The design and feel of these suits have never failed to spark my curiosity. I saw this assignment as a perfect way for me to deeply research the subject. Never did I realize how much controversy the Super Suit sparked in the competitive swimming community until I researched it. The impact that these suits had on elite swimming are certainly unforgettable, and I believe that the engineering of these suits tested all athletes, especially professional ones, and their communities on where the line would be drawn to achieve speed in the water.

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The Creatine and Exercise Partnership by Mekhi Lee ENG 343: Foundations of Exercise Physiology Dr. Turi Braun Assignment: This assignment was to study an ergogenic aid of our choice and to report on scientific studies that investigated the aid. The information presented in the assignment could be helpful for the readers

Most active and avid lifters are lifting almost every day trying to gain more muscle mass on their frame and enhance their strength. This also often applies to athletes. Athletes are constantly trying to improve their strength, power, speed, and athletic ability. Sometimes ergogenic aids are taken to meet the needs and wants of the people. Ergogenic aids are types of substances or devices used to enhance athletic performance, energy production, and recovery in people. A popular ergogenic aid that a lot of people use to improve these factors is creatine. For this paper, the focus will be on the claims of power and strength benefits related to creatine supplementation. Often people ask what creatine is and if it is safe to take. Creatine is safe to take and it should be taken in moderation. Creatine is a substance that is already naturally found in our body, more specifically, in our muscle cells. Creatine supplements “help your muscles produce energy during heavy lifting or high intensity exercise” (Mawer, 2019). The most commonly used creatine supplement is creatine monohydrate. As stated before, athletes and avid lifters might benefit from its use as it may amplify their exercise performance, help with muscle gain, and improve strength. One way that creatine supplementation might help with exercise performance is by increasing the storage of phosphocreatine inside muscle cells (Mawer, 2019). This helps the body to produce more ATP (adenosine tri-phosphate: the immediate energy source for biological work), which may allow for better performance during a resistance training workout. I chose to investigate this ergogenic aid because I am an active person who once played football. I strength train frequently, and I am familiar with other people using it. I also have personal experience using creatine. While using it, I noticed more muscle mass on my frame, and an improvement in my strength, power, and muscle endurance. I was able to surpass some of my lifting goals while using creatine. Throughout this paper, I will discuss various published research studies about creatine and how its use may benefit strength and exercise performance for certain 128

groups in the experiments. The methods and results of the experiments will also be discussed. In the first research study that I examined, Preen et al. (2001) conducted a study to see the effect of creatine loading on long-term sprint exercise performance and metabolism. This study was designed to examine whether creatine supplementation could enhance long term repeated sprint exercise performance during an eighty minute interval protocol. The study used cycling sprints, not running sprints. The study was designed to imitate the physiological demands of a repeated sprint sport like soccer. There were fourteen male participants that were selected for this experiment. They were active, but not well trained. The averages for their age, height, and pre-supplementation body mass were 24.8 years old, 177.3 cm, and 72.6 kg. Work done and peak power were recorded for each sprint. For the experimental protocol, the study required the test subjects to attend two testing sessions one week apart. Before beginning the testing, the subjects completed the exercise challenge on two different occasions. They were not allowed to consume food, alcoholic, and/or caffeinated beverages at least three hours before each testing session. Also, they were not allowed to partake in demanding exercise the day before. They kept the time of day, day of week, ergometer seat height and twenty-four hour pre-test diet constant to reduce possible effects they might have on exercise performance. At the first testing session (pre supplementation), the subjects had to do a muscle biopsy before the warm up. The warm up consisted of five minutes of submaximal cycling, three practice sprint starts for one minute, and a five minute stretching routine. After the warm up, the subjects went to an air braked track cycle racing ergometer. They then performed the eighty minute exercise test, which consisted of ten sets of multiple six second sprints with different recoveries in between the repetitions. An example of how this would work is after one six second sprint, the subject would take a twentyfour second recovery break before continuing on to the

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next rep. This would continue four more times for that first set. Every two sets, the subjects had to consume 150 mL of water. After completion of the exercise, they took another muscle biopsy immediately after and three minutes later. Beginning the day following the initial test, seven of the test subjects ingested five grams of a creatine supplement and the other seven ingested a placebo four times a day (at two hour intervals) for a five day period. This treatment was done in a double-blind approach. Following the supplementation period, on test day two, the subjects followed the same procedures as the first test day except muscle biopsies were taken from the left leg, not the right arm like the first test day. The results from this experiment did not surprise me. The study results showed that the total work done in the creatine group increased significantly from 251.7 kJ pre supplementation to 266.9 kJ after the treatment period. For the placebo group, there was no significant change present. In the placebo group the total work went from 254.0 kJ to 252.3 kJ. After creatine loading, total work completed was improved. The peak power after the creatine loading significantly increased. Body mass in this study significantly increased as well. It went from the mean 72.6 kg to 74.6 kg in the creatine condition. There was no change in body mass for the subjects that ingested the placebo. The authors of this article concluded that creatine supplementation (20 grams a day for 5 days) improves repeated sprint performance (Preen et al., 2001). The study was clearly designed, but it would also be interesting to see the effects of a single, acute creatine dose on performance. I feel like it would be informative to see how a person would feel taking it right before activity. Besides that input, this was a very straightforward and clearly organized study. The next study I reviewed (Izquierdo et al., 2002) explored the effects of creatine supplementation on muscle power, endurance, and sprint performance. The goal was to see the effects of creatine supplementation on muscle power production during high power output exercise bouts, endurance, maximal strength, and repeated running sprint performance in team handball players. The participants were nineteen male handball players. These subjects were members of the same team and had a minimum continuous handball background training of 14.5 years. Subjects were randomly split into two groups and provided treatments (creatine vs. placebo) a double-blind manner. There were nine players in the creatine group and ten players in the placebo group. The averages for age, height, body mass, and body fat were 20.8 and 23.6 years old, between 182 and 189.7 cm tall, between 79.4 kg and 87 kg, and between 10.7% and 11.3% body fat. Over the five months before the beginning of the experimental period, the subjects trained four times a

week for handball, once a week for strength and endurance training, and played only one official handball game per week. The experimental period took place during the only week where there was no official game. For the experimental design of the study, the subjects first had to complete a two day experimental protocol on two different occasions separated by seven days before the five day supplementation period and after the supplementation period. The subjects had to get body weight and body fat estimates at the beginning of both testing sessions. Blood and urine samples were also collected during the testing. During the first session, the subjects warmed up by doing a set of five repetitions at the loads of 40-60% of their maximum for each exercise. Their lower and upper maximal strength was evaluated using a one repetition (1-RM) concentric maximum bench press and half squat. During testing, average velocity, bar displacement, and peak power were recorded. Before doing the half squat test and after each set of the half squat, the subjects had to immediately perform two maximal countermovement jumps. During the second test session, the subjects performed a repeated sprint running test and an endurance running test on an indoor handball court. The subjects completed a fifteen minute warm up that consisted of low intensity running, several acceleration runs, and stretching exercises. The sprint test consisted of six maximal sprints of fifteen meters with a sixty second rest period in between each sprint. For the recovery period, the subjects had to walk back to the starting line. Ten minutes after the sprint test, the endurance test took place. The endurance test was a maximal discontinuous incremental running test around the handball court until volitional exhaustion. The initial velocity was 10 km/hr and pace increased by 2 km/hr every five minutes, until exhaustion. After each stage, the test was interrupted for three minutes before continuing. Their heart rate was recorded every fifteen seconds. For the supplementation procedure, the subjects did not know which supplement they received. After doing baseline testing subjects were told to consume either five grams of creatine monohydrate or an equivalent volume of maltodextrin (placebo) four times daily over the next five days. Post testing began on the final day of supplementation. After completion of this experiment, they were able to compile the results. There was a greater increase in body mass in the creatine group. The body mass for the creatine subjects went from 79.4 kg to 80 kg. The placebo group’s body weight did not change. There was no significant change in percent body fat for either group. For the one repetition maximum of bench press, there were no significant changes. However, for the 1-RM of half squat, there was a significant increase 129

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in the creatine group. Their 1-RM went from 133 kg to 147.1 kg. There was no significant change in the placebo subjects for the 1-RM. The data for the average power produced for the creatine group was significantly greater post supplementation versus the placebo group. When doing the jumps between squat sets, there were no differences in both groups pre and post supplementation. For the repeated sprints, there was a significant improvement in average running time for the creatine group, while the placebo group had no significant improvement. For the endurance running test, there were no significant differences that were observed in either group. The authors of this article concluded that this study demonstrated that creatine supplementation led to significant improvements in lower body maximal strength, lower body high power exercise bouts, and total repetitions performed to fatigue during sets of bench press and half squat actions in highly trained handball players (Izquierdo et al., 2002). It also showed improvement in sprint performance. The only things the supplementation did not show improvement for was upper body maximal strength and endurance running. Just like the Preen et al. (2001) study, I found the Izquierdo et al. (2002) article interesting and well designed. There is nothing that I would change about how the experiment was organized. However, I wish that the authors would have provided a reason as to why the upper body strength did not change with creatine supplementation. I believe the study was designed well, especially since it was a double-blind assessment. The third experiment I reviewed, by Kreider et al. (1998) examined the effects of creatine supplementation on body composition, strength, and sprint performance. The focus of this study was to test the effects of a twenty eight day creatine supplementation period during training on body composition, strength, and sprint performance in 25 Division I football players. The averages for age, height, and weight of the subjects were 19.9 years old, 97.2 kg, and 183 cm. This experiment was conducted in a double-blind and randomized manner. Total body weight, body water, and body composition were tested before and after supplementation. For the testing, they performed maximal repetition tests on the isotonic bench press, squat, and power clean; they also performed a sprint test. Subjects kept their normal diet throughout the study. They were not allowed to ingest any other nutritional supplements, ergogenic aids, or nonprescription drugs during the course of the study. During the first two weeks of training the subjects participated in two sessions to familiarize themselves with the study and completed pre supplementation assessments. The subjects were then randomly assigned into groups and provided supplement using a double-blinded approach, for 130

the twenty-eight day period. The creatine group took 15.75 grams a day during the period. Subjects were provided with blindly coded boxes containing the prescribed supply of creatine monohydrate or placebo. There were fourteen players in the placebo group and eleven in the creatine group. During the four week supplementation period, the subjects completed heavy resistance training on Monday, Tuesday, Thursday, and Friday afternoons. Monday, Wednesday, and Friday mornings the subjects did agility/sprint training. The lifts included bench press, incline bench press, shoulder press, lateral pull downs, seated cable rows, upright rows, abdominals, squats, and power cleans. The agility training consisted of high intensity sprint and football drills. After the twenty-eight-day supplementation period, the subjects did post supplementation assessments like the pre supplementation assessments. The results from this study showed that the total body weight increased in both groups, except the gains were significantly greater in the creatine group. In the creatine group, they saw a 2.42 kg increase in their body mass, while the placebo group saw a .85 kg increase. For total body water, there were no differences. For strength, the total lifting volume numbers were greater in the creatine group than the placebo group. However, there were no differences in squat or power clean lifting volume. The authors concluded that the addition of creatine to their diet and training helped promote greater gains. For sprint performance, the work was significantly greater in the creatine group (Kreider et al., 1998). It was not clear, though, why the creatine group did not have any significant differences with the squat and power clean numbers compared to the placebo group. I wish the authors would have touched on this more and provided an explanation for this in the results and discussion section of the article. I also wished they were more clear on explaining the number differences and representation for the exercises between the creatine and placebo groups. In the Izquierdo et al. (2002) study, the creatine group showed a significant difference in the lower extremity exercises compared to the placebo group. It was interesting how these studies have two different results regarding the lower body even though both of their groups took creatine. Other than that, I feel that this article is relevant for athletes who are debating the merits of creatine supplementation. The last study that I analyzed was a study by Kilduff et al. (2002) that was conducted to test the effects of creatine on isometric bench press performance in resistance trained humans. The main purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of creatine supplementation on force generation during an isometric bench press. This study had thirty-two resistance trained men as the subjects. These subjects were healthy individuals. They had two years of

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training experience and did not supplement with creatine for at least eight weeks before the study. This experiment, like the rest, was done in a double-blinded manner. Before starting the experiment, the subjects went to the laboratory on two occasions to familiarize themselves with the isometric bench press and other protocols. After the familiarization process, the subjects performed two isometric bench press tests at least five days apart. The first isometric bench press test was conducted forty-eight hours after the familiarization trial. The supplementation period started the day after the first isometric bench press test and ended the before the second one. The creatine group ingested 22.8 grams of creatine with water daily for five days before and after each daily training session. The pre and post workout supplement dose consisted of 11.4 grams with 500 mL of warm water. For testing, each subject performed five maximal isometric bench presses. For each isometric bench press, the subjects were given a five second countdown and pressed against the bar as hard as possible. For the results, the creatine group’s body weight increased significantly and the placebo group had no change. The body weight for the creatine group went from 84.1 kg to 85.3 kg. The results also showed that four of the subjects in the creatine group were labeled as non-responders and the rest of the subjects were labeled as responders. When analyzing both the responders and non-responders in the creatine group, the authors said that the peak and total force pre or post supplementation were not different from the placebo group. When only analyzing just the responders in the creatine group, the peak force and total force were much greater compared to the placebo group. Based on the results, I can conclude that the creatine supplementation helped the trained test subject. There are a few things that I would change with his study: I would use more commonly applied dosing procedures and I would also have liked to see what the results would be for women in this study. I also would have liked if they could have explained why in this study the total force was not significantly different between the creatine and placebo groups. The article also should have addressed why the subjects’ dose was higher than the customary loading regimen.

After reading and analyzing these four research studies, I feel that I have enhanced my knowledge of creatine supplementation, although I already had an idea of its effects on strength, athletic performance, muscle mass, and body composition. While reading through the articles, I was able to notice that all authors of the articles support creatine usage. Also, there were no adverse effects in all of these studies, which is a good thing because it means it is safe for the people when taken correctly. Throughout all of these articles by Kreider et al. (1998), Kilduff et al. (2002), Izquierdo et al. (2002), and Preen et al. (2001), I was able to notice that creatine was consistently effective at improving strength and performance. All of these studies provided results to confirm that creatine supplementation can be beneficial for resistance trained and power-based athletes. Due to creatine being studied for many years and a lot of experiments being conducted on it, I believe that the supplement can be safely and effectively used to support sport performance for many types of athletes. References Mawer, R. (2019). Is Creatine safe ,and does it have side effects? Healthline. https://www.healthline.com/ nutrition/creatine-safety-and-side-effects. Izquierdo M., Ibañez J., González-Badillo JJ., & Gorostiaga EM. (2002). Effects of creatine supplementation on muscle power, endurance, and sprint performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 34(2), 332-43. doi: 10.1097/00005768-200202000-00023. PMID: 11828245. Kilduff LP., Vidakovic P., Cooney G., Twycross-Lewis R., Amuna P., Parker M., Paul L., & Pitsiladis, YP. (2002). Effects of creatine on isometric bench-press performance in resistance-trained humans. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 34(7), 1176-83. doi: 10.1097/00005768200207000-00019. PMID: 12131259. Kreider RB., Ferreira M., Wilson M., Grindstaff P., Plisk S., Reinardy J., Cantler E., & Almada AL. (1998). Effects of creatine supplementation on body composition, strength, and sprint performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 30(1), 73-82. doi: 10.1097/00005768-19980100000011. PMID: 9475647. Preen D., Dawson B., Goodman C., Lawrence S., Beilby J., & Ching S. (2001). Effect of creatine loading on long-term sprint exercise performance and metabolism. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 33(5), 814-21. doi: 10.1097/00005768-200105000-00022. PMID: 11323554.

Student Reflection: I believe the paper I wrote can be a useful resource for readers and for athletes/active people who are on the fence of taking creatine. Also, this paper can help provide them with a ton of information on creatine and have the controlled studies of creatine usage (that were talked about throughout the paper) give them an idea of what happens if they plan on using it. 131

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Looking at McConnellsburg, PA’s Historic District by Rebecca Wenschhof GEO 244: Land Use Dr. George Pomeroy Assignment: The purpose of this assignment was to perform a landscape analysis of a certain neighborhood. This included studying the settlement form, architecture, and land use patterns.

Introduction Every town is different. They all have their own histories and characteristics that make them unique. Landscape analysis is one of the best ways to understand how a place developed and maybe even give us a clue of its history. Analyzing a landscape involves examining a town’s architecture, land use patterns, and settlement type. In this paper, I will be analyzing the historic district of McConnellsburg, PA, following the guidelines expressed in chapters three and five of “Looking at Cities” by Allen Jacobs. McConnellsburg, PA, Early History McConnellsburg, PA, has long been a town associated with travel. This association is significant because the historic district’s development, architecture, and layout reflect the transportation industry. The town originated along the Philadelphia Road, known today as U.S. Route 30, as a stop for people traveling to and from Philadelphia. “As early as 1765, Daniel McConnell operated a public inn along the packhorse road from Philadelphia. A small settlement grew around the inn, along a creek and the road. Eventually in 1786, McConnell laid out his town formally” (“McConnellsburg Historic District,” 2021). As the town developed, the “trail to Philadelphia” continued to be at the center. The road transformed into a wagon road, and then to the Chambersburg and Bedford turnpike in 1820. Then, the tolls were removed in 1913 and the road became the “Lincoln Highway” (Keebaugh, K., et al. 1992) As the central road through town changed, the buildings and industries transformed along with it and the economy was fueled by the transportation industry. For example, “former inns, taverns and hotels of the 19th century and automotive garages of the early 20th century reflect the town’s role as an important stopping place on the turnpike” (“McConnellsburg Historic District,” 2021). Most of the buildings and businesses were situated right 132

on the Lincoln Highway for easy access to travelers. McConnellsburg was incorporated as a borough in 1814 and became the seat of Fulton County in 1850 (Keebaugh, K., et al. 1992). Statistics Currently, McConnellsburg, PA, has a population of 992, a decrease from the 2010 census where the population was about 1,100 people (“McConnellsburg, Pennsylvania population,” 2021). Household incomes average at about $46,356, while the poverty rate is 30.35% (“McConnellsburg, Pennsylvania population,” 2021). Recently, median rental costs come to $678 per month, with a median house value of $129,700 (“McConnellsburg, Pennsylvania population,” 2021). The town has remained very rural and is surrounded by agricultural land. Agriculture and farming are a big part of the character of the town. The Historic District History The McConnellsburg Historic District was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1993. The period of significance in the area is from 1762 to 1940, with 144 contributing buildings (“National Register of Historic Places Registration Form,” 1993). The historic district today connects right with the town’s transportation roots because many of the remaining buildings in the area today were built because of that important connection. Many of the buildings in the historic district were formally inns, stores, taverns, or restaurants situated right along the Lincoln Highway. Boundary The boundary of the historic district includes “three and a half blocks of Lincoln Way, from 215 Lincoln Way East to fifth avenue, and Second Street from North Street south to the borough limits” (“National Register of Historic Places Registration Form,” 1993) (Figures 1 & 2).

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Buildings Architectural Style

Figure 1. Map of the McConnellsburg Historic District (Google, n.d.).

Figure 2. Map showing McConnellsburg Historic District including the district boundary and parcel numbers (“National Register of Historic Places Registration Form,” 1993).

The period of the historic district ranges from 1762 to 1940, which is almost a 200-year time span. This means that there is a wide range of architectural styles being represented because each reflects the time of construction. Some of the architectural styles being represented here are Georgian, Federal, Greek Revival, Italianate, Queen Anne, American Foursquare, and Colonial Revival. Although these architecture styles may be representative of a certain period, it can sometimes be hard to tell if a building was built in that time period, or if it was built later to represent a certain style. For example, some of the buildings that are standing today have actually been done to represent the buildings that once stood there in the past. They are built in the same architectural style but were built at a much later date. The Georgian architectural style is probably one of the most common styles in the historic district. Most of the original buildings were constructed in the late 1700s and early 1800s, when the Georgian style was popular. Some of these buildings are still standing, while others were built later to represent earlier buildings that used this style (Figures 3, 4, & 5). These houses contain “five bays with central entrances and massively framed openings topped with jack arches” (“National Register of Historic Places Registration Form,” 1993). The Fulton House (Fig.3) has additional bays on the right-hand side that were added during the restoration process and weren’t there originally. The next architectural style to be represented is the Federal style (Fig. 6), which was prominent in the early 19th century (“National Register of Historic Places Registration Form,” 1993). These houses contain elliptical fans over the front door, an ornamental front door crown, and side lights flanking the front door (“Federal style 1780-1820,” 2015). The federal style buildings in the district exhibit these characteristics, especially the decorative fan over the front door (Fig. 6). The Greek Revival style is represented by the county courthouse (Fig. 7). Built in 1852, it falls right into the middle of the Greek Revival period of 1840-1860 (“National Register of Historic Places Registration Form,” 1993). You can see one of the most obvious influences of this style were the pillars out front (Fig. 7).

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Figure 3. The Fulton House on 112 Lincoln Way West, representing the Georgian style (own photo).

Figure 6. 111 Lincoln Way West, representing the Federal style (Google, 2018).

Figure 4. 421 Lincoln Way East, representing the Georgian style (Google, 2018).

Figure 7. The county courthouse at 100 West Market Street, representing the Greek Revival style (Google, 2018).

Figure 5. 108 Lincoln Way West, representing the Georgian style (own photo).

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During the late 19th century, a commonly used style for commercial buildings was Italianate (“National Register of Historic Places Registration Form,” 1993). Key characteristics of this style include “deep overhanging eaves with prominent decorative brackets and wide cornices; bay windows; and belvederes, cupolas, or towers” (Hohenadel, K., 2020). Built in 1893, the previous Albert Stoner Store, has a very decorative façade and distinctive cupolas on its roof (Fig. 8). Another style represented in the district is Queen Anne (Fig. 9). “The style is highly ornamental – steep roofs, big bay windows, towers/turrets, gables, intricate carving and more” (“36 types of architecture styles for the home (house styles guide),” n.d.). The house in figure 9, has those steep roofs and attached turrets. The American Foursquare (Fig. 10) is another common style in the district. Prominent in the early 20th century, these buildings have a “boxy shape, a wide porch, and wide windows” (Poore, P., n.d.). The house in figure 10 represents that “boxy shape” as well as the porch that spans the front of the house. Another architectural style represented here is Colonial Revival (Fig. 11). The house in figure 11 has the definitive symmetry and the side gabled roof (“Colonial Revival Style 1880-1960,” 2015).

Materials and Workmanship

Purpose

Maintenance and Condition

Today, the historic district has a mix of land uses. I could not find the exact zoning map of the area, but I believe the district must be more lenient with zoning because there is a wide mix of uses. Mainly, the area is residential with people occupying what use to be the inns, stores, and businesses. Many of the old buildings have been converted to other uses. One example is the old jail, located behind the courthouse, being converted to the new county sheriff ’s office. Another example is buildings being split into apartments containing multiple family units. The evidence of this is multiple mailboxes attached to some of the buildings, as well as addresses being “split in two” (Fig. 12). This suggests that the district, especially towards the center of the district, is occupied by lower income families because the buildings are broken up into multiple smaller units. There is some commercial use in the district as there are shops, restaurants, and business services located in the area, with some occupying the historic buildings. Some of the buildings have commercial use on the bottom floor with residential uses on the upper floors. The county courthouse is still used for governmental purposes. The special-purpose buildings in the historic district include many churches and the local library.

Due to the wide range of time periods being represented in the historic district, the materials of the buildings vary quite significantly. Some of the earliest buildings were constructed using “log, stone, brick and frame buildings are present, with log, stone, and brick construction representing the earlier (pre-1850) period of the town” (“National Register of Historic Places Registration Form,” 1993). Buildings from the early 20th century were constructed using “concrete block or cast stone” (“National Register of Historic Places Registration Form,” 1993). The brick and stone buildings seem to have been the most resistant to wear as a lot of them are still standing. Although some of these original materials are present in the buildings of the area today, a lot of the buildings have been done over, so some of the original materials may have been torn down or replaced. For example, many of the older buildings have experienced disturbance events that have caused demolition to parts or all their structure. The ones that were rebuilt were done so in a way that represented the original historic buildings. Therefore, the materials used might have looked right, but may not have been true to the original. The buildings that once had wood exteriors have since been replaced with new siding made of vinyl or plastic. Generally, the buildings seem to be in good condition considering their age. With that being said, a lot of the older buildings have been repaired or refurbished from their original state. For example, the Fulton House was restored in 1973 by the “Fulton House Committee,” with funds from the borough of McConnellsburg (Nelson, J.H., 1982) (Fig. 3). I also know that the courthouse (Fig. 7) has been restored since its construction to maintain the character of the pillars and the original wooden clock tower was replaced with metal. These buildings were repaired by the community for historic purposes. Some of the privately owned buildings, on the other hand, have been “gentrified” as wealthier people or families move in and repair them (Fig. 8). Some of the buildings, however, are unoccupied and falling into disrepair because they are not being maintained. The older buildings in the district probably have more maintenance associated with them and may be subject to more neglect. Land and Landscape The buildings located along the central Route 30 are closely packed with minimal distance between them. Most of the buildings front entrances are very close to the street (Fig. 13). “Buildings front along the edge of the sidewalks with little or no setbacks except in later 19th century residential areas such as 135

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Figure 10. 323 South Second Street, representing the American Foursquare style (Google, 2018).

Figure 8. 110 Lincoln Way West, representing the Italianate style (Google, 2018). Figure 11. 302 South Second Street, representing the Colonial Revival style (own photo).

Figure 9. 331 North Second Street, representing the Queen Anne style (Google, 2018).

Figure 12. An example of a house with multiple apartments, and the address being “split in two” at 206 A & B Lincoln Way West (Google, 2018).

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Figure 13. View of the street showing deteriorating sidewalks, sparsely planted trees, few streetlights, and general road conditions (Google, 2018).

those found along West Market Street and South Second Streets” (“National Register of Historic Places Registration Form,” 1993). These buildings also don’t have much in the way of a yard. The extra space that is available behind them is mainly full of parked cars. Along the street, there are some small trees planted sporadically throughout the district. As you move away from the district’s center, the buildings become more spread out and more land is associated with each property. Some of the buildings, located in the outer portion of the district, have small front yards with large backyards. The lawns seem to be well maintained, when applicable, with many houses having flower beds, flower boxes, or small shrubs out front (Figures 10 & 11). Some buildings have trees in front or out back. Along with many of these historic buildings come historic outbuildings located behind them that can still be seen today. These outbuildings may have been stables, kitchens, or smoke houses (“National Register of Historic Places Registration Form,” 1993). Street Patterns and Layouts The streets tend to follow the original grid layout that was established by McConnell in 1786. “For reasons unknown to historians, Daniel McConnell chose to make the packer’s trail to Philadelphia a secondary street in his plan. In McConnell’s plan, the town was a rectangle with a central square, typical of many 18th century Pennsylvania towns. The two main streets crossed at the square, Market Street and Second Street. Water Street, later Lincoln Way, was a block south of the square” (“McConnellsburg Historic District,” 2021). The town’s square isn’t actually in the center of town, but a block away (Fig. 2). I always wondered why the town square wasn’t in the center of town, and it’s interesting to finally understand what happened. Accessibility The neighborhood is meant to be driven through and not necessarily walked through. In most of the district, sidewalks can be found on both sides of the road, but they are generally worn-down and deteriorating. They are experiencing some obvious neglect,

with cracks and plants growing in them (Fig. 13). The sidewalk conditions are not only declining, but the width of the sidewalks are quite narrow (Fig. 13). Street lighting and lampposts are very sparse along the central street (Fig. 13), with almost none along the secondary streets. The roads through the district are in slightly better condition than the sidewalks, but they are quite old as well and exhibit some problems. They do, however, experience more maintenance than the sidewalks and are usually in pretty good condition for the drivers. The roads connect the area to the rest of the town making it quite easy to travel from place to place. Most of the town’s services are only a few minutes’ drive away including the Central Fulton School District, several stores (i.e., Giant, Tractor Supply), and the Fulton County Medical Center. The district, as well as the entire town, has no public transportation which leads most people to own cars and travel privately. “Old Route 30” (The Lincoln Highway) still runs straight through the center of McConnellsburg connecting the town to nearby Chambersburg to the east and Breezewood to the west. Running north to south through the town is 522 connecting the area to Mount Union to the north and Hancock, MD to the south. The connection to transportation can still be seen throughout the town because most of the major stores, restaurants, and businesses are located either along “Old Route 30” or 522. Conclusion Looking at the historic district of McConnellsburg, PA, gave me a real sense of the development and character of the town. Observing the buildings enabled me to recognize how the town developed and over what time periods that development occurred. You can see that the historic district has undergone much change in its lifetime, and it will most likely continue to change in the future. It is clear to me now just how important transportation has had on the surrounding town and its economy. I have lived in McConnellsburg, PA, my whole life and this project allowed me to understand the history and growth of the town around me. 137

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References “36 types of architecture styles for the home (house styles guide).” (n.d.). Home Stratosphere. Retrieved from https://www.homestratosphere.com/ home-architecture-styles/#4_Cape_Cod “Colonial Revival Style 1880-1960.” (2015). Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission. Retrieved from http://www.phmc.state.pa.us/portal/communities/ architecture/styles/colonial-revival.html “Federal style 1780-1820.” (2015). Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission. Retrieved from http://www. phmc.state.pa.us/portal/communities/architecture/ styles/federal.html Google. (2018) Street View [Photographs]. Retrieved from https://www.google.com/maps/@39.933264,78.0010454,3a,75y,103.1h,69.16t/data=!3m6!1e1!3m4! 1sa6JVqDHRWMkVxBxkmgfniA!2e0!7i13312!8i6656 Google. (n.d.). McConnellsburg Historic District [Map]. Retrieved from https://www.google.com/maps/ place/Mcconnellsburg,+PA+17233/@39.9318877,77.9956212,16.68z/data=!4m5!3m4!1s0x89ca2bde3 601cde5:0x4252992b46ee4ade!8m2!3d39.932589! 4d-77.9988906 Hohenadel, K. (2020). What is Italianate architecture? The Spruce. Retrieved from https://www.thespruce.com/ italianate-architecture-4846180 Jacobs, A.B. (1985) Looking at cities. Cambridge, Mass. and London England: Harvard University Press. Keebaugh, K., Duffey, T., Horton M.L., Cordell, G.,

Nelson, J., MacDonald, B., MacDonald, W., Reeder, L., Johnston, M., Cline, C.F., Lodge, A.J., Hoover, J., Mann, N., Younker, N.B., Buterbaugh, S., Carmack, K., Ott, P., Strait, L. (1992). My home is Fulton County, Pennsylvania: A history for local students. Fulton County Historical Society. “McConnellsburg Historic District.” (2021). Living Places. Retrieved from https://www.livingplaces.com/ PA/Fulton_County/McConnellsburg_Borough/ McConnellsburg_Historic_District.html “McConnellsburg, Pennsylvania population 2021.” (2021) World Population Review. Retrieved from https://worldpopulationreview.com/us-cities/ mcconnellsburg-pa-population National Register of Historic Places Registration Form. (1993). United States Department of the Interior, National Park Service. Retrieved from https://gis.penndot.gov/ CRGISAttachments/SiteResource/H097690_01H.pdf Nelson, J.H. (1982). The Fulton House. Fulton County Historical Society. Poore, P. (n.d.). American Foursquare architecture & interiors. Old House Online. Retrieved from https://www.oldhouseonline.com/house-tours/ american-foursquare/

Student Reflection: The purpose of this assignment was to analyze a landscape by looking at architecture, settlement types, and land use patterns. I chose to analyze the historic district of McConnellsburg, Pennsylvania. This is my hometown, so I already knew a little about the district and its history. While analyzing this district, I investigated historic documents to aid in my understanding of the area’s development over time. Understanding the history allowed me to recognize how it played a role in shaping the area and know why the area is the way it is today. Looking at the architecture, street patterns, and land use enabled me to piece together how the town has grown, over what time periods it was constructed, and what the purpose of the district is today. This assignment allowed me to appreciate the unique characteristics of the town around me that I generally would not have noticed. I was able to understand how history has shaped the development of the area, study the land use patterns of the area today, and see how the district may change or grow in the future.

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As Social Movements Evolve, Consider the Pit Bull by Paije Koller HCS 370: Rhetorical Criticism Dr. Eveline Lang Assignment: The assignment was to select a topic of interest and write a rhetorical criticism on the subject. I decided to write about pit bull advocacy groups and their contributions to animal rights through the lens of social movement criticism.

Abstract

As Social Movements Evolve, Consider the Pit Bull

The war on nature versus nurture continues with another subsector argument for or against the ban on pit bulls. Pit bulls became attractive prospective fighters in dog rings when the underground, illegal sport became overwhelmingly popular in the 1970s because of their genetically stocky build and their perceived strong jowls (Dickey, 2016 p.14). This development sparked the controversy: are pit bulls inherently evil or are they conditioned for it? Several advocacy groups have developed to defend pit bulls including #EndBSL, #BanTheOwnerNotTheBreed, and #DontBullyMyBreed. While well-known social movements such as the Civil Rights Movement and #BlackLivesMatter have utilized confrontational and managerial rhetoric for their causes, these particular groups have incorporated a strength-in-numbers strategy as well as recognized the value of social media and hashtags and have campaigned for proper education and care instructions for dogs, especially pit bulls. Through the lens of genre criticism, particularly focusing on social movements and activism, the criticism explores social movement elements, the concept of public-enemy-number-one, systematic racism coupled with distasteful media coverage, the role of social media and hashtags, and asks the following research questions: R1: Does a genre exist among a set of artifacts? R2: Do the advocacy groups for pit bulls exhibit enough parallels with social movements to be considered a social movement of their own? Technology advances and greater acceptance of social media platforms have created a new way to connect people to social movements and activism. Leaders and active members have also learned to utilize the tool that can keep up with the largest medium of reaching the most people: the internet.

The American pit bull terrier started as just that: American. According to the book Pit Bull: The Battle Over an American Icon, “Advertisers across the United States clamored to use pit bulls in their campaigns during the 1920s, not because the dogs were believed to be menacing, but because they were thought to be so friendly and appealing to the ‘average Joe’” (Dickey, 2016, p. 13). Pit bulls could be seen everywhere from Hollywood movies to New York City pizzerias, and even in the White House during Theodore Roosevelt’s presidency. This loving, accepting demeanor for the breed changed in the 1970s when dogfighting became increasingly popular, and people started associating pit bulls with aggression and insidious tendencies. This created the stereotype of pit bulls belonging exclusively to the lower class. According to the founder of People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA), Ingrid Newkirk, pit bulls are only kept by “drug dealers” and “pimps” (Dickey, 2016, p. 20). This accusation also plays a significant role in the systematic racism seen with the public associating pit bulls and black men with criminal activity (Thompson, 2019, p. 5). Additionally, the American pit bull’s image became fused together with several other breeds including the American Staffordshire terrier, the Staffordshire bull terrier, and the American bully breed. “Ask a hundred different Americans to define what a ‘pit bull’ is, however, and you will get a hundred different answers” (Dickey, 2016, p.9). A voice was formed for the discriminated breed after the scandal involving NFL star Michael Vick in 2007 when police raided one of his homes and “found approximately sixty-six dogs (fifty-four of them pit bull terriers) and equipment used for dogfighting, including treadmills, veterinary medicines, pry bars used to break up fights, and a ‘rape stand,’ commonly used to keep females locked in 139

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place during forced breeding” (Grano, 2014, p. 81). Recognition of the breed’s long streak of brutality came to surface and animal lovers everywhere rallied against the grotesque violations against the pit bull. Social movements supporting this cause have been around for many years yet at first glance, it appears that nothing is being done. In the landmark study, “Movements: Confrontation as rhetorical form,” Cathcart refers to movements as dramas and says: “To study a movement is to study a drama, an act of transformation, an act that ends in transcendence of, the achievement of salvation” (Cathcart, 1978, p. 233). Additionally, social movements include elements of managerial rhetoric and confrontational rhetoric. While managerial rhetoric is an important element of social movements that involves making changes to current systems rather than rejecting them completely, most people think about confrontational rhetoric when considering the volume of the voice a social movement projects. Many gravitate to the assumption that confrontation rhetoric is violent; however, Cathcart points out that confrontational rhetoric is not “an act of violence per se; nor is it a method of warfare. Rather it is a symbolic enactment which dramatizes the complete alienation of the confronter” (Cathcart, 1989, p. 369), and it simply challenges the faulty system and strives to enact change. Social movements today are still evaluated with this criterion in mind; however, they are greatly affected by the influence of technology and the value individuals have placed on social media. While success is still interpreted by what constructive change resulted from the guidance of social movements, the means of achieving success has been tailored to accommodate the demands of the technology revolution. Social Movements in Action The Civil Rights Movement has proven itself to be one of the most iconic social movements that operated by utilizing the framework genre criticism has established to determine success. Martin Luther King Jr stood by the idea of managerial rhetoric by constantly urging people participating in the Civil Rights Movement to remain peaceful and nonviolent and to make history in an honorable fashion; however, this ideology was shifted when King realized nothing about the mistreatment of African Americans was being changed. King started encouraging boycotts, protests, and physically laying people’s bodies down on the ground in the name of civil rights. He argued that the protest needed to “massively confront the power structure” (Johnson, 2018, p. 142). “King still had a message for African Americans on how to protest. He reminded them ‘not to satisfy their thirst for freedom by drinking from the cup of bitterness and hatred.’ He challenged them to conduct the ‘struggle on the high plane of dignity and discipline’” (Johnson, 2018, p. 140

140-141). This spirit can be seen in the activism efforts for pit bill rights. While groups against the breed opt for fear-mongering, appeals to violent visual rhetoric, and spreading false information, groups such as #DontBullyMyBreed promote proper education on the breed and credible sources that explain factual information on various circumstances. While it would be easy to resort to violence due to the nature of the situation, many activists rely on social media and social movement websites to convey their message. This idea can also be seen when considering how #BlackLivesMatter has evolved since its start in 2013. The social movement has gained a considerable amount of awareness through social media and the ability for people to post on various platforms supporting content for the cause. The #BlackLivesMatter movement is “...first and foremost a challenge to the affront of racial violence and prejudiced policing... (a) challenge to white privilege and supremacy, and it seeks to disrupt the status quo by forcing America to unflinchingly examine the ways in which state-sponsored agents treat black Americans as, at best, second-class citizens.” (Bailey, 2015, p. 68). There are parallels to the Civil Rights Movement and #BlackLivesMatter when comparing their strategies of getting their messages across; there are peaceful protests and not-so peaceful protests. Social media also creates the opportunity for creativity in ways of expressing social movement rhetoric. One unique, powerful approach was taken by Colin Kaepernick who utilized his position of influence in the NFL “to bring worldwide attention to the unjust murders of innocent black men at the hands of American police officers by kneeling silently during the national anthem before football games” (Jerca, 2018, p. 40). The action itself seems subtle yet it created such a meaningful way to speak volumes while remaining silent. The movement within the social movement exploded through social media and people who don’t pay attention to sports at all now recognize Colin Kaepernick’s name in reference to the social movement and what his actions have accomplished in spreading awareness. “The semiotic trajectory of taking a knee raised important questions regarding not only what the duty of a country is towards its people, but also what the duty of the people is towards their country.” (Jerca, 2018, p. 47). This action later inspired singer Denasia Lawrence when she was invited to sing the national anthem at a sporting event and chose to kneel while doing so (Forst, 2017, p. 1). “Lawrence’s choice to actively engage in nonviolent protest of racial injustices in the United States while singing the national anthem is quite different, and represents powerful activist potential through this threshold identity performance” (Forst, 2017, p. 13). Social movements seek to change what is systematically flawed; this core value is the foundation for all activism groups.

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The Concept Of Public-Enemy-Number-One The abuse of countless dogs at the hands of Michael Vick rallied animal lovers everywhere to stand together against the flawed, failing system related to the cruel abuse of pit bulls. Vick pleaded guilty to the charges against him directly killing eight dogs by electrocution, gunshot, drowning, hanging, and non-directly killing countless others in the crossfires of the dogfighting ring he was involved in. He killed one of the dogs by repeatedly slamming it onto the ground (Gorant, 2008, p. 784). Despite the horrific crimes he committed, Michael Vick was sentenced to 23 months in federal prison and was released after 18 months due to good behavior. He even played on the warden’s football team while serving time (Broad, 2013, p. 784). “Much of the mainstream animal rights narrative continued to target Vick as not just a criminal but an out-of-control monster... PETA sent a letter to the league asking that Vick be subjected to a psychological test and an MRI brain scan to look for evidence of clinical psychopathy or antisocial personality disorder.” (Broad, 2013, p. 787). This element is present in most social movements: an unfortunate event that evidently leads to the congregation of people with similar hopes for systematic change. “The murders of George Floyd and Breonna Taylor by police officers contributed to our grievously fractured relationship with the police and the U.S. Regardless of our obvious innocence or possible guilt, African Americans of all hues, genders, social classes, and sexual identities are aware of the lack of value placed on our lives” (Harris, 2021, p.146). Just as the exposure of cruelty at the hands of Michael Vick united millions of people to support pit bull advocacy, the deaths of George Floyd, Breonna Taylor, Travon Martin, Sandra Bland, Freddie Gray, and countless other African Americans united millions of people to the #BlackLivesMatter cause. The role of public-enemy-number-one is alarmingly present in social movements today given how little the concept is acknowledged. Consider the hashtag movement #CripTheVote. “#CripTheVote’s emergence as a hashtag campaign gained national attention due in large part to the instances of ableism present during the 2016 presidential campaign, including President Donald Trump’s mocking of disabled New York Times reporter Serge Kovaleski on the campaign trail...” (Mann, 2018, p. 606). The hashtag was used 1455 times the week preceding the election and it elicited national media coverage. The hashtag campaign was fueled by the blatant disregard for disabled people unveiled by former president Donald Trump. While this has been a social issue long before Trump’s insolence, the movement needed a reason to come together. “Allyship is but one path to inclusivity that requires self-reflexivity by all and a commitment to purging

all forms of toxicity poisoning our communities and relationships” (Harris, 2021, p. 149). This suggests that there is a strong commitment associated with belonging to a social movement and there needs to be a good reason to back it up. Systematic Racism and Distasteful Media Coverage “...the recent dogfighting case against NFL Quarterback Michael Vick and the attendant suspicion of ‘pit bulls’ suggests that racism today has a more complex relationship with (certain types of ) animals than the analogy would capture.” (Tarver, 2014, p. 273). A portion of the prejudice against pit bulls stems from the systematic racism of African Americans and the association of poverty and crime. There are racist parallels to the discriminatory housing covenants of the pre-Civil Rights era and breed-specific legislation. Linder (2018) described BSL as causing people who own banned dogs to ‘surrender their animals or move to a different city or neighborhood without such restrictions’ (p. 51–52). Stereotyping and wrongful associations went on unchallenged because of the fearbased overtones. African Americans without rights and pit bulls without voices have endured their own failed systems for decades. “’Black males, we are America’s pit bill’, the actor Michael B. Jordan said... in 2013. ‘We’re labeled vicious, inhumane and left to die on the street’” (Dickey, 2016, p. 193). Thompson et al. (2019) contributed to this notion and explained, “The transformation in the public mind of pit bulls to ‘killer dogs’ may have also involved a transferal of beliefs about the people believed to own pit bulls to the dogs themselves” (p. 5). Another element that contributes to the unfair perception of pit bulls is the metaphoric language associated with the breed. On the campaign trail in 2008 Sarah Palin said “You know (what) they say the difference between (a) hockey mom and pit bull (is): lipstick (Palin, 2008). This analogy stuck and was often referenced in the media that celebrated toughness when it came to motherhood. She was later described in reference to her demeanor at the republican national convention when delivering her speech to “bare her teeth” and was seen as “on the attack” when unprovoked (Harp, 2010, p. 303). To compare a pit bull to someone who is seen as tough, quick-tempered, and impulsive creates an inappropriate, toxic connection with the breed. “In 2003, Nike... released a television ad that cut images of chained pit bulls lunging at each other into footage of a basketball face-off... The company was adamant that it never intended to encourage dogfighting, only to capture what it called ‘the edginess of urban basketball’” (Dickey, 2016, pg. 8). One problem that both pit bull and African American minority groups have suffered with is the overwhelming media coverage, perhaps of the wrong content. 141

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“Overstating the problem of dogfighting, directing it at young black youths, and flashing America with images of dogs engaged in battle... can actually work against the cause by deepening fear and stereotypes...This is especially true in communities that have breed-specific legislation... It’s the unforgivable prejudice that forces families to surrender their dogs to shelters because no property owner will rent to them” (Dickey, 2016, p. 252). The complications of fearmongering don’t stop here. The media has depicted pit bulls in a terrifying light by untruthfully suggesting that pit bulls have a stronger bite, have jaws that lock, naturally possess aggressive tendencies, and bite or attack more frequently than other dog breeds (Duberstein, 2021). Cohen and Richardson (2002) suggest, “There is recognition that the news media exaggerate and exacerbate any real or potential problems that may exist with pit bulls” (p. 314). This affects social movements that stand against the negatively casted mythology presented by the media because it spins a story that puts activists in a violent stance. News can create an entirely different depiction of events that impact a social movement “... (by) minimizing substance and marginalizing the movement by suppressing, stifling, and criminalizing the voices of protesters. The coverage can negatively influence public acceptance of the protest and the movement and contribute to the maintenance of the institutional and systemic oppressions that protesters are advocating against” (Neal, 2017, p. 578). When the media focuses on the hostility and negativity associated with social movements the movement itself can lose value and credibility. Social Media and Hashtags Social media has presented a new way to provide value towards fostering relationships and creating a sense of community. This is especially true in social movements because this is a medium for providing a strength-in-numbers strategy as well as an opportunity for spreading awareness. An advantage that the #BlackLivesMatter movement has over the Civil Rights Movement is simply existing in a period of time where technology is ever-present and widely accepted as a form of mass communication. Social media platforms have created the ability for anyone who participates to educate and involve themselves in any social movement they’d like to be a part of, even if the action they take is simply posting a hashtag in support. It is important to recognize “...the potential of digital activism for agenda setting, observing that activists are now able to document injustices, spread information, and mobilize the public in real time. Not only has social media expanded sites for resistance, it also has increased opportunities for the ways in which we enact citizenship” (Borda,

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2020, p.138). This medium of education, while unreliable at times, can serve as an important tool for social movements. People can now utilize their profile pictures on social media to represent various causes with emblems displaying hashtags or colors to promote a social movement. “Recall the wave of selfie photos that Facebook users posted wearing hooded sweatshirts, helping raise consciousness of violence against young black men following the killing of Trayvon Martin.” (Foust, 2018, p. 42). Pit bull advocacy groups are not typically seen physically contributing to the cause in marches and protests because the social movement has transformed to adhere to the values established by social media which revolve around awareness. The consistent use of hashtags proves to be a form of non-violent confrontational rhetoric. It has proven to be effective in some cases too. “...the #MeToo movement in the US had brought down 201 powerful men, nearly half of them replaced by women” (Pain, 2021, p. 3139). Based on the trajectory of technology, it is likely that social media and hashtags will only continue to evolve as technology becomes increasingly advanced. Analysis The following advocacy groups for pit bulls, #EndBSL, #BanTheOwnerNotTheBreed, and #DontBullyMyBreed all are rooted in stopping the same systematic problems regarding unfair stereotyping and discrimination of pit bulls. While all of the advocacy groups appear frequently in hashtags, #DontBullyMyBreed is considered a non-profit rescue organization and advocacy group founded to rescue pit bulls from dangerous or neglectful circumstances and kill shelters, and placing them into foster homes or permanent, loving homes. #EndBSL started when breed-specific legislation started to spread throughout the country to fight back against the unfair, discriminatory law. The hashtag and advocacy idea of #BanTheOwnerNotTheBreed started when countless stories surfaced of irresponsible or aggressive dog owners who put their dogs into dangerous or neglectful situations. Once again consider Cathcart’s (1978) depiction of social movements as dramas, where there is an act of transformation followed by salvation (p. 233). The unity created through the use of hashtags for the advocacy groups is remarkable. All three groups originated from challenging different avenues of the same systematic failure and all three groups now work towards a common interest: to end the wrongful prejudice against pit bulls. The internet is now flooded with posts of happy, friendly-looking pit bulls with a combination of these three hashtags. It is important to also recognize that the discourse that spurred the activism for pit bull rights needs to

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be addressed through action to fulfill the requirements that would suggest a genre exists among these artifacts. There were non-violent methods implemented in the past, especially in 2009 when Michael Vick was reinstated into the NFL. People engaged in protests by carrying blown-up photographs of the battered pit bulls Vick abused while some brought their dogs to the protests. “...the American Kennel Club argued in a letter to the Eagles that their players had demonstrated ‘a lack of understanding’ about the nature of animal abuse and were ‘trivializing Mr. Vick’s heinous actions’” (Grano, 2014, p. 90). Success, especially when considering how social media has changed the way social movements operate and expand, can be seen from different perspectives. Despite the unity and sense of community the hashtag #CripTheVote created, Donald Trump was still elected in 2016. This doesn’t take away from the power of the hashtag and the unity that was established from coming together. The value of hashtags has become increasingly understood and cherished throughout social media platforms. The purpose of hashtags is to spread activism awareness, and #CripTheVote along with #BlackLivesMatter, #MeToo, #EndBSL, #BanTheOwnerNotTheBreed, and #DontBullyMyBreed have all collectively succeeded in that. Does this equate to success in relation to social movements? #EndBSL has spread awareness of breed-specific legislation and influenced many people to attend local government group forums to speak against the legislation. #DontBullyMyBreed has soothed previous apprehensions of pit bulls by flooding the internet with photographs of pit bulls in their natural, friendly state. #BanTheOwnerNotTheBreed has increased open-mindedness and understanding that pit bulls who were brought out of unfortunate circumstances may require forgiveness and grace at times. In 2019 “The Preventing Animal Cruelty and Torture (PACT) Act, a federal anti-cruelty bill, is now law. This animal protection measure sailed through the House of Representatives and the Senate with unanimous support and was just signed by the president.” (Ehrhorn, 2019). It’s also important to note that in cases involving violence towards people that there is often an association with cruelty to animals. Representative Ted Deutch commented “We can now finally say that animal abuse is a federal crime in the United States...Americans have long stood in support of animal welfare protections, and now our national laws reflect these values.” (Ehrhorn, 2019). Proceeding the news of Michael Vick’s criminal allegations “An ever-growing network of pit-bullfocused animal rescues, clubs, and community events sprang up around the country to help promote the dog as family pets, rather than pariahs. At least four reality

television shows made pit bull advocacy a primary part of their narratives... On Facebook, the interest page for the AKC’s most popular bred, the Labrador retriever, barely tops 400,000 fans. Pit bulls? They have over 4.5 million fans...” (Dickey, 2016, p. 20). People rally behind causes they believe in for the same reasons that people join social movements: to fight for systematic change. The similarities to what advocacy groups and social movements stand for, how they operate, and what they work towards are remarkable enough to create a striking resemblance, and perhaps an honorary title. Conclusion More and more people gravitate towards social movements that they believe as technology becomes increasingly valued to fulfill instinctual cravings for a sense of belonging. “Numbers are an essential part of social activism, and the more dramatic they are, the stronger and more immediate the public’s response is likely to be” (Dickey, 2016, p. 119). The perceived success of social movements has also shifted as technology has improved because members of social movements and advocacy groups can connect in ways they were never able to before. People can learn about events that take place all over the world and advocate for causes they believe in despite the physical distance. This changes the way that social movements operate because it goes beyond what is happening in an individual’s local community and creates a way to connect with events happening globally that affect them regardless of distance. Social movements can bring together millions of people who all believe in a cause and strength in numbers is an old, reliable concept. News travels at an impressive speed with the aid of new technology so the idea of public-enemy-number-one is increasingly valid. People identify with what they see on social media as well as news mediums and are willing to figuratively stand up and fight against oppression and injustice for what they believe is wrong. As social movements develop stronger community roots, the value of their bonds will become self-evident and if an event were to transpire and a new public enemy was to emerge, the new-aged social movements would be prepared to challenge the flawed system. Technology evolutions related to accessibility and brand recognition through social media have become newly considered factors in determining the success of today’s social movements. #EndBSL, #DontBullyMyBreed, and #BanTheOwnerNotTheBreed have over 9.5 million posts with those hashtags on Instagram alone. Strength in numbers is seemingly the new figurative finish line to cross in determining the validity of a social movement.

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References Bailey, J., & Leonard, D., (2015). “Black lives matter: Postnihilistic freedom dreams,” Journal of Contemporary Rhetoric, 5, no. 3/4. 68-69. Borda, J. L., & Marshall, B. (2020). Creating a space to #SayHerName: Rhetorical stratification in the networked sphere. Quarterly Journal of Speech, 106(2), 133–155. https://doi.org/10.1080/00335630.2020.17 44182 Broad, G. M. (2013). Vegans for Vick: Dogfighting, intersectional politics, and the limits of mainstream discourse. International Journal of Communication (19328036), 7, 780–800. Cathcart, R. S. (1978). “Movements: Confrontation as rhetorical form.” The Southern Speech Communication Journal, XLIII, 3, 233-47 Cathcart, R. S. (1989) “Movements: Confrontation as rhetorical form, in methods of rhetorical criticism: A twenty century perspective,” ed. Bernard Brock, Robert Scott, and James Chesebro. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 365. Cohen, J. & Richardson, J. (2002). Pit bull panic. Journal of Popular Culture, 36, 285-317 Dickey, B. (2016). Pit Bull: The battle over an American icon. Vintage Books. Don’t bully my breed. https://www.dontbullymybreed.org/ good-to-know Ehrhorn, E. (2019). Extreme animal cruelty can now be prosecuted as a federal crime. The Humane Society of the United States. https://www.humanesociety.org/news/ extreme-animal-cruelty-can-now-be-prosecuted-federalcrime End breed specific legislation: Dogs on death row. RSPCA. https://www.rspca.org.uk/getinvolved/campaign/bsl Foust, C. R., & Hoyt, K. D. (2018). Social movement 2.0: Integrating and assessing scholarship on social media and movement. Review of Communication, 18(1), 37–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/15358593.2017.1411 970 Forst, M. (2017). Kneeling and still singing: Threshold identity, disidentification, and invitation in U.S. American national anthem protest. Kaleidoscope: A Graduate Journal of Qualitative Communication Research, 16, 1–18. Gorant, J. (2008, December 29). What happened to Michael Vick’s dogs. Sports Illustrated. http:// nationalcanineresearchcouncil.com/uploaded_files/ tinymce/SI%20Gorant%20Article.pd

Grano, D. A. (2014). Michael Vick’s “genuine remorse” and problems of public forgiveness. Quarterly Journal of Speech, 100(1), 81–104. https://doi.org/10.1080/0033 5630.2014.888460 Harp, D., Loke, J., & Bachmann, I. (2010). First impressions of Sarah Palin: Pit bulls, politics, gender performance, and a discursive media (re)contextualization. Communication, Culture & Critique, 3(3), 291–309. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1753-9137.2010.01072.x Harris, T. M. (2021). Being our sister’s keeper: Rethinking allyship amid multiple pandemics. Women’s Studies in Communication, 44(2), 146–150. https://doi.org/10.1 080/07491409.2021.1923332 Jerca, A.-M. (2018). Taking a knee in American football: A semiotic case study. Language & Semiotic Studies, 4(1), 40–49. Johnson, A. E. (2018). Dislocations and shutdowns: MLK, BLM and the rhetoric of confrontation. Journal of Contemporary Rhetoric, 8(3), 137–145. Linder, A. (2018). The Black man’s dog: The social context of breed specific legislation. Animal Law, 25(1), 51–74 Mann, B. W. (2018). Rhetoric of online disability activism: #CripTheVote and civic participation. Communication, Culture & Critique, 11(4), 604–621. https://doi. org/10.1093/ccc/tcy030 Neal, S. (2017, August). Views of racism as a major problem increase sharply, especially among democrats. Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch. org/facttank/2017/08/29/views-of-racism-as-a-major-problemincrease-sharplyespecially-among-democrats/ Pain, P. (2021). “It took me quite a long time to develop a voice”: Examining feminist digital activism in the Indian #MeToo movement. New Media & Society, 23(11), 3139–3155. https://doi. org/10.1177/1461444820944846 Palin, S. (2008, September 3). Republican vice presidential nomination acceptance speech. American Rhetoric. Retrieved from http://www.americanrhetoric.com/ speeches/convention2008/ sarahpalin2008rnc.htm Tarver, E. C. (2014). The dangerous individual(’s) dog: Race, criminality and the ‘pit bull.’ Culture, Theory & Critique, 55(3), 273–285. https://doi.org/10.1080/147 35784.2013.847379 Thompson, A. J., Pickett, A. T., & Intravia, J. (2019). Racial stereotypes, extended criminalization, and support for breed-specific legislation: Experimental and observational evidence. Race and Justice Advance online publication. https://doi. org/10.1177/2153368719876332

Student Reflection: I have always felt an inclination to stand against injustice and cruelty for those who cannot speak for themselves. Writing this paper allowed me to spread awareness on the subject of pit bull advocacy and shed light on parallels associated with advocacy groups and social movements. I was also able to reflect on social movements as a whole and how various groups of people can stand against systematic flaws and work towards progressive change. I found throughout the semester that learning rhetorical criticism was inspiring because it showed me an avenue in communication that can lead to stronger, more organized educational opportunities. I gained lifelong knowledge from this subject, and rhetorical criticism served as my way of contributing to the cause I believe wholeheartedly in and I am thankful for the opportunity for others to learn from my research. 144

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Comparing Counterrevolutions: International Forces at Work by Ashlyn Browning HIS 397: Seminar in Comparative History Dr. Mark Spicka Assignment: This paper was written for the senior seminar capstone course for history majors. The assignment was to develop a research paper that compared two aspects of history (such as ideas, events, people, etc.) from either different areas or time periods related to the ideas of racism, imperialism, and mass violence; I chose to compare the counterrevolutions formed against the French and Haitian Revolutions. The paper used evidence from primary and secondary sources and 14-17 pages.

Introduction During the mid-to-late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, revolution exploded throughout the world. Multiple revolutions emerged to question and challenge the existing order of international relationships, government structures, and societal institutions. Beginning in 1789, the French Revolution challenged the traditional, established form of European rule: the monarchy. The French monarchy lost power through its transformation into a constitutional monarchy but was obliterated when the guillotine blade fell onto King Louis XVI’s head. Following the immense bloodshed under Maximilien Robespierre’s Reign of Terror, Napoleon Bonaparte set out on his military conquests across Europe. Around the same time, in 1791, the Haitian Revolution threatened the acceptance and widespread usage of slavery with the slave revolt in the French colony of Saint Domingue. However, these challenges to the existing world order did not progress without severe efforts to crush them. Counterrevolution, both internally and externally, became the tool to preserve the present way of life. The international community played a central role in the formation of counterrevolution against the French and Haitian Revolutions. Counterrevolution was carried out both indirectly and directly by international forces, but the French and Haitian revolutionaries succeeded in altering the established way of life. This paper focuses on the counterrevolutions formed by the international community in the French and Haitian Revolutions. The approach will be based on a topical comparison of the two counterrevolutions in terms of motivations and methods. First, the aims

of the international community in becoming involved in counterrevolutionary efforts will be examined. This is to understand why outside actors felt compelled to pursue counterrevolution. In both cases, international forces, claiming to act for the good of all, similarly used counterrevolution to maintain the current way of life (monarchy or slavery). In addition, counterrevolution in both was pursued to achieve inner goals, which varied depending on the revolution. Differences also existed in the extent to which these various motives (common good or self-interest) shaped the types of counterrevolution employed. Next, the indirect methods of counterrevolution will be discussed. Both counterrevolutions produced written criticisms to justify the actions of international forces for the common good by maintaining the existing order of life. Finally, the last point of comparison will be direct methods of counterrevolution, specifically military engagements. In military action, the differences in the extent of self-interest driving the international community to counterrevolution can be seen. Overall, in both the French and Haitian Revolutions, the international community engaged in counterrevolution through indirect and direct methods to fulfill the common good and self-interested motivations. Indirect methods, specifically written criticisms, in both instances revealed the international community’s desire to preserve monarchy and slavery, believing doing so would benefit all. However, direct methods differed in their motivations, as self-interest was a larger factor in pursuing military action to put down the Haitian Revolution than the French Revolution, which used military engagement to achieve both the common good and self-interest.

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Aims and Motivations The French Revolution: Preserving the Monarchy and Fear of Relatives in Danger When the international community, specifically European nations, became entangled in the French Revolution, counterrevolution was pursued for various reasons. Counterrevolution sought to fulfill both the common good and self-interested aims by preserving monarchy, which governed Europe at the time. However, the international community did not always enter counterrevolution only based on these motivations, as sometimes they were forced into action. To begin, European nations became involved in the counterrevolution against France to preserve the institution of monarchy that had long been used to govern. The Age of Absolutism occurred from 1660 to 1815 in Europe.1 During this time, absolute monarchs reigned supreme. They held wide-reaching power in various areas of governance, with no human ranking above them.2 When the French Revolution began, the major European powers were France, Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia, most of which were governed by absolute monarchies.3 Thus, monarchy was the form of rule most common in Europe prior to and during the outbreak of the French Revolution. However, the French Revolution challenged monarchy, specifically that of French King Louis XVI, as the French were dissatisfied with his monarchical rule that prevented desired changes. This reflected the general patterns of revolutions, which typically occur when societies become unhappy with the current way of life/governance and those in power refuse to make changes.4 However the threat of revolution is particularly high in absolutism, as rulers who enjoy absolute power often are unwilling to change at the speed demanded, or not at all.5 When the French Revolution threatened the existing order of monarchical rule, European monarchs feared the implications of this. In 1789, the French produced The Declaration of the Rights of Man to address their grievances with conditions in France. Although the French held various grievances, one of 1 2

these, in particular, was against King Louis XVI and his absolute monarchy, as well as the behavior of his wife, Queen Marie Antionette, who was unpopular with the French people.6 This dissatisfaction with the French monarchy was evident in The Declaration of the Rights of Man. For example, Article Three declared “No body nor individual may exercise any authority which does not proceed directly from the nation.”7 This directly challenged French absolutism, as absolute monarchs often declared themselves sovereign through a divine right to rule. Thus, absolute monarchy and its power came from God, not the people. However, The Declaration of the Rights of Man threatened this belief of power’s origins. It was in this light that European nations became involved in counterrevolution to fight the French Revolution’s challenge to monarchy. Since Europe was mainly governed by absolute monarchs, seeing the challenge to another absolute monarch, even a rival, caused concern. The threatening of monarchical power in one nation could easily spread and challenge others. Due to this fear, the international community launched counterrevolutionary action. This fear was also exacerbated by the fleeing and recapture of King Louis XVI and Queen Marie Antoinette in 1791.8 As a result, European powers witnessed a reduction in monarchical power, as King Louis XVI was forced into a constitutional monarchy in September 1971.9 The alarm of the European monarchies, and thus their motivation for counterrevolution as a common good, was apparent in two documents from the summer of 1971. The Padua Circular, written by Austrian Emperor Leopold II, revealed his worry about the situation of the French monarchy. Leopold II argued that an alliance of various European nations, including Spain, Britain, and Russia, needed to be formed to restore King Louis XVI. This was motivated by the common good of Europe, as Emperor Leopold II wrote phrases such as an “event which immediately compromises the honor of all sovereigns and the security of all governments,” and “an event so closely associated with the welfare of all Europe.”10 Action for the common good was also reflected in the Declaration of Pillnitz, which

Max Beloff, The Age of Absolutism: 1660-1815 (New York: Harper Torchbooks, 1962), 11. William Doyle, The French Revolution: A Very Short Introduction, (New York, Oxford University Press, 2001), 21, https://search.ebscohost. com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=ip,sso&db=e000bna&AN=100296&site=eds-live&scope=site&custid=s3915936&ebv=EB&ppid= pp_Cover. 3 Beloff, The Age of Absolutism, 44. 4 Ibid, 173. 5 Ibid, 173. 6 Doyle, The French Revolution: A Very Short Introduction, 21-22. 7 National Assembly of France, “Declaration of the Rights of Man, 1789,” The Avalon Project, Lillian Goldman Law Library, 2008, https:// avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/rightsof.asp. 8 Gunther E. Rothenberg, “The Origins, Causes, and Extension of the Wars of the French Revolution and Napoleon,” The Journal of Interdisciplinary History 18, no. 4 (Spring 1988): 780, https://www.jstor.org/stable/204824. 9 Rothenberg, “The Origins, Causes, and Extension,” 780. 10 “‘The Padua Circular’ (5 July 1791),” Liberty, Equality, Fraternity: Exploring the French Revolution, accessed November 21, 2021, https:// revolution.chnm.org/d/420.

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established an alliance between Austria and Prussia; once again, language, such as “subject of common interest for all of Europe’s sovereigns,” revealed the motivations of European nations to launch counterrevolution for the benefit of all.11 However, these documents failed to define the common good and explain why monarchy was a beneficial institution for all. This instead was found in the conservative written criticisms of the French Revolution. Despite claims for the common good, the concern over the state of the French monarchy resulted from self-interested motivations as well. These aims appeared mostly in the relationship between Austria and France. King Louis XVI’s wife, Queen Marie Antoinette, was Austrian, as well as Emperor Leopold II’s sister.12 Hence, this showed that Austria, which took a central role in trying to coordinate an alliance with other European nations to restore King Louis XVI and his monarchy, was motivated to counterrevolutionary actions for self-interested motivations. Both Emperor Leopold II, and later Francis II, who would assume power of Austria following Leopold II’s death in 1792, had personal connections to France through Marie Antoinette.13 This self-interest pushed them to counterrevolution sooner than other European nations. It also explained why they claimed to be acting for the common good of Europe, as seen in both the Padua Circular and the Declaration of Pillnitz. However, these motivations were not the only factor pushing Europe to counterrevolution, which will be addressed in the section on military actions. The Haitian Revolution: Preservation of Slavery and Greed for Economic Opportunity Like the French Revolution, the international community, once again primarily European nations, became involved in counterrevolutionary action to preserve the current institutions of the time. However, unlike in the French Revolution, the international community now fought to preserve slavery and the system of slave labor that produced profits from agricultural endeavors in European colonies. This goal of maintaining slavery was motivated by both

the common good and self-interest. Similar to the counterrevolution against France, the self-interests for counterrevolution against Haiti, then known as the French colony Saint Domingue, were pursued under the veil of the common good. However, the common good played a larger role in counterrevolution against France, specifically regarding military engagements. In Haiti, self-interest was more forceful and apparent, as unlike in the French Revolution, activity to undermine the revolution was more fragmented; no coalition of multiple nations emerged to struggle together. Additionally, European nations were not partially forced into military counterrevolution like they were against France. All in all though, both counterrevolutions emerged from self-interest motivations and claims of the common good. Although the international community pursued counterrevolution to preserve slavery, the reasons for doing so were primarily self-driven. These self-interests traced back to the rivalry between European nations. Before the era of revolution, European monarchs frequently launched overseas expeditions to explore and conquer new lands to turn into colonies. After King Louis XIV, France considered itself as one of the most powerful European nations.14 However, challenges to this occurred when other European nations, such as Britain, also obtained powerful positions.15 Hence, Britain and France had a deep rivalry, as they competed for territories and colonies with precious possessions, including slaves and raw materials.16 Saint Domingue was one of these valuable colonial holdings. Originally under Spanish control until the division of Hispaniola between France and Spain in 1697, this territory was rich in resources.17 In 1789, Saint Domingue was considered “by far the wealthiest and most flourishing of the slave colonies in the Caribbean.”18 This territory alone was responsible for “producing about 40 per cent [sic] of the world’s sugar and over half of the world’s coffee.”19 However, this profitability would not have been achieved without the importation and usage of slaves.

11 “‘The Declaration of Pillnitz’,” Liberty, Equality, Fraternity: Exploring the French Revolution, accessed November 21, 2021, https://revolution.chnm.org/d/421. 12 Rothenberg, 780. 13 Steven Beller, “Francis I,” in Europe 1789-1914: Encyclopedia of the Age of Industry and Empire, ed. John Merriman and Jay Winter, Vol. 2, (Detroit: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 2006), Gale eBooks, 860, https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/CX3446900313/ GVRL?u=pl2833&sid=bookmark-GVRL&xid=22c78772. 14 Doyle, 19. 15 Ibid, 19. 16 Ibid, 19-20. 17 David Levinson, “Revolution-Haiti,” in Berkshire Encyclopedia of World History, 2nd ed., ed. William H. McNeill, Jerry H. Bentley, David Christian, Ralph C. Croizier, J. R. McNeill, Heidi Roupp, and Judith P. Zinsser, Vol. 5, (Great Barrington: Berkshire Publishing, 2010), Gale eBooks, 2152, https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/CX1923800455/GVRL?u=pl2833&sid=bookmark-GVRL&xid=ed3f7ad7. 18 Carolyn E Fick, The Making of Haiti: The Saint Domingue Revolution from Below, (Knoxville: The University of Tennessee Press, 1990), 15. 19 David Geggus, “The British Government and the Saint Domingue Slave Revolt, 1791-1793,” The English Historical Review 96, no. 379 (April 1981): 285. https://www.jstor.org/stable/568291.

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Due to the massive wealth of French Saint Domingue, other European nations, especially Britain, were hungry to snatch this possession for themselves when the opportunity arose. Given France and Britain’s long rivalry, the potential fall of Saint Domingue presented Britain with several advantages. First of all, if Saint Domingue was lost, France would no longer have the profits of this territory, whether it was independent or under British rule.20 However, if Britain gained Saint Domingue, the British would have “a monopoly of the European trade in sugar, indigo, cotton, and coffee,” thus strengthening the British economy and industry.21 As a result, France would have lost an important source of income and been deprived of certain valuable goods.22 Therefore, Britain pursued counterrevolution to fulfill self-interested motivations. However, counterrevolution emerged from international forces not just for self-interested motivations. Like in the French Revolution, the international community pursued counterrevolution for the common good of all. This was because at the time, various European nations, as well as the US, depended on slave labor to run agricultural productions and gain profits. In Saint Domingue, more than half a million slaves, placed in forced labor after being ripped from Africa, were needed to obtain the wealth and value of this French colony.23 This reflected the larger trend of nations using slavery for various functions. Slavery allowed owners and nations to profit from exploiting and mistreating slaves. In addition, the slave trade was an extremely important source of wealth. Given the advantages of slavery, the international community did not want to see this system fall. Furthermore, race was another factor that pushed the international community to preserve slavery. In the Haitian Revolution, black slaves sought to free themselves. They desired to be at the level of whites, who were unwilling to make themselves equal with blacks.24 Likewise, Haitian slaves refused to be subjugated ever again, as they claimed they “must take any hope of re-enslaving us away.”25 This language, found in the Haitian Declaration of Independence, threatened the institution of slavery in Saint Domingue and in general. Haitian slaves rejected their French rulers and any other form of control. The

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international community became concerned, as this was a massive threat to the system that whites used to hold power and obtain profit. Also, the desire of black slaves for freedom could spread to other areas dependent on slavery, thus threatening slavery beyond Saint Domingue. Therefore, the international community needed to quell the Haitian Revolution to preserve the system that benefited them all, just as was done in the French Revolution. Indirect Methods The French Revolution: Conservative Thought and the Benefits of Monarchy To fulfill the previously described motivations of the international community, counterrevolution emerged in various forms, including those of an indirect nature. Specifically, written criticisms were published by members of the international community. In doing so, these writers expressed discontent and disapproval with the revolutions and sought to justify the actions of international actors. Written criticisms focused on explaining why preserving existing institutions benefitted the common good. In the French Revolution, conservative thinkers, such as Edmund Burke and Klemens von Metternich, argued counterrevolution was for the common good because monarchy was the most suitable and beneficial form of government, as justified through the ideas of stability, proper change, and religion. Monarchy needed to be preserved, according to conservative thought, because from this form of government came stability. Without monarchs, conservatives believed society would descend into chaos and despair. Due to the threat of instability from the French Revolution, Metternich supported the united efforts of the monarchs to put it down, as he claimed doing so would “save society from total ruin and “ensure the political peace of Europe”26 Monarchs were “paternal and protective,” meaning that they watched over people and society to maintain peace through the “stability of the laws” and “the groundwork of… institutions,” which needed to remain unthreatened by the fervor and passion of human nature that would descend into disorder when left unrestrained and out

Geggus, “The British Government and the Saint Domingue Slave Revolt,” 295. Ibid, 295, 296. Ibid, 296. Fick, The Making of Haiti, 15. James Franklin, The Present State of Hayti (Saint Domingo): With Remarks on Its Agriculture, Commerce, Laws, Religion, Finances, and Population, Etc. Etc. (London: John Murray, 1828), Google Books, 65. 25 Duke Office of News & Communications, “Rediscovering Haiti’s Declaration of Independence: The Declaration’s Text,” Rediscovering Haiti’s Declaration of Independence, https://today.duke.edu/showcase/haitideclaration/declarationstext.html. 26 Klemons von Metternich, “Klemons von Metternich to Czar Alexander I, 15 December 1820,” in Readings in European History, 1789 to the Present: A Collection of Primary Sources by John L. Heineman (Dubuque: Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company, 1994), 83, 84.

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of sight.27 Thus, monarchs were the key to a stable society. Related to this was the idea of stability through proper change. Conservatives rejected the French Revolution due to its quick pace of change, as this opposed the conservative belief that monarchy was the best institution to overall preserve, and sometimes alter, society. Although monarchy was the source of stability, monarchs could produce change if needed. However, it needed to be moderate and gradual to maintain stability. Metternich argued that monarchs must “regulate it [change] according to necessity and to suit the times.”28 Thus, this required rationality and thoughtfulness. Change was not to be spur-of-the-moment, but instead carefully considered. Thus, conservatives criticized the French Revolution, as they believed it was driven by an all-consuming emotion/desire to alter French life. Hence, the French fell into “the greatest of all evils: a blind and furious spirit of innovation, under the name of reform.”29 Therefore, the French Revolution violated the conservative principle “that one must not dream of reformation while agitated by passion.”30 Overall, written criticisms supported counterrevolution to preserve monarchy for the common good, as monarchs were the source of stability and proper change. Finally, the idea that monarchy was beneficial for all and thus needed to be maintained for the common good also drew on religious justification. Written criticisms asserted that “no human institution can last if it has not a religious base.”31 Religion was not only maintained by churches, but also through monarchs. Related to absolutism, monarchs often justified their rule through the divine order of God. Conservatives believed that it was monarchs who “will fulfill the duties imposed upon them by Him, who by entrusting them with power, has charged them to watch over the maintenance of justice, and the rights of all…”32 Thus, monarchy needed to be preserved as doing so reflected God’s will. In addition, it was the design of God to use monarchs to maintain people and society, as they “know how to be just, wise, and therefore strong.”33 This meant that monarchs, who derive power from God, were the one’s endowed with the proper characteristics to place the people on the proper path, one of stability. All in all, monarchy needed to be preserved for the common good through counterrevolution

against France, as monarchs were the glue that held society together. The Haitian Revolution: Thomas Jefferson, Fear of Chaos, and Economic Prosperity Similar to the French Revolution, written criticisms of the Haitian Revolution were produced by members of the international community. These too expressed discontent with the revolutionary situation and sought to preserve the old way of life. Like conservatives, Thomas Jefferson, as well as other whites, believed slavery needed to be maintained for the common good. They feared that getting rid of slavery, especially through a violent, fast-pasted revolution, would lead society into chaos and danger. This echoed French Revolution criticism, as like monarchy, slavery was thought to bring stability, prevent radical change, and was justified on the basis of religion. However, written criticisms of the Haitian Revolution also contained threads of self-interest that those of the French Revolution lacked. Written criticisms of the Haitian Revolution encouraged and justified the international community’s use of counterrevolution to preserve slavery, which was seen as beneficial to all, through the ideas of stability. Under slavery, nations enjoyed wealth and prosperity, especially France. In addition, it was thought that slavery maintained a peaceful society free from threats of instability. Whites believed the correct order of society placed whites over blacks; justifications for this centered on aspects such as race and religion. However, a slave rebellion to end slavery, such as that of the Haitian Revolution, threatened this peace. Stability was in danger, as the order of society was a risk of collapsing or becoming inverted. Despite this fear, whites originally thought the Haitian Revolution was like a natural disaster: a temporary disruption that would quickly end, as the idea of blacks overthrowing whites was unimaginable.34 However, this became untrue as the revolution unfolded. Once the slave rebellion became a real threat, whites feared overturning slavery would create a violent, chaotic society. This was supported by accounts of whites in Saint Domingue, who wrote of the horrors that emerged when blacks sought to end white rule. These accounts described the death, fear, and destruction that emerged from the

27 Metternich, “Klemons von Metternich to Czar Alexander I, 15 December 1820,” in Readings in European History by John L. Heineman, 81-84. 28 Metternich, 83. 29 Edmund Burke, “Edmund Burke to William Elliot, 26 May 1795,” in Readings in European History, 1789 to the Present: A Collection of Primary Sources by John L. Heineman (Dubuque: Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company, 1994), 80. 30 Von Metternich, 83. 31 Joseph de Maistre, “Essay on the Generative Principle of Political Constitutions,” in Readings in European History, 1789 to the Present: A Collection of Primary Sources by John L. Heineman (Dubuque: Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company, 1994), 81. 32 Von Metternich, 83. 33 Von Metternich, 83. 34 Jeremy D. Popkin, You Are All Free: The Haitian Revolution and the Abolition of Slavery (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 12.

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Haitian Revolution. One account revealed that “Many women… perished beneath… the cadavers of their fathers and husbands.”35 The account also described “Young children transfixed upon the points of bayonets…”36 All of this was taken as evidence as what would occur if slavery was no more. Thus, to preserve peace and stability for all, the international community needed to pursue counterrevolution. Like those of the French Revolution, written criticisms of the Haitian Revolution closely linked the idea of stability to the belief that change needed to occur gradually, not quickly. This was true of Thomas Jefferson and his beliefs regarding slavery. Although Jefferson opposed the Haitian Revolution, he believed the emancipation of slaves should happen gradually. Thus, he rejected this slave rebellion on the grounds that it was too rapid of a change. Jefferson’s belief in a slow, gradual end to slavery appeared in one of his letters where he outlined his plans for the black race. He wrote that blacks should be separated from whites, placed “under our [whites’] patronage and protection, as a separate, free and independant [sic] people, in some country and climate friendly to human life and happiness,” preferably a place in Africa.37 This was a more peaceful, gradual way of change, as it involved careful planning and timing, unlike the violent rapidness of the Haitian Revolution. Despite this, Jefferson still saw slaves through the lens of racism, as he believed blacks were “pests in society by their idleness” and “incapable as children taking care of themselves.”38 Finally, the preservation of slavery was also discussed through the frame of religion in written criticisms. Similar to monarchy, slavery was seen as an institution given by God. Religious figures, such as Bishop Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet of France, asserted this notion as a way to argue that slavery must be preserved. Bishop Bossuet claimed that “the Holy Spirit…speaking through St. Paul, ordered slaves to remain in their condition” and “not in any way oblige masters to free them.”39 Hence, slavery was upheld by God as a proper and rightful condition. God did not want slaves to become free, and if they did, this violated His orders. This justification applied to the Haitian Revolution, as slavery, seen as a system given

and justified by God, needed to remain in place to fulfill God’s desires. However, Jefferson also used written criticisms to justify counterrevolution for self-interested motivations, specifically economic prosperity. In one of his letters, he wrote that the US sought “the reestablishment of peace and commerce in those colonies,” as this was needed to ensure “the prosperity… and…preservation of… Agricultural interests.”40 Like other members of the international community, Jefferson recognized the profitability of Saint Domingue and its agricultural importance. Therefore, he did not want to see this colony fall, as doing so could threaten slavery as a way to achieve economic and agricultural prosperity, which the US also relied on. All in all, counterrevolution was pursued by the international community against both the French and Haitian Revolutions through indirect methods, specifically written criticisms. Written criticisms in both justified pursuing counterrevolution for the common good to preserve monarchy or slavery based on stability, change, and religion. However, economic self-interest also existed in written criticisms of the Haitian Revolution due to the prosperity slavery brought. Direct Methods The French Revolution: Allied Fighting Forces In addition to pursuing counterrevolution through indirect measures, the international community also took several direct methods to fight the French Revolution. The focus of these direct measures will be military engagements, specifically the French Revolutionary Wars. These wars originated in the motivations of certain European nations who claimed to act for the common good, yet wanted to achieve self-interested goals. However, there was another dimension to international involvement against the French Revolution, as European nations were also forced into counterrevolutionary actions, specifically those requiring military usage. The French Revolutionary Wars began on April 20, 1792, with France’s declaration of war on Austria, which was ruled by Francis II following Leopold II’s

35 Jeremy D. Popkin, Facing Racial Revolution: Eyewitness Accounts of the Haitian Insurrection (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007), 74, ProQuest Ebook Central. 36 Popkin, Facing Racial Revolution, 74. 37 Thomas Jefferson, “From Thomas Jefferson to Jared Sparks, 4 February 1824,” Founders Online, National Archives, https://founders. archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/98-01-02-4020. 38 Thomas Jefferson, “Thomas Jefferson to Edward Coles, 25 August 1814,” Founders Online, National Archives, https://founders.archives. gov/documents/Jefferson/03-07-02-0439. 39 “Justification of Slavery, Bishop Bossuet, French Theologian (1627-1704),” in Africa Enslaved: A Curriculum Unit on Comparative Slave Systems for Grades 9-12, by Natalie Arsenault and Christopher Rose (March 2006), 59, https://liberalarts.utexas.edu/hemispheres/_files/pdf/ slavery/Slavery_in_Haiti.pdf. 40 Thomas Jefferson, “From Thomas Jefferson to Gouverneur Morris, 10 March 1792,” Founders Online, National Archives, https://founders. archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/01-23-02-0210.

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death.41 This declaration resulted in the First Coalition War, which was fought from 1792 until 1797 between France and an alliance of multiple European nations, including Austria, Prussia, Britain, and Spain.42 Known as the First Coalition, this alliance formed as the war progressed and France declared war on more European nations. 43 The First Coalition War ended with the victory of France and its expansionist campaign at the expense of the defeat of the international community; this defeat came from the failing state of the coalition, as each European nation pursued its own interests and was unable to work together.44 The breakdown of the coalition was apparent through the gradual pullout of each European nation after reaching an individual agreement with France.45 Following the conclusion of the First Coalition War, several other Coalition Wars and various European alliances were launched. However, this paper focuses only on the First Coalition War. Overall, the motivations for counterrevolution, both the common good and self-interest, existed in the First Coalition War. However, so too does the fact that European nations became forced into counterrevolutionary actions. The First Coalition War arose from both the actions of European nations and France. The Declaration of Pillnitz was a direct contribution to the outbreak of this counterrevolutionary military engagement. This document from August 1791 declared an alliance between Austria and Prussia; however, it held different views in the eyes of the European monarchs and the French government. Before the Declaration of Pillnitz, neither France nor the rest of Europe actively pursued war.46 However, the flight, capture, and reduction of the French monarchy, combined with Austria’s self-interested motivations disguised as concern for the common good, resulted in the Declaration of Pillnitz. In this, Austria and Prussia declared they were preparing armies if needed.47 To the monarchs of Austria and Prussia, this was an empty threat designed to scare France; neither pursued action, and they refused to do so unless Britain, which both knew would not get involved, joined the cause.48 This, however, was not

the same view France took. King Louis XVI, forced into a constitutional monarchy, was ordered to send an ultimatum threatening war to Austria in January 1792.49 Hence, war ensued. Thus, although European nations pursued counterrevolution through direct methods, specifically military engagements beginning with the First Coalition War, this resulted partially from their motivations. The self-interested motivations of Austria led this nation to play on the fears of European nations that monarchy was being threatened. Due to this threat, which was important to all of Europe, Austria pushed for joint action for the common good of Europe. However, this forced the international community into direct methods of counterrevolution, as France saw these actions as a threat and chose to take the first step to war. France’s declaration of war also motivated European nations originally unconcerned about the outbreak of the French Revolution and ignoring Austria’s plea for allied action to save the European monarchy to act. In fact, some of the European nations enjoyed the problems plaguing France, as the French were powerful rivals to multiple European nations.50 However, once France declared war on more European nations, the monarchs were forced to pursue counterrevolution against a revolutionary government that posed a direct threat to them all. The Haitian Revolution: Individual Attacks for Economic Gain To fulfill self-interested goals, the international community also launched more direct measures than those of written critiques. As in France, international forces became involved militarily against Haiti. However, unlike in the counterrevolution against France, this military involvement was more individualized and voluntary, as nations entered conflicts alone and by their own desire for the chance at economic gain. One member of the international community that pursued military engagement to launch counterrevolution was Britain. From December 1792 to February 1793, Britain sent four regiments to this

41 Frederick C. Schneid, “French Revolutionary Wars and Napoleonic Wars,” in Europe 1789-1914: Encyclopedia of the Age of Industry and Empire, ed. John Merriman and Jay Winter, Vol. 2, (Detroit: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 2006), 899, Gale eBooks, https://link.gale.com/apps/ doc/CX3446900326/GVRL?u=pl2833&sid=bookmark-GVRL&xid=4d2f3605. 42 Ibid, 899. 43 Rothenberg, 784. 44 Schneid, “French Revolutionary Wars and Napoleonic Wars,” 900. 45 Ibid, 900. 46 Rothenberg, 778. 47 “‘The Declaration of Pillnitz’.” 48 Rothenberg, 780-1. 49 Ibid, 782. 50 Peter McPhee, “French Revolution,” in Europe 1789-1914: Encyclopedia of the Age of Industry and Empire, ed. John Merriman and Jay Winter, Vol. 2, (Detroit: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 2006), Gale eBooks, 887 https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/CX3446900325/ GVRL?u=pl2833&sid=bookmark-GVRL&xid=e7e15715.

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area.51 Although Britain had some initial success in its military campaigns, the aim of taking control of Saint Domingue ultimately failed.52 In addition to Britain, Spain also used military engagement to fulfill its motivations. Like Britain, Spain tried to take control of Saint Domingue for its own self-interests.53 However, the Spanish used a unique approach in attempting to both preserve slavery and take control of Saint Domingue. Spain pursued military action in the beginning of 1793 with a military plan dependent on “recruiting as “auxiliary troops” the insurgent slaves” of Haiti through promising them freedom.54 All in all, in both the Haitian and French Revolutions, the international community used military engagements to create counterrevolution to obtain self-interested motivations and the common good that would arise from preserving the current institutions. Despite this, militaristic counterrevolution against Haiti was not forced like it was against France, yet it lacked the united front (coalition) the international community had against the French Revolution. As a result of this absent coalition, the self-interested, economic motivations driving military action were apparent, as each nation wanted to pursue the chance of economic gain only for themselves. Conclusion All in all, the counterrevolutions carried out against the French and Haitian Revolutions by the international community were mainly similar to one another. The overall similarity of the two cases compared resulted from both counterrevolutions being created by the international community to fulfill motivations for the common good and self-interest. International forces used counterrevolution to fulfill the common good, as these actors believed preserving monarchy and slavery benefitted all. Likewise, each counterrevolution was pursued to fulfill self-interests, whether for personal or economic reasons. Furthermore, the international community used indirect and direct methods of counterrevolution to fulfill these aims. In both, written criticisms justified the actions of the international community using counterrevolution for the common good, claiming monarchy and slavery were beneficial to all on the justifications of stability, proper change, and religion. However, writings against the Haitian Revolution also revealed the self-interested economic motivations of the international community. Finally, the biggest difference in the two cases appeared in the military engagements of the international

community. The military campaigns against France were mainly for the common good, while those against Haiti were more self-interested, as seen by the lack of a united military front and voluntary choice of action. However, in general, the use of counterrevolution by the international community against the French and Haitian Revolutions was overall more similar than different. Bibliography Secondary Sources: Beloff, Max. The Age of Absolutism: 1660-1815. New York: Harper Torchbooks, 1962. Beller, Steven. “Francis I.” In Europe 1789-1914: Encyclopedia of the Age of Industry and Empire, edited by John Merriman and Jay Winter, 860861. Vol. 2. Detroit, MI: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 2006. Gale eBooks (accessed November 22, 2021). https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/ CX3446900313/GVRL?u=pl2833&sid=bookmarkGVRL&xid=22c78772, 860. Doyle, William. The French Revolution: A Very Short Introduction. New York: Oxford University Press, 2001. https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true& AuthType=ip,sso&db=e000bna&AN=100296&site=e ds-live&scope=site&custid=s3915936&ebv=EB&ppid =pp_Cover. Franklin, James. The Present State of Hayti (Saint Domingo): With Remarks on Its Agriculture, Commerce, Laws, Religion, Finances, and Population, Etc. Etc. London: John Murray, 1828. Google Books. Fick, Carolyn E. The Making of Haiti: The Saint Domingue Revolution from Below. Knoxville: The University of Tennessee Press, 1990. Geggus, David Patrick. Slavery, War, and Revolution: The British Occupation of Saint Domingue 1793-1798. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1982. Geggus, David. “The British Government and the Saint Domingue Slave Revolt, 1791-1793.” The English Historical Review 96, no. 379 (April 1981) 285-305. https://www.jstor.org/stable/568291. Geggus, David. “The Exile of the 1791 Slave Leaders: Spain’s Resettlement of its Black Auxilary Troops.” Journal of Haitian Studies 8, no. 2 (Fall 2002) 52-67. https://www. jstor.org/stable/41715135. Levinson, David. “Revolution-Haiti.” In Berkshire Encyclopedia of World History, 2nd ed., Ed. William H. McNeill, Jerry H. Bentley, David Christian, Ralph C. Croizier, J. R. McNeill, Heidi Roupp, and Judith P. Zinsser, 2152-2154. Vol. 5. Great Barrington: Berkshire Publishing, 2010. Gale eBooks. https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/ CX1923800455/GVRL?u=pl2833&sid=bookmarkGVRL&xid=ed3f7ad7.

51 David Patrick Geggus, Slavery, War, and Revolution: The British Occupation of Saint Domingue 1793-1798, (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1982), 87. 52 Geggus, Slavery, War, and Revolution, 114. 53 Ibid, 108. 54 David Geggus, “The Exile of the 1791 Slave Leaders: Spain’s Resettlement of its Black Auxilary Troops,” Journal of Haitian Studies 8, no. 2 (Fall 2002), 52, https://www.jstor.org/stable/41715135.

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McPhee, Peter. “French Revolution.” In Europe 17891914: Encyclopedia of the Age of Industry and Empire. Ed. John Merriman and Jay Winter, 884-899. Vol. 2. Detroit: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 2006. Gale eBooks https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/ CX3446900325/GVRL?u=pl2833&sid=bookmarkGVRL&xid=e7e15715. Popkin, Jeremy D. You Are All Free: The Haitian Revolution and the Abolition of Slavery. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010. Rothenberg, Gunther E. “The Origins, Causes, and Extension of the Wars of the French Revolution and Napoleon.” The Journal of Interdisciplinary History 18, no. 4 (Spring 1988): 771-793. https://www.jstor.org/ stable/204824. Schneid, Frederick C. “French Revolutionary Wars and Napoleonic Wars.” In Europe 1789-1914: Encyclopedia of the Age of Industry and Empire. Ed. John Merriman and Jay Winter, 899-903. Vol. 2. Detroit: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 2006. Gale eBooks https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/ CX3446900326/GVRL?u=pl2833&sid=bookmarkGVRL&xid=4d2f3605.

Primary Sources: Burke, Edmund. “Edmund Burke to William Elliot, 26 May 1795.” In Readings in European History, 1789 to the Present: A Collection of Primary Sources by John L. Heineman, 80. Dubuque: Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company, 1994. De Maistre, Joseph. “Essay on the Generative Principle of Political Constitutions.” In Readings in European History, 1789 to the Present: A Collection of Primary Sources by John L. Heineman, 80-81. Dubuque: Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company, 1994. Duke Office of News & Communications. “Rediscovering Haiti’s Declaration of Independence: The Declaration’s Text.” Rediscovering Haiti’s Declaration of Independence. https://today.duke.edu/showcase/ haitideclaration/declarationstext.html.

“Justification of Slavery, Bishop Bossuet, French Theologian (1627-1704).” In Africa Enslaved: A Curriculum Unit on Comparative Slave Systems for Grades 9-12, by Natalie Arsenault and Christopher Rose. March 2006. https:// liberalarts.utexas.edu/hemispheres/_files/pdf/slavery/ Slavery_in_Haiti.pdf. Jefferson, Thomas. “Thomas Jefferson to Edward Coles, 25 August 1814.” Founders Online, National Archives. https://founders.archives.gov/documents/ Jefferson/03-07-02-0439. Jefferson, Thomas, “From Thomas Jefferson to Gouverneur Morris, 10 March 1792.” Founders Online, National Archives. https://founders.archives.gov/documents/ Jefferson/01-23-02-0210. Jefferson, Thomas, “From Thomas Jefferson to Jared Sparks, 4 February 1824.” Founders Online, National Archives. https://founders.archives.gov/documents/ Jefferson/98-01-02-4020. National Assembly of France. “Declaration of the Rights of Man, 1789.” The Avalon Project. Lillian Goldman Law Library. 2008. https://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_ century/rightsof.asp. Popkin, Jeremy D. Facing Racial Revolution: Eyewitness Accounts of the Haitian Insurrection. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007. ProQuest Ebook Central. “‘The Declaration of Pillnitz’.” Liberty, Equality, Fraternity: Exploring the French Revolution. https://revolution. chnm.org/items/show/429. “‘The Padua Circular’ (5 July 1791).” Liberty, Equality, Fraternity: Exploring the French Revolution, accessed November 21, 2021, https://revolution.chnm. org/d/420. Von Metternich, Klemons. “Klemons von Metternich to Czar Alexander I, 15 December 1820.” In Readings in European History, 1789 to the Present: A Collection of Primary Sources by John L. Heineman, 81-84. Dubuque: Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company, 1994.

Student Reflection: Overall, I enjoyed writing this paper. Doing this research gave me the opportunity to explore a topic I love studying (the French Revolution) in a new focus. I had researched the French Revolution before, but never from the topic of counterrevolution. I also got to examine the Haitian Revolution and expand my knowledge on this historical event. Additionally, this assignment was a great way for me to learn how to properly write a comparative paper in my field. I learned how to make comparisons that are deeper than just surface-level similarities and differences. However, I did have challenges when writing my paper. I struggled to get my topic narrowed down and chose the specific points of comparison I wanted to write about. Additionally, I was missing a key element of my comparison until I talked to my professor and found some better sources that addressed the argument I wanted to make. Despite these issues, I enjoyed writing the paper and I am happy with the finished product.

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The Five-Factor Model: A New Tool for Promoting a Positive Work Environment by Ashley Unger HON 106: Honors Academic Writing Dr. Thomas Crochunis Assignment: The following paper discusses the contemporary research regarding the utility of the Five-Factor Model of personality assessment as an aid in promoting a positive work environment. The Five-Factor Model has been shown to identify personality traits that influence job applicants’ tendency to engage in counterproductive workplace behaviors, and such traits have been shown to be influenced by other factors that have proven useful for employers to consider when making hiring decisions. This paper provides insight into how such factors can be used to predict which job applicants are most likely to contribute to a positive work environment, enabling employers to make informed hiring decisions that will benefit their companies.

As technology and personality assessments have advanced over recent years, so have counterproductive workplace behaviors. Counterproductive workplace behaviors (CWBs), also referred to as workplace deviance, are defined as “volitional behaviors that harm or are intended to harm organizations or people in organizations” (Bolton et al. 537). Counterproductive workplace behaviors can range from minor (such as “taking an extended lunch break”) to severe (such as theft of money within one’s workplace) (Bolton et al. 537), either serving as a benign nuisance to co-workers or causing companies to become financially corrupt, sometimes resulting in a loss of billions of dollars (Le et al. 7). However, the innovation of the Five-Factor Model (FFM) of personality assessment in recent years has provided a means of predicting personality traits, which exist within domains, or spectrums, that associate with such behaviors among employees and job applicants to offer hope of a positive, cooperative work environment in which tasks can be performed responsibly and without negative intentions. These domains are conscientiousness, agreeableness, neuroticism, openness to experience, and extraversion. Other strategies, such as job training and setting policies for organizations, have been used by employers in an attempt to mitigate counterproductive workplace behaviors, but the FFM may allow for a greater reduction in workplace deviance by providing a more nuanced analysis of job applicants’ tendencies to engage in such behaviors by associating these behaviors with multiple personality characteristics. The present issue has caused me to ponder the utility of the Five-Factor Model in ensuring a safe and productive work environment, resulting in my investigation of the question: How does identifica154

tion of personality traits through the Five-Factor Model of personality assessment enable employers to make decisions about who to hire as employees to promote a positive work environment? The need for personality assessments in the workforce to determine which job applicants are appropriate for given work positions has been demonstrated by the severe risk of not monitoring and taking preventative actions to reduce the prevalence of counterproductive workplace behaviors. According to Le and colleagues, “[counterproductive workplace behaviors] pose enormous costs to organizations in terms of morale, lost resources, and diminished productivity with economic estimates ranging between $6 and $200 billion annually” (7). Companies’ neglect to address negative workplace behaviors in the past has enabled such behaviors to persist, as “the focus of researchers in the scientific field of organizational behavior and management has been too much on positive behavioral aspects, overlooking the disastrous effects of negative behaviors in the business world and the workplace” (Cohen 255). The issues in the workplace pertaining to workplace deviance that remain unresolved require a complex analysis in order to fully understand the FFM domains in relation to CWBs, which I pursued in my research to better understand the FFM’s utility in achieving a positive work environment. Because counterproductive workplace behaviors are diverse and can be so detrimental to organizations, I decided to research not only the FFM’s direct relationship to personality characteristics that lead to workplace deviance but also other factors that affect workplace behaviors and influence and are influenced by FFM domains. I first categorized counterproductive

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workplace behaviors into organizationally directed and interpersonally directed CWBs. I then analyzed information regarding the relationship between age and CWBs, as an employee’s age has been shown to impact his or her levels of various FFM personality characteristics. Acknowledging other forces that influence workplace behaviors, I examined the relationship between CWBs and personality traits which comprise the “dark triad”— psychopathy, narcissism, and Machiavellianism (Cohen 577)--and lead to deviant behaviors within the workplace. I considered the dark triad traits to be outside forces in regard to their influence on workplace behaviors because, even though they are personality traits, they are not part of the FFM. Ultimately, I sought to examine the various ways in which the FFM can predict such traits and behaviors among job applicants as a means of ensuring that candidates who possess the traits most strongly associated with positive work behaviors will be selected for jobs. Current research regarding counterproductive workplace behaviors classifies them into two categories: organizationally directed CWBs and interpersonally directed CWBs (Pletzer 1). Organizationally directed CWBs are directed at the organization itself, whereas interpersonally directed CWBs are directed toward one’s co-workers or employer, intending to either emotionally or physically harm them (Bolton et al. 537). An example of an organizationally directed CWB is cyberloafing, which is defined by Heather Jia and her colleagues as “any voluntary act of employees using their companies’ Internet access during office hours to surf nonwork-related Web sites for nonwork purposes, and access… nonwork-related email” (358). According to Jia, approximately “90% of employees spend work time surfing recreational websites and 84% of workers send non-job-related emails” (358). The tendency for employees to inappropriately surf the internet during work hours, however, can be predicted by the FFM. Employees who exhibit a high degree of conscientiousness, an FFM domain, “have been found to be less likely to engage in criminal activities, as well as in antisocial or counterproductive work behaviors such as absenteeism, theft, or rule breaking” (Jia et al. 359). Those who exhibit high conscientiousness demonstrate reliability and discipline (Jia et al. 359), resulting in them adhering to workplace regulations and completing the tasks required of them without any trouble. Therefore, the FFM model suggests that employers should hire those who exhibit high levels of conscientiousness, as they will be more likely to refrain from breaking rules regarding technology use. Individuals who are low in the FFM domain of neuroticism and, therefore, are emotionally stable, are also less likely “to engage…in deviant workplace behaviors” (Jia et al. 359). Those who are highly extroverted, however,

“may receive increased social benefit from the Internet and are more likely” to surf the internet to engage with others (Jia et al. 360). The findings highlight the tendency for job applicants who exhibit high conscientiousness and emotional stability to be less likely to engage in CWBs and the tendency for job applicants who are highly extroverted to be more likely to engage in CWBs. Furthermore, employers can use such information when analyzing job applicants’ personality assessments to determine which candidates are least likely to harm the organization and will promote a positive work environment. In addition to predicting organizationally directed CWBs, the FFM has the ability to predict interpersonally directed CWBs (Le et al. 8). Interpersonally directed CWBs, such as bullying, aim to physically or mentally harm others within the workplace. “Bullied employees are at an increased risk of physical and psychological problems, including depression, psychosomatic symptoms, post-traumatic stress, and coronary heart disease” (Cohen 311), potentially causing them to quit their jobs or refrain from going to work so that they can take care of their physical and mental health. The FFM, however, can predict which employees are most likely to avoid such behaviors and seek cooperation with their co-workers to increase employee turnout. It reveals that low agreeableness is associated with interpersonal CWBs (Bolton et al. 538), meaning that those who exhibit high levels of agreeableness are most likely to reduce the occurrence of interpersonally directed CWBs by seeking agreement and cooperation with their co-workers to promote a positive and productive work environment. Through increased cooperation, employees are more likely to experience greater job satisfaction and, therefore, are less likely to engage in CWBs themselves, as they view job satisfaction “as a proxy for investment in the organization” (Le et al. 8) and therefore are more likely to contribute to the organization’s success. Thus, by utilizing the FFM, employers can gain insight into which job applicants are less likely to engage in CWBs by assessing their levels of agreeableness, which indicate their willingness to contribute to a safe, productive work environment. Although FFM traits can be indicative of job applicants’ tendency to engage in counterproductive workplace behaviors, they can also be representative of age-related changes that influence their workplace behaviors, which employers must be made aware of so that they can hire candidates who will most benefit the workplace. “Findings highlight that age-related personality development is [a] mechanism that can explain why employees engage in lower levels of CWBs… with increasing age” (Pletzer 4), suggesting that employers may wish to hire older job applicants to minimize the risk of experiencing a hostile work environment. According to Pletzer, “emotionality decrease[s] across 155

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the entire adult lifespan” (2), revealing that employees are less likely to exhibit hostile, aggressive behavior toward their companies or co-workers as they age. Additionally, “traits associated with [c]onscientiousness, such as being organized, diligent, and prudent, increase with age and manifest themselves not just in increased task performance, but also in lower levels of CWBs and in higher levels of [positive work behaviors]” (Pletzer 5), revealing that increasing age results in more dedication to one’s work and, therefore, less focus on committing CWBs. The FFM also allows insight into workplace behaviors that remain relatively constant among adolescents and young adults, with the most important indicators of future engagement in counterproductive workplace behaviors among adolescent job candidates being agreeableness and conscientiousness, which “are associated with [i]nterpersonal, [o]rganizational, and [t]otal CWBs” (Le et al. 9). Low agreeableness in adolescents is positively associated with interpersonally directed CWBs in young adulthood. Similarly, low conscientiousness in adolescence is positively associated with organizationally directed CWBs in young adulthood, as low conscientiousness leads to lower job satisfaction and, consequently, a stronger tendency to engage in CWBs (Le et al. 9). The current findings in regard to the relationship between the FFM domains and age reveal that, overall, age-related changes in personality development result in more positive work behaviors among older employees compared to younger employees, indicating that organizations may benefit from hiring older job candidates, as these candidates “will have desirable consequences for organizations” (Pletzer 5). The FFM also provides evidence that positive and negative workplace behaviors predicted in adolescents have a strong probability of holding true when these adolescents are young adults, cautioning employers to refrain from hiring adolescents whose personality traits predict engagement in CWBs, as their behaviors are unlikely to change until they are significantly older. In sum, the FFM provides insight into the tendency for job applicants to engage in counterproductive workplace behaviors based on their age, helping employers to hire the appropriate candidate for a work position by knowing each candidate’s risk of engaging in CWBs in relation to his or her age. Another outside factor that has been shown to influence the prevalence of counterproductive workplace behaviors and which employers must take into account when hiring job applicants is the cluster of personality traits that comprise the “dark triad.” The “dark triad” is a set of three personality traits—narcissism, psychopathy, and Machiavellianism—that are maladaptive in nature and have been found to contribute to workplace deviance among employees. Each of these three traits has been found to directly 156

associate with either interpersonally directed CWBs or organizationally directed CWBs. Narcissism, which is “marked by a sense of entitlement…has been shown to predict conflict, aggression, and bullying” (Cohen 577—2,124), indicating a direct correlation between narcissism and interpersonally directed CWBs. Since interpersonally directed CWBs directly associate with low agreeableness, employers can increase their identification of job applicants who possess narcissism by using the FFM to identify whether or not a particular applicant exhibits low agreeableness. “The trait of psychopathy is associated with a willingness to exploit others,” as corporate psychopaths experience no sympathy toward their co-workers whose feelings they hurt (Cohen 2,035). The tendency for psychopaths to engage in harmful behaviors toward their co-workers reveals that there is a positive correlation between psychopathy and interpersonally directed CWBs, which could also be predicted by employers through the identification of the personality trait of low agreeableness. Machiavellianism, a personality trait characterized by the use of manipulative behaviors, is “consistently related to low agreeableness, low conscientiousness, and high neuroticism” (DeShong et al. 222), revealing an association between Machiavellianism and both interpersonally directed and organizationally directed CWBs. Although the dark triad personality traits are not directly accounted for by the FFM, employers can use the FFM to predict the risk of their job applicants possessing such personality traits by evaluating each trait’s association with interpersonally directed and organizationally directed CWBs, which can be predicted by the FFM domains of agreeableness and conscientiousness. By using the FFM to assess the risk of job applicants possessing personality traits that comprise the dark triad, employers can reduce the amount of harmful interpersonally directed and organizationally directed behaviors in the workplace and consequently contribute to a positive work environment. After examining the correlation between counterproductive workplace behaviors and the Five-Factor Model of personality assessment, it appears that the FFM demonstrates overall high utility in predicting various forms of workplace deviance. Based on my research, the most reliable predictors of organizationally directed and interpersonally directed CWBs are the domains of conscientiousness and agreeableness, respectively (Guay et al. 1). Because these domains are the most strongly correlated with both types of workplace deviance, they should be examined by employers who wish to use the most reliable means of ensuring that they are making the right decisions to reduce deviance within their companies. However, the other domains of the FFM also allow employers to gain insight into different predictors of CWBs among job applicants and should not be overlooked, as they

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aid in their hiring decisions by helping them to detect candidates who pose the most serious threats to their organizations as well as those who will help to improve the work environment. The influence of one’s age on the prevalence of counterproductive workplace behaviors also serves as vital information to employers, as employers must know how their job applicants’ tendency to engage in workplace deviance is likely to change over the course of their employment so that they can hire the applicants whose FFM traits and age are conducive to a positive work environment. Further research regarding the impact of the dark triad personality traits on workplace behaviors should be conducted, as the concept is relatively new and requires more evidence to elucidate exactly how the traits influence counterproductive workplace behaviors that associate with the FFM domains (Cohen 334). Nevertheless, identification of the FFM traits, along with their relation to other forces that influence workplace behaviors, has proven to be a powerful strategy for employers to use as a means of mitigating counterproductive workplace behaviors. With the issues of interpersonal and organizational deviance still in existence, employers should use the FFM whenever making hiring decisions, as doing so will help to mitigate the issue and promote an overall positive corporate culture. Works Cited Bolton, L. R., et al. “Big Five Trait Predictors of Differential Counterproductive Work Behavior Dimensions.” Personality and Individual Differences, vol. 49, no. 5, Jan. 2010, pp. 537–541. British Library Document Supply Centre Inside Serials & Conference Proceedings, search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthTy pe=ip,sso&db=edsbl&AN=RN274117641&site=edslive&scope=site. Accessed 28 November 2021.

Cohen, Aaron. Counterproductive Work Behaviors: Understanding the Dark Side of Personalities in Organizational Life. Ebook ed., Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group, 2018. DeShong, Hilary L., et al. “Facets of the Dark Triad: Utilizing the Five-Factor Model to Describe Machiavellianism.” Personality and Individual Differences, vol. 105, Jan. 2017, pp. 218–223. ScienceDirect, doi:10.1016/j. paid.2016.09.053. Accessed 28 November 2021. Guay, Russell P., et al. “Why People Harm the Organization and Its Members: Relationships among Personality, Organizational Commitment, and Workplace Deviance.” Human Performance, vol. 29, no. 1, Jan. 2016, pp. 1–15. Business Source Complete, doi:10.108 0/08959285.2015.1120305. Accessed 28 November 2021. Jia, H., et al. “Cyberloafing and Personality: The Impact of the Big Five Traits and Workplace Situational Factors.” Journal of Leadership and Organizational Studies, vol. 20, no. 3, Jan. 2013, pp. 358–365. British Library Document Supply Centre Inside Serials & Conference Proceedings, search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthTy pe=ip,sso&db=edsbl&AN=RN336870950&site=edslive&scope=site. Accessed 28 November 2021. Le, Kimdy, et al. “Workers Behaving Badly: Associations between Adolescent Reports of the Big Five and Counterproductive Work Behaviors in Adulthood.” Personality and Individual Differences, vol. 61–62, Apr. 2014, pp. 7–12. ScienceDirect, doi:10.1016/j. paid.2013.12.016. Accessed 28 November 2021. Pletzer, Jan Luca. “Why Older Employees Engage in Less Counterproductive Work Behavior and in More Organizational Citizenship Behavior: Examining the Role of the HEXACO Personality Traits.” Personality and Individual Differences, vol. 173, Apr. 2021. ScienceDirect, doi:10.1016/j.paid.2020.110550. Accessed 28 November 2021.

Student Reflection: Writing this research paper has expanded my knowledge on the subjects of personality and work, as well as how they interact with one another. Although I do not plan on becoming an employer myself, I have benefited from the information I have researched by gaining an understanding of how others think and act in the workplace, as well as how external forces influence people’s workplace behaviors. While more research is necessary in order to advance the field of organizational psychology, I find that the overall recency and consistency of my findings are valuable and deserve consideration by employers, who bear the ability to promote a positive work environment in their companies. Due to the need for an extensive analysis, this assignment has pushed me to think more critically about how to gather research and write an elaborate, cohesive paper than I ever have. Prior to this assignment, I was not as cognizant as I am now in terms of different types of sources that could prove beneficial to my research, and this assignment forced me to view my topic in relation to various factors that enabled me to analyze my topic more thoroughly, allowing for a more nuanced, comprehensive paper.

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A Cultural Comparison of Workplace Bullying in the United Kingdom & the United States by Cassandra Oakes MGT 349: International Human Resource Management Dr. Wendy Becker Assignment: The goal is to stimulate critical thinking and to display knowledge of International Human Resource Management (IHRM) by researching, writing and presenting a paper on IHRM practices. Paper should include an executive summary, references and appendices. This project gives you a chance to apply the theories and concepts that you have learned in this class. Search the primary academic literature using library databases to gain background for your research.

Executive Summary This paper is intended to observe, compare, and contrast the issue of workplace bullying in the United Kingdom and the United States. After analyzing eleven different resources about various workplace bullying topics in the United States and the United Kingdom, three main observations are made between them. Additionally, several similarities and differences were observed in the problems facing companies in the United States and the United Kingdom as well as how they handle the issues. Given the similarities and differences between these cultures, a handful of recommendations are offered for the legal side, employer side, and employee side of the problems surrounding workplace bullying and best practices for combating it. Introduction When entering the world of human resource management, it is not uncommon to be faced with daunting situations. One of the most dreaded dilemmas that plague companies around the globe is happening right inside organizations themselves. Workplace bullying is a cancerous problem that rots a company from the inside out and can happen at any level of the organization. An estimated twenty percent of employees across a variety of different functional organizations self-reported that they are enveloped in a workplace bullying relationship in their roles (Gloor, 2014, p. 146). In the United States, there has been extensive research conducted on this issue with many researchers offering suggestions on how to alleviate the pressure that is created from workplace bullying. This does beg the question, however, of what is being done around the world in these cases. The purpose of this project is to compare workplace bullying between the United Kingdom and the United States and to see what 158

is being done to improve these situations and if either culture can learn a lesson from the other. Throughout this research paper, there will be a summary of relevant literature that looks at what workplace bullying is and observations from the research about the United Kingdom and the United States. Additionally, the research will look at the similarities and differences observed between the two countries and what is being done to combat it. Finally, it will offer up any potential recommendations based on the observations to see if either the United Kingdom or the United States could take away something from each other. Summary of Relevant Literature Workplace bullying has many faces. Various definitions have been given to it, but Gina Vega & Debra R. Comer (2005) offer a comprehensive one in their article from the Journal of Business Ethics. Vega and Comer state that workplace bullying is “…unwanted, offensive, humiliating, undermining behavior towards an individual or groups of employees” (p.103). Going further, Vega & Comer state that workplace bullying is malicious and sporadic, making it one of the largest drivers for workplace turnover, absenteeism, physical and mental illness, and general hostility. Another important aspect to this behavior not discussed by Vega & Comer is, in the words of Heungsik Park, Brita Bjørkelo, and John Blenkinsopp (2020), “… a systematic hostile and unethical form of communication performed by one or more individuals mainly directed at one person…” (p. 592). The note about unethical communication is important, as not only is such behavior harmful, it is also insufficiently covered by the law and more often faced on the moral level by companies. The last consideration for workplace bullying is that at any type of organization at any level

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can be riddled with cases of abuse. For example, Clive R. Boddy (2014) discusses a case of a non-profit CEO being cited for bullying by four different managers. In a similar manner, Michael Harvey, Darren Treadway, Joyce Thompson Heames, and Allison Duke discuss various scenarios involving person to person, team to person, manager to employee, and more kinds of bullying in a global organization. All of these aspects of workplace bullying – its effects, its legality, and its widespread nature – come together to build a foundation for understanding this horrible workplace epidemic. Observations Observations About Bullying in the United Kingdom and the United States An interesting notion surrounding British case studies in workplace bullying is the concept of a “Corporate Psychopath.” Extensive research has been done about psychopathic tendencies in the corporate world, which draws similarities between cases in the United States and the United Kingdom. Clive Boddy’s two published works (2014 & 2017) and Worham (2003) discuss in their articles this idea about the “Corporate Psychopath,” which is “…psychopaths working in the corporate sector, possibly attracted by the potentially high monetary rewards, prestige and power available to those who reach the senior managerial levels of a large corporation” (Boddy, 2014, p.108) The “Corporate Psychopath” in these articles is likely to increase problems in the work environment and workplace bullying. Boddy (2014) notes that corporate psychopaths can be observed through social learning theory; such people learn how to be like a role model in an organization but present toxic behavior when put in a place of power. On the other end of the spectrum, however, in jobs where there isn’t a corporate setting present, job sectors in the UK where one is more likely to experience some kind of bullying are the transport, health, retail and leisure sectors (Sweeney et al., 2007, p.6). This is quite the contrast from the concept of the “Corporate Psychopath,” because this concept relies on the environment of the traditional corporate office setting. However, it seems as though these non-corporate sectors of work are where people would be more easily taken advantage of. In the retail sector where young people rely on these jobs to make money for work, it would be easy to create a power dynamic with a toxic manager. In the health care industry, practitioners must work long grueling hours, and there is a strong sense of hierarchy between med students, nurses, doctor’s general surgeons, etc. that can breed hostility in the workplace.

Across the pond, a similar observation can be seen in the sectors where American employees experience workplace bullying. According to an article written by Dana Wilkie (2018) in the Society for Human Resource Management, “Bullying often occurs in workplace cultures where highly powerful people—or those with high-profile jobs—work alongside those with lower status. The health care, education, and public service industries lend themselves to bullying behavior…”. So, in the United States, the power dynamic and service-based industries can also lead to workplace bullying scenarios. A third observation within the literature is the prevalence of workplace bullying amongst ethnically diverse workforces. Specifically, Alex Lindsey, Derek Avery, Jeremy Dawson, and Eden King (2017) discuss how “management ethnic representativeness” influences relationships positively and negatively in organizations. For example, they indicate that “…having Blacks in leadership positions led White leaders to be more apt to mentor Black subordinates. In addition, we know from work on gender and leadership that the presence of similar female leaders can serve as a signal to female employees that empowers women to be more effective on leadership tasks” (Lindsey et al., 2017, p.1549). This demonstrates the positive impact having diversity amongst leaders can provide in the work environment. On the other hand, Lindsey et al. (2017) were able to demonstrate in their studies that when the management in an organization is ethnically dissimilar from their subordinates or an employee is ethnically dissimilar from their team, they are more likely to have a negative relationship and be subjected to workplace bullying. Even more interesting to note, the research done by Lindsey et al. (2017) was conducted on hospital workers in the United Kingdom. The reason why this is curious is that as mentioned above, the health care industry is a job sector that is adversely impacted by workplace bullying, so it inadvertently supports that research. Lastly, this research also demonstrates the value that employees place on informal culture and messages that are sent through their leaders. Lindsey et al. (2017) demonstrate that when many managers have ethnic representation that is similar to their employees, it provides a sense of empowerment, and shows that those employees have opportunity and trust in the company (p. 16). This is all done, however, without saying any words, or displaying any messages. So conversely, when there is a lack of representation, this sends a message and prevents the employees from having that trust in their organizations.

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Comparisons for Bullying in the United States and the United Kingdom

willingness to cooperate with unions when resolving issues surrounding workplace bullying.

According to David Worham (2003), in the United Kingdom the name of workplace bullying itself goes by a few different names. Worham states that bullying is also known as, “mobbing” or “workplace victimization,” and these terms can be used interchangeably because they are synonymous. This is a small observation that shows a difference between the two cultures. “Bullying” has almost a childish connotation, something that would come to mind when thinking of school children bickering in the schoolyard. On the other hand, “mobbing” and “victimization” are very harsh words and hold a criminal connotation. This makes sense since, as is to be discussed in the next section, in the United Kingdom, there are more protections in law to prevent workplace bullying. Another big difference between the United States and the United Kingdom is the concept of whistleblowing. There are greater protections in the United Kingdom for whistleblowing, and the practice is covered at the level of reporting managers and other employees who engage in bullying, harassment, etc. However, that doesn’t mean that bullying or whistleblowing are improved to any degree. According to Park et al. (2018), in the United Kingdom, despite the protections, most internal reporting leads to external reporting, and external whistleblowers are more likely to experience 10-15% more retaliation and bullying. We can see similar outcomes in the United States. Whistleblowing in the United States is protected by law under the Whistleblower Protection Act, but only as it pertains to the severe act of corruption or illegal activity. So internal acts of whistleblowing – where an employee aims to report workplace bullying within the company – usually does not stick, can elicit greater acts of bullying, and remains unprotected. Thus, while there are legal differences between these country’s whistleblowing protections, the negative repercussions of whistleblowing are not lessened. The last comparison in the literature reviewed for this research was the importance of unions in workplace bullying intervention. According to Vega & Comer (2005), “66% of workers in the United Kingdom had either experienced bullying or witnessed it” over the course of about half a year. That being said, unions have also been major proponents for spreading awareness about the problem of workplace bullying and trying to devise plans and solutions for this issue. On the other hand, in the United States unions are not usually welcomed. Unions have historically left a sour taste in the mouths of businesses across the United States and are avoided. So, a major difference between the United States and the United Kingdom is the

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In terms of protection, the United Kingdom is somewhat considered a leader in the battle against workplace bullying. Vega & Comer (2005) document how in the United Kingdom, the Andrea Adams Trust was established in 1997 as a leading non-profit that supports victims and provides resources to help manage the issues for those who have suffered (p.3). Additionally, this charity has been able to serve as the model for other organizations around the world and has helped to support research combatting the phenomenon over the last twenty years (Vega & Comer, 2005, p.3). As for the law, legislation around workplace bullying is limited in the United Kingdom but still offers some protections for victims. For example, according to a resource guide on GOV.UK (2016), people are protected from harassment and bullying behaviors such as spreading rumors, unfair treatment, etc. under the Equality Act of 2010. Vega & Comer (2005) also discuss how the United Kingdom enacted the Dignity at Work Law, which offers protections for people who believe they are being discriminated against at work but cannot prove it (p.3). Lastly, as referenced earlier, the European Commission and the United Kingdom worked together to create a resource guide for employers to prevent workplace bullying, harassment, and violence. This resource guide offer insight on keystone cases in the United Kingdom, statistics that explain the endemic of workplace bullying, and offers potential solutions, best practices, and resources available to employers. In contrast, the United States has traditionally lacked in the areas of protection for workplace bullying. At the most basic level, Americans are protected from harassment under the Civil Rights Act of 1964, and additional protections are offered from the Age Discrimination Employment Act and Americans with Disabilities Act. However, despite the lack of national protections, employees in cases of workplace bullying. Recently, however, there have been some localized rulings that are serving as the framework for other states to improve their workplace bullying legislation. For example, in California, there was a ruling that companies need to enact mandatory workplace bullying prevention training for new managers to systemically cut the problem at the source (2014). However, there is an abundance of information available, for victims of workplace bullying. The Workplace Bullying Institute is one of many great resources designated for victims to get help, employers to provide training, and anyone interested to get information on laws and legislation available.

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Recommendations There is still a long way to go for the United States and the United Kingdom to create a safer environment and combat workplace bullying. The United States should take a page from the United Kingdom’s book and offer more protections for employees who are experiencing workplace bullying. Small laws such as protection for internal whistleblowing could be a gamechanger for those who are affected from workplace bullying. Indeed, legislation seems to be the best way to try and provide protection to employees so that they feel empowered and safe in their workplace. On the employer side of things, there is a lot of recommendations from the employee resource guide. Some of the recommendations include having a clear statement and policy on harassment, bullying, and violence to ensure that employees have a clear outline of what behavior will be tolerated, providing a clear explanation of the process to be used if a case is opened, being very detailed and keep notes as much as possible for documentation, and ensuring that all parties are treated with fairness (Sweeney et al. 2007). In general, employers should be clear, well organized, and go beyond just complying with the law in order to eradicate this problem. Finally, on the employee side of things, employees should remain vigilant when faced with a workplace bullying scenario. Whether an employee witnesses the bullying, or is on the receiving end, the employee must know their rights, keep detailed notes about things that happen to have a clear testimony if the case ever gets escalated to a legal suit, and report to the Human Resources team. If all these recommendations can come together, the outlook for employees in the workplace may see a brighter future ahead. Conclusion In summation, the purpose of this project was to compare workplace bullying between The United Kingdom and the United States and to see what is being done to improve these situations and if either culture can learn a lesson from the other. After analyzing the various works provided surrounding this topic, the main observations that were found was the concept of the “corporate psychopath”, the job sectors that are impacted by workplace bullying the most in the United States and the United Kingdom, and the importance of ethnic representativeness in leadership as it pertains to workplace bullying. Additionally, there were a variety of similarities and differences between the United States and the United Kingdom in the areas surrounding workplace bullying, including the role of culture, legislation, and unions. Lastly, the recommendations given offer a glimmer of hope for the future of employees because some of the options are attainable in the immediate future and seek to offer greater protection.

On the world stage, it seems as though workplace bullying is a pertinent issue that should be addressed. Slowly but surely, in the United States changes are brewing to try and ensure the safety and wellbeing of employees. Perhaps one day the United States will become the leader in workplace bullying and surpass their British counterparts across the ocean. When that day comes, perhaps employees will know peace, and those who have suffered from bullying harassment, and violence will be able to rest easy knowing their voices are finally heard. Citations Boddy, C. (2014). Corporate Psychopaths, Conflict, Employee Affective Well-Being and Counterproductive Work Behaviour. In Journal of Business Ethics (Vol. 121, Issue 1, pp. 107–21). https://doi.org/10.1007/ s10551-013-1688-0 Boddy, C. (2017). Psychopathic Leadership A Case Study of a Corporate Psychopath CEO. Journal of Business Ethics, 145(1), 141–156. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s10551-015- 2908-6 California: Bullying Prevention Training Required For Managers. (2014, December 1). HRMagazine, 59(12), 10. Gloor, J. L. (2014). Review of Bullying And Harassment In The Workplace: Developments In Theory, Research, And Practice, 2nd ed. Academy of Management Learning & Education, 13(1), 145–148. https://doi. org/10.5465/amle.2014.0020 Lindsey, A. P., Avery, D. R., Dawson, J. F., & King, E. B. (2017). Investigating Why And For Whom Management Ethnic Representativeness Influences Interpersonal Mistreatment In The Workplace. Journal of Applied Psychology, 102(11), 1545–1563. https:// doi.org/10.1037/apl0000238 Park, H., Bjørkelo, B., & Blenkinsopp, J. (2020). External Whistleblowers’ Experiences of Workplace Bullying By Superiors And Colleagues. Journal of Business Ethics, 161(3), 591– 601. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s10551-018-3936-9 Service, G. D. (2016, June 22). Workplace Bullying and Harassment. GOV.UK. Retrieved November 23, 2021, from https://www.gov.uk/ workplace-bullying-and-harassment. Sweeney, E., Lambert, R., Fleetwood, I., Hackett, J., & Barber, B. (2007). Preventing Workplace Bullying and Harassment and Violence. European Commission. Wilkie, D. (2018, April 11). SHRM. Retrieved November 23, 2021, from https://www.shrm.org/hr-today/news/ hr-magazine/0316/pages/are-you-in-a-bully-proneindustry.aspx. Vega, G., & Comer, D. R. (2005). Sticks And Stones May Break Your Bones, But Words Can Break Your Spirit: Bullying In The Workplace. Journal of Business Ethics, 58(1–3), 101– 109. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s10551-005-1422-7 Wornham, D. (2003). A Descriptive Investigation of Morality and Victimisation at Work. Journal of Business Ethics, 45(1/2), 29–40. https://doi. org/10.1023/A:1024116327582

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Student Reflection: Over the course of the fall semester, I had the pleasure of taking International Human Resource Management with Dr. Wendy Becker. It is my favorite business class that I have taken at Shippensburg University. We were fortunate enough to have a small class, which allowed us to have more rich discussions and small group instruction. We studied how Human Resources is affected around the world, especially in organizations that are multinational. We also had the opportunity to become the lecturer by reviewing preselected research and giving lecture summaries about those bodies of work in class. For the research project, we had the freedom to select a topic in HR that interested us making the research much more meaningful. The topic I focused on was comparing how workplace bullying affects organizations in the United States and the United Kingdom. My intentions were to draw similarities and differences between the two countries and see if anything interesting came about. The most valuable observation I made was that in the United Kingdom, the way that workplace bullying is perceived is with a much more serious connotation in opposition to the United States based on the vocabulary that surrounds the topic.

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Rocketbook Brand Assessment by Stephanie Runyon MKT 205: Principles of Marketing Dr. Mohammad Rahman Assignment: This assignment was to apply the concepts of marketing products to an actual products current marketing sequence. Overall, this paper analyzes Rocketbook and their marketing techniques and why they work.

Brand Overview Connect Master (2020) states that “the primary way marketers generate value is through decisions on product, price, place, and promotion.” Rocketbook is a company that sells reusable notebooks. Their goal is to make ideas “organized and shared with the power of the cloud” and to reduce waste (Rocketbook - About Us, n.d.). In reaching their goal, they have created multiple different products. Within the scope of their products, they carry notebooks, planners, and accessories, like Beacons which will be explained later on (Rocketbook - About Us, n.d.). Rocketbook’s current best sellers include the Rocketbook Core, Rocketbook Fusion, Rocketbook Panda Planner, Rocketbook Beacons, Rocketbook Cloud Cards, Rocketbook Orbit Kit, and Rocketbook Academic Planner (Rocketbook - About Us, n.d.). These products have different price ranges to accommodate to their market. The Rocketbook Beacons are priced at fifteen dollars, whereas the Rocketbook Orbit Kit is priced at forty dollars and the Rocketbook Academic Planner is priced at thirty-nine dollars and ninety-nine cents. Although Rocketbook does not have any physical stores to shop at for these products, consumers can get their products at Walmart, Staples, and Target physical locations as well as their online platforms (Rocketbook - About Us, n.d.). Customers can also get their products online on Amazon and their official website (Rocketbook - About Us, n.d.). While all of this is great for a company, they cannot get very far without promoting their product. According to marketing research on the company (Smart Notebook Company Scales Business on Amazon, n.d.), Rocketbook originally advertised their product on Amazon, but has recently switched to Ad Badger. The Ad Badger advertising method watches for keywords being used online and connects it to products that are highlighting those same or similar keywords (Smart Notebook Company Scales Business on Amazon, n.d.). When someone searches a key word the Rocketbook has linked to their product,

advertisements will start showing up on their social media pages as seen in Figure 1, 2, and 3. Rocketbook has also used their slogan “write, scan, erase” (Rocketbook - About Us, n.d.) to market what their products’ sustainable use. These marketing strategies show their commitment to being both technologically savvy and environmentally efficient, and this is why Rocketbook has become the large company it is today. Utilizing Marketing Concepts According to Connect Master (2020), value creation is “when marketers successfully match customer’s needs and wants.” Marketing’s entire role is to understand their customers and to develop strategies to sell their products. In later paragraphs, Rocketbook’s effective use of value creation and how they are using a customer-value driven marketing strategy. Creating Value Although Rocketbook seems to have a great product in mind, it can be difficult to get into the stationary paper market. According to Wood (August 2021), the “demand or stationery products is expected to decline as electronic alternatives become more advanced and accessible.” With this in mind, the creators of the Rocketbook made their product with the idea of accessibility in mind. When using a Rocketbook, anyone can access their scanned information on their smartphone or laptop. They can even access their information if they are offline with their Rocketbook application on their smartphones as seen in Figure 4. Not only can the user see previous scans, but they can also see which storage folder they sent it to. Figure 5 shows a specific example of this where scans were sent to the user’s Google Drive secondary folder labeled “Marketing” within their primary folder labeled “Second Year, First Semester.” Rocketbook also has the ability to physically hold the information if it is written in their notebooks or their other similar products. “Due to the increases in convenience that electronic communication and storage are expected to continue providing, younger Americans in particular will find 163

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less of a need to purchase stationery products”(Wood, 2021).Rocketbook created their products with the convince and storage to keep up with the younger generation that we call “the future.” The Rocketbook can be used anywhere, even if users are on the go. In the Rocketbook’s design, the ink that has been used on the paper can either be removed using water and a cloth or heat, depending on which product is used. This allows the consumer to reuse the product multiple times before replacing it with a new one. The Rocketbook company also kept in mind that not all important information will be within notebooks and planners. The product, Beacons, was designed for whiteboard use and was made to be restickable (Rocketbook - About Us, n.d.). This newly designed product allows for any technological surface to be easily scanned and shared with others. All of this scanning technology is great, but where does it go once it is scanned? Being that most electronic devices have limited storage, the Rocketbook company allows the scans to be sent to larger storing companies. For example, scans from Rocketbook products can be sent to the consumer’s personal Google Drive, Dropbox, OneDrive, Photos, Email, etcetera (Rocketbook - About Us, n.d.). Rocketbook is a company based on its environmental consciousness. Their products are made of number 2, number 3, and number 7 plastics that are recyclable almost anywhere (Rocketbook - About Us, n.d.). According to Wood (August 2021), “consumers are growing increasingly environmentally aware and substituting paper with electronics when possible.” Rocketbook has effectively worked around the growing awareness of the environment with their reusable and recyclable product. Part of them staying environmentally conscious is having access to the latest available technology. Rocketbook has already started using some of the latest technology available and, according to Wood (August 2021), creating value lies with the “investment in advanced technology [that] will enable companies to have a better response time to changing consumer tastes.” As consumer tastes change, more people are interested in reusable items rather than disposable ones. According to research from Alshqaqeeq et al., 2020, “reusables consistently have lower energy use and global warming potential metrics than the single use alternative.” This means that Rocketbook is sticking to their goals and their customer wants by not only making this product reusable, but also recyclable. Customer-Value Driven Marketing Strategy The key aspect of marketing is understanding what the consumers want and need. In order to do this, companies have to have a customer-value driven marketing strategy. Rocketbook has established this strategy by appealing to the sustainable conscious164

ness of consumers. In other words, they have utilized sustainable marketing. In his research, Fuller (2021) references Sheth and Parvatiyar’s definition of sustainable marketing that states “‘[s]ustainable marketing’ addresses the “‘ways and means’ for reconciling economic and ecological factors through reinvented products and product systems.” The book, however, defines sustainable marketing as: The process of planning, implementing, and controlling the development, pricing, promotion, and distribution of products in a manner that satisfies the following three criteria: (1) customer needs are met, (2) organizational goals are attained, and (3) the process is compatible with ecosystems. Both of these definitions highlight key aspects of what Rocketbook has accomplished as an up-and-coming company. Fuller’s definition highlights the reinvention of products and their systems and the book’s definition highlights ecosystem compatibility. Rocketbook took the idea of a paper notebook and reinvented it into so much more. The Rocketbook company reinvented the notebook from everything down to the spiral of the notebook. The cover of the Rocketbook is made from High-Density Polyethylene (HPDE), a number 2 plastic (Rocketbook - About Us, n.d). The spiral binding is made with PVC, which is a number 3 plastic (Rocketbook - About Us, n.d). The pages are made with a number 7 BPA poly-free plastic (Rocketbook - About Us, n.d). According to The Old Farmer’s Almanac (2018), each of these plastics are recyclable and can be used to make things for new products. The cover can be used to make detergent bottles and pens. The spiral can be used to make cables or mudflaps. Finally, the pages can be made into custom-made products. The book’s definition highlights customer needs and organizational goals. According to Wood (2018), 26.7 percent of stationary product demand comes from stationary, tablets, and other related products and 31.8 percent of demand comes from paper supplies. When looking at the Office Stationery Manufacturing bar graph (Figure 6), it is shown that these two categories are the third and first sections of demand, respectively. Rocketbook has found consumers that have the demand for their product. They also found the respective age groups that fit their sustainability ideals by marketing to businesses and schools. On top of this, Rocketbook has made themselves able to overcome their competition. Rocketbook has marketed that, not only is their notebook reusable, but it is also able to be erased and digitized while also staying affordable. If a company thinks about it, what is the biggest percentage of the population using paper to take notes? The

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answer, of course, is students. One big factor that puts Rocketbooks ahead of their competitors is their price point. A product’s price communicates a lot about that product’s quality. If a Rocketbook would be compared to a similar product, reMarkable, the price factor is a big decision point. With Rocketbook, one can accomplish the same things that the reMarkable can for one tenth of the price. The average Rocketbook is priced around thirty dollars (Rocketbook - About Us, n.d) while the reMarkable is priced at four hundred dollars without a discount (ReMarkable 2 | ReMarkable, n.d.). Rocketbook also does not have a required subscription plan for all of the Rocketbook application like the reMarkable does (ReMarkable 2 | ReMarkable, n.d.). Most college students or parents of secondary or below students are not going to be as willing to spend hundreds of dollars on a product, especially if

Figure 1

a subscription is needed for all the applications. The price point of Rocketbook is meeting the needs and wants of people who are not willing to pay hundreds of dollars on a product. Conclusion Overall, Rocketbook has become a steadily growing company. They are getting more products in physical stores as well as their online store. Indeed, Rocketbook is on a path to success. With the generations that are becoming more a part of the consumer and spending population, Rocketbook has their product designed and targeted well. They took the idea that these generations are more conscious about how they affect the Earth and turned it into a money-making product that they can use from elementary school through the end of their careers.

Figure 2

Figure 3

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Figure 4

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Figure 6

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Resources Alshqaqeeq, F., Griffing, E., Twomey, J., & Overcash, M. (2020). Comparing reusable to disposable products: Life cycle analysis metrics. Research Article. Published. Connect Master. (2020). Principles of Marketing (2.0). McGraw-Hill Education, New York. Fuller, D. A. (2021). Sustainable Marketing: ManagerialEcological Issues. SAGE Publications, Inc. reMarkable 2 | reMarkable. (n.d.). ReMarkable. Retrieved November 4, 2021, from https://remarkable.com/store/ remarkable-2 Rocketbook - About Us. (n.d.). Rocketbook. Retrieved October 19, 2021, from https://getrocketbook.com/ pages/about-rocketbook Rocketbook Case Study: A Marketing Engine That Runs on Data. (2019, October 9). Klaviyo. Retrieved November 4, 2021, from https://www.klaviyo.com/customers/ case-studies/rocketbook

Smart notebook company scales business on Amazon. (n.d.). Amazon Advertising. Retrieved November 5, 2021, from https://advertising.amazon.com/library/ case-studies/rocketbook The Old Farmer’s Almanac. (2018, November 19). Which Plastics Are Recyclable By Number? Old Farmer’s Almanac. Retrieved November 4, 2021, from https://www.almanac.com/content/ which-plastics-are-recyclable-number Wood, G. (August 2021). Office Stationery Manufacturing in the US. US Industry (NAICS). Retrieved November 3, 2021, from https://my.ibisworld.com/us/en/ industry/32223/about

Student Reflection: This assignment showcases what happens in our brain when we shop for specific products. Looking at the world through the marketing lens, one can understand why marketing teams market the way they do and also how companies pick price points for their products. The product I researched, Rocketbook, is a product that I personally in college. It was interesting to see that their marketing team was marketing to people exactly like me, younger generations who are environmentally conscious and technologically savvy. This product is marketed in specific ways to interact with these people, and it shows that the marketing team is on top of their game. Overall, I enjoyed this assignment because it allowed me to think and look at what happens inside the company. It shows that marketing can not utilize just one department, and as an accounting major, I would be involved in the marketing process because of price points and ideas on how to make the product more affordable. This assignment also led me to thinking more critically in other college courses because there are always things happening that do not just scratch the surface.

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Assessing Whether Tobacco Products Should Be Sold to 18-Year-Olds by Jay Harnish SWK 360: Research Techniques for Social Workers Dr. Andrea Barrick Assignment: Students are required to write a research paper on a topic that the class selects. It is broken into several smaller assignments and put together as a final paper at the end of the semester.

Problem Statement The development of electronic nicotine delivery systems (ENDS), otherwise referred to as electronic cigarettes or e-cigarettes, has led to changes in the way people perceive tobacco as well as changes in patterns of tobacco use, particularly among adolescents. Individuals who use ENDS report a variety of reasons for initiation and maintenance of e-cigarette use (Piñeiro et al., 2016). Electronic cigarettes may be utilized for tobacco reduction, tobacco cessation, or experimentation by the user (Lee & Oh, 2019). Unlike traditional combustible cigarettes, e-cigarettes are battery-operated and produce vapor by heating a liquid solution contained within them (Kong, Kuguru, & Krishnan-Sarin, 2017). The flavoring and nicotine level of the e-liquid can be adjusted according to the user’s preferences (Baker, Wilson, & Hayes, 2021). Because of their variability, electronic cigarettes have become increasingly popular in recent years. Studies have linked a greater use of e-cigarettes with a reduction in the overall use of combustible cigarettes (Sun et al., 2021). Adolescents report using e-cigarettes more frequently than any other tobacco or nicotine product (Kong, Kuguru, & Krishnan-Sarin, 2017). The rise in popularity may be associated with more positive perceptions about the safety of e-cigarettes as well as the ability to use e-cigarettes to reduce or quit smoking altogether (Piñeiro et al., 2016). The purpose of this study is to determine if the federal minimum age for sale of tobacco products should be lowered back to 18 years. Social factors such as gender, race and ethnicity, and religiosity of participants will be considered. At present there is no comprehensive study on the response to changing the minimum age for sale of tobacco products from 18 to 21 years. There is also minimal research on the link between religious service attendance and smoking preferences. This study aims to identify, based on a representative sample, the attitudes toward this change, 168

as expressed by young adult college students in a social work program in south central Pennsylvania. Literature Review Teenage Smoking and Vaping Laws and Regulations Adolescence is a period in which individuals are especially susceptible to many forms of pressure, including the pressure to initiate alcohol and drug use, which can lead to later dependence (Sun et al., 2021). E-cigarettes are now the most used tobacco product among adolescents due to their immense popularity (Sun et al., 2021). Prior research indicates that adolescents have unique reasons for using e-cigarettes as opposed to cigarettes (Kong, Kuguru, & KrishnanSarin, 2017). E-cigarette use may precede cigarette use and could potentially cause a renormalization effect, in which smoking would be viewed as ordinary and safe once again (Sun et al., 2021). The tobacco market has expanded to include a vast range of products of differing flavors and nicotine levels. Intervention strategies aimed at reducing or eliminating tobacco use among adolescents have been redefined in response to the prevalence of e-cigarettes. On December 20, 2019, the federal minimum age for sale of tobacco products in the United States was raised from 18 to 21 years. The legislation, dubbed “Tobacco 21,” immediately went into effect and encompassed the sale of all tobacco products, including cigarettes and electronic cigarettes (“Tobacco 21,” 2021). The decision was made to protect American youth from the adverse health effects associated with nicotine and tobacco use and dependence. Apart from “Tobacco 21,” there are no regulations that directly affect the sale or use of tobacco products. Gender Differences and Vaping Research suggests that males and females have different reasons for initiating e-cigarette use. Males are more likely to report curiosity, health concerns related

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to combustible cigarettes, and a desire to quit smoking combustible cigarettes as reasons for trying e-cigarettes (Piñeiro et al., 2016). Females, on the other hand, tend to report social and environmental reasons for using e-cigarettes, such as stress management and weight control (Kong, Kuguru, & Krishnan-Sarin, 2017). Peer pressure may exert a greater influence on girls (Choi, Yu, & Sacco, 2018). Males and females also tend to differ on expectancies related to smoking and vaping. Males are more likely to seek taste, energy, and social facilitation from e-cigarettes, and they are also less likely to view e-cigarettes as addictive (Piñeiro et al., 2016). More males report having used e-cigarettes (Lee & Oh, 2019). Among adolescents, males may be at a greater risk to initiate e-cigarette use than females of the same age (Chen, Yu, & Wang, 2017). When selecting products, males are more motivated by nicotine level, with a preference for higher levels of nicotine than those preferred by females (Baker, Wilson, & Hayes, 2021). Males are more likely to consider nicotine rewarding (Kong, Kuguru, & Krishnan-Sarin, 20217). Females prioritize flavor, particularly those not found in traditional cigarettes, when deciding what to buy (Baker, Wilson, & Hayes, 2021). Females who have never smoked cigarettes may be less likely to start vaping (Lee & Oh, 2019). Studies have reported worse respiratory effects for female smokers as well as lower female smoking cessation rates compared to male smokers (Kong, Kuguru, & Krishnan-Sarin, 2017). Racial and Ethnic Differences and Vaping Studies have demonstrated differences in tobacco initiation and use among people from different racial and ethnic groups in the United States. Of the groups studied, non-Hispanic whites report the highest rates of ever vaping (Lee & Oh, 2019). Among adolescents, non-Hispanic whites and multiracial individuals are more likely than members of other racial and ethnic groups to start vaping (Chen, Yu, & Wang, 2017). Compared to other groups, more whites report e-cigarettes as the first tobacco product they have used (Grobman et al., 2021). Studies indicate that whites also use cigarettes more than African Americans and Hispanic individuals (Choi, Yu, & Sacco, 2018). In contrast, African Americans may be more likely to initiate tobacco use via cigars or blunts rather than cigarettes or e-cigarettes (Grobman et al., 2021). Non-Hispanic whites seem to be at the greatest risk of initiating tobacco use between ages 14 and 17 (Chen, Yu, & Wang, 2017). Other racial and ethnic groups seem to experience similar risks. African Americans may report no tobacco use in adolescence but smoke regularly later in life (Choi, Yu, & Sacco, 2018). Asian Americans may be more likely to initiate tobacco use during adulthood as opposed to adolescence (Chen, Yu, & Wang, 2017). African Americans,

Hispanic Americans, and Asian Americans have higher rates of initiating tobacco use via cigarettes rather than e-cigarettes (Grobman et al., 2021). Among Hispanic American adolescents, e-cigarettes are a frequent first tobacco product (Choi, Yu, & Sacco, 2018). Hispanic Americans are also noted to be less likely to start vaping to quit smoking cigarettes (Lee & Oh, 2019). More research is needed to fully understand the influence of race and ethnicity on tobacco initiation and use patterns. Religion and Vaping Few studies have analyzed the link between religiosity and smoking and vaping practices. Studies of this nature generally opt to focus on religiosity and how it relates to different types of substance use and abuse rather than on how religiosity is linked to smoking and vaping specifically. The foundational teachings of most major religions do not directly mention smoking; thus, they may disapprove of smoking without explicitly prohibiting it (Garussi & Nakhaee, 2012). A trend supports the notion that attending religious services provides some protection against substance use and abuse for both adolescents and adults (Zhang et al., 2021). Attending religious services occasionally or not at all seems to be associated with greater tobacco use among adolescents (Martinez et al., 2021). Regular religious attendance, on the other hand, may reduce the risk of nicotine and alcohol dependence (Zhang et al., 2021). The prevalence of smoking in general seems to be lower among those who attend religious services (Martinez et al., 2021). Studies suggest that adolescents who attend religious services regularly are less likely to be current smokers and have a lower chance of initiating smoking later (Garussi & Nakhaee, 2012). Research Question The research question is, “Should the legal age to purchase tobacco be lowered back to 18?” Hypotheses with Dependent and Independent Variables H1: Males are more likely to agree that the legal age to purchase tobacco should be lowered back to 18. Dependent variable: Purchase tobacco Independent variable: Male students H2: Caucasians are more likely to agree that the legal age to purchase tobacco should be lowered back to 18. Dependent Variable: Purchase tobacco Independent Variable: Caucasian students H3: Students who do not attend religious services are more likely to agree that the legal age to purchase tobacco should be lowered back to 18. Dependent Variable: Purchase tobacco Independent Variable: Students who do not attend religious services 169

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Methods Research Design The present study is exploratory in nature; it is designed to investigate whether the federal minimum age for purchasing tobacco products should return to 18 years. Participants were given an opportunity to share their perspective on the topic, whether they were in support or in opposition of the proposed question. This study explores the relationship between demographic factors and preferences on lowering the federal minimum age for the sale of tobacco back to 18. The data were collected through a survey completed by the participants. Responses to the survey were then coded numerically in Excel, making the data quantitative. Participants Participants were recruited from a class of undergraduate social work students at a college in south central Pennsylvania. Participants were selected through convenience sampling, a form of non-probability sampling in which participants are chosen based on availability; in this case, they were all enrolled in a specific social work course. Participants had to be present in class when the survey was administered to be represented in the results. All participants are at least 18 years of age. Participants were asked to identify their gender (whether they are male, female, nonbinary, trans male, or trans female). They were also asked to identify their race and ethnicity (whether they are Caucasian, African American or black, Hispanic or Latino, Asian American, or biracial). Finally, participants were asked to identify their religiosity (whether they attend religious services or do not attend religious services). The data were collected in October 2021, nearly two years after the federal minimum age for the sale of tobacco products was raised to 21 years. There are no anticipated risks associated with the present study. All responses will be kept confidential, and names will not appear within the written report. Responses will be placed in a lockable office in which the researcher and the secretary are the only people who have access. Data stored as an electronic data file and analyzed using Excel will be protected using computers that are password protected. The researcher will be the only person to access these computers. The computers have an automatic log-out feature after a certain time period of inactivity as an additional safeguard. The researcher will be the only person that has access to responses and information regarding the research project. All participants were fully informed of the purpose of the study and provided informed consent prior to participation. Participants agreed that they were voluntarily participating in the study and could withdraw at any point. They also agreed that 170

they did not have to respond to any questions that they did not feel comfortable answering. Participants agreed that they understood their rights as a research participant before signing the consent form. Data Collection All data were collected through a pencil-and-paper questionnaire, which the participants filled out during a regularly scheduled class session. Instrument The data collection instrument is a questionnaire containing five questions. The first one asks if the participant has read the consent form and agrees to voluntarily participate in the study. The second question is the research question, which asks if participants feel the federal minimum age to purchase tobacco should be lowered back to 18. The third question asks for the participant’s gender (whether they are male, female, non-binary, trans male, or trans female). The fourth question asks for the participant’s race and ethnicity (whether they are Caucasian, African American or black, Hispanic or Latino, Asian American, or biracial). The fifth question asks if the participant attends religious services (responses can be either “yes” or “no.”) The data collection instrument is taken at face validity by the researcher since it was not tested prior to being used. It is considered valid by the researcher and used as if it will work as intended. The instrument has test-retest reliability; if participants are given the exact same survey a week or a month later, the responses likely would not change. Data Analysis Responses to the questionnaire will be coded and entered onto an Excel spreadsheet. Each participant will be assigned a unique identification number (from 01 to 23) to ensure participant confidentiality. Each row in the spreadsheet will represent one participant, and each column will represent one of the three nominal variables mentioned previously (gender, race and ethnicity, and religiosity). The researcher will use descriptive statistics (focusing on frequencies and percentages) to analyze the data. Results Descriptive Statistics Descriptive statistics are summarized in Table 1. The sample of undergraduate social work students (n=23) consists of 3 males (13% of the sample) and 20 females (87% of the sample). Of the 3 males, 0% (n=0) support lowering the legal age to purchase tobacco products back to 18. Of the 20 females, 60% (n=12) support lowering the legal age to purchase tobacco back to 18.

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Number of Students (N=23)

Percentage of Students

Percentage of Students Who Support Lowering Age Back to 18 to Purchase Tobacco Products

Percentage of Students Who Do Not Support Lowering Age Back to 18 to Purchase Tobacco Products

Male

13%

0% (N=0)

100% (N=3)

Female

87%

60% (N=12)

40% (N=8)

Caucasian

78%

61% (N=11)

39% (N=7)

African American or Black

0% (N=0)

100% (N=2)

Hispanic or Latino

100% (N=1)

0% (N=0)

Asian American

0% (N=0)

100% (N=1)

Biracial

0% (N=0)

100% (N=1)

Attends Religious Services

43%

40% (N=4)

60% (N=6)

Does Not Attend Religious Services

57%

62% (N=8)

38% (N=5)

Gender

Race and Ethnicity

Religiosity

Table 1. Lowering Age to Purchase Tobacco Products by Gender, Race and Ethnicity, and Religiosity

Regarding race and ethnicity, there are 18 Caucasian participants, and they make up 78% of the overall sample. Of the 18 Caucasians, 61% (n=11) support lowering the legal age to purchase tobacco products back to 18. There are 2 African American participants, and they make up 9% of the sample. Of the 2 African American participants, 0% (n=0) support lowering the legal age to purchase tobacco products back to 18. There is 1 Hispanic or Latino participant, and they make up 4% of the sample. Of the Hispanic or Latino participants, 100% (n=1) support lowering the legal age to purchase tobacco products back to 18. There is 1 Asian American participant, and they make up 4% of the sample. Of the Asian American participants, 0% (n=0) support lowering the legal age to purchase tobacco products back to 18. There is 1 biracial participant, and they make up 4% of the sample. Of the biracial participants, 0% (n=0) support lowering the legal age to purchase tobacco back to 18. The percentage of race represented in the sample is summarized in Figure 1. Regarding religiosity, there are 10 participants who attend religious services, making up 43% of the sample. Of the 10 who attend religious services, 40% (n=4) support lowering the legal age to purchase tobacco products back to 18. There are 13 participants who do not attend religious services, making up 57% of the sample. Of the 13 who do not attend religious services, 62% (n=8) support lowering the legal age to purchase tobacco products back to 18.

Discussion Results revealed significant gender and racial differences in attitudes toward lowering the federal minimum age to purchase tobacco products back to 18. None (0%) of the male participants (n=3) supported lowering the legal age to purchase tobacco products back to 18. In contrast, more than half (60%; n=12) of the total female participants (n=20) supported making the change. This means that a greater proportion of females than males felt the legal age to purchase tobacco should be lowered, making tobacco products more accessible for younger people. This finding contradicts the initial hypothesis (H1), which predicted that males would be more likely to support the change. The literature reports that adolescent males

4% 4% Caucasi an

African American Hispanic or Latino Asian American Biracial

79%

Figure 1. Percentage of Race Represented in Sample

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are more likely than females to smoke and vape (Lee & Oh, 2019; Chen, Yu, & Wang, 2017). This could be because males assess risks associated with nicotine use differently than females (Sun et al., 2021). In the case of e-cigarettes, males may hold positive expectations about using them and even dismiss the notion that they are addictive (Piñeiro et al., 2016). With more males generally using tobacco products and perceiving those products in a positive light, it was thought that male participants would be more likely to agree that the legal age to purchase tobacco should be lowered to 18. While the literature supports this conclusion, the results of the present study do not. Regarding race and ethnicity, the initial hypothesis (H2) predicted that Caucasians would be more likely to support lowering the legal age to purchase tobacco back to 18. While more than half (61%; n=11) of the Caucasian participants (n=18) agreed that the change should be made, the response was not as unanimous as the ones provided by members of other racial and ethnic groups. For example, none (0%) of the African American (n=2), Asian American (n=1), and biracial (n=1) participants supported lowering the legal age to purchase tobacco. The only racial and ethnic group besides Caucasians to show some support for lowering the legal age to purchase tobacco was the Hispanic or Latino group (n=1), with 100% (n=1) of participants in support of the change. Using the statistics alone, Hispanic or Latino participants were more likely than any other racial or ethnic group to agree that the legal age to purchase tobacco should be lowered. This is not in accordance with either the initial hypothesis (H2) or the literature. Previous studies report that Caucasian and biracial adolescents have the highest rates of initiating e-cigarette use, while Caucasian adolescents have the greatest risk of smoking traditional cigarettes (Chen, Yu, & Wang, 2017). Compared to African Americans, Hispanics, and Asian Americans, Caucasians have a higher prevalence of both cigarette and e-cigarette use (Choi, Yu, & Sacco, 2018). While they may not smoke or vape much during adolescence, members of minority racial and ethnic groups may become habitual smokers in adulthood (Chen, Yu, & Wang, 2017). From the literature, it can be reasoned that Caucasians (who are more likely to smoke and vape when they are younger compared to other groups) would be more concerned with lowering the legal age to purchase tobacco; however, the limited scope of the study makes it difficult to accurately assess whether this is the case. Regarding religiosity, the initial hypothesis (H3) predicted that students who do not attend religious services would be more likely to agree that the legal age to purchase tobacco should be lowered. Unlike the

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other two hypotheses, this one is clearly supported by the present study. The vast majority (62%; n=8) of students who do not attend religious services (n=13) were in support of the change. In contrast, less than half (40%; n=4) of students who do attend religious services (n=10) showed similar support. The results of the present study are consistent with the literature, which suggests that attending religious services offers some protection against the harmful effects of substances (Zhang et al., 2021). Simply belonging to a religious organization may discourage a person from smoking and vaping (Martinez et al., 2021). Although individual factors are expected to influence the person’s decision as well, there does seem to be an association between attending religious services and lower rates of smoking and vaping (Garussi & Nakhaee, 2012). If students attend religious services and do not smoke or vape themselves, they may be less likely to support lowering the legal age to purchase tobacco, as evident in the present study. The results indicate that people’s attitudes toward the legal age to purchase tobacco cannot be determined by one single factor (whether it be gender, race or ethnicity, or religiosity). In the groups where most participants favored lowering the legal age to purchase tobacco, there was not an overwhelming majority of support or opposition. For example, more females were in support (60%; n=12) than those opposed (40%; n=8), but the difference was not tremendous. The females who supported the change made up only slightly more than half of the total female participants. The same trend was observed for Caucasians and those who do not attend religious services. This finding influences the social work profession because there is no established majority on the issue. When working with clients, social workers must respect the opinions of their clients, even if they do not agree with those opinions. Social workers must refrain from making judgments about their clients. Their focus should be on helping the client, not making assumptions about the client. There are multiple limitations that should be addressed. First, the sample is not very diverse nor is it representative of the overall population. The lack of diversity is evident in the number of participants from different racial and ethnic groups. Although the sample comprises 23 students, nearly all the participants are Caucasian (78%; n=18) or female (87%; n=20). As a result, there is a limited number of racial and ethnic minority participants (22%; n=5) and male participants (13%; n=3). It would be inappropriate to generalize the findings of the study due to the limited number of participants from diverse groups. For example, it cannot be concluded that all Hispanic or

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Latino people would support lowering the legal age to purchase tobacco simply because the only Hispanic participant in the study (n=1) showed support for the change (100%; n=1). Likewise, it cannot be assumed that no males would support changing the legal age to purchase tobacco simply because none of the males in the study (n=3) were in support of the change (0%; n=0). For the results to be more accurate and generalizable, more participants from different groups would be needed. Further, all the participants in the sample are undergraduate social work students from one class at one university; thus, the results cannot be generalized to all students from all universities. The results cannot even be said to be fully representative of the entire class because some students were absent when the survey was administered. In addition, the survey did not seek to understand the reasoning behind students’ answers; it simply asked whether participants were in support or in opposition to the proposed change. Additional information would need to be collected from a more diverse and representative sample of people (not just one group of college students). For the federal law known as “Tobacco 21” to change, there would first have to be clear evidence that people want a change to occur. Other potential issues include the convenience sampling method used to recruit participants and the data collection instrument being taken at face validity by the researcher. Future studies on the same topic should include a more diverse and representative sample to better assess people’s attitudes toward the legal age to purchase tobacco. More racial and ethnic minorities need to be included to better understand their viewpoints. The sample size should also be significantly larger than the one used in the present study. Federal law impacts everyone in the nation; in a country of over 300 million people, a sample of 23 people is not representative enough. Just because most participants in the present study showed support for changing the law does not mean the law should or will be changed. Follow-up studies should also focus on why participants feel the law should or should not be changed. For instance, it would be beneficial to note whether the participants smoke or vape, as that could be a contributing factor in their decision. Such studies could greatly contribute to the extensive body of literature on smoking and vaping. A proper study with a large sample size that is both diverse and representative would be a much better indicator of whether the law truly should be changed and why (if additional questions are included).

References Baker, A.N., Wilson, S.J., & Hayes, J.E. (2021). Flavor and product messaging are the two most important drivers of electronic cigarette selection in a choice-based task. Scientific Reports, 11(1), 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1038/ s41598-021-84332-4 Chen, X., Yu, B., & Wang, Y. (2017). Initiation of electronic cigarette use by age among youth in the U.S. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 53(3), 396-399. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2017.02.011 Choi, H.J., Yu, M., & Sacco, P. (2018). Racial and ethnic differences in patterns of adolescent tobacco users: A latent class analysis. Children and Youth Services Review, 84, 86-93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. childyouth.2017.11.019 Garrusi, B., & Nakhaee, N. (2012). Religion and smoking: A review of recent literature. The International Journal of Psychiatry in Medicine, 43(3), 279-292. https://doi. org/10.2190%2FPM.43.3.g Grigsby, T.J., Rogers, C.J., Albers, L.D., Benjamin, S.M., Lust, K., Eisenberg, M.E., & Forster, M. (2020). Adverse childhood experiences and health indicators in a young adult, college student sample: Differences by gender. International Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 27(6), 660-667. https://dx.doi.org/ 10.1007/ s12529-020-09913-5 Grobman, B., Wu, R., Jackson, A., Bold, K.W., Morean, M.E., Camenga, D.R., Davis, D.R., Simon, P., Krishnan-Sarin, S., & Kong, G. (2021). First tobacco product tried among adolescents based on race/ethnicity and socioeconomic status. Addictive Behaviors, 113, 1-4. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2020.106666 Kong, G., Kuguru, K.E., & Krishnan-Sarin, S. (2017). Gender differences in U.S. adolescent e-cigarette use. Current Addiction Reports, 4, 422-430. https://doi. org/10.1007/s40429-017-0176-5 Lee, Jusung, & Oh, Mihyun. (2019). The moderating effect of gender on the association between e-cigarette use and smoking status: A cross-sectional study. Addictive Behaviors, 93, 108-114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. addbeh.2019.01.038 Martinez, E.Z., Bueno-Silva, C.C., Bartolomeu, I.M., Ribeiro-Pizzo, L.B., & Zucoloto, M.L. (2021). Relationship between religiosity and smoking among undergraduate health sciences students. Trends in Psychiatry & Psychotherapy, 43(1), 17-22. https://doi. org/10.47626/2237-6089-2019-0031 Piñeiro, B., Correa, J.B., Simmons, V.N., Harrell, P.T., Menzie, N.S., Unrod, M., Meltzer, L.R., & Brandon, T.H. (2016). Gender differences in use and expectancies of e-cigarettes: Online survey results. Addictive Behaviors, 52, 91-97. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. addbeh.2015.09.006 Sun, T., Lim, C.C.W., Stjepanović, D., Leung, J., Connor, J.P., Gartner, C., Hall, W.D., & Chan, G.C.K. (2021). Has increased youth e-cigarette use in the USA, between 2014 and 2020, changed conventional smoking behaviors, future intentions to smoke and perceived smoking harms? Addictive Behaviors, 123. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2021.107073 U.S. Food & Drug Administration. (2021). Tobacco 21. https://www.fda.gov/tobacco-products/ retail-sales-tobacco-products/tobacco-21

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Student Reflection: I spent the entire semester learning how to conduct professional research. I was taught each step in the research process, from generating a research question to reviewing the literature to collecting data to analyzing and drawing conclusions from the data and finally presenting the results. This assignment involved applying that knowledge to a semester-long research project in which I was both a researcher and a participant. Working on this project gave me valuable insight into the work of professional researchers. It also made me realize how much I enjoy conducting research. I found myself eagerly looking forward to the next part of the assignment, especially the presentation and interpretation of the results. I liked connecting the results to previous findings as well as the initial hypotheses. From this project, I learned that research may be challenging at times, but it is also incredibly rewarding. I feel that I grew both as a researcher and as a writer by completing this study. Although this project was meant for practice, it allowed me to utilize the same skills that are used by professional researchers. I now feel prepared to confidently take on professional research.

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What does your gender identity mean to you? by Saige Keyes SWK 420: Gender Issues in the Helping Profession Dr. Andrea Barrick Assignment: Students are to reflect on the question of “What does your gender identity mean to you”. Then discuss how someone else responds to this question. For this essay, you will be required to interview another person about their gender identity.

There is no simple answer to this question for me. I sometimes want it to be simple and dream of just existing instead of discerning about the messages I receive from the world. Although on paper the answer is quite the opposite, and that is okay. There were always just two boxes, and growing up I did not see myself outside the binary on paper. So, I checked a box...female. However, I sometimes felt and still feel like I want to be the prince in the Disney movie; other times I felt I wanted to be the princess. There are so many questions that I have now about defining myself and recognizing oppressive systems and generational trauma while being a Black/ Latinx queer person. I am still figuring out what my gender identity means to me. I hope this essay reflects that. The confusion and questions of my gender identity is an act of radical self acceptance and honoring those who came before me. My gender identity is like a big question mark at the moment, and often it feels connected to my skin, my culture, my body, and my sexuality; maybe it is or maybe it is not? Socialization During the first day of class when Dr. Barrick went over this essay briefly, I remember feeling overwhelmed. The fact that this was the first week of classes contributed to this feeling, but this question being so complex and personal also added to my nervousness. This past year was the first year I came out to my family as bisexual. I started asking myself questions like, ‘Is my sexuality connected to my gender identity’? And I am still asking myself that question and others pertaining to my socialization as a child. It is no surprise that looking back on my childhood I was also confused about gender roles. I am the middle child and the first-born daughter to my parents. They dressed me in pink and I was cute. In grade school, I had chores like cleaning the bathroom and doing the family laundry. I modeled both of my parents and was positively reinforced for finishing my chores (Mcleod,

2016). My dad and mom were not traditional in a sense of gender roles in the household. I saw them both work full time jobs. Both cooked; both cleaned. My dad sang to us, and my mom played basketball with us. I think I started to notice gender roles when my older brother began babysitting my sister and I. He began to model my dad in different aspects. My dad was really into fashion, so my brother began to be into fashion. This was confusing for me as I started to get older. I realized that most men in my immediate life and through entertainment and media were not into fashion unless they were gay. That is a problematic generalization but it is the kind of messaging I received in the early 2000s about men and sexuality. During high school I do not remember much, as those years were really traumatic. I do remember suppressing many of my emotions and really struggling to get sober. It was not until I got sober that I started to think about my gender identity. I started to go to all-women’s meetings, but I felt uncomfortable. Maybe it was because all the women in the meetings were white, so I felt othered. I went to an all-black women’s meeting, which was powerful, and I could identify in so many ways to everyone’s struggles, but when the group was asked to change its language to be more inclusive, that space became so harmful. They voted to not change the language used in the meeting. I now go to BIPOC meetings that specially hold space for LGBTQIA+ individuals. This was formative for me; I was able to see myself. It finally felt like a safe space that was not limited by biases around masculine and feminine binaries. Interview Lamenting about this question, I felt indifferent asking someone what their gender identity meant to them. I told my interviewee that this was for class, that their name will be changed, and that they did not have to answer anything they did not feel comfortable answering. I interviewed a 50-year-old Latina woman 175

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whom I will call Carmen. I asked Carmen, “What does your gender identity mean to you?’’ She looked shocked by the question and mentioned that she did not know how to answer it. She paused for a long time and said, “The first thing that comes to mind, it’s so funny, is a caregiver. I am independent and confident and as a woman I think I have the power to love unconditionally.” It was a short interview, as Carmen mentioned that she was never asked that question and really never thought about what her gender identity meant to her. She remembers her parents saying that she can do anything because she is a Mexican girl. They told her that nothing should ever hold her back. I thanked Carmen for the interview and for sharing. It was nice to get to know someone on this level and for them to share a part of their story with me. This experience was wholesome; it felt safe. I could relate to Carmen when she paused for a while, as I did too. Conclusion This essay is kind of like a coming-of-age tale as it has allowed me to explore my gender identity and account for childhood memories. This is my experience and this is my opinion. I think I can own that; I can. I have this body which bleeds every month; it is a shedding and it is similar to the way I feel about my gender identity. I met someone this summer who I admire. They shared a picture and caption on social media saying, “Navigating the way the world perceives womanly bodies without identifying with the roles it forces on you is hard” (Instagram 2021, @c.har.lee). It is hard and confusing on multiple layers. I am still an onion

peeling back its layers and recognizing that the gender binary sometimes feels anti-black to me. It is knowing that gender was exclusive to the white race and used to exploit and enslave black people (Carby, 1989). I am thinking about decolonization and freedom. I am thinking about Ericka Hart, Maraha P. Johnson, Nyuma Waggeh, and Alan Pelaez Lopez. Lastly, it is an honor to be with myself and hold my hand through this journey. But what a privilege! I get to write about my gender identity in higher academia. I get to explore and not limit myself to binary, social, and colonial structures. It is because of these structures that many of my family members were not given that freedom to do the same exploration do as I have. This essay is not a tribute to them, but because of them I get to put ‘pen to paper’ (type on my Dell laptop). This for me is a great deal, although it does not always feel safe. It feels heavy to be in this body and navigate the world through white supremacy. It is all connected for me, my culture, my skin, my body, my sexuality, and my gender identity. How could it not? I am not sure if my family would ‘approve’ or ‘accept’ the fact that I am questioning my gender identity. Yet to me the most profound message is that my gender identity is for me and it is changing. It is just the beginning. References Carby, H. (1989). Reconstructing womanhood. Oxford University Press. pg. 76 Phillps, L. [@c.har.lee]. (2021). Thirsty men keep scrolling… [Lee NY]. Retrieved from https://www.instagram. com/p/CQ3zdfEMoUM/. Mcleod, S. (2016). Albert Bandura’s social learning theory. Simply Psychology. Retrieved from https://www. simplypsychology.org/bandura.html.

Student Reflection: This essay is very personal for me. I guess, growing pains but I just submitted mine for a grade is higher academia. I feel honored but not because of my writing skills, I know I still have a long way to go. I feel honored because maybe someone else will read this and feel connected to it or maybe they won’t. That is okay. I know words meet us where we are. I am grateful for Dr. Barrick and the way she holds space in her classrooms for conversations around gender beyond the binary that will aid me in my future social work practice and within myself.

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Reflecting on Gender by Zoé Williard SWK 420: Gender Issues in the Helping Profession Dr. Andrea Barrick Assignment: Students are to reflect on the question of “What does your gender identity mean to you”. Then discuss how someone else responds to this question. For this essay, you will be required to interview another person about their gender identity.

Introduction The idea of gender and gender expression has changed drastically over the years and continues to evolve every day. Society tends to focus on gender as a binary, between men and women, but gender has been proven to be a spectrum, and even biological sex is expressed in an array of characteristics. Children are said to be aware of gender preference after only one year of life and begin to express their own gender identities at two years old (Renzetti, Curran, & Maier, n.d.). Socialization has a lasting effect on how people express their own gender identities (Renzetti, Curran, & Maier, n.d.). Forward, I will be sharing my own gender socialization, a friend’s experience of gender socialization, and how we have both come to terms with these influences. What It Means to be a Girl I was born biologically female and have identified with that label my entire life. I have considered exploring different gender identities, but through this exploration, I identify most with being a woman. I believe this is because I have spent a large portion of my life reclaiming what it means to be a woman for myself and I feel very proud and connected to this identity. I grew up in communities that were saturated in misogyny, so much so that I disliked women for a long time. I saw women as boring and whiny and I thought that only men were capable of being humorous and adventurous. There are many individual experiences I have had that indoctrinated this woman-hate inside of me and I have had to work to rewrite these narratives I thought to be true. I grew up in a fundamentalist Christian household and went to a fundamentalist, private Christian elementary school. Gender roles were prominent in my home, in my friend’s homes, and in the classrooms where I learned my ABCs. One experience that I had in my kindergarten class was one that taught me not

only the differences between women and men, but the shame that women were expected to hold within the Christian community. My kindergarten teacher told all the girls in the class to stand up and raise our arms above our heads and stretch out our little bodies. This was the early 2000s and even though the school enforced uniforms of khaki pants and polo shirts, low slung and cropped clothes were everywhere. My teacher pointed out that all of our bellies and backs were exposed and that we were complicit in secular societies’ plan to turn innocent little girls into promiscuous young women. We were sinning before we had even lost our baby fat. This was not the last time I experienced genderbased humiliation like this in that school and even when I went to public school years later. In the moment, the humiliation was something I put on myself and something I used to punish myself. Now I look back on it in disgust and wish I could go back in time and defend my younger self. Many of my experiences have radicalized me in hind-sight, things I look back on and kick myself for not seeing as injustices. I believe the contempt I had for women in my earlier years stemmed from a place of self-loathing and was a way to combat the shame I felt for being a woman. These days, I harbor an empathy and self-forgiveness that enables me to see how unfair the world is towards women. What it means to be a woman for me is to embrace all of the things that have been used against me. I work to embrace things like my own sexuality, my emotional nature, my capacity for empathy, and my strength. Women are often criticized for being emotional and are called unstable, but I see this as emotional intelligence. Whether or not it is innate or taught, my empathy and emotional intelligence gives me the ability to connect with and help others. Embracing my emotions helps me progress and grow and that is something that society should celebrate. 177

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What It Means to be Non-Binary The person I interviewed is one of my best friends who I will refer to as Owen. Owen was born biologically male and identifies as non-binary and gender non-conforming and uses he/they pronouns. When asked what gender means to them, Owen told me that they believe gender is the societal expectations that society places on people based on the genitals you are born with. These expectations are used to tell people how to act and how to express themselves. He believes that these expectations originate from male supremacy within the patriarchal hierarchy that our Western society was built on and still operates through. He believes that many institutions and cultural norms within the United States indoctrinate children to follow gender stereotypes and that this indoctrination often stays with people throughout their entire lives. Owen told me that they identify as gender nonconforming, and when I asked them to ellaborate, they said that they use their gender expression to reflect their feelings and emotions. They do not want to be linked to a gender binary because they believe the binary of male and female is limiting and does not give them the opportunity to be their most authentic self. They do not like to express themselves in ways that are traditionally expected from a biological man despite being labeled as such by society. Owen is comfortable with using he/they pronouns because he does not feel that pronouns will limit his identity and that pronouns are used out of convenience more than anything. Owen says that the major influences they had growing up as a child was having a stay at home dad and a career oriented mom. This showed him that gender roles are arbitrary and that gender should not limit what you are able to do in life. Despite his household being nontraditional, he grew up in a rural community that had traditional values. Owen says that the people who lived in their community had a “locked down” view of gender. Their closed off ideologies actually had a paradoxical effect on him, making him want to explore gender even more. Once he went to college, he was exposed to more open-minded people and progressive views and this enabled him to explore gender nonconforming expression even more. Society and anyone who sees Owen at first glance may label him as male, which he says offends him deeply. He says that gender is more than how you pres-

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ent on the outside, it is who you know yourself to be. He says that having transgender friends has helped him realize this even further. When his friends transitioned, he noticed that the relationship did not change much and that if anything, his friends were even more themselves. He acknowledges that gender is an important part of people’s identities, but also believes that society should place less of an emphasis on the rigidity we put on gender. Conclusion As one can see, Owen and I had generally different upbringings. Owen’s parents modeled to him that gender roles are not necessary, and that they do not affect his father’s ability to be a homemaker or his mother’s ability to be a breadwinner. This was not the case in my upbringing, and my parents modeled to me that gender roles are specific and biologically based. I am sure that this plays a part into why I identify with my biologically-assigned gender and Owen does not. I agree with all of Owen’s opinions on gender, and I do not believe that gender should be constricted to biology, despite identifying with my own assigned gender. I believe that gender is very fluid, and perhaps one day I will explore what my gender means to me outside of being female. I have put a lot of thought into what it means to be a woman and what gender means in the grand scheme of things. What causes someone to feel affirmed in their gender and what causes someone to change their gender? I believe that the only thing that makes a person a woman, man, non-binary, or gender non-conforming is that they believe they are. No one should have to prove their gender identities, and everyone should be affirmed and respected however they present themselves. There are many theories as to how gender is learned, such as Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory, Bandura’s Social Learning Theory, Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theories, and many more (Renzetti, Curran, & Maier, n.d.). As we theorize how gender comes to be, the least we can do is to accept ourselves and others in knowing who we are. Reference Renzetti, C. M., Curran, D. J., & Maier, S. L. (2012). Women, Men, and Society. Pearson.

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Student Reflection: Dr. Barrick had my SWK 420 class write an essay on how we view gender and to reflect on how our own life experiences have impacted our perspectives. We also interviewed another person on their own experiences and perspectives. I used this opportunity to reflect on how being raised in a conservative, religious household as well as going to a religious elementary school molded the way I saw women specifically. I have used the majority of my life thus far to redirect and recraft the narrow-minded perspectives I was taught about women and to find a sense of pride in how I identify myself. I personally identify myself as a cisgender woman but I understand and appreciate the complexities of gender as a concept.

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What Does Gender Mean to Me? by Carlos Barraza-Rodriguez SWK 420: Gender Issues in the Helping Profession Dr. Andrea Barrick Assignment: Students are to reflect on the question of “What does your gender identity mean to you”. Then discuss how someone else responds to this question. For this essay, you will be required to interview another person about their gender identity.

Introduction What does gender identity mean to me? Gender identity is an inherent trait that everyone is born with. Gender identity is also informed by societal and institutional pressure. Navigating the expectations of other people and one’s own internal reality is a difficult process. This struggle brings a lot of pain and hurt to people who don’t fall into society’s predetermined gender assignments. As a man that has never struggled with this gender identity, I completely acknowledge the privilege that I have because of my gender. This is not the case for others. What gender identity means to me has a lot to do with how I see other people treated because of their gender identity. Gender identity can be empowering or restrictive. It can be inclusive or exclusive. I think it is my responsibility to use my privilege to uplift people. Part of what I consider to be the meaning of my gender identity has to do with how I use the privilege that my gender bestows upon me to uplift other people. There are three aspects of gender identity that inform my current views on it and they are expectations, prejudice, and community. In the following essay I will explore how these three aspects impact gender and how society influences gender identity. Expectations What it means to be a man to me is to have certain societal expectations that if not adhered to will cause others to notice. These expectations are also known as gender roles. These gender roles apply to all genders. They are one way that society imposes its will upon everyone. Depending on their gender, society might expect a person to act a certain way or to like certain things or even to have certain goals. The primary method that everyone is taught to adhere to societal expectations is through the family. Parents teach their children what it is like to be a man or a woman and what the expectations are. These expectations can at times be very restrictive and suffocating. One of 180

the most restrictive gender systems is the traditional western gender-binary system. In her book Redefining Realness, Janet Mock (2014) expresses how her parents tried to force her into the gender-binary. Janet says that her parents attempted. “hammering the girl out of [her], replacing her with the tenets of gender-appropriate behavior” (p.22). In circumstances like the one that Janet went through; many people find themselves restricted by the expectations related to gender that society imposes. In my personal experience with my gender identity, I have faced struggles within myself based on these expectations. The most recent of those is in my decision to become a social worker. The field of social work has a reputation for being “feminine,” and as a man it seems a little odd to some people that I would be a social worker. Being a social worker isn’t what some people would expect a man to want to do. It becomes easy to internalize those expectations. Then those expectations of other people begin to affect one’s decisions and ultimately how they live their lives. Peer pressure based off gender expectations is a prevalent thing that holds a lot of influence over people. These gendered expectations come from the way that we are socialized and lead to unequal treatment of people based on their genders. According to Renzetti et al. (2012), “boys and girls… are socialized into separate and unequal genders. Little boys are taught independence, problem-solving abilities, assertiveness and curiosity about their environment…little girls are taught dependence, passivity and domesticity” (p.98). Institutions that hold these expectations in place in society include the family, corporations, schools, courts, and many others. This unequal treatment is a major factor in prejudice and discrimination. Prejudice Stemming out of the expectations that society places upon people based on gender comes prejudice. Prejudice is when someone holds an opinion on someone else that is not based on reason or real-life

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experience. People are usually prejudiced because their upbringing has instilled in them a certain view about a group of people that they have never questioned and therefore they hold that view on principle and faith alone. Gender is a common characteristic that people use to discriminate against people. This is because they expect people of certain genders to be certain ways. As a man myself, prejudice doesn’t come at me in as many negative ways as they would for women. Men tend to be in a privileged position when it comes to gender identity. This means that in most situations prejudice doesn’t occur against me based on my gender identity. However, prejudice is real and can have negative consequences for women. If I am walking alone down the street, people don’t bother me or catcall me, but for a lot of women that isn’t the case. A woman might be afraid to walk down a dark alley by herself or talk to a random man alone. Women tend to be targets of kidnappings, sex trafficking, and abuse more so than men. Discrimination based on gender causes people to think of women as inferior in fields like sports, business, and the military. When talking about what gender means to me, it is important to bring up the topic of prejudice. This is because it affects so many people. For a lot of people, the prejudice that they experience because of their gender identity is significantly high. For me and for a lot of people, gender identity is a battlefield for social justice issues. A major impact on my gender identity has been seeing the ways that women are discriminated against based on their gender. I think that a part of how I identify my masculinity is in how I treat those of different genders. Masculine men show respect and use their privilege to empower others. It is important that society fights to end prejudice based on gender. Then this society can become a society where everyone’s gender identity carries positive meanings instead of negative ones. Community Lastly, another aspect of what gender means is in the sense of community. People tend to have more friends with whom they share a gender. This is probably because they have similar things in common with those people. This creates an aspect that can be both positive and negative. It is a positive aspect because people need to form bonds with each other and finding people of the same gender that have experienced similar situations growing up is a good thing. Women tend to share experiences, feelings, and similar likes and dislikes. There are plenty of clubs and organizations that are directed towards gender. These can bring positive effects towards individuals who join them because of the community that can be built around them.

On the other hand, gender can also be used to exclude people in certain communities. This can be seen in the conversation around sports. The realm of sports has excluded people of certain genders from their ranks. There is even a significant gender pay gap. It is unfortunate that for many, their gender identity can mean being excluded from certain things unfairly. Hopefully, the social justice movement can advance to the point where people don’t have to be excluded from things based on their immutable characteristics like gender. Diane The person that I decided to interview for this essay is my friend Diane. Diane identifies as a woman. In talking to my friend Diane, she expressed some expectations that she struggles with that come from her gender identity. Diane is a basketball player and she expressed that in the past that some boys thought that she wouldn’t be good at basketball just because she was a girl. Diane told me that this type of prejudice that she experienced affected her and she did not think it was right. However, Diane sees her gender identity as an opportunity for empowerment. She is happy to be a woman. She looks up to her mom who instilled in her the values to be a strong and responsible woman. Conclusion To conclude, what gender identity means to me is an opportunity to improve and advance social justice. There are three aspects of gender identity that speak to the advancement of social justice: expectations, prejudice, and community. These three aspects do a lot to give meaning to people’s gender identity. Personally, I see my masculinity as an opportunity to help empower other people and to eradicate discrimination based on gender. I want to use the privilege that comes with my masculinity to help other people. This is because gender identity can bring people both positive and negative experiences. People can find positive attributes in their gender identity, but they can also find negativity. Gender identities can bring a lot of discrimination and prejudice towards people, but they can also be a source for community. If everyone steps up and uses their privilege to make a change then society can advance to a place where people don’t have to worry about the negatives of prejudice based on gender identity. References Mock, J. (2014). Redefining realness: My path to womanhood, identity, love & so much more. Atria Paperback. Renzetti, C. M., Curran, D. J., & Maier, S. L. (2012). Women, men, and society (6th edition). Pearson.

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Student Reflection: In this essay I express my opinion regarding the concept of gender. I reflect on some of my life experiences as well as the experiences of others to inform my conception of gender and gender identity. I investigate three different concepts that influence gender from a societal view: expectations, prejudice, and community. These three concepts influence how I see gender. It is my hope that through the reflection of the concept of gender everyone in society can learn from each other’s experiences and move towards the goal of gender empowerment.

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Prisoner Reentry and the Troubling View of Mental Health by Elizabeth Nee SWK 450: Social Welfare Policies and Services Dr. Andrea Barrick Assignment: Students select a social issue that they are interested. They proceed to critically analyze the social issue to better understand how it evolved in the United States.

Introduction When individuals are arrested and sent to a correctional facility, whether that be a county, federal, or state correctional facility, it can be a very daunting concept to grasp. They have to face the possibility of being locked up, and many do not even consider what could happen when they are released. This has proven to be a big issue, as people being released are not always provided the proper resources to help reintegrate into society, let alone receive mental health support. Not only do individuals being released now have to support themselves, but they are also having to catch up with the rest of society and relearn about the time they have lost. When adding mental health on top of this, it can provide a very complicated process for individuals being reintegrated into society. Not only has this been a serious issue in this country for many years, but many factors increase individuals’ risk after being released, which ultimately makes this a serious social issue. Statement of the Social Issue/Problem Most people do not realize is just how vast the prison system is in the United States of America. In accordance, there are thousands of people currently incarcerated, and each year “more than 10 million people enter US jails’’ (Freudenberg, Daniels, Crum, Perkins, and Richie, p. 1725). Not only are many people being incarcerated, but they are dealing with the harrowing effects of being locked up. Some experiences prisoners may have included “dealing with the death penalty, wrongful convictions, mandatory sentences, and the human right abuses” (Freudenberg, et. al, p. 1725). Coming out of prison, it can be expected that prisoners may need help processing what they experienced while incarcerated. In addition to this, many people who are reentering society from prison may not have the social support or anyone to connect with after being released. Without having proper support, many individuals

may not even look forward to having their newfound freedom or end up back in the system. History For several years, there have been issues regarding prisoners reentering society and the history of this stems from years of oppression and the system changing continuously. Throughout the years, incarceration has gone through many stages including “a pit for detaining suspected criminals, a home for the vagrant, an institution for the insane, a dreaded place of repute, quarters for cleansing and renewal, and an establishment of cataloged charges’’ (O’Conner p. 1). Dating back to the start, they consisted of gladiator pits with gruesome deaths to a more refined establishment that still has serious issues (O’Conner p. 2). In addition, despite the United States holding the biggest incarceration system, crime levels seem to be on the rise. One major event that can tie into the history of the prison system is the fact that “the criminal justice system has been tugged to and fro to accommodate the vain search for quick fixes of politicians, the emotions of crime victims, and the self-interest of vendors and suppliers” (DiMascio, p. 3). Since the creation of the criminal justice system mostly focuses on keeping third parties satisfied, it is no wonder that those incarcerated are suffering. By using quick fixes and the satisfaction of those higher up, those incarcerated are being left to fend for themselves when it comes to their mental illnesses and struggles. Being in a system that is not built for those involved can only lead to oppression and individuals slipping through the cracks. Speaking of oppression, the history of the prison system was started by discriminating against people and has only continued to get much worse over the years. For years, the “overwhelming majority of the black prisoners arrive at their position because of the socio-economic situation into which they find they 183

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have been born” (Wade, p. 12). Since the beginning of America, people of color have been discriminated against, and this is no different when it comes to the history of prisons. This discrimination means that not only are there more people of color targeted and arrested, but they also face more harrowing times when locked up and a struggle to reintegrate into society. Statistical Data As mentioned, there are specific characteristics associated with former prisoners reintegrating into society. Some defining characteristics that can tie into an individual’s success with success in reintegration. For example, “black men born between 1975 and 1979 who did not graduate from high school had a 70 percent chance of spending some time in prison by age 35” (Di Giorgi, p. 83). It has been known for years that the criminal justice system targets people of color. This means that not only will people of color be arrested at significantly higher rates, but they can also have a harder time reentering society. According to the 2021 Federal Bureau of Prisons statistics, there are approximately 2,347 Asian prisoners in the United States, 59,241 Black prisoners, 3,855 Native American prisoners, and 90,030 White prisoners currently incarcerated in the United States. While this disproportionality seems like there are more white prisoners, this may not be the case when white people make up approximately 76.3% of the population and black people make up approximately 13.4% of the population (U.S. Census). When taking into consideration the statistics, there is still a significantly high number of black people incarcerated in the United States. When it comes to gender, there seems to be a significantly higher number of males incarcerated than females. When looking at the Federal Bureau of Prisons, it appears that there are only 10,829 female prisoners compared to 144,644 male prisoners this year. This goes to show that not only is there a disproportionate rate of people incarcerated, but there is also a disproportionate rate when it comes to gender. According to this data, this means if you are a male person of color, you may be more likely to end up in the system and end up back in the system after release. The Impact of the Problem When taking into consideration mental health, “at least 14.4% of individuals released from prison are diagnosed with mental illness” and “96,000 individuals with a mental illness reenter society from prison each year” (Phillips and Spencer, p. 128). This shows that a large number of individuals who are being released are suffering from some type of issue and most likely have

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not been receiving proper support while incarcerated. Not only are these individuals having to now navigate being released, but they are having internal things they need to process as well. Something important to note is that the criminal justice system does understand how there are limited resources provided to individuals being released, especially for individuals who are suffering from mental illness. While programs for preventing reentry have been created surrounding mental illness help, they “are still in their relative infancy and have yet to be widely accepted, funded, and more broadly applied” (Galletta, Fagan, Shapiro, & Walker, p. 59). One positive takeaway from this statement is that there are programs in the works. The system does understand that inmates are not only having trouble with finances, finding housing, staying out of legal trouble, and other pressures, but are also in need of mental health intervention and help. However, after many years of individuals ending up back in the system because they do not receive proper help, it is presumed that these programs would have achieved further development, but this is not the case. In addition to mental health, this is a serious social issue because of how reentry impacts populations at risk. Not only are mental illnesses a considerable factor, but other variables go into incarcerated people having a hard time with re-entry into society. Some other factors include education, housing, family, and community issues. For education, there had been a significant decrease in education levels in prison (especially for people of color) due to budget cuts. As for housing, there are housing bans for individuals with a criminal record. Male people of color are specifically targeted when looking for housing after being released. When it comes to families, approximately “one in nine African American children have a parent behind bars,” which can significantly impact their development (Solomon, p.71-72). Lastly, as for the community, a lot of prisoners are returning to underdeveloped communities and areas that are suffering, which makes it harder for the individuals to be successful upon release (Solomon, p. 71-72). Conclusion Overall, many people are not aware of the issues prisoners face when being released. While being presented with freedom after serving time is overall a positive occurrence, the societal issues and lack of mental health support make this an overall daunting concept. As a society, it should be concerning that we actively try to work on this issue and make prisoner reentry a better process. Currently, most people end up back in the system and get stuck in a cycle. Without

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proper education, housing options, families suffering, and communities not being able to thrive, it makes reentry into society a much more difficult process than it needs to be. On top of all of this, mental health programs are not being supported or funded which ultimately leaves people to suffer on their own. As social workers, change can be promoted to help ensure individuals have successful reentry and remain free after being released. References De Giorgi, A. (2017). Back to Nothing: Prisoner Reentry and Neoliberal Neglect. Social Justice, 44(1 (147)), 83–120. DiMascio, W. (2009). Special Issues Reflections: The History of Prisons and Punishment. Prison Journal, 89(1 Supplement), 3S–6S. Federal Bureau of Prisons. BOP Statistics: Inmate Race. (n.d.). Retrieved October 25, 2021, from https://www.bop. gov/about/statistics/statistics_inmate_race.jsp. Freudenberg N., Daniels J., Crum M., Perkins T., & Richie BE. (2005). Public health matters. Coming home from jail: the social and health consequences of community reentry for women, male adolescents, and their families and communities. American Journal of Public Health, 95(10), 1725–1736. https://doi.org/10.2105/ AJPH.2004.056325

Galletta, E., Fagan, T. J., Shapiro, D., & Walker, L. E. (2021). Societal Reentry of Prison Inmates with Mental Illness: Obstacles, Programs, and Best Practices. Journal of Correctional Health Care: The Official Journal of the National Commission on Correctional Health Care, 27(1), 58–65. https://doi.org/10.1089/jchc.19.04.0032 O’Conner, R. (2014). The United States prison system” A comparative analysis. Graduate Thesis and Dissertation. Retrieved from https://digitalcommons.usf.edu/cgi/ viewcontent.cgi?article=6282&context=etd Phillips, L. A., & Spencer, W. M. (2013). The Challenges of Reentry from Prison to Society. Journal of Current Issues in Crime, Law & Law Enforcement, 6(2), 123–133. Solomon, A. L. (2015). Prisoner Reentry: Why It Matters and What U.S. Attorneys Can Do. United States Attorneys’ Bulletin, 63(2), 71–81 U.S. Census Bureau quick facts: United States. (n.d.). Retrieved October 25, 2021, from https://www.census.gov/ quickfacts/US. Wade, W. (1971). The politics of prisons. The Black Scholar, 2(8/9), 12–18. http://www.jstor.org/stable/41202902

Student Reflection: For this assignment, we needed to research a social issue that is currently affecting our society. I decided to do my assignment on the mental health and lack of support that is provided to individuals being released from correctional facilities. Not only did I gain information during this assignment about how serious of an issue this is, but I also tied this back into my education as a social worker. As a social worker, we will work to provide services to individuals who need support. Individuals being released from correctional facilities face many hardships that range from finding shelter, being able to financially provide for themselves, staying on track with their parole, in addition to racial stereotyping and targeting. If social workers can gain education of the injustices and hardships individuals may face, then social workers can work to help individuals with their mental health challenges and the difficulties that come with reintegrating into society.

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Policies Creating a Voice for Olympic Athletes by Madeline Davis SWK 450: Social Welfare Policies and Services Dr. Andrea Barrick Assignment: Students select a federal law that addresses a social issue that they are interested. They proceed to critically analyze the policy to better understand how it impacts the United States.

Introduction: Throughout Olympic history, there have been many reforms created to help create the industry of the United States Olympic and Paralympic committee it is today. In more recent years there has been a lot of criticism on how the committee is treating its athletes and their efforts to take care of them. In 2017, in the light of the USA gymnastics scandal with the sexual abuse being covered up and hundreds of athletes being abused by the doctor, more policies were created to be passed by Congress. Some of the bills passed created the SafeSport organization that helps athletes to have a safe space where they can bring their abuse allegations. The Empowering Olympic, Paralympic, and Amateur Athletes Act of 2020 was passed in 2020, to help build upon the SafeSport Act of 2017. With these new bills being passed has allowed for more reform to be made and has athletes to have more of a voice throughout the Olympic circle. Social Policy Summary The Empowering Olympic, Paralympic, and Amateur Athletes Act of 2020 (Public Law 116-189) is a bill that was passed to help build upon the SafeSport Act of 2017. It creates more power for the SafeSport organization to help athletes be able to have more say in the Olympic committees. One of the ways it does that is through creating congressional oversight of the USA Olympic and Paralympic Committee (USOPC) and National Governing Bodies (NGB). This allows Congress to be able to dissolution of board of directors of corporation and termination of recognition of national governing bodies. The bill also makes the USOPC and NGBs make reports and audits to the specific congress committee. These reports will need to be done every calendar year and need to include description of activities, data on who the athletes are, description on how they are encouraging athletes to participate, their agenda and minutes for meeting held, and description of any lawsuit or grievances made. These reports will also be made public, so that anyone 186

has access to them. The bill also requires an anonymous survey to be done by a third party on the athletes who are involved in amateur athletic competitions. It will be on how well the governing body is doing, behaviors, attitudes towards the corporation, and anything with the governing body related to sexual abuse and harassment. It also created modifications for governing bodies to require specific certification to be recognized as the governing body over a sport. It also made modifications towards the SafeSport organization with training materials, funding, and athletes serving on the board. It enhances child abuse reporting in the Olympic setting. It also created a Congress committee to do studies on the Olympic Organizations and to investigate the reports done by USOPC and NGB (Congress. 2020) This bill has created more reform towards the Olympic committees and helps many athletes have a voice. History of Policy Development In July of 2019, Senator Moran and Senator Blumenthal created a joint legislation and brought it before the commerce, science, and transportation committee (Moran. 2020. Pp 1). They read through it twice before bringing it before the floor of the senate. In August of 2020, the Senate passed the amendment by unanimous consent and then it was sent to the house. In October of 2020, it went to the House of Representatives does a voice vote and it passes through the house. On October 20, 2020, the legislation is presented to President Trump. The President then signs it ten days later and becomes a public law (Congress. 2020). Strengths and Deficits of the Policy This law has different strengths that help create it to be an asset to athletes. One of the strengths is one of the sections of the act require that the USOPC and NGB boards and committees be composed of at least 33% athletes (Lee. 2020. Pp 11). This gives athletes more of a voice and a say in what happens in their organization. This will help athletes to be able to be a

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part of the process of helping to create policies inside of their organization. Another strength of this policy is it also allows Congress to be able to dissolve the board of directors of the USOPC, and to be able to terminate federal recognition of individual NGBs (Lee. 2020. Pp 10). This gives Congress the power over the boards in the situation that they are not acting up to par for their athletes. Congress will be able to get rid of a board if they believe that it is not working for the athletes or damaging their athletes. These strengths give power back to the athletes and protect them from boards being able to cover up for other individuals who may harm the athletes. Even with these strengths giving athletes a voice, there are still deficits in the policy. One of the deficits in this policy comes along with the Covid-19 pandemic. The reform did not discuss funding directly on how the USOPC was going to be able to give the SafeSport all the funding it is should be granted through the Sports Act of 2020. With the Covid-19 pandemic, it caused the Summer 2020 Olympics to be postponed to 2021. The USOPC was having trouble reaching all the funds that it needed to reach to be able to pay for all the NGBs and SafeSport (Conrad. 2021. Pg 35). Another deficit is involving government in an organization that was originally separated. With the creation of the Senate committee to oversee the USOPC and NGBs created the politicization of the mission of Olympic/Paralympic and amateur athletics. If this fell into the wrong hands it could be used as a tool for political agendas instead of looking out for athletes (Lee. 2020. Pp 12). These deficits could be addressed in other amendments in the policy. Program Description The Empowering Olympic, Paralympic and Amateur Athletes Act is a bill that was passed that help build upon the SafeSport Act of 2017. The SafeSport Act of 2017 created the organization SafeSport to be an individual organization outside the USOPC to allow athletes to have a safe space to be able to report allegations of sexual misconduct from coaches, or any other member that participates in or helping with their sport. Their goal is to provides anonymous reporting for athletes and allows them to feel safer about reporting and there to be investigations on the reports (Burke. 2021. Pg 88). The Empowering Olympic, Paralympic, and Amateur Athletes Act builds on SafeSport by making regulations for the USOPC to fund SafeSport a minimum of $20 million (Lee. 2020. Pp 6). It also makes coaches and any other individual involving themselves with helping with the sports and athletes to go through training from SafeSport. It also makes the committees do reports on background information on anyone who is working or volunteering (Congress. 2020). The SafeSport organization has

their CEO and a board of directors. They also have a Senior Leadership team that helps the organization (SafeSport. 2021). Through these two acts the organization of SafeSport was created to help all athletes in the Olympic, Paralympic, and amateur sports. Policy Impact on Clients and/or Professionals With the Empowering Olympic, Paralympic, and Amateur athletes creates more voices for the clients or the athletes. It provides more funding to be given to SafeSport, which allows the organization to function better and take more reports and cases of athletes who were abused (Lee. 2020. Pp 6). It also makes boards have more athletes on them, so that way they are part of the policy creating for the USOPC and NBGs (Lee. 2020. Pp 10). It also creates a committee within Congress to look at reports and protect athletes from boards who are not preforming their jobs correctly (Conrad. 2021. Pg 29). For the professionals in the area of Olympic, Paralympic, and amateur sports, the policy makes the organizations responsible for how they are handling their athletes and their needs. If the organizations are not protecting their athletes, a commission was created inside of congress to oversee what the boards of the organizations were doing (Conrad. 2021. Pg 29). The creation of this policy allows the clients to have more of a voice and to keep the professionals in the organization more responsible for how they handle abuse reports and different regulations. Importance for Social Workers This policy is important for Social workers that are working with athletes at any level because it will allow them to show the athletes that they have a safe space and that they have a voice. SafeSport provides training and education on emotional, physical, and sexual abuse to any coaches, parents, and athletes of any age or level (SafeSport. 2021). For a social worker, this organization is a resource to help athletes, parents, or coaches to know where to go to find help. This policy will provide future funding for this organization, so that they are able to preform to the best of their ability (Lee. 2020. Pp 8). One area that this policy does touch on that is important as a social worker in advocacy is that the USOPC must report their data on minority athletes, women athletes, and athletes who are disabled who participate in the Olympics and/or Paralympics. They also must report on how they are encouraging more diversity in their athletes (Congress. 2020). As a social worker who is doing advocacy this help to promote more diversity in the athletes for all levels and encourage them to make a difference. For a social worker, this policy does not specifically impact their career, but it does help promote many things that social workers stand for. 187

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Conclusion

Reference Page

The policy Empowering Olympic, Paralympic, and Amateur Athletes Act of 2020 has helped push for creating a better system to help athletes have a voice at whatever level they are. Form the different reforms made through out the years, there is still much progress to be made, however, the Athletes Act of 2020 is one step in the right direction. For social workers, there is still should be more of a push to allow athletes to have a voice, so their abuse does not go unnoticed by boards and other organizations. Hopefully in the future there will be more of a voice in the world of sports to help athletes have a safe space to compete.

Burke, A. (2021). Raising the bar: increasing protection for athletes in the Olympic movement from sexual harassment and abuse. Journal of Legal Aspects of Sports. Congress 116. (2020). S.2330 - Empowering Olympic, Paralympic, and amateur athletes act of 2020. The United States Government. https://www.congress.gov/ bill/116th- congress/senate-bill/2330 Conrad, M. (2021). The Covid-19 pandemic, the empowering Olympic, Paralympic and amateur athletes act, and the dawn of a new age of U.S. Olympic Reform. Journal of Legal Aspects of Sports. Lee, A. & Marino, G. (2020). The empowering athletes act: a welcome high-water mark in amateur sport accountability. Foley. https://www.foley.com/en/insights/ publications/2020/12/the-empowering-athletes-act Moran, J. (2020). President Trump signs Moran-Blumenthal Olympic reform legislation into law. News Releases. https://www.moran.senate.gov/public/index. cfm/2020/10/president- trump-signs-moranblumenthal-olympic-reform-legislation-into-law SafeSport. (2021). U.S. center for SafeSport. https:// uscenterforsafesport.org/

Student Reflection: Throughout writing this paper, I have learned many skills that will help me in my future career as a social worker. I have always been interested in learning more about sports social work and with the most recent incident with the United States Gymnastics scandal, it drawled my attention even more. The sport industry is something most Americans will talk about but very few know the reality of the injustice that athletes face. Being able to learn more about the Olympic sports world and how congress is working on making policies to help these athletes makes me helpful. In writing this particular paper, I was able to learn about the certain policy, Empowering Olympic, Paralympic, and Amateur Athletes Act of 2020, and how they were building upon the SafeSport Act that they passed in 2017. I have learned more about digging deeper in what different policies mean and the strengths and weakness they each have. I have also learned how to analyze the policy to see how social they are created and made into law. From this paper, I hope people can take away an awareness on what is happening in the sports industry and what congress is doing about it. I hope they find and interest in wanting to protect athletes from any type abuse happening and want to prevent anymore abuse occurring. It has made me more aware what happened in the Olympic world and how people are creating laws to give athletes a voice in sharing their experiences with others.

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Foster Care is Failing Families by Keirstyn Ruth SWK 450: Social Welfare Policies and Services Dr. Andrea Barrick Assignment: Students select a social issue that they are interested. They proceed to critically analyze the social issue to better understand how it evolved in the United States.

Introduction The number of children currently in the United States foster care system is substantial. Foster children within this system will experience several placement disruptions, also known as displacements, during their time within the system. The level of impact that multiple placement disruptions have on children who are within the foster care system is seen far beyond just their juvenile years. It is essential that the problems regarding foster care disruptions are analyzed through a critical lens so that change can be made. The Problem Foster care disruptions/displacements are when children within the system must relocate to a new foster home or placement location during their time receiving services. When children are removed from their biological parents, it is typically due to them experiencing abuse or neglect, which is a form of trauma. In addition to this, the removal process is an additional trauma no matter what the children were facing at home. Studies have shown that experiencing several displacements, especially within such a short span of time, only causes more trauma for children (Leathers, et al., 2019; Richardson, et al., 2018; Sattler, et al., 2018). Compounding such significant trauma on children is the fact that such experiences affect children not just in their juvenile years, but also for the rest of their lives. It takes years, potentially a lifetime, of intense trauma therapy to be able to cope with and process the trauma children in foster care have experienced. While behaviors of the children are usually cited as reasons for placement disruptions, many times these displacements are caused by the system not properly preparing foster parents for the experience of fostering (Leathers, et al., 2019; Tonheim & Iversen, 2018). I chose this topic because my specific area of interest in social work is the child welfare system. I believe that our current child welfare model is failing horrifically and causing much more harm than doing

good. I understand that there are often severe reasons that children are removed from their biological families (such as extreme abuse). However, many children are removed from their homes due to neglect surrounding issues of poverty. Poverty is experienced at much higher rates among BIPOC families, and instead of helping those families out of poverty, the system will take their children and pay other families to care for them. I have appropriately heard the child welfare system be referred to as “the family policing system,” and this is a saying that I too have adopted into my own vocabulary. I personally hold the belief that our child welfare system needs to be abolished. However, I know that abolition is not something that can happen overnight. I chose to look into foster care displacements in depth to highlight further the brokenness of our current system and to learn more about what needs to be done to change it. After all, the children (and their families) who have little say in the matter are the ones who are being impacted the most and for the rest of their lives. I want to make sure that our society can and will do better, for the children and their families. History of Foster Care Disruptions The concept of foster parenting has been in the United States since the origins of the country. However, it was not until the 1900s that the United States government began keeping track of foster families and what was occurring within the homes (Sabini, 2017). One of the key developments in the understanding of permanency and the trauma caused by displacements was when psychologist Urie Bronfenbrenner published his ecological systems theory in the 1970s. Bronfenbrenner’s theory highlighted the importance of children maintaining stable relationships and connections and further defined the necessity of these relationships at the micro, meso, and macro levels (Richardson, et al., 2018). By highlighting the need for these multi-level relationships, Bronfenbrenner pivoted the direction of child welfare and the foster care system into a completely new direction. Another pivotal 189

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developmental theory that helped change the way the child welfare system operated, and thus the way foster parenting was viewed, was the publication of Belsky’s model of parenting in the 1980s. Belsky highlighted the importance of having safe and stable family, community, and work/school environments for both children and their parents (Leathers, et al., 2019). By highlighting the importance of community and stability, Belsky’s model made the United States government take a harder look at their own models of child welfare and the foster care system. Despite these theories being published in the 1970s and 1980s, though, permanency in foster care would not be deemed crucial in the eyes of the United States law until 1997 (Sabini, 2017). While the process of changing the child welfare system has been slow and gradual overtime and has, to a degree, gotten “better,” the current data on those within the system is harrowing to say the least. Current Statistics The most recent public data concerning the number of foster children in the system is from 2019. In that year, there were just under half a million children in the United States foster care system. Nearly half of those children were in foster care placement for anywhere from twelve to thirty-five months (Children’s Bureau, 2021). Evidence shows that children who are in foster care for twenty-four months or longer will experience at minimum three placement disruptions within their time in care (Leathers, et al., 2019). Data from 2015 showed that around twenty thousand individuals aged out of the foster care system with no permanent family to live with (Sabini, 2017). The average age of children in placement falls just short of eight-years-old. Of these children, fifty-two percent of them were boys and forty-eight percent were girls (Children’s Bureau, 2021). What is concerning about this data is that it classifies children only within the gender binary. The data provided by the Children’s Bureau does not discern whether there are children who identify as gender non-conforming nor whether any of these children are trans (and if they are, if they receiving the proper care). Further, around fifty-six percent of the children within the foster care system in 2019 were BIPOC, with only forty-four percent of the children being white. Most of the children in foster care placement identify as Black, African American, or Hispanic (Children’s Bureau, 2021). These children (and their families) are much more at-risk for experiencing racism within the oppressive child welfare system. Impact on At-Risk Group Many of the systems and institutions within the United States were created in a way that reinforces racist ideals and upholds white supremacy, and the 190

child welfare system is no different. Black and African American children make up a significant portion of those who are in the foster care system. The reason for this is that BIPOC families are much more likely to be targeted for child removal (many times due to issues surrounding poverty) than white families are (Dettlaff & Boyd, 2020). White families are much more likely to get “passes” on poverty related neglect. These practices and beliefs are racist. It is well documented that the continuous exposure to racism causes extremely negative physical and mental health outcomes. Black Americans have a lower life expectancy than their white counterparts and an increased likelihood of experiencing anxiety, depression, and stress related diagnosis (Dettlaff & Boyd, 2020). In addition, many of the child welfare workers are white, and they might have less of an understanding of cultural differences from themselves and BIPOC families, which may prompt BIPOC children to be unnecessarily taken. Children being removed and placed with (very likely) a white family can cause more harm, especially when that family has no connection to the children’s culture. Children being disconnected from their culture typically makes them feel much more isolated and disconnected from the families they are living with (Inkster & Parent, 2021). In addition, though the goal of the child welfare system is reunification, if a child is in placement for long enough, they will lose touch with their original culture and struggle to reconnect with their biological family. Race, ethnicity, and gender disparities in the foster care system have shown to be key components of having an increased likelihood of placement disruption (Sattler, et al., 2018). Within the field of social work, the correlation between racism and generational trauma is well recognized, yet our child welfare system is currently reinforcing the negative outcomes in children and their families by subjecting them to multigenerational racist beliefs and practices. Conclusion While the need for an effective child welfare system is crucial to our society, which is evident by the sheer number of children in need of foster care, our current model of practice is not good enough. The impact that failed foster placements is having on children in the system often causes more harm to those needing help than it does good. The effects of multiple foster care disruptions have an impact not just on the children, their biological families, and the foster families, but also on society as a whole. It is essential that the damage caused by displacements is evaluated and remedied by those in powerful positions. If our society wants to have healthy and prosperous children for generations to come, then the problems within our foster care system need evaluated and fixed now before it is too late.

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References Children’s Bureau. (2021). Foster care statistics 2019. https:// www.childwelfare.gov/pubPDFs/foster.pdf Dettlaff, A. J., & Boyd, R. (2020). Racial disproportionality and disparities in the child welfare system: Why do they exist, and what can be done to address them? AAPSS, 692(1), 253-274. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/ pdf/10.1177/0002716220980329 Inkster, C. & Parent, A. (2021). “It’s extremely difficult when nobody’s listening to you”: Learning from relocation stories of indigenous girls in foster care. Relational Child and Youth Care Practice (34)2, 115-140. https://rcycp. com/docs/RCYCP_Vol34-2_sample.pdf#page=115 Leathers, S. J., Spielfogel, J. E., Geiger, J., Barnett, J., & Vande Voort, B. L. (2019). Placement disruption in foster care: Chilren’s behavior, foster parent support, and parenting experiences. Child Abuse & Neglect, 91, 147-159. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/ pii/S0145213419300985 Richardson, E. W., Grogan, C. S., Richardson, S. L. L., & Small, S. L. (2018). Displacement, caregiving, and the ecological system of youth in foster care: A theoretical perspective. Journal of Family Social Work, 21, 348-364. https://rcycp.com/docs/RCYCP_Vol34-2_sample. pdf#page=115

Sabini, C. (2017, December 18). Foster care: A history. NALS. https://www.nals.org/blogpost/1359892/290477/ Foster-Care-A-History Sattler, K. M. P., Font, S. A., & Gershoff, E. T. (2018). Agespecific risk factors associated with placement instability among foster children. Child Abuse & Neglect, 84, 157-169. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/ pii/S0145213418303004 Tonheim, M. & Iversen, A. C. (2018). “We felt completely left to ourselves.” Foster parents’ views on placement disruption. Child & Family Social Work, 24(1), 90-97. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/ cfs.12585?saml_referrer

Student Reflection: This assignment was incredibly important to me. Child welfare and youth development are two aspects of social work that are incredibly important to me. Getting the opportunity to discuss the current state of the United States child welfare system, specifically relating to foster care, was an opportunity I did not want to miss. Our current model of child welfare is not working, especially for BIPOC children and families. While I did not initially write this paper knowing others beside my professor would be reading this, I am excited for the opportunity for others to read this. I hope that others who read my writing are able to gain a deeper understanding of what is currently being experienced by families in the foster care system and how it is perpetuating further harm to families.

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